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CHAMBEES'S 


ENCTCLOPJIDIA 


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CHAMBERS'S 

enctclopj:dia 

A   DICTIOKAKI 

OF    DNIVEESAL    KNOWLEDGE    FOR   THE  PEOPIE 

ILLTTSTBITZD 

WIIH  MAPS  Am  SUMEBOCS  WOOD  MOBAYIKGS 
SMVISMD   EDITION 

VOL.  Tl 


LONDON 

W.   t  B.    CHillBEBS,    ir   PATEBHOSIEB   BOW 

AND   HIGH  STREET,   EDINBURGH 

1886 

Alt  BlgtUi  an  rtienxd 

-^=^ ™ _JlIoOglE 


^ 


^sd.io 


HABVARD  COlLEGt  LIBAARr 

THE  BEQUEST  OF 
THEODORE  JEWETT  EASTMAN 


HAPS   FOE  VOL.  TI. 


THE  HErHlELAKDS— HOLLAHD,  BELGIUM. 719 

NEW  ZEALAMD. 7« 


Cnno]c 


UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  THE  PEOPLE 


LABBADOE— LABRID^ 


LABBADO'BiiitheiioTtb-esctertipeiuonilsofthe 
North  Atnerican  contineat,  lying  between  Hudioti's 
Bay  aod  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawreace  ;  but  somatimea 
limited  to  the  eaitam  portiou  of  this  area.  The 
couta  of  L.  were  sighted  by  Cabot,  after  whom 
ie  Basqaa  wbalen  and  Qihenaea ;  and  from  the 
Basque  skipper  L.  the  countiy  takes  ita  name.  Id 
the  "wider  senae,  L.  extends  from  49*  to  63°  N.  lat., 
and  from  56'  to  about  65°  W.  long.  The  greatest 
length  from  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle  to  its  northern 
cape,  Wolsteohohne,  is  above  1000  miles ;  its  area 
near  450,000  square  miles,  or  larger  t^an  France  and 
Germany  combined.  The  Atlantic  coast  is  wild  and 
precipitouB,  part  of  it  being  cut  up  into  deep  Sorda, 
running  well  inland.  Moat  of  the  interior  ia 
occupied  by  a  sterile  plaio,  risiog  as  much  oa  22d0 
feet  above  the  sea;  stunted  spruce  and  birch  are 
found  in  some  of  the  hollowa  and  glens.  The 
inner  piata  of  L.  have  been  but  very  imperfectly 
explored  ;  there  are  numeroua  rivera  two  uid  three 
miles  wide  at  their  mouths,  flowing  both  towards 
the  Atlantic  and  Hudson's  Bay.  In  the  lowernart 
of  their  valleys,  well-grown  trees  are  iouud.  There 
are  many  lakea.  The  rivers  abound  in  fish  ;  and  over 
the  barren  wilds  roam  reindeer,  bears,  wolves,  foxes, 
hares,  martens,  and  otters.  Of  the  mineral  reaouccea 
little  is  known,  but  iron  ore,  limestone,  and  Labra- 
dorite  (q.  v.]  are  found.  Much  rain  falls  in  summer 
near  the  coast.  The  climate  is  very  rigorous,  owing 
mainly  to  the  ice-laden  arctic  current  which  washes 
the  shores.  In  sheltered  places,  the  thermometer 
sometimes  reaches  86°  in  summer ;  bnt  over  a  great 
part  of  the  surface  snow  lies  from  September  till 
JniM.  The  mean  annual  temperature  at  the  mission- 
ary stations  varies  from  22°  to  27*>  The  winter  is 
dn;,  bracing,  frosty,  and  pleasant. 

By  far  toe  most  important  element  of  the  wealth 
of  L.  is  the  fish  of  its  waters.  As  many  as  30,000 
fiahermen  from  Newfoundland,  Canada,  and  the 
United  States  are  here  in  the  fishing  season. 
Hiere  ore  a  muuber  of  permanent  settlements 
00  tiie  ooart  region,  inclndins  several  Montviau 
261 


misaiona^  stations — Noin  (founded  1771),  Okkak 
Hebron,  Hopedale.  The  total  permanent  population 
of  L  is  about  12,500,  of  whom  one-tiiird  are  on  the 
St  lAwrence  coaat.  On  the  Atlantic  coast  there  ore 
2000  Eskimo,  and  2500  whita  (mostly  of  French 
Acadian  stock),  and  in  tbe  interior  4000  Indians. 
The  total  exports  have  an  »"""»!  valne  of  £300,000, 
but  the  catch  of  fish  is  valued  at  £1,000,000. 

Basques  and  Bretons  successively  settled  in  L. 
Since  1809,  the  coast  district  from  the  entrance  of 
Hudson's  Strait  along  the  Atlantic  to  62°  N.  lat  has 
been,  and  stitl  is,  attached  to  Kewfoundlond.  (To 
this  section  the  name  of  L.  is  often  limited.)  The 
southern  portion,  draining  into  the  St  Lawrence 
0  ulf,'  is  part  of  the  province  of  Quebec ;  the  western 
section,  whose  watai  flow  to  Hudson's  Strait  and 
Hudson's  Bay,  is  now  the  N.E.  Territory  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.  (Fart  of  this  region  nsed  to 
be  called  East  Main.)  Another  derivation  of  the 
name  than  that  given  is,  that  L.  was  so  called  by 
Portuguese  explorers ;  Terra  Laborador,  cultivable 
land,  as  aad  a  misnomer  a*  Oreeotand  was  finally 
proved  to  be  in  1883 1 

LA'BKADORITB,"or  LABRADOR  STONE,  a 
variety  of  Felspar  (q.  v.),  common  as  a  constituent 
of  dolerite,  greenstone,  and  other  rocks.  Itiscntinto 
suoQ'-boxeB  and  other  articles ;  taking  a  fine  polish, 
andoftenexhibitingrichcoloora.  Itwaa  discovered  by 
the  Moravian  missionaries  oq  the  coast  of  Labrador. 

LA'BRID.ai  a  famDy  of  osteons  fishes,  ranked 
by  Cnvier  in  the  order  AcatitAopUrygii  (q,  v.),  by 
MUller  in  Pharyngognathi  Iq.  v.).  They  are  divided 
into  CUno-labrida  and  Cydo-labridcK,  the  former 
having  ctenoid,  the  latter,  cycloid  scales ;  the  former 
comparatively  a  small,  tbe  latter,  a  very  numerous 
family.  They  are  generally  [oval  or  oblong,  and 
more  or  leas  compressed,  with  a  single  dorsal  fin, 
spinous  in  front,  and  the  jaws  covered  by  fleshy 
bps.  Their  colours  are  generally  brilliant.  Hier 
abonnd  chiefly  in  tropical  seas.  The  most  valaabm 
of    the   family   ia   the   Tantog   (q.  v.)    of   North 


lABEUTBRB— lABTltlNTH, 


tha   Parrot-fi»he^ 
Scam*  of  tho  anou 


8  the  celebrated 


IiABRTJTEBB,  Jeui  d«,  »  French  suthor  of 
oelebrit;,  puticnUrly  noted  for  bis  nice  and  deliote 
delineAtiona  of  duncter.  He  was  bom  at  Donrdan, 
in  Normandy,  in  1644  or  1M6,  vae  brought  to 
the  Frenoh  oonrt  at  the  Teconunendation  of  Bossnet, 
and  became  one  <^  the  tntore  of  the  Dauphin,  whose 
education  Fenelon  superintended.  He  spent  the 
whole  remainder  of  his  life  at  court,  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  a  pension,  and  in  the  most  intimate  inter- 
coune  with  the  mo«t  aooompliahed  men  of  his  time. 
The  work  on  which  hii  high  reputation  rests,  Let 
OaraOirm  de  TMojAraiU,  tradiiU*  du  Orec,  aoec 
Ut  CaracOru  oa  la  Mmart  deee  BiMe  (Par.  IBST), 
haa  gone  through  many  editions,  some  of  them 
^nnowted,  and  naa  been  translated  into  several 
languages. 

LABUA'N,  an  island  of  the  Malayan  Archi- 
pelago, lies  aboat  thirty  miles  oS  the  north-west 
coast  of  Borneo.  It  meaEures  ten  miles  by  flre,  and 
the  latitude  and  longitude  of  ite  centre  are  6°  2?  N., 
and  lie°  10"  E.  Small  aa  it  is,  it  is  peculiarly 
valuable.  Besides  poaseanng  a  good  harbonj,  it 
contains  an  extensive  bed  of  ezoellent  coal,  which  is 
worked  by  a  company  of  BritiEh  capitalists  formed 
in  1862  ;  and  having  become,  in  1846,  a  British 
posaeasion,  it  bid«  fur,  from  ita  political  connection 
•ad  its  natiirml  advantages,  to  be  a  nndeus  of  civili- 
satiou  for  the  whole  of  the  sarroandiDg  islands.  It 
is  a  see  of  the  Church  of  England.  Exports  (1881), 
£167,108 ;  imports,  ^£174,828.    Fop.  6000. 

LABUTINUM  [Cytina  (a.  v.)  Labuntim],  a 
small  trees  >  native  of  the  Alps  and  othsr  moun- 
tain* of  the  soath  of  Europe,  much  planted  in 
■hnibberiei  and  pleatore-gronndi  in  Britain,  on 
account  of  its  flossy  foliage  and  its  large  pendolons 
laoema'  of  y^ow  flowers,  which  are  produced 
in  great  abundance  in  May  and  Jane.  It  is 
often  mixed  with  lilM,  and  when  the  latter  pre- 

einderatea,  the  oombination  has  a  fine  effect.    In 
Toowble 


hei^t  of  t 
haMy,  and 


1  fortr  feet.    Tt  is  very 
[shea  better  than  in  the 


lOWhere  floniishea 
north  of  Scotiand.  It  is  of  rapid  growth,  yet  its 
wood  is  hard,  fine-grained,  and  very  heavy,  of  a 
dark-brown  or  dark-green  ooloor,  and  much  valued 
for  cabinet-work,  imayin^,  and  turnery,  and  for 
""*^"8  kuife-handleB,  mnmcal  imrtmments,  fto.  The 
leaves,  bark,  Ac.,  and  particolarly  the  seeds,  are 
nauseous  and  polsonoos,  containia;;  Oytiaine,  an 
emetic,  pui^tive,  and  narootio  principle,  which  is 
also  found  in  many  allied  plants!  Accidents  from 
III  aeeds  are  not  unfreqnent  to  children ;  but  to 
hares  and  rabUte,  L  ii  wholesoma  food,  and  they 
are  so  fond  of  it,  that  the  safety  of  other  trees  in  a 
young  jilantation  may  be  inanred  by  introdacing  L. 
plants  m  great  number,  which  RprinR  again  from  tho 
roots  when  eaten  down. — A  fine  vsne^  of  L.,  called 
SccTOB  L.,  by  some  botanists  refpkrded  as  a  distinct 
speeiea  [0.  Alpinju),  is  distinguished  by  broader 
leaves  aod  darker  yellow  flowers,  which  are  pro- 
duced later  in  the  season  than  thoea  of  the  common 
orSnglM]»bunmth. 

LA'BTRIITTH  (a  word  of  unknown  origiii, 
derived  by  some  from  Labaris,  the  name  of  an 
Egyptian  monarch  of  the  twelfth  dynasty),  the 
name  of  tome  celebrated  buildings  of  antiquity, 
consisting  of  many  chambers  or  passages  difficult  to 
pan  through  without  a  guide,  and  the  name  hence 
applied  to  a  confused  man  of  constructions.  In 
the  hieroBrlypbica,  the  word  ment  signifies  » 'laby- 
rinth.'    The  principal  labyrinths  of  lutiiiuity  were 


the  Egyptian,  the  Cretan,  and  the  Samian.  The 
first,  or  Egyptian,  ol  which  the  others  seem  to  have 
been  imitations,  was  situated  at  Crooodilopolis,  eloso 
to  the  lake  Mterti,  in  the  vidnity  of  the  present 
pyramid  of  Biakhma.  According  to  the  classical 
authors,  it  was  built  by  an  Egyptian  monarch  named 
Peteeuchis.  Tithoes,  Imandes,  Ismandes,  Maindes,  or 
Mendes.  The  recent  discoveiy  of  the  remuns  of 
this  building  by  Lepeius  has,  however,  shewn  that 
the  city  was  loonded  by  Amenemha  L,  of  tha 
twelfth  f^jyptian  dynasty,  about  1800  B.a,  and 
that  this  mouareh  was  probably  buried  in  it,  whQe 
the  pyramid  and  south  tem^o  were  erected  by 
Amenemha  HI.  and  IV.,  whoee  pmnomens  resemble 
the  name  of  Mceris,  and  their  sister,  Sebeknefru  or 
Scemiophria,  appears  to  have  been  the  last  sovereign 
of  the  twelfth  dynasty.  Great  confumon  prevsLs 
in  the  ancient  authontiea  aa  to  the  object  of  the 
building,  which  oontained  twelve  palsies  under 
one  roof;  supposed  to  have  been  inhabited  by 
the  Dodeoarchy,  or  twelve  king*  who  oonjoinUy 
reigned  over  Egypt  before  FSammetiohni  L ;  vrhileu 
acoording  to  oSer  anthorities,  it  was  the  place  of 
assembly  of  the  governors  of  the  nomes  or  districta, 
twelve  m  number  acoording  to  Herodotus,  sixteen 
aooording  to  Pliny,  and  twenty-seven  acoording  to 
Strsbo.  It  was  biult  of  polished  atone,  with  many 
cbunbers  and  passages,  said  to  be  vaulted,  havioK 
a  peristyle  court  with  3000  chambers,  half  of 
which  were  under  the  earth,  and  the  other*  above 
ground,  which  formed  another  itory.  The  upper 
obambers  were  deoonited  with  reliefs ;  the  lower 
were  plain,  and  contained,  according  to  tradition, 
the  bodies  of  the  twelve  founders  of  the  building, 
and  the  mummiea  of  the  sacred  crocodiles,  oonferring 
on  the  building  the  character  of  a  matisoleun, 
probably  conjoined  with  a  temple,  that  of  Sebak, 
the  orooodile-god,  and  »a  resembling  the  Ser^xiinm. 
Herodotus  and  Strabo  botil  visited  this  edifice, 
which  was  difficult  to  pass  through  without  the  aid 
of  a  guide.  It  stood  in  the  midst  <rf  a  great  noare. 
Part  was  oonstnioted  of  Parian  marble — probably 
rather  arTagonit»~and  of  Syenitio  granite  pillar*; 
had  a  sturoase  of  ninety  steps,  aod  columns  of 
porphyry ;  and  the  opening  of  tie  door*  echoed  like 
the  reverberation  of  thunder.  For  a  long  time, 
great  doubt  prevailed  whether  any  remuns  of  the 
bnilding  existed,  and  it  was  supposed  to  have  been 
overwhelmed  by  the  waters  of  the  lake  Mteris  ;  and 
althou^  P.  Luoas  and  Letronne  thought  they  had 
discovered  the  site,  its  redisooveiy  is  doe  to  Lepdus, 
who  found  put  id  the  foundations  or  lower  chambers 
close  to  the  nte  of  the  old  Heeri*  Lakes  or  modem 
Biiket-el-Eeronn.  Acoording  to  Riny,  it  waa  3800 
yean  old  in  hi*  daya. 

The  aeooDd,  or  next  In  renown  to  the  I^yptian, 
was  the  labyrinth  of  Crete,  supposed  to  have  been 


built  by  D»dalus  for  the  Cretm  monarch  Minos, 
~  lich  the  Minotanr  was  imprisoued  by  his  orders. 
Cretan  coins  of  Chioesna 


.    which  the  Minotanr  was  : 
Although  represented  on  tiu 

sometime*  of  *  square,  and  at  other  times  of  a 
circular  form,  no  remains  of  it  were  to  be  found 
even  in  times  of  antiquity,  and  ita  existence  waa 
supposed  to  be  fabulous.  The  only  mode  of  finding 
the  way  ont  of  it  waa  by  means  of  a  honk  or  skein 
of  linen  thread,  which  gave  the  clue  to  the  dwelling 
of  the  Minotaur.  The  tradition  is  supposed  to  have 
been  bused  on  the  axistonce  of  oerioia  natural 
caves  or  grotto*,  perhaps  the  remains  of  qnairie*^ 
and  it  has  been  eappoaed  to  have  ezltted  north- 
west of  the  island,  near  Cnotaas,  while  a  kind  at 
natural  labyrinth  still  remain*  close  to  Gor^a. 
The  idea  is  sni^>08ed  to  have  been  derived  from  the 


T'hTttird 


J  Go  Ogle 


LABTEINTHODON— LAa 


hia  scliod,  id  the  ^e  of  Polyonta  {fi40  B.O.), 
•nroond  to  be  >  vock  of  nature  embelliahed  by  aii^ 
haniig  ISO  «alniMW  anoted  by  a,  olevcr  uMcbvucil 


mferior  UbTrintlia  extoted 
.  at  Sipontnm  in  Italy,  at  Val  d'lapica  in 
Jj,  and  uewhtta;  and  the  DBme  of  labyrintb 
wa*  applied  to  the  nbtermwoiu  ohamben  of  the 
hMiab  of  Fonsna,  mppoaed  to  be  that  now  aiirting 
aa  the  Poggio  OaaeUa,  near  Chiuai,  I^hyrintha 
called  ma— w«o  at  one  time  faahinnabla  in  garden- 
in^  hmg  jimttitrmwi  by  hedge*  or  borden,  of  the 
Ontan ;  the  beat  known  in  iDodem  time*  being  the 
Maae  at  HamptoB  Oonit. 

Hwodotoi^  li.  148 )  Diodorna,  L  61,  07,  iv.  60,  77 ; 
FanMniM,  L  S7;  Strabo,  z.  477,  zriii-  111;  Flutaroh, 
Thetet^  16;  Plii^,  N.  if.,xxvi  19,  3i  83 ;  Iiidorua, 
Orto-.  XT.  8,  » ;  HSok,  Orda,  i.  447  ;  Prokeach, 
DeniM^  L  a06 ;  Itae  de  Lnynea,  AimtUi,  1S29,  364 ; 
L^ain^  £M(ii,  p.  36S. 

IiABTBI'NTHODOir,  a  genua  afjrinntio  MQToid 
batoachiana,  found  in  the  New  Bm  Saadatone 
meaaona  of  Great  Britun  and  the  ocmtiDenL  The 
rsnuuDa  of  aeveral  speciea  have  been  detoibed,  but 
all  lo  fragaientaiy,  that  no  certun  icatontion  of 
the  genna  can  jet  be  made.  The  head  waa  triangnlar. 


teeth  in  front  The  baaea  of  the  teeth  were  anehy- 
loaed  to  diatiDct  ahallow  aocketo.  Externally,  they 
were  marked  by  a  eariea  of  longitiidinal  grooTes, 
which  correapoiid  lo  the  Inflected  f  i9da  of  the  cement 
The  peculiar  and  characterintic  internal  atnicture 
of  the  teeth  ia  very  remarkable,  and  to  it  these 
foaaila  owe  their  generally  aooepted  generio  name 
of  Labjrintbodon  (labyrinth-tootli].  The  few  and 
fragmentary  bonea  of  the  bod^  of  the  animal 
ezhilnt  a  combination  of  batrachian  and  orocodilian 


laliyrinthodon  PaoliygnatDa, 


1  the  ahape 


hanng  a  crocodilian  appearance  boUi 
and  in  the  external  BcuTpturing  of  the  cranial  bones, 
bot  with  wen  marked  strnetcral  modifications  in 
tbe  vomer,  and  in  the  mode  of  attachment  of  the 
keaid  to  tiie  atlaa,  that  Itamp  it  with  a  botrachian 
diatBctar,   conspicnons  above  the   more   apparent 


wood-out  is  that  iDggeated  by  Owen ; 
sidnvd  aa  to  a  large  extent  imaginary,  owing  to  the 
imparfeot  materials  for  aach  a  work.  In  Vi«  aome 
depoaita  there  have  been  lotu;  noticed  the  ptiott  of 
faat,  which  so  mudi  reeeraUsd  the  form  of  the 
hnman  hand,  that  Kaap,  their  onginal  describer, 
gave  the  generio  name  of^Cheirothenum  to  the  great 
nnknown  »iiim»T«  which  produced  them.  From  the 
fore  being  much  smaller  than  tha  hind  foot,  he 
oraisidersd  that  they  were  the  impressions  of  a 
ntanupdal ;  bat  this  relative  diiTerenoe  in  the  feet 
II I  lata  slso  in  the  modem  batrachians;  and  the 
diaeovoy  of  the  remains  of  so  many  huge  ^r''"lfilB 
belonging  to  this  order,  in  theae  veij  stnta, 
the  £ffsrent  sizea  of  which  answer  to  Uie 
^^  different  footjainta,  leave  little  doubt  that  the 

^^—  ^^~^  _    f-i     cheirotherian    footprints    were   produced   by 

I    ~~T  " ~  _     ^«     labyrinthodant  repUle* 

O  LAO,  in  the  Bast  Indiea,  ai^iifie*  a  sam  of 

Q""— =— =L__^  100,000  rupees.    A  lao  of  Amenunent  rupees  is 

—  ■ eqiud  to  £9270  almiing;  alaoof  Sicca  Supea. 

whioh  in  some  plaoea  are  also  in  very  genera] 

use,  is  eqoal  to  £9898  sterling.    One  hundred 

lace,  or  ten  milliona  of  rupeea,  make  a  Cron. 

IiAO,  the  general  name  under  which  the 

▼Mioin  jHvduots  01  the  lac  inaeot  iGocau  laeea)  ore 

known.      The   cnrious  heminterana   inaect   which 

yields  duaeTaloahle  oontiibotions  totnmmwoe  la  in 

manynapects  like  ita  congener  the  Cochineal  Insect 

(CoeoM  <nd4,  but  it  alsoditTan  easeiitiallyfrom  it: 

the  malea  alone,  and  thoaemly  in  their  Ian  stage  of 


Footprint  and  B^n-drojM. 

iaa  reaemblaneea.  The  mouth  was  furnished 
)  a  aeriM  of  remarkable  teeth,  nianerons  and 
D  hi  the  lateral  itiws,  and  with  six  groat  laniory 


They  live  upon  the  twigs  of  trees,  chiefly  species  of 
Bntea,  Ficus,  and  Croton,  and  soon  entomb  them- 
eelfos  in  a  mass  of  matter,  which  ooie«  fnon  small 
punctures  made  in  the  twigs  of  the  tree,  and  which 
tbns  furnishes  them  itith  both  food  and  shelter.  It 
is  said  that  to  each  male  there  are  at  least  SOOO 
female*,  and  the  winged  males  an  at  loaat  twice  aa 
lai^  as  the  females.  When  a  colony,  oonsisting  of 
a  ^w  adnlt  females  and  one  or  two  males,  find 
their  wav  to  a  new  branch,  they  attach  themselves 
to  the  bark,  and  having  pierced  it  with  holes, 
through  which  they  draw  up  the  rednoos  juices 
upon  wliioh  they  feed,  they  become  fixed  or  glued 
by  the  superfluoua  excretion,  and  after  a  time  die, 
fomiiBC  1^  their  dead  bodies  little  domes  or  tents 
ovor  the  myriads  of  minute  eggs  which  they  have 
laid.  In  a  short  time,  the  ^gs  bnnt  into  life,  and 
the  yonna,  which  are  very  minnte,  eat  their  way 
through  toe  dead  bodice  of  their  parents,  and  swarm 
all  over  the  twig  or  small  yonng  brooch  of  the  tree 
in  such  ooontlcas  numbers  aa  to  give  it  the  appear- 
ance of  being  covered  with  a  blood-red  dust  They 
soon  spread  to  all  parts  of  the  tree  where  Uie  bo^ 
is  tender  enongh  to  afford  them  food,  and  gener- 
ation after  graietation  dwells  npon  the  aame  twig 
until  it  is  enrrioped  in  a  coating,  often  half  an  inch 
in  thickness,  of^  the  reainons  exudation,  whidi  is 
very  celhilar  thronghout,  the  cells  being  the  essta 
of  the  bodies  of  tbe  dead  females.  During  their 
lifetime,  they  seoiete  a  beautiful  poiple  ocJoiiring 
matter,  which  doe*   not   perish  with   thuu,   but 


.Ciooglt 


TACCADIVBS-LAOE 


mnaiiu  shat  np  in  tb«  edit  wHli  th«  other  refulta 
of  decomposition. 

The  mnall  twigs,  when  well  corered,  are  gathered 
bj  the  natiTes,  and  >re  placed  in  hot  water,  which 
melta  the  KsioouB  matter,  liberate*  the  piece*  of 
wood  mad  the  remaina  of  the  inaecta,  and  also 
diBiolv«  th«  ooloniing  matter.  Thia  ia  facilitated 
by  kneading  the  melted  renn  whilat  in  the  hot 
water;  it  in  then  taken  out  and  dried,  and  is  after- 
warda  pat  into  strong  and  very  ooarae  cotton  bags, 
which  are  held  near  cDOugh  to  charcoal  fires  to 
melt  the  reaia  without  bummg  the  bag*^  By  twist- 
ing  the  hags,  the  melted  resin  is  then  forced  through 
the  fabric,  and  received  in  thin  curtain-tike  films 
npon  strip*  of  wood.  Thia  hardens  as  it*  surface 
become*  acted  npon  by  the  air,  and  beii^  broken  off 
in  fragments,  eonstitntee  the  shell-lac  of  commerce. 
The  iKat  shcjl-lao  is  that  which  is  meat  completely 
freed  from  impnrities,  and  approacbee  most  to  a 
light  orange  brown  colour.  If  the  colouring  matter 
has  not  been  well  washed  out,  the  reain  is  often 
Tsry  dark,  conaeqnmtly,  we  find  the  following 
Tanetie*  in  oommerce — orange,  garnet,  and  liver. 
Much  that  is  squeezed  through  the  bags  foils  to 
the  ground  without  tonching  the  stacks  placed  to 
catch  it  1  small  quantities  falling  form  buttou-like 
dropa,  whicb  crmatitute  the  SuUon-lae;  whilst 
larger  ones,  from  an  inch  to  two  or  three  inchea 
in  diameter,  constitute  the  plaie-lae  of  commerce. 
That  known  as  ttiek-lac  is  the  twig*  as  they  are 
gathered,  but  broken  short  for  the  omiTeaieace  of 
packing. 

Below  the  lao-bearing  trees  Uiere  is  always  a  very 
considerable  quantity  <n  the  resin  in  small  particles, 
which  have  been  detached  by  the  wind  shaking  and 
chafing  the  branches;  this  also  ia  collected,  and 
constitutes  the  seed'hic  of  our  merchants. 

The  water  in  which  the  stick-loo  is  first  softened 
contains,  aa  before  mentioned,  the  colouring  matter 
of  the  dead  insect.  This  is  strained  and  evaporated 
until  the  reeidue  i*  a  ponile  sediment,  which,  when 
sufficiently  dried,  is  cut  m  small  cakes,  about  two 
inches  Bqasre,  and  stamjied  with  certain  trade- 
marks, indicating  its  quaU^.  Theae  are  then  fully 
dried,  and  packed  for  sale  as  hc-dye,  of  whic^ 
laroa  quantitte*  are  used  in  the  production  of  scarlet 
eloUi,  snch  a*  that  worn  by  our  soldien ;  for  this 
purpoae,  lao-dye  ia  found  very  suitable. 

The  bo  insect  ia  a  native  of  Slam,  Assam, 
Bnrmah,  Bcogal,  and  UaUbar ;  the  Iocs  and  lac-d^e 
coma  chiefly  bom  Bombay,  P^u,  and  Siam.  During 
IS7T,  about  100,000  cwts.  of  the  different  kinds  of 
lao  were  imported  into  Great  Britain  ;  in  1680,  onl; 
68,000  cwta.  (value  £370,000).  The  annual  con- 
aumption  of  lao-dye  amounts  to  about  1,200,000  Iba. 

Aa  we  have  no  strictly  uialogous  resin  from  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  not  even  from  the  lac-beoring 
tree*,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  juices  of  thr 
trees  an  aomewhat  altered  by  the  msects.  The 
belt  analyses  shew  that  shell-loo  contains  several 
peonliar  reain*.  The  great  value  of  the  lacs  is 
found  in  their  adaptability  for  the  manufacture 
of  vamishe*,  both  in  consequence  of  their  easy 
■olubility,  and  also  because  of  the  fine  hard  coating, 
suBceptibte  of  high  polish,  whiob  diey  give  when 
dry.  The  well-known  'French  polish'  is  httle  more 
than  ahell-lac  dissolved  in  alcohol ;  and  a  fine  thin 
Tamiab  made  of  this  material  coiMtitutea  the  lacquer 
with  which  brass  and  other  metals  are  coated,  to 
preaerve  their  polish  from  atmoapheno  action. 

All  the  vaiielie*  of  loe  are  truialucent,  and  some 
of  the  fintf  kinda,  which  ore  in  flakw  not  much 
tbicker  than  writing-paper,  are  quite  transparent, 
and  all,  a*  before  stated,  are  colonrad  various  shades 
of  brown,  from  orange  to  liver.  Nevertheless,  if  a 
quantity  of  ahell-lao  he  softened  by  heat^  it  may, 


by  oontinnally  drawing  it  out  into  length*,  and 

txristing  it,  be  mode  not  only  quite  white,  but  alao 
opaque ;  in  this  state  it  has  a  beautiful  lilky  lustre ; 
and  if  melted  and  mixed  with  vermilion,  or  any 
other  colouring  matter,  it  forms  some  of  the  fancy 
kind*  of  sealing-wax  r  the  more  usual  kinda  ore, 
however,  made  ny  merely  melting  ahell-lao  with  a 
UttJe  turpentine  and  camphor,  and  piiTJug  the 
colouring  matter.  Shell-loc  has  the  property  of 
being  leas  brittle  after  the  firet  melting  than  after 
subsequent  meltings ;  hence  the  seaJing-wax  monu- 
facturad  in  India  has  always  had  a  high  repu- 
tation, and  hence  also  the  extreme  beauty  and 
durability  of  those  Chinese  works  of  art  u  lac, 
tome  of  which  are  very  ancient.  These  are  usually 
chow-chow  boxes,  tea-baains,  or  other  small  objects 
made  in  wood  or  metal,  and  covered  over  witii  a 
cruat  of  lac,  coloured  with  vermilion,  which,  whilst 
soft,  is  moulded  into  beautiful  patterns.  So  rare 
and  beautiful  are  some  of  these  works,  that  even  in 
China  they  coat  almost  fabulous  prioe*. 

LA'CCADIVES  (ciJled  by  the  native*  Lahara- 
Divh,  ie.,  the  Lakora  Islands),  a  group  of  island* 
in  the  Anbiiui  Sea,  discovered  by  Vaaco  da  Gama 
in  1490,  lie  about  150  miles  to  the  west  of  the  M^a- 


tong.  between  72°  and  74*,  and  are  17  in  number. 
Being  of  coral  formatian,  they  are  generally  low, 
with  deep  water  immediately  round  them,  and  ara 
therefore  all  the  more  dangerous  to  navigators. 
Pop.  7000  J  area,  744  sq.  m.  i  chief  production*  oiHjr, 
jaggery,  nee,  cocoa  and  betel  nuts,  sweet  pototoea, 
and  cattle  of  a  small  breed.  The  inhabitants,  who 
are  called  Moplayi,  are  of  Arabian  origin,  and  in 
religion  follow  a  sort  of  Mohammedanism.  Sinoe 
1876  the  ialanda  are  dependenciea  of  Great  Britak, 
having  been  then  annexed  to  the  province  of  Madras. 
IjACE,  on  ornamental  fabric  of  linen,  cotton. 


The  manufacture  of  looe  by  bond  is  an  operation 
of  exceeding  nicety,  and  requires  both  skill  and 
patience  of  no  ordinary  kind,  and  the  beat  produc- 
tions of  this  fabrio  surpass  all  other  application*  of 
textile  materials  in  coetJlnesB  and  beauty. 

Whether  the  ancients  really  had  any  knowledge 
of  lace-making,  eicimting  gold-lace,  which  will  be 
mentioned  at  the  end  of  thia  article,  is  not  known, 
nor  ia  it  known  with  any  certainty  whea  this  art 
came  into  practice  in  Europe ;  bnt  there  is  good 
reason  to  suppose  tb>,l  point-laee,  the  oldest  variety 
known,  was  the  work  of  nuns  during  tbe  latter  halt 
of  the  14th  and  the  beginning  of  the  ISth  centuries. 
This  point-lace  is  very  characteristic,  and  is  truly 
an  art  productian.  The  artistia  character  of  the 
patterns,  and  the  wonderful  patienoe  and  labour 
shewn  in  carrying  them  out.  pbcea  them,  aa  female 
productions,  on  a  parallel  with  the  decorative  works 
m  stone,  wood,  and  metal  of  the  monlu.  They  indi- 
cate no  tireaome  effort*  to  oopy  natural  objects,  but 
masterly  conceptions  of  graceful  forms  and  tasteful 
combinatlona.  The  exact  figures  of  the  pattern 
were  cut  out  of  linen,  and  over  these  foundation- 
pieoea,  aa  they  may  be  called,  tbe  actual  laoe-work 
was  wrought  by  the  needle,  with  thread  of  marvellou* 
fineness,  and  with  such  consummate  art,  that  tbe 
material  of  the  foundation  ia  quite  undlscovanble 
under  the  fairy-like  web  which  has  been  woven 
over  it.  These  portions  of  the  fabric  were  then 
jained  together  by  connecting  threads,  each  of 
which,  like  the  broader  put^  conaista  of  a  founda- 
tion, and  laoe-work  oovering;  the  former  being  a 


•'. .r:,X'-,aOp\C 


Fit.  I. 
slwajB  Terj  beuitifiil,  w 


rt^Tk 


crochet  (Eg.  1.)-    The  WMiderfnl  dtirabilitr  ot  point- 
Uoe  ii  attested  b^  the  fact^  Uutt  it  is  not  nncomm' 
m  oar  most  choice  collectioni,  although  the  ut  ^ 
apposed  to   have   been 


more  eaaily  made,  and 
conBeqaentl^  chi 
ityle  of  pomt-lace, 
placed  the  older  and 
more  artistio  kind. 

The  point'Iace  of  the 
■econd  period,  though 
deficient  in  solidity  and 
in  purity  d!  design ;  moreoTer,  it  bears  indicationB 
of  havine  be«n  copied  from  patterns,  whilst  the 
older  kind  «h  evidantly  the  carrying  out  of  artistio 
thoughts,  aa  they  were  conceived,  in  the  original 
material,  the  worker  and  the  deoigoer  being  the  aotzie 


o(  patterns  led  to  the  applicatioQ  of  the  pillow. 
First,  the  lace  woold  bo  worked  on  the  pattern,  to 
insure  corrootnesa,  where  the  worker  was  merely  a 
copyist;  then  it  would  soon  beoome  evident  that  it 
the  pattern  wore  (d  arranged  as  to  avoid  shifting, 
the  »cilitiefl  oF  working  would  be  greatly  increaBea ; 
and  it  haa  been  loggeated  that  the  pattern  pinned 
to  the  pillow,  and  the  threads  twisted  round  the 
pini;  to  prevent  ravelling  when  not  in  use,  suggestod 
the  net-work  which  atterwards  became  a  leading 
feature  in  the  &bric 

Tlie  invention  of  pillow-Ioce  has  been  clumed  by 

"' '"    his   quaint    way,  tor   one   ot   hu 

He  says  :  '  I  will  ventnie  to  assert 
knitting  of  lace  is  a  (Herman  invention, 
fine  known  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  c ;  and 
I  shall  consider  as  tme,  until  it  be  fully  contradicted, 
the  account  given  us  that  this  art  was  found 
before  1561,  at  St  Aniuberg,  by  Barbara,  wift  „ 
Christopher  Uttmann.  Tba  woman  died  in  the 
Gist  year  of  her  age,  after  she  had  seen  sixty-four 
ohildxen  and  snuidchildren ;  and  that  she  was  the 
inveutress  of  Uiis  art  is  unanimously  affirmed  by  all 
Uie  annalists  of  9azony.'  Whether  she  invented,  or 
mraely  introduced  the  art,  cannot  now  be  proved, 
bnt  certain  it  is,  that  it  soon  became  settled  in 
Saxony,  and  spread  thence  to  the  Netherlands  and 
Pranoe.  Even  to  the  present  day,  we  occasionally 
hear  c4  '  3aion  bone-lace,'  a  name  which  was  Eiven 
to  indicate  the  use  of  bone-pins,  before  the  intro- 
duction of  the  common  brass  ones. 

diat  an  art  depending 
and  taster  would  be 
vaiy  exceedingly ;  nevertheless,  all  the 
'csofve  themse&es  into  few  well-mariced 
pmtpe,  under  three  distinct  classes.  The  first  class 
IS  the  ampun,  which  comprises  all  the  true  needle- 
'Wxvked  lace,  whether  uiaient  or  modem  ;  its  varie- 
tiea  are — Bom-pcinl,  in  which  ibe  figures  are  in  high 
rehef,  having  a  rich  emboasedai^jearanoe;  Vautian- 

the  pattern  is  flatter  than  in  the  Bom-poinl,  Point 
iASatfoti,  and  Braudt-'poiiiL  The  last  two  are  still 
made,  the  modem  Point  d'AIengon  qnito  equalling 
in  beauty  and  value  that  made  in  the  middle  ot  the 
17th  e.,  when  its  manufacCnre  was  introduoed  by 
the  celebrated  Colbert,  chief  minister  of  Louis 
XIV.  The  Point  d'Alenjon  has  very  distinctive 
ebaracteriatica.  When  the  pattern  is  once  designed, 
eaoh  portion  may  be  worked  by  a  separate  person, 
isd  the  various  figntta  are  then  connected  by  a 
groundwork  ot  thr««d«,  which  are  so  passed  from 
one  figure  to  another  aa  to  represent  a  web  of 
wonderful  delicacy  and  regularity  ;  small  spots 
or  other  figurea  are  here  and  there  skilfully  woned 


Kkely  t 


in  where  the  threads  cross  eaoh  other ;  these  are 

called  modM,  and  not  only  add  much  to  the  strength 

ot  the  fabric,  but  greatly  increase  iu  riohncM  ot 

efieot     In  all   these  varieties, 

but  two  kinds  of  Btitcha  are 

employed,and  these  differ  chiefly 
in  the  greater  or  less  closeness 

of  the  threads  empZoyed,    First,  '■- 

a  series  of  threads  are  laid  down 

all  in  one   direction,  so  as  to 

cover  the  pattern,  and  then  a 

certain   number   ot    these    are 
taken  up  and  oovered  by  loops 
of  the  oross-stitchea,  as  in  fig,  1,  oi 
held  together,  as  in  fig.  2. 

The  second  class  is  PiUoa-laet, 

Cushion  or  Bobbin  lace,  from  the  pillow  or  oushion 
being  used  to  work  the  pattern  upon,  and  the  various 
threads  ot  which  the  figuree  are  made  up,  each  being 
wound  upon  s  bobbin,  usually  of  an  ornament^ 
character,  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other.  The 
pattern  on  parchment  or  paper,  being  attached  to 
the  piUme  or  cushion,  pins  are  stuck  in  at  regular 
mterrals  in  the  lines  of  the  pattern,  and  the  threads 
"*  *>-  '•"'■'"* twisted  or  pUited  round  them  m 


Kg.  2. 


lightly 
caUed 


ot  the  bobbins  ai 


Kg.  3. 


Fig.t 


as  to  form  the  net- work  arrangement  which  is  charac- 
teristic of  this  class  of  lace  (figs.  3  and  4),  the  patterns, 
or  figured  portions,  being  worked  out  by  a  crossing 
of  threads,  which,  although  actually  plaiting  — — 
theeffect  of  weaving.BS  in  fie,  5.  Thevar'  " 
lace   are — Spanith,  Qnmn£d  Spanitli, 
Saxony    SrjuteU,     FUmith    Brunei), 
MtMin,     VaUnaemes,    Ihttdt,    LiUe, 
C/iantiUy,    Silk    and    Cotton    Blonde, 
Limerlek,  BuiMnghamthirt,  and  Honi- 
ton.    The  last  has  of  late  years  become 
the  moat  beautitul  ot  all  the  varieties       Yix.  tL 
made  in  Qreat  Britain.     The  Irish  or 
Limerick  lace  has  alao  taken  a  hidi  poaition. 

The  third  class  is  machine-made  lace,  which,  by 
its  woiiderfiil  improvement  and  rapid  development, 
has  worked  a  complete  revolution  m  the  luce-trade^ 
so  that  the  prices  formerly  obtained  for  hand-made 
lace  can  no  longer  be  commanded,  whilst  maohine 
lace,  of  great  beauty,  has  become  so  cheap  and 
plentiful  as  to  be  worn  by  all  classes.  It  has  been 
mentioned  before  that  the  use  of  the  piUow  led  to 
the  introduction  of  net  as  the  ground-work  fur  lace 
figures,  and  it  was  to  the  manufacture  of  this 
so-called  6oftJtn-n«(  that  the  machinery  was  first 
applied  (see_  Bobbin-Hit).  The  figure  in  the  article 
ifeired  to  indicates  very  satisfactorily  the  structure 
'.  nek  The  lace-machme,  or  frame,  as  it  is  tech- 
nically called,  is  to  complical«d,  that  it  would  bo 
hopeless  to  convey  any  reuly  intelligible  appreciation 
of  it  without  a  voluminous  description  ot  all  its 
parta.  One  or  two  poiobi  ot  chief  importance  may, 
however,  remove  any  difSculty  in  understanding  its 
senetal  principles.  First,  then,  as  in  the  loom  (see 
Loom),  there  is  a  aeries  of  warp-thrcada,  placed, 
'ly  instead  of  horizontally, 
ordinary  weaving,  the  space 


.CiooQle 


UCB-BARK  TREE— LAORia. 


tMtwMO  Mok  h«iu[  raSdandf  wide  to  admit  of 
■hillins  puang  et^sinqn  b«twMii  them.    Bdund 


to  the  mtenpMes, 
„  .  ad  fUt  bobbuu  or 

reeli  rwtiiig  in  >m  airangement  oaDed  a,  comb-bar 
or  Mt-bar.  Thaw  m«  w  pUoed,  that  with  the 
find  moreaint  of  the  ""'■■""i  OMh  bohbin,  which 
ouriM  ita  thmad  with  it,  pwm  thronch  two  ol  tl 
panJlel  and  perpendiimlar  thread*  of  tne  warp,  ai 
II  lodged  in  another  and  aimilar  bolt-bar  in  fnoi 
thewank  Bot  this  froot  bolt  bar,  btddM  an  adTan 
iccr  uid  reoedinff  motion,  haa  another  moremen 
cMlaiiAogging — from  riglit  to  left.  When  it  reoaiTea  a 
bobbin  byiti  forward  motion,  it  drawi  bexk, '-~'~  ~'~  ~ 
the  bobbin  and  thread  through  two  of  Oa 
thread*  t  it  than  ikogi  or  mova*  to  oi 
goM  forward  again,  taking  the  thread  ' 
next  two  warp-thnad*,  and  lodging  the  bob! 
the  bade  bolt-bar  again,  one  dijrtWKe  beyond  ita  laat 
moa )  thi*  it  raooven  bj  tha  nert  movement,  and 
it  again  paMta  throo^  the  Siwt  apaoe,  to  be  ag^n 
received  uv  the  fnmt  bolt-bar.  B;  Ums*  moTO- 
menti,  the  rioblHn-thraad  i*  twitted  qntto  iwiiid  one 
npright  tiiread  of  tha  wan>;  aoonitt  movement 
then  riiifta  tha  bobbin,  lo  that  It  wQl  paaa  throngfa 
the  next  pair  of  npright  thrvnia,  and  ao  earry  ""  ■'■- 
work,  the  warp-threads  moving  at  the  aame 
nnwioding  from  tha  lower  beam,  and  being  rolled 
on  the  upper  one.  There  being  twice  a>  many  bob- 
bins aa  there  are  threads  in  tha  warp,  each  bolt-bar 
having  a  aet  which  it  eiobange*  with  the  other,  aod 
all  bsiDg  regulated  with  great  nicety,  a  width  of  lace 
i*  made  in  ht  Ism  time  than  boa  been  regnired  to 
write  ttus  *hort  description.  The  varioua  additions 
to,  and  variation*  npon,  these  operatiooa,  which  only 
»yplf  to  bobbin-net,  tot  the  productioD  of  patterns, 
are  so  numenni*  and  complioatsd— each  pattern 
requiring  new  oomplioaldonB — that  it  will  be  useleaa 
atberoptuit;  to  de«cribe  them ;  aoffice  it  to  say,  they 
all  depend  upon  the  variations  which  can  be  given 
to  the  movement*  of  the  fiat,  disc-like  bobbins. 

The  lustory  of  the  lace-aoehine  i*  not  very  clear ; 
It  ia  aud  to  have  been  originally  invented,  hy  a 
frame-worh  knitter  of  Nottingham,  from  studying 
tha  Um  oq  hi*  wife's  cap ;  but  it  ba*  been  eontinn- 
olly  reoeiving  improvements,  amongst  which  thoee  of 
Heatboote  in  1S(>9 — the  first  to  work  nicceoifnlly — 
Morley,  in  ISll  and  IS24.  and  those  of  Leaver  and 
Turton,  and  of  Clark  and  Mori,  all  in  1811.  Tha 
manufacture  of  tace  by  machinery  ta  chiefly  located 
in  Nottingham,  whence  it  i*  sent  to  all  parbi  of  the 
world ;  but  we  have  no  mean*  of  knowmg  to  what 
extent  for,  with  that  abange  perversity  which  dis- 
tdnguiuies  our  stotistjcal  adnumatration,  only  Oirtad- 
laee  is  meotioned  in  the  lista  of  exports,  whilst  our 


recently  Raid  to  prodno 
worth  per  annimL 

tACE-BABK  TREE  {LagHUt  lialtana),  i 
of  tha  natural  order  Thj/mdiacecB,  a  native  of  the 
West  Indies.  It  ia  a  lofty  tree,  with  ovate,  entire, 
smooth  I^vea,  and  white  flowen.  It  is  remarkable 
for  tiw  tanadt;  of  tiiia  fihtca  of  ita  inner  bark,  and 
Uw  readinea*  with  trtdeh  the  inner  bark  may  bi 
•epanted,  after  maocoatioo  in  water,  into  layen 
reaembling  laoe.  A  governor  of  Jatnaic»  is  said  t< 
have  [HMented  to  CWIm  IL  a  cnvat,  frill,  and 
ruffle*  made  of  Vt, 

XiAOE-LBAP.    Sea  Z.unoi  Luv. 

IjACnfep^B,  Bkbmaks  Okbhaim  ^nwtm  di 
Lavoj.!,  Coukt  tOL,  an  eminent  Battmliat  and 
elegant  writer,  wa«  bom  of  »  BoUe  family,  26th 
DMember  1756,  at  Agon.  Haviiw  eariy  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  M  natnnJ  h&tray,  in  which 
he  wa*  greatly  enoonraged  by  the  friendahip  of 
Bulbil,  he  wa*  appointn  ounitor  at  the  Cabinat 
of  Natnnd  HiatorTin  the  BotbI  Gardana  at  Pari*. 
Thi*  office  he  h«ld  till  tha  KevdntaoD,  when  be 
beeanu  Professor  <rf  Natonl  History,  and  «' 
entered  npon  a  p<^tjaal  ewrear,  in  whuh  be  r.__ 
to  be  a  senator  in  1799,  a  minister  of  stato  in  ISM, 
and,  after  tha  return  of  tiis  Bourbon*,  a  peer  of 
France  although  he  had  previously  been  one  of  the 
moat  (oolons  adherenia  of  Bonaparte.  He  died  of 
smoll-poi:  at  his  mansion  of  Epmay,  near  St  Denis, 
6t1i  October  1825.    A  collecCiva  edition  of  his  works 

I  published  iu  1&26.  Among  thsm  ora  works  on 
Natural  History  of  Eeptilea,  of  Fishes,  and  of  Vae 
Cetaoea,  a  Wo  A  on  the  Natural  HiBtory  (J  Man,  and 
ona  entitled  La  Agu  de  ia  Natxtn.  Hia  work  on 
Fiahta  (0  vols.  1798—1803)  is  the  greatest  of  hi* 
works,  and  was  long  unrivalled  in  that  department 
of  zoology,  althongh  it  hu  now  been  in  a  great 
measure  supeisedetL  L.,  who  was  a  highly  oocom- 
^ished  musician,  waa  the  author  <rf  a  woi^  entitled 


Ootd-UKe  and  SHver-Uux,  properly  speaking,  are 
laoea  woven,  either  by  the  bond  or  by  machuiary, 
from  exceedingly  flue  threads  of  the  metals,  or  from 
linen,  silk,  or  cotton  threads  which  are  coated  with 
still  finer  threads  of  gold  or  silver;  but  in  thi* 
oouutiy  it  is  too  common  to  deeiguato  as  gold  or 
^ver  face,  not  onlv  that  which  is  ruhtly  so-called, 
but  also  fringe  made  of  theoe  materiob,  and  al*o  gold 
and  ^ver  embroidery,  such  as  is  seen  on  state  robes 
and  trappings,  and  upon  aome  eoelesiastioal  dresses, 
fta  Odd-loce  i*  made  in  London,  but  consider- 
able quantitiMi  of  that  uaed  for  deoorating  uniforms 
and  other  dresses,  Jtc,  in  this  country,  is  obtained 
from  Bel^nm,  where  it  ia  on  important  branah  of 
mannfacture.  Franco  supplies  much  of  the  gold  and 
mlver  thread  used,  and  excels  all  other  conntries  in 
its  production,  in  Hime  of  the  more  artivtic  varieties 
of  gold  and  sdver  lace  and  embroidery.  Italy  has 
Uwy  ihewii  great  taato  &ud  skilL     The  works  i 


romanoes  intended  t  . 

irinoiplea.      Ha  was  an  amiable   man,  extremely 

ind,  dalighluig  in  domeeldo  life,  and  very  simple, 

and  almast  abstemion*,  ia  hia  habits. 

LACSTBTA  and  LAOE'BTID.X.    See  LisutD^ 

liAOHAJSB,  Fsurou  D'ah  si,  a  Jmiit,  bora 

a  noble  family,  25th  August  16!M,  in  the  Daatla 

of  Aix,  now  in  tjie  department  of  Loire,  was  a 

incial  of  his  oidar,  when  Loni*  XTV.  aalsoted 

for  his  oonf««acr  on  tha  death  of  Fotbar  Ferrier 

in  1876i.    His  podtiou  wo*  ona  «f  great  difficulty, 

owing  to  the  ditfarent  partita  of  the  oonr^  and  tM 

strife  batw«*n  Jan*MU*t*  and  Jeanit*.    In  tha  mo*t 

important  quMtiona  of  hit  time.  Father  L.  avoided 

axtnme  oonne^    A  Malon*  Jesuit,  and  of  modanta 

obilitie*,  he  yet  tw*<aiii»d  among  hi*  eontamponuiea 

of  mihC  simple,  honourabla 

intuion  oould  never  forgive 

him  the  little  seal  with  whioh  he  oMMised  thereaacma 

•d  againat  the  publication  of  her  marriage  with 

king ;  but  dnnni  the  tiiirty-fonr  years  tiiat  ha 

d  hi*  office  of  OMUii—or,  ha  nevw  loat  tha  favour 

ihe  king.     Ha  was  a  man  of  aome  learning,  and 

fond  of  antiqnarian  PDisnit*.    He  died  20lh  January 

1709; — Loni*  XIV.  built  him  a  oonntiy-houae  to  the 

wast  of  Pari*,  the  large  gardaa  irf  whuh  was  in  ISM 

converted  into  a  bunal-idBoe,  and  is  known  as  the 

Pirt-la^Ghaita. 

I4A'0HES,  in  English  Law,  i*  a  word  nsed  {feom 
Pr.  lAduTy  to  loosenj  to  denote  negligenoo  or  midna 
delay,  such  aa  to  disentitle  a  party  to  a  particular 


i™d*| 


■vCiOogic 


LA.CHB8IS— LA.OORDAIBE. 


IiA.'0HE8IEI, »  gentu  of  Mipenti  <rf  tiw  lUttle- 
atiak«  family  (OntSidm),  bat  (UfterinK  from  rtlOirr- 
makes  in  luvina  tlu  t^  termiB»(ed  with  ■  •pine 
instaad  of  k  ratue,  and  in  haTing  the  bead  coTwed 
'Witli  loalea,  and  not  with  platea.  The  ipeciee  aie 
all  natina  of  tiM  varm  paria  of  America,  where 

-'   tiMm   an   among  tlw  moat   dreaded   of 

I  *erp«ati.    Tha;  an  oHiulIjr  •een  ooiled 

~„ kMB  daring  afea,  watdung  tor  prey,  on 

whioh  thej  dart  iriUi  the  awiftiMM  of  an  arrow,  and 
then  coiling  thamaelrea  up  again,  wait  qoieily  till 
the  death-atmggle  of  the  viotam  ii  orer.  Some  of 
them  attain  uia  length  at  aeren  feat.  They  an 
■aid  to  be  q>t  to  attach  men,  even  when  not 
attaokad  or  thnatened. 

ZiA'CHIiAlT,  a  tirer  of  East  Anstavlia,  riiee  in 
New  South  W&lea,  to  the  westward  of  the  Blue 
Moimtaiua,  and,  after  a  ooursa  of  700  mjlet,  with 


further  down,  eaters  the  Mutrav.  The  former  of 
theae  two  pointi  ot  oonfluence  is  in  lat  34*  W  3., 
and  long.  144'  10'  E. 

IiAOHHANlT,  ELuL,  a  odatnatad  Gkrman  oritio 
and  philolo^t,  woi  bom  4th  Maioh  1TS3;  at  Bruna- 
wiok,  atudieil  at  Leijaie  and  Gilttingen,  became  a 
profesBor  in  ttie  uniTenity  of  EUninberg  in  ISltf, 
and  at  Berlin  in  1327.  He  died  im  March  1851. 
Li.'a  Utararj  aotivity  waa  exbaordinaiv.  He  waa 
eqnally  derotcd  to  "'"-;—'  anbjeota  and  to  thoae  of 
old  German  Utoratore,  and  illaabatod  both  by  a 
profound  and  eagacious  cnticiam.  Among  hia  most 
important  prodnctionH  are  hia  aditioDB  of  the  Ifibe- 
luKgenlud,  the  works  of  Walter  von  der  YogdwtadB, 
Fropertiiui,  Catnllua,  Tibolliu,  and  the  New  Teeta- 
ment  (BerL  ISSI;  3d  edit.  1S4«),  of  which  a  larger 
edition,  with  the  Ynlgate  tranalation,  appeared  in 
2  vols.  (BerL  1846  and  1850).  The  d^gn  of  the  Uab 
of  theae  worka  waa  to  restore  the  Greek  text  aa  it 
eziit«d  in  the  Eaatem  Church  in  the  3d  and  4tJi 
centnriea  ;  and  L.  thought  himaelf  more  likely  to 
attain  tbBt  end  by  attaching  weight  only  to  *" 
MSS.  oa  exist  in  Unoiali  (q.  v.) 

LA'CHRYM.a:  OHRI'STI,  a  muscatel  wine  of 
a  Bweet  bat  piqoant  taste,  uid  a  most  agree.a1i]e 
bouquet,  which  is  produced  from  the  grapes  of 
Mount  Somma,  near  VesuTina.  There  are  two 
kinds,  tiie  white  and  the  red,  the  first  being  generally 
preferred.  The  demand  tor  this  wine  bemg  greater 
than  the  snpply,  larga  qnantitieB  of  the  produce  of 


LA'GHRYMAIi  OBOAITS,  Thk,  ate  sufficiently 
described  in  the  article  Bnc  There  am,  however, 
certain  diseases  to  which  they  are  liable,  which 
require  a  brief  notice. 

^■i  There  may  be  a  deficient  seere- 

^\  tion  of  tears,  an  affection  foe  which 

^^1  the  term  XetvpMuUmia  baa   been 

invented.     It  may  be  palliated  by 
keepine  the  oomea  oonstantly  moiat 
with  gTvoarine  by  means  of  an  eye- 
cup.      Or  there  may  be  an    over- 
secretiOQ  of  tears,  so  that  the^  run 
doom  the  cA<et&     This  affection  ■- 
termed  ^liphora,  and  must  not 
confonaded   with    the    StSUcidh 
lachrymarum,  or   overflow  of  tet 
that  arises  bom  an  obstruction  of 
nimni  of  Strle.  ^^    '•*"'""''^'   through  which   they 


bicarbonate  of  aoda,  and  tonics,  sooh  aa  the  citrate 
of  iron  and  quinine. 

ObdrudioH  (/  Uit  noaiiZ  itult  ia  graeraUr  cansed 
by  a  thickening  of  the  mnoona  membraiie  that  lines 
it,  and  ia  ■  not  onoominoD  affection,  (specially  in 
sarofulooB  young  persons.  Thers  is  a  feeling  of 
weakness  of  the  eye  on  the  affected  side,  and  tsan 
run  down  the  cheek,  while  the  nostril  on  that  side 
is  unnataraUv  dry.  The  lachrymal  sac  (see  fig.  G  in 
the  article  Etb)  is  distended  with  tears,  and  forma 
a  small  tumour  by  the  side  of  the  root  ot  the  nose. 
On  preaaing  this  tumour,  tears  and  mucus  can  b« 
aquaased  backwards  through  the  ponota,  or  down- 
wsfda  into  the  ncae,  if  the  closure  is  only  partiaL 
This  affection  idten  leads  to  H^iMnolWH  v  '^  *^ 
or  to  the  formation  ot  a  SstuboB  apsrtaira  at  the  inner 
comer  of  Uie  eye,  communicating  with  the  laohry- 
mal  sac,  amd  known  as  fidida  LathymiUit.  Ttus 
fistalous  apotnre  is  caused  by  the  bniating  of  an 
absoess,  arising  from  infiammation  of  the  aao.    It  ia 


through  the  doot  into  the  nose.  The  retention  of 
this  inatiument  oauaas  the  duct  to  dilate,  ao  that  the 
tean  Oow  by  ita  aide.  'Hie  fiat  head  of  the  stylo 
lies  on  the  cheafc,  and  both  keeps  the  instamoent  in 
its  place  and  famlitates  its  oooaaional  remoTal  f«r 
tbe  purpose  of  cleansing.  Sometimes  it  is  Dsotasaiy 
that  th*  instniment  ahould  be  won  for  life,  bat 
in  less  severe  cases  the  duct  reoaios  permanently 
dilated,  and  a  onra  is  effected  in  a  few  "wi"t*" 

LACONIC.  Tbe  SMuiaos,  or  Laoediemonians 
(whose  oonatry  was  called  Laoouia),  systematically 
eodeaToured  to  confine  themselves  to  a  aententiona 
brevity  in  speaking  and  writing ;  hence  the  term 
laamie  haa  been  B[^lied  to  this  SjU, 

IiAOORDAIBB,  JujI'Bapti^is-Eihbi,  tbe 
most  disUoguisbed  of  the  modarn  polpit-oraton  of 
FrBooe^  waa  bom  at  Beoey-tor-Oorce,  in  the  depart- 
ment cete-d'or,  MarA  12,  1602:  He  w«a  educated 
at  Dijon,  where  he  abo  entered  upon  his  1«^ 
stndias ;  and  having  taken  hia  degree,  ha  trsuafemd 
himaelf  in  1822  to  Fans,  whe  "  " 
as  an  advocate  in  1824,  and 
tjon.  As  his  principles  at  t  , 
tinged  with  unbeliaf.  It  was  a  matter  ot  univeaal 
BuipHae  in  tbe  drole  of  his  aoquaintanoe  that  he 
saddenly  rave  up  his  profession,  entered  the  College 
of  3t  sulpice,  and  in  1827  received  holy  orders. 
He  soon  becoine  distinguished  aa  a  preacher,  and 
in  the  College  of  Joilly,  to  which  he  waa  attached, 
be  formed  the  aoqnaintance  of  the  Abbi  Lamen* 
nois,  with  whom  he  speedily  formed  a  close 
aad  intjmata  alliance,  and  in  oonjunotion  with 
whom,  after  the  levolntiou  of  July,  he  published 
the  well-known  journal,  the  AtKntr,  an  organ  at 
once  of  the  highest  ehuroh  priacipleB  and  ot  the 
most  extreme  radicalisni.  The  artiolea  ^blished 
in  this  journal,  and  the  proceedings  which  vera 
adopted  m  asserting  tbe  liLrarty  of  education,  led  to 
a  prosecution  in  the  Chamber  of  Feera  in  1831 ;  and 
when  the  Avtnir  itself  was  condemned  by  Gregory 
XVT.,  L.  formally  anbmitted,  and  for  a  tune  with- 
drawing from  public  oHairs,  devoted  himself  to  the 
duties  ot  the  pulpit  The  brilliancy  of  his  eloquence, 
and  tbe  novel  and  striking  character  of  hia  *iews, 
excited  an  interest  altog^er  unprecedented,  anil 
attracted  unbounded  aiuiliation.  His  courses  ot 
sormons  at  Notre-Dame  drew  to  that  hnmsnse  pie 
orowds  snoh  aa  had  never  baen  aem  within  uie 
inemoij  <d  the  living  generation,  aad  had  prodnosd 

. . ,  Google 


£en  aia  aegree,  ne  Eransieirea 
9,  where  he  began  to  practise 
,  and  rose  rapdly  to  diatjnc- 
I  at  this  panod  were  deeply 


LACQUER— LACmO  ACID. 


an  eitraordiiuiy  MniatioD  evea  on  the  non-religii  . 
world,  when  once  uoin  L.  fixed  the  wonder  of  the 
pnblia  by  relinqnMiiDg  tha  career  of  dutinctiou 
which  wu  open  to  him,  and  entering  the  novitiate 
of  the  Dominican  order  in  1840.  A  ahort  time  pre- 
vionaly,  he  had  published  »  memoir  on  the  re-estab- 
liihment  of  that  order  in  France,  which  was  followed, 
after  hii  enrolment  in  the  order,  by  a  Life  of  ita 
tbnnder,  St  Dominio ;  and  in  1841  he  appeared  once 
again  in  the  pulpit  of  Notre-Dame,  in  the  well-known 
habit  of  a  Dominican  friar.  From  thii  date,  he  j^ve 
much  of  hii  time  to  preaching  ia  varioni  parts 
of  Franca.  In  the  first  election  which  lucceeded 
the  revolution  of  1S48.  he  was  chosen  one  of  the 
representatiTee  of  Hareeille,  and  took  part  in  lome 
of  the  debates  in  the  Aeaembly ;  but  he  resigned  in 
the   following    May,   and   withdrew   entirely   from 

Elitical  life.  In  1849,  and  again  in  I8«)  and  1861, 
reeomed  hie  courses  at  Notre-Dame,  which, 
together  with  earlier  discourses,  have  been  collected 
in  three  rolumea,  under  the  title  of  Confirenea  de 
Notrt-Dame  de  Paris,  1835— 185a  Hie  health 
having  b^un  to  decline,  he  withdrew  in  1854  to 
the  convent  of  Soreze,  where  he  died  in  1861.  In 
1858,  he  wrote  a  aeries  ot  Lelitra  to  a  Toung  Friend, 
which  have  been  much  admired;  and  in  1860, 
having  been  elected  to  t]ie  Academy,  he  delivered 
what  may  be  called  hia  laet  address — a  Memoir  of 
his  predecessor,  M.  de  Tocoueville.  A  collected 
edition  of  bis  works  appeared  in  Farii  in  1872 ;  hta 
Memoir*  by  Montalembert  in  1862. 

LA'CQUEB  fa  a  varnish  prepared  for  coating 
metal-work  (see  Lac),  usually  polished  brass.  The 
formula  usually  employed  is,  for  gold  coloor: 
aloohol,  2  gallons;  powdwed  tnrmeno,  1  pound, 
maoarate  for  a  week,  and  then  filter  with  a  covered 
filter,  to  prevent  waste  from  evaporation ; 

•dd,  of  the  lightest-coloured  ihelt-Iac,   12 , 

sainboge,  4  ounces ;  gum-iandaiach,  3(  pounds; 
This  is  put  in  a  warm  placa  nntil  the  whole  is  dis- 
solved, when  1  quart  of  common  turpentine  varnish 
is  added.  A  reil  lacquer,  prepared  by  substituting 
S  pounds  of  annotta  for  the  turmeric,  and  1  pound  (3 
dragon's  blood  for  the  gamboge,  is  extensively  used. 
IiAOQUERINO,  the  art  of  coating  metal  with 
varnish.  The  term  has  also  a  wider  signification, 
and  is  made  to  apply  to  the  process  by  which 
some  varietie*  of  goods  in  wood  and  napier  miohS 
are  also  coated  with  layers  of  varnish,  which  are 
polished,  and  often  inlaid  with  mother-of-pearl,  fto. 
Sea  PancB  M1ce&  It  would  appear,  from  the 
very  fine  spedmeDS  from  Japan  in  Uie  International 
Exhibition,  that  the  Japanese  excel  in  the  art  of 
producing  articles  of  eiqnisite  t^hinnmn  uid  delicacy. 
Tbo  varnish  used  by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese 
ap]>eBrt  to  be  the  same,  and  is  a  natural  secretion 
which  flows  from  incisions  in  the  stem  of  the 
Tamish-tree  (q.  v.)  Usually,  the  oriental  lacquered 
work  is  tastefully  ornamented  with  designs  painted 
in  gold,  or  with  inlaid  sbell-woric  The  Japaneee 
have  carried  this  art  so  far  as  to  apply  it  to 
their  delicateljr  beantifal  china,  some  of  which  is 
laoqnered  and  inlaid  with  mother-of-pearl,  forming 
landscapes  and  other  designs. 

LA  CROIX.  Stlvxstre,  See  Strpp.,  VoL  X. 
LA  CROSSE.  See  Supp.,  VoL  X. 
LACS  D'AMOUR,  in  Heraldry,  a  cord  of 
mnning  knots  used  as  an  external  decoration  to 
surround  the  arms  of  widows  and  unmarried 
women,  the  cordetier,  which  differs  but  slightly 
from  it,  being  used  similarly  with  the  shields  of 
married  women. 

LACTA'NTIUS,  in  several  MS3.  deaignated 
Lcoroa  Colidb,  or  C*:cii.nja  Frajnimra  L,  an 
eminent  Christian  anthor,  who   floorished   in  the 


early  part  ot  the  4th  centnry.    He  wm  of  Italian 

descent,  bnt  studied  at  Sicca,  in  Africa,  under  the 
rhetorician  Amobius,  and  in  301  A.11.  settled  as  a 
teacher  of  rhetoric  in  Nicomedia,  He  was  invited 
to  Gaul  by  Conatantioe  the  Great  {312—318  A.  D.). 
to  act  as  tutor  to  his  son  Crispns,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  died  at  Treves  ahout  325  or  330.  L's  prin- 
cipal work  is  his  Diniiianim  IruiiialiarutnL,  libn  viL, 
a  production  both  of  a  polemical  and  apologetio 
character.  A  supposed  tendency  to  Manidwism  in 
his  views,  and  his  Chiliasm,  have  marred  his  repu- 
tation for  pure  orthodoxy.  He  attacks  paganism, 
and  defends  Christiamty'.  Among  his  other 
writings  are  treatises  Da  Ira  Da  and  De  MortSna 
PerKeutorvm.  Some  elegies  have  also  been  ascribed 
to  him,  but  emineonsly.  His  style  is  wonderful, 
if  we  consider  the  late  ago  at  which  he  wrote, 
and  has  deservedly  earned  lor  him  the  title  of  the 
Ckrietian  Cicero,  He  was,  besideB,  a  man  of  very 
considerable  learning,  but  as  he  appean  not  to  have 
become  a  Christian  till  he  was  advanced  in  years, 
his  religious  opinions  are  often  very  crude  and  sin- 
gular. L.  was  a  great  favourite  during  the  middle 
i.  The  edilio  prine^it  of  this  writer  is  one  ot 
oldest  extant  specimens  of  typography.  It  wu 
printed  at  Subiaco  in  1466. 

LA'CTEALS,  Tira.  or  CHYLIFEROUS  VES- 
SELS,  are  the  I^phatic  Vessels  (q.  v.)  of  the 
small  intestine.  They  were  discovenul  in  1632  hy 
Aselli  (q.  v.),  and  received  Uieir  name  from  con- 
veying the  tnilk-like  product  of  digestion,  the 
Chyle  (q,  v.),  during  the  digestive  process,  to  the 


,  >  porllm  ol 
(lb*  whJta  U 


■Ith  thD  ipEiul  (uIdih 
wrj  in  Ui«  lultali,  u 
le  ilaada] ;  b,  th*  >Mt| 


th«  iDbolaTlan,  and  d.  ttu  jagnlir  xlo,  on  tlin  riiU  itde; 
tion  rtmoTBd,  liing  In  (tont  of  Iha  Tnlebrel  'ooliimn,  U  Ui< 

Thoracic  Duct  (q.  v.),  by  which  it  is  transmitted 
the  blood.     These  vessels  commence,  as  has  been 
Bwn  in  the  article  DioranoK,  in  the  mtcatinal 
villi,  and  passing  between  the  layers  of  the  Mesen- 
tery (q.  v.),  enter  the  mesenteric  glands,  and  finally 
umte  to  form  two   or   three  large  trunks,  which 
terminate  in  the  thoracic  duct. 
LA'CTIC  ACID  {C,H,0,,HO),in  its  pure  rtata 
,    .    . 1    oolourless,   or   slightly   yellow 


LACTIC  FERMENTATION— LADAKH. 


nncrysUIliaable,  ajrajiy  liquid,  oE  ipeciGo  grkvily 
I'SIS.  It  IB  devoid  of  odour,  has  a  ihup,  acid 
ta«te,  and  ia  lolnble  in  all  praportioni  in  water, 
aloohol,  and  ether. 

The  beat  method  of  obtainins  thii  acldisbydiaiolr- 
ing  8  rart«  o(  eane-ingar  in  about  60  paiti  of  water, 
and  then  adding  1  nOrt  of  decaying  cheese,  and  3 
Jiarta  of  oholk.  If  thia  mixture  be  set  aucie  for  two 
or  three  weeks  at  a  temperature  of  about  80*,  it 
becomea  filled  with  a  maaa  of  cryatola  of  lactate  of 
lime,  which  muat  be  purified  bv  re-cryitoUiiation, 
&iul  treated  with  about  one-third  of  their  weight  of 
Bulphurio  acid.  The  residue  must  be  digested  in 
klcuhol,  which  leaves  the  sulphate  of  lime,  and  dis- 
solves the  lactic  acid,  which  may  be  obtained  pure 
on  evapomting  the  solution.  The  mode  in  which 
the  acid  is  prouuced  in  this  process  is  described  in 
the  article  Lactic  FjatiCKNTAnoN, 

Lactic  acid  is  also  formed  in  many  other  ways ; 
thus,  it  is  a  frequent  product  of  the  acidificatioo  of 
vegetable  substances,  and  in  this  way  ia  formed  in 
aauer-kraut,  in  molt  vinegar,  and  in  the  odd  fermen- 
tation that  takes  place  durine  the  manufacture  of 
Trheat-storch.  It  occura  ready  formed  in  certain 
plants,  and  is  very  largely  produced  in  the  animal 
body.  It  is  found  either  free  or  combined,  or  both, 
in  the  gastric  juice  (aithouah  not  constantly),  in  the 
contents  of  the  small  and  large  intaatine,  in  the 
chyle  (after  the  use  of  amylaceons  food),  in  the 
muaoular  juice  (both  of  the  voluntary  and  involun- 
tary muscles),  in  the  parenchymatous  juices  of  the 
■pleen,  liver,  thymus,  pancreas,  lungs,  and  brain, 
and  is  found  as  lactate  of  lime  in  the  urine  of 
the  horse.  It  has  been  found  in  certiua  morbid 
conditions  of  the  system  in  the  milk,  where  it  is 
formed  from  the  sugar  by  the  fermenting  action 
of  the  caseins ;  in  the  blood  in  lencocytluemia, 
pysmia,  and  puerperal  fever;  in  purulent  and 
other  transudations;  in  the  nrine  when  there  is 
diaturbanoe  of  the  digestive  and  respiratory  organs, 
and  in  rickets  and  softening  of  the  bones  (and 
almost  always  after  expoaar«  to  the  air  for  some 
time) ;  in  the  saliva  in  diabetes ;  in  the  sweat  in 
pnerperal  fever,  and  in  the  scales  that  form  upon 
the  ilcin  in  lepra. 

The  lactic  add  occuning  in  tlie  system  may  be 
traced  to  two  distinct  sources  :  that  which  is  found 
in  the  intestinal  canal  is  merely  the  product  of  the 
decomposition  of  the  starchy  matters  of  the  food ; 
hot  that  which  exists  in  the  gastric  juice  (even  when 
only  animal  food  has  been  taken),  in  the  miucnlar 
Juice,  and  in  the  juices  of  the  various  glands,  can 
only  be  regarded  a«  a  product  of  the  regressive 
metamorphosis  or  disintegration  of  the  tissues,  and 
hoir  it  is  formed  is  not  accurately  known. 

There  is  no  ready  test  for  lacdo  acid.  The  best 
conise  to  pursue  is  to  obtain  it,  if  it  is  present^  as 
a  lactate  of  lime,  which  crystallites  in  beautiful  tufts 
of  ocicnlar  prisms,  or  as  a  lactate  of  zinc,  which 
crystallise*  m  a  very  characteristia  form  in  cmata 
Qonsistdng  of  delicate  four-sided  prisms. 

LACTIC  FERMENTATION.  Although  lac- 
tose or  BUgor-of-milk  may,  under  certain  conditions, 
be  made  to  undergo  alcoholic  fermentation  (as  in  the 
preparation  of  kamisB  by  the  Tartare  from  mares' 
milk),  it  generally  yields  a  very  different  product, 
viz.,  lactio  acid,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  case  of  milk 
turning  sour  in  warm  weather.  The  caaeine  is  usually 
conudered  to  act  as  the  ferment,  but  being  ioaoluble 
in  acids,  it  is  thrown  down  in  flakes  as  soon  as  the 
milk  becomes  sour.  In  this  insoluble  form,  it  exerts 
little  action  in  converting  the  lactose  (C,,II,,0,,) 
into  Uctic  acid  (C  H,0„HO);  but  if  the  acid  be 
neutralised  by  carbonate  of  soda  or  by  chalk,  the 
curd  is  redisaolved,  and  the  traoifonnation  of  the 
Bogar  into  lactio  acid  ia  renewed.    No  evolution  of 


gaa  or  absorption  of  oi;fgeD  taks*  place  during  th* 

convenion  of  the  Bugar  into  the  adiL 

Not  only  sugar-ol-milk,  but  cane-snpr,  starch, 
deitrine,  and  gum  pass  readily  into  lactio  add  under 
the  influence  of  cascine  or  other  animal  mattan 
undergoing  decomposition. 

Pasteur  considers  that  a  speciSo  ferment,  the  genni 
of  which  exist  in  the  atmosphere,  ia  concerned  in 
the  production  of  the  lacHo  fermentation.  During 
the  process  recommended  in  the  preceding  article 
for  the  preparation  of  lactic  add,  a  layer  of  partidea 
of  a  gray  colour  is  observed  on  the  surface  of  the 
sediment.  This  substance,  when  examined  under 
the  microscope,  is  seen  to  consist  of  little  globules  or 
very  short  articulations,  constitating  irru^ular  floaon* 
lent  particles  much  smaller  tian  those  nf  beer-yrast, 
and  exhibiting  a  rapid  gyratory  motion.  When 
washed  with  a  large  quantity  of  water,  and  then 
diffused  through  a  solution  of  sugar,  the  formation 
of  lactic  acid  at  once  commences.  Hence  it  follows 
that  these  organic  particles,  and  not  the  caaeine,  are 
the  actual  agents  in  the  converBion  that  takes  place. 

LACTUCA-RItTM,  or  LETrUCE  OPIUM,  ii 
the  inspissated  milky  juice  of  several  species  of 
Laduca  or  Lettuce,  and  is  obtained  by  incision  of 
the  stem.  By  drying  in  the  air,  the  juice  loses 
about  half  its  weight  of  water,  the  residue  being 
lactucarium.  It  usually  occurs  in  commerce  in 
small  lumps  about  the  size  of  a  pea  or  small  bean  ; 
they  are  of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  but  are  some- 
times covered  with  a  grayish  efflorescence ;  and 
they  have  a  bitter  taste,  and  a  smell  resembling 
opitmL  Lactucarium  has  been  frequenUy  analysei^ 
but  chemistry  has  thrown  little  bght  ou  ita  com- 

Lactncarium  posaeasea  anodyne  and  sedativa 
jmiperties,  and  is  employed  where  opium  ia  cou- 
aidered  objectionable ;  as,  tor  iastanoe,  when  ther« 
irbid  exdtement  of  the  vascular  system ;  and 
.  ..of  service  in  allaying  cough  in  phthisis  and 
other  pulmonary  diseases.  The  usual  dose  is  five 
grains,  but  it  may  be  safdy  given  in  larger  doaes. 

LAOU'NARS,  or  LACUNARIS,  the  panels  or 
coffers  of  ceilings,  and  also  of  the  soffits  of  classio 
"imices.     They  are  much  used  in  the  ceilings  of 

>rticoa    and   similar   classio   structures,  and  are 

equently  ornamented  with  patene. 

LADA'KH,  otherwise  known  as  MmsLi  TiBjcT, 
Ilea  between  Qreat  Tibet  on  the  E.,  and  Little  Tibet 
the  W.,  stretching  in  N.  Ut  from  32°  to  36°,  and 
B.  lonK  from  76'  to  79*.  On  the  S.,  it  is  separated 
from  Cashmere  by  the  Himalaya,  while  on  the  N., 
it  is  divided  by  the  Korakorum  Mountains  from 
Chinese  Turkestan.  It  oontaiiks  about  30,000  square 
miles,  and  about  126,000  inhabitants.  The  country 
was  conquered  by  Qholab  Sin^  the  ruler  of  Cash* 
mere,  in  1835.  It  lies  chiefly  within  the  basin  of 
the  Upper  Indus,  being  little  better  than  a  mass  of 
mountams  with  narrow  valleys  between  them-  Not- 
withstanding its  ^«at  elevation,  which  is  equally 
unfavourable  to  soil  and  climate,  the  temperature  la 
sometimes  lingidarly  hieh — a  phenomenon  attributed 
partiy  to  the  tenuity  of  the  atmosphere,  and  partly 
to  the  absence  of  moisture.  Pretty  good  crops  of 
wheat,  barley,  and  buckwheat  ore  rai^d ;  while  the 
mineralproducts  are  sulphur,  iron,  lead,  copper,  and 
gold-  The  transit-trade  is  extensive,  being  carried 
on  mostly  by  mules  and  sheep.  The  inhabitonta  are 
very  peaeeful  and  induatrions ;  they  are  excclleot 
farmers,  and  their  woollen  manufactures  are  said  to 
be  important  The  women  ore  fresh  and  fair,  but 
rather  lax  in  their  morals  ;  among  the  lower  dossea, 

Slyandry  is  common.    The  popu^tion  is  esaentiiolly 
oagolian,  but  has  intermixed,  with  the  Cashme- 
rians.    The  language  is  Tibetan,  and  in  the  opinion 


„  Coogic 


LADANtTH—IADT. 


ot  Kkproth  tbe  primitiT*  dialeet  of  the  •borigiiwl 
people  inhabiting  tbe  region  between  Hindiutan 
and  Tirtkry.  Toe  religion  ii  Tj.Tn«i«Tn^  n  form  of 
Baddbinn  (q.  v.).  It  ii  k  jnuTinca  of  Cuhmeni, 
whit^  is  under  a  Mkhaniah,  xnd  ia  &  Britiih  fend- 
ktoty.    The  capitil  city  is  Le  (q,  v.). 

LA'DANUM,  or  LABDANDM.    See  Oroim 

LADIB9  OF  THE  BEDCHAMBER.  3ee 
IaAovb  of  thi  Quken's  Hovheholq. 

LADIES  OF  THB  QUEEN'S  HOUSEHOLD 
oOBsiili  of  the  Mistress  of  the  liobes,  the  Ladies  of 
the  Bedchamber,  the  Bedoluunber  Women,  and  the 
Maids  of  Hononr. 

Ths  offioe  of  Misb«si  ol  the  Bobea  is  of 

able  antiqnity.  It  is  her  du^  to  TSKoUte  the  rota- 
tion and  times  of  attendaaoe  of  tbe  rest  of  tiie 
Ladies  of  the  Household,  who  ore  oil  subordinate  to 
her.  She  hsa  tbe  iuperioteDdence  of  oU  daties  con- 
nected with  the  bedchamber — within  which  the 
Lord  Chamberlain  has  no  authority — sod  the  custody 
of  the  robes.  On  state  oocssiaiis,  she  must  see  thai 
the  ceremony  ot  robing  the  Qae«o  is  properly  per- 
formed. In  piiblio  ceremonioU,  she  wxonipuiies 
the  Queen  in  the  same  carriage,  or  walks  immeiCately 
before  Her  Majesty.  The  Ladiet  ofihe  Belchamber, 
who  now  Dnmbsr  eight,  with  five  extra  ladies,  and 
Uie  BediJiambfr  Women,  of  whom  there  are  eight 
besides  one  r«aident  and  three  extra,  are  persoDol 
attendants,  ministering  to  the  state  of  Her  Majesty. 
The  Maidi  o/Monotir,  of  whom  there  are  eight,  are 
immediate  attendants  on  the  royal  person,  and  in 
rotatica  perform  the  dnty  of  accompanying  the 
Qaeen  on  all  occasiooa.  They  enjoy  by  courtesy  tbe 
title  *  Honourable,'  when  not  entitled  to  it  bv  birth, 

and  ore  then  deaignated  the  'Honourable  Mae ' 

without  the  Christian  name. 

LADING,  Bill  or.    See  Bill  of  Lasiko. 

LADISLAS,  VLADISLAV,  TLADISLAF, 
ULADISLA8,  different  forms  of  a  name  frequently 
OGcnrTing  in  the  histories  of  Poland,  Hongary, 
Bohemia,  and  Serrio, — Yladiblib  L  of  Poland,  sur- 
nomed  Lokietek  (the  Short)— one  of  those  princes 
who  appear  to  be  raised  up  during  a  period  of 
intestine  oonfusion  and  disorntoisanon,  for  tbe 
purpose  of  shewing  how  powerful  is  the  influence 
of  one  great  mind — was  ruler  of  tbe  small  province 
of  Cracow,  at  a  time  when  Poland  was  subdivided 
into  countless  small  independencies.  V.  nnited  them 
in  1319  ;  snd  the  further  to  increase  the  stability  of 
the  goTemment,  he  reduced  tbe  privileges  of  the 
higher  nobles,  removed  the  conndl  of  prelates  and 
magnates,  replacing  it  by  a  popular  assembly ;  he 
greatly  improved  the  administration  of  justice,  and 
nuthered  commerce  and  industry. — Vladislas  IL 
twd  Vladislas  IIL  See  JAaKLLom.-^Vi.ADiBi.AB 
IV.  (1632—16*8),  while  yet  a  youth,  wag  elected 
Czar  of  Rosgia  in  ISIO,  but  was  prevented  by  his 
father,  SigismuDd,  from  ocoepting  tlie  crown.  He 
was  a  wise  and  politic  prince,  vet  it  vras  under  his 
rwga  that  Sweden,  Russia,  and  Turkey  commenced 
to  nibble  at  the  outlying  provinces.  He  slxore 
manfully  to  remedy  iha  peculiar  defects  of  the 
Polish  oonEtitutaoQ,  but  Uiey  were  too  deeply  rooted ; 
and  thou^  he  sought  to  end  the  oppremon  of  the 
dissidents,  and  took  the  part  of  the  Cossacks  against 
those  nobles  who  had  deprived  tliem  of  their  n^ta, 


deprivation  of  their  liberties,  the  imposition  of  new 
taxes,  and  the  persecuting  zeal  of  the  Komon  Catholic 
clergy,  rose  in  rebellion,  annihilated  the  Polish  army, 
and  put  themselves  under  the  rule  of  Biusia.  At 
this  critical  moment,  T.  died, 

LASCOA  (StakaIa,  or  Old  Lasooa),  an  ancient 
tlnsaiiui  town,  in  the  govenuuent  ot  St  Petenburg, 


w  the  left  bank  ot  the  river  Wolkhof.    It  was  the 

residenoe  (862)  of  Rnrik,  the  fonndar  of  the  Russian 
monarcby,  and  the  walls  of  a  fortress  sreeted  by 
him,  and  a  church  ot  the  11th  c,  still  mark  its  uta. 
Previously  to  the  acceesion  of  Peter  L,  Old  Ladoga 
was  on  important  strat^ic  point  for  the  defence  of 
Novgorod.  Peter  L  built  the  town  of  Novo,  or 
New  Ladoga,  near  the  entrance  of  the  Wolkhof  into 
Lake  I«d^a,  and  now  on  the  site  of  the  old  town 
ot  Rnrik  sbuids  the  small  village  of  Ouqienskoe. 


loud  and  the  govemmenbl  of  Obnetc  and  Peters- 
burg. It  is  120  miles  in  length,  70  miles  m  breadth, 
and  6804  square  mOea  in  area.  It  receives  the 
waters  of  I^e  Onega,  Lake  Saim,  and  Lake  TTman, 
and  its  own  waters  are  carried  off  to  the  Qulf  of 
Finnlaud  by  the  Neva  (q.  v.).  The  depth  of  I^ke  L. 
varies  from  12  to  1300  feet,  and  tbe  navigation  is 


lake,  the  principal  are  the  Valaam  and  Konevetz, 
with  monasteries,  which  attract  numbers  of  pilgrims. 
Of  the  TO  rivers  which  fall  into  Lake  L.,  the 
principal  are  the  Wolkhof,  the  Sias,  and  the  Svir, 
each  of  which  is  a  means  of  communication  between 
tbe  Neva  and  the  Volga.  In  order  to  obviate 
the  difficulty  of  navigation,  canals  have  been  con- 
structed along  its  south  and  south-east  shores,  the 
principal  being  tlie  Lado^  CoDot  (TO  feet  wide), 
which  unites  Qie  mouth  of  the  Wolkhof  with  the 
Neva.  Otlier  two  oanala  nnite  the  mouths  of  the 
Siss  and  Svir  with  the  Ladoga  CauaL  This  canal- 
system  forms  the  thorooghfare  for  a  vfsry  eztennve 
ba&o  between  the  Volga  and  the  Baltic  Com- 
muucation  by  water  subsists  between  Lake  L.  and 
the  White  Sea  as  well  as  tbe  Caspian. 

LADRO-NKS,  or  MAItlANNE  ISLANDS,  a 
group  of  about  20  islands,  the  northmost  Austral- 
asian group,  in  lat  131'— 20J•N.,andlong.l45^°— 
UT°E.  ThoyaredispoBedinarowalmoMtdDeDorth 
and  south.  Their  united  area  is  12fi4  ■qnara  oUbm, 
'  bj  Magellan  (in  1821),  who 


le  which  they  still  bear,  trim  the 


the  Jesuit  missionaries,  who  settled  here  in  1667, 
called  them  the  Mariana  Ittandt.  They  ore  mona- 
toinoos,  well  watered  and  wooded  (among  the  trees 
are  the  bread-fruit,  the  banana,  the  cocoa-nut), 
fruitful  in  rioa,  maise,  ootton,  and  indigo.  European 
domestic  anim»l«  are  now  very  common.  At  the 
le  when  they  wore  discovered,  the  population  was 
koned  at  100.000,  but  the  present  population 
only  about  56O0.  The  inhabitants,  who  are 
docdle,  rehgioua,  kind,  and  hoepllable,  rasemble  in 
physiognomy  those  of  the  Philippine  Islands.  The 
islands  are  very  important  to  the  Spaniards,  in  a 
commercial  pomt  of  view.  The  largest  island  is 
Ouajan,  00  miles  in  circumference  ;  on  it  ia  the 
capital,  San  Ignooio  de  Agsfia,  the  seat  of  the 
'^'loniah  governor. 

LADY,  a  woman  of  distlDOtion  ooirelatively  to 
Lord  (q.  v.),  nsed  in  a  more  extensive  Mnaa  in  oom- 
mon  parlanoe  eorrelatively  to  goMenum.  As  a  title, 
it  bdoiigi  to  peeresses,  the  wives  of  peen,  and  of 
peen  by  eonrtesy,  the  word  Lady  beiiu  in  all  these 
cases  prefixed  to  the  peeian  title.  Ite  danditeis 
of  dukes,  maiqniSBi,  aind  saris  are  by  courteey  desig- 
nated by  the  title  Lady  prefixed  to  th^  Chris- 
tian name  and  surname ;  a  title  not  lost  by  marriage 
with  a  commoner,  when  the  lady  only  substitutes 
bar  hnsband'i  sunuune  for  her  own,  and  retaini  her 


t  ^'"^'"^^^1'"- 


LADY  OHAPKL-LAKNiraia 


, .  daiight»mMT7U)g  Kpau. 

«•■  no  iMigOF  be  dGngiuted  by  her  Chrutum  name 
with  Lad; ;  the  nrnst  tak*  hat  hiubaad'a  rank  and 
tiUa,  vna  ahonld  »  kM  of  pnoedenos  be  the  recnlt, 
•s  muu  th«  daoghter  of  a  duke  mariMa  ki  earl, 
VNoami^  or  banxcL  Shonld  her  huband,  hoirerer, 
be  misraly  a  eonrte^  peer,  she  may  retain  her 
iliainiialiiiil  bj  Chiiatian  name  with  Lady  preSxed, 
•nbrtitDtnig  hw  huiband'a  oonrteaf  title  tor  her  lor- 
IWBW]  tliit  title  and  precedence  bong  again  dropped 
on  hOT  huband'a  nwoMrion  to  Uie  peeiaga  bv  nil 
tather*!  deftth.  ^e  daoshter-in-Iair  of  a  dnke, 
BMrqnia,  or  eari,  ii  nsBial^  designated  bv  the  title 
Itfdy  prefixed  to  i£o  Ohriitian  name  and  lamame 
of  her  hniband ;  but  if  ibe  be  the  dan^ter  ot  a 
peer  of  a  higher  tank  than  her  btther-in-law,  iha 
mar,  if  ahaJpleaM,  b«  dengned  by  Lady  pnued 
to  W  oim  Chiiatian  name  ud  tier  hnilnnd'a  nu^ 
Bame,  and  in  that  eaae  ahe  retains  the  precedence 
wUoh  ihe  had  when  nnmanied.  The  wife  of  a 
baronet  or  knisht  ii  senerally  demgned  by  Lady 
prefixed  to  her  Eoiband/i  nmama ;  we  proper  legal 
deeiKnation,  howerer,  being  Dame,  fidlowed  by  bar 
Chrutiao  name  and  mnuuiuh 

LAST  CHAPglj.  a  oh^)eI  dedicated  to  the 
Virgin  Mary  ('Oar  Ladv'),  and  oiaally,  bat  not 
alwxn,  placed  eaatwaroa  from  the  ^tar  when 
attadied  to  cathediKk.      Heniy  VIL'i  CWel  at 

LADT  07  HEBOT,  Odk,  a  Spanish  order  of 
knighthMd,  f oooded  in  1216,1^  JameaL  of  Ar^pn, 
in  talfilmant  ol  a  tow  tnade  to  the  Viivin  dnring  hi* 
iptivity  in  Franoe.  The  object  for  whioh  the  Miler 
'  the  redonption  of   Christian 


eaptiTea  from  among  the  Moon,  eaoh  kni^t  at 
hia  inaoKwation  vowug  that,  if  nsosssary  for  tbsir 
rantom,  he  mmld  renum  hunjelf  a  oaptire  in  their 
stead.  Within  the  fint  MX  year*  of  the  axistanoa 
of  the  ordv,  no  fewv  than  400  captives  are  said  to 
hwre  be<m  ranaraned  l^  ita  means.  On  tbs  «ap<U*ion 
of  the  Hoar*  from  Spam,  the  labonn  ot  llta  knights 
ven  transferred  to  Afiiiia.  ^nuir  badge  is  a  shield 
pwty  per  less  svle*  Mid  or,  in  ohief  a  oroas  patt£e 
argent,  in  base  loor  pallet*  galea  for  Aiagon,  the 
dueld  orowned  with  a  dncal  oerooat  The  onlar  was 
extended  to  hdiM  in  ISSL 

I.ADT  OF  UOITTBSA,  Dim,  an  order  ot 
fcni^Hiood,  foimded  in  1317  by  King  James  IL  ot 
Aragon,  who,  on  the  abrogation  of  l£e  order  ot  the 
TempUiB,  nrmd  Pope  Clement  V.  to  allow  him  to 
•m^o^  all  tncir  estatee  within  hia  territop'  in 
fonnding  a  new  knighUy  tnder  for  the  protection  of 


tte  Chratiiuu  ag^nst  tho  Mootk    Hi*  reqneat 
'   '  to  by  the  following  pope,  John  XXIL, 
in  the  estate*  oil 


mnted  h 

T*m[dnra  .  „ 

Valencia.    Ont  of  these  was  foonded  the  new  order, 

which  King  James  named  after  the  town  and  castle 

of  Montcsa,  which  he  assigned  as  its  head-qnarten. 

The  order  is  now  conferred  merely  as  a  mark  of 

royal  faToot,  thon^  the  prorisions  of  its  ttatutee 

are  still  nominally  obserred  on  new  creations.    The 

badge  is  a  ted  cross  edged  with  gold,  the  costmne  a 

long  whito  woollen  mantle,  decorated  with  a  cross 

on  the  hjt  breast,  and  tied  with  reiy  long  whito 


ooe,  gsQirnlly  of  a  brilliant  red  or  yellow  colonr. 


ih  blaek,  r 


oharaoteiislao 

Bmiks  «t  the  diflcoest  species.    The  form  i*  nearly 
bsmispksrkelitli*  nuder-Borfaoe  being  very  flat,  the 


Umraz  and  head  small ;  the  antouu*  are  shorty  and 
terminate  in  a  triangular  clnb  ;  the  legs  are  short, 
Wbcsi  handled,  theae  insect*  emit  from  their  jointe 
a  yellowiah  floid,  har* 
inff  a  disagreeable  snuIL 
^^7    and  their  larvte 


ego    under    t 
a    (d     plants, 
h  the  larvn  are 


are  very  naaf  ul  to  hop- 
growers  and  other  agn- 
culturista.  They  deposit 

which _.._   __ 

find  their  food,  and  the 

larranm  shout  in  pur- i^^UnlCOxieiiwUaaesJlatatt 

suit  ot  aphides.     Lady-  Uignlkd. 

bird*  are  sometimes  to 

be  seen  in  imm«ti*»  nambeM,whicih,  bom  ignorance 

of  their  nsafolnsss,  hsTS  sometimes  bean  raganled 

with  a  kind  of  snpentilioas  dread.    Sereral  species 

{C.  »q>tan-punaata)  is  found  over  all  Burope,  and 
in  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  The  name  L.  is  perhaps 
oorruption  of  Ladybug  (Lady,  L  e.,  the  Virgm 
""     "  '   MarienJuyin 


Mary).    The  German  name  is 


liADY-DAT,  o 


>  of  the  regnlar  qnartN^^ys  in 


made  payahla.    It  is  the  2Uh  of  Manh 

LADT%  FBIEITD,  a  name  giraD  to  an  offleer  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  who  used  to  take  oare  that 
a  [soTision  was  inserted  in  favour  of  a  wife  when 
•^'-  -   husband  u^ilied  for  an  aot  of  parliament  '  ~ 


LADY'S  aOWTI,  a  present  tonosrly  made  in 
Scotland  by  a  purchaser  of  an  estate  to  a  wife  on 
her    renouncing   her  liferent   over  her  husband's 

LADTS  MAITTLE  (AltAemiSa),  a  genus  ot  her- 
baceous planti,  chiefly  natives  of  temperate  nod  cold 
climates,  ot  the  natural  order  Roiaeea,  sub-order 
Sanguu'rrbeix  ;  having  small  and  numerous  fiowet*. 
OB  8<(Jett  calyx,  no  oorolla,  and  the  trait  surrounded 
b;  the  pereistent  calyx.  The  name  L.  M.  siepitying 
MantU  of  Oar  iody— i.  e.,  ot  the  Vimn  Mary,  is 
derived  Irom  the  form  ot  Uia  leaves.— The  Couuok 
L.  M.  (A.  vulgarU)  is  aboDdont  on  banka  and  in 
pastures  throughout  Britain.  Its  root-leavua  are 
large,  plaited,  many-lobed,  and  serrated  ;  its  flowers 
in  oorymbose  terminal  clusters  are  usually  of  a 
yellowish-gieen  colour. — Still  more  beautiful  ia  the 
Alfcik  L.  H.  [A.  cdpina),  which  grows  on  mountain* 
in  Scotland,  and  has  digitato  serrated  leaves,  white 
and  satiny  beneath- — A  common  Britssh  plant  of 
very  humble  growth  and  unpretending  appearanoe 
is  the  Field  L.  M.,  or  pAnaLzi  Pitirr  [A.—ot 
Apluma^-anmuia),  f  oond  in  poBtnres.  an  astringent 
and  diuretic,  said  to  be  sometimes  useful  in  coses  of 
stone  iu  the  bladder,  by  producing  a  large  secretion 
of  Uthio  acid. 

LADY'S  SLIFP^l  (C^pripetttum),  a  eenns  of 
plants  of  the  natnntl  order  Ort/iidtia,  of  which  one 
(peciea,  O.  Caieeobu,  t*  a  native  of  Britain,  beins 
found  in  a  tew  plaoes  in  the  north  of  EnaUnd,  and 
is  reckoned  one  of  the  most  beautital  oE  the  British 
Orchids.  The  genua  is  remarkable  for  the  laiw 
inflated  lip  ot  £e  corolla.  Several  veiy  beautitul 
species  are  natives  of  the  colder  parts  of  North 


A  Coos 


L^TTARfi  StWDAT— LAPATTElTE. 


Lower  Brittaoy,  in  1781,  «id  died  there  in  1826. 
He  atudied  medicine  in  Puis,  where  he  attended 
the  pr»cti£e  of  CorviwH,  to  whom  the  mediial  pro- 
fenioQ  ii  mainly  indebted  lor  the  introduction  of 
perciution  in  the  inveiti^tion  of  disessea  of  the 
cheat,  although  the  origuud  diicavery  is  due  to 
Avenbruzger.  In  1814,  be  took  the  dezree  of 
Doctor  ofMedicine,  mad  in  tbe  same  year,  he  became 
the  chief  editor  of  the  Journal  de  Midedne.  In 
1816,  he  was  appointed  chief  physician  to  the 
HApital  NechoT,  and  it  was  there  that  he  soon 
after  made  the  discovery  of  mediate  auionltatian, 
or,  in  other  words,  of  the  use  of  the  Stethoscope 
(q.Y.).  Id  1810, he  T>ublished  his  TrailtdeTAut- 
tuUaiios  MidiaU,  which  has  undoobtedly  produced 
a  greater  effect,  in  Bo  for  oi  the  advance  of  diagnona 
is  concerned,  than  any  other  ainale  book.  His 
treatise  bod  not  long  appeared,  when  indications 
of  coosninption  were  discovered  in  his  own  cheat 
by  means  of  the  art  of  his  own  creation,  and  after 
a  few  years  of  delicate  health,  during  which  be 
oontinned  to  practise  in  Paris,  he  retir»l  to  die  in 
his  natdve  province. 

L.^TTAUti  SnvDAT,  called  ahui  Mid-lent,  is 
the  fourth  Sunday  of  Lent.  It  is  so  named  from 
the  Erst  word  of  the  Introit  of  the  mass,  which  ia 
from  Isuoh  IxrL  10.  From  this  name  the  charac- 
teristic of  the  services  of  the  day  is  joyousness,  and 
the  musio  of  the  organ,  which  throuniout  the  rest 
of  Lent  is  suspended,  is  on  this  day  resumed. 
Lntore  Sunday  is  also  the  day  selected  by  the  p«pe 
for  the  blessing  of  the  Ooldkh  Kobe  (q.  v.). 

LA  FARI'NA,  on  Italian  author  and  politidan, 
bom  at  Messina  in  1S15.  In  the  university  of 
Catania,  the  d^ree  of  Doctor  of  Laws  was  conferred 
on  him  at  the  age  of  19;  and  in  1837,  having  taken 
port  in  ui  inefiectuol  revolutionary  movement  in 
Sicily,  he  songht  safety  in  enatriation.  lu  1S39, 
ha  retained  to  Sicily,  was  received  as  a  lawyer,  and 
atarted  several  pouticol  jouruals,  which  were  ill 
saccessively  suppressed.  This  led  him  to  remove 
to  Florence,  where  he  published  several  works, 
more  remarkable  for  their  contents  than  for  the 


La  F.  took  a  promment  part  in  the  movement  of 
Tnscany,  where  he  edited  the  first  democratic  and 


and  of  tbe  Interior.  After  the  capture  of  Messina 
by  tbe  royal  troops,  La  F.  accepted  from  the  king's 
government  the  post  of  Minister  of  War,  a  step 
which  iuourred  the  severe  censure  of  the  party  ol 


which  the  heroic  Garibaldi  hlwrated  the  kingd< 
of  Naples,  La  F.  reappeared  in  Sicily;  but  bis 
unfortunate  differences  with  Garibaldi  led  to  his 
ultimate  expulsion  from  the  island.  Hediedtwoyean 
later,  in  186^  Some  of  iiis  principal  works  ore — 
SoKvenin  of  Romt  and  Tvecany ;  Italy  (1  vol.); 
SwUiarland  (2  vola);  China  (4  vols.);  Hittory  of 
the  Reooia&m  nfSialy  in  1848  and  1349  (2  vols.). 

LAFAYETTE,  Marie  Madkleuib  Piochs  bk 
LAVERaNE,  CoHTESSB  HE,  bnm  1633,  died  1693, 
the  authoress  of  a  number  of  novels,  excelled  by  Qo 
works  of  that  age  in  the  development  of  character 
and  true  delineation  of  human  nature.  Her  father, 
Aymar  do  Lavergne,  was  aovemor  of  Hnvra  She 
reoeived    an    eiaellent    education,    and    in    16S5 


married  the  Count  de  Lafayette,  after  which  her 
house  became  a  resort  of  uie  most  distinguished 
literary  men  of  her  age,  at  the  tame  time  that 
it  WHi  freqaentod  by  the  persona  of  highest  rank 
and  fashion  in  Paris.  Her  novels,  ZaMe  and  La 
PrineoK  de  Clivct,  have  l>een  frequently  reprinted. 

LAFATETTB,  Makie  JsA3t  Fadi.  Boch  Yvb 
Gii.BntT  MoTiER,  Mabquis  db,  descended  from  an 
ancient  familyof  Aavergne,wa«  bom  6th  September 
1757,  in  the  caatle  of  Chasomac,  now  in  the  depart- 
ment  of  Upper  lioira.  He  Deoame  a  soldier  at  an 
eiirly  age,  and  in  1777  went  to  America,  to  take  rairt 
with  the  colonists  in  their  war  of  independence.  The 
friendship  of  Washington  exercised  a  great  influence 
over  the  development  of  his  mind  and  tbe  funnation 
of  his  opinions.  The  declaration  of  war  between 
France  and  Britain  gave  li™  on  opportunity  of 
aiding  the  new  repnbUo  effectoally,  by  returning  to 
France,  where  he  was  received  with  honour  by  the 
court,  and  with  enthusiasm  by  the  people.  He 
again  repaired  to  America  in  1780,  and  was  mtrusted 
l^  Congresa  with  the  defence  of  Virginia,  where 
he  rendered  important  services.  On  a  third  visit 
to  North  America  in  1784,  after  the  conclusion  o( 
peace,  he  was  received  in  such  a  manner  that  his 
tour  was  a  continual  triumph. 

L.  hod  imbibed  liberal  principles,  and  now  eagerly 
sought  to  promote  a  thorough  reform  in  hia  native 
country.  He  was  called  to  the  Assembly  of  Notables 
in  1787,  and  was  one  of  those  who  moat  earnestly 
urged  the  Assembly  of  the  States.  He  took  part 
also  in  the  movementa  which  converted  the  Assembly 
of  the  States  into  the  National  Assembly  in  I76H. 
He  took  a  veir  active  part  in  the  proceeding  of  the 
Assembly,  and  being  appointed  to  the  chief  com- 
mand of  tbe  armed  citizens,  laid  the  foundation  ol 
the  National  Guard,  and  gave  it  the  tricolor  cockade. 
In  these  first  periods  of  the  Revolution,  it  seemed  m 
if  L.  had  the  destinies  of  France  in  his  bands.  But 
he  found  himself  unable  to  control  the  excite 
which  sprung  up.  The  extreme  ropublicana 
came  to  dialika  him,  because  he  advocated  a 
atitutional  kingdom ;  and  the  court-party,  eapeoiBUy 
the  queen,  did  the  aame~^in  spite  of  the  servioes  ha 
rendered  them—beoauae  of  hia  seal  for  the  new 
order  of  tbinea.  Along  with  Bailly,  he  founded  the 
dub  of  the  Feuillants.  After  the  adoption  of  the 
oonatitutioa  of  1790,  he  retired  to  his  estate  of 
Lagrange,  till  he  received  tbe  command  of  the 
army  of  Ardennes,  with  wtiich  he  won  the  first 
victories  at  Fhilippeville,  Maubeuge,  and  Florannes. 
Nevertheless,  the  calumnies  of  the  Jacobina  rendered 
him  exceedingly  unpopular,  and  he  was  accused  of 
treason,  but  acquitted.  AJfter  several  vain  efforts 
to  maintain  the  cause  of  rational  liberty,  he  left 
Paris  for  Flanders,  but  wsa  taken  pnsoner  by 
the  Austrians.  and  remained  at  OlmUtz  tilt  Bona- 
parte obtained  hia  liberation  in  1797;  but  he  took 
no  part  in  pablie  affairs  during  the  asoeDdenoy  of 
Bonaparte.  He  sat  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
from  1818  to  1824  aa  one  of  the  extreme  Left,  and 
from  1825  to  1S3U  he  was  agun  a  leader  of  the 
oppoaition.  In  1830  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
revolution,  and  commanded  the  National  Guards. 
In  1824  he  revisited  America,  by  invitation  at  Con- 
gress, who  voted  him  a  grant  o£  200,000  dollars  and 
a  tovrnship  of  hmd.    He  died  20th  May  1834. 

LAFAYETTE,  a  city  of  Indiana,  United  States 
of  America,  on  the  east  bank,  and  at  the  head  of 
navigation  of  the  Wabash  River,  63  miles  north- 
west  of  Indianapolis,  on  the  line  of  the  Wabaah 
and  Erie  Canal,  and  at  the  intersection  t '  " 
railways.  It  ia  a  flourishing  city,  in  the  mi 
a  rich  prairie.conntry.  Laid  out  in  1825^  it  has  24 
churches,  3  doily,  and  9  other  oewapapen,  with 


I  nv  Google 


LAFFITTK-IAORAHaB. 


I   intmited  with 


LAfFITFE,  Jaoquk,  m  Frenoh  b&nker  uid 
itatesmsD,  bom  of  humbls  parantage  at  BajonnQ, 
S4th  October  1767,  iru  earfj  employed  m  »  clsrk 
by  the  rich  baiiker  Peir^ani  in  Puis,  and 
ceeded  him  in  biudDeu  in  1809.  He  looa  to 
great  irealth  and  a  EDropean  reputation.  He 
made  President  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  and 
in  1814  governor  of  the  Bank  of  France.  On  the 
retiim  ofNapoleoa  from  Elba,  Looia  XVITL  depo- 
sited a  large  Bum  in  L.'i  handa ;  and  after  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  Napoleon  intntated  S.OOO.OOO 
froDCB  to  him,  which  he  kept  safe,  althouEb  the 

Svernment  made  some  attempts  to  laj  hold  of  it. 
ter  the  Becond  restoratioii,  ha  became  one  of  the 
opposition  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  enjoyed 
the  highest  popularity  in  Paris.  When  the  revolu- 
tion broke  out  in  1830,  he  wrote  to  the  Duke  ol 
Orleans,  saying,  'You  have  to  make  yoiir  choice 
between  a  crown  and  a  paseporL'  He  freely 
supplied  the  money  requisite  on  that  occa-' — 
He  Decame  one  of  the  tint  ministry  of  the 
king,  and  in  November  1830  v""  -' — '  ' 
the  formation  of  a  cabinet,  the 
acter  of  which  oauaed  the  toas  of  his  popularity. 
Meanwhile  hia  banking  affairs  fell  into  oonfoaion, 
and  he  was  obliged  to  «ell  ill  his  property  to  t»y 
bia  debts.  A  national  sabecription  preaerved  him 
his  bAtel  in  Fsrii ;  and  being  ocain  elected  to  the 
Chambo'  as  a  deputy  for  Fans,  he  became  a  leader 
of  the  opposition.  From  the  ruins  of  his  fortune 
be  fonnded  a  new  Discount  Bank.  As  the  govern- 
ment receded  more  from  the  principles  of  the 
revulutioD  of  1830,  L.  became  more  active  in  oppo- 
sition. In  1843,  to  the  ^reat  displeatnre  of  tJie 
court,  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.    Hs  died  26th  May  1844. 

LA  FONTAINE,  Jbas  di,  a  French  poet, 
distinguiahed  above  all  hia  countrymen  as  a  fabulist, 
was  t^  son  of  a  Uattre  doe  Eaui  et  For^ta,  and 
was  bom  July  8,  1621,  at  ChAteau-Thieny,  in 
Champagne.  In  his  early  youth,  he  learned  almost 
nothine,  and  at  the  age  of  20.  he  vui  sent  by 
bis  fstnar  to  the  Oratory  at  Rbeims,  in  a  state 
of  extreme  ignorance.  Here,  however,  he  began 
to  exhibit  a  decided  taste  for  the  classics  and 
for  poetiT.  ThoDgh  aelSsh  and  vicious  to  the 
laat  degree,  he  posaessed  withal  a  certain  child- 
like boTihomie;  it  was  not  Eraoe,  or  vivacity,  or 
wit,  but  a  certain  soft  and  pleasant  omi&bihty  of 
manner,  so  that  he  never  wanted  friends.  He 
snooasfDvely  found  protectors  in  the  Duobess  de 
BouiUon,  who  drew  nim  to  Paris ;  in  Madams  de 
8abliiT«,  and  in  M.  and  Madame  HervarL  He 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Moli^,  Boilean,  Racine, 
and  other  contemporary  celebrities ;  and  even  the 
saintly  Featdon  lamented  his  death  in  extravagant 
straina  In  1693,  after  a  dangerous  illness,  he 
carried  into  execution  what  a  French  critic  char- 
acteristinjl)'  terns  his  prmel  de  amveraon,  and 
spent  the  brief  remainder  of  his  life  in  a  kind  of 
artiSdal  penitenoe,  commOD  enoogh  among  licen- 
tiooa  men  and  women  in  those  sensual  days.  He 
died  at  Paris,  April  13, 1696.  His  best,  which,  how- 
ever, are  also  bis  most  immoral  productions,  are 
Conies  et  Jfouotilet  en  Vers  (Paris,  1665;  2d  part, 
1666;  3d  port,  1671),  and  FaMa  OuiitUt  mUet  ea 
Vert  (also  in  three  ports,  of  which  the  first  appeared 
in  1668,  and  the  third  in  1693).  The  editions  of  the 
AUu  have  been  innumerable.  The  best  edition  ot 
L.  F.'s  collected  works  i*  that  of  Wolckenatir  (18 
*o1b.  Paris,  1819—1820 ;  improved,  in  6  vols.  1822— 
1823).  See  Taine's  Euai  mr  la  PdOei  de  L.  F.  18G0. 
tiAQEBaXBCE'MIA,  a  g«nu«  of  plants  of  the 


natural  order  Lythraeea,  the  type  of  a  snb-order 

Lageritramiea,  which  i*  distinguished  by  winged 
seeds,  and  in  which  are  to  be  found  some  of  the 
noblest  trees  of  tropical  forests,  whereat  the  tme 
LytJirea  are  generally  herbaceous.  Lageritramia 
Regma  is  the  Jabodl  of  India — a  magnificent  tre^ 
wiUi  red  wood,  which,  although  soft,  b  durable 
under  water,  and  is  therefore  much  naed  for  boat- 
building. 

LA'OOHTS,  a  senns  of  rodntt  onadrupeda,  of 
the  family  Leporvue,  much  resembling  hares  or 
rabbits,  but  with  lunbs  of  more  equal  length, 
more  perfect  dairiclea,  longer  claws,  longer  head, 
shorter  ears,  and  no  tail  They  are  interesting 
from  their  peculiar  initinots,  staring  np  herbage 
for  winter  use  in  heaps  or  stacka.  The  Alfihi 
L.,  or  FntA  of  Siberia  (L.  aXpimu),  the  largest 
of  the  genus,  is  scarcely  larger  than  a  guinea- 
pig,  yet  its  stacks  are  sometimes  four  or  five  feet 
bisb,  by  eight  feet  in  diameter,  and  often  afford 
adveDturous  sable-hunters  the  food  necessary  for 
their  harses.  The  Uttle  animals  live  in  burrows, 
from  the  inhabited  part  of  which  galleries  lead  to 
the  stocks.  The  herbage  of  which  they  ore  com- 
posed is  of  the  choicest  kind,  and  dried  so  as  to  re- 
tain much  bf  its  juices,  and  form  the  very  best  of  hay. 
liAOOO'N  (I^t  lacuna,  a  hollow  or  pool)  is  a 
eoies  of  lake  formed  by  the  orcrflovring  either  ot 
e  sea  or  of  rivers,  or  by  tie  infiltration  of  water 
im  these ;  and  hence  lagoons  are  sometimes 
divided  into  fluvial  and  manne.  They  are  found 
ow-lying  lands,  such  as  the  coasts  of 
.  Italy,  the  Baltic,  and  the  east  coast  of 
South  America  ;  are  generally  shallow,  and  do  not 
always  present  the  same  aspect.  In  some  coaea, 
they  are  completed  dried  up  in  summer ;  in  othem, 
after  being  once  fonned,  they  preserve  throughout 
the  whole  ^ear  the  character  of  stagnant  marshy 
pools  ;  and  in  others,  again,  the  sea,  which  re-unitM 
'\em  to  itself  in  winter,  is  separated  from  them  in 
.mmer  by  a  bar  of  sand  or  shingla 
LAGOS.  See  Sopp.,  Vol  X. 
LA'OOS,  a  city  and  seaport  of  Portugal,  in  the 
province  of  Algarve,  on  a  wide  bay,  23  miles  east- 
nortb-east  from  the  extremity  of  Cape  St  Vinceet. 
The  harbour  affords  protection  from  north  and  west 
winds  only,  and  accommodates  Only  small  vessels. 
A  productive  tuni^-fishery  is  carried  on  in  the 
vicinity.  Fop.  7300.  In  the  bay  of  L.,  Admiral 
Boacawen  obtained  a  signal  victory  over  the  French 
Toulon  fleet,  August  IS,  17S9. 

LAORANQE,  Joseph  Locia,  Covr^  ooe  of 
the  ^«atest  of  mathematiciana,  was  bom  at  Turin 
in  1736.  He  was  of  French  extraction,  and 
was  the  grandson  of  Descartes.  When  still  a 
onth,  he  solved  the  isoperimetrical  problem  of 
Inler,  and  when  scarcely  19  years  of  age,  was 
appointed  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  Artillery 
School  in  Turin.  Frederick  the  Great  appointed 
him  to  be  EuWa  inocessor,  as  director  of  the 
Academy  at  Berlin,  in  1769.  After  Frederick's 
Naples,  Sardinia,  Tuscany,  and  E^uice  strove 
for  the  honour  of  offering  L.  a  better  position.  Ho 
accepted  the  offer  of  France,  aod  took  up  his 
quarters  in  the  Louvre  in  1787,  obtaining  a  pension 
of  6000  francs  (£238).  In  1791,  be  was  chosen  a 
foreign  member  of  the  Koyal  Society  of  London, 
and  the  same  year  the  National  Assembly  con- 
firmed to  him  his  pension,  and  ho  was  api)aiDt«d 
one  of  the  director*  of  the  Mint.  He  was  m  great 
danger  during  the  Keign  of  Terror,  but  escaped, 
and  was  aft^wards  professor  in  the  Normal  and 
Polytechnic  Schools.  Napoleon  made  him  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Senate,  bestowed  on  him  the  GrKod 
Cicas  of  the  Legion  of  Honodr,  the  title  of  Conn^ 


u„.,.„„.GBog 


LAGHIU080— LJUT7. 


He  died  lOth  A[itil 

nrincipal  woAt  are :  Memun  *  on  the  liotioD  of 
flldd*'  end  'the  ftiqiaaatioa  of  Soimd;'  anotiler 
mamou  .lefiited  IfAlai^eif  e  Tiain  Tending  the 
Uunrj  w  the  eertb'i  formBtion.  When  onfy  24 
7«Me  of  age,  he  pobliihed  hii  2ftvi  Mel/iod,  aubee- 

anentlj  known  aa  the  C^euhu  qf  Fariaiioiu, 
ina  (diliiiK  a  oew  and  powerfnl  ireapon  to  the 
ptulMOphicd  tzBKtwn,  In  1764,  hia  msDUHr  on  the 
'Ltbraboa  of  tlie  Moon'  carried  off  the  &rit  priie 
at  tiie  Academy.  It  was  in  thk  ta'eatiie  that  he 
aheired  the  extent  aod  fniitfnlnfi  of  the  prin- 
dple  of  'nrtnal  velooitiea'  vhicli  he  ftfterwardi  eo 
EuooeoBfoIlf  ^>plied  to  meclianics.  Next  qipeared 
hk  woika  on  the  solution  of  'nomerical'  and 
'algebraie'  eqnationa;  and  in  1787f  hia  Mfcaniqut 
Jna^dfu^  a  work  in  whioh  mechaoici  ia  rednoed  to 
»  mere  qnevUon  of  oalovlation,  Hia  kit  important 
woAm  irm,  Otdeul  dt»  Fomc^ont  AnalfiSqu«$,  Traiit 
<Ut  FbruHon*,  (tod  Simintum  eIm  Bqwibon*  Nvmt- 
Ttquio.    L.  made  man;  other  importimt  inveatiga- 

larlf  in  astronomr — the  chief  aabjeote  of  whioh  we, 
the  problem  of  Three  Bodiet,  the  Long  Inequality 
of  Jnpitet  and  Satam,  the  moon'a  Secolar  Inequality, 
attraction  of  eUiperadL  pertnriiwtions  of  Jiqutera 
■ateUitea,  diminution  of  the  ealiptl<\  mutton  of  the 
elementa  at  the  planetary  orbiti,  &o. 

IiAQBIHO'SO,  an  Italian  term  need  in  Mano, 
o  ireeinng,  or  moumfnlly ;  aimilai  to  lamen- 
hich  II I  111  I— M   the  same,  bat  in  a  high* 

-"      '  '■ abonld  be  '^     ^  ^^--  '-- 

t  fzom  all 


Uk  OITATIU.    Bee  Odatra,  Li. 

ItA  GUJteONKlftBE,  Louia  Bthnkk  Abthdb, 
VlOOHTS  Vt,  a  conipionoua  French  politician  of  the 
present  centimr,  was  bom  inlSlSjOf  a  noblefamily 
of  Foitien.  He  first  attracted  notice  by  the  articles 
which  he  oontribnted  to  the  Avenir  2fali/>nal  of 
Limoges,  abont  I83S.  Snbeequently,  he  made  the 
acquaintance  ot  lAmartine,  whom  for  many  years 
he  regarded  both  aa  hia  political  and  litems 
master.  Ultimately,  he  came  to  a  mptnre  wiUi 
I^martine,  and  becune  an  ardent  Braapartist,  and 
after  the  eaup  tTfiat  (2d  December  18fil),  the  apolo- 
gist ik  that  audacioos  deed.  In  1SC3,  he  entered 
{be  Conndl  of  State.  La  O.  stood  so  well  in  the 
good  graces  of  the  late  JPrench  emperor,  that  his 
artioles  and  pamphlets  were  contidered  to  pomaa  a 
•emi-official  value.  In  1868,  he  went  aa  ambaasador 
to  Bmaaela,  and  afterward*  to  Conatantinopla.  On 
the  downfijl  of  tiie  em^«,  he  wm  imprisoned  for  a 
tim«h  He  died  Pee.  28,  187S.  Among  hii  moat 
noted  pnblioationi  *n—I!Bmp»reur  ^opotfon  ///. 


1,  an  important  trading- town  of  Fenia, 

_  ^oe  of  Ohilan,  ciooe  to  the  smthem 

shoK  of  tiie  Caspian  8ea,  Hurty  mila  east-sonth- 
eastofKeehd.   Pop.  wtimated  from  10,000  to  16,00a 

LAHir,  an  important  affluent  ot  the  Khine  {q.v.). 

tiAHOllB,  one  of  the  ohief  oitiee  of  the  Punjab, 
rtaoda  on  Uie  Ht  bank  of  the  Bavi,  the  middle  of 
the  five  riTer*  which  alTe  name  to  the  oonntiy  ;  lat. 
31°  36'  N„  long.  74*  21'  E.  It  ia  surrounded  by  a 
briek  wall,  formerly  twenty-flve  feet  high,  and  by 
fortification*  seven  miles  in  oircait.  In  the  north- 
west comer  of  the  city  stand  the  citadel,  the  great 
mncBzins,  and  military  workshops.  The  atreets 
are  narrow  and  gloomy,  the  biusars  well  furnished, 
bat  the  bouKe  in  genml  iutignificoat.     Within 

u 


__  1799,  Bonjeet 

Singh,  the  Sikh  prince,  became  ruler  of  Lahore; 
but  aa  he  choee  for  hia  headquarter*  Amritair,  a 
city  about  forty  mile*  to  the  east,  L.  became  mnch 
negleeted.  Sinee  1849,  the  epoch  of  the  Britiab 
ooD^aest  lA  the  Punjab^  L.,  which  is  now  the 
•drnmietratire  o*pital  td  the  province,  ha*  advanced 
in  prosperi^.  'ata  town  baa  for  the  most  part  a 
mean  and  ^oomy  appearance,  relieved  only  by  the 
Moaqne  ot  Aumngzebe,  the  tomb  of  Banjit  Sinh, 
and  the  Uognl  p^oe.  L,  ia  an  important  educa- 
il  cantrf^  having  in  it  the  Punjab  TTniveisity 
9ge,  the  Oriental  College,  the  Lahore  Govern' 
b  Collie,  and  a  medic^  school  (with  the  Mayo 
Hospital),  and  a  museum.  There  is  not  moch  com- 
merce ;  but  L.  i*  connected  by  rail  wiUi  most  parte 
of  the  province,  and  so  with  the  rest  of  India. 

LAHR,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Baden,  ntnatad 
on  the  Shutter,  an  affluent  of  the  Bhine,  08  Bile* 
Boath-*onth-we«t  of  C^lruhe.  It  ftasd*  in  a  rich 
and  beantiful  disbio^  and  caniM  cm  oonMderable 
manufactare*  of  linen  aod  woollen  cloth,  silk  rib- 
bons, leather,  and  tobacco.     Pop.  (1880)  930a 

liArBACH,  cr  LATBACH,  a  town  of  Autria, 
capital  of  the  crownland  of  Krain  or  Camiola,  Um 
in  an  extensive  plain  on  a  river  of  the  same  name^ 
fifty  milM  nortb-eHt  of  Trieste.  It  oontuns  » 
lyoeam,  gmnMinm,  and  other  ednoational  iiutitn- 
ezteiwtTe  tnndt-trade  with 
Trieste,  Fiume,  Grftb^  &&  It*  cott<m  mannfao- 
torei  and  angar-iefineriei  afibid  emplc^rment  to  a 
connderable  number  ot  its  inbabitaic^  To  the 
south-weat  of  the  town  is  the  Idubach  Morasa, 
which  formerly  vm  frequently  oovered  by  the 
swollen  waten  of  the  river.  It  is  opwarda  of  eighty 
square  milee  in  extent,  and  three-rourth*  of  it&ava 
been  brought  under  cultivation ;  tbe  remainder  afford* 
an  inexhaustible  supply  of  tiirt    FoptflSSO)  26,i^ 

Thi*  town  i*  famous  for  the  congrees  of  monarch* 
which  met  here  in  1S21.  The  pnrpoae  of  tlii* 
c<agR**  waa  to  seonre  the  paaoe  of  Italy  against 
Carboskarim,  to  arrest  the  than  ianreaiing  prwrena 
of  revolution,  and  to  reatore  in  Napls*  and  Scily 
the  former  eondition  of  affair*.  The  rwolt  of  it  wa* 
the  pasdug  of  a  readutioB  astabliabiag  among  Euro- 
pean nation*  tbe  lisht  of  aimed  intenention  n  the 
affiurs  of  any  neighbouiing  state  wluoh  may  be 
troubled  with  faotiona.  In  thi*  oongreia  the  Briti*h 
miniater  refused  ts  take  park 

LA'IB,  tbe  name  ef  on^  vr,  nmre  probablj, 
two  Greek  ooortcaana,  celebrated  for  ertraonlinary 
beauty.  The  cMer  ia  believed  to  hare  beea  bom 
at  Corinth,  and  flonriahed' during  the  FelopoBBenan 
War.  She  was  isokoned  to  posaeas  the  moat  graoe- 
ful  figure  e<  any  woman  of  her  time  in  Oreeee,  but 
she  waa  oapridoTtB,  needy  of  money,  and  in  her  old 
age  became  a  tipper.— The  younger  appean  to 
bave  been  bom  in  Sioily,  but  came  to  Cormth  when 
still  a  child.  She  sat  aa  a  model  to  the  psdnter 
Apellea,  who  is  said  to  have  reoommended  her  to 

[opt  the  profession  ot  a  proBtitnte^  in  which  ^e 


'bad 


obtained  .. 

death  by  tome  Hiessalian 
made  leatons.    Both  of  theae 
erected  to  their  uenaty. 


1  had  tonplea 


i.CoogIc . 


>D  pcsaMW  wIn  do  not  balong  to  ths  Clorgy  (q.  t.). 
The  name  appaan  to  Iuts  origbuted  u  mAj  u 
ths  Sd  0.,  woen  the  idea  grew  up  that  the  raiest- 
hood  lomeA  aa  iatenoediate  olaai  brtweenCbruC 
mad  the  Chritrtiaa  oommiiiiitj.  Hie  iaflnenoe  which 
the  lait;  b«d  at  fint  •laroiMd  in  the  goTeramant  at 
the  church  giadnallj  deoUnsd  m  tb*  power  of  the 
hienrdiy  iiior«MBd,»nd  ahhwuh,  m  Irte  —  the  end 
of  the  91 0.,  CBHs  ooonr  in  wEioIi  learned  hk^nien 
taaght  pablioly  with  the  aj^miTftl  of  biahope,  stiU 
Uiia  liberty  wat  era  more  and  nion  nanowed, 
nntU  finallT,  in  S02,  a  nnod,  held  at  Koine  under 
the  biabop,  Synunachiu,  lorbada  laymen  to  Interfere 
in  any  way  in  the  ftSui*  of  the  chnroL  The 
Protestant  Churoh,  in  general,  maintain!  on  aorip- 
tural  ground*  the  oommon  and  equal  priesthood  of 
all  Chriituuu ;  fltUl,  aa  m* firing  a  vuiblB  diatinotioit 
of  offioe,  tiie  woida  Dontinne  in  Tsry  general  we,  the 
depth  of  the  diatmotion  implied  Tarying  with  the 
'chnrah'  Tiewi  of  thoae  emploving  thent.  Some 
vetT  atrial  ProtaataBti  are  careful  (O  wy  puniBter 
and  people,  instead  of  olerfCT  ""^  Uitj. 

LAKE  (Lat,  laau)  i>  a  portion  of  water  sur- 
rounded by  Uad.  There  are  (1)  iome  lake*  whioh 
neither  reoave  nor  emit  rtr 
by  apringB,  emit,  bat  da  not 
others  aa  the  Cmapian  and  Aral  Sana, 
but  have  no  Tiiibn  outlet ;  but  {4)  by  far  the  greater 
number  both  receive  and  omit  stre&nu.  Almoet  the 
whole  of  the  lakei  coming  nnder  the  third  claes 
are  aalt  or  brackiih ;  Lake  Tchad,  in  Afrioa,  being 
Ml  exception.     For  L^e  Dwellinge,  eee  Cbuikoois. 

LAKE  OF  THB  THOUSAND  ISLANDS,  an 
eipuurion  of  Uw  8t  I^wrenca  (q.  t.),  extaiida  about 
40  milea  below  the  north-eaat  end  ot  I«ka  Ontario. 
It  ie  well  w<athy  ot  it*  name,  being  taid  to  contain 
1700  ialeti^  the  largeat  mea*arinK  10  nulea  iiy  6. 
It  aepatatta  Upper  Canada  from  the  «tate  of  New 
York. 

LAKE  OF  THB  WOODS,  a  body  of  w«t« 
famooB  in  the  hi*tonr  of  the  intematdonat  boundary 
between  the  United  Statea  and  the  Hudaon'*  Bay 
Ccnnpaiiy'B  tarritoriea,  take*  ita  name  from  the  fact 
of  ita  being  atudded  with  wooded  ialands,  and  liea 
190  milM  weat-north-weet  of  Lake  SiiperiOT.  At  iti 
aouth-east  end,  it  reoelve*  the  Rainy  lUrer  from  the 
Rainy  Lake ;  and  at  its  north-weat  extremity,  it 
*euda  forth  the  Winnipeg  on  ita  course  to  Hndaon'* 
Bay.  According  to  the  treaty  which  closed  the 
War  of  Ind^nndeae^  it  waa  divided  br  a  central 
linn  between  Endaad  and  her  old  colonies.  It 
meaaure*  about  ^  juilei  round ;  and  ita  remoteet 
point  is  in  laL  49°  N.,  and  long.  95*  W, 

r.A»-K   SCHOOL,  the  nam«  with  whi^   the 


dose  of  laat  o.,"took  up  their  reeidence  in  the  Loki 
diabiot  of  Cumberland  and  Weatmoreland,  and 
wlia— thongh  widely  different  from  eSiOh  other  in 


•very  other  rB*peot — proteoeed  to 

of  poetical  inapuatioD  in  the  tia]|ilicity  of 

■atnre,  laucr  than  in  tbe  worka  of  then   pt«de- 
etSMt*  and  the  bahion  at  tiM  time&    The  e|Hthet, 


in  ptnot  of  law,  belong  to  the  owner  of 

the  land  which  aurronnda  Uieni ;  by  which  i*  meant 
not  only  the  watec  and  the  use  of  it,  but  the  aoil 
nnder  the  water.  Where  the  land  nrroanding  the 
l^e  belong!  to  different  owners,  each  has  prt/HA 
fade  the  right  to  uae  the  Wte  for  ordinary  purpoees, 
including  nflbing  or  boating  j  but  it  depends  on  how 
the  propertied  were  acquired,  whether  and  how  far 
this  general  rale  ai>pliae  to  any  particular  oaae. 


LAKBB,  colour*  pwpTed  by 

and    vegetable    ooloming   matta.,    

whioh  haa  a  remarkable  properly  of  mutina  with 
and  asparatiuir  tbeae  oolonn  from  their  aoKitioiM. 
Thoa,  3  we  take  the  coloured  nlntion  of  ooohineal, 
and  add  to  it  a  solution  of  alum,  the  alomin*  in 
the  alum  immediately  combines  i^th  tiie  Of^aiing 
matter,  and  the  reanlt  ii  a  pncipitats  whioh  ia 
carmine  or  Florentine  Lake. 

Bed  lake  ia  made  in  a  aimilar  '"*in'^  from  Braiil 
wood,  a  tittle  solution  of  tin  beiaa  added  to  heighten 
the  colour,  and  potaih  being  used  to  accelerate  the 
precipitation.  I«ke«  of  •eversl  ihadei  of  red  and 
porpfe  are  alao  niade  from  madder-roots,  the  quantity 
of  potoah  oaed  determining  the  proper  colour.  Two 
or  three  yellow  lakee  are  used,  the  monufactore  of 
whioh  ia  very  ainiilari  they  are  prepared  from 
yellow  beniea  or  from  orootto.  Almoit  every  known 
animal  orv^etable  colour  may  be  converted  Into  a 
laJct,  but  those  mentioned  are  the  only  ones  found 
practically  usefuL  Hiey  ore  chiefiy  employed  by 
ealico-printen  and  paper-atainen. 

IiAKBHmI,  in  Hindn  Mythology,  th*  name  of 
the  conaort  of  tiie  god  Viahu'a  (q.  *. ),  and  oonaidraed 
alio  to  be  hi*  female  or  omtive  energy.  Aoocvdisg 
to  ths   mjrstiaal  doctrine  of   the  wonhqiperB  M 

" '  'be  three   goddeaaea, 

II,  the  firat  represent- 


tJiJTd     Mm 

founded   ( 


ag,  the  Bi 


the  Bopsrionty  ol  Tiahn'a 
•-u  uwui  pods  of  the  Hudn  toiad — Btthml,  or 
Saraawaia,  being  generally  looked  upon  as  the 
energy  of  Brahmt,  and  Chau'dlkl,  BJoothm  name 
of  Surgi,  aa  the  ener^  of  Siva — is  later  thaa 
the  mifth,  relating  to  Li,  of  the  epic  period ;  for, 
Booording  to  the  Utter,  L.  is  the  goddess  of  Fortune 
and  of  Beauty,  and  arose  from  tiie  Goean  of  Milk 
when  it  was  churned  by  the  gods  to  prooore  the 
beverage  of  Immortality,  and  it  was  only  after 
this  wonderful  occurrence  that  she  became  the  wife 
of  Viahn'u.  When  she  emerged  from  the  agitated 
—'"-.sea,  one  text  of  the  Kfinlyan'a  relates,  'she 


waa  tepodng  on  «  lotos-flower,  endowed  with 
transoendent  beanty,  in  th*  Snt  bloom  of  yonth, 
her  body  covered  with  all  kind*  td  omuients,  and 

ited,  and  adored  hy  the  v 


marked  with' 

".    "   "     1  by  „        . 

also  called  Padmd  and  ffrl,  betook  hersalf 


ornaments,  i  ._ 
sign. ....  Thus  origin- 
rid,  the  godde**,  who  is 


bosom  of  Hari — i  a,,  Tiahn'u.'  A  curious  festdval 
ia  celebrated  in  honour  of  this  divinity  on  the  fifth 
lunar  day  ot  the  light  half  of  the  month  Hl^i^ 
(February),  when  she  is  identified  with  Soraawatl, 
the  conaort  of  Brahmi,  and  the  goddess  of  learn- 
ing. In  his  treatise  on  festiva]*,  a  great  modem 
anthority,  Raghunandana,  mentions,  on  the  faith 
of  a  work  called  SatMBoUara-ttaidtpa,  that  L  is  to 
be  worshipped  in  the  forenoon  of  that  dav  with 
flower*,  petfmnes,  rioe,  and  water;  that  due  bonon 
ii  to  be  ^d  to  inkstand  and  wnting-reed,  and  n . 
writing  to  be  done.  Wilson,  in  his  essay  on  ths 
Selifima  Fathait  of  iAs  Blndua  (works,  voL  i 
V.  188,  ff.),  adds  that,  on  ths  m<»nine  of  the  2_ 
Febraory,  'the  whole  of  ths  pen*  and  inkstands, 
and  the  Dooks,  if  not  too  numeroiui  and  bulky,  ore 
coUeoted,  the  oena  or  reeda  cleaned,  the  inkstand* 
scoured,  and  tiie  bo<^  wrapped  up  in  new  doth, 
are  arranged  npon  •  platform,  or  a  sheet,  and 
strewn  over  with  fowers  and  blades  of  young 
barley,  and  that  no  flowen  exoept  white  are  t  ~  '' 
offerra.  After  performing  the  neoessarv  rites  . 
all  the  membOT  of  tbe  family  assemUe  and  make 
their  prostrations-,  .the  books,  the  pena,  and  ink 
having  an  entire  holiday ;  and,  should  any  emei^ency 
require  a  written  oommanication  on  the  day  dedi- 
catwd  to  the  divinity  of  eoholarship,  it  is  done  with 

u...„„,GJogl|c 


LAiASDE-LAMAlSM. 
r  white  board.' 


ohall;  or  oharcaal  a 

In  diSerent  parts  of 

at  diffaraot  isuodi,  according  to  the  double  aapeot 

nnder  whioh  L.  ia  viewed  by  aer  wonhippenk    The 

fectiTal  in  the  month  Migli*  teeuii  onginaUy  to 

Itave  been  ft  venial  fewt,  nuu-kiag  the  oommenoe- 

ment  of  the  mmou  of  Bpring. 

LALAHDE,  JoaxpH  J£bA>is  LxTRisqAa  nx, 
an  eminent  French  aitrouomer,  wta  bom  at  Boarg, 
11th  July  1732.  He  devoted  him«e1{  with  bu(^ 
■ucoeaa  to  matbematica  and  aatrononiy,  that  the 
French  Academy  gent  him  to  Berlin  i 
detemuDe  the  moon's  parallax,  at  the  umu  time 
that  Lacaille  woa  sent  to  the  Ci^  of  Good  Hope. 
In  1752,  he  returned,  and  was  appointed  one  of 
the  utronomera-royal  ;  and  in  1761,  Bucceeded 
LemoDDier  in  the  professonhip  of  astronomy  in 
the  College  de  Fnoce,  His  lectttrei  had  a  rare 
attraotiveneat,  and  he  pnbhahed  leveral  aitron- 
omical  work*  of  a  popular  kind,  ai  well  as  works 
of  profound  sdence.  Hs  finally  filled  the  office 
of  Director  of  the  Paris  Observatory,  and  died 
4th  April  1804.  His  chatscter  was  marked  by 
extreme  vanity ;  but  no  one  haa  ever  equalled  him 
as  a  lecturer  on  aatronomy,  and  few  have  contributed 
more  to  the  general  prt^ittn  of  astronomical  soieaCe. 
Bis  principal  work  u  his  Traits  tTAilTOnoTnie 
(!  vols.  Pana,  1764 — a  new  and  augmented  edition 
in  4  vols.  Paris,  1771—1781).  He  also  publiahed 
minor  works  on  astronomy,  naviratioD,  Ac.,  and 
na  aceoont  of  his  travels  in  Italy  during  1766  and 
1766  (9  vols.  Paris,  1786). 

LALITA-VISTARA  U  the  name  of  one  of  the 
most  celehrat«d  works  of  Buddhistic  literature.  It 
contains  a  norratiTe  of  the  life  and  doctrine  of  the 
Buddha  S'&kyomuni  (see  Bdddha),  and  is  considered 
by  the  Buddhists  as  one  of  their  nioe  :^ef 
treating  of  Dharma, 
'■--  '  --■--IStitrM 

work  by  Bibu  BijendraTii  MLtra,  is 
publishing  under  the  aospices  of  the  Asiatic  Society 
of  Bengal  A  French  translation  from  the  Tibetan 
has  becQ  made  by  Ph.  Ed.  Fouoaux.  In  Chinese, 
there  ore  two  translations  of  iL  See  E.  Bumouf, 
Jnlroduelvm  A  VHMoire  dti  Buddhirme  ladien  (1844) ; 
and  W.  Wassiljew,  Der  Bwidhitmiu,  leiae  Dogrnai, 
Oachkhle  imd  lAleratvr  (St  Petersbui^,  1S60). 
IiALLY-TOLBSDALiConirtDl.  Supp.,VoLX 
luL'MA,  or  LLAMA  (.iucAenta  lavM),  a  most 
useful  South  American  quadruped  of  the  family 
Camdida.  It  is  doubtful  whether  it  ooght  to  be 
regarded  as  a  distinct  species,  or  as  a  ~  ' 

ticated  variety  of  the  Huanaca  (q.  v. 
general  .  i... ...  .»  i...  ■ 

the  only  beast  of  burden  used  , 
America  before  the  horse  and  ass  were  introduced  by 
Eumpeans.  It  is  still  much  used  in  this  capacity 
on  the  Andes,  the  peculiar  conformation  of  its  feet 
(see  AuouKNlA)  enabling  it  to  walk  securely  on 
slopes  too  rough  and  steep  for  any  other  ammaL 
The  working  of  many  of  the  silver  mines  of  the 
Andes  could  scaicely  be  carried  on  but  for  the 
assistance  of  lamas.  The  burden  carried  by  the  L. 
•Iiould  not  exceed  125  poonds.  When  too  heavily 
loaded,  the  anitaal  lies  down,  and  refuses  to  move, 
nor  will  either  ooaxing  or  severity  ovcrcmne  its 
resolution.  It  is  genendly  very  patient  and  docile. 
Its  rate  of  travelling  is  about  12  or  Id  miles  a 
day.  The  L.  is  about  three  feet  in  height  at  the 
shoulder,  has  a  longiah  neck,  and  carries  its  head 
elevated.  The  fem^es  are  smaller  and  less  strong 
than  the  malea,  which  alone  ate  nsed  for  carrying 
burdens.      The   colour  is  very  varions,  generally 


sponey,  ooaise,  and  not  of  a  very  agreeable  Savour. 
The  nair  or  wool  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  alpaca, 
but  is  used  for  similar  purposes ;  that  of  the  female 
is  finer  than  that  of  the  male.  The  L.  has  been 
introduced  with  the  alpaca  into  Auitralia ;  but  it 
is  only  for  steep  moontain  regions  that  it  seems  to 
be  adapted. 

LA'MAISM  (from  the  Tibetan  bLama,'  spiritua] 
teacher  or  lord)  is  the  name  of  the  religion  prevail- 
ing in  Tibet  and  Mongolia.  It  i«  Buddhism  (q.  v.) 
cormpled  by  S'ivaism  (see  SrvA),  and  by  Shamanism 
(q.  v.),  or  spirit-woiship.  As  ancient  Buddhism 
knows  of  no  worship  of  God,  but  merely  of  an  ador- 
ation of  saints,  the  latter  is  also  the  tooin  feature 
of  Lamaism.  The  emenoe  of  all  that  is  sacred 
is  comprised  by  this  religion  nnder  t^e  name  of 
dKoQ  mChhog  gSsum  (pronouaced  Konchogtam), 
which  consists  of  the  '  three  most  precious  jewels ' — 
viz., '  the  Buddha-jewel,'  the  '  doctrine- jewel,'  and 
'  the  priesthood-jeweL'  A  similar  triad  is  implied  by 
the  Uiree  Buddhistic  formuhe :  '  I  take  my  refuge 
in  Buddha ;  I  take  my  refuge  in  the  law  (or  doc- 
trine) ;  I  t^e  my  refuge  in  the  congregation  (of  the 
priests),'  but  it  did  not  obtain  the  same  dogmatio 
miportance  in  Buddhism  as  in  T^j^ijmium,  where  it  is 
looked  upon  as  a  kind  of  trinity,  representing  an 
essential  unity.  The  first  peisou  of  this  trimty  is 
the  Buddha  ;  but  he  is  not  t^e  creator,  or  the  origin 
of  the  universe  ;  as  in  Buddhism,  he  is  metely  the 
founder  of  the  doctrine,  the  highest  saint,  though 
endowed  with  all  tEie  qualities  of  supreme  wisdom, 
power,  virtue,  and  beauty,  which  ruse  him  beyond 
the  pale  of  ordinary  existence.  The  second  jewel, 
or  the  doctrine,  is  the  law  or  religion — that  which 
is,  as  it  were,  the  incarnation  of  the  Buddha,  bis 
actual  existence  after  he  had  disappeared  in  the 
Nirvina.  The  third  jewel,  or  the  prieethood,  is  the 
congr^ation  of  the  saints,  comprising  the  whole 
clergy,  the  incarnate  as  well  as  the  non-incamata 
representatives  of  the  various  Buddhistio  saints. 
The  latter  ooninrise  the  five  Dbyini-Buddhas,  or 
the  Buddhas  of  contemplation,  and,  besides,  all 
those  myriads  of  Bodhisattwaa,  Pratyeka-Buddhas, 
and  pious  men,  who  became  canonised  after  their 
death.  It  is  obvious  that  among  their  nomber  a 
portion  only  can  enjoy  practical  worsMp ;  but  the 
clergy,  as  the  visible  representative  of  the«e  saints, 
claim  and  receive  dne  nonu^  at  all  the  religious 
ceremonies.  Inferior  in  rank  to  these  SBinta  are 
the  gods  and  spirite,  the  former  chiefly  taken  from 
the  Pantheon  of  the  S'ivaits.  The  highest  i)ositioD 
amongst  these  is  occupied  hy  the  four  apirit-kings — 
viz.,  Indra  (q.  v.),  the  god  oE  the  firmament;  Yama, 
the  god  of  death  and  the  infernal  regions ;  Tamln- 
taka,  or  S'iva,  as  revenger  in  his  most  formidable 
shape  ;  and  VaUnwana,  or  the  god  of  wealth.  The 
worship  of  these  saints  and  gods  consists  chiefly  in 
the  reciting  of  prayers,  and  sacred  texts,  and  the 
intonation  of  hymns,  accompanied  with  a  kind  of 
music,  which  is  a  chaos  of  the  most  nnharmonions 
and  deafening  sounds  of  boms,  trumpets,  and  drums 
-' '-'-"  descriptions.    During  this  worship,  which 


■e  rows,  ocoording  to  their  rank  ;  and  on  apecisl 
days,  the  temples  and  altars  are  decorated  with 
.,_iboUcal  figuree,  while  ofleringa  of  tea,  flour, 
milk,  bntter,  and  others  of  a  similar  nature,  are 
made  by  the  worshippers ;  animal  sacrifices  or  offer- 
ings entailing  '^'P7  ^  ^^^  being  forbidden,  as  in 
the  Buddhistio  faith.     Lamaism  knows  especially 


(  ^nni^lp 


like  the  Buddhitts,  cdebrate  it 
the  victory  obtained  by  the  Buddha  S'&kyunuai,  over 
the  six  heretic  teocheis.  It  laeta  fifteen  dayc,  luid 
coDSitts  of  »  seriea  of  featts,  danoet,  iUuminstioiiB, 
imd  other  muufeetatioiis  of  joj ;  it  is,  in  short,  tlie 
Tibetan  canuT>L  The  MCond  featival,  probably 
the  oldeet  festiral  of  tlie  BaddMstio  CI  '  ' 
held  in  conunemoration  of  the  ooDcection  < 
nation  of  the  Buddhk,  and  marks 
tnent  of  sonimer.  The  third  is  the  toaier-fiiut, 
August  and  September,  marking  the  oonuneneemeQC 
of  autaimn.  Baptism  and  eonfirmation  are  the  two 
principal  aacramcnts  of  Iiomaism.  The  former  is 
odminiiterad  on  the  third  or  tenth  day  after  birth  ; 
tiie  latter,  generally  when  t^  child  can  walk  and 
speak.  The  marriage  ceremony  is  to  Tibetans  not 
B  religions,  but  n  cItu  act ;  neTerthelces,  the  Lamas 
know  how  to  turn  it  to  the  best  adrnntaffe,  as  it 
is  from  them  that  t^e  bridegroom  and  brido  hare 
to  leam  the  auspicious  day  when  it  should  be 
performed;  nor  do  they  fail  to  complete  the  act 
with  prayera  and  rites,  which  must  be  reapoadcd 
to  vritlt  hiaidsomB  presents.    A  similar  obserration 

S plies  to  the  funeral  ceremonjea  of  the  Tibetans. 
operJy  speaking,  there  are  none  requiring  the 
assistaace  of  the  cler^,  for  Lamaism  doei  not 
allow  the  interment  ol  the  dead.  Persons  distin- 
guished by  rank,  learning,  or  piety,  ore  burned  after 
uieir  death ;  but  the  general  mode  of  disposinj^  of 
dead  bodies  in  Tibet,  as  in  Mongolia,  is  that  of 
exposing  them  in  tho  open  ur,  to  be  devoured  by 
binls  and  beasts  of  pruy;  yet  it  is  the  I/ama  who 
must  be  present  at  the  moment  of  death,  in  order 


^ ,__, ^ f  body       .. 

soul,  to  calm  the  departed  spirit,  and  to  enable  him 
to  be  reborn  in  a  happy  eiisteuce.  He  must  deter- 
mine the  auspicious  <{ay  and  hour  when,  aod  the 
auspicious  place  where,  the  corpse  is  to  be  exposed. 
The  most  lucrative  paJ^  of  his  business,  however, 
is  the  masses  which  he  h^  to  perform,  until  the 
soul  ia  released  from  Yama,  the  infernal  judge,  and 
readytore-cnterintoitsnew  existence;  the  dootrina 
of  metempsychosis  being  the  same  in  this  reUgion 
as  in  BuddliiEm. 

One  of  tho  most  interesting  features  of  Lamaism 
is  the  organisstioil  of  its  hierarchy.  Its  summit 
i*  occnpiad  by  two  Lama  popes,  tho  one  called 
DaltU-iama,  L  e..  Ocean-priest,  or  priest  as  wide  as 
the  ocean— he  resides  at  Potala,  near  H'lasaa—the 
other  bearir^  the  titles  of  Ttaho-lama,  Bogda-tama, 
Ae.,  and  officially  called  Pan-chhen  Sin  po  chlie, 
literally,  '  the  right  reverend  great  teacher- jewel ' 
(L  0.,  precious  teacher);  ho  resides  in  the  convent 
at  bKra  Shiss  Lhun  po,  near  gShiss  Ea  rTse.  In 
theon-,  both  popes  have  the  same  rook  and  autho- 
rity, m  spirit^ial  as  well  as  in  temporal  matters ; 
but  as  the  Dalai-loma  possesses  a  much  larger 
territory  than  the  other,  he  is  in  reality  much  more 
powerfid.  Next  in  rank  are  the  KhuiviXua,  who 
may  be  compared  to  the  Eoman  Catholic  cardinals 
and  archbishops.  The  third  degree  is  that  of  the 
Kbubilghaim  or  Hobilghana — which  Mongol  name 
is  more  frequently  given  to  them  than  the  Tibetan 
title  Bjang  ehhui — a  translation  of  the  Sanscrit 
Bodhisattwa,  Thar  number  is  very  sreat.  These 
three  degrees  represent  the  clcr^  that  claims  to 
be  the  iDcamation  of  the  Buddhistio  saints.  The 
Dalai-kma  and  the  Pon-chhen  were  in  their  former 
lives  the  two  chief  disciples  of  the  ^reat  Lamaist 
refonner  bTsong  kha  pa,  who  was  an  moamation  of 
tiie  Bodhisattira  Amit&bha,  or,  oi  some  will  have 
■^  of  Uanjus'ii  and  Vajrapftn'i,  and  who  is  reputed 


tu  have  founded,  in  13G9  or  1357  of  tho  Christian 

era,  the  present  system  of  the  Lama  hierarchy.  The 
Khutuktus  were  in  their  prior  oxistences  other 
Buddhistio  samts  of  very  great  ronowa;  and  the 
KhubilghaiLB  are  those  retMrn  hosts  of  saintly 
patrons  whom  the  temples  and  conventa  of  Tjtm»i«»n 
possess  in  boimdlcss  numbers.  Up  to  the  end  of  last 
century,  the  clergy  of  these  vanons  danes  deter- 
mined the  choice  of  the  children  into  whose  bodies 
the  soula  of  their  departed  members  had  migrated. 
At  present,  however,  it  suema  that  the  emperor 
of  China  exercises  a  paramount  influence  on  the 
disoovery  of  those  transmigrations — or,  in  other 
words,  on  the  iillinc  up  of  cIt:Hcal  posts-— and  there 
eau  be  no  doubt  mat  his  iulluence  is  supreme  in 
the  case  of  determining  the  election  of  the  two 
highest  fiinctioDOriea  of  this  theocracy.  In  order  to 
ascertain  the  re-birth  of  a  departed  Lama,  varion* 
means  are  relied  upon.  Sometimes  the  deceased 
had,  before  his  death,  conHdentially  mentioned  to 
his  friends  whero  and  in  which  family  he  would 
re-appear,  or  his  will  contained  intimations  to  this 
effect.  In  most  instances,  however,  the  sacred 
book*  and  the  ofGcial  aatrolo^n  are  consulted  on 
the  subject;  and  if  the  Dalai-lama  dies,  it  is  th« 
duty  of  tbePan-chhen  to  intelpret  the  traditions  and 
oracles ;  whereas,  if  the  latter  dies,  the  Dalai-lama 
renders  him  the  same  service.  The  proclamation 
of  10  great  an  event,  however,  as  the  metempay- 
chosif  of  a  Dalai-lama  or  Pan-chhen  is  preceded 
by  a  close  examination  of  the  child  that  claims  to 
be  in  possession  of  the  soul  of  either  of  these 
personages.    The  reborn  arch-saint,  usually  a  boy 

four  or  five  yeara  old,  is  %< — '■  —  -'  --  '-  '^- 

vious  career;  books,  gorme .__ 

used   uid   not  nsad  by  the  deceased, 


menU,  and  other  artioli 


rlife. 


before  h 

his  answers  be,  they  do  not  yet  suffice.  Various 
httle  bells,  reqiured  at  the  duly  devotions  of  tha 
Lama,  are  put  before  the  boy,  to  select  that  which 
ho  did  use  when  he  was  the  Dalai-lama  or  Pan- 
chhen.  'But  where  is  my  own  favourite  bellt' 
the  child  eiolaimB,  after  having  searched  in  vain; 
and  this  question  is  perfectly  justified ;  for,  to 
test  the  veracity  of  the  reborn  samt,  this  particular 
bell  had  been  withheld  from  him-  Now,  however, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  Dnlai-lama  or  Paa- 
chhen  being  bodily  before  them :  the  believers  fall 
on  their  knees,  and  the  Lamas  who  soccessfully 
perfonned  aU  these  frauds  join  them  in  aunonucing 
the  momentous  fact 
Besides  these  three  classes  of  the  higher  clergy — 
ipresenting  the  incarnate  existences  of  departed 
samts,  and  chosen,  therefore,  without  reguni  to 
merit,  amongst  the  children  of  privileged  fsmilies — 
Lamaism  pceseases  a  lower  clergy,  which,  having  no 
claim  to  incarnate  holiness,  recruits  its  ranks  on 
the  principle  cJ  merit  and  theological  proficiency. 
It  has  four  orders  i  the  puptl  or  novice,  who  ent^ 
the  order  generally  in  nis  seventh  or  ninth  year; 
the  assistant  priest;  the  religious  mendicant;  ood 
the  teacher,  or  abbot.  To  these  may  be  added  two 
academical  or  theological  degrees,  and  also  two 
dignities,  conferred  by_  the  sovereign  Lamas  on  thc«e 
doctora  who  have  distinguished  themselves  by  extra- 
ordinary sanctity  or  learning.  All  the  members 
of  these  orders  mnit  make  the  vow  of  celibacy, 
and  by  far  the  grwitest  number  of  them  live  m 
convents.  A  Lamaist  convent.  dOon  pa,  consists 
of  a  temple,  which  forms  its  centre,  and  of  a  number 
of  buildings  connected  with  the  temple,  and  appro- 
priated to  tho  meeting- rooms,  the  library,  refectoiy, 
dwellings,  and  other  spiritiul  and  worldly  wants 
of  the  monks.  At  the  head  of  the  convent  is  a 
Ehubilghan,  or  an  abbot,  the  latter  being  sleeted  by 


'.CoogI' 


LAMABTIN— LAMAllTINE. 


orden  of  tnonka  uid  conTsntc,  TfB'Tini^'"  baa  like- 


i«iteD< 


...    bible  bean  the  ruune  of  bK<^  gjur 

(prononnood  KanjurV—i.  e.,  '  traniUUon  o(  the 
wordi,'  tciL,  of  the  Buddha.  It  eoDtaina  not  leaa 
than  1083  worlu,  which  in  Bonie  edition!  fill  102  to 
108  Toltime*  in  folio.  It  oonsista  of  the  following 
■ectiooi:  1.  'I>i(iia  (8«nBcrit,VinBya),  or  discipline; 
2,  Ska-  phjm  (8»QS.  Prajnipiraniitft),  or  philoeophy 
andmetaphTBicBi  3.  Phal  clJim  (Sana.  Buddhavata 
Sangha),  or  the  doctrine  of  the  Baddhas,  their 
incamationa,  kc  ;  i.  dKon  brTugn  (Snns.  Ratna- 
kCit'a),  or  the  collectioD  of  precious  thing*;  B.  mDo 
ttDe  (Sana.  8ntra),  or  the  collection  of  SAtns; 
6.  Mjang  'dan  (Sans.  Nirvftnn),  or  tlie  liberation 
from  worldly  paina ;  7.  rOjud  (Sana.  Tantraa),  or 
Incantationa,  Ac.  Besidea  this  maaa  of  worka,  there 
Is  a  veiy  voluminotia  collectioa,  the  bti  Tan  'gjur, 
or  the  tranalation  of  Uie  doctrine,  in  226  Tola,  in 
folio;  but  it  doee  not  leem  to  poasesa  canonical 
aathority. 

The  oldest  hiatoiy  of  LamuaiQ  is  shrouded  in 
darkneaa.  For  iti  growth  and  derelopment  under 
the  Mongol  and  Manjn  dynaatiea.  aee  the  article 
TfBET, — The  best  work  on  Lamaiam  ia  Die 
Lamaitdte  Sierarehie  uad  Kirche,  von  Karl 
I'HedritA  Kotpptn  (Berlin,  1859).  See  also  Hue, 
BomiattrM  (Tun  VoyoQt  dana  la  Tarlane,  Is  Tlbrt  tt 
la  Chine  (Paria,  1852) ;  and  Karl  Ritter's  BrdJainde 
(ToL  iv.). 

LAMATfTIN.    SeaMAifiTEB. 

LAUAROE,  Jujr  BaFnsn  Pibum  Antoins 
mt  MovKT,  Chitiubb  db,  a  most  diatingmahed 
Freneh  naturalist,  was  bora  of  a  nobis  family  at 
Barentin,  in  Ptcardj,  AuKUst  1,  1744  He  was 
intended  for  the  church,  but  preferred  the  army. 
An  accidental  injury,  which  placed  hia  life  in  danger, 
pnt  a  atop  to  thu  oareer,  and  he  became  a  banker's 
elerk.  Hie  drat  acientific  purauit  was  that  of 
meteorolcH^,  from  which  he  turned  to  botany,  and 
attemptedto  tntrodoce  a  new  sy«t«an  ot  clavdfioa- 
lion,  which  he  called  the  Analytical  8yat«in,  bat 
which  met  with  little  acceptance.  In  1778,  he 
published  hia  lion  JWinfaiw  (3  vola.),  which  was 
afterwards  made  the  basis  of  the  work  of  Itaoan- 
dolla.  Shortly  after,  he  was  appointed  botanist  to 
the  kini?.  and  tutor  to  the  son  of  Buffon,  with 
whom  he  visited  foreign  oonntriea,  and  inspected 
their  botanical  collections.  He  alao  oontnbuted 
many  botanical  article*  to  scientiSo  woAs.  After 
a  conaiderable  portion  of  his  life  had  been  spent  in 
the  earnest  study  of  botany,  L.  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  itoology,  and  in  179S  waa  made  professor 
of  the  natural  history  of  the  lower  elaases  of  ani- 
mals in  the  Jardia  rf«  Phnlet,  Ha  rendered  veiy 
important  services  to  this  branoh  of  scienoe.  Hia 
irrcatest  work  is  bis  Hiiloite  dm  Animaax  sona 
VertStra  (7  vols.  Paris,  1815—1824;  2d  edition 
by  Beahayes  and  Hilne-Edwards,  Paris,  1S30,  ftc). 
In  hia  PKH^taapiM  Zoologu[ae  (2  vols.  Paris,  1809), 
and  some  other  worka,  he  expounded  specnlative 
Tiews,  some  of  whiob,  in  new  shapee,  and  as  handled 
by  recent  natotaliarta,  have  profoundly  influenced 
modern  acience^  L  waa  one  of  the  first  to  set  forth 
the  theory  of  the  '  Variation  of  Species,'  which  was 
revived  by  Darwin,  uid  forms  such  an  important 
element  in  hia  theory  (aee  Darwikian  iBBOtir, 
in  Supp.,  Vol.  X.).  L.  died  QOth  December  1820, 
after  having  been  for  seventeen  yean  blind,  in  con- 
sequence M^small-poi. 

LA  MABMOBA,  Au^srao  Fbrhbro,  MARqtna 
DB,  an  Italian  general  and  atatesmtin,  bom  17th  Nov. 
ISOl     In  ISltt  he  entered  the  military  academy, 


where  he  received  the  grade  of  lientmuuit  in 
the  artilleT7,  previous  to  leaving  in  1823.  H« 
waa  speedily  promoted  to  be  adJutant-majM',  and 
directed  his  apodal  attention  te  the  improreinent 


of  the  private  aoldiera.  In  1831,  having  obtainad 
hia  captainoy,  ha  act  out  on  a  tonr  of  inq>aation  of 
the  great  military  eataUishment*  both  of  EuroiiB 
and  the  East.  In  IMA,  he  became  major,  and  tor 
hia  distinguished  ooaduct  in  the  national  war  of 
1848,  was  dsconted  with  tho  medal  of  tbIoot. 
The  services  he  then  rendered  the  Sardinian  army 
removed  from  the  mind  of  Charles  Albert  a  preju- 
dice which  his  worm  advooaoy  of  military  reform 
had  aroused  in  the  kinff.  In  1849,  be  entered  the 
cabinet  as  Minister  of  War,  and  notwithatandins  his 
sincere  leal  for  useful  reforma,  a  general  apint  of 
censure  waa  evoked  by  hia  vigoroua  efforta  to  displace 
from  the  Sardinian  ranks  the  Italian  refageea  who 
had  entered  the  regular  army.  In  186S,  he  withdrew 
from  the  ministry,  to  assume  the  command  of  the 
Sardinian  troops  in  the  Crimea,  and  at  the  oloee  of 
the  war  waa  invested  with  the  Order  of  the  Bath, 
and  the  Grand  CroM  of  the  Legion  of  Eononr,  and 
re-entered  the  ministry  in  hia  nirmar  capaci^.  He 
took  an  aotlve  part  in  the  war  of  186{^  by  whioh 
Lombardv  was  aoqnired  by  Italy;  in  1861  waa 
appointed  oommander-in-chief  of  the  Italian  army, 
and  in  1854  prime  minister.  In  the  campaign  against 
Austria  in  1860,  he  lost  the  battle  of  Custozaa^ 
Latterly  he  was  intrusted  with  several  diplomotio 
missions ;  and  his  aocount  of  the  secret  nagotiatioiu 
between  Prussia  and  Italy  incurred  the  oensore  tA 
Prince  Bismarck.  L.  M.  died  in  January  1878. 
LASIARTINE,  Alpronhk,  was  born  at  IiOoon, 

1  family  was   subjected  during 

TT '---tedprindpi"- 

at  iell  V. 
a  travelliag 


ormy,  which,  however,  he 
Italy  in  1818.  In  1820,  amieared  his  Mldilationt 
PolUqan.  The  success  of  this  work  helped  to  open 
up  for  hi-w  a  diplomatia  career.  He  waa  appointed 
aOaclit  to  the  French  embassy  at  Naples,  and  on  hia 
way  thither  married,  at  Chambery,  a  beautiful  and 
accomplished  English  lady.  Miss  Birch,  whom  ha 
had  met  the  year  before  in  the  valleya  of  Savoy, 
In  1S23  appeared  hia  NouvtSfg  MediiaHani,  and  in 
1824  he  became  eecretaiy  of  the  legation  at  Flor- 
ence. An  unlucky  expression  which  ~L.  hud  need, 
descriptive  of  the  Italians,  in  his  Dernitr  Chant  de 
Cliilde  Hartild  (18ZS),  led  to  a  dael  between  him 
and  Cdonel  Pcpt.  Though  L.  was  wounded,  the 
result,  luckily,  waa  not  serious.  In  1839  appeared 
the  collection  of  Harmonia  PoiHijita  el  ReUgietam 
In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy,  Aft«c  the  revolution  of  1830, 
having  failed  to  procure  a  seat  in  the  Chamber 
of  Depnties,  he  set  cut  in  1832  to  travel  in  tha 
East  The  death  of  his  only  dau^tn  threw  a 
gloom  over  this  period  of  nis  lite;  Receiving 
news,  when  at  Jerosaleni,  of  his  election  by  the 
constituency  of  Bergocs,  he  returned  to  Faiit 
Though  he  soon  became  a  noted  speaker  in  the 
Chamber,  he  still  vigorously  pursued  bis  literal^ 
studies.  In  1835,  he  publi^ed  an  aocount  of  his 
eastern  travels.  The  JZafcrpo/iAe  (Knmdins,  which 
originally  came  out  in  iouroals,  was,  ia  1847,  pub- 
lished complete  in  8  vols.  It  had  unqueationably 
much  influence  in  brioMog  abont  the  ravat  events 
of  the  following  year.  When  the  Revolntion  took 
place  in  February  1848,  L.  became  a  member  of  tbe 


i.LiOOglc 


LAMASOOL-LAMBERT. 


ProrwoDkl  OoremnieDt  mnd  Miniitet  of  Forugn 
ASlut,  tud  exercised  &  grekt  inflaeoce  over  Uie 
firrt  Buxnniaita  of  the  nev  rapublio.  Tea  depart- 
menta  elected  him  u  their  repreientiktive  in  the 
CooatitaBDt  Afoembly ;  ha  was  also  ohoeen  one  of 
the  &va  membera  of  the  Executive  Comnuuioii, 
and  enjoyed  for  eome  months  an  immenie  popn- 
larity ;  whilit  hia  apirited  and  patriotic  conduct,  in 
cruahing  the  mere  anarchic  inmireotioDB  of  the  16th 
April  ^tA  ISth  Mav,  must  be  regarded  as  having 
prevented  great  evu*.  Yet  this  was  one  of  the 
principal  cansaa  of  his  downfall ;  the  crowd  became 
enraged,  the  aaaemblj  hoitile,  and  the  supreme 
power  passed  for  &  brief  period  into  the  handa  of 
Cavaignao  (q.  v.).  Though  L.  was  nominated  for 
the  presidency,  Vat  few  votes  ^ere  recorded  in 
his  uvouT)  ana  the  coup  tTflat  ol  2d  December 
1351  Bent  himtwck  to  priTate  life.  From  that  time 
he  gave  bimaelf  almost  wholly  to  litenur  pursuita. 
His  Hiitory  iff  Utt  Stvobitioa  of  1848  had  appeared 
in  1849.  It  was  foUowed,  in  1S51— 1862,  by  his 
liMory  of  the  RatoraHon  of  If  anarchy  in  Frana  ; 
and  in  1854,  by  the  HiMtory  of  TuThty.  He  also 
contributed  UrgeW  to  saveral  jounulB.  In  1360,  he 
undertook  the  piiblioatluo  of  »  complete  edition  of 
bis  works,  revised  and  correoted  by  himself.  Ha 
Unished  this  labour  in  1S66.  The  edition  oonsiats 
of  41  vols.  In  1S6T  a  pension  was  granted  him  by 
the  government.    He  died  Maroh  1,  ISGft 

LAMASOOr*,  or  LAMB'S-WOOL,  an  old  Eng- 
lish  bever^e,  composed  of  ale  and  the  pulp  of 


LT  and  B] 


Them 


from  the  ancient  British  La  maa  abhal,  the  day  of 
apples,  beoanse  this  beverage  was  drunk  at  a  feast 
on  tile  apple-gatheriug  in  autamn. 

LAU^  CsAKun,  an  Ensliah  poet  and  essayiit, 
was  born  u  the  Temple,  onths  lOthFebruanr  177S, 
and  received  his  eaucatiou  at  Christ's  Hosmt^ 
where  he  had  Ck)Ieridga  for  a  school-fellow.  With 
Coleridge,  Wordsworft:,  Hunt,  Hazlitt,  and  other 
diEdinguished  mea  of  hia  time,  he  lived  in  affectionate 
intlm^iy.  In  179%  ho  became  a  clerk  in  ooe  of  the 
departments  of  the  India  House;  and  in  IS25  be 
was  allowed  to  retire  with  a  pension  wanted  by 
the  directors.  His  first  poems  ap[)eared  m  a  smaU 
volume,  in  whioh  venture  Coleridge  and  Lloyd 
were  lus  partners.  In  1801,  he  published  Jolia 
WoodvH,  a  drama,  in  which  he  looks  upon  man  and 
nature  with  the  eye  of  an  Elizabethan.  His  Etnay 
of  Elia  were  origiDoUy  published  in  the  London 
2fagazi7i4.  L.  was  nevermorried;  he  lived  with  an 
only  sister,  who  was  subject  to  insane  fits — in  one 
of  wbieli  she  killed  her  mother — and  for  whom  he 
cherished  the  tendereet  affection.  Ho  died  in 
London,  on  the  27th  December  _  1S34.  After  his 
death,  Mr  Juatice  Talfourd  published  two  volumes 
of  his  Letiert;  and  these,  in  1848,  he  supplemented 
by  the  Finai  UemoriaU,  in  which,  for  the  first  time, 
the  world  became  acquainted  witji  the  story  of  hie 

The  poems  of  L.  were  never  widely  read,  nor  are 
they  yet ;  his  rejratation  rests  entirely  upon  his 
oriboisms   and  bia  j6'«aj*      ""         -'>    '  '-- 

appended  to  his  Sprdmeti 


The  critical  remarks 


^  ,  while  his  Euay 

on  li«  Qeaivt  of  HogarlU  is  considered  by  many 
the  finest  critioil  paper  in  the  language.  In  the 
qualities  of  grace,  qu^ntness,  and  a  certain  tender- 
n^s  of  humour,  '  a  emile  on  tiie  lip,  and  a  tear 
in  the  eye,'  tie  Euayt  qf  Elia  are  unique ;  the 
author  is  refiected  in  them  with  all  his  whims,  his 
wit,  his  poetic  instinct,  his  chajity,  and  his  odd 
ways.     See  Ainger's  Lamb  (1&82). 

LAHBALLE,  Muiu  Tbebisa  Louisa  of  Savot- 
OiSMSAM,  PiUXOBS  ov,  *  viotim  of  the  French 


Revolution,  was  bom  at  Turin,  8th  September  1749, 
and  was  the  daughter  of  Prince  Xoois  Victor 
Amadou*  of  Corignao.  She  was  very  beautiftil  and 
amiable,  and  was  married,  in  1767,  to  Louis  AlcTan* 
dar  Joseph  Stanislaus  de  Bourbon,  Prince  of  Lam- 
boUe,  who  soon  after  died,  a  victim  of  debauchery. 
The  princess  became  the  intimate  friend  and  chosen 
companion  of  Marie  Antoinette.  At  the  time  of  the 
attempted  flight  of  the  king  and  queen,  she  songht 
refuge  in  England,  but  returned  to  them  in  Feb- 
ruary 1702.  After  the  events  of  the  10th  of  Angust, 
she  received  permission  to  share  the  captivity  of 
tlia  queen,  but  was  soon  separately  immured  (d 
the  prison  of  La  Force,  and  on  3d  September  was 
brought  before  the  tribunal,  and  commanded  to 
swear  thut  she  loved  liberty  and  eqnalltv,  and 
hated  the  king,  the  queen,  and  royalty.  '  The  finrt 
oath,'  she  replied,  'I  will  swear,  but  tne  rest  I  eou- 
not :  my  heart  rebels  against  it.'  Many  ot  those 
who  stood  by  were  atuiiins  that  sbe  should  noape, 
but  she  did  not  hear  the  advioos  whioh  thsr 
addressed  to  her.  'Let  modame  gol'  sud  the  presi- 
dent ;  and  at  this  signal  of  death  two  men  oooduotad 
her  to  the  door,  wbere  she  reouved  a  •troke  of  a 
sabre  on  the  back  U  her  head,  when  blood  •pontad 
up,  and  her  long  hair  fell  down.  On  Moeiidng  a 
second  stroke,  sbe  feU,  and  the  mniderer*  tors 
her  body  to  piece*,  ntooed  bsr  he»d  and  heart 
ujion  pikes,  and  brutally  paraded  them  befor*  the 
*■'"■'        '  >y»l  fstnily 


att«e,  

th«.    fm 

ranus         ■ 

flttt-  L^**- 
nding  ^"""•"-•'■''''^ 


ir^o,  '  a  great  deal  of  mystei 
mmtion  to  the  top,  whereon  v  ~ 
bom  Son  of  God  did  suffer,  ^ 

out  throe  streams  from  his  hands,  fee^  T-n.iw>.nf, 
and  sides.' 

ERT_,  JoHANif  HtrNBins,  a  philosopher 
and  mathematician,  was  bom  29th  Angnst  1728, 
at  Muhlhausen  in  TTpper  Alsace.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  poor  tailor ;  but  his  talents  and  applica- 
tion to  study  having  gained  him  friends,  tie  ob- 
tained  a  good  education,  and    mode   remarkable 


ithce,  and  gradually  rose,  till  Frederick  the 
G-reat,  in  1764,  summoned  him  to  Berlin,  and  made 
him  a  memljw  both  ot  the  Conncil  of  Architec- 
ture and  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Hs  died 
at  Berlin,  26th  September  1777,  leaving  behind  him 
the  renown  of  having  been  the  greatest  analyst  In 
mathematics,  lagio,  and  metaphysica  that  the  18th 
c  hod  produced.  He  was  the  first  to  lay  a  scien- 
tiSo  basis  for  the  meaanroment  of  the  intensify 
of  light,  in  his  Photomtria  (Augsb,  1760),  and  he 
disoovared  the  theory  of  the  s])eaking-tube.  In 
philosophy,  and  particularly  in  analytical  logio,  he 
■ODght  to  establish  an  accurate  system  by  bunging 
maUiunatics  f«  bear  upon  these  subjects,  in  his 
Neuet  Organon,  oder  OaUmken  iSier  liU  £rforgchung 
und  BesielruRg  da  Wahrea  (2  vols.  Leip.  1761).  Of 
bis  other  works,  we  may  mention  his  profound 
Kotmologitche  Bri^e  HUr  dii  EinricM-ung  de«  Wdi- 
baia  (Augsb.  1701),  and  his  oorreepondenco  with 
Kant. 

LAMBERT,  John,  an  English  parliamentary 
geoeral,  was  bom  at  Kirkby-Malhamdale,  in  York- 
shire, September  7,  1619,  and  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  war,  became  a  captajn  under  Fairfax.  He 
fought  at  Mortton  Moor,  at  Koseby,  in  Scotland, 
ana  at  Woroester,  but  did  not  acquire  importance 


D,a,t,.=o.,1^00gle 


LAMBETH— LAMENNAIS. 


tin  after  the  death  of  the  great  Protector,  when  he 
becamo  the  head  of  the  caMJ  of  tnalcontest  officers 
who  OTerthrov  the  feeble  Bdmiairtintton  of  Richard 
Cromwell  h.  wu  now  looked  upon  oi  the  leader 
of  the  Fifth  Monarchy  or  extreme  rcpublicui  pu^ ; 
mppreMed,  with  Donsidenkble  vigoitr,  the  royalist 
inaulreclJOD  in  Cheshire,  August  1659 ;  lud  ' — 
mouths  afterwards,  dismissing  the  remnant  ol 
Bump  Parliament,  Tirtually  governed  the  con 
along  with  his  officers  under  the  title  of  the  '  Com' 

his  daughter.  The  counterplot  of 
frustratwl  all  his  desigoa  ;  and  on  tbe  22d  of  A^ril 
he  was  taken  priBonor  by  a  Colonel  Ingoldsby,  tried 
in  1662,  and  banished  to  the  isle  of  Ouemsey,  where 
he  died  in  1692. 

LA'MBETH,  a  parKsmeiitary  borongh  of  Eog- 
land,  in  the  oounty  of  8nrm,  f  tntns  a  great  part  of 
the  aoath-WBiC  qoarter  ol  London.  It  had,  in 
1871,  a  pop.  of  lt79,048  ;  and  in  1381,  498,967. 
Ana,  89*0  Bcra&  Btaidsa  I^mbetii  Palace,  which 
baa  been  the  offiinal  reaidenoe  of  the  arahbishops 
of  Cantabury  for   w*etsl  centiiriea,   it    -—---— 

Avtler'a  Th«ati«,   the  site    of  the   onot    

Vanxball  Oaidens,  and  the  Surrey  Zoological  Gar- 
'  nu  two  members  to  the  Honaa  of 


LA'MBREQTJIN,  a  word  iised  in  Heraldry  in 
thne  acmsei :  1.  The  mantling  attached  to  '^'  - 
helmet,  and  lOpisMulcd  as  depending  over 
■hield  (see  MaKTUMd) ;  2.  A  Wreath  {q.  v.] ;  3.  The 
point  of  a  label    See  Lisel, 

LAMKS  LETTUCE.    See  Cobk  Sajiaj). 

LAMEfOO,  an  old  town  of  Portogal,  in  the 
provinM  ot  Beira,  ia  situated  amid  rocky  movo- 
taina  on  an  offliwnt  of  the  Dotffo,  about  three 
miloa  from  that  river,  and  forty-six  miles  east  of 
Oporto.  It  oontaina  a  Gothic  cathedral  and  a 
bishop's  palaoe ;  and  there  are  aiioi«nt  remain*, 
both  Boman  and  Moorish.     Pop.  9000. 

LAMEXLIBRASCHIATA,  a  claes  of  acephal- 
ous molluscs,  all  ot  which  linre  bival\-e  shells  (see 
BrvALViB),  and  which  respite  by  (pUa  in  the  form  ot 
Tascular  plates  of  niembnine  atbiched  to  the  inner 
surface  of  the  mantle.  Oyaterv,  cocklea,  nnd  inassels 
are  tamiliar  emmjilea.  The  adductor  mnscle,  which 
closes  the  shell,  is  single  in  some,  double  in  the 
peater  number.  More  important  dififcrencee  exist 
u  the  powers  ot  locomotion  possessed  by  some, 
and  demed  to  others.  Thus,  oysters  are  fixed  to 
one  spot  by  one  of  the  Talves  of  the  shell ;  but  most 
of  the  L.  have  the  power  of  morieg  by  swimming, 
leaping,  or  burrowing  in  sand,  sometimes  in  mora 
than  one  of  these  ways,  being  provided  for  this  pur- 
pose with  a  fleshy  muscnlar  organ  called  the  foot 
Some,  as  mnasels,  when  they  have  foiiod  a  suitable 
place,  fix  tbenuclvea  there  by  a  Byaiu  (q.  v.).  The 
moatlt  of  the  L.  is  jawleas  and  toothless,  and  all 
seem  to  depend  for  their  food  on  the  currents  of 
water  contmiuiUy  brought  by  ciliary  action  into 
the  mouth.  They  all  seem  more  or  less  sensible 
to  light,  and  aumcroos  small  red  spots  on  the 
edge  ot  the  mantle  ot  some  are  supposed  to  be 
eyes.  They  have  organs  of  hearing,  and  labial 
rhich  ate  suiiposcd  to  exercise  the  sense 


LAMELLICO'IINES,  n  very  uumeroos  family  of 
ooleoptenuB  insects,  of  the  section  Pentamem,  con- 
taining the  largest  of  the  beetles,  as  well  at  many 
Biiecies  remaricable  for  peculiar  cooforauLtions  ot. 
the  head  and  thorax.     The  three  last  jobts  ot  the 


antemue  are  flattened  into  lamelUe,  which  are  some- 
times disposed  like  the  leaves  of  a  fan,  sometimea  lUu 
teeth  of  a  comb.    Many  of  the  L.  feed  on  deoaying 


ooloun :  the  former,  black  or  brown.    The  lame  are 

■oft,  cylindrie*!,  with  six  small  lega,  and  the  body 
always  eorred.  Duns-beetlea,  stag-beetlei^  ooek- 
chafers,  ka.,  belong  to  uiis  family. 

LAMELLIRO'STRES,  in  the  system  of  Cnrier, 
a  large  group  ot  web-footed  birds  (Palmipeda),  dia- 
tinguiahcd  by  a  thick  bill  having  tooth-lite  lamtSa 
at  its  edges,  apparently  mora  for  the  purpose  of 
straining  watt^r  from  the  food  than  of  masticating  or 
comminuting  it.  The  Anatida  and  Mrrgidt  (ducks, 
swans,  geese,  goosanders  and  merganseis)  codJtiituto 
the  group  of  Lamellirostrea. 

I/AUSNITAfS,  Hiioura  Ffajoirt  Robsrt  de, 
»  celebrated  pohtico-religioos  writer  of  Franco  dur. 
ing  the  present  century,  waa  bom  of  a  family 
engaged  m  the  (hipping- trade  at  St  Malo,  June 
6,  1782.  With  the  exception  of  some  instruction 
in  Latin,  which  he  tBceived  from  his  elder  brotbor, 
L.  was,  owing  to  the  revolutionary  troubles,  almoet 
entirely  self-taught.  His  early  turn  of  thought  was 
strongly religi oils,  as  well  as  decidedly  literary;  and 
resisting  all  Ms  father's  efibits  to  fix  biii  in  com- 
mercial life,  he  inirsuod  a  literary  career,  and  in 
ISOT  received  on  appointment  as  teacher  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  college  of  his  native  town.  His  firnt 
work,  puhtistied  in  the  next  year,  Oi  lite  State  (^  the 
^hirdiiu  Frarux  during  the  18(A  Crntuiy,  is  wnttcn 
]  a  strain  of  high  orthodoxy,  and  directed  ngnJnst 
tho  inatetishstio  jiblloaoiiby  ot  the  18th  c,  its 
inflncoce  still  subsisting  iu  the  literature  of  his  own 
time  A  few  yeora  later — having  meanwhile  taken 
the  clerical  tonsure — he  produced,  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother,  a  treatise  On  tAe  Traditum  of 
tlie  Chvnh  on  (Ae  Imtitulion  of  B'ahopa,  which  arose 
out  of  the  conflict  of  Naiiolcon  witii  the  Holy  Bee 
as  to  the  aETairs  ot  the  church  in  France.  During 
the  Hundred  Daya,  he  Was  obbged  to  flee  to  Eoglant^ 
whera  he  was  rocoivcd  by  the  celebrated  Abbi 
Caron ;  and  on  his  return  to  Franco,  he  entered 
the  BemioaJ7  of  St  Sulpicc,  where  be  received 
priest's  orders  in  ISID.  A  year  atterwards,  he 
published  his  most  celebrated  work  on  the  side  of 
orthodoxy.  An  Euaij  on  Iniliferenct  bi  Edigion, 
which  is  a  work  of  exceeding  acutecess,  and  of 
great  learning  and  hrillioQcy.  In  this  work,  how- 
ever, he  pushes  the  claim  of  authority  to  such  a 
length,  and  mokes  oil  ressoning  resolve  itself  so 
completely  into  nathority,  that  even  those  who 
agreed  in  the  conclosiDn  at  which  he  arrived,  were  I 
not  surprised  at  f2ie  reooil  by  whioh,  Uiia  pi^o^e 


=  .,i^ooglc 


LAMENTATIONS  OF  JEREMIAH— LIMMEBQEIER. 


o(  Antliori^  onc«  abftudooed  in  hit  tfter-oonflict 
with  tiie  ohtiTch,  hia  mind  rnafaed  into  the  opposita 
extreme  of  utter  and  oulimited  luibeliai  The 
c^hrity  which  this  work  won  for  him  led  to  a 
dMigo  on  the  part  of  the  x'^pe,  Leo  XIL,  to  pro- 
mote L.  to  the  cardinalate.  Thia  design,  how- 
vrer,  was  afterwards  aboDdooed.  L.'s  political 
Tiewa,  fnim  the  firet  moment  of  the  Kestoratioii, 
bad  been  liberaL  Nevertheleas,  he  joined  himself 
to  a  powerful  and  active  section  of  the  moat  dis- 
tingntabed  members  of  the  royaliit  and  cbnroh 
party — Chateaubriand,  Do  Bonald,  Fraysainous,  and 
others,  the  organ  of  which  waa  a  journal  named 
the  Conta-vateitr,  and  afterwards  the  Ddaiteur, 
and  the  Drapeau  Blaae;  bat  he  rapidly  out- 
stripped the  TiewB  of  most  of  his  coUeagnea.  He 
waa  fined,  in  IS24,  for  a  work  On  lAa  Sdatkm 
tf  Rtiigion  and  Poiilia.  After  the  revolution  of 
1830,  while  he  adopted  in  its  fnlleat  sense  the 
doctrine  at  the  sovereignty  of  the  people,  he  con- 
tianed  a  lealons  adherent  of  the  faith  of  the 
t^nrch ;  and,  in  oonjnDction  with  a  number  of 
ardent  yoon^  friendH,  all  of  whom  snbseqaently 
rose  to  diitinotion  in  their  vaiiooa  lines — Mon- 
talembert,  Laeordnire,  Oerbet,  and  otbera — he 
eateblisheil  a  journal  called  L'Aoenir,  the  aim  of 
which  waa  to  reconcile  liberty  aod  t^tgion.  The 
doctrines  of  this  journal  on  the  separation  of 
dmrch  and  state  and  on  many  other  |)0pular 
topka,  gave  srave  oSeuce  to  the  oocieaiastLoal 
authorities.  They  were  cenaured  by  the  pope, 
Gr^ory  XVL,  in  1832;  and  L.,  in  obedience  to 
tlie  papal  aantence,  discontmned  his  joamal,  and 
pmfcaaed  his  future  submisuon  to  autAOrity ;  but 
from  thia  date  his  opinions  underwent  a  rapid 
chaaga,  and  in  a  work  which  he  published  in 
the  jear  1834,  and  which  obtained  an  immediate 
•ud  anprecedcntcd  popularity  in  France,  Farota 
<rua  CroilaiU,  proclami^  hia  complete  and  irrecon- 
tnlable  mptnre  with  the  church  of  which  he  had 
long  beeo  the  champon.  The  work  was  immedi- 
ately eondemoed  at  Some ;  but  it  passed  in  France 
through  innumerable  editions,  ana  was  translated 
into  lul  the  languages  of  Europe ;  and  the  author's 
reply  to  the  papal  coodemoation  was  in  a  stilt  more 
pointedly  agpeaaive  work,  in  1830,  entitled  A/dirt» 
de  Rome,  with  his  characteristia  impetuosity,  be 
now  throw  himself  into  the  arms  of  the  (mposite 
party.  His  snccegsiTe  publications,  Tht  Booh  of 
tAe  Peoj^  (1837),  Tlie  Cminlry  and  llie  Gonenanent 
(1S40),  On  Rdigion  (1841),  The  Guide  of  Oe  Firtt 
Ags  (1844),  A  VMCtfrom  Priton  (1846),  were  but  so 
many  new  utterances  of  the  most  extreme  demo- 
(Tatio  principles.  The  revolutioD  in  his  religious 
■entimentB  was  equally  decisive  and  complete ; 
ho  not  merely  ceased  to  be  a  liomanist,  but  even  a 
believer.  lu  his  last  illness,  he  declined  al!  religious 
ministrations;  and  at  his  death,  which  occurred 
Febmaiy  27,  1S&4,  he  gave  directions  that  his 
interment  should  not  be  marked  by  any  religious 
ceremony.  He  also  directed,  by  hia  will,  ^t  certain 
pwers  which  he  left  ready  for  nreea  should  be 
piiUMied  without  alteration ;  and  on  the  refusal 
of  hi*  niece  to  surrender  these  papers,  a  suit-at- 
law  was  institated,  which  terminated  in  an  order 
for  the  surrender  of  the  papers ;  and  his  Pcithamom 
Worht  werv  published  accordingly  in  1856—1859. 
lie  meet  elaborate  work  of  L.'s  Utter  period  i*  his 
Btqaine  iFme  PhUomphie  (4  vols.  1&40-18M). 

LAMENTATIONS  OF  JEREMIAH  (afegiOalA 
Edia ;  Ixx.  l^rinfti),  the  name  given  to  one  of  the 
eanonical  book*  of  the  Old  Testament,  containing 
lament*  over  the  desolation  of  the  land,  the  exile  ol 


closely  connected  in  r^ard  to  their  sabjeot-matter; 
but  oonsiderable  diversity  of  optnioa  exists  con- 
ceminz  their  artistic  relation  to  each  other.  Scone, 
as  Be  Wette,  Ewald,  and  Keil,  have  tried  to  shew 
that  they  are  really  parts  of  one  poem ;  others,  as 


party,  as  Lowth  and  Davidson, 
there  is  a  certain  pervading  hannooy  of  sentiment 
and  idea,  indicating,  probably,  that  they  were  com- 
posed by  the  poet-prophet  under  the  same  Condition 
of  religious  feeling.  The  structure  of  the  laments 
is  very  aitificiaL  Most  critic*  are  satiafied,  from 
internal  evidence,  that  the  tradition  wluoh  makei 
Jeremiah  their  author  is  worthy  of  credence,  and 
that  they  were  all  written  by  him  shortly  after  the 
destruction  of  JerusalenL 

LAMINAHIA.     See  TiNOLB. 
LAMINATION,  the  nimngement  of  rooks 

.  thin  layers  or  laminee,  the  conditioa  of  a  large 
promrtion  of  the  earth's  strata.  Shate  deponti 
exhibit  this  structure  very  plainly,  being  frequently 
easily  separable  into  the  thin  lamiDfe  in  which  they 
were  original^  depodted  Shale  is  the  fine  sediment 
that  settles  down  at  the  bottom  of  some  tranquil 
slightly  moving  water.  The  lamina  indicate 
interruption  in  the  supply  of  the  materials,  which 
may  have  been  occasioned  by  successive  tides,  by 
frequent  or  periodical  floods,  or  by  the  carrying 
medium  having  access  to  a  supply  of  different 
material,  passing,  e.  g.,  from  mud  to  sand,  and  back 
again  to  mud.  l^e  la m imp  of  the  brick.clay  depo- 
sits are  separated,  in  many  places,  by  the  finest 
sprinkling  of  aand,  which  is  almost  invisible  in 
the  vertical  sections.  The  layers  are  occasionally 
obvious,  from  their  being  of  different  shades  of 
colour,  often  produced  by  the  bleacbins;  of  the 
layera  when  they  were  deposited;  but  Gequeotly 
the  various  lamiiue  of  a  bed  ore  so  united,  and  the 
'wd  so  honiogeneous,  that  except  when  the  face  is 
jxposed  to  weathering,  the  laminated  (Iruolure  ia 
not  visible.  This  condition  seems  to  have  resulted 
from  the  shortness  of  the  intemiptions  in  the  depo- 
sit not  permitting  the  solidification  of  any  of  the 
layers  until  all  waa  deposited,  when  the  whole  set 
oohered  together  as  a  single  bed. 

LA'MMAS-DAT,  the  1st  of  August,  is  one  of 
._e  cross  quarter-days,  or  half-quarter  dayi^  m 
England.  On  this  day,  which  is  the  feast  of  St 
Peter  ad  Tiucula,  it  was  customary  in  early  times 
to  make  oSerings  of  the  first-fruits  of  the  liarveat, 
and  hence  the  least  took  the  name  of  Hlafmattt 
(Ang.-3^,  loaf-mass   or  loaf -festival),  aftwwarda 

rrupted  into  Lammas.      In  Scotland,  it  is  the 

actuie  with  farmers  to  pay  the  half  year's  rent 

le  at  Whitsunday  on  Lammas-day. 

Ll'MMEBOElBR  (OypaXiot  tarfartu*),  a  large 
bird  of  prey,  also  called  the  Beaaszd  VoimntE, 
Beaiuied  Griftin,  aod  Gibb-baolk.  It  is  the  only 
known  species  of  its  genus,  which  forms  a  connecting 
link  between  vultures  and  eagles,  although  commonly 
Talked  among  tbe  Vvllurida,  to  which  it  approaches 
roost  nearly.  The  full-grown  L.  is  of  a  shining 
brownish  bUck  on  the  upper  parts,  with  a  white 
stripe  along  the  shaft  of  each  feather ;  the  head  is 
whitiah,  with  black  strii>es  at  the  eyes;  the  neck 
ud  under-part  of  the  body  are  rusty  yellow.  It 
s  4  feet  high  when  sitting;  nearly  5  feet  long;  and 
from  9  to  10  feet  in  expanse  of  wing.  It  is  Tory 
bold  aod  rapacious,  swooping  down  on  hares,  lambs, 

^^ 
It  1 


■vCioegk 


LAMMEEM00R8— TAMPREY, 


Afriok,    and   will    i 


(Oypaitoi  barbaliu), 

r   high    aboTs    the    loftiest 


LAHMBRMOOltS,  a  nmgaof  low  billa  in  Scot 
land,  runniDg  in  an  aMt-north-eait  direction  for  one 
half  of  their  lengtli  on  the  boundaiy-line  tietween 

Eut  Lothina  unTBerwicliahire,  the  other  half  lying 
in  the  ■oulb'eaBteiii  comer  of  the  former  ooiuity, 
and  forming,  where  it  meeta  the  German  Ocaan,  a 
bold,  rocky,  and  dangerous  coaat.  The  L.  tend  0? 
tereral  minor  range*  eonthwarda  into  BerwiokBhira. 
The  higheat  BODUnib!  are  Lammnr  Law  (1728  feet) 
and  Spartleton  (1634  feet), 

LAMOBICIERB,  CHBnroFHS  LioH  LODn 
Jdohaitlt  SB,  a  Freacb  geaeial,  wai  bom  at 
Nantw,  6th  February  1800,  rtudied  at  the  Ecole 
Polftechniqne,  and  after  Uie  revolution  of  1830, 
went  to  Algeria  aa  ■  lieutenant  of  ong^eere.  In 
1833,  he  became  chief  of  the  I>attalion  of  Zuuavea ; 
In  1S3B,  lientenant-oolonel ;  and  in  1837,  colonel. 
He  partiimlarlj  diatingniBhed  bimiBli  at  the  siege 
of  Oonltantine.  la  1843,  he  woe  appointed  a 
general  of  diriiion ;  in  the  following  year,  com- 
mander of  the  L^on  of  Bononr^  and  in  184S, 
interim-soverDor  of  Algeria.  To  him  belongs  the 
glory  of  concluding  the  war  in  Africa,  where  he 


outbreak  of  the  revolutiOD  in  February  IMS,  he 
nearly  lost  hii  life  in  endeavouring  to  proclaim 
the  regency  of  the  Ducbese  of  Orleana.  In  Jnne 
1848,  he  commanded  the  attack  on  the  barrioadet, 
aud  quelled  the  anarchio  tomulta  of  the  Sodalista 
Ho  waa  war-miniitor  during  the  Kovcrmnant  of 
General  Cavaignao,  to  whoee  rapublioaa  party  ho 
afterwardi  aUsched  himself  in  the  Legialative 
Chamber ;  but  being  a  very  decided  opponent  of 
the  Bchemca  of  Louie  Nepoleoo^  he  wu  arreeted 
on  the  occasion  of  the  eoiip  iTitat  of  2d  December 
1661,  and  at  first  imprieoned  in  Ham,  bat  after- 
warde  convened  ottt  of  France  and  eet  at 
liberty.  During  his  exile,  which  he  epeat  in 
Qennany,  Belgium,  and  England,  the  gT«at  soldier 


became  devout,  at  his  conntirmen  phrase  it ;  and 
when  the  Italian  war  of  ihdependence  threatened 
the  safe^  of  the  pope,  L.  proceeded  to  IComs  in 
1860,  and  was  appointed  by  Pius  IX.  coimnander  of 
the  papal  troops.  He  was,  however,  compelled  to 
surrender  with  his  whole  force  to  the  Saidiniao 
general,  Cialdini,  at  Anoona.     He  died  Sept.  1865. 

IiAMF-BLAOK,  the  soot  jiroduoed  by  burning 
reain,  torpeutine,  piteb,  oil,  and  other  matters,  in 
snch  a  manner  that  large  voluniea  of  smoke  ara 
formed  and  collected  in  properly  arranged  reo^ 
taoles.  Lamp-bkck  is  the  coloanng  matter  of  bla<^ 
and  slste-coloored  painta. 

IdTge  quantitie*  of  this  pigment  are  made  in 
Germany  by  burning  the  rafnae  reiin  and  fragmenta 
of  fir  and  pine  trees.  The  combuetian  is  oairiad  on 
slowly,  and  the  dense  smoke  passes  ap  a  long  fine, 
at  the  top  of  which  is  a  large  hood  made  of  ooarae 
woollsn  cloth.  In  this  hooa  the  carbon  is  deposited 
rapidly  at  the  rate  of  twenty  to  thirty  poimds  an 
boor,  which  is  collected  by  lowmiag  tit*  uoth  hood, 
and  ih^ing  tt  oat,  In  Great  Stif  ' 
proceM  is  adopted ;  but  lot; 

rior  kind  are  also  ooUeotsd  .... 

arena ;  and  a  Mipetior  kind,  known  as  bonaMut,  if 
obtained  from  the  fluea  of  kilns  in  which  Ixmea  aM 
calcined  for  manure.  Sy  iwi-n'ng  lamp-black  in 
vanons  proporttona  with  white-IeM,  overy  gUMla* 
tion  of  colour,  from  jet  black  up  to  slate  andgrBV, 
can  be  easily  produced. 

LA'MPREY  [Fetnmyam),  a  genua  of  cartU- 
aginous  fishes,  Dermopteroos  (q.  v.),  and  having 
a  drcular  mouth  form^  for  sucking  Iqdotlomoii^. 
They  are  of  eel-like  form,  and  have  no  scalea.  The 
skeleton  is  very  soft  and  imperfect  The  toogos 
■eta  as  a  piaton  in  the  sucking  mouth,  which  i* 
armed  witK  numerous  bard  teeth,  or  tooth-like 
tubeiclM,  There  are  seren  roundish  eiU-oiificea 
on  each  aide;  the  German  name  is  Ifeuji-Avgai 
(Nine-eyes).  Lampreys  have  the  power  of  drawmg 
m  at  well  as  of  eipeUins  water  throngb  the 
gill-orificea,  and  thus  respiration  It  earned  on 
even  when  they  are  firmly  attached  to  some  object 
by  the  sucking  mouth.  Lampreys  often  attadi 
theroselvea  very  firmly  to  atones,  and  seem  to  real 


Oommon  lamprey  (P«t)i 


with  the  bodv  floating  in  the  water ;  tiiey  live  1» 
sacking  the  blood  of  nahea,  the  akina  of  wluch  their 
teeth  readily  pierce,  and  which  are  unable  to  sh^e 
than  oft  They  eat  alw  any  toft  animal  matter. 
The  species  are  nnmerouf,  and  are  widely  distri- 
buted in  the  Beaa  of  different  parts  of  the  world. 
Some  of  them  are  periodical  visitants  of  &esh  waters, 
as  the  CouHOH  L.  IF.  marimu),  foond  on  the  thorea 
and  in  the  rivers  of  most  parte  of  Europe>  It  eome- 
titnei  attains  a  length  of  more  than  tluee  feet,  and 
is  often  two  feet  long.  It  aaoends  rivers  tn  the  latter 
part  of  spring  or  begpiuiing  of   Bonimar,  f<a  tb* 


LAifFSKT—LAUFS. 


pm-poM  of  nAwning^  It  wu  himerly  In  the  higheet 
Mrt«am  for  Uis  table,  uid  it  is  an  old  cnitom  for  the 
oily  of  QloQceeter  to  present  a  L.  pie  umnally  to 
the  lOTeTeigTu  'Worcester  ie  also  fsmoits  for  ita  L. 
pies  and  potted  laiDjirefe.  In  SootUnd,  a  atrong 
PTBJudioe  eiista  againrt  the  lamprey. — The  h.  of 
North  America,  Bll£oagh  very  nmiUr,  is  Said  to  be  a 
distinct  Bpedeaji*.  jlmmoBnu*),— A  smaHeripeoies, 
the  ElTSB  L.  (A  fluviatUit),  often  c&Iled  the  LjUf- 
PRRN,  ia  very  abundant  in  some  of  the  rireni  of 
England,  at  certaio  seaeoni  of  the  year.  It  ti  seldom 
mora  than  16  or  18  inches  long,  bine  abore,  silvery 
whit«  beneath.  It  is  used  tor  piet,  U^  the  oom- 
mon  lamprey. — A  little  blood  thrown  into  water 
where  lampreys  are  supposed  to  be,  soon  attracts 
them  to  the  spot.  They  are  oaught  by  boskets  and 
other  traps,  like  eels.  They  are  very  tenaoioits  of  life, 
LriDg  for  days  in  a  damp  place,  out  of  the  water. 

IiAMPS  are  oontriTancea  in  which  to  bnm  any 
light-giving  material,  and  so  make  use  of  it*  illum- 
inatinc;  power.     The  most  primitive  lamps  were 

Cbauy  the  skulls  of  animals,  ia  which  fat  wu 
ned ;  and  certiun  sea-ihelli  formed  admirable 
lamps  for  those  to  whom  they  were  attainable. 
To  this  day,  there  may  occasionally  be  seen  sna- 
pended  in  the  cottages  of  Zetland,  sheila  of  the 'roar- 
ing bockie' (^itu  aniufuui;  sea  FvHtTS),  which  form, 
perhaps,  the  most  ancient  kind  of  lamp  in  existence. 
Wlien  pottery  and  metal  began  to  be  used,  the 
principle  of  these  natural  lamps  vas  for  a  long  time 
■  '     '  'it  'Egyptian,  Greek,  and 

e  cups  and 


it   from  the   older 


ns  of  the  Cbioese  least  of  lanterns,  by  speaking 
the  feast  of  lamps  at  Sals,  in  Egypt.  Such  lamps 
that  in  fig.  1  were  called  tuchna  by  the  Greeks,  and 
lucema  by  the  Itomans,  and  various  modiflcations  of 
the  form  are  froquantly  found  in  tho  ruins  of  Qreek 
and  Roman  cities ;  very  considerable  nambera  have 
been  obtained  from  the  excavations  of  'Dirsus  and 
of  Pompeii  and  Heroiilaneam.  The  principle  in 
all  is  tile  name.  At  first,  these  lacrrna  were  made 
of  unalaaed  pottery,  and  only  with  one  wick- 
hole ;  but  bettor  material  and  mora  elaborate  forms 
were  introduced,  and  their  light-giving  ™wer  was 
Increased  by  their  being  made  to  hold  teveral 
wicks,  from  two  to  twdvo.  The  wick  used  in  this 
lamp  was  gener^ly  made  of  flar-tow,  sometimes, 
however,  of  rashes  and  other  vegetable  fibres. 

Amongst  the  northern  nations  of  antiquity,  lamps 
were  in  nse,  but  the  difference  of  climate  neceeu- 
tatad  a  different  kind  of  lamp.  The  limpid  oils  of 
the  preaent  day  were  unknown  to  our  Celtic  and 
Saxon  forefathers ;  b««idea,  the  eold  winters  would 
have  solidified  them,  and  they  would  not  have 
been  drawn  np  by  the  wiek,  if  arran^  a*  in 
the  old  Koman  and  Qreek  luttma.  The  solid  fat 
of  varioos  animals  was  their  chief  illnminatine 
material,  except  on  the  sea-coiurt,  where  seal  and 
whale  oil  occaaionslly  helped  them.  Small  open 
stone  pots,  afterwanjs  exchanged  for  metal,  were 


used,  and  being  partly  filled  with  f^Bwe,  a  wick 
was  throst  down  through  tho  middits  and  being 
lighted,  connuned  the  fat  as  it  melted.  Stone  cop* 
of  this  kind  are  oooamonally  dug  np  in  Scotland 
and  elsewhere :  in  principle,  they  are  the  same 
■s  the  padelle,  osed  in  Italian  ijlnminationa,  and 
the  old  grease-pots,  which  formed  the  foot-liehts  of 
our  theatres  not  many  years  ainoe,  and  whidi  may 
Btm  oocosionally  be  seen  in  the  traveUing-shows 
at  country  fain.  The  Eoquimanx  form  square 
boita  of  soap-stone,  and  use  Uiem  in  the  same  way. 
No  great  imprevement  took  plaoe  in  the  oon- 
straction  of  lamps  ontil  the  beginning  of  the  prcMni 
century.  Tute  bad  been  shewn  in  the  designs,  but 
the  prmoiple  remained  the  same ;  a  wick  sucking  on 
oil  from  the  reeervoir  of  the  lajnp  to  soppl?  itseU 
during  oombuEtiou,  and  nothiog  more,  if  v 


another  EreDobman,  made  an  excellent  improvement 
on  the  lamp  by  applying  clock-work,  which  acts  by 
raising  the  aH  up  tubes  in  connection  with  the  wick, 
so  that  the  latter  is  kept  oootinuallv  aoaked.  If 
(ffoperly  managed,  thia  ia  perhaps  the  beat  of  oU 
oil-tamps,  as  it  will  keep  up  a  well  sustained  and 
brilliant  light  for  seven  or  eight  hours,  and  the  light 
rather  increases  than  otherwise  as  the  lamp  burns 
and  becomes  warmer,  thereby  randeiioE  the  oil  mora 


The  French  moderator  lamp  is  much  simpler,  and 

Spears  to  orereome  the  dil&oultias  of  t^e  case. 
le  body  of  this  lamp  consists  of  a  cvlinder  or 
barrel,  the  lower  part  of  whioh  contains  the  store  of 
oil.  On  the  top  of  the  oil  rests  a  piston,  which  is 
ocnstantl^  preaud  down  by  a  spiral  spring,  situated 
between  it  and  the  top  of  the  barrel  Through  tha 
piston  is  inserted  a  small  tube,  which  passes  up  to 
the  burner  at  the  top ;  and  the  pressure  of  the 
■pring  on  the  piston  causes  a  constant  stream  of  (h1 
to  rise  up  through  this  tube  and  feed  the  wick. 
What  ia  not  consumed  flows  over  the  burner,  and 
back  iutotha  barrel  above  tlie  piston.  It  ia  above 
the  piston  also  that  fresh  oil  ia  introduced.  'When 
the  piston  has  reached  the  bottom,  it  ia  wound  up 
again  by  a  rack  and  pinion,  and  a  vacuum  being  thna 
formed,  the  oil  above  it  la  forced  to  the  under  aide 
through  a  valve  kind  of  contrivance  round  its  edge. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  thia  machine  the  flow  of  oil 
will  be  greatest  when  the  piston  has  been  newly 
wound  up,  and  the  spring  is  at  its  greatest  tension. 
This  inequality  is  regulated,  or  modtraled — hence 
the  name  of  the  lamp — by  an  extremelj'  ingenion* 
contrivauce,  which  narrows  the  passage  for  the  oil 
U'hen  the  pressure  is  strongest. 

The  in^oduction  of  mineral  oils — known  under 
the  various  names  of  paraffin  oil,  petroleum,  kero- 
sene, naphtha,  shale  oi^  &a. — has  in  a  great  meaaore 
superseded  the  use  of  animal  and  vegetable  oils  for 
ligbtiDg  purposee.  The  great  recommendation  of 
the  former  is  their  cheapness.  One  great  dMcuIty 
with  the  mineral  oils  at  first  was  that,  without  care- 
ful preparation,  they  are  apt  to  give  off  inflammable 
vapours  at  a  low  temperature,  which  give  rise  to 
dangerous  explosions.  This  has  been  obviated  by 
processes  of  rectiGcation  which  get  rid  of  the  light^ 
and  more  volatile  ingredients.  An  oil  that  gives  off 
an  inSammabla  vapour  at  a  temperature  under  120* 
F.  can  hardly  be  considered  safe.  Paraffin  oil  from 
Boghead  co-J  will  not  form  an  explosive  mixture 
under  140"  F.  It  ia  illegal  to  store  or  issue  oil  form- 
ing au  infiammable  mixture  under  100°  F.  Another 
difficulty  was  to  moke  the  oil  bum  without  amoke. 
The  kind  of  lamp  found  to  effect  this  purpose  best 
w.ia  iutrodnecd  into  Great  Britain  from  Germany 


,,  Google 


LAMP-8HEU— LANAEKSHIRB. 


abont  ISSH,  and,  wilb  minor  improTementi,  tlia  form 
ii  atill  «dli«rad  to.  Hie  body  of  the  lamp  i>  >  glob- 
alar-BbAped  reaerroir  of  gltua  or  atoDsvare  for  the 
oil,  nioimt«d  on  e,  foot  or  pedestal ;  into  this  &  lintsa 
wick-boMer  is  screwed,  the  wick  being  raised  r- 
loirered  by  mcanB  of  &  rack  and  pinioiL  The  peci. 
liarity  of  the  porafSn  lamp  is  >  dome-shapea  cap 
sarrouTiding  the  vrick-tube,  and  having  aalit  rimning 
mcrosa  it,  through  which  the  Rune  issues.  A  lonf; 
glsaa  chimney  rests  on  a  ledee  or  gallery  aronnd  the 
tnse  of  the  cap ;  and  by  perloTBtions  in  the  brass  on 
^chamber  is  formed  below.  The  chimney  causes 
a  strong  draught  tbrongh  this  chamber,  and  the  cap 
or  dome  deflects  the  cnrrent  of  air,  and  makes  it 
impinge  against  the  flame  as  it  passes  through  the 
slit,  thos  prodocing  perfect  combns^on  and  a  white, 
i™;ii: — i.ir.i.4. — III — t  ._„w..    Tbe  demand  tor  these 


e  boainesB  oE  itself. 


eodaat 


oalo  of  them  forma  oi 


affin  Tamp  is  the  expense  and  annoyance  atteoi 
on  the  frequent  breakage  of  the  glass  chimney.  To 
obviate  this,  Rowatt  and  Son  of  Edinburgh  hare 
introdnced  their  patent  jlnucn/inic  (smakeleea)  lamp, 
which  diapensea  with  the  glass  chimney  altogether. 
Instead  of  it,  a  second  cap  or  dome  is  placed  over 
the  ordinary  one,  leaving  a  narrow  space  between 
the  two.  As  the  two  cones  got  hot,  a  powerful 
drangbt  is  created,  and  two  separate  currents  of  air 
are  directed  agunst  tbe  fiama,  one  by  the  lower 
cap,  as  in  the  ordinary  tamp,  and  the  other  from 
between  the  two  caps.  The  result  is  perfect  com- 
bustion, witbont  a  chimney.  A  large  glass  ^!obe 
is  used  to  protect  the  flame  from  currents  of  air,  as 
well  as  to  disperse  and  soften  the  light.  Such  a 
globe  is  also  often  used  with  the  ordinary  lamp  in 
addition  t«  the  chimney,  a  flaoee  for  supporting  it 
being  added  to  tbe  burner,    tig.  2  represents  the 


t  form  of  parafEn  lamp.     A  section  of  tbe 
is  represented  at  a.      The  double'domed 


ng.3. 

Mineral  oil  thus  bnmed  fumisbes  a  satisfactory 
li^t,  rivalling  gw  in  cheapness. 

LAMP-SHELL  ITertbralula),  a  ccnua  of  brachio- 
pO(lousiaollnscs(»eeB>ucnioroDA),navingadclicate 


she]],  of  which  one  of  the   volvea  is  larger 

more  oonvei  than  the  other,  prolonged  backwards 
into  a  kind  of  beak,  which  is  pierced  by  a  bole 
or  Cssure.  Internally,  tbcra  is  a  delicate  bony 
framework,  of  two  branches,  attached  to  the  dorsal 
voire,  by  which  the  amu  (see  BitACHioroDi)  aro 
supported.  This  is  called  tbe  loop,  and  ofton  by 
sheU'Colleotors  the  earriage-apriny.  It  is  well  seen 
in  many  fossil  Ttrtbralulit.  Xlio  recent  S]<ccica  are 
nuiaerous,  and  vciy  widely  distributed  from  tb« 
jKihir  to  the  tropical  seas ;  the  fossil  species  ore 
extremely  nnmerous. 
LAMPTRia  AMD  LAMPT'RID.iE.  See  Glow- 

LA'NAKK,  a  parUamentorf  and  municipal  boTKh 

and  market-town  of  Scotland  in  the  county  of  &« 
same  name,  is  situated  on  an  elevation  rising  from 
the  Clyde,  30  miles  south-west  of  EdinbuTBh.  lU 
antiquity  is  attested  by  the  fact,  tiiat  hero,  in  978, 
Kcnuetb  n.  assembled  a  parliament,  or  meeting 
oE  the  estates  of  the  realm.  Little  trade  is  here 
carried  on ;  but  the  town  derives  some  supjurt 
fram  the  numbers  attracted  to  this  district 
by  the  beauty  of  the  sceacry  in  the  vicini^.  I^ 
jtes  with  Hamilton  and  four  other  burghs  in 
idiog  a  member  to  parliaments  PopL  (1881) 
4908.  About  a  mile  to  the  south,  lies  the  manu- 
facturing vilbge  of  New  Lanark  (pop,  873),  oele. 
brated  as  the  scene  of  Robert  Owen's  experiment 
(1815 — 1827)  for  the  soeiaJ  improvement  of  the 
working,  ctaseea. 

LA'NARKSHIRE,  or  CLTDESD  ALE^  an  inland 
county  of  Scotland,  lies  west  of  the  shires  of  Ediu- 
burgb,  Linlithgow,  and  Peebles.  Its  length  is  62 
"'I"  '■"•'  width  34  miles.  Its  area  is  889  ai).  miles, 
acres,  and  its  valued  rental,  including  rail- 
ways, ftc,  in  1879-80  was  £2.103,681.  This  county 
is  subdivided  into  npper,  middle,  and  lower  wards. 
The  first  of  these  comprises  more  than  one-half  of 
the  county,  and  consists  in  a  great  measnre  of  hills 
and  moorish  ground ;  tbe  second  contains  about 
160,000  acres,  much  oE  which  is  Improfitablc;  the 
tliird,  which  contains  the  city  of  GIobeow,  is  nearly 
all  cultivated,  although  very  little  of  the  soil,  unless 
thnt  bordering  on  the  Clyde,  is  of  flrst  qnolity.     The 

E-inci|>nl  hills  are  the  Lowthers,  which  rise  in 
recn  Hill  to  the  height  of  2403  feet;  Tintock  U 
2350  feet  high.  In  tbe  upper  ward  is  tbe  village 
of  Leadhills,  1323  feet  above  sea-level.  This  county 
possessesgreat  mineral  wealth.  There  were  upwards 
of  450  pita  from  which  minerals  were  raised  in  ISSOi 
the  coal  raised  amounted  to  10,000,000  tons,  and 
the  ironstone  to  7ii7,O00  tons.  The  cotton,  flsjc, 
and  woollen  manufactureSi'which  are  very  extensive, 
and  constitute  one  of  the  most  important  sources  of 
wealth  in  the  country,  are  carried  on  in  and  aronnd 
Glasgow.  Tiia  county  is  watered  princiiwUy  by  the 
Clyde  Iq.  v,)  and  its  affluents.  L.  was  famous  for 
its  orcliards  as  early  as  the  time  of  the  Venerable 
Bede.  They  yielded,  early  in  tbe  present  century, 
as  much  as  £8000  yearly,  but  have  latterly  fallen 
olT;  and  the  ground  is  more  protitably  employed 
til  producing  gooseberries,  vegetables,  &c.,  for  the 
Glasgow  market.  The  climate  oE  L.  is  nioi!rt.  and 
in  many  of  the  lower  districts  mild  and  gcnisl,  but 
oEtcn  cold  and  boisterous  in  the  hiah  grounds.  It 
is  uot  in  general  well  suited  For  raising  gr.iin-crops  ; 
but  much  of  it  is  excellently  adapted  lor  the  rcannc 
of  stock  and  for  dairy  purjroses.  In  1381,  the  tot^ 
acreage  under  rotation  wns  347,777;  of  which  there 
were  3700  acres  of  wheat ;  C  J2  barley  ;  44,032  oati ; 
S3S2  acres  turnips ;  and  01127  acres  jiotatoca.  llie 
total  acreogs  uuder  corn  crops  was  60,975 ;  under 
green  crops,  19.573;  under  clover  and  grasses, 
S^,3C1 ;  Bad  under  permanent  pasture,  113,4iJ7.     Of 


»LiOOglc' 


LASCASniKE— L-iNCASTEK. 


live-tlock,    the    numbers   were — honei    aud   fori,) 
asriciiltural  pnrptnaB,  77o5 ;  cattle,  61,27(i ;  sheep, 
20S,G32 :   swine,  6796.     Beiidei   Glasgow,  L.  «od- 
titus  tbe  ro;nl  burgba  of  Lanark   (wtiich  is  the 
coQn^  toim)  and  Rutbei^len.  the  towna  of  Hamil- 
ton, Airdrie,  Coatbridge,  Wishaw,  Motherwell,  tc. 
L,  which  lor  parliamenttr;  purposes,  fills 
northern  and  a  southern  division,  sends  two 
Ura  to  parliament;  conetitnenoy  in  lSSl-82, 14,431. 
Fop.  (1671)  765,339;  (ISSIJ  004,405. 

LA'NOASHIBB,  a  county  of  England,  standing 
second  (after  York)  in  point  of  area,  and  first  in 
population  (Followed  by  Middlesex).     It  is  bounded 
on   the   E.  by  Yorkshire,  and  on  the  W.  by  the 
Irish  Seaj  on  tho  N.  by  Cumberland  and  Westmore- 
land, and  on  the  8.  by  Cheshire.     Area,  1,207,"~~ 
statute  acres,  or  1905  square  miles.     Pop.  at  .__ 
census  of  1S8I,  3,454,441.     Increase  in  ten  ye»rs, 
from  ISTl  to  18S1,  634,S4(J  souls.    The  gross  rental 
ot  the  connty  in  the  year   18S1   was   i:l9,243,m» 
(as   against  £24,872,555  for  Middlesex).    An   out- 
lying portion  of  the  conn^,  called  Fumeas,  whose 
frcatest  length  is  25  miles,  and  greatest  breadth 
S  miles,  is  separated  from  the  main  portion  by 
Morecambe    Biy.      The  larger    division   is  inter- 
SGcte<l  in  the  north  and  east  by  branohes  of  the  h" 
system  which  runs  soiithn-ard  through  the  oonnti< 
of  York  and  Derby,  while  Fnmesi  hsa  on  its  eastci 
border  the  Cumbrian  range.    Ton-nrds  the  coast  c 
tho  west  the  surtace  is   flat,  particularly  in   tl 
larger  division,   with   a.  curving  outline  and  lari 
stretches  ot  sand,  over  which  in  variova  places  tt 
be  extending  its  dnnimion.     Tho  chief 


Sea  by  estuaries  n 

cnmbe   Bay,   being   the    chief   i 

climate  is  raois^  but  ""■' 

the  upland  districts, 

part  in  the  flats.  Oats  and  potatoes  are  general 
crops;  wheat  also  grows  well  in  the  sonthcm 
divisiou.  Coal  is  the  chief  mineral  product  (the 
coal-tleld  being  estimated  at  400  square  miles  in 
extent);  lead  and  copper  also  occur,  and  iron  is 
plentiful  in  Fumess.  The  whole  sarfoca  is  covered 
with  a  net-work  of  canals  and  railways,  which 
connect  the  principal  mnnuCacturing  and  commercial 
centres.  See  MAUCKtsrttt,  Ltterpool,  Fatsron, 
Bl.ACKBtTftN',  tc  L.  is  famous  for  its  immense 
cotton  manufactories,  which  in  1379  numbered  2000, 
giving  emplovmcnt  to  370,000  peraoos.  The  other 
tertife  manufactures  are  likewise  of  considerable 
importance.  Tho  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  maohin- 
cry  ia  eitensively  carried  on ;  and  ship-building, 
sail-making,  and  kindred  trades  are  in  a  flourish- 
ing condition.  L.  returns  eight  tnembera  ta 
parliament  for  tha  county,  and  twenty-four  for 
boroughs  within  the  county.  The  district  o£ 
Fumess  presents  many  attractions  to  the  tonrist. 
On  its  north-eastern  border  stretches  the  bi^niitiful 
lake  Windermere,  westward  from  which  is  E.tsth- 
waits  Water ;  and  further  west,  Coniston  Lake,  and 
tho '  Old  Man  of  Coniston,'  with  a  height  of  2C33  feet 
In  the  peninsula  between  the  rivers  Dnddon  and 
Levon  IS  Fumess  Abbey,  a  noble  ruin,  the  effect 
of  which  is  enhanced  by  the  picturesque  beauty 
of  the  scenery  in  lio  vicinity.  The  abbey  was 
lonjided  by  Stephen,  Earl  of  Mortagne  or  Mortoil, 
and  afterwards  king  of  Enghmd  m  1127.  The 
church  is  287  feet  lone,  the  nave  70  feet  broad. 
In  the  township  of  WhiSey,  in  the  east  of  L.,  is  a 
very  old  church,  and  in  tie  churchyard  are  throe 
crosses,  apparently  of  Saxon  origin.  In  the  vicinity 
are  tiie  nuns  of  an  abbey  of  about  the  some  age  as 
FDmesa.  A  few  miles  from  WhoUey  is  the  Boman 
Catholic  college  of  Stooyhurat.     The  only  islands 


LA'KCAaTBR,  a  municipal  and  parliamontary 
borouf^h  and  seaport  ot  England,  capital  of  Lanca- 
shire, IS  picturesquely  situated  on  an  eminence  od 
tho  left  bank  ot  the  Lune,  near  the  month  of  that 
river,  and  230  miles  north- north -west  of  London. 
The  ancient  castle,  which  overlooks  the  town, 
is  now  nsed  as  a  county  jail  and  court-house.  Tha 
houses  are  bnilt  of  the  freestone  quarried  in  the 
vicinity,  and  though  the  streets  are  narrow,  the 
town  13  neat  and  well  built.  The  Lnne  is  hero 
crossed  by  a  bridge  of  five  arches,  luid  by  an  oque- 
duct  carrying  the  Lnneastot  Canal  acroM  the  river. 
The  town  contains  numerou  scientific,  benevo- 
lent,  and  educational  institntions.  There  is  some 
trade  in  coal  and  limestone.  The  chief  manufac- 
tures are  furniture,  cotton,  silk,  table-baize,  Ameri- 
can leather,  clotb,  and  cast-iron  work.  In  ISSO. 
584  vessels,  of  199,000  tons,  entered  and  cleared 
the  iwrt  L.  formerly  returned  two  memben  to 
parlianienti  but  was  disErancUisad  in  ISliT,  tor 
oorrupt  practical  at  elections.    Fop.  (1881)  20,734. 

LANCASTER  n  city  ot  Pcnnsylvnnia,  Uniteil 
States  of  America,  GS  mJes  (by  rait}  west  ot  Phila- 
delphia, on  the  Pennsylvania  Central  Hailway.   The 
Concstoga  river,  mode  navigable  by  dams  and  locks, 
^         ilies  it  with  ooal 


theatre,   15   chnrches,    Franklin    and    Manh 

College,  high-school,  3  daily  and  7  weekly  p^>erB, 
3  cotton  factories,  iron-foiindries,  fto.  It  ts  par- 
ticularly celebrated  for  the  manufacture  of  ri&es. 
Pop.  (1870)  20,233;  (1880)  25,7(!9. 

LANCASTKR,  Dccur  op.  U  is  a  duchy  and 
county  palatine  (see  Palatink)  of  England,  created 
by  royal  charter,  in  which  respect  it  (liflbrs  from 
Durham  and  CJltestcr.  Eilward  lit,,  on  tha  dctth  of 
Henry,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  eonfcrrad  tho  ducliy  on 
John  ot  Gaunt  and  his  heirs  for  ever.  Henry  IV,  and, 
during  the  Wars  of  tho  Itoaes,  Edward  IV.  both 
endeavoured  so  to  settle  the  duchy  that  it  should 
descend  to  the  heirs  of  their  body  apart  from  the 
— —  — ^d  continue  with  them  m  the  evcut  of 
ig  the  latter.  The  result  of  these  several 
attempts  has  been  the  praservation  ot  tho  duchy  as 
a  separate  possession  in  order  and  government,  but 
united  in  point  ot  inheritance.  The  revenues  of  the 
duohy  form  no  part  of  those  hereditary  revenues  in 
lien  of  which  the  Civil  List  |q.  v.]  was  granted.  The 
net  proceeds  are  paid  over  to  Uie  Privy  Purse,  and 
lolly  exempted  from  parliamentary  control,  except 
it  the  anniiaJ  account  for  receipt  and  expenditure 
presented.  The  county  palatine  forms  only  a 
portion  of  the  duchy,  which  includes  considerable 
estates  not  within  the  ooimty  palatine.  Ther«  ii  a 
chonocllor  of  the  duchy  (I  e.,  of  the  part  of  it  which 
does  not  lie  within  tho  county),  and  of  the  county 
palatine,  which  two  offices  are  generally  uniteX 
The  Duchy  Court  of  Lsncaatcr,  held  at  Westminster, 
and  presided  over  by  the  chancellor  ot  the  duchy,  or 
his  deputy,  exercises  jurisdiction  in  all  matters  of 
canity  relating  to  tha  lands  of  the  duchy.  Tha 
adminiattatiou  of  justice  has  recently  been  assimi- 
lated to  that  of  the  rest  of  England.  The  ofBca  of 
chancellor  is  a  political  appointment,  which  it  is  the 
practice  to  confer  on  a  statesman  of  eminence,  fre- 
quently a  member  ot  the  cabinet,  who  is  expected 
*"  devote  his  time  to  such  larger  questions  oocupyiug 
a  attention  of  government  as  do  not  tail  withiu 
other  de])artments.  Tho  emolnmeata  of  ths  office 
are  about  £000  per  annum.  By  17  and  18  Vict  o. 
12,  the  chancellor  of  the  duchy,  with  tha  two  lords 
iuatices  of  the  Court  of  Appeal,  form  the  Palatinate 
Court  ot  Appeal. 


,Coogl!i 


lANCASTEB— LANOEHS. 


LAKOABTEB,  8m  JAxn,  tha  first  ZnglUh 
naTJgator  wIlo  oommuided  a  fleet  bound  for  the 
East  iDdiea,  wiled  from  Plymouth,  IDth  April  1691. 
In  1600,  tha  newlj  conatitutal  Batt  India  Company 
intnuted  hini  with  tbeir  fint  expedition.  L.  having, 
in  the  ooojee  of  his  voyages,  collected  a  nmnber  of 
valoabla  docmnsnts  in  inpport  of  the  existence  of  a 
north-west  passage,  the  goTommeDt,  acting  on  bis 
kdvice,  sent  out  an  eipeditioa  to  attempt  to  dis- 
cover it.  Thsy  dircovered  a  strait  in  ^i'  N.  lat, 
which  was  named  b;  Baffin  Lancaslxr  Sovad,  in 
bononT  of  Lanoaster.  L.  was  created  a  baronet 
for  his  services,  and  died  in  1620.  The  hiatory  of 
bu  voyages  has  been  preserved  by  Eakluyt  and 
Foichaa* 

IiANOASTEB,  JomPH.  Sea  Bell,  Ain>a>w, 
and  MnTDAi  InsTBDonoM. 

LANOASTSB  QTJIS,  a  specie*  of  rifled  cannon, 
which  haa  been  partially  adopted  in  the  British 
aervioe.  When  the  great  dlflicnlty  of  rifling  heavy 
ordnance  to  an  extent  to  give  a  sufficient  rotary 
motion  to  the  projectile  became  apparent,  Mr  Lan- 
caster devised  «  plan  by  which  grooves  might  be 
dispenaed  with  altogether.     Insto^  of  a  strictly 


■  not  in  one  plan 


from  end  to  end  of  the 


ellipse.  The  ptojeotilea  ar&  of  oourae,  elliptdcal 
also  ;  donAt«d,  and  somewhat  pointed  in  front. 
When  the  shell  is  projected,  it  must  follow  the  twist 
Id  the  bore,  and  the  rotaiy  motion  thus  imparted 
is  retained  to  the  end  of  the  range.  The  effect  of 
this  will  be  explained  under  Riflbd  Abus.  Several 
Iiancasto'  gnns  were  employed  at  the  siege  of  Sebas- 
topol,  and  some  of  them  buret.  But  these  were 
•caroely  fair  specimeni,  being  service  Scinch  cuns 
(with  drcular  bore)  bored  id  Mr  Lancaster's  elCpti- 
cal  standard,  and  therefore  weakened.  The  wrooght- 
iroD  guns  on  his  special  model  have  given,  however, 
more  certain  reaulta.  The  special  advantage  claimed 
for  the  Lancaster  gun  is  that  it  foiila  less  than  any 
of  the  other  guns  in  rue.    See  ItsTLiD  Anna. 

LAIf  CASTER  HERALD,  one  of  the  six  henlds 
of  Eofitand,  nuking  aecoiid  in  [Hunt  of  senioritj. 
Hia  office  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Edward 
nL,  in  the  34th  rear  of  hii  reign,  when  be  created 
his  son,  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  ol  lAocaster.  Heniy 
tV.  nuied  Lancaster  to  the  dunitv  of  a  kias-at-arms. 
Edward  IV,,  after  reducing  bim  back  to  Uie  status 
of  a  herald,  abolished  his  office,  which  was  t«vived 
1^  Henry  VIL 

LAlfOABTEB  SOUSD,  a  western  inlet  of 
Boffin's  B«J^  in  lat.  74*  N.,  and  extanding  from 
60*  to  ST  W.  loni.    Though  this  opening  into  the 

Klar  ooean  was  mscoverea  bj  Baffin  himself,  m  far 
ok  as  1016,  yet   it  lay  virtually  neglected  for 
mora  than  200  yean.    At  length  Parry,  ia  1316, 

Eaabated  Uirouah  it  into  Barrow's  Stnit,  and, 
yoDd  it,  to  the  North  Geoi^iaa  Islands. 
LAirOE  differed  from  tptar  or  javelin  in  that  It 
was  not  intended  to  be  thrown,  bnt  to  be  thmst  at 
the  enemy  by  forae  of  band,  and  with  the  impetns 
•cqaired  by  speed,  and  thus  waa  moat  effeotive  in 
the  hands  of  a  mounted  soldier.  Henos  the  lanoe 
wot  tha  favourite  arm  wi^t  knights  for  commencing 
a  Dombat ;  it  was  of  tough  ash,  of  Donsiderable 
length,  weighted  at  tha  end,  and  held  not  far  from 
the  hitt    See  TouKHUmrr.     In  modem  warfare, 


the  lanoe  is  a  long  rod  of  tough  ash,  with 
iron  point,  and  nsaaUv  a  colonrvd  flag  near  it 
is  the  offensive  arm  of  LuiOKBS  (q.v.). 


able  organisation,  far  lowar  than  that  of  any  oQta 
vertebrate  anim^  oonnectine  oartilaranous  flghea 
both  with  molluscs  and  wiua  annelua.  A  few 
species  ara  known,  all  small;  one  of  them  {A.  loneeo- 
tatut),  the  first  which  wn*  discovered,  a  ikative  of 
the  coasts  of  Britain  and  of  Europe  generally.  It 
inhabits  banks  of  sand,  and  when  dug  up,  buries 
itself  again  in  the  aaad  with  wonderful  activi^.  It 
ia  at  the  utmost  sooroely  more  than  two  inches  in 
length,  very  much  oompressed,  tapering  to  a  point 
at  eaoh  extremity,  the  head  not  notably  distinct 
from  the  body.  It  is  silver;  white  and  seml-trons- 
parent ;  the  skin  destitute  of  scolea.    A  low  dorsal 


Lausalat  [A.  lanotolaliti) ; 
a,  mntb,  teea  from  belowi  b,  gvDenl  flgnre;  d,  hf<dd  bone, 

fin  eitenda  the  whole  length  of  the  bock.  The 
skeleton  is  merely  rudimentary,  the  spine  being 
represented  by  a  hbrous  sheath,  coiitainiug  a  grvA 
number  of  transverse  membranous  plates.  There  is 
no  vestige  of  a  skull,  or  any  enlargement  of  the 
spinal  oord  into  a  brain ;  nor  is  tha  L.  furnished 
with  organs  of  si^t  or  of  hearing.  The  mouth  is 
situated  beneath  that  part  of  tha  body  which  may 
be  regarded  as  the  hwd ;  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
cartilagiiious  ring,  in  several  pieoea,  each  of  which 

a'  Tea  off  a  ^elongation  to  support  cirri,  or  short 
amenta.  The  mouth  communicate  with  a  wide 
and  long  cavity,  which  contains  tha  organs  of  respir- 
ation, and  from  the  other  extremity  of  which  the 
alimentaiy  cauol  proceeds.  The  L.  does  not  eat  or 
swallow,  but  siuiply  imbibes  its  food,  olougwith  the 
water  which  suppUes  air  for  respiration.  The  intes- 
tine  it  slender  and  almost  straight ;  bnt  there  is 
a  very  long  ciocum.  _  The  walla  of  tie  respiratoiy 
cavity  and  the  intestine  ore  covered  interuolly  with 
vibcatile  cilia.  The  blood  is  colourless.  Instead  of 
a  heart,  there  are  several  elongated  blood-vessels, 
which  contract  successively  ;  and  at  the  oonvmence- 
ment  of  each  of  the  vessels  connected  with  the 
organ*  of  respiration  there  is  a  Uttlo  contractile  bulb. 
The  mnscnlar  system  accords  witji  that  of  tha 
higher  fishes. — tUm  very  anomalous  stmeturo  of  the 
L.  haa  led  to  the  supposition,  that  this  genus  may 
represent  a  family  or  OTder  once  more  numerous,  but 
belonging  nither  to  former  geologic  periods  than  to 
the  preaent 

LAKOELOT  OF  THE  LAKE,  one  of  the  heroes 
of  the  lasendary  story  of  King  Arthur  and  the  Round 
Table.    See  Abthitil 

LAKCBR9,  a  description  of  cavalrr  soldiers  who 
ore  armed  with  lances.  The  tvpe  and  perfection  of 
lancers  are  the  Russian  Cossacks,  whose  long  lances 
enable  them  to  combat  with  enemies  at  a  distanoe 
from  which  they  themselves  take  Uttle  barm.  The 
lancers  were  brought  into  European  notice  by  Napo. 
Icon,  who  greatly  relied  upon  some  Polish  resimentiL 
After  the  peace  of  1816,  the  arm  WM  adopt^  in  the 
English  service,  bnt  it  is  thought  by  many  that  the 
British  lancer  ha«  a  weapon  too  short  to  enable 
him  to  charge  on  infantry  square  with  any  ehanoe 
of  success.  The  regiments  armed  M  lancers  sr« 
enumerated  in  tbe  Bttksle  CaTjUbt. 


„  LiOQi^lc 


LANCET-WINDOW— LANDED  PROPERTY. 


IiANOBT-WINDOW,  a  dutow  window   with 
aontoly-poiatad  kroh  head.    Thi<  bma  wsi  muah 
med  in  BngUnd  and  Scotland  dtuing   the  eoily 
period   oi    Qothio    arohiteatura.      SeTet£l 
■—■ *"—  -"  fT«ijnantIf  grcmpad  togethe-  -" 


jfrwmdowft  a 


JM  to  prodacs  a  ploudng  ellfcct.  In  Scotland,  the 
ItUMt-irindoir  wu,  like  many  otiier  featuna  of 
Sooteh  Gothic,  retained  to  a  much  later  period  than 
is  England.  The  fig.  ahem  the  eacrt  window  of 
Olaaso*  Cathedral,  which  consiats  of  four  lancet- 
wii>£)wa  grouped  together. 

IiA'NOEWOOD,  a  wood  valuable  for  ita  great 
atrengOi  and  eUatidty.  It  ia  produced  by  the  email 
tret  OuaUeria  virgala  (natund  order  Arumaeta). 
Another  apeciea,  O.  limr\/olia,  yialda  the  wood  called 
Whita  LukcewoodL  Hie  latter  ia  not  much  uaed. 
L.  ia  of  great  ralne  to  coach-builden,  by  whom  it 
ia  uaed  (or  ahafta  and  oarriage-polea,  for  which  it  ii 
•apaciallj  fitted.  The  part  uaed  ia  the  main  trunk 
(»  tha  tree,  which  ia  very  atrught,  and  rorel;  more 
Uian  nine  inchea  in  diameter,  wi^i  the  bark  on.  It 
cornea  in  amall  goantitiea  from  the  West  Indies, 
chiefly,  howerer,  from  Jamaica 

LAlrCIA'NO  (the  Amda  or  Anxa  of  Pliny,  sub- 
Mqatntty  Aitdtmum),  a  town  of  South  Italy,  in 
the  novince  of  Chieti,  and  capital  of  tbe  diatriot, 
6  milea  fromUie  Adiiaae,  and  15  from  ChietL  Pop, 
(1881)  SSOa  Ita  preaenC  Bite  occapiee  three  hill  a,  of 
wluoh  the  two  most  adjaoeot  are  connected  by  an 
MMteait  bridge  of  great  aquare  blocka  of  etone,  on^- 
ally  dedicated  to  Diocletian.  Tbe  central  position 
of  thia  town  faToored  ita  being  (elected  aa  a  centre 
of  jndiaial  and  civil  administratioa  during  both  the 
Rjirnjn  and  Qothio  period*,  and  from  ita  extensive 
baffle,  it  obtained  the  title  ot  'The  Emporium 
of  Uia  FrentauL'  L.  poiaegsel  a  fine  cathedral, 
adorned  with  marbles  and  valuable  puntingi ;  con- 
tains  aeveral  large  foundries,  and  coiriea  on  manu- 
faotorea  of  linen  gooda  and  f  orioaceoaa  paitea. 

I^AirD,  TtTLis  M.    See  Tmx. 

H'KDAtr,  a  town  and  fortress  ot  Bavaria, 
in  the  diatriot  of  Ehenisb  Pfalz,  is  aituated  in  a 
beaatifol  region  on  the  Queich,  which  lilla  ita 
foaae  with  water,  twenty  miles  nortb-weit  of  Carla- 
mhe.  There  are  here  important  monufacturea  of 
tobacco.  The  population  in  1330  waa  8749.  L. 
haa  been  tbe  acene  of  important  events  daringevery 
great  war  since  the  IStb  century.  In  the^hirty 
Year**  War,  It  was  taken  eight  times  by  Swedes, 
Spaniard^  Imperialiats,  and  French.  In  1684,  it 
was   fortified    by   Yanbon,    nud   wm    considered 


until  taken,  in  1702,  by  the  imperioliata 
the  Markgraf  Lndwig  of  Baden. 
LAITD-CRAB,  the  popnlor  name  of  all  tboM 
species  of  Crab  (q.v.)  which  in  a  mature  state  ore 
not  aquatic  They  are  now  erected  into  a  family  or 
tribe,  and  divided  into  aeveral  genera.  The  apeciea 
are  nnmeroua,  and  all  inhabitant  of  warm  countries. 
They  very  much  resemble  the  common  eraba  ot  our 

by  gilLs,  and  yet  not  aqoatio,  some  of  them  inhabit- 
ing very  dry  places,  where  they  burrow  in  tbe  sand 
or  earth  ;  but  such  presence  of  moisture  ia  absolutely 
necessary  to  tbem  as  to  prevent  the  desiccation  of 
their  gilla.  Many,  and  probably  all  of  them,  deposit 
their  spawn  in  water,  for  which  purpoee  some  of 
them  annually  migrate  from  considerable  diatancea 
to  the  aea ;  but  there  ia  reason  to  auppose  that  aome 


Land-Crab  ((Tebuimut  matiimii]. 


deposit  their  apawn  in  freah  water.  The  Buck 
Crab,  or  Mocktaim  Ciub  {Oeeareina*  rurieola),  of 
the  West  Indies,  usually  reaidca  in  woods  and  on 
bills  at  a  distance  of  at  loast  one  mile,  often  two 
r  tlirce  miles  from  the  aea,  which,  however,  it 
egularly  visits  in  the  montha  of  April  and  May, 
when  immonse  numbers  may  be  seen  journeying 
together,  moving  atrniaht  on,  unless  obstacles  miiM 
■nsupemblB  impede  their  process.  Like  moat  of  the 
itber  species,  this  L.  ia  active  chiefly  duiing  the 
light ;  and  except  in  roiny  weather,  it  seldom  leave* 
ts  burrow  by  day.  It  feeds  chiefly  on  veretable 
food.  When  in  Benson,  it  ia  highly  esteflmed  for  the 
table,  as  some  ot  the  other  land-crabs  also  are ;  and 
I  spawn  or  roe,  which  before  being  deposited  forma 
bunch  BS  large  as  a  ben's  egg,  is  accounted  a 
delicacy. — A  L  of  Ceylon  (Ocypode)  la  so  trouble- 
on  account  of  tbe  burrows  which  it  makes  In 
ry  soil  of  the  equestrian  promenade  at  Colombo, 
men  are  kept  in  regular  employment  to  fill 
tbem  up. — Tbe  gmsa-londs  of  some  porta  of  India 
m  with  small  land-crabs,  which  feed  on  the 
grnsB  or  on  green  stalka  of  rice. 

LANDED  MEN,  JuBT  or.    In  Scotch  Law,  it  is 

a  privilege  belonging  to  a  landed  proprietor,  when 

tried  for  a  criminal  offence,  to  demand  a  jury  the 

ijority  of  whom  are  lauded  proprietora. 

LANDED  PROPERTY  ia  not  al^  but  rather 

..  popular  iihraaa,  to  denote  that  kind  of  property 

whicn  oonaists  Ot  freehold  estates  in  land,  or,  in 

itland,  heritable  estates.     A  person  may  have  a 

ire  chattel  interest  in  land,  such  as  a  lease  (though 

Scotlaod  even  that  is  heritable  estate),  and  tha 

landed   property  does  not  in   such  case  belong  to 

him,  bat  to  bis  landlord,  to  whom  and  whose  hoira 

the  land  descends  for  ever,  until  alienated.     Landed 

proper^  includes  houses  and  all  things  called  cor> 

poreal,  and  also  soma  incorporoal  rights  connected 

wiUi  land. 


j2iaiii^ 


,X;ooq1c 


LAHDBE— LANDLORD  AKD  TENANT. 


The  mrioni  irayB  in  which  this  importut  kind 
oF  propertT  is  held.  snd.  the  fonnimtieB  kttending 
its  transfer,  tm  treated  of  nuder  luch  heads  oa 
AixoDira,  Ftx,    Fbebhold,   Cofviioud,  Feopr- 

MBHT,  DBED,  FbV,   SaSINB,  CHARTER,  COXVBTAXCE, 
CONVBYAKCTNO,  SaLK,  TlTLE,  tc 

LANDER,  RiCHAKD,  the  discoTerar  of  tho  mouth 
of  the  Niger,  wiu  bom  in  ComwoU  in  ISOi,  tuid 
became  a  printer;  but  in  1S25  went  with  Captain 
L'lapperton,  na  his  aervant,  to  Africa,  and  accom- 
panied him  from  the  Bav  of  Beuin  to  S£koU>. 
jiierc  Clappertoa  died;  aod  L.,rotumin)(  to  England, 
piibliahed  a  jonmal  contaioing  an  account  of  the 
expedition,  giving  proof  of  sntSi  qiuililications,  that 
tho  Qritiah  government  intniated  to  him  the  proao- 
cutioD  of  further  rcBcandies  coucerning  tho  coune 
ot  tiie  Nii^er.  In  1830,  be  and  his  brother  John 
auccceded  in  proving?  that  tho  Quorra,  or  Niger,  falls 
hy  man7  months  mto  the  Bight  of  Bcuin.  The 
Lrothera  were,  however,  seized  by  the  negroes,  and. 
■old  to  B  slave-dealer,  but  being  broughl  to  Cape 
Fonnoco,  were  redeemed  by  the  master  of  a  Liver- 
pod  ship.  They  rotumod  to  England  in  June  1830, 
and  published  a  Joarnal  o/_  an  Expedilion  ta  Explore 
the  Count  and  Termination  of  <kt  Niger  (3  vols. 
Lend.  1332).  In  1S32,  they  nadertook  a  new  expe- 
dition to  the  Niger  in  an  iron  steam-boat,  and 
bought  ft  small  island  as  a  British  trading-station. 
In  1833,  lUchard  L,  with  a  few  companions,  made 
a  trading  excursion  in  the  delta  of  the  Niger ;  but 
they  were  aaaailed  by  the  natives,  and  L.  received 
a  wonnd,  of  wliich  be  died,  at  Fernando  Po,  27th 
January  1834.— JoEK  L,,  who  was  about  three 
yean  younger  than  his  brother  Richard,  was 
Tswocded  wim  on  appointment  in  the  Customs;  but 
died,  leth  November  1839,  from  the  effects  of  the 
African  climate. 

LANDES  (Ft.  heaths),  extensive  tracts  on  the 
coast  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  between  the  Gironds  and 
the  Pyrenees.  Few  districta  in  Europe  are  more 
descdate  and  nnproductive.  The  part  nearest  the 
is  more  so  than  that  which  lies  further  inland 
the  rivers  Adoiir  and  Midouze.  The  soil  is  in 
general  sandy,  sometimes  marshy,  mostly  covered 
with  nothing  better  than  heath  and  dwarf  shrubs, 
except  where  large  plantations  of  fir  and  cork  trees 
were  made  in  1789,  by  direction  of  the  minister 
Necker.  Only  a  few  more  fertile  spots  yield  cropa 
of  rye,  maito,  and  millet.  Tho  inhabitants,  who  are 
called  Parau,  Uve  in  scattered  viUiuee  of  wretched 
huts,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  L. :  they  are  of 
Qaacon  race,  very  poor  and  rade,  hut  active,  good- 
natured,  and  hospitable.  Thoy  very  generally  walk 
on  stilts  in  the  marshy  and  sandy  grounds-  They 
keep  bees,  swine,  and  sheep,  and  also  live  by  fishine 
and  hunting ;  and  have  begun  to  derive  much 
ndvantt^  bum  the  plantations,  in  which  they  find 
occupation  in  chorcool-buming,  cork-cutting,  and 
collecting  turpentine,  resin,  and  pitch.  They  also 
manntacture  lahott,  or  wooden  shoos.  The  sheep  of 
the  L  are  ot  a  very  wretched  breed,  with  coarse 

LANDES,  a  maritime  department  of  France,  and 
one  of  the  largest  and  moat  thinlv  peopled  in  the 
oonntry,  is  bounded  on  the  W.  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 
Area,3585sc].m.;  pop.  (1376)  303,508;  (1881)301.143. 
The  chief  river  is  the  Adour.  The  railway  from 
Bordeaux  to  Bayonne  psaaea  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  province  from  north  h>  south.  Of 
the  entire  area  of  the  department,  61,100  acres  ore 
in  vineyards,  and  aliont  10,000,000  gallons  of  wine 
are  produced  annually.  The  department  is  divided 
into  the  three  arrondissements,  Mont-do-Manan,  St 
Sever,  and  Dax.    Capital,  Mont-ds-Uaraan. 

LANDORATE,  or  LANDORAF.    SeeOiur. 


LANDLORD  AND  TENANT.  The  contnot 
by  which  the  owner  of  land  or  houses,  or  the  party 
entitled  to  the  cicluave  possession  thereof,  leta 
or  hires  this  exclusive  possession  to  another  for  a 
limited  time,  ia  generally  called  a  lease,  and  thereby 
the  relation  oi  landlord  and  tenant  is  createiL 
The  party  letting  is  called  the  landlord  or  lessor, 
and  the  party  takins  the  lease  is  colled  the  leasee 
or  tenant.  In  order  to  let  a  house,  the  con- 
tract need  not  be  in  writii^  unless  the  property 
is  let  for  mora  than  three  years ;  but  writing  is 
always  nseful,  especially  if  any  variation  is  made 
from  the  usn^  tenos.  In  Scotland  a  verbal  lease  is 
good  only  for  ooe  year.  If  nothing  is  said  as  to 
details  beyond  the  amount  of  rent,  and  the  length 
of  time  the  lease  is  to  last,  there  are  certain  ri^ta 
nnderatood  to  cust  as  between  landlord  and  tenant, 
of  which  the  most  important  in  England  are  as 
follows.  The  tenant,  if  not  on  sufferance,  has  a  right 
to  assign  or  sublet  the  property,  if  not  otherwise 
agreed,  but  he  still  remains  bound  for  the  rent, 
unless  the  landlord  accept  the  sub-tenant  in  the 

fJace.  As  a  general  rule,  the  tenant  is  primarily 
[able  to  bear  all  imperial  taxes  and  local  r»t«& 
Hence,  if  the  tenant  wishes  the  landlord  to  pay 
these,  or  any  of  them,  he  must  make  some  special 
agreement  to  that  effect,  for  the  only  rates  whidi  the 
landlord  is  bound  to  pay,  or  rather,  to  repoy  to  the 
tenant,  are  the  land-tax,  property-tax,  sewers-rate, 
one-half  the  cattle-pluue  rata,  and  the  whole  poor- 
rate  in  tenaneiee  less  ^an  three  months.  As  regard* 
repaira,  the  burden  of  repairs,  is,  at  common  law, 
thrown  on  the  tenant ;  and  Uierefora,  if  tho  land- 
lord is  to  repair,  he  must  be  bound  by  express  con- 
tract^ nnless  what  is  let  is  only  part  of  a  house. 
But  the  tenant  is  only  bound  for  ordinary  repairs, 
not  for  repairs  to  the  fabric  itself,  except  perhaps  in 
long  tenancies  for  years.  He  is  bound  to  nso  the 
premises  in  a  fair  and  reasonable  manner,  and  to 
^ve  them  at  the  end  of  the  term  in  much  the 
lame  condition,  making  allowance  for  tear  and  wear, 
ind  the  effects  of  tim&  The  landlord  docs  not 
mplicdly  warrant  the  bouse  to  be  reasonably  fit  for 
:iabitation.  Moreover,  if  the  landlord  agree  to  do 
repairs,  and  fail  to  do  them,  the  tenant  is  not 
mtitled  to  quit  on  that  account,  unless  there  is  an 
express  agreement  to  that  effect.  The  tenant  is 
bound  to  repair  the  fences.  The  Agricultural 
Holdings  Aot  of  1883  (sQpeneding  that  of  1876, 
and  extending,  with  some  differences  of  detail, 
to  Scotland)  gives  tho  tenant  a  right  to  oompenss- 
tion  for  improvements,  so  far  as  unexhausted.  The 
new  act  specifies  twenty-three  kinds  of  improve- 
ment ;  and  the  amount  of  oompensatton  depends 
t  on  the  sum  spent,  but  on  the  valas  of  the 
iprovement  to  incoming  tenant^oo  acconnt  being 
taken  ot  increased  value  dne  to  the  inherent  mo- 
bilities of  tho  soil  The  form-tenant  has  nov  a 
right  to  fixtures,  if  he  has  performed  his  obliga- 
tions under  the  lease,  a  year's  notice  being  necewary 
in  tenancies  from  year  to  year.  As  regards  game, 
the  tenant  has  a  right  to  shoot  the  game,  if  he  has 
a  game  licence,  unless  he  has  otherwise  snedaUy 
agreed  (see  Game)  ;  and  tmder  the  Ground  Game 
Act,  1830,  he  has  a  joint  inalienable  right  to  kill  hares 
and  rabbits,  under  certain  conditions.  The  tenant 
of  a  farm  has  no  right  to  the  mines  of  coal  or  other 
mineral,  unless  they  are  already  open.  If  nothing  is 
specially  agreed  as  to  the  time  of  payment  of 
rent,  it  is  due  only  at  the  end  of  each  year, 
there  is  usually  an  express  agreement  to  pay  quor 
terly  at  the  end  of  each  quarter  ;  Lady-day,  Marcli 
25;  Midsummer-day,  June  24;  Hichaehnaa-day, 
September  20;  and  Christmas- day,  December  23. 
Id  case  of  fire,  if  nothing  has  been  expressly  agreed, 
the  tenant  is  bonnd  to  go  on  paying  rent  at  if 

7T-, —  '^.oogle- 


h  year,  but 


LANDLORD  AND  TENANT-LANDON. 


the  faonae  actaally  ezigled ;  and  yet  therB  U  no 
meani  of  compeUing  the  landlord  t«  rebuild  the 
hons«,  aad  it  ia  not  evea  Kttled  whether  in  that 
case  the  tenant  can  get  quit  of  his  lease  b; 
offering  to  abandon  it  A  landlord  ie  privileocd 
kbore  all  other  oraditorv  as  to  the  107  in  whieh 
he  recover!  his  rant,  for  he  need  noti  lihe  other 
orediton,  go  t«  the  eipenie  and  delay  of  bringing 
tut  aotioii,  bat  he  can  make  a  diatreu  on  the 
premisea,  L  e.,  seize  at  once  ai  much  furniture  or 
goods  as  he  finds  there,  to  paj  the  rent  ia  oirear ; 
and  he  can  recover  aix  years'  rent  in  this  way.  And 
it  ia  immaterial  whether  the  goods  so  seized 
batons  to  the  tenant  or  not,  nnjess  the  goods 
are  those  of  a  lodger,  who  has  paid  his  rent 
Hence,  though  the  house  is  aublet  to  another 
tenant^  whose  goods  ara  there,  or  even  if  the  furni- 
ture is  hired,  snd  though  the  landlord  knew  this, 
yet  he  may  seize  it  aod  pay  himself  1  the  only 
exception  being  made  ia  favour  of  trade,  as  where 
the  good*  have  been  sent  to  a  tailor  or  -weaver  to 
be  made  up.  This  privilege  o£  distress,  however, 
caanotberBSortedtolJllafteTtherent  iedue.  Hence, 
if  the  tenant  is  bound  only  to  pay  hie  rent  at  the  end 
of  iha  year,  ho  may  on  the  lost  day  remove  all  his 
goods  and  furniture,  and  so  put  thembeyond  thereaoh 
of  the  landlord's  dlBtress.  On  the  other  hani!,  though 
the  landlord  cannot  distrain  till  after  tbe  rent  is 
due,  Itiit  it  may  bap|>en  that  the  tenant  may 
clandestinely  remove  -Qie  eoods,  the  rule  being,  at 
common  law,  that  if  once  the  floods  be  token  off  the 
premises,  the  landlord's  security  is  gone.  In  such 
cases,  the  landlord  is  entitled  by  an  eipresa  statute 
to  follow  the  goods  so  frandulently  removed  to 
avoid  a  distress,  provided  be  do  so  within  thirty 
days  ;  and  he  can  then  seize  them,  in  whose  haniu 
•oever  they  may  be,  as  if  they  were  still  on  bis 
premises.  The  landlord  cannot  break  open  the 
outer  door  of  the  house,  or  force  bis  way  in, 
tboush  he  may  use  stratagem  to  get  ia  peaceably. 
Another  advantage  a  landbrd  has  as  a  creditor  is, 
that  if  his  tenant  ia  indebted  to  third  parties,  who 
obtain  judgment  against  such  tenant,  and  put  an 
execution  in  the  house,  i.  e.,  seize,  under  the  authority 
of  the  judgment,  the  tenant's  goods,  or  if  the  tenant 
become  bankrupt,  the  landlord  is  entitled  to  be 
first  paid  out  of  the  proceeds  of  the  furniture  or 
goods,  one  year's  rent  if  in  arrear  j  if  there  is  more 
rent  due,  then  he  most  take  tlie  same  remedy  as 
other  creditors.  The  mode  of  terminatiug  a  lease 
ia  by  the  time  eipiring,  or  by  a  notice  to  quit  In 
the  ordinary  tenancies  of  houses  wiiich  are  called 
tenancies  from  year  to  year,  the  mle  is,  if  nothing 
is  agreed  to  the  contrary,  that  either  party  can  pat 
an  end  to  the  tenancy  by  giving  a  half-year's  notice 
at  such  a  time  that  the  lease  will  end  at  the  aame 
time  of  the  year  as  the  tenan^w  commenced.  Thus, 
if  the  tenant  entered  on  1st  May  ISHO,  then  he  can 
give  a  half-year's  notice  to  quit  on  lat  May  1881, 
1882,  or  any  aiibseqaflnt  year.  Sometimes  the 
parties  agree  that  only  a  qoarter's  notice  will 
suffice,  and  that  at  any  of  the  usual  quarter-days 
of  tbe  year.  Sometimea  tbe  tenant,  aiter  ^ving 
or  receiving  notice,  refuses  to  remove,  and  holds 
over ;  in  which  case,  if  the  landlord  choosee,  ho 
nay  accept  him,  and  thereby  the  tenancy  is 
renewed  bum  year  to  year ;  or  he  may  insist  on 
the  notice,  in  whieh  case  he  requires  to  bring  an 
action  of  ejectment  to  turn  the  tenant  out ;  nnd 
in  sach  cases,  the  landlord  is  entitled  to  demand 
double  rent  or  double  value,  unUl  he  gels  back  the 
poesession. 

In  Ireland,  the  Irish  Land  Act  of  1870  provides 
four  kinds  of  compensatioa  to  tenants— that  under 
Ulster  right  or  other  custom  legalised  by  (ha  act, 
that  tor  improvements,  that  for  unre-isonable  dis- 


turbance by  the  landlord,  and  that  for  money 
paid  for  good-wilL  (See  Tkn4nt  Kioht.)  Oreat 
changes  iu  the  relations  of  landlord  and  tenant 
were  made  by  the  Irish  Land  Act  of  ISSI.  Under 
this  act  a  Land  Court  (with  snb-oourts)  ia  apjK)inted, 
to  which  every  tenant  may  go  and  have  a  'judicial' 
mat  fixed  for  a  period  of  fitteen  yean ;  at  the  end 
of  wliich  time  ttie  tenant  may  again  apply  to  the 
Court.  During  the  fifteen  years,  the  tenant  cannot 
be  evicted  save  for  breach  of  certain  conditions 
or  non-payment  of  rent.  The  Commiaaion  is  em- 
powered to  purchase  estates  from  willing  landlords 
if  three-fourths  of  the  tenants  wish  to  buy,  and  may 
advance  three-fourths  of  the  purchase  money. 

In  Scotland,  the  law  on  the  subject  of  landlord 
and  tenant  differs  in  a  great  variety  of  detAils  ftom 
the  Uw  of  Enghuid  aa  above  stated.  There  ia  no 
implied  right  in  tbe  tenant  to  assign  and  snblet'an 
ordinary  lease  of  an  agricultural  subject ;  but  anb- 
letting  and  assigoiug  are  impUed  rights  of  the 
tenant  of  an  nrbaa  property  (except  perhau  some 
factories),  or  under  a  life-rent  lease  or  an  agnoultnral 
lease  of  extmordinary  length.  The  right  must  not 
be  used  so  aa  to  invert  tbe  use  of  the  subject  or  to 
leave  it  nnaccopied;  and  the  right  does  not  arise 
where  an   exclusive  privilege  is  let.     It  a  tenant 


let,  the  landlord  impliedly  warrants  that  it  ia  iu  _ 
lit  state  of  repair,  and  undertakes  to  keep  it  in 
tenantable  repair;  and  if  the  landlord  ia  exprasaly 
bound  to  repair,  the  tenant  may  either  do  the 
renaira  at  the  landlord's  expense,  or  retain  the  rent 
till  the  repairs  are  done  Usually,  the  landlord 
pnta  the  farm  buildings,  fences,  roadways,  Ac.,  In 
thorough  repair  at  entry  of  the  tenant,  who  is 
bound  to  leave  the  whole,  at  the  end  of  the  leas^ 
good  condition,  except  as  regards  deterioration 
m  ordinary  tear  and  wear.  The  tenant  has  no 
elsim  for  improvements,  unless  when  his  lease  is 
abruptly  terminated,  nor  can  he  take  away  vhat 
he  has  erected.  See  Lease.  The  tenant  of  a  farm 
is,  in  the  absence  of  special  agreement,  not  entitled 
to  the  game  (see  Oamb)  ;  but  under  the  Ground 
Game  Act,  1880,  he  has  a  joint  inalienable  right  to 
hares  and  rabbits.  Bent  is  payable  tnico  a  year, 
if  not  otherwise  agreed.  Id  cose  of  accidental 
fire,  tbe  tenant  is  no  longer  bound  to  pay  rent  if 
tho  destruction  is  complete,  and  otherwise  is  bound 
ily  pro  tanlo.  The  landlord  of  urban  aabjecta  has 
hypothec,  and  can  sequestrate  tho  tenant  s  goods, 
even  hired  furniture,  or  the  stock  in  a  shop,  or 
the  materials  and  machinery  in  a  factory,  for  rent 
_i,:-i.  :.  -urrent  but  not  yet  due.  But  the  land- 
ot  take  a  sub-tenant's  goods,  if  the  sub- 
tenant has  paid  tbe  rent  to  the  tenant.  The 
hypothec,  if  exercised  within  three  months  from 
the  term,  follows  tbe  goods  wherever  they  go, 
except  when  sold  in  ojien  market.  Agricaltnral 
hypothec  was  abolished  in  Scotland  by  the  act  43 
Vict.  0.  12.  Tbe  notice  to  quit,  or  warning,  is 
sufficient  if  given  forty  days  before  the  term  of 
removal  Unit  cannot  be  retained  for  an  unconatt- 
tuted  claim,  unless  based  on  an  express  obligation 
by  tho  landlord.  If  no  iioUce  is  given  forty  days 
before  the  termination  of  a  lease,  the  agreement  is  held 
to  be  renewed  for  another  year  by  tacit  relocation. 

IiANDON,  LrmiA  Elteabktb,  an  Enoliah 
poeteaa — better  known  by  her  initiola  L.  £  L.— 
was  bom  in  London  in  1802.  Her  childhood  was 
spent  in  the  house  of  a  relative  in  Hertfordshire. 
In  1820,  her  first  poems  appeared  in  the  Literary 
Qtaette,  and  attracted  considerable  attention.  On 
the  death  of  her  father,  she  devoted  her  entire 
attention  to  literature,  earning  both  fame  and  money. 
She  published  several  volumes  of  verse,  the   moat 


» Google 


LANDOB— LAin>8-0LAU8B8  AOT. 


widely  read  and  admired  of  which  wu  the  Impro- 
viMlnce,  and  tliTee  noTeli,  whioh  Itave  long  amce 
been  deeeHed  b;  tbo  world  of  readen.  On  tiie 
Tth  oE  June  1838,  ehe  nmniad  Qeorge  Maclean, 
^nire,  Qorernor  of  Cupe  Coaat  CuUe,  and  waa 
fonnd  dead  in  her  nev  bonae  on  the  IBth  OoCober 
IS39.  It  ia  DDderrtood  that  for  the  oUeriatioa  of 
apMDu,  with  which  ahe  wa«  oocuztmall;  visited, 
•ne  WM  in  the  habit  of  taking  mudl  doae*  of  pnuno 
acid,  and  her  death  U  luppaaed  to  biiTs  been  oaoied 
by  «a  OTerdoK.  There  ia  do  reason  to  lapposo 
ihat  her  death  wa«  other  than  occidental  In 
1841,  Mr  Laman  Blanohard  published  her  Lifa  and 
literary  Hanudni,  in  2  vols. 

Li  £.  L.  might  be  called  a  tort  of  female  Byron,  if 
Byron  had  wnttsn  nothing  bnt  the  Conair  and  Lara- 
derpoemiore  altogether  high  flown  and  romantia, 
but  they  hare  a  oeitain  muiieal  impiilsa  whioh  ia 
pleasing,  and  wUoh  gara  them  all  the  charm  th^ 


LANDOB,  WiLTitR  SivioB,  eao  of  Walter 
Laador  and  ol  Elizabeth  Savage,  waa  bom  at  Ipaley 
Coiui,  Warwickshire,  in  1779.  He  was  educated 
at  Ru^by,  and  at  Tnnity  Collie,  Olfon 
tba  onivenity  without  taking  a  degree, 
ceedsd  to  the  family  estates  on  the  death  of  his 
he  raised  a  body  of  men  »t  his 


Spain,  but  rencned  his  otmrnission  on  the  raetoro- 
tion  of  ^'^  ferdin 

Julia  ThuiSier  of  Bath.  After  hi*  matriagB,  he 
resided  drat  at  "Foui^  then  at  Florence,  where  he 
bought  an  estate.  Ha  Rnt  became  knawn  as  tl 
author  of  Cowil  Jviiaa,  which  was  followed  by 
poem  called  OAir.  In  1S20,  appeared  IdyUia 
Btroiea  (in  Latin),  and  in  1821—1820,  bis  /mo- 
ginaiy  Coantriatiomi  oj  Lilerary  ilea  and  Slaiet- 
nun  (S  vols.}.  L.  was  a  thorough  clasBicol  scholar, 
and  his  Oieek  and  Roman  dmracters  speak  as  we 
should  expect  the  ancient  heroes  to  have  spoken- 
He  is  greater  as  a  prose  writer  than  as  a  poet;  but, 
accoiwng  to  Emersou,  who  visited  him  in  1833, 
nature  meant  hir"  rather  for  action  than  for  litems 
tura.  '  He  has,'  says  Emerson,  '  an  Enoliah  appetite 
for  actioa  and  heroes.'  lu  1836,  he  pubuahcd 
LttitrM  of  a  CotixrvaHot ;  in  the  soma  year,  a  Satire 
on  SaliritU,  and  Admonilion  to  Ddructort;  in 
1837,  The  Pentamenm  and  Penlalogve;  in  1847,  T/te 
IleUtnici;  in  ISiS, /magi'iaru  Canvertalioru  qf  King 
Carlo  A&alo  and  Ihe  DudiOi  Bdgioioio  on  Uie 
AffaWt  and  Profp«i»  of  Italii;  in  1851,  Popery, 
ffrilith  and  Foreign;  in  1853,  Latt  Fruit ^ an  Old 
Trtt:  ia  1854,  LeIIer«  of  an  American,  ne  died  at 
Florence,  September  1364  His  Life  and  Workt 
were  published  in  i87(i  in  S  vols.,  tlie  lila  being  by 
John  Foater.     See  also  Calvin's  Landor  (1881). 


LANDOTJ'R,  a  sanitary  station  in  British  India, 
on  the  south  border  of  the  protected  state  of 
Onrhwal  (q.  v.),  at  an  elevation  of  7679  feet  above 
the  eea.  On  ascending  to  this  point  from  the 
plains,  the  thermometer  baa  lieen  known  to  fall 
from  90*  to  62*  F.  in  the  emirse  of  two  or  three 
hours.  Even  in  June,  the  tenperstare  rarely  rises 
to  SO* ;  while,  in  Jannary,  it  averages  only  aboat 
63*.  Much  has  been  done  to  render  the  place  avail- 
obis  for  invalids.  Barracks  have  been  ereoted,  a« 
also  a  poet-office,  a  church,  a  hospital,  a  hotel,  a ' 
libraiy,  and  manr  private  hoosee.  L  is  1028 
miles  to  the  nortn-west  <rf  Calcutta.  This  sani- 
tary station  is  oU  tha  raon  acceesibla  from  iU 
KDKiiai^  to  both  the  great  riven  of  the  neigh- 
orhooo,  the  Jatnna  ana  the  Oangee. 

LAM)-£AIL.    SeeCRAKC 


LA'NDSBERO,  a  town  of  Fmssio,  in  the  pr»- 
vinoe  of  Brandenburg,  is  situated  in  a  pleasant 
and  fmitful  dietriot  on  the  Warthe,  40  milea  norUi- 
east  of  Frankfort.  11b  oom  and  wool  maiksts  or* 
important;  """^^ing,  tanning,  dietilling,  and  "^n^^'Tlfr- 
malting aw earrledon.    Pop.  (188^23,612. 


IjANDBAILS,  in  point  of  Uw,  ore  proteotad  by 

the  game-laws  from  illeg^  trespaMece,  thon^  nM 
inoluded  in  the  deflniti^  of  '  guns.'    3ae  Quf^ 


out  groimds  in  order  to  beauty  and  pleasure, 
ma^  fairly  clium  to  be  reckoned  among  the  fine  arts. 
It  IS  chiefiy  practised  either  in  connectJoa  with  the 
residences  of  the  opulent,  or  in  the  pnbllo  parks  and 
pleaenro.gronQds  ot  cities.  The  happiest  results  are 
mdaed  obtained,  where  the  mere  porpoee  ot  pleasing 
is  not  too  mnch  obtruded  on  attention,  but  where  it 
is  seen  to  harmonise  with  some  other  dengn. 

Where  the  general  aspect  of  a  oount^  is  wild, 
and  bos  been  Tittle  modified  by  cultivation,  anolo- 
euros,  and  other  works  of  man,  those  scenes  are 
felt  to  be  most  pleasing  which  exhibit  his  progieea 
and  triumph.  Ttma,  when  pleasure-grounds  first 
began  to  be  hud  oat,  they  exhibited  omy  geometric 
forms;  and  alleys,  avenues,  and  parterres  did  not 
seem  artificial  enough  to  give  delight,  without 
buildings  of  various  kinds,  terraces,  moands,  artifi- 
cial hills,  lakes,  and  streams,  close-clipped  hedges, 
and  trees  or  ehnibs  trimmed  by  lopiartan  art  mto 
fantostio  shapes,  such  as  figures  of  animals,  vases, 
and  the  like.  The  art  of  the  topiariai  or  •pUaeher 
— dating  from  the  AuEustan  age  m  Rome^is  now  no 
longer  in  repute.  In  districts  ^ere  the  ecneral  scene 
exhibits  a  succession  of  rectangular  fiettb,  and  where 
everything  has  evidently  been  reduced  to  a  coodt. 
tion  subservient  to  utility,  a  greater  irregularity 
gives  pleasure,  and  the  eye  loves  to  reat  on  any 
portion  of  the  landscape  which  seems  to  exhibit 
the  original  beauties  of  nature.  The  landsoape- 
^irdener,  however,  must  not  attempt  an  exact  imi  ta- 


re water  is  within  view,  it  is  a  chief  object  of 
the  landscape-gardener  to  arrange  everything  so 
that  the  view  of  it  may  be  enjoyed  from  the 
windows  of  the  mansion,  or  from  the  principal  walits. 
Much  care  is  given  to  the  disposal  of  wood,  in 
masses,  groups,  and  dngle  trees.  Belts  and  clumps, 
which  wra«  much  in  vogue  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
18th  c,  are  now  comparatively  seldom  planted. 

The  style  of  landecape-canlening  in  whioh  regu- 
lar forms  prevail  is  cidled  the  Oeomelrie ;  and  lbs 
opposite  style,  fn>m  having  been  flist  extensively 
practised  in  England,  in  which  eoontry,  indeed,  it 
may  be  said  to  have  originated,  is  known  as  the 
ErtgliA.  On  the  continent  of  Europe,  a  pleasure- 
ground  laid  out  with  winding  and  irregular  walks, 
and  scattered  trees  or  groups  of  trees  and  shrubs,  ia 
called  an  BngUA  garden.  But  manf  of  the  conti- 
nental English  gardens  are  ratlier  oancaturet  of  the 

' Enghsh  style  than  iUustrstions  of  it. 

le  taste  of  the  present  age  rejects  the  grottoa, 
temples,  statues,  monuments,  fountains,  Jet»4'ean, 
Ate,  with  which  it  wo*  onoe  the  fashion  to  fill 
pleasure -grounds,  or  admits  only  t^  their  iparing 

In  the  laying  out  of  ETonnds,  wfaeUtsr  on  a  lam 
or  a  small  scale,  it  is  of  great  importance  that  &o 
trees  and  ahmbe  b«  well  chosen,  and  the  different 
kinds  well  grouped. 

IiA}n>S-CLAirSBS  ACT,  •  statute  paawd  b 


v;  Google 


LAND8BEB— LAND-TAX. 


1846,  MDtainiiig  a  cod«  of  Kgulatlona  gensnUly 
inaerted  in  »U  load  acts  when  ft  power  ia  givea  to 
take  ooEDpnlsorily  x  man's  land  for  the  poipokea  of 
pnblic  improvemeDta.  Aa  no  man  can  be  compelled 
otherwise  to  mU  hie  property,  a  atatatory  power  to 
compel  him  b  neixsaaiy  in  all  oasca  where  a  pnblic 
nndertaking,  such  as  a  railway,  harboor,  Ac., 
ratlBiree  it  A  atatnte,  8  Vict  o.  18,  aooor^Q|^y, 
with  tiia  above  title,  wu  passed  for  England,  and 
8  Viot.  c.  19  for  Bootluid,  each  oontoiniag  deteiled 
provisions  as  to  the  mode  of  settling  tlie  prlca  to  be 
given  in  inch  oases,  Ac 

LANDSEEB,  Sir  Edwik,  K.A.,  an  English 
painber,  son  of  John  LAadsset',  an  eminent  engraver, 
waa  born  in  London  in  1S02,  and  was  carefnlly 
trained  br  hia  father,  who  used  to  tahe  him  ant, 
wbsn  only  a  child,  to  Hampetead  Heath,  and 
aecnatom  him  to  sketch  animaJa  from  life.  The 
flret  woi^  of  L'fl  that  brouofat  him  prominently 

before  the   — "■ '" —  -i--^^-    .   -'-»■-.   . 

in   1819.  ,   .__     __„_   __    __ 

Oothard'  (1S19),  the  populari^  of  which  waa  veiy 
great.  The  ecene  of  levetsl  of  his  finest  piotorei  is 
mid  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland.  For  upwards  of 
thirty  yean,  every  London  exhibmon  has  witnessed 
bin  success.  In  1827  he  waa  elected  a  RA.,  and  in 
1860  be  was  knighted.  Among  ilia  most  celebrated 
achievements  are:   'The  Return  from  Deer-stalk- 


tha  Olden  Time,'  'The  Drover's  Departure,' 
turn  from  Hawking^'  'The  Old  Shepherd's  Chief 
Uonmer,' '  Dignih  and  Impndenotk' '  Peace,' '  War," 
•  Staff  at  Bay*  '  The  l>rive-^booting  Deer  on  the 
Pas^  'The  Random  Shot,"  'Night,'  'Morning,' 
'The  Children  of  the  MUt,"  'Saved,'  'Highland 
Nar«s,'  '  Deer-italking,' and  'Flood  in  theUiah- 
lands'  (IStil),  and  mora  recent];,  'Windsor  Faik,' 
'  Squirrds  cracking  Nuts,'  and  '  Man  proposes,  but 
Ood  disposes.'  L.  wasdectediavaidentof  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1666,  but  declined  the  honour.  Ha 
died  Oct.  1,  1873.  L.  is  reckoned  the  most  inperb 
animal-painter  of  hia  time.— L.  bad  two  elder 
brothers  also  artists :  Thomaa,  one  of  the  beet 
en^rers  of  bis  time;  and  Charles  (1799 — 1S79],  a 
painter  of  historical  scenes  and  figure  aubjects. 

LAND'S  END.    SeeCoRKwAIJ. 

LA'NDSHUT^D  ancient  and  picturesque  German 
town,  of  Uppw  iBararia,  is  aituated  in  a  pleasant 
and  fertila  oiitriet  on  tba  laar,  39  milee  north- 
«ASt  of  Ifnnich.     Ita  streets  ore  rich  in  quaint  old 

Bblea,  and  then  are  numerous  towera ;  that  of  St 
artin's  Church  (a  Oothic  building,  dating  from 
14fi0]  is  430  Endish  feet  in  height.  L.  contains 
3G  breweriee,  and  haa  mannfacturei  of  woollen  doth, 
leather,  hosiery,  and  tobacco.  lu  1826,  the  nni- 
vetsity,  which  waa  removed  hither  from  logolstadt 
in  1800,  was  tranaferred  to  Munich.  The  castlo  of 
Trausnitz,  long  the  residence  of  the  Dukes  of  Bavaria, 
ia  aiippoeed  to  have  been  oiidnolly  a  Roman  station. 
Danng  the  Thirty  Yean'  War,  and  the  war  of  tUa 
Austrian  Succcuuon,  I>  was  an  important  fortress, 
and  the  scene  of  many  conflicts.  Pop,  (1880)  17,226, 
LANDSLIPS,  lai^  portions  of  land  which  from 
some  cause  have  become  detached  from  their  original 
position,  and  ilid  down  to  a  lower  lev^  They  are 
especially  common  in  volcanic  districts,  where  Uie 
trembling  of  the  earth  that  frequently  accompanies 
the  emption  of  a  volcano  is  sufGcient  to  split  oS 
large  portions  of  mountain!,  which  slide  down  to 
the  plains  below.  Water  ia  another  great  agent  in 
producing  laudslipa.  It  operates  in  variona  ways. 
The  most  common  method  is  when  water  insinn. 
ates  itself  into  minnte  cracks,  which  an  widened 
and  deepened  by  its  freedng  in  winter.    When  the 


a  TOTy  mnoh  inclined,  and  rsst  o 


bed  luseeptible  of  abawrbing  w 
slippery,  the  cuperincnmbi^t  m 
a  lower  level     This  took  jilace 


Donetahire  between  I^me  and  Azminster  in  imc. 

an  nnnaually  wet  aeaaon ;  a  mass  of  chalk  and 
BFeenaand  here  slid  over  the  slippery  aurfacs  of  a 
bed  of  liaasio  clay  down  into  the  sea.  Of  a  like 
kind  was  the  slip  of  the  Rosabarg,  in  Switzerland,  in 
1606  (see  Goldau)  ;  and  that  which  overwhelmed 
the  village  of  Ulm,  in  Olaros,  in  September  1881, 
about  HM  lives  being  lost  Landalips  of  a  different 
kind  havs  been  prodaced  in  peat-moasea,  which 
becoming  by  heavy  rains  thoroughly  saturated 
with  water,  have  burst  thsir  natural  boundaries, 
and  discharged  themeelvea  on  a  lower  level  The 
most  remarkable  case  of  this  kind  ia  that  of 
the  Solway  Moss,  which,  in  1772,  owing  to  raina, 
spread  iteelf  in  a  deluee  of  blaok  mad  over  400 
acres  of  cultivated  fl^ds.  In  1880,  a  most  de- 
structive landslip  ooonrred  at  Naini  Tal,  an  Anglo- 
Indian  health-resort  on  the  aoiithem  elopes  of%e 
Himalaya.  The  town  waa  partly  built  on  a  great 
sloping  torrace  of  shaly  deposit  overhanging  the 
lake,  and  tbia  beooming  laturated  with  ^e  heavy 
autumn  rains,  it  suddenly  aiipped  forward,  burying 
many  houses  in  its  debris,  forty  Europeans,  and 
from  100  to  20O  natives,  lost  their  lives. 


LAND-SURVEYING,  . 

the  s 


a  of  a  portion,  whether  irn^  or  lai^  of 
th's  snrfoce,  is  an  important  application  of 


,  loyed  for  the  determin- 
igles.  Fields  or  portiiBw  of  graond  o( 
small  extent  are  meaaured  easily  and  with  soffl- 
cient  accuracy  by  a'  chain  (for  distances),  and  a  boz- 
I  or  cross-statr  (for  angles).  For  larger  areao, 
of  the  aurveyor'a  table  is  requisite  j  and  for 
those  of  still  greater  extwt,  in  which  the  greatest 
accuracy  is  requisite  in  the  deteiminatioD  of  the 

Sles,  the  _  astrolabe,  theodol^  sextant,  circle, 
ector,  micrometor,  Ac,  are  need.  The  snrface 
be  measured  is  divided  into  triangles,  which  are 
separately  meaaured  and  calculated;  bnt  when  a 
large  extent  ia  included  io  the  meaaurement,  it  ia 
not  enough  to  proceed  from  one  triangle  to  anoUier, 
in  which  way  an  error  at  the  outset  may  be  propa- 

f;at«d  with  continual  increase;  but  a  base  line,  aa 
□ng  aa  circumitances  admit  of,  moat,  in  thefitst 
instance,  be  accurately  measured,  npon  whiidi,  by 
means  of  the  meaaurement  of  angles,  all  the  subse- 
quent calculations  are  made  to  depend,  and  lines 
subsequently  measnred  are  only  mtended  to  be 
corrective  of  the  results  obtained  by  calculation. 
When  the  extent  of  surfaoe  is  still  greater,  as  when 
a  whole  country  ia  to  be  measured,  points  here  and 
there  are  astronomicaUy  determioed,  their  meridians 
are  accurately  laid  down,  and  a  complicated  syatfm 
of  trionglea  is  employed  to  insure  aocaraoy.  This 
is  called  Trianguiation. 

LAND-TAX,  a  tax  imposed  upon  land  and 
houses  for  purposes  of  revenue,  in  lieu  of  the  ancient 
Bubsidies,  scuta^^  talliagea,  tenths,  fifteenths, 
and  such  occasional  taxes.  From  a  very  early 
period  to_  the  middle  of  the  17tJi  o.,  parliament 
bad  provided  for  the  extraordinary  necessilJes  of 
the  government  ohisfiy  by  granting  snbaidiGa,  which 
were  raised  by  an  impost  on  the  pet^  in  respect  of 
their  reputed  eatatea.  Landed  property  was  the 
chief  iDbJect  of  taxation,  and  waa  assesasd  nomiiially 
at  4s.  in  tha  poond.  But  this  aaaaranent  was  made 
'   a  way  that  it  did  not  riss  with  the  valne 


jyGuU^l 


land-thakspoet  cobps-lanoensalza. 


of  Ivid,  bat  dwindled  away  to  about  Sd.  in  Uia 
pound.  Tlie  Long  Parliaiiiont  devised  a  more 
efficient  plan  by  fixing  the  iiim  to  be  niied,  and 
then  diitributing  it  tunong  counties  according  to 
thdr  Eiippoaed  wealth,  leaving  them  to  raise  it 
b;  a  nte.  In  1692,  a  new  valuation  of  lands  woa 
made,  and  it  was  fonnd  that  a  tax  of  If,  per  pound 
mmld  yield  half  a  million.  In  war,  this  woa  mised 
to  4*.  Tn  1798,  tiie  parliament  relieved  itself  of  the 
tronble  of  evoir  year  passing  an  act,  and  a  general 
act  wns  pasted,  permanently  fixing  tho  luid-tax 
at  4*.  in  the  pound.  This  act  (38  Geo.  IIL  c  60) 
enaUed  the  tojidlDrd  to  redeem  tiie  tux,  and  accord- 
ingly,  sinoe  that  time,  a  great  port  of  it  has  been 
redeemed,  only  about  one  million  being  nnredeemod. 
Though  the  act  of  179S  directed  the  tux  to  bo 
assessed  and  oollected  with  importiolity,  this  l»o- 
viaion  was  not  carried  ont,  but  the  old  valuation 
of  1G98  was  acted  on,  and  in  modem  times  the 
greateet  posAle  inei^uality  prevails.  If  the  tax  is 
in  arrear,  the  tenant  is  liable  to  a  distress  ;  bat  tho 
tenant  soay  deduct  it  from  the  next  rent  he  pays. 
The  ti*",  toaogh  nominally  chargeable  on  the  laud- 
jord,  falls  neither  on  the  landlord  nor  the  tenant, 
bnt  on  the  beneficial  proprietor,  as  distingnighed 
frcun  the  tenant  at  nick-reat ;  fur  if  the  tenant 
ba*  snblct,  and  has  a  benelioial  intcreat,  he  pays 
pro  lanlo  Uia  tax,  cbargias  tho  residue  on  the  land- 
lotd,  lie  proportion  of  land-tax  lixed  on  Scotland 
was  £47,95i,  and  a  proportion  wm  fixed  on  each 
county,  the  commissioners  having  power  to  amend 
tho  valuation.  The  collection  and  raiuagement  of 
the  tax  was  given  to  tho  commissioneni  of  taxes  by 
the  Blatnte  3  and  4  WOL  IV.  c  la 


LA'NDWEHR  (Land-defence),  a  military  force 
the  Qerman  and  Austrian  empires,  somewhat 
"■  B  to  the  Militia  (q.  v.)  of  Great  Britain. 
Iways  retoined  under  arms.  During 
peace,  ita  members  spend  most  of  their  timo  in 
civil  pursuits,  and  are  called  out  for  mililaty  ser- 
vice only  iu  times  of  war  or  of  commotion— care 
being  t^ea,  however,  that  they  are  sufiiciently 
exercised.  The  name  lAndwehr  waa  first  applied 
to  the  Tyrolese  who  rose  against  the  French ;  and 
in  180S  a  Bimilar  force  was  mleed  in  the  other 
German  provinces  of  Austria.  Tho  Landwehr  of 
Austria-Hungary  is  now  like  that  of  Germany— on 
army  reserve.  By  far  the  most  elaborate  ond 
complete  system  of  land-defence  was  tho  Prussian, 
whicn  was  called  into  existence  in  1613,  when  all 
Germany  rose  against  Napoleon.  As  early,  indeed, 
as  1S06,  or  earlier.  Marshal  Knesebeck,  tbon  a  major 
in  the  Pmssian  army,  had  proposed  such  a  tMng  ; 
but  it  was  not  till  the  opemng  of  the  campaign  of 
1813  that  tho  Prussian  Landwehr  was  organised 
according  to  Schamhomf a  plan  by  o  royal  edict, 
dated  17?h  March.  At  first,  it  was  de««ned  solely 
as  a  land  defence,  properly  so  called,  and  not,  what 
is  now  the  case,  as  an  integral  part  of  the  regolar 
Oimy.  It  was  Cidled  out  in  two  seiiarato  levies, 
the  first  comprising  all  men  from  28  to  32,  and  the 
•econd  those  from  32  to  39.  Tho  old  men  up  to 
60  belonged  to  the  LaruUiurm,  which  was  called 
out  only  for  the  defence  of  house  and  hearth. 

After  the  lecond  Peace  of  Paris  appearcil  the 
JiondteehrordTmng  (Land web r-regulation)  of  21st 
April  1816,  aocordlng  to  which  the  country  was 
divided  into  104  districts,  each  of  which  had  to 
famish  a  battalion  of  Londwehr.  To  every  bat- 
talion of  Landwdr  was  attached  a  squadron  of 
nUans ;  three  battalions  fomted  a  nsimeut ;  two 
rcfrlmenta,  a  Landwehr  brijndc,  which,  along  with 
the  brif^dea  of  cavalry  uiA  infaDtey,  was   plaoed 


under  a  genend  of  division.  By  the  consUtution  of 
AprU  IS71,  the  Pnissian  obligation  to  serve  in  the 
army  was  extended  to  the  whole  German  empire. 
Every  German  capable  of  bearing  arms,  after  iervin(j 
in  the  standing  army  for  aeven  years,  baa  to  enter 
the  Landwehr,  and  remain  in  it  for  other  five  years. 

LANFRANO,  the  moot  eminent  of  tho  foteijju 
churchmen  who  rose  to  distinctioo  in  the  medie- 
val Church  of  Englaud,  was  bom  of  a  noble 
family  at  Pavia,  in  1005,  and  edaoat«d,  partly  at 
Pavia,  partly  at  Bologna,  for  the  protesaion  of  tho 
law.  For  a  time  he  followed  the  professioQ  of  an 
advocate  at  Pavia;  but  in  the  hope  of  mater 
distinction,  he  removed  to  I^Vance,  and  foimded  at 
Avronchoa  a  school  of  law,  which  soon  became  ono 
of  the  most  popular  in  France  Having  been  way- 
laid and  all  hut  murdered  by  robbers  during  ouo 
of  bis  joiimcys  to  Bouen,  he  was  carried  to  the 
monastery  of  Beo.  where  he  was  treated  with  much 
tcndemcBl ;  nnd  the  deep  religious  impreasioas  there 
received  determined  him  to  abandon  the  world  and 
become  himself  a  monk.  He  waa  soon  (1041)  choaen 
prior  of  the  monastery ;  and  his  reputation  for  piety, 
as  well  as  the  fume  for  theological  learning  which 
he  acquired,  especially  in  bis  controversy  on  the 
Eucharist  with  Bcrengor,  led  to  hii  translation  in 
1062  to  the  still  more  important  monaab^  of  St 
Stephen,  at  Caen,  recently  founded  by  Williani, 
Duke  ol  Normandy.  Having  enjoyed  the  confidence 
of  Uiot  prince  for  many  years,  ho  waa  selected  by 
him,  after  the  oonqnest  of  Eusland,  to  fill  the  prima- 
tiol  Bee  of  Canterbury,  and  lie  waa  inducctl  with 
moch  reluctance  to  accept  it  in  1070.  Having  once, 
however,  undertaken  the  charge,  he  entered  seal- 
ouily  into  the  policy  of  his  sovereign ;  and  under 
his  spiritual  rule  the  Church  of  England  received 
as  strong  on  infusion  of  the  Norman  element  as 
was  forced  upon  the  p<^tical  system  of  England 
by  tho  iron  hand  of  the  Conqaeror.  L,  outlived 
William  ;  and  to  his  influence  the  historians  mainly 
ascribe  tho  peaceful  submission  with  which  that 
monarch's  successor,  Kufus,  was  accepted  b^  the 
kingdom,  as  well  as  the  comiiorative  moderation  of 
the  earlier  years  of  Rufus's  reign.  The  tyranny 
which  has  made  the  name  of  Itufus  odious  datoi 
mainly  after  the  death  of  L.,  which  occurred  in 
1089,  in  the  84th  year  of  his  age.  His  chief  writ- 
ings aro-^ommentaries  on  the  Epistles  of  St  Pan!, 
the  Treatise  against  Berengar,  and  Sermons.  His 
letters,  however,  are  very  interesting.  The  first 
complete  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  D'Achery 
[Fol.  Paris,  164S).  They  are  also  found  in  the 
BUilioOieca  Patrum.  See  Milman's  LaUit  Chrvti- 
amly,  Tol.  iii.  pn.  438—440,  ond  also  Dr  Hook's 
Lwe»  qf  lJ\e  AnMuliopi  of  Canterbury,  vol.  ii  1861. 

LA'NG6LAND  (L  e.  long  land),  a  Danish  island, 
situated  at  the  souiham  entrance  to  the  Great  Belt, 
l>etween  Fuhncn  and  Laaland.  It  is  33  miles  iu 
length,  and  about  3  miles  in  average  breadth.  Area, 
about  100  square  miles ;  pop.  17,100.  It  conaista  of 
a  ridge  of  low  hills,  is  vvrv  fertile  in  soil,  and  is 
well  wooded.  Grain,  pease,  natter,  and  cheese  are 
largely  produced.  Budkjobing,  pop.  (18S0)  31T9,  on 
the  west  coast,  is  the  only  town. 

LANGENBIEXATI,  a  group  of  nine  contignous 
villages  in  Prussian  Silesia,  33  m.  S.W.  of  Breslan. 
Pop.  about  15,000,  employed  in  linen,  cotton,  and 
other  manufactures,  sugar- refining,  and  dyeing. 

LANGENBECK,Bkbnh.von.  See3opi',,VoLX. 

LANGENSAXZA,  a  town  of  the  Prussian  pro- 
vince of  Saxony,  with  a  pop.  of  (1875)  B888,  and 
considcrablo  monufactvires.  Here  in  June  1866,  in 
an  encounter  between  the  Hanovoriaos  and  a  body 
of  Prussians,  the  bttcr  were  at  first  defeated,  but 
being  reinforced  compelled  the  former  to  capitalat«. 


wGuu^lc 


LAKOHOLM— LANKEH. 


ZiA'KGHOLM,  s  iMUgh  of  bwonr  and  market. 
town  in  DomMerahiTe,  Sootland,  at  Uie  junction  of 
th«  EwM,  the  Waiu^u^e,  and  tlis  Esk,  abont  30 
miles  eait  of  tha  ooonty  town,  and  8  milea  north  of 
ttwlki^iililKMnlar.  Tli«r«anfaatoriea  in  the  town, 
wliOM  atanle  manafaotoTea  an  woollen  yarn*,  and  a 
wocUen  doth  oalled  Tweed,  for  which  the  town  ii 
noted,  Dfe-worki  are  liao  in  operation.  Pop. 
(1871)3275;  (1881)4208. 

I.AI9'G^AND.  See  Pierb  Plowman. 
IJANGRES,  a  mannfactoring  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Haate-Mame,  ia  sitnated  at  an 
elen^n  of  1408  feat  above  sea-lcTel,  20  milea 
BOuth-east  of  Chaumont.  Hen  cntler}-  of  the  finest 
quality  ia  mBiiuiactured,  and  there  ia  a  coondenble 
trade  in  grain,  lint,  cattle,  and  ikeep.  It  in  aud  to 
have  been  the  see  of  a  biiliop  noce  the  3d  c.,  and 
poaseases  a  cathedral  of  the  llUi  century.  Fop. 
aboat  10,000.  L,,  the  andent  Andomatonum,  was 
in  the  time  of  Cssar  the  capital  of  the  Liogone*,  a 
naiQO  cornipted  into  I^ngrea. 

LA'NGSAT,  or  LANSEH.  See  Mblucrx. 
I.A2fGT0If ,  Stefhsm,  celebrated  in  the  hiitoiy 
of  the  liberties  of  EngWd,  wai  bom  probably  in 
Lincoln  or  Devonshire,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
12th  century.  He  received  the  duef  part  of  hii 
education  in  the  umvermt}[  of  Paris,  whet«  he  wu 
the  fellow-stadeut  and  friend  of  Imiocent  IIL  ; 
tmd  having  completed  Ma  atadiei,  he  rose  tiuough 
saccessive  grades  to  the  office  of  chancellor  of  t£e 
muTerai^.  After  the  elevation  of  Innocent,  L., 
having  Tuited  Rome,  was  named  to  the  cardinalate 
by  the  pope ;  and,  on  oocaiion  of  the  disputed 
etection  to  Qie  see  of  Canterbury,  be  wsa  recom- 
mended to  those  eleotori!  who  had  coma  to  Rome 
on  the  appeal,  and  having  been  elected  by  them, 
was  consecrated  by  Innocent  himself  at  Viterbo, 
.Tans  27, 1207.  His  appointment,  nevertheleea,  was 
resisted  by  King  John;  and  for  six  veara,  U  wsa 
excluded  from  the  sea,  to  trhich  he  was  only 
admitted  on  the  adjaitmeDt,  in  121.%  of  tbe  kins'* 
dispute  with  Innocent  through  the  legate  PondulL 
See  Ikkocekt  IIL  This  reconciliation,  Dowerer,  was 
bat  temporary.  In  the  conflict  of  John  with  his 
barona,  L.  was  a  warm  partisan  of  t^e  latter,  and 
his  aame  is  the  first  of  the  subscribing  witnesses 
of  Magna  Charta.  When  the  pope,  actmg  on  the 
representation  of  John,  and  espousing  his  cause  as 
that  of  a  vassal  of  the  holy  see,  excommunicated  the 
barons,  L.  refused  to  pulilish  the  excommunication, 
and  ■wM  in  conaequence  suspended  from  his  funo- 
tions  in  121S.  He  was  restored,  however,  probably 
in  tiie  following  year ;  and  on  the  accession  ol 
Henry  IIL,  he  was  reinstated  (121S)  in  his  see  of 
Canterbury,  from  whioh  time  he  chiefly  oocniied 
bimwelf  wiUi  chorch  reforms  till  his  drath,  widch 
took  place  July  9,  1228.  L.  was  a  learned  and  sao- 
ceaEfulwTiter,'but  hie  writings  are  lost,  and  Uia  chief 
trace  which  he  has  left  in  sacred  literature  is  the 
divimon  of  the  Bible  into  chaptras,  which  ia  ascribed 
to  hkn.  Oiraldns  Camhr^iais  {q.  v.]  dedicated 
several  of  Ma  books  to  Langton.— See  Wharton's 
AmSa  Sacra,  vols.  L  and  u. ;  Lingard,  voL  il ; 
Uibnan's  JMttin  CAriitiamte,  vol  iv. ;  andDrHook'i 
Lint*  of  the  AfthbUlicpi  of  Canltrbury,  vol  ii  ISSL 
IiAlTGUAGE.  See  PmLOLOor. 
liA'NOTTBD,  or  LAMPASS^  in  Heraldry.  An 
animal  whose  tongue  is  of  a  different  colour  from 
his  body,  ia  said  to  be  langvtd  of  that  colour.  It 
is  understood  in  England  that  nnleas  the  blazon 
direct  otherwise,  all  animal »  are  langoed  guleL 
whose  tincture  ia  not  gules,  and  on  animal  gules  is 
laogned  azure.  This  rule  does  not  hold  good  in 
Scottish  Heraldry,  whrae,  '  when  the  tonsne,  teeth, 
aitd  claws  are  of  different   tinctuns    from  their 


bodies,  they  an  to  be  mentioned  as  armed  and 
langued  of  sach  a  tincture.' — NMeL  When  a  beast 
or  bird  is  represented  without  teeth  or  dawa,  this 

expressed  m  blazon  '  sans  langne  and  si 

IjAXOUEDOC,  Uie  name  dven  in  the  middle 
ages,  and  dowq  to  the  Fran^  Bevolution,  to  a 
— evince  in  the  south  of  France,  bounded  on  the 
by  Auvergne  and  Lyonnaia  ;  on  the  B.  by  the 
__  er  lUione ;  on  the  S.  ^  tha  Mediterranean  and 
the  counties  of  Foix  and  Boussillon  ;  and  on  the  W. 
by  Gaacony  and  Guienne.  It  was  traversed  through 
iu  whole  length,  from  north-east  to  south-west, 
by  the  Cevennes  (q.  v.).  L.  ia  now  divided  into 
the  departmenta  <^  L 

uTt,  Upper  Loire,  Tarn,  and  Upper  Qaronne. 
The  capital  of  L.  was  Toulouse, 
derived  from  that  of  the  southern  French  dialect, 
Provenjal,  whioh  was  called  the  langiie  iToc, 
whilat  tha  northern  was  called  Zanj/us  (Tout  o 
iatiffue  d^oil,  becauaa  ia  the  former  the  word'  c 
{an  abbreviation  of  Lat.  Juk)  was  used  for  yet,  and 
ia  the  latter  oil  or  oui  (from  Lat,  Iioc  tilo). 

LANI'ADAS,  a  family  of  birds,  generally  ranked, 
•a  by  Cuvier,  in  the  order  Irue»»ortt,  sub-order 
Dtnttrottres,  but  allying  them  to  Aixipitrt*.  They 
are  the  lai^gest  and  moat  rapacious  of  Ae  Den- 
(troaCm,  preying  on  small  birds,  quadn^iedi,  and 
reptiles,  as  well  aa  on  large  insects.  Many  of  them 
have  the  curiona  habit  of  impaling  their  prey  on 
thorns,  after  wliich  they  puU  it  m  pieces,  and  devour 
it  at  leisure  They  have  a  ahor^  strong,  abruptly 
booked  bill,  with  a  notch  or  tooth  on  esidi  side,  and 
sharp  clawa  The  Shrikes  (q.  v.),  or  Batoher-birds, 
~  e  the  type  of  tha  family ;   but  it  is  united  by 

imerous  Unks  to  the  family  of  the  Jlfufdcopitfi^ 
Fly-catchers,  and  the  linuta  of  the  two  families 

a  very  uncertain, 

LAXKA,  the  ancient  name  of  the  capital  of 
Ceylon.  In  Hindu  mythology,  it  ia  renowned  at 
the  chief  city  of  the  giant  Sftvana  (q.  v.),  who,  by 
carrying  off  Slt&,  the  wife  of  BiUoa,  caused  the 
conquest  of  Ceylon  by  the  latter  pet«ona«,  who  is 
considGred  at  on  incarnation  of  the  god  Viahn'o. 

LANKATATARA,  the  name  of  one  of  tha  chief 
religious  worka  of  the  Buddhiata.  It  treats  of  their 
religious  law,  and  of  some  of  their  moat  abstruse 
phiuiBophical  problems.  See  E.  Bumouf,  tc,  and 
W.  Wassiljew,  Ac,  aa  named  under  Lauta-yisiari. 

IiAlTNBR  [Faico  h 


ivCiOOgfe 


LANSEB-hASZL 


lAognage  of  fidooniTt  the  malt,  baing  muller,  & 

IiANNES,   Jkik,    Ditkb    o»  Montbbtllo,    a 

Riftrahal  of  the  French  Empire,  waa  bora  llUi  April 
1709,  at  Leotoore  ;  entered  the  army  in  1792,  and 
Boon  row  to  high  military  mnk.  He  rendered 
Napoleon  important  service  on  the  18th  Brumaire, 
and  eojoyed  hifl  highest  faTonr.  On  9th  Jnns  1800 
he  won  the  hfttae  ol  Montebello,  whence  hi«  title. 
He  bore  a  principEd  share  in  the  battle  of  Marengo, 
and  commanded  the  left  wing  at  Austerliti.  He 
igainst  Pnisgia  in  1806, 

.  Jena,  and  distinguiBhcd 

himself'  at  Ejlan  and  Friedland.  Being  sent  to 
Spain,  he  defeated  General  CastaiioB  at  Tudela,  22d 
November  1808,  and  took  Sacftgoaaa.  In  1809,  he 
again  served  on  the  Danube,  and  conuaandod  the 
centra  at  Aspem  (the  22d  May),  where  he  had  both 
his  legs  earned  away  by  a  cannon-shot.  Ha  was 
removed  to  Vienna,  and  died  there,  Slst  May.  He 
was  interred  in  the  Pantheon,  in  Faria. 

LANNION,  a  town  and  rive^port  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  CAtM-du-Noid,  on  the  Oner, 
about  teven  milea  from  the  mouth  of  that  river. 
Iti  trade  ia  chiefly  in  deali,  Bocdeauz  wine,  and 
colonial  prodnee.    Pop.  7000. 

LANSDOWNE,  HranT  Pinrr-E'iTiMAOMOT, 
third  MiiKurui  or,  an  Eoglish  statesman,  w»« 
bora  at  Lanidowne  House,  London.  July  2,  1780, 
Hia  ffltiier,  the  celebrated  Earl  of  Sbelburne,  wsa 
premier  to  George  IIL,  and  received  the  coronet  of 
a  morquia  in  1784.      L.  (than  Lord  Henry  Petty) 


IiAHTTEBN,  in  Arehitectnre, 
ctnioture  nuMd  over  domet,  roofti,  to.,  to  nve  lizht 
ui  vantOation.  The  dome  of  St  Panl'a  Cath» 
Iral  and  many  other  large  dcanea  are  omwned 
rith  a  lantern.  Where  a  luitern  i«  for  tha  purpoae 
if  giving  lights  it  is  sailed  ■  lanttm-U^U  In 
hitHo  architeotore,  a  lanlem-toaer  i*  frequently 
ilaced  over  the  cenlre  of  cross  ohurobe* — the  vault 
.leiog  at  a  oonsidenible  hei^l^  and  the  li|^t 
admitted  by  windows  in  the  sidea.  York  and  Ely 
cathedrals,  and  many  choiohei  in  England,  have 
aach  lantera-towenL 


allied  to  Oicadida,  but  having  li^  mora  adapted 
for  leaping,  and  destitate  of  otgana  for  pradndng 
sound.  iSie  forehead  ia  remarkably  prolonged  into 
an  empty  vedcular  expansion,  wmdi  aasnmei  in 
the  different  spedesTanoni  and  very  singular  forms, 

equalling  tha  body  of  the  insect  in  life. 

ta  are  gennsUy  rich.    The  speoisa  are 


was  a  younger  son,  and  was  sent  I. 
School,  anf  afterwaids  to  Edinburgh,  then  the 
school  of  the  younfl  Whigs  destined  for  politioal 
life.  He  took  his  degroa  at  Trinity  College,  Canj- 
bridee,  in  1801,  and  when  barely  of  age,  entered 
pariuunent  aa  M,P.  for  Calne.  Ho  turned  hia 
attention  to  finance ;  and  on  Ktt's  death,  he 
became,  at  the  age  of  26,  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  in  the  administration  of  Lord  Gren- 
villeTln  1309,  he  suooeeded  Ms  half-brother  in 
the  marqnisata,  became  one  of  the  heada  of  the 
liberal  party  in  the  House  of  Lorda,  and  during 
a  long  opposition,  conaiatently  advocated  those 
various  measotM  otprogress  which  he  lived  to 
see  triumphant.  When  the  Whigs,  after  their 
long  eiclusion  from  power,  came  into  office  with 
Eari  Grey  at  their  head,  L.  became  Lord  Pragident 
of  the  Council,  which  post  he  held,  with  a  brief 
interval,  from  November  1S30  to  September  1841, 
TCBUming  It  in  1846.  after  the  fall  of  the  Feel 
ministry,  and  again  filling  it  until  1852.  He  then 
formally  bade  farewell  to  office,  and  resigned  the 
leadership  of  the  House  of  Lords ;  but  consented  to 
hold  a  seat  without  office  in  the  Aberdeen  cabinet, 
and  again  in  Ibo  first  administration  of  Lord 
Palmerston.  After  the  death  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  he  became  the  patriarch  of  the  Upper 
House,  and  the  personal  friend  and  adviser  of^  the 
Queen.  He  had  a  keen  relish  and  a  cnltdvated  taste 
for  literature,  and  was  the  generous  patron  of  : 
of  letteiB.  He  formed  a  splendid  hbrary,  and 
of  tixe  noblest  ooUeddona  of  pictnrea  and  rtatuary  in 
the  kingdom.  He  refused  a  dukedom,  and  might 
more  than  once  have  been  prime  minister.  His 
death  took  place  January  31, 1863,  at  Bowood. 

LA'NSING,  the  capital  of  Michigan,  TT.S., 
Grand  River,  110  milea  N.W.  of  Detroit,  contains  a 


and  model  farm  —  — 
for  juvenile  offenders,  15  churches,  a  banl^  two 
weekly  papeia,  and  several  manufactories.  L  wa» 
settled  mlMl.     Pop.  (1870)  6241 ;  (1880)  8319. 


Lantem-Ry  {Tvlgora  latmat*!). 

natlvea  of  the  warmeat  parti  of  the  world,  ^e 
name  L.  was  originally  given  to  F.  laUmaria,  a 
linre  speoies,  found  in  (Siiana,  and  of  which  the 
ited  projection  of  the  forehead  is  said  to  be 
etimes  most  brilliantly  Imninous ;  but  the  evi- 
dence ia  doubtful,  and  many  naturalist!  refuse  to 
believe  in  the  luminosity  of  any  of  this  gwOM. 
The  most  probable  expiration  is,  that  the  nuni- 
noaity  is  sexual,  and  merelj  occasional,  perhap* 
limited  to  particular  aeasong.  ConcernJiig  the 
luminosity  of  the  Ckine3K  L.  [F.  eaMdelaria),  there 
is  still  greater  doubt.  The  prdongation  of  tha 
forehead  in  this  species  is  a  oomparatively  narrow 

liA'NTHANUM,  or  LANTHA'NITJM,  so  named 
from  Uie  Gteaek  wotd  Lanliaaein,  to  lie  hid,  is  a 
metal  whieh  wsa  disoovcred  by  Mosander  in  1841 
in  C«ri<s(q.v.),  a  hydrated  siUoate  of  oerium.  It 
is  of  UtUe  chemical  interesii,  and  i«  of  no  practical 
valoe.  Till  recently,  the  three  metal*  oeriam, 
lanthftinr",  and  didymium  were  all  confounded 
together  under  the  name  cerium. 

LA'NTARDB,  in  a  ship,  are  short  ropea  used 
either  to  make  fast  various  apparatus  in  its  place, 
or  to  stretch  other  and  important  ropea  to  their 
utmost  tennon. 

hASZARiyri,  one  of  the  Caoanea  (q.v.). 

LANZI,  LoiQi,  a  celebrated  Italian  antiquary, 
was  bora  at  Monte  dell'  Olmo,  near  Maoerata,  June 
14,  1732.  He  entered  the  order  of  the  Jemits,  and 
resided  at  Home,  and  afterwards  at  Floreucet  where 
ho  died  Maroh  30.  1810.  In  17SS,  he  published  at 
Florence  his  DacrizUme  dxlla  OaUeria  di  JSirerae. 
His  B^t  works,  distinguished  for  their  profound 
erudition,  are  his  Sagmo  di  Lingua  Etruaea  (3  vols. 
Home,  1789),  in  i^cn,  contrary  to  the  prevalent 
opinion  among  Italian  savants,  he  maintuns  the 
influence  of  Greece  upon  Etruscan  civilisation,  and 
hia  Stcria  PiOoriea  d^ItaUa,  Jx.  (Florence,  1792 ; 
and   Baasano,  17S9,  and  1S06).      This  latter  work 


ivC.OOglc 


LAOCOON— LAOD-TSZE. 


(Bohn'i  SbuuUrd  TAhr»rj,  3  Tola.  lS47].  He  ii  the 
•athor  alw  of  aeTer»l  poenu,  worka  on  EtnuoMi 
VMea,  ■colptorea,  &«.  His  poathninoaa  worki  mn 
published  in  2  voll.  at  Florence  in  1817. 

IiA'OCOON,  according  to  clasdo  legend,  a  prievt 
cither  of  Apollo  or  Neptune,  in  Trov,  who  in  vain 
wned  hia  countrymen  of  tiie  deceit  practiaed  hy 
the  Oreeka  in  their  pretended  offering  of  the  wooden 
hone  to  Minerra,  and  was  destroyed  along  with  his 
two  aona  by  two  onormotia  serpent*  which  came 
from  the  tea.  They  flrat  fastened  on  his  children, 
and  when  he  attempted  to  rescue  them,  involved 
himself  in  their  coils.  This  legend  is  not  Homeric, 
bat  of  later  origin.  It  was,  however,  a  favourite 
theme  of  the  Qreek  poets,  and  is  introdaced  in  the 
^neid  ot  ViigiL     It  acqoirea  a  peculiar  inteicat 


bum  being  the  mbjeot  ol  ona  of  the  moat  tamouB 
vorks  of  andent  sciilptare  sldll  in  existence ;  a 
gnap  discovered  in  150S  at  Itome,  in  the  Sette  Sale, 
on  the  side  ol  the  £^uiline  Tlill,  and  purchased  by 
Pope  Julius  n.  for  Uie  Vatican.  It  waB  carried 
to  Paris,  hut  recovered  in  1814.  The  whole  treat- 
ment of  the  sabiect,  the  anatomical  acourac?  of  the 
flgnrea.  and  the  rcpnsentation  both  of  bixUly 
and  of  passion,  have  always  commiuided  the  hi) 


admimtion.  According  to  I'liny,  it  was  the  work 
of  the  Rhodian  artists  Agesander,  Polydoru^  and 
Athenodorus,  bat  this  is  doubtful  Casta  of_it  are 
to  be  found  in  i 

•rthertic  eipositit ^.   

brated  Laocoon  oder  titer  die  Oreacen  dtr  Maierd 
undPoetie. 

LAODICE'A,  a  city  of  ancient  Phrygia,  near 
the  river  l4[cos,  so  called  after  Laodice,  que^i  of 
AntiotihuB  Theoa,  its  founder,  wss  built  on  the  site 
of  an  older  town  named  Dtoapolis.  It  was  deeboyed 
by  an  eartiiqnake  during  the  reigo  of  Tibenus, 
but  rebuilt  by  the  inhabitants,  who  were  very 
wealthy,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks  io  12SB, 
was  again  destroyed  in  1402,  and  is  now  a  heap 
ol  nmntereating  mina,  known  hy  the  name  of 
Esld'Hisaar.  Art  and  science  floonshed  among  the 
ancient  Laodiceans,  and  it  was  the  seat  of  a  fuioaa 
medical  aohooL  The  number  of  Jet 
settled  here  at  the  rise  of  Christianity  will  account 
for  its  importanoe  in  the  primitive  history  of  the 
church.  An  important  ecclesiastical  council,  the 
Fint  Council  of  Laodicea,  was  held  here 


eocIeoBstical  discipline.  A  second  ooimoil  was  held 
hare  in  476,  which  condemned  the  Eo^ofaiaui. 

LAON,  chief  town  of  the  department  of  Aisne,  in 
Fnuu%  is  titnated  in  a  strong  position  on  a  steep 
isolated  hiU,  80  miles  north-east  of  Paris.  The  walls 
(flanked  with  towers)  with  which  it  ia  surrounded, 
the  noble  Gothic  cathedral  (built  1112—1114)  on 
the  aummit  of  the  hill,  and  the  charming  character 
of  the  Boenen'  in  the  vicinity,  greatly  enhance  the 
appearance  of  the  town.  The  public  library,  with 
20,000  voU.,  oontuA  also  a  beautiful  statue  in 
marble  of  Gabrielle  d'Estrties.  The  mannfoctures 
are  muls,  hats,  leather,  and  hosiery.  Here,  on 
March  9  and  10,  1S14,  Napoleon  L  was  defeated  by 
the  allies.  L.  hod  to  surrender  to  a  Gentiaa 
force  on  9th  September  1870.    Pop.  [1881}  12,445. 

LA'OS.    See  Shan  Sxatb. 

LAOtT-TBZB,  ■  celebrated  pUlowpher  of  China, 
ijba  fonnder  of  a  religion  as  andent  and  Important 
as  that  ot  Confndns  Ol'  '■)■  This  sect  is  commonly 
known  as  the  Taou,  or  seat  of  naaon.  His  family 
name  was  Lt,  or  Plom,  and  his  yonthful  name 
Urhj  or  Eai^-given  him  on  aooount  of  the  siie 
of  his  ears.  Eis  name  of  honour  was  Pe-yang,  his 
sonuune  Laott-tta  ('  old  ohild  *),  or  La<m-lteun-lna 
{'  old  prince'),  by  which  he  is  generallj'  known. 
Little  authentic  is  known  of  the  life  of  L.,  his 
foUowers  having  sabsequentiy  made  a  myth  of  his 
biography.  He  was  bom  in  the  third  year  of  the 
Emperor  Ttng-wang,  of  the  Chow  dynasty  (604 
B-C],  in  the  state  of  Tsen,  at  present  known  as 
Hoo-pih  and  Hoo-nan,  64  yeara  before  Confucius. 
His  father,  aooonling  to  the  l^ends  of  'Uie  Toou 
•eot,  was  70  year*  bcaore  be  mamed-and  his  mother 
40  years  of  age  when  she  conceived  him,  He  was 
the  incarnation  of  a  ahooting-star,  a  kind  of  god  on 
earth,  and  was  SO  years  m  his  mother's  womb. 
More  bTUtworthy  is  the   Btat«meut  that  he  was 


and  went,  about  600  A.K,  to  the  weetam  parts  of 
China,  where  he  might  have  become  aoquainted 
with  the  worship  of  Fuh  or  Bnddha.  Confucius 
was  to  attracted  by  his  renown,  that  he  went  to 
■ee  him,  bat  the  meeting  ioet  not  appear  to  have 
been  entirely  amicable,  for  L.  reproajjied  the  sage 
with  pride,  vanity,  and  ostentation,  statins  that 
sages  loved  obscurity  and  retreat,  stadiea  time 
and  droomstances  before  they  spoke,  and  made  no 
parade  of  knowledge  and  virtue.  Confucius,  how- 
ever, highly  lauded  L.  to  his  followeto,  and  called 
him  a  dnigon  soaring  to  the  clood*  oE  heaven,  which 
noiiiing  could  tnrpoas.  L.  seked  Confndus  if  he 
had  discovered  the  Taoa  {'  path '  or  '  reason ')  by 
which  Heaven  acts,  when  Confudos  answered  that 
he  had  searched  for  it  witiiout  suooesa.  L.  replied 
that  the  rich  sent  away  their  frieoda  with  presents, 
sages  theirs  with  good  advice,  and  that  he  humbty 
thought  himself  a  sage.  By  this  he  probably  meant 
that  all  he  could  offer  Confudos  was  the  advice  of 
seeking  the  Taou.  He  retired  to  Han-kwan,  where 
the  magistrates  of  the  plaoe  received  him,  and  there 
he  wrote  the  Taou-li^iirtg,  or  Book  of  Keason  and 
Virtae.  He  died,  or,  according  to  other  accounts, 
mounted  to  heaven  on  a  black  buffalo,  in  the  2lBt 
year  of  the  reign  of  Sing-wangof  the  Chow  dynasty, 
623  B^o.,  having  attained  the  age  of  119  yean. 

The  latrines  of  L.  differ  from  those  of  Confudos, 
indeed,  have  a  hieher  scope— the  object  of  the 
last-named  philosopaer,  or  rather  stateaman,  being 
the  practical  government  of  man  through  a  oode 
ot  morals  ;  that  of  L.,  the  tendering  of  man  immortal 
through  the  oontemplatioa  of  God,  the  repression 
of  the  paaaions,  and  the  perfect  tranonillity  of  the 
EOuL    Heuee  his  doctrine  was,  that  Silence  and  the 

b.,ii_u  .Cioo'ifc — 


LAPfiROUSE— LAProARY-WORK. 


Void  prodnoed  the  Taon,  the  'Logoe'  or  TMaon  by 
whiah  moremeot  w>a  produced ;  and  from  thMe  twx> 
npning  bU  being*  voich  contained  in  themiBalveB 
toe  dn&l  principle  □{  male  and  femola.  Man  was 
composed  of  two  priDCipIea,  the  one  material,  and 
the  other  apiritnal,  from  which  he  emanated,  aod 
to  which  he  ought  to  retnm,  by  throwing  off  the 
■hacklea  of  the  body,  aimihilating  the  material 
paaaiobfl,  the  inclinatioDH  of  ^e  soul,  and  plea- 
■nrCB  of  the  body.  By  thiis  means,  the  sonl  was  to 
regain  its  origin — become  immort^  This  could 
c^y  be  effected  by  the  renimciaiioa  of  riches, 
hononra,  and  tie  ties  of  life.  Vp  to  the  period  of 
L.,  the  natianal  worahip  had  been  restricted  to  the 
Shang-te,  or  '  iupreme  ruler '  of  the  world,  and  the 
Too,  or  'heaven.'  For  these,  L.  mbatituted  the 
Ttunt  ('path'  or  'reason')  of  the  coamoa,  not  citing, 
M  the  ConfnciamiitB.  the  precedents  of  ancient  kinzs 
OF  uget — appealing  to  the  abstract  principle,  and, 
in  fact,  preadmig  a  religion  which  fomid  an  echo 
in  ths  Qiinefla  beast.  The  followers  of  his  sect, 
however,  considerably  altered  his  doctrines.  Ths 
mi»al  code  of  the  Taou  sect  is  eioellent,  inculcating 
•11  ths  great  principles  found  in  other  religions 
— chaiity,  benerolence,  virtue,  and  the  free-will, 
moral  agency,  and  responsibility  oE  man.  But  it 
subsequently  became  oorrupted  with  strange  doctrines 
and  practices.  They  promulgated  that  thejr  had 
discovered  the  drink  of  immortality,  and  obtamed  a 
host  of  partisans  in  the  redgn  of  Wan-te  of  the  Han 
dynasty,  140  A.D.,  and  many  of  the  emjierois  were 
addicted  to  their  ritea,  and  some  poisoned  by  the 
drink  of  immortality.  Alchemy  also  became  another 
pursuit  of  the  sect ;  so  did  divination,  the  invo- 
cation of  spirits,  and  the  pradictiou  of  the  future^ 
The  doctors  of  the  sect,  called  T«m-fze  ('celestial 
doctors '),  were  supposed  by  tiieae  means  to  become 
ethereal,  and  to  m  caught  Dp  to  heaven  with- 
out passing  through  the  intermediate  state  of 
death.  Such  statementB,  however,  were  ridiculed 
by  the  Joo-ktaoa,  or  sect  of  ConfnciuB,  the  sceptics 
of  China,  who  openly  derided  their  pretensions. 
Innumerable  gods  were  also  introduced  into  the 
worship,  which  was  assimilated  to  the  Buddhist 
From  tiia  2d  c,  A.n.,  the  seot  has  spread  in  China, 
Japan,  Cochin-Qhina,  Tonquin,  and  amongst  the 
Indo-Chinese  nations.  Monasteries  and  nunneries 
belonging  to  them  were  foonded  and  flourished. 
Taouiam  is  now  tliought  by  many  to  have  been 
influenoed  by,  or  directly  derived  from,  Indian 
Brahmanism,  which  it  much  resembles,  bwig  very 
un-Chinesein  character;  so  that  it  is  to  be  regarded 
as  the  development  of  a  foreign  faith,  not  a  new 
and  native  one. — 9ee  Stanislas  Jnlien,  Z«  lAvre  dea 
£M»inpm«M  [1638),  translated  by  Chalmers;  Legge, 
Seli^ona  qf  China  (1880);  Dowlas,  Con/uciani™ 
and  Taouitm  (1860);  Balfour,  T^oiil  Texts  (1SS5|  ; 
and  some  works  mentioned  under  CHiNsaE  Eupteb. 

LAPfiROUSE.    See  Sdpp.,  Vol.  X. 

LA'PIDARY-WORK,  the  art  of  cutting,  grinding, 
and  polishing  small  pieces  of  ornamental  or  preciDnB 
stones  for  jewellory.  (For  the  eagraving  of^  figures 
on  predons  stones,  see  Cameo  and  GIkhs.)  The  worli- 
ing  of  the  less  precious  oniamental  stones  has  made 
great  strides  within  the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years, 
and  nowhere  has  it  reached  great^  perfection  than 
in  Scotland.  A  large  trade  is  now  carried  on  in 
this  kind  of  work  between  Birmingham  and  some 

towns  of  (Jetmany,  where  the  Scotch  paf 

imitated ;  and  olthoogb  the  foreign  prcdui 
of  inferior  workmanship,  their  comparative  cheap- 
ness commands  a  ready  market. 

Stones  are  ont  by  rubbing  the  powder  ot  a  harder 
stone  against  a  softer  one.  Hiere  ore  ten  types  of 
Hardness  (q.v.),  from  talo  np  todiamond;  Imt  in 
piBOtioe  it  i*  found  most  oonvenient  to  employ  either 


diamond-powder  or  emery,  which  is  next  to  it,  tor 
the  catting  of  iJl  kinds  of  stones.  Diamond-dost  is 
fonnd  to  cnt  ten  timet  faster  than  emery ;  so  tba^ 
except  where  the  machine  is  driven  by  water- 
power,  it  is  fonnd  more  piofitable  toemploy  diamond- 
powder,  notwithstanding  its  hi^  price.  Diamond- 
powder  is  prepared  fiom  the  laferior  kind  trf 
Diamonds  (q.  v.)  called  bort  (costing  abont  a  guinea 
per  carat),  by  grinding  in  a  steel  mortar. 

To   produce    a   pl&in    polished   surface  on  oajr 
stone,  Bay  a  jasper,  it  goes  throngh  the  thi«a  ^ro- 
of cotting  or  slitting,  grinding,  — ■"  —'=-'- — 
liamond-shttiog  machine  (the  i 
entdally  the  same)  is  shewn  i 


Flg.L 

slitting-wheel.  A,  which  is  driven  W  means  of  the 
handle,  B,  is  a  mere  disc  of  thin  saeet-iron,  from 

6  to  9  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  turned  edge,  and 
is  generally  placed  in  a  horisontal  poeitioo.  The 
diunond-dnst,  mixed  with  a  little  sperm-oil,  is 
applied  to  the  edge  of  the  slitting-wheel  with  the 
flnger,  and  ia  then  pressed  into  the  soft  iron  with  a 
smooth  hard  atone.  The  wheel  will  then  continue 
to  cat  for  several  hours  without  any  renewal  of  the 

EDwder.  When  the  wheel  is  thus  prepared,  a  atone 
eld  by  ths  hand  to  the  cutting  edge  is  rapidly  alit 
througL  During  the  operation,  aperm-oil  is  kept 
dropping  &om  the  con,  C,  to  k^p  the  wheel  froin 
heatmg. 

!nie  grinding  is  performed  on  a  horizontal  lead- 
wheel,  r--  -^^    -   "■ 

powder, 

against  it  with  the 


s  upper  surface  with  emery- 
to  De  noond  being  pressed 
and  un^  it  is  smooUL  enouf^ 


for  polishing.     lo  polishing,  a  tin  wheel  is  si 
tut«d  for  the  leaden  one,  the  polishing  ma 


^tal 
plaster  ol 


If,  instead  of  a  plane  flat  surface,  some  ( 
surface  is  required,  s»  an  agato  brooch  ii 
of  a  butterfly,  a  model  is  prodaced  in  pla 
Paris,  to  serve  as  a  guide,  and  metal  size-plat 
prepared  for  the  pieces  of  stone  which  are  to  form 
the  wings,  &a.  For  these,  thin  slices  of  agato  are 
cut  at  Uie  aUtting-machina,  or  chipped  off  with  a 
hammer  and  chiiKl,  and  are  then  formed  ron^ly 
into  shape,  by  means  of  soft  iron  nippers.  The 
several  pieces  are  now  groond  and  polished,  as 
already  described,  and  the  broach  is  liaished.  When 
pieoes  of  atone  are  too  small  to  be  held  in  tlie  huid, 
they  are  attached  with  cement  to  a  wooden  handle, 
and  then  applied  to  the  wheels. 

One  of  the  most  elaborate  operations  of  the 
lapidary  is  the  cutting  of  Cairngorm  (q.  v.)  stonea. 
The  mode  of  faceting  the  surface,  which  so  much 
enhances  their  beanty,  is  shewn  in  tig.  2,  which  is 
just  the  ordinary  grinding-wheel,  with  the  addition 


LAtiS  LAZITLI— LAPL4BD. 


;  round   with   pivjet 


of   a  woodan  peg 

wire*.  _  Ths  atone  'ii  fiiad  with  .™„™,  „„  ^„  ^mi 
of  a  rtiok,  having  a  hole  at  the  otier  end  fittinit  on 
r»j»intB,  which,  being  at  different  heists. 
'"  '  '  '  "  at  any  angle  to  the 
npJe  ^de,  the  Upi- 


enables  the  stone  t 


Withtl 


iiy  prooeeda  to  ont  the  facets,  di-v?ding  them  off 


Rg.2. 


waa  appointed  Minirter  o(  the  Interior  by  Bonaparte 

Wt  was,  after  six  weeks,  deposed  for  incapacity. 
He  oontuined,  however,  to  receive  niarka  ot  E^nr 
from  Napoleon,  and  on  the  erection  ot  the  Imperial 
throne,  vnm  made  a  count  In  1814,  he  voted  for 
the  appomtment  o£  the  provisional  government, 
(or  Napoleon's  deposition,  and  the  restoration  of 
I  .,  ^""^"^  -^^r  t^e  second  lUrtoration,  Louis 
XVUL  made  him  a  peer  and  a  marquis.  In  the 
Oiamher  of  Peers,  he  ahewed,  aa  he  had  done  ander 
the  rBvolntionary  government,  the  greatest  nnfitn«s 
for  pohtical  offiun,  and  the  moat  extreme  servilitv 
He  died  at  Paris,  Bth  March  1827.  L,  waa  gifted 
with  wonderful  sctentifio  aagacitj  ;  this  appean 
eepecdally  in  his  eiplanatjons  of  certain  XMults 
of  matbemalical  analyaia  formerly  looked  npon  aa 
inexplicable,  hot  whidi  he  ahewsd  to  be  the  exprea. 
-"  L  o(  physical  phenomena  which  had  hitherto 
iped  detection,  and  anbsequent  obaarvations 
generally  confirmed  L.'s  conclosiona.  Above  idl  his 
"""xrs,  hia  wonderfnl  memory  shone  pre-eminent, 
.  Jf&MjiiyM  CfUtle,  and  aupplemenfa  to  it  {S  vola. 
of_  feeling ;  and  in   ^""-  "^l^^'-  *"'  ?^^  **  Newton'a  Pnntipta, 


by  the  eye,  aided  by  his  „^...=  „  .,„ 
this  way,  in  about  a  fortnight's  time, 

700  hceta  are  prodnoed  of  perfect  reralaritv  i>^  I  "?  "!«*"«   "1"  ^<»*  (2  voU.   Paris.  17*6:   6 
»  atone,  say  an  inch  in  diameter.    A  Daimmimof  Jt  l^^  "  mtended  for  those  who  cannot  follt 
good  cotour,  BO  cut,  may  be  woHh  about  £30             I  _    <™'*<"*  demonatrations  and  ealcuUtiona  in  1 
LA'PIS  LA'ZULI,  ""' 


the  greatest  of  astronomical  works,    ffia  Sxpoi^m 
At  SyiUme   du  Monde  (2  vola.   Paris.  17W;   6th 


worth  about  £30. 
,  -  mineral  of  beautiful  ultra- 
colour,  coniiating  chiefly  of  ailica 
and  alumma,  with  a  little  sulphnnc  acid,  soda,  and 
lime.  The  colour  varies  much  in  it«  deetee  of 
mtenaity.  L.  L.  is  often  marked  by  white  smta  and 
bands.  It  IS  generally  found  massive,  and  i»  trans- 
locent  at  the  edgea,  with  uneven,  finely  granular 
motm,  bnt  eometimea  appears  crystalSied  in 
rhombio  dodecahedrons,  ita  primitive  form.  It  ia 
found  in  primitivB  Umestona  and  in  gnmitej  in 
Siberia,  China,  Tibet,  Chili.  4c.  The  ffnest  speci- 
mens are  brought  from  Bokhara.  The  Greeka  and 
Komana  called  it  Sapphire.  It  was  more  highly 
esteemed  by  them  as  an  ornamental  atone  than  it 
now  IB.  They  used  it  much  for  engraving,  for  vasea, 
Ac.  It  IS  eiteuaively  employed  m  ornamental  and 
nioaaic  work,  and  for  lumptuona  altars  and  shrinea. 
It  la  Maily  wrought,  and  takes  a  good  poliah.  The 
Talnftble  pi^ont  called  Ultramaime  (q.  v.)  is  made 
from  it  It  u  one  of  the  miuerala  aomettmes  called 
■Aaat  Stone. 

LA'PITH^,  a  wiU  race,  inhabitini, 

times,  the  mountains  of  Thesaaly.     "fliey  derived 
their  name  from  a  mythical . 


work.  All  L's  importwit  inveatigationa  were 
made  for  the  purpoeo  of  testing  the  generality  ol 
the  law  of  gravitation,  and  the  cauae  of  sundry 
irregularities  in  the  motions  of  the  planets.  His 
works  comprise  many  able  treatiaea  on  particular 
snbjecta  in  Aatronomy,  Pore  Mathematioa,  Proba- 
bilities, Mechanics,  ^at,  and  Eeotricity;  most  ol 
them  being  Memoirs  communicated  to  the  Academy 


of  Apollo,  and  the  brother  of  Centauros,  the  equally 
mythical  anceator  of  the  Centaurs  (q.  v.).  A  Moody 
war  ia  said  to  have  been  waged  between  the  kindred 
racea  in  pre-hiatorio  times,  which  ended  in  the 
defeat  of  the  Centaura,  but  tbe  L.  were  in  their  turn 
■nbdned  by  Hercules. 

LAPLACE,  PiRRRE  SWON,  MABguis  DK,  one  ot 
le  oreatest  ot  mathematioiana  and  aatronomers, 
.  »«  bom  23d  March  1749,  at  Beaumont-en-Auge, 
in  the  department  of  Calvados,  waa  for  some  time 
a  teacher  of  mathematics  in  the  militaiy  school 
there,  and  afterwarda  went  to  Paris,  where^  having 
attracted  the  notice  of  D'Alembert,  he  waa,  tlrou^ 
his  inftuence,  appointed  professor  in  tie  military 
"chool,  and  waa  admitted  a  member  ot  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.  Ha  had  \y  this  time  maatered  the 
whoU  range  of  mathematical  science,  aa  then  known, 
and  had  beaidea  solved  several  problems,  which  had 
for  many  years  defied  tie  attempta  of  geometers; 
■"  """  ■'■  occurred  to  hun  to  devote  hia  mathe- 
'era  to  the  servioe   of  astronomy,  and 

^ycommenced  to  plan  the  work  whioh 

JftBTWarda  appeared  as  the  M(e<m 


liA'PJLAND.    The  territory  atill  known  nndar 

is  name  does  not  constitute  a  separate  poUtioal 
-..^aomy,  but  is  included  nuder  the  domiaiona 
of  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  of  Buasio.  L,  or  the 
Land  of  the  Lappa,  whioh  ia  called  by  the  natives 
Sameando,  or  Somellada,  oooupies  the  north  and 
north-eaat  portions  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
and  the  extreme  north-western  diafaicta  of  the 
Rnaaian  dominion,  within  the  grand-dudiy  of  Pin- 
land.  Norwegian  L,  ia  included  under  the  provinces 
of  Norrland  and  Finmark  ;  Swedish  L  under.'North 
and  SouUi  Bothnia,  and  divided  into  Tomett,  Lule*, 
Piteft,  TJmeL  Aselfi  Lappmork ;  Rosaian  L  under 
Finland,  in  the  circles  of  Semi  and  Kola.  Norwe- 
gian L.  comprises  an  area  of  nearly  26,600  sqnare 
miles,  with  a  native  popuhition  of  5000 ;  Swedish 
L,  an  area  of  60,600  square  mika,  with  4000  iaha> 
bitants ;  and  Russian  L,  an  area  of  11,300 


miles,  with  a  population  of  SSOO.    These  nnmb«n 
refer  merely  to  the  true  Lappa,  in  additiou 
there  are  Finns,  Swedes,  Norwegians,  and 


settled  in  various  parts  of  the  lAppiah  territory, 
whose  reapective  numbers  probably  bring  the  popu- 
lation of  the  several  paita  to  abont  the  followmg 
figures — viz.,  for  Norw^ian  L,  about  50,000;  for 
Swedish  L,  about  14,IKI0;  and  fur  Buasian  L., 
about  60.000 ;  but  the  boundaries  of  these  divisiona 
are  so  loosely  defined,  and  liieir  areas  and  popula- 
tions so  variously  given  by  different  writers,  that  it 
ia  difficult  to  arrive  at  on  accorato  estimate  of 
either.  The  climate  of  the  Lappish  territory  ta 
extremely  cold  for  nine  months  of  the  year;  while 
the  exaeedve  heat  of  July  and  August,  when  in  the 
northernmost  parts  the  sun  never  seta  for  several 


nrwds  appeared  as  the  Mfeani^ue  Cllate,    In   country  is  covered 
politieal  life,  L.  presents  a  sorry  picture.    He  |  surface  withforerta. 


considerable  part  of  its 
with  foreata,  consisting  chiefly  of  binh,  pine,       , 


ti  ftilA-tACTrtSO. 


St,  ftnd  alder,  and  hxTing  an  nudorgiuwUi  of  liohena 
Bi^  moOM,  whioK  mpply  abiindant  food  for  the 
horde  of  reindeer  whii^ti  oomtitDto  the  piindpal 
■ources  of  wealtli  to  tile  inhabitantB.  Many  elerated 
tract!  are,  however,  entirely  deatitnta  of  vegetatiori, 
and  ooosequentlj  oniobabitable. 

The  LuM  or  liAruLtrDna,  who  are  claiaed 
ethaologicAllj  in  the  aame  family  aa  the  Finiu, 
Esthooiaae,  and  Livoniana,  and  who  oocupy  the 
moat  northern  parta  of  tiie  SoaodinaTiaa  pMunnla, 
are  diitingoiibed,  ia  aoconUnee  with  the  ttfitan  of 
tiieir  pnrauita,  aa  the  Sodapma  and  the  Bodmpei, 
or  the  Seafuing  and  Land-tiUing  Lamjs.  They 
were  originally  all  nomadio ;  bnt  the  diffionlty  o' 
finding  mfficient  food  witliiii  the  limited  ipaoe  ti 
which  the  increasing  oiTiliaation  of  the  neighbonrin) 
people  had  gradn^y  restricted  them,  haa  com 
polled  tome  of  the  tribes  to  settle  near  the  larger 
riven  and  lokee,  where  they  follow  the  puctuta  of 
fiahing  and  huntins  with  considerable  mcoen. 
They  shew  greet  ekill  aa  marknaen,  and  regularly 
aapply  the  large  anaoal  marliGta  of  Vitangl  and 
Eengia  with  game  and  akina,  which  are  aent  by 
Tomei  to  Stoclcholm,  where  they  find  a  ready 
mart.  The  Lappa,  who  call  themaelTea  the  Sami  or 
Sahmdadt,  are  a  phyBically  ill-developed,  diminu- 
tive  race,  with  intiil  eyea,  low  forehead,  hiidi  cheek- 
bonea,  pointed  chin,  and  acanty  beard.  They  are, 
however,  neither  wanting  in  mental  capacity  nor 
manual  dexterity ;  and  in  the  Seminary  for  Lapp 
teachera  at  TroadeDoee,  in  tile  diatrict  ot  8er~~~ 
several  oEtheatudenta  have  diatdngniahed  tiiona 
by  their  extensive  acqoiremenlai  In  the  mythical 
iogas  of  Scandinavia,  the  Lappa  are  rapnaented  aa 
an  interior  race,  distinffoished  only  for  oraft  and 
tre»cbei7,  and  addictM  to  practiceo  of  s<»oety. 
They  are  regarded,  in  aecordaiiee  with  the  same 
anthocitiai,  as  the  original  oocnpiera  of  the  whole 
of  Scandinavia,  from  the  fertile  ukd  more  aonthem 
portiona  of  which  they  were  in  ancient  times 
driven  fortii  by  the  anperior,  god-deicended  race  of 
Odin,  who  baniahed  than  to  the  inhospitable 
rt^ons  in  which  they  are  now  drcumsoribed. 
Tneir  tendency  to  deceit  is  foobably  in  a  great 
meoaare  to  be  attiibnted  to  the  ii^erior  potitioa  in 
which  they  are  kept  by  the  N^orw^iana,  Swedes, 
and  Rnssians,  near  whom  they  live,  for  they  ars 
honeet,  and  strongly  attached  to  their  own  paopls 
and  coantry ;  aad  althongh  they  are  still  snpersti- 
tioos  and  creditloos,  they  are  not  devoid  of  relisionB 
seatiment.  Tbey  conform  to  the  Christian  faith 
of  their  neighbours — the  Norwegion  Lapps  belong- 
ing to  the  LathersD,  and  the  Russian  L^ns  to 
the  Greek  Church.  The  Bible  has  been  translated 
into  their  own  language,  which  is  divided,  like  that 
of  all  nomadic  trilws,  mto  nmnerona  dialecta,  whoee 
many  affinities  and  differencea  have  of  late  yeois 
attracted  mach  attention  Efom  Northern  and  Ger- 
man philologists.  The  number  of  the  Lapps  prob- 
ably talla  below  20,000  (see  above),  of  whom  about 
half  are  included  in  the  population  of  Sweden 
and  Norway,  and  half  within  the  Rueaian  domin- 
iona.  The  r^deer  ia  the  chief  sonrce  of  wealth, 
anpplying  the  people  with  most  of  the  artidei 
of  food  and  dothing  which  they  use.  Their 
dwelliDgs  oonsiat  either  of  conicoUy  shaped  mud- 
hnta,  raised  on  atakea,  and  almost  impervious  to 
light  and  air,  or  of  hide-oovered  tents.  Towns 
or  villages  are  onknown  amongst  them.  The 
contempt  with  which  they  are  regarded  by  the 
UH,  well-developed  Norwegian  peasants,  hinders  lil 
■inalgamation  between  the  races,  white  their  peculiar 
habit^  and  the  tenacity  with  which  they  clinz  to 
their  own  custom*,  teniu  stdlt  more  to  isolate  t£em 
from  the  neighbouring  nations. 
IiA  PLAT^    See  ABQsnmn  Rifoblio: 


LA.  PORTE,  a  flonrtshing  town  in  tiie  north-west 
of  Indiana,  United  States  of  America,  12  miles  front 
Lake  Midiigan,  and  at  the  jnnetion  of  wartnl 
important  railways.  It  oontaina  II  ohnrohe^  a 
medical  college,  3  newspapers,  and  large  foondnei^ 
machine-shops,  and  manofaotories.  Pop^  (1S80)  619& 

LAPPENBERG,  Jokakk  Hartbt,  a  6«nnan 
historian,  was  bom  30th  July  1T9<  in  Hambmv; 
He  atndied  medicine  at  Edinburdi,  but  afterwBr& 
deroted  himself  to  historioal  ai^  political  studies. 
He  reeided  for  lome  time  in  London,  and  afterwarda 
studied  law  and  history  in  Berlin  and  Gsttingen. 
He  became  the  represenUtive  of  hia  native  city 
at  the  Fruasian  oourt  in  1820,  and  in  1823  was 
appointed   aichiviat  to  the  Hamborg   senate,   an 

?--—---».  _i:-»-  i-j  1-  I-!-   3!. y  of  man'" 

ipposed  t 


works  is  B  OaAidUe  von  England  (2  vols.  Hambu 
1834^1837 ;  with  continuation  in  3  vols.  Hamb. 
1853,  and  Gotha,  1850^1868,  brinnng  down  the 
history  to  the  end  of  Hennr  Vil?a  rdgn) ;  the 
first  vdome  of  which  hoa  been  banslated  into 
Enj^  by  K  Thorpe,  with  the  titie  of  A  Bulory 
q/*  Snghnd  ntuUr  the  Anglo-Saaon  Kinat  {2  vols. 
Load.  1S4C),  and  the  aeoond,  with  that  of  A 
Hi^jjTTI^  England  laider  tht  NormtM  Kingt  (1  voL 
18B7j.  Hew»sthBa^tho^alsoofthefollow^ngw<a^^s, 
which  are  remarkable  for  the  care  and  reaearch 
which  Ibey  diaplay;  viz.,  UrhtadUehe  Otachkhte 
dt*  Urumaigt  der  iJewfscAoi  Hanta  (2  vola.  Hant- 
hattt,  I@0) ;  I>k  0e»chieht«  ff^gokmdi  (Hambui;^ 
1831);  alao  an  edition  of  Ditmac  of  Mersebni;^ 
and  many  valaabls  works  lelatbg  specially  to 
Hamburg  and  Bremen.    He  died  in  18e£ 

LAP8K  A  legacy  ii  said  to  l^«e  if  the  legitH 
dies  before  the  testator ;  f or  aa  a  will  oaly  operates 
from  the  death  of  the  testator,  and  at  titat  tuns  tha 
l^iatee  ia  dead,  the  legacy  lapses ;  L  &,  blla  into  and 
b^nuB  part  of  the  residoair  estate.  So  aa  to 
a  dsTtse.    See  LaaAor. 

LAPSED  (Lapti),  the  designation  applied.  In  tha 
early  centuries  of  the  Christian  Church,  to  those 
who.  overcome  by  heathen  pereecntion,  did  not  eon- 
<  futhful  to  the  Christian  religion.  Their  num- 
rss  most  considerable,  when,  after  a  lo[ur  time 
ace,  the  first  general  pereecution  under  Decins 
I ;  but  those  who  MYed  themsalTes  by  flight 
reckoned  amongst  the  L,  although  their  osm 
not  regarded  as  eqQaSy  bad  with  that  of 
those  who  sacrificed  to  idola.  The  I>.  were  at  flist 
hed  by  sxcommunicatiao,  and  tiieir  reception 
the  cliuroh  again  was  atrenuoosly  lenstad; 
in  tha  3d  c  a  milder  course  was  gsner^y 
adopted  with  r^ard  to  tham.  The  trcatanent  of 
the  lapsed  was  one  of  the  practical  qnestioiH  moat 
aomeetly  discussed  in  the  early  ohurt±. 

LAPWING  [Vaitdhu),  a  genns  of  tnida  ot  Uie 
family  Gharadriada  (Plovers.  Ac),  differing   from 
"--     ilovera  chiedy  in  having  a  hind-toe,  which, 
ver,   is   smaU.      The  naiud  grooves   are  also 


iatu$),  ia  a  well-known  British  bird.  _. .   _ 

native  of  almost  all  porta  of  Europe,  and  of  some 
parte  of  Aaia  and  of  Africa    It  is  found  in  Bengal, 
m  China,  in  Japan,  and  in  Iceland ;  bat  it  is  not 
native  of  America.     It  ia  not  quite  so  large  aa 
jrigeon,  and  has  the  head  anrmounted  witii  • 


,,Cie)Ogl( 


ujt-Utowrt. 


gloottdih  Pntmtp),  iritli  the  F^enoh  Dixhmt,  ths 
mdirii  W^  the  Damih  Kimt  uid  Vxbt,  the  old 
EnglMh  Wype,  the  Oreek  Ate,  kxi.,  from  the  plain- 
tire  note;  Uie  loc»l  Soottuh  Ttudt^head  (Tnftheed), 
from  the  onated  head.  The  L.  U  Ter;  plentifol 
in  moon,  open  oommoiu,  tuid  m»i«liy  tnoti,  in 
pail*  dnnue  the  breeding-MMOii ;  and  in  winter  in 
Book*,  ahiSf  on  the  lea-Bhare.  Iti  utifioea  to 
pcwrent  tita  diicoveiy  lA  iti  neat  are  Tsiy  intereatdng. 


Lapwing  (r.erWaftu). 

The  neat  ia  little  more  than  a  mere  deprearion 
in  the  groond,  and  the  fuU  complement  of  tigffi  a 
lumallf  f onr ;  bnt  if  some  are  taken  away,  the 
bird  goea  on  laj^g,  an  ioatinct  of  which  the  ^g- 
gntheren  take  advantage.  The  t^g/i  are  uteemed 
a  great  delicacy,  and  great  nnmben  are  sent  to  the 
London  market,  nnder  the  name  of  Piova-»'  Shot, 
from  the  marahv  di«trict«  of  En^ond.  The  bud 
itself  ii  alao  h^hjy  eateemed  for  the  table. — A  pet 
L.  in  a  givrden  u  of  great  aerrice  in  preventing  the 
too  greM  increaae  of  worms  and  iltjgi.— 3ome  ipeciea 
of  L.  have  wattles  at  the  base  of  the  bilL'—Tlie 
Tkru-tbho  of  Sonth  Amerioa  (T.  Caj/anmtii),  a 
^>eciee  witJi  Bpnra  on  the  wioge,  abomkda  on  the 
fampaa  of  Sonth  Amerioo,  ia  noiay  on  the  tpTOfMch 
of  tnivellera,  like  the  oommoo  h.,  and  ita  ^ga  are 
likewiae  in  the  higjieat  eeteem  a«  a  delicacy. 

LAR,  on  impOTtant  town  of  Perna,  capital  of  the 
jiTovince  U  Lariitan,  ia  aitnatod  on  a  well-wooded 
plain,  at  the  foot  of  a  ridge  of  hilla,  60  milea  from 
the  Fenian  Gnlf,  and  180  milca  sonth -aouth-eaat  of 
fihiroz.  The  buaor  of  Iat  ia  said  to  b«  the  fineat 
and  moat  elaborate  in  Peraia.  Pop.  12,000,  who 
manafactnre  sworda,  muaketa,  and  cotton-doth. 

LARBOARD,  an  obeolate  nt.nl  term  for  the  left 
ride  of  a  veesel,  looting /ancards.  From  its  liability 
to  be  confused  bv  the  rteeraman  witi  the  not  TBry 
different  sound,  starboard,'  the  word  was  a  few 
years  ago  officially  abolished,  and  the  expression 
'  port'  arbitrarily  aubatitnted.  The  terms  elarboard 
•nd  larboard  were  originally  Italian— ™«to  bordo, 
this  aide  (the  right);  and  qu^  bordo,  that  side  (the 
left) ;  which  were  contracted  into  'ato  bordo  and 
'Id  bordo,  and  finally  became  starboard  and  larboard. 
TiiB  word  port  is  said  to  be  an  abbreriation  of  porta 
la  timone,  '  cany  the  helm,'  suagesting  the  analogy 
of  porliDgthe  arms  on  the  left  Wtd. 

LAUCBmr  la  the  technical  leg^  term  naed  in 

England  and  Ireland  to  denote  the 

Simple  larceny 

wny  is  defined 


to  denote  the  crime  of  stealinz. 
a  larceny  unaccompanied  wIul 
Dstancea  of  Kgnvation.    Jjv- 


•onal,  with  intent  to  deprive  the  owner,  uid  without 
bis  conwDt.  On  each  word  and  phrase  ot  this  defi- 
DitioD  many  commentaries  have  been  wiittai;  bnt 
M  •tvtImM]'  nndentanda  what  theft  ii^  it  ia  Kwcely 


detaHid  enlanationa  as  to 

' attending  ita  peipe- 

ich  was  very  de&o- 


pigeona,  dogs,  oyaten,  Tec;etable«,  fnuta,  fiztniea, 
kc,  hais  been  amanded  by  var  "  ~     ■  ■  ^ 
]Moviaiona  of  irtiioh  hare  bami 
dated  in  th«  reoent  act  £4  and  2S  TioL  i 

n  law  WM,  tha 
r  be  ooDTioted  o 


goodalawfolly,  in  the  fint  inatanoe ;  bnt  now  thcae 
M-aoni  may  be  convicted  of  stealing,  like  othen. 
Formerly,  there  waa  a  diatinetion  between  petty 
larceny  Mid  grand  larceny,  according  as  the  value 
of  the  thing  stolen  waa  ondar  or  above  twelvepence ; 
and  theniniahment  waa  more  severe  in  the  latter 
case.  The  distjnotion  has  been  abolished,  snd  in 
all  caaea  the  crime  «f  larceny  is  felony,  though  there 
are  certain  things,  snoh  as  fruit,  vegetables,  harM 
fte.,  the  taking  ot  which,  though  nnlawfnl,  and 
often  oaQed  stealing,  is  not  trsided  aa  anah,  bnt 
is  pnnishad  by  a  modenta  fine  or  imprisonment. 
Wnoerer  eraruptly  takes  a  reward  nnder  ptotenee 
of  oaaisting  in  reoorsring  stolen  property,  nnlea 
ha  nae  dne  diligence  to  oauae  the  onenaor  to  be 
brought  to  tria^  is  gnilty  ot  felony,  and  liable  to 
seven  years'  pen^  servitude,  or  two  years'  impriaon- 
ment  Whoever  shall  pnbfioly  advertise  a  reward 
for  the  return  of  stolen  property,  stating  that  no 
questions  will  be  asked,  or  promising  t«  retum  to 
pawnbrokan  or  others  any  money  advanced  on  such 
property,  snd  also  whoever  shall  print  or  publish 
snim  advertisement,  shall  forfeit  £00  to  any  person 
who  will  sue  for  the  same. 

The  pnnifhment  of  larceny  has  Taried  in  this  aa 
In  all  countries.  In  the  Jnnsh  law,  it  was  panish- 
able  by  fine  and  aatisfactian  to  the  owner.  At 
Athens,  it  waa  converted  from  a  capital  offenoe 
into   an  offence  punishable  by  fine.     Our  Saion 


became  subject  afterwarda  to  the  aoftening  effects 
of  the  Benefit  of  Clergy  (q.v.).  In  1827,  tha  dis- 
tinction of  peHy  larceny  was  abolished,  and  every 
person  convicted  of  simple  larceny  of  any  amount, 
waa  made  liable  either  to  transporl«tion  or  impri- 
sonment ;  but  later  atatntes  have  abolished  the 
punishment  of  tnuiaportation,  and  now  the  general 
punishment  for  simple  larceny,  and  tor  Monies 
punishable  like  simple  larceny,  ia  penal  servitude 
for  three  years,  or  fmpriscnment  not  exceeding 
two  years,  with  or  without  hard  labour  and  solitary 
confinement,  and  in  the  case  of  a  male  nnder  IB, 
with  or  without  whipping — such  whipping  to  be 
administered  by  a  bu«h-rod,  and  not  more  than 
twelve  strokes.  In  case  of  previous  ofTenceB,  the 
t«rm  of  penal  servitude  may  be  extended  to  seven 
or  ten  years.  In  some  cases  considered  to  be 
attended  with  great  amiavstion,  as  stealing  linen, 
woollen,  silken,  &C.  gooaa  while  in  prooesa  of  mana- 
facture,  if  of  the  VEdue  of  ten  shillinga,  the  term  is 
increased  to  14  years'  penal  servitude.  In  stealing 
cattle,  the  term  is  also  14  yeara,  or  imprisonment  for 
two  years.  larceny  in  a  dwelUnB-honse  of  money 
or  goods  above  five  pounds  in  vwne,  is  subject  to 
14  years'  penal  servitude,  or  two  yeans'  imprisoa- 
ment ;  and  the  same  ia  the  punishment,  whatever 
be  the  value,  if  W  threats  any_  one  therein  is  put 
in  bodily  fear.  The  aame  punishment  is  awarded 
to  larcenies  in  ships,  wharfs,  kc  Larceny  from 
the  pamoQ,  when  attended  with  penonal  violenoe, 
is  called  robbmy.  Robbery  is  felony  punishable 
wi-Ui  14  yeuV  pensl  servitude,  or  two  years'  impri- 
sonment.     If  it  amount  only  to  an  assaolt  with 


..Gdbgl 


LABOEITT— LASCH. 


Intent  to  rob,  the  puni*bmeDt  u  two  yeua'imprieon- 
meat,  or  three  j^xtf  pen*]  lerritnde.  Agun,  if  the 
MMidt  or  robbery  waa  with  offeniivB  wespona,  or 
in  commny  with  other  criminBlB,  or  attended  with 
penonfu  violeiice,  tJie  paninhinent  is  penal  servitude 
for  lif&  LATCeny  by  a  clerk  or  Berront  is  pnmsh- 
able  witb  14  yeara  penal  Berritade,  or  two  years' 
impriaoiunent.  Luoeny  of  letters  by  post-office 
letter-canien  is  panishable  with  seren  yean'  penal 
•erritnde,  or  two  years'  impiisomnent,  and  if  the 
letter  oontained  money,  with  peik^  servitude  for  life. 
BeeedTen  of  stolen  property  are  also  guilty  of  felony, 
and  piwiahed  with  14  yean'  penal  servitude,  or  two 
yeair  impriaonment. 

Beddet  the  offences  nnder  the  Hud  of  Inrooty 
which  are  indictable,  there  are  many  cognate 
offences  which  have  been  included  in  the  same 
oonsoUdation  statute,  but  which  are  oonaidmed  so 
far  of  a  petty  nature  as  not  to  merit  the  solemn 
punishment  by  indictment,  and  are  left  to  be 
punished  snmmarily  by  jnstu»s  of  the  peaoe.  Thus, 
some  offences  relatmg  to  wild  «"'■"«!«  and  game  are 
BO  treated ;  for  example,  hunting,  carrying  away  or 
killins  deer  in  the  unenclosed  part  of  a  forest  or 
park  IS  punishable  by  jnstioea  with  a  fine  of  £50 ; 
and  persons  in  posaeadon  of  deer-skins,  and  not 
acoonnting  for  Uiem,  or  settiDg  snares  for  deer, 
incur  a  p^ial^  of  £30.  Taking  or  killing  or  Botting 
snares  nnlawnillj  for  hares  or  rabbiCa  in  enclosed 
n^mnd  by  day,  gubjectB  the  par^  to  a  penalty  of 
£&.  Stealing  a  dog  is  subject  to  a  penalty  of  £20, 
over  and  above  the  value  of  the  dog ;  and  baring 
a  stolen  dog  or  ita  skin  in  one's  poaseaaioD,  subject! 
to  a  penalty  of  £20.  Stealing  birds,  beasts,  or  other 
Bniiii«l«  ardinaiily  kept  in  a  state  of  confinement,  or 
tor  any  domestic  purpose  (not  being  fit  for  food). 
tie  wilfully  killing  the  same,  with  intent  to  steal, 
nbjecta  to  a  penal^  of  £20,  besides  the  value,  or 
to  idr  months  impriBonment  Killing  or  wounding 
boQte^Dvei  or  pigoona  subiecta  the  party  to  a 
penalty  of  £2,  brides  the  value  of  the  bird.  Taking 
or  deatioying  fi«h  in  a  atream  or  water  whiclk  is 
private  property,  nabiects  the  party  to  a  penalty 
of  £6,  besidea  the  t^ub  of  the  fish ;  and  angling 
in  the  same  induoea  a  penalty  of  £2,  besides  seizure 
of  the  fishins-taclde.  SteoUng  trees  and  shrubs 
or  underwood  worth  1(.,  subjects  the  party  to  a 
penalty  of  £6 ;  so  does  stealing  or  desbvying 
jeDoea,  or  poeta,  wires,  &c.,  used  as  such.  Stealing 
fruit  or  vegetables  from  nrdens,  &e.,  Eubjects  the 
par^  to  a  penalty  of  ^0,  beaides  the  value,  or 
to  SIX  montas'  impriaonment.  Stealing  cultivated 
roots  or  plants  used  for  the  food  of  man  or  beast, 
or  for  mediuine,  growing  in  fields,  &c,  subjects  the 
party  to  a  fine  of  20^.,  besides  the  value,  or  to  one 
month's  imprisonmeni  Having  ehipwrecked  goods 
knowingly  in  one's  possession,  or  enMing  the  some 
for  sole,  subjects  to  a  penalty  of  £20,  '^idea  the 
value,  or  to  sis  months'  imprisonment.  See  Loar 
Pkopkbtt. 

In  Scotland,  theft  \a  distipg""^**^  into  trifiing 
theft  or  pickery,  which  is  punishable  with  fine, 
impriBonment,  or  whipping.  Simple  theft  waa 
nerer  a  capital  offence,  nnl^  aggravated,  as  theft 
by  a  trustee,  theft  of  cattle,  or  of  children.  The 
punishment  of  theft  in  Scotland  is  left  very  much 
to  the  discretion  of  the  court 

LAHOH  [Larix],  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  ConifaiB,  differing  from  fin  (Abiei) — of  which, 
however,  some  botaniata  regard  it  as  a  mere  sub- 
genus— in  having  the  scales  of  the  conea  attenuated 
at  the  tip,  and  not  falliiw  off  from  tbe  axis  of  the 
oone  when  fully  ripe,  and  the  leaves  deddnoiu  and 
in  duatms,  ejuept  on  eboots  of  the  same  year, 
which  they  are  smgle  and  oeattered. — The  Com 
U  (L.  E%m>pasa  or  Abiea  LaHx)  '••  •  ' — "*""'  *■ 


t,  beautifu]  ti 


growing  wild  on  the  mountain*  of  the  south  and 

middle  of  Europe,  and  found  also  in  Asia,  where  it 
extends  much  furUier  north  than  in  Europe,  even  to 
the  limits  of  perpetual  snow.  The  L.  is  not  a 
native  of  Britam,  and  waa  not  planted  in  any  part 
of  the  island  aa  a  forest  tree  till  the  middle  of 
tlie  18th  0.,  when  it  began  to  be  very  extensively 
planted.  Ita  introduction  hu  chanseil  the  aspect 
of  whole  districts,  particnlaily  in  Scotland.  The 
perfectly  erect  and  repilarly  tapering  stem  of  the 
L,  its  small  brouohee,  its  regular  conical  form,  and 
its  very  numerous  and  vety  Bmall  leave*,  mako  its 
aspect  peculiar,  and  very  different  from  that  of 
any  other  tree  seen  in  Britain.  It  attaini  a  hei^ 
of  60—100  feet,  and  an  ace  of  200  vean.  The  mala 
catkinii  are  uniall  and  brigbt  ydlow,  the  female 
j-ftHni,  generally  pntple  aoaerect ;  the  cones  ovate- 
oblong,  about  an  inch  long,  and  erect.  The  L.  growi 
rapid^,  and  is  useful  even  from  an  early  am ;  the 
tih  innings  of  a  plantation  being  employed  for  hc^ 
poles,  palings,  &C. ;  the  older  timber  for  a  great 
variety  of  purpoaea. 
It  is  very  resmons, 
does  not  readily  rot 
even  in  water,  is  not 
readily  attacked  by 
worms,  and  is  much 
used  in  ship-building 
It  is,  however,  veiy 
apt  to  warp,  and  is 
therefore  not  well 
suited  for  planks. — 
L.-bark  is  used  for 
tanning,  although  not 
nearly  equal  in  value  to 
ook-l^k. — In  Siberia, 
where  large  trscts  of 
L.  forest  are  not  unfre- 
quently  consumed  by 
accidental  fires,  tbe 
scorched  stems  ^eld, 
instead  of  a  redn,   a 

otabic,    reddish,    and 
completely  soluble  in 

water,  wmch  is  known  

as     Ormburgh     Gum,  Lardi  (t.  Kur^aa'). 

and  Ib  used  for  cement- 
ing and  in  medicine,  and,  notwithstanding  a 
somewhat  reeinous  smell,  even  as  an  artido  of 
food. — In  worm  countries,  a  kind  of  Manna  (q.  T.) 
exudes  from  the  leaves  of  ths  L.,  in  the  botteat 
Beoaon  of  the  year,  having  a  sweetiah  taste,  with  a 
slight  flavonr  of  turpentine.  It  is  gathered  prin- 
ciMlly  in  France,  and  is  known  as  Bnanfon 
Manna,  or  L.  Maima. — The  L.  woods  of  Britain 
baveoE  late  years  suffered  greatly  from  a  diaeaaa, 
in  which  (he  centre  of  t£e  stem  decays;  the 
nature  and  cansea  of  which  are  very  imperfectly 
iderstood,  although  it  seems   to   be   sufficiently 


liable  to  it  which  are  formed  where  any  kind  ._  . 
has  previously  grown,  and  those  least  so  which  ara 
regularly  thinned,  bo  that  the  treee  enjoy  abundance 
of  freah  air.  The  L.  doea  not  dislike  moisture,  but 
stagnation  of  water  is  very  injurious  to  it,  and 
thorough  drainage  is  ther^ore  necessary. — There 
are  varietiea  of  the  Common  L.  remarkable  for 
crowded  branches,  for  pendulous  branches,  and  for 
other  pecuIiariticB,  which  are  sometimes  planted 
as  ornamental  trees.— The  Rbd  Aukrican  L., 
or  Hacehatace  {L.  lami/olia),  distinguished 
by  veiy  small  conea  not  quite  half  an  mch  in 
leagth,  is  common  in  the  northern  parts  of  North 
America,  and  on  the  Alle^iany  Mountains,  often 
covering  extensive  tracts.     It  is  a  noble  tree,  much 


..Google 


I  Imigar  Qua  thoM  of  the  Oommoa  Lkroh. 
Iti  wood  ii  Tery  donble. 

IiARD,  the  fat  of  ths  hog.  Until  After  the  fint 
qiuitco'  of  the  preaeiit  oentary,  lard  wai  only  lued 
for  colinai^  poipoKo,  and  aa  the  baM  of  Taiions 
ointmaitB  m  medical  nae.  The  enoimDiia  extent, 
howeTBT,  to  iriuch  porit  wm  r^ed  in  Amerie*, 
nodosd  it  neosnaiy  to  find  eome  other  wiIicatiotM 
lor  ao  Talnable  a  material,  end  large  qnaB*-" 


for  ouidle-making ;  and  the  letter  loon  became 
«  veij  important  article  of  oommerce,  nnder  the 
DMne  of '  lard  oil,'  which  wae  found  to  be  a  raliuble 
labiicant  for  machinery.  A*  much  as  20,000  tona 
of  lard,  atearine  of  Urd,  and  lurd  oil  have  been 
imported  in  one  year,  more  than  two-thirde  of 
which  wme  from  tiie  United  Statee  of  America. 
Tba  manaftrctiire  of  stearine  oandlea  and  fine  oleine 
{rom  palm  oil,  coooa-nnt  oil,  and  variotu  kinds  of 
Kr«Me,  by  Msmts  Frioe  ft  Co.,  and  other  large  mann- 
Motttref^  has  greatly  diminiahed  the  impMta  from 
AuMrica. 

LABDNEB,  Kathantsl,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
^M^iab  divine,  waa  bomat  Hawkehtirst,inKent,  in 
I6M,  and  stndied  first  in  London,  and  afterwiuija  at 
Utrecht  and  Lcjden.  L.  belonged  to  a  body  of 
Rngliah  PretbjfleTiaiu,  who  had  become  Unitanana. 
He  died  in  17fB.  L.  wm  not  apopolar  preacher;  bat 
hia  CndSnlOs  ^  the  OoqwI  f  wtorv,  and  hie  JetcuA 
aitd  HeaOtm  Ttttmoitia,  have  lecored  far  him  a 
pmmanent  place  among  the  modem  apologtiti  for 
Chriatiaiiity.  The  lait  edition  of  hii  worlu,  in  ten 
Tolnmea,  appeared  at  London  in  1828. 

LABDNEB.  BiONTSius,  LL.D.,  a  diatingnished 
writar  on  physical  icience,  was  bom  in  Dublin, 
April  3,  1793,  and  fiiet  become  biown  by  hia 
TmUiK  on  AlgAraiad  Geometry  (Lond.  1S23;,  and 
by  a  wotk  on  One  Hiferenlial  and  Initgral  Caleulva 
(Load.  1S2G).  In  1828,  he  was  appointed  Profeesor 
of  NatnnI  Philaaophy  and  Aitnioomy  in  Uaiveriity 
C^dl^e,  London ;  and  in  1830,  he  projected  a  sort 
of  encyclopeedia,  oooaiating  of  oiiginar  treBtiaea  on 
hirtoiy,  acience,  ecooomics,  kc,  by  the  moat  eminent 
kuthoia;  and  134  votamea  were  accordingly  pub- 
fiahed,  imder  the  general  name  of  LardnePi  Cydo- 
fodia,  between  1830  and  1S44  Some  of  tjieee 
Tolomea  were  from  his  own  pen.  A  aecond  iasae  of 
thi*  work  was  Iwon  in  1853.  He  published  vari- 
ona  Bcientifio  works,  the  moat  important  of  which 
are  hia  'handboolu'  of  vorioos  bnuichea  of  ikatural 
pUloaophy  (1854— 18S6).  L.  was  abo  the  aothor  of 
tiM  Mti4eum  o/Seientt  and  Art,  an  excellent  popu- 
lar axpontioQ  of  the  phyaical  acieneea,  with  their 
iftplications.    HediedinNaplM,April29, 1859. 

LA-KES,  MA'NES,  iiro  PENATES,  were  tuto- 
lar7  apirita,  ^;enit,  or  deities  of  the  ancient  Bomana. 
Hm  derivation  of  the  names  is  not  perhaps  quite 
Cflrtain,  bvt  the  first  is  geneislly  oousidered  the 
plnnl  of  Ear,  an  Etntscan  word  signi^ng  'lord'  or 
'  hero ; '  the  second  is  sninioBed  to  mean  '  t£e  good  or 
benevolent  onea ; '  and  the  third  is  eonnected  with 
pmtm, '  Qm  innennoat  part  of  a  honse  or  sanctnary.' 
Tine  Lann,  Manee,  andPenatea  do  not  appear  to  have 
been  r^arded  aa  eauntially  different  beings,  for 
the  name!  are  frequently  naed  either  interchange- 
ably or  in  inch  a  conjunction  aa  almost  impUe* 
identi^.  Yet  some  have  thooght  that  a  distinction 
ia  diacaniible,  and  have  looked  upon  Uia  I^res  as 


earthly,  the  Manea  as  infernal,  and  the  Penates  aa 
heavenly  protector* — a  notion  which  hM  probably 
originatedT  in  the  fact,  that  Mane*  is  a  generd 
name  for  the  souls  of  the  departed,  those  who 
inhabit  the  lower  world  ;  while  among  the  Penates 
ore  included  such  great  deities  as  Jupiter,  Juno, 
Vesta,  Ac  Hence  we  may  perbape  infer  that  the 
Manes  were  just  the  Lares  viewed  aa  departed  apirita, 
and  that  the  Penates  embraced  not  omy  the  Larea, 
but  all  spirits,  whether  daunons  or  deities,  who 
exercised  a  '  special  provideiice '  over  families,  dtiea, 
fta  Of  the  framar.  Manes,  we  know  almost  nothiiw 
distinctively.  An  annual  festival  was  held  in  their 
honour,  on  the  19th  of  Febmary,  called  Feralia  or 
Parentalia;  of  the  latter,  Penates,  we  are  in  nearly 

XJ  ignOTBnce,  but  of  the  Xmrtt  we  have  a  smne- 
t  detailed  account.   They  were,  like  the  Penates, 
divided  into  two  classes— Zare*  domeetid,  and  Lartt 
puHiei.     The   former  were   the   souls  of  virtuous 
ancestors  set  free  from  the  realm  of  shades  by  the 
Acheroutic  rites,  and  exalted  to  the  rank  of  pro- 
tectors of  their  descendants.    They  were,  in  shtnt, 
household-gods,  and   their  woiship  was    really 
worship  of  aneestort.     The  first  of   "      ' 
point  of  honour  was  the  Lar/amiliaH 
of  the  hoQse,  the  family  Lar,  who  ai 
in  all  its  changes  of  residence.    The 
bad   a   wider    sphere   of   influence, 
particular  names  from  the  places  ove 

ruled.    Thus,  we  read  of  ioriM  aompito    . ; 

of  cross-roads),  Lara  vironim  (tlie  Lares  of  streets), 
the  Lartt  rwraU»  (the  rural  Lares),  Lara  vidSa  (the 
Lares  of  the  highways),  Lara  pcrmariid  (the  Larea 
of  the  sea),  and  (he  Lara  aibiculi  (the  Lares  of  the 
bedchamber).  The  images  of  these  guardian  spiiita 
or  deities  were  placed  (at  least  in  large  houses)  in 
a  small  shrine  or  compartment  called  adieula  oi 
lararia.  They  were  worshipped  every  day  :  when- 
ever a  Koman  family  sat  down  to  meals,  a  portion 
of  the  food  was  presented  to  them ;  but  particular 
hfmonre  were  paid  to  them  on  the  Calends,  Nonea, 
and  Ides  of  the  month ;  and  at  festive  gatheringB,  the 
lararia  were  thrown  open,  and  the  images  of  the 
household  gods  were  adorned  with  garlands. 

LAROES9E,  money  which,  in  early  times,  it  was 
the  practice  '- '  '"   *"  — "-   "~   — '"'~  "'"'^" 


recorded,  in  one  of  the  Ashmolean  MSS..  were, '  At 
coronacion  of  tiie  king  of  England,  c£  apparalled 
scarlet.  At  the  displaying  of  tiie  kinge't 
banner  in  any  campe,  c  markn.  At  the  difplayuig 
of  a  dnhe's  banner,  £30  ;  at  a  marquis',  20  morkes ; 
carle's,  10  morkes.  The  king  marrying  a 
wife,  iSO,  with  the  giftes  of  the  kioee's  and  qneane*! 
uppermost  nrraenft ;  at  the  birth  of  the  kinge'r 
eldest  son,  loo  nutrkes;   at  the  birth  of  - — 


yonngflff 
children,  ^20.  The  king  being  at  any  syge  with  UM 
crowae  on  his  head,  £5.^ 

LAKGO,  an  Italian  word,  used  in  music,  to  denote 
the  aluweet  of  all  the  temjpi,  and  especially  in 
compositions  where  the  sentiment  is  quite  solemn. 
LARaHETTO  is  the  diminutive  of  Largo. 

LAKGS,  a  amall  town  on  the  coast  of  Ayrshire, 
Scotland,  a  favourite  resort  for  seo-bathert,  is 
beautifully  situated  on  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  on  a 
ileasant  strip  of  shore,  backed  by  bills,  18  miles 
elow  Greenock.  The  population,  in  1S81,  was 
079,  but  the  number  is  invaUy  increased  in  mid- 
ummer.  Here,  in  1263,  Alexander  IIL  of  Scotland, 
a  the  course  of  a  war  between  that  country  and 
the  Norwegian  ooloniea  of  Man  and  the  Isles, 
defeated  I&oon,  king  of  Norway,  who,  with  160 
shifM  and  20,000  men,  had  descended  upon  the 
coast  of  Ayr^ire.    T^e  reanlt*  of  this  battie  wen 

nii-u  i.CiOOiJiJ: 


tAitldO— LAfikStTJfi. 


witiidr»wil  of  the  iomding  foroa, 

ud  the  •bandonment  liithiii  time  yeul  of  the 
Norwegian  pretenmoiu  to  the  ScottUk  lalandB. 

LABIOIO.    SBoPnra. 

LA'HID^,'  a  family  of  birds,  of  the  order  Pal- 
mipeda  or  Naiaiora,  called  Longipmnet  by  Cnvier, 
from  the  length  of  wing  which  ii  choracteristJo  of 
them.  Thev  are  genenllj  capable  oE  Drob»«ted 
a*  well  ■■  of  »pid  and  gr&eeful  flight ;  aJl  of  thent 
are  lea-birda,  althooglt  noma  reaort  to  breeding- 
places  at  eome  diotoDce  icland.  and  some  follow  the 
1  ^ J. liderablo  divtanoee  from 


the  aea.  Some  of  them  are  the  moat  oceaoio  of  all 
birds,  being  often  aeen  far  from  any  shore.  They 
Cenerally  take  their  prey  dther  by  a  sudden  descent 
to  the  water  dunng  flight,  or  whilst  swimming, 
and  are  not  good  divers.  The  hind-toe  is  small  ana 
free  ;  Uie  biU  is  pointed  or  hoolied,  bnt  destitute  of 
lamellEe,  Qnlls,  Skuas,  Terns,  Petrels,  Shearwaters, 
Albatrosaes,  Noddies,  Skimmtn,  ftc.,  belong  to  this 
eumerons  &mily,  whioh  has  many  repretentatiTeB 
in  all  pfu:ta  of  the  world.  They  prey  chiefly  on 
fishes  and  moQnsca,  and  are  in  genwal  ready  to  eat 
any  an^"\p]  gafbuEB. 

LARTSSA,  or  .LA.BJ3A  (otUed  I7  the  Tories 
FenifKAv-),  famona  in  ancnsnt  timca  m  the  chief 
town  of  Tbessalf,  is  dill  an  impottant  place  of 
30,000  inhabitants ;  by  t^  nwitunou  inaugnrated 
at  Uie  Berlin  Consrew  ol  1876,  and  conelodad  in 
18S1,  L.  was  ce&d  by  Turkey  to  Greece.  It 
atand*  on  the  Salambria  (ana  Ptntiu),  in  tlie  great 
isrtile  plain  of  Central  liesaaly,  has  a  biiik  trade, 
and  maonfaotorea  silk  and  ootton  goods.  L.  is  the 
•eat  of  a  Greek  archbishop,  sod  has  seTeral  ahorobas, 
as  well  a*  nmneroos  mosques. 

LA'SISTAN  AXD  MOOISTAN,  two  naritime 
provinces  of  Persia,  bounded  on  tha  8.  by  the 
Feniaii  Gnlf,  and  the  Gulf  of  Oman,  and  on  the 
N.  by  the  ^vviuoes  of  Fannstan  and  Kennan. 

IjABK  [Atauda),  a  genns  of  small  birds  of  the 
order  Iruatora,  section  Contrortrea,  the  type  of 
a  family  Alaudida,  to  the  whole  of  which  the 
English  name  i*  commonly  extended.  In  tjiis 
fiunily,  the  bill,  althoogh  stoat,  and  neariy  conical, 
is  more  lengthened  than  in  buntings  and  £nche«. 
The  teen  are  loi^,  and  aaparate  to  the  bass;  the 
daws  long  and  Lttle  curved,  that  of  the  hind-toe 
geoenUy  very  louf^  ThetrnelaHcs  (ji^eaaa  Alauda) 
kave  also  long  wings,  and  great  power  at  flight, 
Uany  of  them  are  birds  of  pMng&  In  oommon 
with  almost  all  the  family,  they  nestle  and  seek 
tiuax  food — seeds,  insects,  worms,  *c, — on  the 
ground ;  and  in  admirable  haimtaiy  with  this  mode 
ot  life,  tlieir  plumage  exhibits  mueh  uniformity  of 
^AauiiBg,  »o  that  when  on  the  ground  th^  mw 
not  nodUy  be  notioed   by  tlieir  eonniw.    The  L. 


Sky  LtA  (AUttda  arveMit). 


.  .  ._  the  best-known  British  birds, 
and  notwithstanding  the  tameneM  of  its  brown 
^nmage,  is  a  universal  favourita,  on  acooont  of 
the  swesbieas  of  its  oheerfql  song,  which  it  ponrs 


fortb  iriiilst  soaring  and  floatina  in  tiie  air,  and 
whioh  evarv  one  associates  with  ideaaant  scenes  and 
delightfol  days.  It  more  rarely  smgs  on  the  ground. 
It  is  in  great  repat«  as  a  ea^bird,  and  slnss  well 
in  oonfinement,  Imt  fintters  its  win^  idiiln  tins* 
ing,  as  if  still  desiroos  of  soaring  m  the  air.  It 
atraunds  chiefly  in  open  bat  onltivated  distriota.  It 
ia  common  in  most  parte  of  Europe,  but  bom  the 
more  northern  parts,  it  mioates  southwaid  on  the 
approach  of  winter.  It  ia  2aa  a  native  of  Ana,  and 
is  a  winter  visitant  of  tii«  norUi  of  Africa.  It  ii 
not  found  in  Anwrioa.  It  makes  its  nest  gtanxUr 
in  an  open  field,  and  often  under  shelter  of  a  ton 
of  herbage,  or  a  clod  of  earth ;  lays  fmi  or  firc 
mottled  agn^  and  generally  prodnces  two  broads  ia 
a  seaaon.  It  is  not  truly  gr^arions  in  snmmei,  bvt 
in  winter  Urge  flocks  assemble  together;  and  at 
this  season  multitudes  of  larks  ore  tokm  for  th* 
table  in  the  aonth  of  England,  in  Froiioe^  and  otho' 
oonntries.  They  are  onen  oanght  by  horse-hsir 
nooses,  attached  to  a  long  line  of  packUiread,  to 
which  the  nooses  are  &stened  at  distanoes  of  aboat 
six  inohea,  the  line  besng  pemed  to  the  gioond  at 
intervals  of  twenty  yards.  Tbia  mode  is  most  siio- 
eesaful  when  the  gionnd  is  covered  with  snow,  and  a 
Uttle  com  is  scattered  along  the  line.  The  01ap.net 
(q.  v.]  and  Trammel-nat  (q.  v.)  are  also  emftojeA 
\iy  laj^-oatchov,  and  groat  numbera  ot  laiks  ars 
taken  in  some  parte  of  Bngland  by  dng^ng 
the  tzammal-net  over  ^e  sti£ble8  and  {astoKo. 
T'uarZing  /or  larht  is  a  poouliar  mode  of  tnming 
to  aooonnt  the  attractivsnsss  which  any  glittering 
object  possesses  for  these  birds.  It  is  a  EV«aaE 
practioe.  A  piece  of  hi^y  polished  mahu;an]\  or 
of  some  oommon  wood  inlaid  with  bits  of  uoking- 
rUs^  is  fastened  on  the  tap  of  a  rod,  so  as  to  reflect 
uie  son's  n^  upwardly  ^id  is  made  to  twirl  hj 
'  ~  string:    IoAe  are  greatly  attracted  by 


'TO 


oongregote  aronnd  it,  and  are  r^dily  shot  in 
^  nombers.— The  CanrED  L.  (J.  eritlaia),  i 
and  plumage  to  the  oommon  L., 


having  the  feathers  of  the  crown  of  the  head 

distinctly  developed  into  a  crest,  although  a  very 
conunon  Inrd  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  and  abundant 
near  Calais,  haa  very  seldom  been  seen  in  Britain, 
— The  Wood  L.  [A,  arborea),  a  smaller  spedes,  not 
nnfreqnent  in  some  puts  of  England,  bat  nre  in 
Scotland,  ia  a  bird  of  very  delightfol  aong,  and 
usually  sings  parched  on  the  branch  of  a  tree.  It 
frequents  wooded  districts.  Its  neat,  however,  is 
made  on  the  nonnd. — The  Shorx  L.  (A,  alpaCrU), 
whioh  has  ouy  in  rare  instances  been  found  in 
Britaiji,  inhabila  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  America,  and  is  the  only  North  AjneHcan 
spocieB.  Ite  song  is  very  sweet,  and  gladdens  the 
visitor  of  such  draoUte  shores  as  those  of  Labrador, 
where  it  breeds,  amidst  the  tnft*  of  mosses  ana 
lichens,  with  whioh  the  bare  rocks  are  iaterspersad. 
It  is  a  winter  visitant  of  New  England,  and  is  some- 
times seen  as  far  aonth  as  Oeorgu,  The  head  hsi 
two  erectile  tufts  of  feathers,  somewhat  resembling 
thoss  of  homed  owls.  Black,  white,  and  yellow 
vary  tlie  brown  plmnage  of  the  Shore  Lark. 

LARKHATfA,  the  capital  of  a  district  of  its 
own  name  in  Sinde,  stimds  146  miles  ncrth  of 
Eyderabad.  It  oontains  about  12,000  inhabitant^ 
and  mannfactnres  silk  and  cotton,  besidea  bong 
one  of  the  hvgest  oom-marts  in  &b  coontzy. 

LABEBPUR  {Ddphbimm),  a  genns  of  plants  ot 
the  natiiTal  order  BaminaiiaccfK,  aimual  and  peren* 
ntal  herbaceons  plants,  naldvea  of  the  temperate  and 
cold  r^ons  of  the  northern  henusphere.  TDiey  have 
five  sepals,  the  upper  apnrred ;  tour  petals,  distinct 
or  united  into  one,  the  two  uppw  having  spurs 
inserted  into  the  sepaline  spur ;  and  I — S  many«eeded 

iiiz .Cioogic 


liABkES— laJieeV. 


fdlialM.  Some  of  them  are  mil  known  and  faTonrite 
gazdea-Somn,  u  Uie  TJrRio&T  L.  (2>.  AjaeU),  » 
natiTs  o{  Switzerlaml,  and  the  BauKMina  L  (Z>. 
(HnuDlvfa), «  natire  of  moct  parta  of  Europe,  i 


rattier  doabttnl  aaH-n  of  En^sniL  D.  gtadale  u 
<ma  of  th«  most  alpine  planti  in  the  world, 

IiABMES,  in  Heraldry.  When  tha  field  ii 
bestrewed  with  an  indeflnite  namber  of  drop*  of  a 
blue  colour,  it  u  Mid  to  be  gvtU  de  larjna,  a  nomeo- 
olatnre  peculiar  to  Biitiah  heraldiy. 

LAENB.    See8irrp.,VoLX. 

I-AKNICA.    See  Scpp.,  Vol  X. 

LAROOHBFOUOAtTLD,  hi  old  Frtnch  familr 
of  great  oelebrit^,  whoae  original  wat  was  the  Email 
town,  of  Laroclefonoaiild,  near  Aagonltms.  The 
history  of  tha  family  is  traced  back  to  1026,  when 
a  certain  Fonoaold,  Qnt  aeinienr  da  la  Koche,  ia 
Bpoken  of  in  a  ohMiar  of  an  abbey  of  Angoolbne  ai 
Dir  ncbSUtimut  FuUtmdtu.  In  the  ndigioiu  wan  of 
tiie  Ktho.,  Uembraoed  the  came  of  tbe  Proteatantn. 
— FBAFfon,  DvD  Di  L,  and  Pswcs  dm  Mi.wni,i.to, 
bom  1613,  waa  mnch  attached  to  literary  pfiniiit* ; 
•nd  after  haTinff  been  involved  in  intrigusB  aainit 
Cardinal  Sicbelieii,  and  in  the  tomnlte  <tt  the 
Tronde,  he  retired  into  private  life,  cnltivated  tha 
■ociety  of  the  moat  eminent  literary  persona  of  his 
time,  Boilean,  Kacine,  and  Moliire,  and  oompoaed  hh 
famoQi  Mtmoiru  (Cob^e,  1662 ;  Amrt.  1723,  &a), 
in  -which  be  give*  a  sunple  but  muterly  historic 
aeoannt  of  the  political  events  of  Mb  time.  In  1665, 
he  pobliahed  aUo  his  Sfjledoiu  oa  Smlauxt  ei 
Mamma  Moraia,  a  work  containing  360  detached 
thoinghto,  of  which,  perhapa,  tlie  most  widely  oele- 
btated  if  bis  definitiau  of  hypocriny,  as  '  the  hbnia^ 
which  vice  renden  to  virtoe.  The  book  is  regarded 
aa  a,  model  of  French  proae,  and  exhibita  moch 
Bonteneaa  of  obaervatifHi,  and  a  cdear  perception 
of  the  prevalent  oorraption  and  hypocrisy  of  his 
time.  He  died  17th  March  1680.  His  (Euvru 
OmnfUlt*  w«n  edited  by  Deppius  (Far.  J8IS),  and 
bis  writing  havs  bean  commeoted  on  by  •  host  of 
oritica  of  tha  moai  diflervnt  tchools,  as  Voltaire, 
Vinet^  Sainte-Benve,  and  Victor  Cousin. — Fkas(OIS 
Ai.wTiTTVM  FfiCoiatia,  Dca  si  Ii.-LujicoirRT,  an 
eminent  philanlliropial^  bom  IJth  January  1747, 
waa  renreaentatiTe  of  the  nobles  ei  Clennont  in 
tiia  Btawa  ganaral,  and  was  a  zeeloiu  advocate  of 
rdono,  bat  aooght  to  preaerve  the  monarchy.  After 
Uw  oatMtrophe  of  10th  Augost,  he  fled  to  England, 


and  lived  in  great  pansrv,  till  he  obtained  back,  in 
1794,  some  ^gmenta  of  his  property.  Ha  now 
visited  North  Anerica,  and  aiteiwarda  pnblishad 
his  Vovegt  dam  la  Elati-Utut  ^Amenque  fait  en 
1796—1797  ^  vols.  Far.  1798).  Having  returned 
to  Paris,  he  hved  for  some  time  in  rrtirenent,  ooon- 
pied  only  with  the  extension  of  vaooination  and 
■imiUr  works  of  benevolence.  Napoleon  rsatored 
bin)  Ma  dacol  title  in  1809.  After  llie  Baatontion, 
made  a  peer,  bnt  soon  gave  offence  to 
nnoonstatntional  polioy. 


the  oonrt,  by  ojqtoaing  it 
He  labooied  zealonaly  in  p: 


and  pMlanthroiao  objects.  He  founded  the  first 
aavinga-bank  in  Frauoe.  He  died  27th  March  1827. 
LABOOHEJAQUBLEIN,  Do  Vbuikb  db,  an 
<A&  noUe  family  <A  F^anc&  Tbe  name  Da  Vergar 
ia  derived  from  a  place  in  Foiton.  Quy  dn  Verger 
married,  in  1606,  the  heiress  of  the  aeigneur  of 
Larochejaqaelein.  Several  of  his  deaoandanta  dia- 
tiognished  themaelvea  aa  aoldiera,  after  the  begin- 
ning of  tbe  French  Bevolntdon,  by  their  strenaona 
eSorti  in  the  cante  of  tbe  Bonrbons.^HEnB^ 
Comte  de  Larochejaqaelein,  bom  1772,  waa  an 
officer  in  the  guard  of  Louis  XVL,  and  after  the  10th 
of  Angnrt  179%  left  Paris,  and  pnt  Mmaelt  at  the 
head  of  Uie  insnigent  nyalista  w  L«  VendCe.  Ha 
iignaliaed  hinuelf  oy  many  heroio  deeda,  and  for  a 
Buooeaafiilly  repelled  &e  repnblioaa  toroea,  bnt 
.  defeated  by  Qenerala  Wettatmann,  MUllcr,  and 
Iffly,  13th  December  1793,  and  eaoqted  with  diffi- 
culty. He  raited  a  new  body  of  troops,  howevo',  IB 
*"  er  Poit'iD,  but  was  killed  in  a  balila  at  NowiUU, 
March  1794. — His  brother.  Loon  Dtt  VzBasB. 
Marquis  da  Larochejsquelun,  bom  1777,  entigtated 
-'  the  commencement  of  the  BerolotioD  j  retained 
France  in  1801,  but  redated  all  Natxdaoa's  efibrta 
win  him,  and  in  1813  plaoed  himaalf  at  the  head  of 
the  royaliata  in  La  Vendte.  Lonis  XvilL  i^ipointed 
hitn,  ui  1814,  to  the  command  of  the  army  of  I« 
Vendie,  and  dnring  the  Hundred  Days  he  main- 
tained the  Dualist  cause  tbere,  sapported  1^  the 
British.  He  feU  in  battle  at  Pontdea-Mathis,  4th 
June  1616.  His  wife,  Uucu-Lorm  Victoibk 
Marquise  de  Larochejaqnelein  (bom  1772 — died 
1857).  published  iStmmrtt  o/Oe  War  in  La  Yandit, 
of  which  she  was  an  eye-witnesB  (Bordeanz,  18A6J, 
which  are  of  great  value,  and  have  gone  throngh 
many  editions. 
LA  BOCHET.LB.  See  Bochzlu,  La. 
LABBB7,  DaunnQiiz  Jxait,  Babov,  a  celebrated 
_  rencb  autgeon,  waa  bom  in  1766  at  Band^an,  near 
Bagn%re»Hie-BiRorTe,  stadied  medicine  with  his  uncle, 
Alazis  L.,  and  attended  the  two.  hospitals,  the 
HOtel-de-DIen  and  the  HAtel-des-Involides,  having 
previously  served  tor  a  short  time  both  in  the  army 
and  navy.  In  1792,  he  waa  appointed  second 
physician  to  the  HAtel-des-Invalidea,  and  in  1793 
accompanied  the  French  army  to  Germany  and 
Spain,  making  at  thia  time  the  important  ir-™- 
tion  o(  tha  aj^)vlan(e  volaiOt,  for  the  conveniei 
transporting  the  wounded.  Napoleon  gamn 
bim  to  Ita^  in  1797,  after  he  had  been  for  a  short 
time  a  professor  in  the  medico-anrgical  school  at 
Val-de-Or&ce ;  and  be  accompanied  the  expedition 
■  "  [ypt  In  1805.  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
ledico-aurgical  department  in  the  French  amgr, 
ras  created  a  Buon  of  the  Empire,  receiving 
also  a  considerable  pension.  He  was  wounded  ^M 
taken  prisoner  at  Waterloo,  and  at  the  Bestora- 
tion  lost  Ml  rook  and  penidan ;  the  latter,  how- 
ever, n-aa  restored  in  1818 ;  and  he  continned 
to  fill  important  and  honourable  offices  till  1836, 
when  be  retired  from  that  of  surgeon -general  of 
tha  HOtal-dea-InvaUdes.  On  the  ISOi  of  May  1842, 
he  embarked  for  Algeria,   having  been  appointea 


LAEVA-LAfeYKX. 


innieotoi  of  tJie  military  luMjatala  thars,  and  while 
on  bii  return,  after  h&Tinff  concladed  liia  labours,  he 
died  at  Lj^tn,  24th  Jnly  1842.  Apiirt  from  the  skill, 
talent,  courage,  and  hmmuiity  shewn  in  the  course 
of  hia  practice,  L.  has  a  high  scientific  reputation, 
and  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  very  valuable 
books  on  voriooB  subjecbi  connected  with  hia  pro- 
fession, moet  of  nhidi  have  been  translated  into 
other  langoages.  L.'s  wofIu  have  been  considered 
by  enunent  authorities  to  be  '  the  connecting  link 
between  the  snrgery  of  the  last  age  and  that  of  the 
present  day.' 


n  which  they  first  exitrt  after  iasuins  from  the 
Until  recentlT,  the  larva  state  was  known  in 
s  only,  and  Ihe  term  larva  is  atill  commonly 


used  only  with  regard  to  them ;  bat  it  baa  been  dis- 
ooraied  that  many  marine  »"'"'«i'  spend  a  consider- 
able port  of  their  existence  in  such  a  state,  daring 
which  they  ore  often  extremely  diSment  from  what 
they  become  after  their  next  transfonnation ;  some 
of  them,  as  the  yonoK  of  the  GirAopod*^  cwimming 
abont  freely  in  the  larva  state,  whiut  they  became 
firmly  fixed  to  one  spot  when  th^  have  reached 
their  perfect  develc^iment,  and — iraich  seems  still 
more  remarkable — poas^aing  eyes  in  the  former 
Btate,  and  becomiue  deetitate  of  them  in  the  latter. 
The  larva  state  of  crabs  exhibits  a  very  singular 
form,  long  known  as  a  distinct  genua  of  crustaceans, 
under  the  name  Zo^  The  young  of  at  least  some 
iEntozoa  pass  tbrongh  a  larval  state ;  those  of  the 
tape-wonus  were  formerly  regarded  as  oreatnres 
altogether  distinct,  and  received  the  generic  name 
Sco&c,  which  when  now  used  is  with  regard  to  these 
animals  equivalent  to  larva.— The  larvie  oE  insects 
differ  very  much  in  the  degree  of  their  develop- 
ment, the  differences  being  characteristic  of  different 
orders  ;  some  of  them  much  resembling  tlie  perfect 
insect,  except  in  the  want  of  wings,  and  others  being 
very  unlike  it.  The  larvq  of  many  insects,  paridca- 
lorly  those  which  are  very  unhke  the  perfect  insect, 
as  gmbs  (coleopterous  larvce),  maggots  (dipterous 
hune),  and  caterpiUars  (lepidoptcrous  larvEe],  accu- 
mulate fat  in  jrreat  quantity,  which  serves  to  sustain 
fiiem  during  tiieir  Pvpa  (q.  v.)  state,  in  which  they 
take  no  food-  The  same  accumulation  of  fat  does 
not  take  place  in  larvee  more  nearly  similar  to  tbe 
perfect  insect,  a*  in  neucopterous  insects,  the  pnpie 
of  which  ore  active  and 


LARYNGITIS,  or  HOXAMMATIOH'  OP  THE 
LAKYNX,  may  be  either  an  acute  or  a  chronic 
affection.  Acute  laryngitis,  tn  its  more  severe  form, 
oommences  with  a  chili,  which  is  followed  by  fever, 
with  a  fall  strong  pulse,  a  hot  skin,  and  a  flushed 
face.  There  is  also  soreness  of  the  throat,  hoarseness 
of  the  voice,  great  difficulty  in  swallowing,  and  a 
feeling  of  extreme  constriction  of  the  larynx.  There 
is  a  painful  Btridolous  cough,  but  onlj^  a  little  mucus 
is  ejected.  Great  difficulty  of  breathing  soon  comes 
on,  the  act  of  inspiration  being  proloiiged,  and 
wheezinSi  in  consequence  of  tbe  swollen  membrane 
of  the  glottis  impeding  the  entrance  of  air.  On 
BHB"i'"'"g  the  fauces,  the  epiglottis  (see  LiAYKX)  il 
observed  to  be  of  a  bright  tA  colour,  erect,  and  so 
much  swollen  as  not  to  oe  able  to  descend  and  close 
the  glottis  during  deglutition.  The  patient  exhibits 
symptoms  of  Ki'eat  anxiety  and  dietress ;  his  lips 
become  blue,  hw  faoe  of  a  livid  paleness,  his  pulse 
irregular  and  very  feeble,  and  at  length  he  sinks 
into  a  drowsy  state,  often  preceded  try  delirium, 
and  quickly  foUowed  by  death.  The  disease  is  very 
rapid,  ending,  when  fatal,  in  three  or  four  days,  and 
occasionally  in  less  than  one  day. 

The  most  frequent  canae  of  laiyn^tu,  whsther 


mild  or  severe,  is  exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  espe- 
cially when  in  a  state  of  perapiration.  It  frequently 
also  arises  from  direct  injury  to  the  larynx,  as  from 
attempting  to  swallow  Doiling  wat«r  or  corrostvs 
fluids,  from  inhaling  irritaiing  gases,  Ac. 

In  severe  cases,  the  strongest  antiphtogistio  treat- 
ment must  be  at  once  adopted,  as  geneiil  bleeding, 
leeching,  and  either  tartar  emetic  or  calomel  Ji 
tbeee  fui,  tbe  only  remedy  upon  whiefa  much  reliance 
can  be  placed  is  Iracheotomy.  In  ohroaio  laryn^tis, 
there  is  hoarseness,  the  voice  is  altered,  and  various 
morbid  sensations  are  felt  in  tbe  larynx,  which 
excite  oongb.  If  the  disease  goes  on  to  ulceration, 
^thisis  or  syphilis  is  probably  its  cause.  For  other 
diseases  of  the  Larynx,  see  below  under  LaBTVX. 
Laryngotomy  is  discussed  at  TBiCHKttTOMT. 

LARY'NGOSCOPB  AMD  LARYNGOSCOPY. 
Although  attempts  had  been  previously  made  by 
Avery  and  Garcia  to  explore  the  recesses  of  the 
larynx  by  means  of  a  reflecting  mirror,  it  was  not 
until  two  German  physiol<^psta,  Drs  Torek  and 
Czerroak,  took  up  the  subject  in  1867  and  ISOS, 
that  tbe  great  importance  of  laryngoscopy  was  fiist 
generally  recognised. 

The  laryngoscope  is  a  small  mirror  placed  on  a 
stalk  attached  to  its  margin,  at  aa  angle  of  from 
120°  to  150°,  tbe  stalk  bemg  abont  six  inches  in 
lengtii,  and  being  composed  of  flexible  metal,  ao 
ihat  it  can  be  bent  at  the  vnH  of  the  operator. 

The  mouthpiece  of  a  large  reflector,  with  a  central 
opening  through  which  the  observer  looks,  is  held 
between  the  molar  teeth ;  or,  which  is  better,  the 
reflector  may  be  attached  to  a  spectacle  frame 
by  a  stifBy  working  ball-and-socket  joint.  The 
rays  of  tbe  sun  or  ol  a  good  lamp  are  concentrated 
by  means  of  this  reflector  on  tbe  laryngeal  mirror, 
which  is  placed  against  the  soft  palate  and  uvida. 
The  laryngeal  mirror,  introduced  with  the  right 
hand,  which  rests  by  two  fingers  on  tbe  jaw,  is 
maintained  at  such  an  inclination  that  it  throws 
the  light  downwards,  and  illuminates  tbe  parts  to 
be  examined,  while  at  the  same  time  it  reflects  the 
images  of  tl^se  parts  into  the  eye  of  the  observer 
through  the  central  opening  of  the  reflector.  By 
this  means  he  con  look  through  the  larynx  into  the 
traohea  or  windjupe. 

By  means  of  this  instrument  we  can  see  the  actual 
position  of  small  tumours,  ulcers,  Ac,  whose  exist- 
ence would  otherwise  have  been  at  most  only  sus- 
pected ;  and  the  precision  and  accuracy  of  diagnosis 
to  which  we  can  thus  attain,  enable  us  to  employ 
rational  means  of  local  treatment  to  an  extent  that 
was  quite  impossible  before  the  introduction  of 
hwyngoBCOi^. 

LA'RYNX,  The  (Or.  larynx),  is  the  oi^an  of 
voice,  and  takes  a  part  in  the  respiratory  process, 
as  all  air  passinB  either  to  or  from  the  lungs  must 
'        'of  me<manj 


which  n 


pass  through  it.   It  is  a  complex  piece  < , 

resembling  a  box  composed  of  pieces  of  cartilage, 
ly  be  moved  on  each  other,  and  enclosing 
ihranouB  bands  (the  ehordat  wtaitt)  by 
which  the  vocal  vibrations  are  produced. 

It  is  situated  between  the  trachea,  or  windpipe, 
and  the  base  of  the  tongue,  at  the  upper  and  front 
part  of  the  neck,  where  it  forms  a  considerable 
projection  (especially  in  men)  in  the  mesial  line ; 
and  it  opens  superiorly  into  the  piaiynx,  or  throat, 
and  inferiorly  into  the  windpipe. 

The  cartil^es  of  which  the  skeleton  of  the  larynx 
is  composed  are  five  in  number— viz,,  the  thyrmd 
and  the  cricoid  cartilages,  the  epiglottis,  and  the 
two  arytenoid  cartilages. 

The  Ihipvid  (Or.  shield-like)  cartilage  consists  of 
two  square  plates  of  cartiliwe  united  m  front  at  an 
acate  angle,  which  forms  the  projection  which  ia 


.Goo'jIc 


ihr  known  u  the  jmnum  Adtani,  or  Adam', 
•pple.  Each  ol  thme  platea  ii  prdi^ged  &t  the 
i^per  and  lower  potteiioT  oomeni  '  ^s   tii;raid 


[From  Todd  ud  Bawmui.) 
Csrtlliiniof  luTnxand  tplglotUa,  ind  upper  riDgi  of  tncli 
Ken  from  bchmd;  a,  BrTLoiDld  cafCUk^h  »  6,  lupcrJor  eon 
of  UkjToid  cartUiffe ;  e,  Itc  inferloi  eomiu ;  dt  poiUrlor  t 
fue  or  oLoold ;  /,  eptgloitlB,  •Ith  tt>  pwfomiiiiia ;  i,  np 
Durgin  of  Ibjiold  j  A,lu  itil  InTcrtor  cubenla  {  t,  [ruhc& 

cartQage  fontu  slmoet  the  whole  of  the  anteiior  and 
Literal  wbUi  of  the  Ibttdx. 

The  cricoid  (Gr.  ring-like)  carfdloM  is  a  ring  whose 
lower  mBTgin  is  parallel  to  the  ntst  ring  of  the 
trachea,  to  which  it  is  united  l^  fibroin  inenihrtuie. 
Its  upper  border  ia  connected  in  front  with  the  lower 
border  of  the  thyroid  cartiUga  by  a  thick  yellow 
fibroua  tinoe.    It  presenta  t^  articular  ioriaceB  — 


Kg.!. 
A,  ilda  tin  of  Ihrratd  MTtUagi ;  a,  tb«  aotsh ;  i,  nperior, 
nd  t,  InlMor  oorona;  g,  t,  iDptrtor ud  iDhrioc  taterslca  i 
/,  pranoai  Aduni.  B,  aide  Tie*  «r  cri«rid  cnitUaga :  a. 
poMerfor  npoloT  loirftai;  t,  utlciilitlDfr  nirfiM  ot  rlRlii 
UTtnuXd  antlUni  k,  mint  utlonltUSB  with  Inreiior 
asnu  or  iliTRild.  C.  Iha  right  UTtnwld  arUligt :  a,  lu 
but  uliooliiliii  with  Q«  Dppa  nurtln  of  lti«  orioold. 

either  side,  viz.,  &  lower  one  (A  in  B,  fig.  2),  which 
articidateg  ^th  the  iuferior  camua  of  the  thyroid 

MWjUin.    anA  •■•    iinnn.  n,..    jj  in  B,  fift  2),  wUtJl  U 


cartilage,  and  an  upper  o: 


oral  ia  form,  and  supports  an  aiyt«aoid  cartilasflL 
The  arytatad  {Or.  ladle-like)  oaridi^  are  pyra- 
midal  bodies  resting  on  the  oval  aitioular  surfaces 
at  the  upper  and  posterior  part  of  the  orieoid 
cartilago.  When  in  titu,  they  present  a  ooneaTs 
postenor  sorface  {Bg.  1),  From  their  oonneotion 
with  the  Tocal  oordo,  and  from  their  great  mobility 
as  compared  with  the  two  larger  cartilagM,  the 
arytenoida  play  •  very  important  part  in  the 
meohanism  of  the  hryni.  The  epifrioClis  ia  a  very 
flexible  oartilBginoui  ralve  (fig.  1,  /),  situated  at 
the  base  of  the  tongue,  aod  coverins  the  opening  of 
the  larynx.  Ita  direction  is  verticS,  except  during 
deglutition,  when  it  becomes  horiaootaL  It  is 
attached  interiorly  by  a  kind  of  pedicle  to  the 
angle  of  the  thyroid  cartilage.  Upon  removing  the 
inresting  mucous  membrane,  the  cartilage  istound 
to  be  t»rforated  by  numerous  foramina,  /  S^eh 
perforation  admits  some  fasciculi,  of  yellow,  elastic, 
ligamentous  tissue,  whioh  expands  on  its  anterior 
aspect,  and  secures  the  return  of  the  epiglottis  to 
its  vertical  position,  independently  of  any  muscular 
action.  Soch  is  the  skeleton  of  (Le  larynx,  which 
hangs  from  the  hyoid  bones  with  whioh  it  is  oon- 
neoted  by  the  thyro^byoid  ligament  and  certain 

The  Tariooa  cartilages  which  have  been  desoribed 
are  connected  to  one  another  by  ligamenta,  the  chief 


Kg.  3. 

Lev  of  LaTynx  from  aboTB,  after  WUlie.  b,  llgsnents  DnldDg 
ujimrM  ud  oricold  eutllige* ;  •,  thfioid  ortllnce  In 
riODt:  K  left  thjro-aiTteiKiid  muicle,  lighl  remoiedj  j;  r, 
f,  crioeld  eartllBge;  nj,  right  eiico-srjtcnoid  musds;  s, 
■rjteBold  cu-dUge ;  I,  v,  TOcal  oordq. 

of  which  are  those  known  as  the  true  and  false 
vocal  oords.  In  their  quiesoent  state,  the  tnie  vocal 
cords  do  not  lie  paralld  to  each  other,  bat  converge 
from  behind  forwards  (see  fig.  3).  The  lenfth  of 
the  vocal  cords  is  greater  in  Uie  adolt  male  than  in 
tiie  adult  female,  m  the  ratio  of  three  to  twa  In 
infan^,  th^  are  very  short,  and  increase  recni- 
larly  from  that  period  to  the  age  of  puberty.  The 
mucous  membrane  of  the  lai^x  is  part  of  the 
gteat  r«spitatory  tract  (see  Mccotm  MuiBRAifB), 
*id  is  remarkable  for  ita  great  sensibili^. 

The  length  of  the  chink  or  aperture  of  the  glottii^ 
wbli^  is  directed  horizontally  from  before  back- 
wards, varies,  like  the  vocal  cords,  nntil  the  period 
of  puberty,  when  its  length,  in  the  male,  undergoes 
Lidden  development,  while  in  the  female  it 
lins  stationary.  In  the  adidt  male,  it  is  about 
eleven  lines  in  length. 

The  larynx  is  provided  with  two  Bets  of  muscles, 
■h.,  the  extrinnc,  by  which  the  whole  organ  is 
elevated  or    depressed,  and   the    intrintic,    which 

regnlato  the  movements  of   the  van —    '- 

of  the  organ  in  relatioti  to  one  ano 
action  of  these  Utter  mnscles,  aided. 


IB   scfmen 
er.    By  ti 


LA  8AIXB-^iAB  OASAS. 


by  the  czthiudc  muaelM,  Out  tendon  of  th«  -vooiX 

cf  the  opening  of  the  glotlii  regulated  at  vrSL 

Ths  nerves  of  the  Uiynz  nra  deriTed  from  the 
niperior  and  inferior  huyugeal  branches  of  the  pnen- 
iiK»aatrio  or  v^oi  nerve.  The  laperior  branch 
ii  for  the  moat  part  aensoiy  (being  mainlj  diitri- 
bated  to  the  mocooi  membrane),  while  th«  inferior 
Inanch  communicatea  motor- power  to  all  the 
intriniic  mnadea  except  the  cnoo-thyiaid. 

That  the  latyOK  is  the  organ  of  voioa,  ii  eadly 
proved.  Thus,  ^terstioain  Uie  macoua  membrane 
oovering  the  vocal  oorda,  oaiues  hoar«eaea>  or  other 
change  of  voioe ;  nloeration  of  the  vocal  oorda, 
deitioji  or  iojuiea  the  voice ;  openiog  the  traohea 
below  the  vocal  oorda,  or  aeotion  of  the  inferior 
laryngeal  nerves,  destroya  the  voice;  and  aoDnda 
like  thoie  of  the  voioe  may  be  prodnoed  by'  eipsi- 
manti  on  the  dead  larynx. 

I}iMa»itofl/ieLaTyim. — Of  these  the  most  wrioaa 
ia  aeutt  inflammation  or  Laryogitii  (q.  v.). 

(Edana,  m  fietUing  of  the  gloUit,  although  of 
in  ItttynHitia,  may  be  devi   '  "  ' 


onlycL 

CArottio  inflaiamation  and  vheralxim  of  the  larviui 

are  very  commoa  in  tubercnlar  constimption  and  in 
aecondary  sypbilia.  In  these  oaaea,  the  laryngeal 
affection  ia  merely  a  local  manifestation  of  a  general 
dlaeaae. 

LA  SALLE,  ABzi  oa.  8ee  Schools  (Bbotbbbb 
or  Chbistian). 

LA  SALLE,  RoBKHT  Cavxukb,  Sibur 
one  of  the  greatest  French  eiplorerB  in  North 
America,  tbs  bom  at  Roaen,  in  1643.  Settling  at 
an  early  age  in  Canada,  he  began  his  travels  with 
an  attempt  to  reach  China  by  descending  the  Ohio 
Biver,  which  he  auppoaed  to  empty  into  the  Pacific 
Ah  soon  as  he  found  that  the  great  sonthent  atreama 
drained  into  the  Oulf  of  Mexico,  he  formed  the  pro- 

i'ect  of  descending  the  Mississippi  to  the  sea.  This 
ong  voyage  waa  conclnded,  and  ihe  arms  of  Franca 
■et  up  at  Uie  mouth  of  the  great  river  in  tba  April 
of  1082.  Soon  after  an  expedition  waa  fitted  '  ' 
extend  French  inflnence  in  the  rich  mining  ci 
ot  Northern  Mexico  ^  but  La  Salle's  genius  failed 
him  for  this  greater  enterprise,  and  ne  frittered 
away  his  time  in  making  nseleea  incarsions  Into 
the  land,  while  hiscoloniata  and  soldiers  gradually 
dwindled  away.  Hia  hanhnesa  of  manner,  more 
than  hia  want  of  suooess,  embittered  his  followers, 
and  he  waa  aaaaaainated  by  sonke  of  them  in  the 
March  of  1687.  See  Farkman'a  La  Sallt  and  lAe 
DitcoMTt  of  the  Great  WttL 

LA  SALLE,  a  cit^  of  lUinoia,  United  Statea, 
miles  W.S.W.  of  Chicago,  is  the  termjuua  of  the 
BlinoU  and  MIchI(^  Canal,  and  «  railwajr  junction. 
La  S.  haa  coal-mines  near  the  city,  dnc-woHu, 
foundries,  and  mills.  The  railway  here  crosses  the 
Dlinois  Kiver  on  a  bridge  of  twenty  arches,  900  feet 
in  length.    Pop.  (1S70)  6200;  (18S0]  7M7. 

LA'SOAB,  in  the  Es*t  Indies,  signiHea  properly  a 
camp-follower,  bat  la  generally  applied  to  native 
Ballon  on  board  of  British  ships.  The  I^acate 
make  good  seamen,  but  being  of  an  exceeaively 
irritable  and  revengeful  nature,  are  generally  kept 
in  the  minority  in  a  ship's  crew, 

LASOABIS,  CoHSTAKTiKB,  a  celebrated  Greek 
refugee,  after  the  capture  of  Cooatantinople  by  the 
Turks,  and  one  of  the  fliat  fonndera  of  Greek 
studies  in  the  West,  He  was  received  with  distinc- 
tion by  Franoesco  Sfoiza,  Duke  of  Milan,  in  1464, 


Hippolyta ;   bat  a  more  important . 

labnm  was  Hcone,  where  he  settled  in  the  train 
of  the  learned  Greek  cardinal, '  Benaiion,  and, 
finally,  Naples  and  Messing  where  he  taoghi 
rhetoric  and  Greek  letters  on^  hia  deatii  in  1493. 
His  Greek  grammar,  entitled  Erotemala,  and  dated 
1478,  is  the  earlitat  printed  Greek  book.  To 
him  his  oontamporaries  were  also  indebted  for 
aevetal  other  elementary  Greek  books  of  less 
note.  His  grenunar  is  known  chiefly  thningh  a 
Idtln  tranalatiou  printed  at  the  Aldlne  press,  and 
frequently  reprioUd.  TTiii  library;  wliictk  is  very 
valuable,  ia  now  in  the  EecorUl — John  Jakos 
L.,  a  member  of  the  same  family,  tomamed  Khtk- 
DACxHua,  haa  also  aoquired  a  place  in  (he  hiatoiy 
of  the  revival  of  leUeia.  He  waa  one  of  those 
whom  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  employed  in  the  collection 
of  ancient,  and  especially  Greek  clasiical  aulhoiB, 
of  whom  L.  brought  home  a  valuable  ooUection 
from  Monnt  Athos.  On  the  death  of  Lorenzo,  L. 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  taught  Greek  under  Charles 
VIEL  aod  Louis  XIL  ;  bnt  he  eventually  settled  in 
Rome,  where  he  waa  appointed  by  Leo  X.  to  the 
superintendanoa  of  the  Greek  press  which  that 
pontiff  established.  L  edited  several  of  the  tdilionu 
prineipea  at  the  Koniaa  press.  Ha  was  employed 
aa  ambassador  at  the  court  of  Francis  L,  and  after- 
wards at  Venice,  and  died  in  Bone,  at  a  very  great 
rin  1535.  See  Yillemain's  Latearii,  m  la  Onat 
16™  Siicle  (Paris,  1826). 
LAS  CASA8,  BaBTOLOHi  se,  Bishop  ot 
Chiapa,  in  Mexico,  aunuuned  the  Apottle  qf  lie 
Indiatu,  a  celebrated  evaageliit  and  philanthropist 
was  of  French  deacent,  and  waa  bom  In  Seville  in 
1474.  He  atudied  at  Salamanca.  In  1502,  he 
accompanied  Don  Nicolas  Ovaudo,  who  waa  sent 
out  as  governor,  to  St  Domingo.  Eight  yean 
after  his  arrival  there,  he  waa  ordained  to  th« 
priesthood,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  to 
a_  charge  in  Cuba.  Here  be  began  to  signalise 
himsalfby  hia  exertions  in  favour  of  the  appreased 
Indiana.  To  oppose  the  law  which  divided  them 
amongst  the  conquerors,  ho  went  to  Spain,  whers 
ho  prevailed  on  Cardinal  Ximenes  to  send  a  com- 
misaioQ^  o£  inquiry  to  the  West  Indies ;  but  Qm 
proceedings  o£^  the  commisaion  by  no  meana  satit- 
^^g  his  zeal,  he  revisited  Spain,  to  procure  the 
adoption  of  stronger  measures  for  tite  proteotion 
of  the  natives.  Finally,  to  prevent  Ute  entire 
extirpation  of  the  native  race  by  the  toils  to  which 
they  were  subjected,  he  projiosed  that  the  colonists 
should  be  compelled  to  employ  negro  slavea  in 
the  more  severe  labonrs  of  the  mines  and  sugar- 

Ciitationa ;  and  the  propoaal  was  adopted.  Laa  C. 
on  thia  account  been  represented  >a  the  author 
of  the  alave-trade,  although  it  has  been  proved  to 
have  existed  long  before  thia  proposal  was  made. 
Las  C.  afterwards  attempt«d  to  cury  out  Castiliau 
peasants  oa  colooiate  to  the  West  Indies,  with  ths 
view  of  giving  more  complete  effect  to  his  achemee 
on  behiUf  of  the  Indiana ;  but  fn'li^g  in  this,  ha 
retired  to  a  Dominican  convent  in  Hisuaniola.  He 
agan  visited  Spain  in  1639,  out  of  benevolent 
regard  to  the  native  inhabitants  of  the  West  Indies, 
and  published  his  Breuitaima  Rdadon  de  la  Deitnie- 
don  de  laa  India*,  which  waa  soon  translated  into 
the  other  languages  of  Europe.  The  rich  biahoprio 
of  Cuzoo  was  offered  to  him,  bnt  he  jnreferrod  the 
poor  one  of  Chiapt^  in  a  wild  and  almost  unexplored 
'on.  The  colonists  reooived  him  with  no  fneudly 
ings,  and  aa  ha  went  the  length  of  refusing  the 
sacraments  to  those  who  disregarded  the  new  laws 
in  favour  of  the  Indiana,  he  drew  upon  himself  not 
only  the  resentment  of  the  plantera,  but  the  dis- 
approbation of  the  ebarch,  ao  that  he  was  compelled 


iiz .Coogfc 


LAB  0ASZ8-LA1XEN-8AIL. 


im  to  Satin,  i 
t  in  MBdild,  J 


k  biihop 


when  he  ended  hu  life  In  * 
Johr  IHe^  kt  the  ue  ol  92. 
irork,  pnbluhed  after  £u 
im  ih»  SiilOTio  gmtnd  d» 
b}rSirA.Helpa<I868). 

IiAB  CASES,  EuuxtrxL  AuoDBn  DaEOSoKini, 
CouxT,  the  oompiuiiiHi  and  hietoiiosi^ihec  of 
Ifapoleon  in  St  Helena,  wu  bora  in  ITvOi  near 
BereL  was  a  Uentcoaitt  in  th«  navy  betiwe  the 
Berolution,  and  then  fledtrom  France,  eerved  io  the 
Prinoftof  Oondt^a  annr,  spent  amne  time  in  Ikigiand, 
irhtTO  he  •Dpparted  mmBelf  by  piTate  teaohing, 
and  took  part  u  the  expedition  to  Quilieroiu  After 
N^mleoD^  aeoMtion,  he  retoraed  to  Franoe,  and 
laboured  In  the  preparation  of  hi>  admirabla  Atiru 
hUtoH^ve  (1803— iSOi).  Tbia  work  attraoted  the 
attention  of  Napoleon,  who  made  him  a  baron, 
and  employed  him  in  the  adminiitratian.  After 
the  bftttte  of  Watarloo,  he  offered  to  ihare  the  exile 
of  Kapol«on  ;  and  in  St  Helena,  the  ez-emperor 
dictated  to  him  a  part  of  bin  Memoiis,  A  letter 
which  L.  contrived  to  Bend  to  Lnden  Bonwarte,  led 
to  hia  separation  from  Napoleon  ;  and  alter  eight 
months'  confinement  at  the  Cape  of  Oood  Hopeihe 
was  bronaht  to  Europe,  and  resided  mostly  in  Bel- 
gitun  till  Napoleon  dinl,  when  be  returned  to  France, 
and  published  t^e  JT^monW  dt  Sle-NUiae  (8  vols. 
Par.  1S23  ;  amended  edition,  1S24,  often  reprinted), 
a  work  which  must  be  always  a  chief  sonrce  of  infor- 
mation respeoting  Napoleon,  but  in  which  the  author 
has  taken  too  moch  liberty  with  bis  matariaU. 
After  the  rerohition  of  1S30,  he  was  a  member  of 
ttie  Ohambor  of  Deputies.     He  died  16th  May  1S12. 

X4A8    FAIiHAB,    ebiet   town  of   the    Canary 
Islands  la,  \.),  H  sitaated  on  tbe  east  coast  of  th« 
island  of  Gran  Cauana.    It  is  the  seat  <rf 
Hid  of  the  mpreme  court.    Pop,  17,661. 

r-ABHA.     See  H'Lasa. 

IiABSAIjLB,  Fxbhinahd,  founder  of  the  aocial- 
democratio  party  in  Crermanv,  was  the  sou  of  a 
Jawiah  menmant  in  Breelau,  where  be  was  born  11th 
AfnH  16SG.  He  stndied  philosophy  and  law  at 
BrealsHi  and  Berlin,  and  became  known  as  the 
cdiainpi<m  of  a  countess  at  feud  with  her  husband. 
For  lus  share  in  democratic  morementa  be  was  re- 
PBatedly  imprisoned  after  1S48.  In  18&S  he  pub- 
Bshed  a  work  on  the  philosopby  of  Heraolitos,  and 
in  1861  he  wrote  a  learned  legal  work.  In  many 
pamphlets  and  in  powerful  Epeechea  he  developed 
his  BOheme  of  forming  a  labour  party  opposed  to  the 
middle  classea ;  ingiBted  on  forming  by  state  help, 
assDoiations  of  workmen  with  sumcient  capital  to 
aapex«ede  the  middle-olats  capitaliata  ;  ana  to  this 
end.  •imed  at  nnirersal  suK^e.  His  influence  was 
very  great ;  but  he  fell  in  a  duel  near  Geneva,  31st 
August  18&t.    See  the  monograph  by  Brandes. 

IiASSBN,  Chbistiam,  a  most  emioeut  orieatalist, 
WW  bent  on  22d  October  ISOO;  at  Bergen,  in 
Korwa^ ;  studied  at  Christiania,  Heidelberg  and 
Bonn.  He  assisted  Schlegel  in  the  publication  of 
the  Adttid^na  and  Hitopadaa.  He  also  associated 
himaslf  with  Engine  Burnonf  in  the  Eitai  nr  la 
Paii  <Far.  1826).  In  1830,  be  beoama  Extraonli- 
■an,  and  in  IS4(^  Ordinwy  Professor  of  Ancient 
Induui  Languages  and  Literature  at  Bonn,  fie 
edited  uany  Sanscrit  works,  deejdy  invcatigatod  the 
relatkns  of  the  oriental  langoagea  and  antiquities, 
and  pnUished  sereral  very  important  woriu. 
Amongst  tkam  are  works  m  Penian  Cuneiforms 
<1838  and  184C) ;  on  the  Greek  Kings  in  Bactria 
(lS36>t  IntUtHOoim  Lingtia  PraerUka  (1837); 
Indueh  AUtrlliwBukunda,  a  critical  bisbiry  of 
ladian  drillsation  (Boon,  18«7-61 ;  newed.,  1861- 
74),  Ao.    He  has  Mntribttted  mndi  to  onr  know- 


Bonn,  6th  May  18T6. 

LASSO  (Spanish  Itao),  a  thin  but  well-plaited 
rope  of  raw  hide,  used  in  Spuiish  America  for 
catching  wild  cattle.  One  end  is  fastened  to  the 
saddle  oear  of  the  man  who  usee  it,  the  other  ends  in 
a  atnalT  brass  ring,  by  means  of  which  a  running 
Qooae^  usually  eight  feet  wiAe,  is  formed.  The  rider 
holds  a  coil  of  Uie  lasso  in  the  left  band  ;  with  the 
right,  he  dexterously  whirls  the  open  nooee  roond 
his  bead,  and  hurls  it  (to  no  great  distance,  but 
with  a  wonderfully  sni«  aim),  so  as  to  f^ 
over  a  given  object — round  the  horns  of  a  wild 
OE,  or  the  like.  The  bolat  is  a  shorter  cord  with 
leaden  balls  at  both  ends  ;  sometimes  it  has  three 
branobes.  Held  by  one  ball,  it  is  whirled  round 
the  head  of  the  rider  till  it  has  attained  suffloieDt 

ijnnning  throufb  the  air  like  ohun  shot,  so  as  to 
twist  round  the  legs  of  the  animal  pursued.  In 
Meiioo  tho  lasso  is  la  rtala  (the  rope) ;  thence  the 
term  lariat  for  a  kind  of  lasso  in  the  United 
States.  The  lasso  has  been  used  in  warfaie  with 
deadly  effect.    Only  very  skilful  riden  can  use  it. 

LAST  HEIR,inSootchLaw,ineanBthesoTerei}m, 
who  takea  the  property  of  persons  deceased  who 
Isavs  no  legal  heir.    See  iKTwrAOT. 

XiASI  TBSTAHENT,  or  WILL,  u  the  last 
initrameut  in  point  of  date,  and  it  revokes  prior 
wills  so  far  as  inoansistent    See  Wiu. 

LA'STAOK,  in  Maritime  Langosgs^  denote*  the 
ballast  or  lading  of  a  vessel. 

LATAEI'A  (Turkish,  LadaMyA;  ano.  LaocBeea), 
a  seaport  of  Syria,  in  Qw  paahalio  of  Tripoli,  and 
situat^  7S  mileB  north  of  the  town  of  that  nam& 
and  60  miles  south-west  of  Antioob,  is  surrounded 
by  plantationa  of  myrtle,  poihwianate,  mulberry, 
and  olive  treM.  It  oonsi»»a  of  the  decaying  Upper 
Town  and  the  Lower  Town  whioh  ar»  sepMatad^^y 
Magnificent  gardens.  On  tne  hills  in  the  ridnit?,  a 
ioiid  and  flnely-flavcuwd  tobacco  is  grown,  and  is 
eitensively  eiported.  Pop.  from  7000  to  10,00a 
L.  occupies  the  rite  of  tbe  ancient  Laadkta  ad 
Mare,  which  was  founded  by  Saleuous  Nioato^ 
and  named  after  his  mother,  and  which  formed 
the  port  of  Antiooh.  The  mins  of  the  aqueduct 
built  here  by  Herod  the  Great  an  still  ectantL 

liATEETI-SAIL,  a  large  triangular  Mil,  Odcamon 


in  the  Uaditerranean.  The  upper  edge  is  fastened 
to  the  lateen-yard,  a  spar  of  considerable  length, 
which  is  held  at  about  an  angle  of  10°  with  the 


,.(;onglk- 


LATENT  PiULT— LA.THTE08. 


d«ok,  bj  mstiui  of  a  m««t  oroasiiig  it  at  >  third  or  k 
fbncth  of  the  my  up. 

LATENT  FAULT.  In  the  aontTaot;  Ol  ■i1^  it 
ii  >  role  that  the  bn7er  takes  the  riak  of  all  Ut«nt 
finltB  or  defects  in  the  thing  sold  which  were 
nnknown  to  the  seller  at  the  time  of  the  «als,  all 
tiiat  the  seller  answers  for  being,  that  the  thing  is, 
«o  far  as  he  knows,  what  it  appears  to  ba  "fioB, 
which  was  the  Enghsh  mle,  was  extended  to  Boot- 
laod  by  the  statnte  19  and  20  Vict  c,  60,  B.  5. 

LATENT  HEAT.    See  Hbat. 

LA'TERAN,  Chuech  of  St  Joh»,  the  first  in 
dignity  of  the  Roman  churches,  and  styled  in 
Soman  usage  '  the  Mother  and  Head  of  all  the 
churches  of  tlie  city  and  the  world,'  is  oo  called  from 
its  oocnpying  the  site  of  the  splendid  poUce  of 
FlautinB  lAteranus,  which,  having  been  escheated 
(66  A.  D.),  in  ctmseanenoe  of  Lateranos  being  impli- 
cated in  the  conspiracy  of  the  Pieos,  became  impe- 
rial pmpeity,  and  was  assif^ed  for  Christian  noes 
by  uie  Emperor  Constonhne.  It  waa  originally 
dedicated  to  the  Savioor  %  hut  Lucius  IL,  who 
rebuilt  it  in  the  middle  of  the  12th  c,  dedicated  it 
to  St  John  the  Baptist.  The  soUnui  entrance  of 
the  pope  into  office  is  ioaiigarated  by  his  taking 
possession  of  this  church ;  and  over  its  portico  is 
the  balcony  from  which  the  pope,  while  still  bots- 
reiga  of  Home,  was  used,  on  certain  festivals,  to 
bless  the  entire  world.  The  orinnol  church  is  said 
to  have  been  the  Basilica  which  was  preaanted  to 
Sylvester  by  Coostantitie,  but  it  has  oeen  several 
tunes  rebuilt,  its  final  completion  dating  from  the 
pontificate  of  Clement  XIL  It  has  been  the  scene 
of  five  coancili,  noarded  as  ecumenical  by  the 
Roman  Church.  See  CouNCn-  The  Lateran 
Palace  was  the  habitual  reaideoce  of  the  popes 
until  after  the  return  from  Avignon,  when  they 
removed  to  the  Vatican.  It  was  afterwanu 
occDpied  by  officials  of  the  chapter,  and  la  now 
under  the  control  of  the  Italian  government.  The 
late  pope,  Pius  IX.,  had  converted  a  portion  of 
it  into  a  museum  of  Christian  orchieology.  In  tlie 
piazza  of  St  John  Lateran  stands  the  celebrated 
relio  colled  the  ■  Scala  Santo,'  or  '  Hol^  Staircase,' 
which  is  reputed  to  be  the  stairs  of  Pilate's  house 
at  Jemsalem,  mode  holy  by  the  feet  of  our  Lord  as 
he  passed  to  judgment 

LA'XBBITB,  a  mineral  sabatance,  the  product 
of  the  disintegration  and  partial  decomposition  of 
gneiss.  It  forms  a  bright  ^d  earth ;  which,  where 
It  obonnds,  so  in  some  patts  of  Ceylon,  b^g  blown 
about  as  a  fine  dust,  imports  ita  hue  to  every 
n^ected  orticle,  and  io  the  dresses  of  Uie  inhabit- 
ants. The  redness  of  the  streets  and  roads  attracts 
the  notice  of  evety  stranger  at  Galle  and  Colombo. 
L,  however,  is  not  always  red.  Its  redness  is 
supposed  to  be  owing  to  the  presence  of  iron  in 
considerable  quantity.  When  felspar  preponder- 
ates in  the  gneiss,  it  is  whitish;  wnen  hornblende 
preponderate  it  is  yellow. 

LA'T^  (LaUt  NHo^au),  a  fish  of  the  perch 
family,  one  <»  the  most  dehcate  and  beat-flavoured 
fishes  of  the  Nila  It  grows  to  a  large  size,  somo- 
times  3  feet  long.  It  is  mentioned  by  several  andent 
authors.  In  f^m  it  resembles  a  perch,  and  the 
genus  is  very  nearly  allied.— Another  species  of  liiia 
genus  is  the  Vaoti  (i/Ola  notniit),  oalled  Coek-vp  by 
Qie  t'i"gH»l'  in  Calcutta,  one  of  the  most  esteemed 
fishes  <J  the  Gouges,  which  it  ascends  as  far  as  the 
tide  does. 

LA'TEZ,  in  Botany,  the  sap  of  plants  after  it 
has  been  elaborated  in  the  leaves.  It  returns  from 
the  leaves  to  the  bark  b^  veasels  called  lalic^ferout 
ttad*,  which  tvanch,  unite,  ond  anostomose  very 


variously.  They  are  not  alira^  of  uniform  thick- 
ness, but  present  many  distentions,  often  almost  as 
if  artioulated.  Peculiar  currents  ore  observed  in  the 
Lalex,  which  were  first  pointed  out  by  Schulti,  who 
has  bestowed  great  attention  on  this  aubject,  and  oo 
the  branches  of  physiology  connected  with  it  The 
L,  differs  very  much  in  different  plants,  in  colour 
and  other  qualities,  but  in  oil  it  is  full  of  granules. 

LATHAM,  EoBKBT  QoRDOS,  an  eminent  Enf^ish 
philologist  and  ethnoloRist.  was  bom  in  1812,  at 
Billingborough.  Linoolu^ire.  Be  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  took  the  degree  of  M.D.,  but  having 
made  a  tour  in  Denmark  and  Norway,  he  was  led 
to  direct  his  attention  particularly  to  the  Scandi- 
navian tanguogeo.  For  several  years  ha  was  pro- 
fessor of  Ue  English  I^nguoge  and  Literature  in 
University  College,  London.  As  a  physician,  he 
has  held  unporiant  appointment*.  His  well-known 
work,  EiigtiA  Language,  was  published  in  1841,  and 
has  gone  through  numerous  editious.  The  Natural 
HiMorg  of  th«  rnneftei  of  Mankiad  (Loud.  ISfiO) 
is  a  valuable  contribution  to  cUmclogy.  Among 
his  other  works  may  be  mentioned  hu  edition  ol 
Tacitus's  Oataatua,  with  philologioal  and  historicsl 
notes  (ISeO);  EOnologyif  tie  Smith  Colmae*;  Man 
and  hi»  Migratiotu  ILoiid.  I8£l) ;  Deaeripline  Bllmo- 
logg  (13£S} ;  The  NatUutaiUki  of  Bitrope  (1S63) ;  a 
uew  edition  of  Johnson's  DkiUmary  (1870) ;  Ojit- 
linM  of  Oeneral  or  DevdopraenUd  FliSobtgji  (1678). 
He  U  on  F.B.S. 

LATHE.    See  Tckhug. 

LATHS  i.HT>  LATHWOOD.  Laths  ore  small 
strips  of  wood  of  various  lengths,  rarely  more  than 
4  fact ;  they  ore  made  either  by  sphttiiu  lathwood, 
which  is  the  Norway  spruce  fir  [Pirau  oMo),  or  elsa 
they  are  sown  from  Canada  deaL  The  sawn  Istha 
are  a  modem  introduction,  due  to  the  development 
of  steom  saw-mills  in  Cansda.  which  thus  use  up 
the  small  portions  of  the  lumber.  Laths  are  used 
for  nailing  to  the  uprights  of  partition-wallB,  and 
to  the  ntfters  of  ceilings  in  our  buildings ;  they  are 
placed  slightly  aput  to  receive  the  plaster,  whioh, 
by  being  pnesed  into  the  intervals  between  Mm 
laths,  is  retained,  and  when  dry,  is  held  securely 
on  the  walL  Slateia'  laths  are  longer  strips  OE 
wood,  nailed  on  to  the  framework  of  the  nx^  for 
the  purpose  of   sustainins  the   slates,  which  are 


xttheh 


istainins  thi 
IS  by  nuls. 


LATHTRUS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  tiie  natural 
order  Legaminonx,  sub-order  PapilionaaeiE.  The 
leaves  are  furnished  with  tendrils,  and  ore  pinnote^ 
but  often  only  with  one  pair  of  leofleta.  The 
species  ore  numerous,  aimuol  and  perennial  herba- 
ceous plants,  natives  of  temperate  conntties  in  the 
norUiem  hemisphere.  Few  of  them  ore  American. 
A  number  are  natives  of  Britain.  Some  have  very 
beautiful  fiowers  of  considerable  size,  on  account 
of  which  they  find  a  place  in  fiower-gordans,  aa 
L.  lattfolhu  and  L.  i^vatri*,  the  latter  a  n^ve 
of  England,  and  the  former  of  the  sonth  of  Europe, 
both  perennials,  and  known  by  the  name  of  EvHt- 
LAanMO  Pu.  The  Swxkt  Fu.  IL.  odoratiu),  a 
native  of  the  East,  is  one  of  the  beat  knOTm 
omoments  of  our  flower-gardens,  a  hardy  ommal, 
esteemed  not  otdy  on  account  of  the  beuty  of  ita 
flowen,  but  of  tneir  delightful  frof^anoe.  Uany 
varieties  ate  in  cultivation,  difiering  in  colour,  tie. 
The  most  common  British  speoie*  is  the  Mux 
TncHLnia  (L.  pratauUt,  with  bright  ydlow  flowen; 
L.  Mitwus,  the  Cmcvjsa  Vnca,  or  LsKm.  or 
Sins,  a  native  of  the  soath  of  Emope,  with  flowos 
generally  of  a  bri^t  Idue  coloor  and  winged  pods,  is 
cultivated  in  India  and  in  Qermany,  ^onca,  and 
other  countries  for  its  seeds,  the  fiourof  which,  how- 
ever, is  mixed  witii  other  fiour  rother  than  used 


LATDIEIt-LATIN  LAN01TA0E  Aim  LITERATURE. 


ftkae,  on  aaooiuit  of  narcotio  qnalitiei  which  it 
iHMamee,  and  which  ouued  its  coltiTatioD  for  food 
to   be  interdicted   in  Wllrt«mberg  in  1871.     An 


gpjmaU   The  Beedt  of  L.  eicera,  ftlthouglj  lonietilDes 
tued  by  the  counby  peoplo^of  Frtnoe,  kre 
more  lungeroiu.    Thoae  ca   ' 


[  L.  Apliaea,  b  ipeoiN 


■ometiiiiea  found  on  gnvelly  ioOb  in  England,  pos- 
a  similar  qoslities  when  ripe,  but  in  an  unripe 
■tate  are  eaten  with  the  poda  which  contain  them, 
and  are  quite  wholesome.  L.  tubrroKui,  a  native  of 
"  many  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  but  not  of 
.ain,  ia  cultiTated  on  the  continent  for  its  am;- 
laceona  tnbers.  The  tubera  are  mmetimea  called 
IhUA  Jtfiix;  in  German]',  the;  ore  known  as 
SartA-nui».  The  herbage  of  the  jSaDt  is  rdished  by 
eattle. 

LATIHER,  HroH,  one  of  the  mort  distingniahed 
of  the  Engliah  reformers,  wm  bom  at  Thnrcaston. 
in  Leic«st«r«hirB,  in  the  year  1490  or  1491.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambiidge,  and  after  »  brief 
period  of  zealous  devotion  to  the  papacy  ('  I  was  as 
obstina'ts  a  papiiL'  he  says,  '  as  any  in  England '}, 
be  become  attached  to  the  new  learning  and 
divinity  which  had  b^on  to  establiah  themselvca 
there.  He  very  soon  became  a  Malcias  preacher  of 
the  reformed  doofcrinwu  He  consequence  of  this 
new-botn  zeal  was,  Uiat  many  of  the  adherents  of 
the  old  faitii  were  strongly  excited  against  him,  and 
he  WM  embroiled  in  many  controversies. 

The  dispute  about  Henry  VllL's  nuuriage  with 
Catharine  of  Aragon  brought  L.  mot«  into  notica 
He  was  one  of  the  divines  oppointod  by  the 
university  of  Cambridge  to  examine  as  to  its  law- 
fulntss,  and  he  declared  on  the  king's  side.  This 
secured  Heniy's  favonx,  and  he  was  appointed  one 
of  his  chaplains,  and  received  a  living  m  Wiltshire. 
In  1S35,  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Worcester; 
and  at  the  opening  of  convocation  on  the  9th  of 
June  1638,  he  preached  two  very  powerful  and 
impressive  sermons,  nipng  the  necessity  of  reform. 
After  a  while,  the  woA  of  reform  rather  retro- 
BToded  than  advanced,  and  L.  found  himself  with 
his  bold  opinions  in  little  fovour  at  court  He 
retired   to   his  diocese,  and   laboured  there   in  a 


writing,  correcting,  and  refoming,  either  as  his 
ability  would  serve,  or  the  time  would  bear,'  This 
was  nia  tme  function.  He  was  on  emineullv 
practical  reformer.  Daring  the  close  of  HenrVa 
reign,  and  when  the  reactionary  party,  headed  by 
Gardiner  and  Bouner,  were  in  Uie  ascendant,  L. 
lived  in  great  privacy.  He  was  looked  upon  with 
jealonsy,  and  doBely  watched,  and  finally,  m  coming 
up  to  London  for  medical  advioe,  he  was  brought 
before  the  Frivy  Conndl,  and  cast  Into  the  Tower. 

On  the  acceaaion  of  Edward  VL,  he  again  appeared 
in  public  He  declined,  however,  to  ret 
aroacopal  functions,  although  his  old  biaho 
offered  to  h'"!  at  the  instance  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  He  devoted  himaelf  to  preaching  and 
pnctiaal  works  of  benevolence.  The  pnlpit  was 
hia  great  power,  and  by  his  stirring  and  homely 
sermons,  he  did  much  to  rouse  a  spirit  of  religious 
eamestneaa  throughout  the  country.  At  length, 
with  the  lamented  death  of  Edward,  h«  and  other 
refonnas  were  arrested  in  their  Career  of  activity. 
L.  was  pnt  in  prison,  and  examined  at  Oxford  m 
IGS4.  After  his  examination,  he  was  tranoferred  to 
the  comroon  jail  there,  where  be  lay  for  m 

a  year,  feeble,  aictly,  and  worn  out  with  h.    ._ 

dupe.  Death  would  not  have  long  spared  the  old 
man,  but  his  enemies  would  not  wait  for  tlie  natural 
termination  of  his  life.  Id  September  150C,  he  was 
— led  before  certain  commissi  nners,  appointed 


of  October  1555.  exclaiming  U 


i  comfort.  Master  Ridley,  and  play  thi 
IS  snail  this  da^  light  such  a  candle,  by  God's 
1  England,  as  I  trust  ahall  never  be  put  out' 


grace, 


L'b  character  presents  a  combination  c 
noble  and  disinterested  qualities.  He  was  brave, 
honest,  devoted,  and  energetic,  homely  and  popular, 
yet  free  from  sll  violence ;  a  martyr  and  hero,  yet 
a  plain,  aimple-bearted,  and  unpretending  man. 
Humour  and  cheerfulness,  manly  sense  and  direct 
evangelical  fervour,  distinguish  his  sermons  and  his 
life,  and  make  them  alike  mteresting  and  admirable. 

L.'b  sermaus  were  reprinted  at  London,  2  vola, 
1825.  The  latest  edition  is  by  Rev.  G.  Corrie,  4  vols., 
1045.— See  Tullocb's  Leaden  of  the  R^ormatiou 
(18S9) ;  and  Latimer,  a  biography,  by  Demaua  (]6Cd). 

LATIN  CROSS,  a  etcw  with  the  lower  limb 
ooniiderably  louger  than  the  other  three. 

LATIN  EMPIRE,  the  n 


a  of  tl 


1204  by  the  Crusadeta,  who  mode  Constantinople 
their  capital.  It  was  overthrown  by  the  Greeks  in 
1261.     See  BvzisrnJK  Ehpirk. 

LATIN  LANGUAGE  and  LITERATURE 
— Language. — The  Latin  language  is  a  member  oi 
the  great  family  commonly  call^  Indo-Germanic, 
Indo-European,  or  Aryan.  It  is  therefore  closely 
allied  to  the  Greek,  Persian,  German,  Celtic,  English, 
and  many  other  tongues  and  dialects  of  Europe,  and 
to  all  these  its  kindred  is  more  or  less  clearly  shewn 
by  identity  of  stems  and  similarity  of  strncturc. 
It  was  primarily  developed  among  the  people  who 
inhabited  that  part  of  Western  Italy  which  lies 
between  the  riveis  Tiber  and  Liris;  and  though  the 
city  of  Rome  stamped  her  name  on  the  p^ticol 
institutions  of  the  empire,  yet  the  standard  tongue 
of  Italy  still  continued  ta  be  called  the  Latin 
language,  not  ^la  Roman.  As  the  Roman  conquests 
extended,  Latin  spread  with  equal  strides  over  the 
conquered  countries,  and  was  generally  used  by  the 
educated  claasea  in  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  in 
Frauce,  Spain,  Portugal,  Germany,  and  other  Roman 


LATDn-LATITDBB  AMD  LONOITDDB. 


tbfre  leem  to  have  been  tiro  forma  of  the  Ungu 
differing   very    conaidi 
poluhed  dmlect  tni  ■ 


Italy  itself,  And 
tiro  forma  of  the  Unzoage, 
very  consider&bly  from  each  at£er— a 
dialect  and  ■  nutie  one — a  language  of 
)ka  and  of  the  higher  clatsefl.  and  a  language  of 
conTeraation  and  everyday  life  among  the  rmgar. 
It  wai  in.  the  last  yean  of  the  BepnUie  and  the  Eni 
of  the  Empire  that  the  poliahed  language  reached  iU 
higheat  point  of  perfectton  in  the  vritinga  of  Cicero, 
Horace,  VirgiL  and  others.  But  by  the  infloz  of 
rtraneen,  by  the  gradual  decline  of  Roman  feelings 
and  Boinaii  •pirit,  and  by  the  intermixture  of  the 
obade  forma  TriOt  th«  dialects  of  tha  provinces,  it 
became  eotmnted,  the  ^omm  of  deteriotstion  gotng 
OD  with  double  npidi^  sfter  tii«  dinnembennent  of 
the  Eoman  Empiis  in  the  5th  oentnry.  Thus  were 
formed  the  modem  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  and 
Portuguese.  The  l^gli«h  langoaee  abo  owes  much 
to  Latin,  both  directly  by  derivation  from  Uie 
olacsical  forms,  and  st  second-hand  through  the 
Norman -French.  Latin  continued  to  be  the  diplo- 
matic language  of  Europe  till  a  comparatively 
recent  period.  It  is  still  the  medium  of  commnni- 
cation  among  the  learned  of  the  world,  and  hoa 
always  been  the  offidal  language  of  IJia  S.  C 
Chnrch.  Seo  the  grammars  al  Madvig,  Kennedy, 
and  Robs'  in  Engliah ;  and  woi^  by  Htlbner, 
Diirger,  Consen,  Seue,  and  other  Oerman  scholars. 
The  gnminar  of  the  Latin  language  has  been 
■feudied  and  iUosfcrsted  by  many  celebrated  scholua 
from  VatTD  (lift— 28  b.  c.)  down  to  Zumpt,  Orote- 
fend,  EubuBT,  and  Madvig,  through  a  long  list 
of  names,  such  u  Donatiu,  Priuian,  Lanrentiiu 
Valla,  Manutins,  Melanchthon,  Scaliger,  Perizonint, 

more.  In  lexicograpby,  Ferotti,  Stephauus,  Faber, 
Qesner,  Forcellini,  Scheller,  Freund,  Georges,  and 
others  of  lest  note,  have  dona  valuable  service. 

Literature. — The  Boman  Bepablic  had  well-nigh 
run  it!  coorte  ere  it  possessed  a  writer  or  a  litera- 
ture worthy  of  the  TunDB.  A  kind  of  rude  poetry 
was  cultivated  from  the  earliest  times,  and  -vaa 
Employed  in  mch  compoaitions  as  the  Hymn  of  the 
Fratrea  Arvales  (dug  up  at  Rome  in  177^  and  ta  the 
first  burst  of  enthusiasm  excited  by  its  discovery, 
aMJgned  to  the  afe  of  Bomnlus),  in  the  sacred  songs 
to  particular  deities,  and  in  triumphal  poems  and 
ballodB,  in  the  FMceiuune  Carols,  and  other  rude 
attempts  to  amnse  or  dupe  an  illtterate  and  vulgar 
populaoe.  And  even  when,  in  later  years,  the 
Komanl  did  b«gin  to  foster  a  litetary  taste,  the  rags 
for  Greek  mo£ls  hindered  every  effort  at  origiiul 
thought.  It  was  considered  highly  merit^nions  to  imi- 
tate or  tnaalate  a  Greek  writer:  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  was  deemed  diihononrable  to  follow  a  I^tin 
author.  Snch  wM  the  feeling  eno  in  Ore  days  of 
Horace  and 'Virgil,  both  of  whom  ar« largely  indebted 
to  their  Greek  modela.  The  first  period  of  Roman 
literature  m^  be  ssid  to  extend  from  ZM  a.  c.  to 
the  death  of  Sulla  (7&  B-  a) ;  the  second,  or  Golden 
Age,  from  the  death  of  Sulla  to  the  death  of  the 
Emperor  Angnstua  (14  a.  d.)  ;  the  third,  or  Silver 
Age,  from  the  death  of  AngastuB  to  the  death  of 
AdrianjlSS  A.D.);  and  the  fourth  from  the  death  of 
Adrian  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Wcetem  Empre  in 
476  A.J>.  In  the  first  poiod,  the  moat  distio^iiBhed 
names  are  those  of  Idvins  Androoicus,  a  writer  of 
drMUM  adapted  from  the  Greek,  wfauee  first  play 
was  brought  ont  in  240  b.  c.  ;  Ennina,  whose  chief 
wu'k  waaan  epic  poem  on  the  History  of  Rome,  and 
vho  also  wrote  dramas  and  satires ;  witli  Nnvios, 
Tlautoa,  and  Terence,  the  comedians.  The  second 
period  is  adorned  by  Varro,  who  wrote  on  agri- 
culture, srammBT,  antiquities,  Ac  ;  by  Lucretius,  a 
writer  of  the  didactic  emo;  by  Virgil,  who,  to  his 
great  epic,  the  ^tieU,  added  pastoral  and  agricnl- 


tural  poetry  in  the  Metogue*  and  Oeoraia;  by 
Horace,  in  lyric  verse  and  in  satire ;  by  Catullui, 
in  lyric ;  by  Tibnllus  and  Fropertias,  in  elegy ;  br 
Uvy,  Cxaar,  SoUust,  and  Nepos,  in  history  and 
biography ;  by  Cicero,  in  philosophy,  rhetoric,  and 
oratory;    and   by  Ovid,  ■-    ------    --'    •!'--•-■- 


I   and   didactie 


biograpli 
uatoralirt ;  of  PersinB  and  Juvenal,  the  oauiiunoi 
of  Martial,  the  epigramniBtiat  j  of  ColnmeUa  and 
Lucan,  the  didactic  and  epic  poets ;  of  Statins,  Silins 
Itahous,  and  the  younger  Pliny,  with  many  other* 
of  leuernote.  Tliefoi^th  period  prodoced  fewmea 
of  name ;  but  among  thoee  who  are  beat  known  may 
be  mentioned  the  Emperor  M.  Anrelina,  Ammianna 
MaraeUina&  Gellius,  Jostin,  Annileias,  Lactantins, 
Eutropius,  Uaorobius,  Colpormns,   BoStbias,  I^nl- 

The  spread  of  Christianity  gave  rise  to  the  eccle- 
siastical poetry  of  the  middle  agea,  which  departed 
from  the  classic  models,  and  struck  oat  for  itedf 
a  new  type.  It  disregarded  the  rcetrictdont  of 
quantity  and  metre,  and  snhatitated  accent  and 
rbyme  as  the  regnlating  prindplee  of  ita  form.  lb* 
most  famotts  name  in  the  earlier  period  is  thai  of 
PrudentinB — to  whom  we  may  add  Sedolios,  St 
Hilary,  St  Ambrose,  and  St  Gngory  the  Great; 
and  in  the  later  period,  Fortnnatus;  the  Emperor 
Charlemagne,  anthor  of  Veni  Creator;  Bede  (the 
Venerable) ;  Bernard  de  Morley;  Adam  of  St  Vic- 
tor ;  Thomas  of  Celano,  author  of  the  famoua  Diet 
Ira;  James  de  BenedictiB,  antJior  of  the  equally 
famong  Slabai  Holer;  and  St  Thomas  Aquinaa — 
See  the  histories  of  Latin  Literature  by  Bemhardr, 
Munk,  Teuffel,  and  Simooz  (1883). 

IiATl'WI,  on  Italian  people,  who  in  pre-historio 
timea  had  established  themselves  on  the  lower  port 
of  the  Tiber  and  the  Anio,  between  the  sea  and  the 
nearest  Apennines.  The  limits  of  their  territory 
(LiTiCM)  cannot,  however,  be  filed  with  pieoirioiL 
The  L.  had  the  Volsci  for  neighboan  on  the  KmUi, 
the  .^ui  and  Eemici  on  the  «ut^  and  t^  Sabioea 
on  the  north;  but  after  the  subjugation  of  these 
tribe*  by  the  Bomons,  the  name  of  Latinm  wai 
given  to  the  whole  of  the  conquered  districts.    Tha 

"  '    '      '    ■  ■ ealledby 


original  and  strictly  ethnological  I^tinm  is  callei 
Fliaj^,  Latiam  A  niimaim,  and  the  newer  and  at 
wntuMM,  Laiium  Acueetum,   The  kttwid  which fomw 
the  subject  of  the  ^netd,  the  great  natf 
■'    "  ....  4a,e,g^c 


r  TVi^'on  element   in  the  persons  <d 


,   .   kvinium.  Alba   Longa  (q. 
ndiich,   according  to  the   legoid,  went  forth  the 
' — -'an  of  Rome,  Ostia,  Ai^iam,  Tuscnlom,  "Pr*- 
and  Tibur. 


LATITAT,  an  old  form  of  writ 
which  oommenoed  an  action  in  the  Court  of  Qneen* 
Bench;  now  obsolete. 

LATITUDEiND  LOTIGITin>E,in  Geography, 

denote  the  angular  diatoncei  of  a  place  on  the  earUt 
from  the  eqaat'>r  and  first  meridian  respectively; 
the  angular  distance  in  longitude  being  found  by 
snpposmg  a  plane  to  pass  tiuough  the  place,  tha 
earth's  centre,  and  (he  poles,  and  meacnring  the 
an^e  made  by  this  plane  with  the  plane  of  the  first 
meridian;  the  angular  distance  in  latitude  bang 
found  in  the  same  manner,  but  substituting  the  two 
•xtremities  of  an  equatorial  diameter  for  Uie  poles ; 
or,  more  simply,  latitude  is  the  angle  made  by  two 
linea  drawn  from  the  earth's  centre— the  one  to  the 


„  Ciooijlc 


LAnrUDE  AND  LONGITUPt— lATOTJE  D'AUVEBONE, 


!■  reokonad  from  the  eqiutor  to  the  poles,  a 
^m  the  eqtuitor  hsTiDg  lat.  0*,  and  the  polea  mr 
N.  and  90*  S.  reapectiT'ely.  Longitada  ia  reckoned 
-along  the  equator  from  the  first  meridian ;  but  as 
-nature  has  not,  as  in  the  cose  of  latitoda,  mppUed 
Ds  with  a  fixed  etarting'point,  each  nation  has 
chosen  its  own  first  mandian ;  thns,  in  Great 
Kitain  and  bar  oc^ontu,  in  Holland,  and  other  mari- 
time atates,  longitude  ia  leckoned  fnnn  the  meri- 
dian iriiieh  MSMS  through  Grwawiah;  in  FVance, 
bom  tiutt  tnnnigh  Paria,  Ac;  and  in  many  old 
eharta,  from  Perro  (one  of  the  Canarf  Isles),  or 
from  the  Madeira  ble*.  It  is  reckoned  east  and 
west  from  0"  to  180*,  though  astronomen  tockon 
from  0*  W.  to  360°  W.,  and  nerer  use  east  longi- 
tnde.  It  will  easily  be  seen  that  if  the  latitude  and 
lonratnda  of  a  plaoa  be  giTen,  its  exact  position 
■otuibe  determined,  for  the  latitndo  fixes  its  pontion 
to  a  oirclo  pannng  ronnd  the  eartii  at  a  nnifonn 
fixed  distajics  from  the  equator  (called  a  pantllel 
of  l^tude),  and  the  longitude  sheirs  what  poiut  of 
this  cdrde  i«  to  be  inteiseoted  by  the  UMmdiMi  (A 
therdaae^  the  place  brans  at  the  interaectioo. 

"Om  determination  boui  of  latitude  and  longitude 
■depends  upon  astronomical  obeerration.  Hie  i»in- 
ci^e  on  which  the  more  usual  methods  of  finding 
the  latitude  depend,  will  be  midorstood  from  the 
foUowing  coD«iderations  :  To  an  obserrer  at  the 
earth's  equator,  the  celestial  poles  are  in  the 
horizon,  and  the  meridian  point  of  the  equator  is 
in  the  zenith.  If  now  ha  travel  northwards  over 
one  degree  of  the  meridian,  the  north  celestial  pole 
will  appear  one  degree  above  the  horizon,  while 
the  meridian  point  of  the  eqnator  will  decline  one 
il^iree  aouthwardi;  and  so  on,  ontil,  when  he 
nadied  tiie  terrestrial  pole,  the  pole  of  the  heavens 
would  b«  in  the  zenith,  and  tiie  equator  in  the 
lunizoQ.  Tba  same  thing  is  trae  with  regard  to 
the  soiithem  hemisphere.  It  thns  appean  that  to 
determine  the  latitude  of  a  place  we  have  only  to 
find  the  altitude  of  the  pole,  or  the  zenith  distance 
of  the  meridiui  point  of  the  eqnator  (which  is  the 
same  thing  as  the  oomplement  of  ita  altitnde).  The 
altitude  Ot  the  pole  is  found  most  directiy  by 
observing  the  greatest  and  least  altitudes  of  the 
polar  star  (see  Poui),  or  of  any  ciramnpolar  star, 
and  (correction  being  made  for  refraction)  taking 
half  t^e  sum.  Siimlarlv,  half  the  sum  of  the 
greatest  and  least  meridian  altitadee  of  the  ann, 
at  the  two  solstices,  corrected  for  refraction  and 
paralloT,  gives  the  altitnde  of  the  meridian  point 
of  the  equator.  The  method  moat  oanal  with 
navigntoTB  and  travellers  ia  to  oteerve  the  meridian 
altitntle  of  D  star  whose  declination  or  distance 
from  the  equator  is  known ;  OT  of  the  inn,  whose 
declination  at  the  tinie  may  be  found  from  the 
Sauliad  Almrmae;  the  sum  or  difference  (acoorf- 
iiiK  to  the  direction  of  the  declination)  of  the 
altitnde  and  deolination  gives  the  mmidian  altitude 
of  the  equator,  which  u  the  oo-latitndci  Other 
metjiode  of  finding  the  latitude  leqoire  mora  or 
less  trigonometric^  calculation. 

The  determination  of  the  lomdtude  ia  by  no 
means  so  readily  accompllBhed.  Variooi  methods 
have  at  different  times  been  proposed,  moat  of 
which  are  only  fitted  for  observatories.  Among 
tlieee  may  be  dossed  those  which  depend  upon  the 
determination  of  the  local  tdme  of  the  occurrence  of 
oertain  oelestial  phenomena,  such  aa  the  eclipses  of 
the  sun,  moon,  or  Jajiiter'B  satellites,  occnltations 
of  fixed  stars  by  the  moon,  the  time  occupied  in  the 
moon's  transit  over  the  meridian,  &c;  andcomparing 
the  observed  local  time  with  the  calculated  time 
ol  t^e  occurrence,  at  some  station  whose  longitude 
is  known  (e.  s.,  Greenwich),  the  difference  of  time 
when  rednced  to  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds,  at 


the  rate  of  360*  to  24  houn,  give*  the  diffetwioe  of 
lon^tuda.  The  two  methods  in  nae  among  travellers 
and  on  board  ship  are  remarkable  for  their  combina- 
tion of  simplicity  with  aocuracy.  The  £nt  consists 
merely  in  determining  at  what  honr  on  the  chron- 
omet^  (which  ia  set  to  the  time  at  Oreenwich,  or 
some  plaoe  of  known  longitnde)  the  ftm  oiossiis  tiw 
meridian.  It  is  evident  that  as  the  mn  oomfJeteB 
a  nrvolnlion,  or  3G0*,  in  21  houra,  he  will  mov* 
over  IS*  in  1  hour,  or  1°  in  4  minnte*.  Now,  if 
the  watch  be  set  to  Oreenwich  time — vi&.jxnnt 
to  12  o'clock  when  the  son  is  on  the  meridian  of 
Greenwich,  and  if  at  some  other  plaoe,  when  the 
sun  is  on  the  meridian  there,  the  watoh  points  to 
3  hours  S2  minutes,  the  differenoe  of  longitude  ia 
68*,  and  the  longitude  will  he  W.,  aa  the  sun  has 
arrived  over  the  plaM  hler  than  at  Greenwich; 
similarly,  if  the  sun  be  over  the  meridian  of  a  plaoa 
at  9  houia  40  minutea  a.  il,  the  longitude  is  3s*  EL 
(by  the  chronometer).  The  accnracy  of  this  method 
d^iends  evidently  upon  the  correctness  of  time- 
keepers (sea  Watchb).  Tht  other  method— that 
of  '  lunar  distances ' — may  be  briefly  explained  as 
follows  ;  The  distanoe  of  the  nuxm  from  oertain 


Oreenwich  time,  and  pnbli^ed  in  t^  Nanliad 
Ahnanai.  Ttie  moon's  distance  from  some  one  star 
having  been  obaerved,  and  oorraot*!  for  refraction 
and  parallax,  and  the  local  time  having  also  been 
noted,  the  difference  between  this  local  time  and 
tiuU  time  in  (As  tnile  whiA  earrMtmdt  to  Ou  mime 
ifiiteiws  givaa  the  longitude,  which  may  be  oon- 
voiied  into  d^rees  as  before.  It  may  also  be  mesi- 
tioned,  that  tlie  longitude  of  sll  jdaoea  oonnaoted  by 
telegraph  with  the  reckmiin^pmnt  can  be  easily 
fonml  by  tianamitting  from  uu  latter  a  signal  to 
an  obsurer  in  th«  ^oee,  at  a  oertain  SxmI  time 
^'eokooed  in  aalar  tame  at  the  teokoning-point),  and 
by  the  obaarver  instantly  and  Monrstely  noting  the 
looal  time  at  which  the  siBnal  arrived ;  the  £fier> 
eooe  of  the  two  times,  redaoed  in  the  way  shewn 
above^  will  give  the  longitude,  the  time  occupied  in 
the  transmisaioa  of  the  signal  being  so  smaU  as  to 
be  neglected.  When  applied  to  a  heavenly  body, 
the  terms  latitude  and  longitude  have  the  same 
rdotions  to  the  ecliptic  and  its  poles,  and  to  the 
point  on  the  ecliptic  called  tiie  Equinox  (q.  v.),  that 
terrestrial  latitude  and  longitude  have  to  the 
eqootM'  and  a  first  meridian.  The  positions  of  a 
heavenly  body  relatively  to  the  eqnator  are  called 
ita  Declination  (q.  v.)  and  Bight  Aiceusion  (q.  v.). 

LATITUDINABIANS.    See  SuPP.,  Vol  X. 

LATOUB  D'AUVEBONE,  TntoPKiLB  Miio 
CoRKBT  nx,  bom  Z3d  November  1743,  at  Carhoix 
ia  !Finist^te,  France,  of  on  illegitimate  branch  of 
the  family  of  the  Dukes  of  Bouillon.  He  entered 
the  army  in  1T6T;  and  in  1781  served  onder  the 
Duke  de  Crillon  at  Fort  Mahon.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolntion,  he  attached  himsdf  to  the 
natioaal  cause:  The  army  of  the  Alps  contained 
no  braver  officer  than  Latoor.  He  waa  the  first  to 
enter  Chambery,  aword  in  hand,  at  the  head  of  hia 
company.  But  he  would  not  hear  of  advancement 
in  nulitary  rank ;  and  in  the  following  year,  tbon^ 
placed  at  the  bead  of  a  column  of  8000  nenodiera 
in  the  army  of  the  Pyrenees,  he  continued  to  wear 
the  uniform  of  a  oaptun.  Hia  corps  obtained  the 
name  of  the  'infernal  column,'  on  accoont  of  the 
dread  which  its  bayonet-chaiges  inmired.  When 
he  was  subsequently  with  the  army  of  the  Rhine  m 
180(^  «■  he  still  refused  all  promotion,  Bonaparte 
bestowed  on  him  the  title  of  ^  The  First  Greiwdier 
of  Franca.'  He  waa  killed,  on  27th  June  of  that 
at  Obedunuen,  near  Neuburg  in  Bavaria.   The 


yearjat  Oberi 
heromn  and 


of  U  1 


wG(?Qq|( 


LA  TRAPPE— LAUD. 


■nd  Frencli  biographiea  are  foil  of  insbuicE 
bu  daring  vaJoor,  hia  Spartan  Bimjdicity  of 
■nd  hu  chiTBlroiu  affectioii  for  hii  niends.  Wlieu 
ha  died,  tho  nbole  French  army  monmed  for  him 
three  days ;  ctot  aoldLer  set  aaide  a  day'a  par 
to  purchase  a  silver  nm  to  hold  his  heart ;  hia 
s&bre  was  placed  in  the  church  of  the  Invalidea ; 
and  each  moraine,  till  tho  cloee  of  the  Empire,  at 
the  inalter-roll  of  hia  rcsiment,  hia  name  continued 
to  be  called,  and  the  oldeet  sergeant  answered  to 
thecal!:  '  Mori  au  ehamptThonnfur' (DeaAoatiie 
field  of  honour).  L,  was  not  only  a  brave  warrior, 
but  also  a  man  of  a  stadions  disposition,  and  the 
author  of  two  works,  NmivtUea  JtechenAet  nir  la 
Lanffoe  rOrigme  el  la  AntiquiUi  del  BreUmt 
(1792),  and  Orijpne*  Oauhitei  (1801),  which  is,  how- 
BTer,  only  a  tbird  edition  of  the  former. 

liA  TRAPPE,  a  narrow  Talleyin  Normandy,  in 
the  department  of  Orne,  closely  abut  in  by  woods 
and  rocks,  and  ver^  difficult  of  access.  It  is  notable 
M  the  pUce  in  which  the  Trappiata  (q-v.)  originated. 

LATREILLB,  Pibbbb-AndhS.  SobSupp.,VoIX. 

LA'TBIN E3,  conveniaDcee  for  soldiers  in  camps 
and  barracks.  Mnch  attention  baa  of  late  been 
devoted  to  their  construction,  a  large  percentage 
of  the  army  licknen  having  been  traced  to  their 
defective  and  impure  condition. 

IjA'TTEN,  s  term  now  seldom  used.  It  is 
applied  to  sheet-braa,  and  previoos  to  the  reforma 
in  the  Customs  tariff,  the  naine  was  regularly  recog- 
nited.  There  are  three  varieties  of  latten  known^ 
bladi,  J&iiwn,  and  roiL  The  first  is  rolled  braai 
about  the  thickness  of  ordinary  pasteboard,  and 
nnpolished ;  the  second  as  thin  as  wnting-paper ;  and 
the  third  i>  either  of  the  other  kinds  pohshed  on 
both  sides.  The  term  latten  is  of  tome  orchno- 
logical  interest,  as  it  is  not  known  what  is  meant 
hy  the  'mines  of  latten'  mentioned  in  the  time  of 
Henry  VIIL,  and  frequent  mention  is  made  of  this 
metal  in  variooa  public  recoids,  without  ezploiui- 
tion  of  ita  nature. 

LA'TTICE-BKIDGE,  so  colled  from  having  the 
^es  constmcted  with  crCM-framing  reeembling 
lattice- work  (Fr.  and  Oer.  laae,  »  Utb).  See  Frakb- 
BRTDOE.  Many  very  large  bridges  of  this  Idnd 
bave  been  erected  with  timber- trMning  in  America. 
That  over  the  Susquehanna  at  Columbia  is  about 


Fig.1. 

a  king-poet  or  banger  in  centre^  Each  span  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  these  rafters,  io  arranged  that 
the  head  of  one  rafter  (B)  is  immediately  over  the 
feet  of  the  two  adjoining  mfteis.  Other  lattice- 
bridges  are  constmcted  With  diagonal  braces,  united 
with  strong  pins,  and  withoat  suspension-rods.  The 
former  method  is  the  stronger,  as  in  the  latter 
the  strain  comes  chiefly  on  the  pins  muting  the 
diagonal  cross-braces.  Lattice-bridgea  are  also  con- 
structed in  iron,  and  have  been  much  used  for 
railway  puiposes.  The  first  application  of  the 
lattice  principle  to  iron  was  made  by  Mr  Qeorge 
Smart,  who  registered,  in  1834,  his  'patent  iron 
bridge,'  Many  modifications  of  the  same  principla 
have  been  adopted— the  horiiontal  ties  at  top  and 
bottom  being  always  o£  wrought  iron,  and  the  dia- 


gonals either  simple  wrongbt-iron  bare,  or  hoUoiir 
malleable  iron  tubes,  or  of  cost  iron.  The  wrou^it- 
iron  tubular  bow-bridge,  now  in  very  common  nao  in 


Kg.  2. 

railway  constructioQ,  is  a  combination  of  the  tabular 
and  the  lattice  principle.  Sea  Tdbuuh  Bbidobb. 
Fig.  2  shews  a  portion  of  the  lattice  bridge  over  the 
Ouse  at  Lends]  Ferry,  York,  u  designed  by  M> 
Dre^e,  C.K  The  bridge  has  a  dear  span  of  175 
feet  6  inches. 

LATTICE  liBAP,  LACB  LEAF,  WATEB 
YAM,  or  OUVIRANDBANO  {Oumrandra  fint 
Iralu),  a  plant  referred  by  some  botanists  to  t1 
natural  orfer  Juncagijiae,  and  by  some  to  ifakul- 
aeeiK  It  is  a  native  of  Madagascar,  and  grows  in 
mnniDg  streams.  It  has  »  root-stock  about  the 
thickness  of  a  man's  thumb,  six  to  nine  inches  long, 
often  branching,  internally  white,  with  a  Udit' 
brown  skin,  fonnaceous,  and  used  for  food.  13m 
crown  of  the  root  is  under  water,  and  the  leaves 
float  just  under  tha  surfaoe ;  IJie  flower-stalks 
rise  above  it  The  flowers  are  in  forked  spikes. 
The  leaves  are  very  curious ;  tha  blade  resembling 
lattice-work  or  open  needle-work  of  a  moat  r^nlar 
pattern  ;  the  longitudinal  ribs  being  crossed  at  right 
angles  by  fina  tendrils,  and  the  intervening  naces 
being  open.  The  blade  is  of  an  elongated  oval  form, 
abruptly  acuminated ;  the  length  of  the  stalk  varies 
according  to  (he  depth  of  the  water.  The  whole 
appeirance  of  tha  plant  is  very 
beautiful.  It  ^ws  well  in  hothouse  k 
aquaria  in  Britain.  ^ 

LATTICED,  or  TREILLfi,  in  K 
Heraldry,  is  a  term  applied  to  a   V 
shield   covered  with  a   decoration     \ 
resembhuf;  Fretty  (q.  v.),  but  differ- 
ing in  this  respect,  that  the  piecee 
do  not  cross  over  and  under  each 
other :   those  directed  from  dexter        Lattiood. 
chief   to   sinister  base  are  placed 
upperiaoat  and  doui,  that  is,  have  noils  inserted  at 
the  joints. 

LAU'BAN,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Silesia,  is  situated  in  a  charming  valley  on  tha 
Qneisi  40  miles  west-south-west  of  liegnitz.  Pool 
(1880)  10,775,  who  are  eng^  chiefly  in  woollen, 
linen,  and  cotton  weaving,  l>kaching,  printing  dye- 
ing, and  bell-founding. 

LAUD,  WrLUAM,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
was  the  son  of  a  clothier  in  good  circumstances,  and 
was  bom  at  Reading,  in  BerkHhire,  October  7, 1573. 
He  entered  St  JoHn's  CollEKe,  Oxford,  in  IC89, 
became  a  Fellow  in  1593,  and  took  his  degree  t4 
M.A  in  1598.    Ordained  a  priert  in  1601,  he 


AiOo^W 


tt" 


LAODANITM— LAQENBUBQ. 


n  moito  of  strong  oppoeiticm— Pre«ident 
d'b  CoUece;  in  1614,  Prebenduy  of  Lin- 
1   m  1616,  Archdakcon   of   Huntdngdcm. 


lutde  himielf  aonsfaeaoiu  at  the  muvanity  by  hit 
Mitiprthj  to  ForitMium ;  but  beinff  then  k  penon 
of  Tmy  littls  conMqnence,  he  onlj  Bu«oeeded  in 
•letting  diapleaaiira  snunBt  himceU.  Yet  hii  learn- 
ing Itii  peniitent  and  definite  eficletisEticuin,  and 
the  genuine  m»— ifi«liTiii*«  of  bia  devotion  to  the 
ohureh.  Boon,  won  him  both  friends  and  patrons. 
In  1607,  he  waa  prtferred  to  the  vicsraee  of  Stan- 
ford  in  Northamptonahire,  and  in  I6(W  obtained 
the  advowBon  of  North  Kilirorth  in  LeiceEtenhiic 
Td  both  of  these  living!  he  ihewed  himielf  an 
eiempbuy  clergyman  according  to  the  High-ohurch 
pattern — zealous  in  repairing  uie  parsonage-houKS, 
and  liberal  ia  maintoiiiiiig  ma  poor.  In  1609,  he 
was  appointed  Rector  of  Went 
in  1611— in  '     " 

of  St  John' 

coin;  and  in  1616,  Archdoicon  of  Huntingdi 
King  James  now  began  to  recognise  what  aort  of 
a  man  L.  was,  and  to  eee  that  he  might  reljr  on 
him  aa  a  valuable  ally  in  earning  out  uii  notioika 
of  the  'divine  ri^t.'  Not  that  their  oinu  were 
quite  identical— ^Fomea  was  chiefly  anxioua  to 
Tn^infain  the  absolute  authority  of  the  aoyereim, 
and  li.  the  abaolnte  authority  ot  epiBcopaey.  In 
1617,  L.  accompanied  hia  majesty  to  Scotland,  witJi 
the  view  ot  introducing  episcopacy  into  the  church- 
government  of  that  country ;  but  the  attempt 
failed.  In  1621,  he  wu  coiwecrated  Biehop  of  St 
Davids.  After  the  acceseion  of  Cbarlea  L,  he  vaa 
tnuulated  from  the  see  of  St  Davids  to  that  of 
Bath  and  Weill,  became  high  in  faroor  at  conrt, 
WHB  more  than  ever  hated  by  the  Paritans,  and  was 
denounced  in  parliament.  In  1628,  he  woa  made 
Biahoji  ot  London.  After  the  aasasBination  of 
Buckingham  (q.  v.),  L.  became  virtually  the  chief 
minister  of  CbArkn,  and  acted  in  a  manner  bo 
utterly  opposed  to  the  spirit  of  the  times  and  to  the 
opinions  of  the  great  body  of  Puritazia  in  Eo^land, 
that  one  might  hare  foreseen  hia  ruin  to  be  inevit- 
able, in  Bpite  of  the  royal  favour.  In  1630,  he  waB 
chosen  chancellor  of  the  university  of  Oxford,  the 
centre  of  High-ohurch  loyalty.  From  this  period  he 
was  for  several  years  busily  but  fruitlessly  employed 
in  repreaaing  Puritanism.  The  means  adopted  were 
not  mdy  unchristian,  but  even  detestable.  Cropping 
the  eaia,  slitting  the  nose,  branding  the  forenea^ 
fines,  imprisonments,  are  not  at  any  time  satisfac- 
tory methods  of  defending  a  religious  lyatem,  but  in 
the  then  temper  of  the  finelisb  nation  they  were  in 
the  last  degree  weak  and  foolish.  In  Uie  High- 
commission  and  Star-chamber  Courte,  tiie  influence 
of  L.  was  snpreme ;  but  the  penalty  be  paid  for  this 
inflnence  was  the  hatred  of  the  EagJish  parlisiueut 
and  of  the  people  generally.  In  1633,  he  was  raised 
to  the  archbiwopnc  of  Canterbnry,  and  in  the  same 

Sir  made  chancellor  of  the  university  of  Dublin. 
B   famoos  ordinance   regarding  Sunday   sports, 
which  was  published  about  this  tune  by  royal  com- 


Puiitan*.    His  minute  alterations  in  public  woiship, 

bis  r^folatione  about   "  '   " 

altar  and  the  fencioL 

forcing  Dutch  and  Walloon        ^   „ 

the  English  Liturgy,  and  all  Englishmen  to  attend 

the  piuish  churches  where  they  reaided,  display  a 


)  inconBiderable  amount  of  cruelty 

and  malice.  Still,  it  most  be  confessed  that  in 
the  hmg-ron,  L.'b  ritoalism  has  triumphed.  The 
Church  of  England  was  gradually  penetrated  with 
bit  tpirit,  and  the  high  value  which  she  has  come 
to  put  on  religioua  ceremonies  is  partly  owinz  to 
the  pertinacious  effOTta  of  the  archbiihop.      This 


doctrinal  and  CalmnidU  as  her  articlas  v 

logically  neoeuitate.  During  163S — 1637,  another 
effort  wa«  made  by  him  to  establish  episcopacy 
in  Scotland;  but  Uie  fitst  attempt  to  read  the 
liturgy  in  St  Giles's  Church,  Edinburgh,  excited  a 
dangerons  tumult.  Proceedings  were  finally  takeo 
■gainst  him,  and  on  the  lat  ot  March  1640—1611. 
he  was,  by  order  of  the  House  of  Commons,  can> 
veyed  to  the  Tower.  After  being  stripped  of  hia 
honours,  and  expooed  to  many  indignities  and  much 
injustice,  be  was  finally  bronght  to  trial  before  the 
House  of  Lords,  November  13,  1643,  on  a  charge  of 
treason  and  other  crimes.  The  Lords,  however, 
did  not  find  bim  guilty ;  but  the  Commoos  had 
previously  resolved  on  hu  death,  and  passed  an 
ordinance  for  his  execution.  To  this  the  Upper 
House  gave  ita  aneot ;  and  in  spite  of  L.'«  producins 
a  royal  pardon,  he  was— undoubtedly  in  violation  M 
express  statute,  and  by  the  exercise  of  a  prenwatiTa 
of  parliament  as  arbitrary  aa  any  kbig  hadevev 
exhibited— beheaded,  10th  Janna/y  1644—1645.  L. 
had  a  genuine  regard  for  leamitu — st  least  ecclo> 
liaaticaT  learning — and  enriched  the  univenity  of 
Oxford,  in  the  course  of  his  life,  with  1300  MSa 
in  different  European  and  Oriental  language! ;  but 
his  exclusive  sacerdotalism,  hia  inability  to  under- 
stand  his  fellow-oreatures,  and  hia  consequent 
disr^;ard  for  their  rights,  forbid  us  to  admire  hit 
character,  though  we  pity  his  fat&  Hia  writinaa 
are  few.  Wharton  published  bis  Diary  in  1694; 
and  during  1S57— 1860,  Parker,  the  Oxford  pub- 
lisher, issued  Tim  tVorka  of  tAe  HiMt  Beeartad 
Father  in  Ood,  W^Uam  Laud,  D.D.,  mmeUiM  Lord 
ArxJibiAop  qf  Canterbtay,  contuning,  among  other 

great  value  i 
conception  of  the  man 

LAUDAMUM,  or  TINCTDRE  OF  OPIUM,  is 
the  Dtoet  generally  naed  of  all  the  preparations  o~ 
opium.  It  is  obtained  by  macerating  the  shced  o: 
powdered  drug  in  spirit,  and  Altering.  It  is  of  j 
deep  bi«wniah-red  cdIobt,  and  poeseeaea  the  peculiar 
odour  and  smell  of  opium.  One  of  the  greatest 
objections  to  it  is,  that  it  ia  liable  to  great  variations 
of  strength.  Dr  Christison  remarks  :  '  Laudan 
is  made  by  all  the  colleges  with  such  proportioni 

the  opium  and  spirit  that  abont  thirteen  nin 

and  a  half,  or  about  twenty-five  dr^,  contain  the 
entire  part  of  one  grain  of  opium.  But  the  London 
tincture  may  be  sometimes  sixteen  per  cent  stronger 
than  the  others,  aa  dry  opium  is  directed  to  bo 
naed.'  'Diia  iWicine  is,  moreover,  very  often 
adulterated. 

LAudanum  is  a  powerful  anodyne  and  soporific, 
but  is  more  Liable  to  cause  headache  than  the  soln- 
tirai  of  one  of  the  salts  of  morphis.  Its  general 
action  and  its  uses  will  be  described  in  the  article 
Ofhw.  The  dose  for  an  adult  varies  from  ten 
'"''■'""  to  a  drachm.  To  children  (as  is  the  case 
with  all  opiates),  it  must  be  given  with  extreme 
caution.  One  mintnt,  which  is  equivalent  to  the 
ISOth  of  a  grain  of  morphia,  has  been  known  to 
prove  fatal  to  an  infant. 

UiUDS.    See  Cabonical  Honss, 

LAU'BNBURG,  or  SAXE-LAUENBURO, 
a  duchy  belonging  to  Prussia,  but  formerly  united 
to  the  crown  of  Denmark.  In  the  earlier  half  of  the 
13th  c,  it  fell  into  the  possession  of  the  Duke  of 
Saxony,  one  of  whose  sons  became  the  founder  of 
the  ducal  Honae  of  Saxe-Lanenburg.  After  the  ex 
tinction  of  this  line,  it  was  inherited  by  the  Duke  o: 
Brnnawick-Celle  in  16S9,  and  passed  into  the  pos< 
I  session  of  the  Hanoverian  kiiui  of  Qreat  Britain, 

ui  I ,.L.oqqU 


LAUQHINO  GAS-LAUGHTER.  THE  LUDICRODS. 


WM  meed  nlong  with  Hinorer  by  the  French  in 
1S03,  uid  ftfterwards,  with  •ome  chaum  of  bonnd- 
uy,  inta  made  over  to  Priuau,  end  by  Fnucis 
tranafeiTed  to  DenmarlL,  bqt  with  reeerration  of  oU 
rights  and  piinleg«ik  By  the  treaty  of  Oaatein,  1S55, 
h  came  into  the  OMMesion  of  Prosaia.  It  hai  an 
area  of  400  ni.  inile%  and  (in  1S75)  48,803  inbsbit- 
anta,  liea  on  tbe  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  and  borden 
Da  HanoTO'  and  Mecklenborg.  It  is  a  well-oulti- 
TAtod  and  fertile  country.  In  1876,  L.  was  finally 
incorporated  with  the  proriace  of  Schleswig-Hol- 
atein,  of  vrhich  it  is  now  a  district — The  town  of  L., 
once  capital  of  the  dnchy,  ii  on  the  Elbe,  and  has  a 
pop.  of  (1380)  4726.  It  dates  from  1182,  and  con- 
tains the  old  ducal  paUce. 

XjAUGHIIIO  gas.    See  NiTKOOEir. 

liAUGHTEK—THE  LUDIOROTTS.  This 
hmiliar  and  peenliariy  hnman  expreaaion  hat  been 
the  occaiion  of  a  good  deal  of  diaoniaiDn  and  Dontro- 
Tersy,  being  connected  with  a  large  and  important 
claaa  of  efiects,  named  the  Indicrona,  and  also  with 
wit  and  hnmonr.  We  shall  fliwt  adrert  to  the 
T^ysicBl  part  of  the  phenomenon,  and  then  oonmder 
the  meatAl  cansee  or  accompanimenbi  of  it. 

Physically,  laughter  is  a  conwltiTe  action  of  the 
Diaphrann  (q.  t.).  In  this  state,  a*  lemarbed  by 
Sir  Cranes  Bell,  the  pctson  *  draws  a  full  breath, 
and  throw*  it  ont  in  interrupted,  short,  and  aodiblB 
oaohinnatdona.'  ^ua  conmlsion  of  the  diaphragm  la 
the  principal  part  of  the  physical  manifeetationa  of 
langbter;  but  there  are  several  accessories,  e«pe- 
oiafly  the  sharp  vocal  uttenmoe  arising  troin  the 
violoit  tonsioa  ot  tiie  larynx,  and  the  expresdon  of 
the  features,  this  being  a  more  intense  form  of  the 
anile,  the  charactertsbo  of  pleaaing  emotions  gener- 
ally. In  extreme  cases,  the  ^ea  are  moistened  by 
the  eflbsion  fnnn  the  lachrymal  glands. 

The  canies  of  lan^iter  are  Iratb  phyrical  aod 
maUcd.  AtnoD^  physical  causes,  we  most  nmk  first 
hilarity,  or  "»'""■*  spirits  generally.  When  there 
ia  a  great  overflow  of  good  spirits,  it  takes  the  foim 
of  toe  lai   '  "^ '-•  -'   _-_7.-.-^-__ 


Variooa  toeories  £ 


^e  rebound  of  robust  natnies  from  constraint  or 
oonJBnement,  as  when  diildren  aie  released  from 
school,  is  marked  with  nproariotts  glee  and  excite- 
ment Ldughter  is  sometimes  prodooad  by  the 
applicaijon  of  oold,  as  in  the  cdd  bath.  Another 
notable  form  is  the  hysterioal  iil^  where  the 
exptoaiveneas  of  the  nervooa  system  is  an  effect  of 
disease,  and  followed  bv  exhaustion. 

The  nKK/oJ  causes  of  UrigMjn-  are  what  have  given 
rise  to  the  oontraversv.  To  determine  the  common 
□haracteristic  of  all  those  things  termed  '  ladicrona,' 
found  a  ptoUem  of  no  common  difficulty. 
_  theories  have  been  propounded,  all  wiUi 
truth,  but  po^ps  none  entirely  axplsiniiu 
the  facts.  Aristotle  lays  it  down  that 'the  ridicut 
oua  implicH  something  deformed,  and  consists  in 
those  smaller  faults  which  are  neither  painful  nor 

Eicious,  but  unbeseeming — thus,  a  face  excites 
hter  wherein  there  is  deformity  and  distortion 
.out  pain.'  Here  he  touches  upon  several  of  the 
important  conditions — viz.,  that  toere  should  l>e  some 
strangeness  or  deviation  from  toe  ordinarv  appear- 
ances of  nature,  that  this  deviation  should  be  on  toe 
aide  of  degradation  or  inferiority,  and  that  it  should 
not  be  of  a  kind  to  excite  any  other  strong  emotion, 
as  pity.  Hobbes  boa  raven  a  tbeory  to  toe  effect 
that  laughter  ia  'a  sudden  glory,  arising  from  a 
sudden  conception  of  some  eminency  in  ounielvci 
by  comparison  wito  toe  infirmity  of  others,  or  wito 
our  own  foirnerty.'  This  evidently  suits  a  certain 
number  of  cases,  especially  the  laugh  of  ridicule, 
derision,  and  contempt.  It  would  not  be  so  easy 
to  reconcile  it  wito  the  humorous  and  genial  laughter 


of  those  toat  are  but  little  given  to  self-gloriSmticaft 
or  proud  exultation  over  other  men's  duootnfitursb 
I^irtly  owing  t«  this  deSciency,  and  pauily  from  toe- 
harto  judgment  of  human  nature  implied  in  f^  thi« 
tbieoiy  has  been  very  unpopular.  It  has  been  oon- 
tended,  in  oppcaitioa  to  Hobbes,  that  there  are  jest* 
toat  do  not  imply  toe  degndation  of  any  living 
being ;  and  that  we  often  feel  contempt  for  otoen^ 
and  sudden  glorying  in  ourselves  by  toe  comparison, 
withoDt  being  urgM  to  laushter.  As  to  toe  first  of 
these  all^ations,  Campbell,  in  toe  PhUomAg  of 
ShMorU,  adduoee  the  following  instance :  ' alaaw* 
he  says,  'have  laughed  at  toe  qneemess  of  to* 
ocsnpuisoa  in  toese  lines  (from  Hvdibnu) : 


who  never  dreamed  that  there  was  aay  petaon  or 
party,  practice  or  opnion,  detided  in  toem.'  But  in 
addition  to  toe  agreeable  surprise  oansed  1:^  th» 
novelty  of  the  comparison,  which  is  the  chief  u^ra- 
dient  m  wit,  and  may  exist  witoont  any  d^radation 
of  toe  subject,  toere  is  here  a  most  apparent  degra* 
dation  of  the  poetic  art,  hallowed  aa  it  is  in  men'* 
minds  by  toe  most  dignified  associationa  as  some. 
thing  tlim  to  divine  inspiratiou,  and  now  reduced 
to  a  vul^r  mechaniBm  of  rhyme-making.  Hobbe* 
conflneshia  definition  too  miich  to  actual  persons ; 
for  toe  laugh  may  be  raised  ag^nst  classes,  portiea, 
systenu,  opinions,  institutions,  and  even  inanimatfr 
tilings  supposed  to  be  personified.  It  would  not  be 
easy  to  produce  any  unequivocal  instance  of  a  langlt 
raised  witoout  degrading  some  peraon  or  interest, 
while  in  a  vast  number  of  cases  tois  circninstanoe  is 
toe  indispensable  and  admitted  condition  of  to* 
effect. 

Sr  CampbeH  himself,  while  chaUeoging  the  toeoiy 
of  Hobbes,  subttitiitea  nothing  in  its  place  except 
an  entuneretion  of  toe  most  prominent  kinds  of 
'   *'  effects.    'Diese  are,  first,  toe  debasement  of 


and  thirdlj^  the  queemess  or  singutariCy  of  Vb» 
imagray.  Now,  as  regards  toe  first  of  these,  the 
debasement  of  things  eminently  great— by  iiz  the 
largest  oJaaa— the  doctrine  of  Hobboa,  if  ^operi^ 
guarded,  would  be  found  fully  applicable.  There  i* 
a  strong  satisfactiaa  in  pulling  anvthing  down  from 
a  high  [ritmacle  to  plunge  it  in  the  mire,  which  wo 
can  mterpret  only  as  a  mode  of  the  sentiment  of 
Power,  one  of  the  most  energetio  and  deep-seated 
passions  of  the  human  mind.  This  sentuuent  i> 
gratifiied  by  every  striking  effect  that  we  can  vxtt- 
dnce  oniselves ;  and  few  effects  are  mora  striking 
than  to  debase  or  humiliate  some  person  or  interest 
from  a  proud  eminence  ;  and  not  only  so,  but  (what 
Hobbes  neglected  to  remark)  also  by  seeing  toe 
effect  produced  by  toe  iwency  of  some  otoer  person. 
A  familiar  mode  of  pandering  to  toe  sense  of  power 
is  to  put  any  one  to  fright ;  even  toe  child  can 
chuckle  over  this  triumph  of  its  young  abili^, 
Campbell's  second  class  of  cases  might  seem  at  firat 
sight  to  be  the  oppoaitfl  of  toe  first,  and  toereby  to 
contradict  toe  general  toeory  which  that  illnstnit**. 
But  whan  mean  and  little  things  are  aggrandised,  bv 
elevated  phraseology,  so  as  to  raise  a  laugh,  it  wilt 
always  be  found  that  toe  effect  is  owing,  not  to  tin 
raising  of  toe  subject,  but  to  the  degrading  of  Uij 
language  by  connection  with  such  a  subject  This 
is  tihe  Bo-culed  inoctAcroic,  where  the  grand  and  toa 
lofty  in  speech  being  employed  upon  the  mean  and 
insignificant,  are  debased  to  toe  level  of  what  tlu^ 
are  applied  to.    Such  is  toe  nature  of  parody. 


i.Coo^ijIc 


LA.UNCS— LAUSACEl£. 


■cndeaeript,  bnt  «>n  analTiiB  alirtiji  yield  mora 
lao*  of  the  element  of  implied  littlenen  or  meuuii 
in  >  nibject  luiuUy  held  great  or  dignified. 

In  ahort,  U  we  OMsfnlly  nt  aude  the  element  of 
tlw  wittr,  we  ihall  gsatni\j  be  able  to  explain  tiie 
raodnoticMi  of  laugher  upon  a  nnifocm  prinoipli 
Erorj  ODO  would  probvUy  allow  that  nine  oaaea  on 
of  areiy  ten  of  the  genuiiiel]'  ludieroiu  are  case*  of 
the  pleaaare  of  dt^nioin^  iomethiiiK,  which  fnmisbei 
a  oonsideTsble  pratimption  that  tbe  remtunder  are 
of  the  same  gencnl  oboracter,  althou^  pcrhapa 
LTeloped  with  cironmBtancee  that  disguise  um  facl 


of  learning,  and  the  poliah  ol  rhetorical  art,  may 
mter  into  a,  iDdicroui  combination.  Such  we  have 
in  the  w<nb  of  the  great  comio  writers — in  the 
plays  of  Ajistophaues,  Molitre,  and  SluikBpeare, 
■nd  in  the  humour  of  Cervantes,  Addison,  Svrift,  and 
Sydney  Smith — but  wherever  there  is  do  expressed 
or  implied  d^^adatiou  of  some  chaiacters,  classes, 
(^anions,  or  mBtitutiens,  we  shall  probably 
axperience  the  proper  delight  of  the  luilli:rous> 

IiAUITCiE  {Arnmodylet),  a  zenos  of  fishes,  of  the 
e«l  tribe,  with  wtj  elongated  body,  elongated  head, 
large  gilj-openines,  dorsA  fin  extending  nearly  tbe 
irhole  length  01  the  bock,  anal  Bd  also  long,  bul- 
Sn  distinct  from  them  both,  and  forked.  Two 
nmcdea  areeommon  on  the  British  const,  often  called 
Sahd-ssl,  a  name  which,  in  some  bookt  of  natural 
bistory,  is  restricted  to  the  larger  and  less  ahnndant 
Ct   them  (A.  Tobiajuu),  a  fi£  about  a  loot  loi^ 


Sand  Launoe  (A.  ianaea). 

the  l/omel  of  the  Firth  of  Forth.  The  smaller 
species  {A.  lauxa),  about  five  or  six  inches  long,  is 
mach  iiaed  as  bait  by  fiuhermcn.  Both  are,  however, 
very  delicate  and  potable.  They  are  of  a  beautiful 
(rilvery  colour.  The  under  jaw  projects  beyond  the 
upper,  and  is  used  in  buirowing  iu  the  Band,  to 
whicb  these  fishes  retreat  wheu  the  tide  retuea. 
They  ore  obtained  by  digging  in  the  sood,  or  hy  ■ 
kind  of  rake,  or  by  nets  drawn  along  the  sand,  when 
it  is  covered  by  the  sea. 

LAU'NOESTON,  the  second  town  of  Tasmania, 
or  Von  Piemen's  Load,  is  to  the  north  of  the  island 
what  Hobart  Town,  the  capital,  is  to  the  south 
— the  chief  port  of  entry  and  mart  of  trade.  It 
stands  at  the  junction  of  the  Eek.  with  the  Tamar, 
which,  after  a  course  of  32  milee,  enters  Baaa't 
Strut  (q.  V.)  at  Part  Dalrymula  It  is  accesaible 
to  ships  of  coomderabla  burden,  and  carries  on  a 
thriving  commenK  with  the  colonies  of  Victoria 
and  Sontb  Anatoalio.  Among  the  principal  build- 
ings ore  a  church,  a  government- house,  a  conrt' 
house,  a  jail,  a  college,  a  bank,  and  a  barracks,  and 
schools.  Pop.  (1881)  12,753,  L.  h«a  a  well-patron- 
ised mechanics'  institute,  which  poeseesea  a  library 
containing  6000  volumes.  There  were,  in  1879,  a 
gnunmar-school,  33  private  schools,  and  3  pubhc 
sohools.  The  imports  oonaist  of  manufactured  goods, 
tea,  sugar,  Ac  'The  chief  artiolea  of  export  are  wool, 
oats,  wheat,  flour,  timber,  potatoes,  horses,  fruit*. 
In  the  Burrouading  district  of  the  same  name  rises 
Benlfunond,  to  tbe  hmgbt  of  4500  feet. 


LAUN0B3T0N,  a  parliamantary  and  mnmoiMl 
borough  of  Ea^Aod,  formerly  the  capittJ  of  the 
Donnty  of  Cornwall,  is  situated  cm  the  Eeusey,  a 
tribntary  of  the  Tamar,  21  rnUea  north-eaat  of 
Bodmin.  It  ia  a  verr  old  town ;  its  oaatle  waa 
held  of  the  Conqueror  by  the  Earia  of  Moreton.  It 
unites  with  the  borongn  of  Newport  in  t"'>'''g  a 
member  to  the  House  of  Conunona.  ]lke  conn^ 
assise  formerly  held  hen  is  now  held  at  Bodmin. 
Pop.  of  mun.  borough,  (1381)  3217. 

LAITBCH,  the  lorgeat  boat  belonging  to  a  shipL 
The  launch  has  naarly  (nperseded  the  loug-bo^ 
formerly  the  principal  of  a  ship's  boats.  In  modem 
ships  of  war,  the  laanch  is  usually  a  small  steamer, 
fully  equipped,  with  oapabilitiee  for  stowing  several 
days'  provisions.  The  launch  of  a  man-of-war  ia 
frequently  armed  with  a  small  piece  of  artillery 
in  tbe  bow ;  and  when  the  ship  is  employed  in 
narrow  seaa  or  rivers,  it  is  not  onosu^  for  tbe 
launch  to  be  despatched  on  expeditions  far  from 
the  ship,  and  to  points  whii '--'--- —   -' ' 


o  points  which  she  is  unable  hersuli 


laid  npon  a  seriea  ol  wooden  blooka,  plaoed  six  or 
seven  feet  apariL  and  built  np  three  or  fonr  feet 
from  the  ground,  the  top*  of  which  lie  in  a  line 
which  slopes  downwards  to  the  water  at  an  angle  of 
about  five-eighths  of  an  inch  to  the  foot.  The  whole 
ship,  therefore,  when  it  is  finished,  slopes  down- 
wards with  this  inclination,  and  resti  upon  the 
ipon  suitable  timber 
. .  _  ready  for  laoncbing, 
^  laid  down  parallel  to  the 

httle  distanoe  on  each  side  of  it, 
'  "^     -i^-     -'^--      ■jud  into  the 
high-water 

mark.  A  '  oradle '  is  then  built  under  the  ship,  of 
which  the  bottom  is  formed  of  smooth  timbers 
resting  upon  the  ways-  Before  lannehin^  the  under 
sides  of  these  timbers  and  the  apper  aides  of  the 
ways  are  well  greased,  and  tbe  weight  of  the  ship 
is  transferred  Gaai  the  keel-blocks  to  the  cradle 
endways.  Timbers,  called  'dog-shores,'  are  placed 
BO  OS  to  resist  the  tendency  of  the  ship  to  slide  down 
untdl  the  ri^t  moment.  When  this  arrivea,  at  high- 
water,  the  ceremony  of  naming  the  ship  takes  place ; 
the  dog-shores  ore  knocked  away,  and  the  vessel 
glides  stem  foTMnoat  into  the  water.  At  soon  aa 
the  water  removes  tbe  weight  of  tbe  vessel  from  the 
cradle,  the  latter  breaks  up  into  pieoes. 
The  Or«al  Eattem,  owing  to  her  immense  length, 
as  built  wHh  her  keel  pot&llel  to  the  water;  bnt 
owing  to  excessive  friction,  it  took  three  months' 
exertum,  even  with  the  aid  ol  powerful  hydraulic 
rams,  to  po^  the  immense  mass  of  12,000  tons  into 
the  river.  , 

LAURA'CE^  a  natorsl  order  of  axogeaous  ' 
ilants,  consistiag  of  trees  or  shrubs  whi^  have 
^vee  without  stipules,  and  fiowsrs  in  panicles  or 
umbels.  The  perianth  ia  4— 6-cleft;  the  stamens 
opposite  to  its  s^^nents,  and  twice  as  many.  The 
fruit  is  a  one-seeded  berry  or  drupe;  the  fruit-stalk 
often  enlarging  end  becoming  fieahy. — This  order 
contuns  about  4fi0  known  speciea,  mostly  tropical 
The  liural  (q.  v.}  is  the  only  European  species. 
An  aromatdc  and  fragrant  choraoter  pervades  t.hft 
ordm,  and  amongst  its  prodocte  are  cinnamon, 
cassia,  and  other  aromatic  barks,  also  a  number  of 
aromatic  fruits  simiewhat  resembling  nntm^  See 
Ndtheo.  The  timber  of  some  species,  as  green- 
heart,  is  valuable;  some  are  valuable  for  their 
medicinal  barks,  as  greenheart  (bebeeri)  and  sassa- 
'  ""  "for  their  secretions,  of  wtdch  camphor 
Oreodaphm   opj/mi,   a 


» Google 


LAUEBATB-LAVA. 


Soath    Ameriaw)    tree,   yieldi    t,    omphi 


agrewble.  m  the  Avoodo  Fear  (q.  1.). — A  fetr  very 
remariuble  spetaea,  fanning  the  geaiu  Cafjflia, 
luve  been  nmted  with  this  order  by  many  bobmiato, 
•Jthoiigh  othen  lep&rate  them  aa  a  distinct  order. 
They  ore  climbing  p&ratitei,  like  dodders,  and 
inhabit  the  wooda  of  Uie  hottest  parts  of  the  globe. 

LAUREATE,  FoET-,  ui  an  officer  of  the  household 
of  the  sovereigns  ot  Great  Britaia.  The  appellation 
seems  to  have  originated  in  a  custom  of  the  English 
universities  of  presenting  a  laurel  wreath  to  gradu- 
ates in  rhetoric  and  versffication  ;  the  new  graduate 
being  then  styled  Poela  Laureatu*.  The  king's 
laureate  was  then  simply  a  graduated  rhetorician 
in  the  service  of  the  king.  R.  Whittington,  in  1512, 
•eenui  to  have  been  the  Uat  man  who  received  a 
rhetorical  degree  at  Oxford.  The  earliest  mention 
ot  a  poet-laureate  in  England  occurs  in  the  reign  of 
Edwird  IV.,  when  John  Key  received  the  appoint- 
ment In  1630,  the  first  ^te°t  of  the  office  seems 
to  kave  been  granted.  The  salary  was  fiied  at 
iClOO  per  annum,  with  a  tierca  of  csnsiy ;  which 
latter  emolument  waa,  under  Sonthey's  tenancy  of 
the  office,  commuted  into  an  annual  payment  of 
£27.  It  need  to  be  the  duty  of  ths  laureate  to 
write  an  ode  on  tJie  birthday  of  the  soverei^  and 
sometimes  on  the  occasion  of  a  national  victory ; 
but  this  custom  waa  happily  abolished  towards  the 
oonduaion  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  The  following 
poets  have  held  the  office  of  laureate  dnce  the 
year  1670;  John  Dryden,  Nahum  Tate,  Nicholas 
Kowe,  Laurence  Eusden,  Colley  Gibber,  William 
Whitehead,  Thomas  Wwton,  Henry  James  PVe, 
Bobert  Southey,  William  Wordsworth— the  office 
having  been  held  unce  1S50  by  Lord  Tennyaon. 

LAU'REL  {Lavnu),  a  genus  of  Laurtuxa  {q.  v.), 
which,  as  now  restricted,  contains  only  a  smgle 
known  species,  the  Noble  L.,  Victor's  K,  or  Sweet 
Bay  {L.  twbilu),  a  native  of  Aeia  Minor,  but  now 
diffused  over  all  the  countries  around  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  It  is  often  a  mere  bnsh  of  fifteen  feet 
or  leas,  but  sometimes  becomes  a  tree  oE  thirty,  or 
even  dxty  feet  high.  It  has  rather  large,  lanceo- 
late, leathery,  shinmg  leaves,  reticulated  with  veina, 
and  aiillary  clnaters  of  yellowish-white  flowers  of 
no  beauty.  The  fruit  is  oval,  bluish-black,  and 
about  h^  an  inch  long  Both  the  leaves  and  the 
fruit  ai«  bitter,  astringent,  and  a^eably  aromatic, 
and  were  formerly  much  used  m  medicine  aa  a 
stomachic  and  stimulant,  but  are  now  almost  out  of 
nse.  The  leave*,  however,  are  still  ased  b  cookery 
for  flftvooring.    Itey  contwn  a  volatile  oil  {oU  of 


iriginsJly 

sedimentary  deposits,  and  to  have  been  thua  altered 
by  long-continued  roetamorphic  action.  A  few 
larse,  irregular  beda  of  oryitalline  limestonea,  and 
bed-like  maasea  of  magnetic  oiide  of  iron  and  otiier 
minerals,  are  interstratified  with  the  gneiss.  Tme 
igneous  rocks  are  frequency  intruded  among  tiieae 
strata,  aa  veins  and  maasea  of  granite,  syenite, 
and  greenstone.  The  beds  are  hi(^y  inclined  and 
greauy  contorted,  so  that  no  approximate  estimate 
can  be  made  of  their  thickneaa.  These  rocka  are 
well  exposed  in  the  north-west  of  Scotland,  where 
they  form  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Outer  Hebrides. 
In  no  part  of  the  system  as  seen  in  Scotland  has 
any  organic  almcture  been  delected ;  and  though 


By  the  ancient  Greeks,  the  L.  was  called  daphne; 
it  was  sacred  to  ApoUo.  Berry-bearing  twigs  ot  it 
were  wound  round  the  forehead  of  victorious  heroes 
and  poets;  and  in  later  timea,  the  degree  of  Doctor 
waa  oonferred  with  this  ceremony — whence  the 
term  lauraatiolt;  and,  according  to  some,  the  term 
BacMor  {a.  v.).  And  to  thia  day,  a  L.  crown  ia  the 
emblem  of^the  honour  to  whioh  poets,  artists,  and 

llie  Noble  L.  ia  oommon  in  ahrabberies  in  Britain, 
liitt  not  nearly  ao  common  tt  the  apecies  of  Cher^- 
lanrel  (q.  ▼.),  which  ahare  with  it  the  name  L.,  oa  do 
not  a  few  other  shruba  botanically  veiy  different, 
but  aomewhat  siniilar  in-Uiair  evergreen  foliaga. 

LAUEEL-WATEE  is  obtained  by  diatilling 
a  mixture  ot  chopped  and  bruised  leaves  of  the 
cherry-laurel  and  water,  after  24  hours'  macera- 
tion. It  is  seldom  prescribed  medicinally  in  this 
conntry,  but  may  be  given  in  doses  of  from  half  a 
drachm  to  a  drachm   aa  a  ledativa  narcotic,   in 


neuralgic  pains,  apasmodio  ooturti,  and  palpitatioa 
ot  the  heart ;  in  short,  in  all  uie  case*  in  wliiob 
hydrocyanic  is  applicable.  Death  has  occurred,  with 
all  the  symptoma  of  hydrocyanic  poisoning,  from 
its  incautious  use  as  a  flavooring  ingredient  in 
ereama  and  podding 

LAUBETNTIAN   SYSTEM,  a  aeriea  of  highly 
■phosed  rocka,  older  than  the  Cambrian,  and 
itly  the  fundamental  aeries  of  Hie  str  " "    ' 
rocks.     They  have  been  ao  named  from  their 


sppanntly  the  fundamental  aeries  of  Hie  stratified 
rocks.  They  have  been  ao  named  from  their  coTer>- 
iog  the  whole  country  north  of  the  St  Lawrence, 
where  l^ey  were  originally  described  by  Sir  Williun 
Logan,    "fhej  consist  of  nt 


homblendic  and 


north  ot  Africa.  It  is  a  beautiful  evergreen,  with 
dork,  shining,  leathery  leaves,  small  whitish  flowera 
in  corymbs,  and  small  blackish- blue  berriea.  The 
flowere  appear  in  winter  or  very  early  spring.  The 
berries  have  draatjc  purgative  properties ;  they  are 
very  acrid,  and  inflame  the  month  violently,  yet 
some  kinds  of  bii^  est  them  with  avidity.  The  L. 
cannot  endure  much  frost ;  and  in  Qermany  and 
the  northern  parts  of  the  Uoited  States,  it  is  a 
greui-house  plant. 

LAUSA'NNE  (Lat.  Lovaarui),  a  city  of  Switzer- 
land, capital  ot  the  canton  of  Vaud,  is  picturesouely 
situated  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Jura  Moun- 
tuns,  close  to  the  northern  shore  of  the  Lake  of 
Geneva,  on  which  tie  village  of  Ouchy  forms  its 
harbour.  The  two  principal  parts  of  the  city  are 
separated  by  a  valley,  across  which  a  flne  bridge 
luui  been  recently  thrown.  L.  has  a  number  of 
religious,  educational,  and  scientilic  institutions. 
The  cathedral,  a  beautiful  Gothic  building,  begun 
in  the  lOth  c,  and  completed  In  the  13th,  is 
tLbe  greatest  oroAment  of  the  city.  L.  is  much 
frequented  by  visitors  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Hera  Gibbon  resided  for  many  years,  and  the  house 
in  which  he  wrote  the  greater  part  of  the  JMiae 
and  Fall  is  still  ahewn.  John  Kemble  the  actor 
is  buried  in  a  cemetery  in  the  vicinity.  Brewing 
lithographing,  and  cotton  and  wool  spinning  are 
the  principarbrauohsa  of  trad&  The  population  in 
18SU  was  30,179. 

LATA,  a  name  sometimea  applied  generally  to 
Volcanic  Bocks  (q.v.),  but  mora  stricuy  oonlined 
to  Uioae  rocks  iraich  have  been  poured  out  aa  a 
stream  of  molten  matter  from  a  volcanic  opening, 
either  on  dry  land  or  in  shallow  water.  The  surface 
of  the  stream,  which  speedily  cools  and  hardens, 
is  generally  quite  porous  and  vesicular,  from  the 


;7tk 


LAVAL— LA  VENDKH. 


6ow  of  the  ctieMil  aoliietimea  to  b  Tery  gract 
diatanoe  from  the  oriSoe  from  vtiicli  it  lui  Men 
diaoharged,  Dotwitlirtaiidiag  ita  indurated  covering. 
The  eiid  of  the  atream  is  a  Blovly-moving  nuu 
of  looea  poroui  blocke.  Tolling  and  tumbling  over 
each  other  with  a  lond  rattling  noiae,  being  piuhed 
forwanl  in  Cits  and  atarts  by  the  viacid  lava,  vhen 
it  bnista  the  hardened  crtut  and  mehea  on.  The 
■Liuulura  of  tlie  interior  of  a  «olid  Uwrtmm  Hhewt 
k  compact  and  homogeneona  rock,  MnuninR  a  more 
and  more  cryatalliDe  itnititDre  m  the  cooling  hat 
been  the  Tork  of  a  longer  or  ihorter  period  of  time. 
CaTertia  an  Mmetimea  formed  in  Uva-atreanu  by 
the  escape  ttt  the  molten  tnaa  below,  leaving  the 
ooided  croBt  atanding  like  the  roof  of  a  tunn^ 

LAVAIj,  an  ancient  and  [nctureaqne  town  of 
France,  capital  of  the  department  of  Hayenne,  is 
eituated  on  the  river  Mayenne,  42  milea  east  of 
!Reiuie&  Tti  chief  building  ia  an  old  chtteau,  now 
a  priaon,  and  fotmerly  the  reaidenoe  of  the  Dnkee 
of  Ia  Tremauilla.  For  fiOO  years,  this  town  haa 
been  celebrated  for  its  linen  manufactures,  which 
are  exported  from,  aa  well  aa  sold  throughout 
France.  Cottons,  calicoes,  serge,  aoap,  and  leather 
are  also  manufactured,  and  there  ia  a  conaiderable 
trade  in  grain,  wool,  timber,  and  iron.  In  the  vicinity 
of  L.  the  Tendeana  under  Larochejaqnelein  guned 
a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Bepublicana,  who  loet 
12,000  men  and  10  cannon  in  the  engagemenL  Pop. 
(IbSl)  27,Sia 

LA  TALETTA    See  Vjlajtia,  Li. 

LA  VALLIERE,  FHANforai  Lomsi  db  Labauxe 
LesLdLKO  SE,  a  celebrated  miattem  of  Loui*  XIV.  of 
Prance,  was  bom  at  Tonn.  in  1644,  of  aa  ancient 
and  noble  family.  At  an  early  fwe,  ahe  loet  her  father, 
and  was  brought  to  court  by  her  mother,  who  had 
married  a  second  time.  She  was  not  a  great  beauty, 
and  had  a  slight  lamenees ;  but  her  amiability  and 
winning  manuerB,  and,  above  all,  the  extraordinary 
sweetness  and  teudetneaa  erpreaaed  in  her  looka, 
tendered  her  very  attrvotive.  It  is  aeldom  that  one 
eon  do  more  than  [Haiae  the  face  of  a  king's  miatreea. 
bnt  this  singular  creature  wss  characterised  by  an 
extreme,  we  miaht  olniaet  say  a  morbid  delicacy 
and  modoty.  She  really  loved  Louia,  and  bore 
him  four  children,  of  whom  two  died  in  infancy ; 
bnt  although  she  and  they  received  wealth  andtiue* 
of  honour,  she  remained  always  extremsly  aensible 
of  tbe  t" 
Moates[ 

lelite  nunnery  _ .  _ ,  .   ..    . 

1074.  She  died  6th  June  1710,  after 
having  aoent  more  than  30  veora  iju  penoncea  and 
feligi 


>Doar.  sue  reouuaeu  aiwayn  Bnvigmgiy  HMiiuuie 
le  disgrace  of  their  birth.  When  Madame  de 
tespan  became  the  ro^  favourite,  she  retired 
a  Carmelite  nunnery  m  Paris,  where  she  took 


of  which  a  copy,  dated  16$S,  with  correctiona  by 
BoMuet,  waa  diBcoveredinUieLouvTe  in  18fi2.  Both 
have  been  edited  by  M.  Komoine  Comut  (Paris, 
1854).  A  collection  of  ber  lettera  was  published 
b  1767. 

LAVATER.  JoHANN  Easfi.r,  bom  on  the  Idth 
November  1741  at  Ztlricb,  waa  the  aou  of  a  physi' 
oian.  Aa  a  boy,  he  waa  by  no  means  distinguiihed 
for  hia  talents ;  but  in  1762,  whilst  yet  a  youth,  he 
gave  a  signal  proof  of  hia  energy  and  courage  in 
coming  forward,  along  with  Henry  Fuseli,  to  accuse 
the  laTtdvoifft  Orebel  of  oppresaion  and  injustice, 
nnder  which  others  had  groaned  without  daring  to 
complain.  Ha  early  gained  a  high  reputation  by 
a  volume  of  poema,  entitled  SciiteeixerlUder  (Bern, 
1707).  His  next  publication  was  Auttidiien  in  dte 
Sirigheit  (3  vols.  Zilr.  1768— 1773),  of  which  several 
•ditions  wi™ -~" 


He  filled  in  auooeasion  aevenJ  eccle- 
siastical offices  io  hia  native  city,  and  finally,  in 
1786,  became  minister  of  the  church  ct  St  Peter 
there.  Hia  powers  of  observation  were  veiy  keen, 
and  hia  discrimination  of  character  moat  (uJicate, 
and  believing  that  he  could  discover  much  of  men's 
charactera  tram  their  countenances,  he  concluded 
that  Phydognony  might  come  to  be  reckoned 
among  the  sciencea.  He  laboured,  therefbro.  to  fonn 
a  ayBtem  of  pturriognomy,  hoping  thus  to  promote 
n-eatly  the  welfare  ot  mankind,  and  at  last  he  pnb- 
Sahed  the  work  to  which  he  owes  the  chief  part  m  hit 


Tola..  Leip.  and  Winterth.  177S— 1778).  Thia  work, 
which  hM  often  been  reprinted  and  tranaUted,  is 
written  in  an  inflated  atvle.  It  gave  rite  to  much 
diacusaion,  and  oocasioned  not  a  little  display  of  wit 
and  humour.  L  himself  appean  latterly  to  have 
been  convinced  that  his  system  wu  fanciful  But 
he  was  of  a  highly  imoginatire  temperament,  and 
tfas  religious  orthodoxy  which  be  th-mly  retuned 
woa  incougrooual^  combined  with  novel  apeculationt 
and  with  superstitious  notions.  He  waa  the  choaeu 
spiritual  adviser  of  mauv  peraona  both  m  Switzer- 
land and  Oermony,  with  whom  he  maintained  an 
nnwearied  correspondence.  On  hia  toura  in  Ger- 
many he  received  extraordinary  marka  of  jxipular 
eateem  and  honour.  When  the  French  Revolution 
began,  L.  hailed  it  with  joy  ;  but  after  the  murder 
of  the  king,  he  regarded  it  with  religioua  abharrcnce. 
In  performing  kind  offices  to  some  wounded  persoui 
__  .t_  _......  ..  .1 . .  ""^-1,  by  Mail-- 


LAVAUR,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Tam,  is  aituated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Agout, 

20  milea  north-east  of  Tonloute.    Ita  mannfaetiiTea 
are  cotton-yam,  leather,  tod  tilk.  Pop.  SOOCL 

LATTENDER  (Lavandula),  a  genua  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  LabiaUr,  having  the  stomena  and 
style  included  within  the  tube  of  the  corolla,  the 
corolla  two-lipped,  the  upper  tip  bitid.  the  lower 
trifii— The  Common  L.,  or  N  ah  row-leaved  L  {L. 
Bern  or  L.  anguali/ulia),  grows  wild  on  atony  moun- 
toina  and  hills  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  in  more 
uortheni  regiona  is  very  generally  cultivated  in 
gordena.  It  haa  a  delighUuI  aromatic  fragrance, 
and  an  aromatio  bitter  taste,  and  contains  a  great 
quantity  of  a  volotile  oil,  oil  oj  lavender.  The 
whole  plant  posseaaea  stimntoat  propertiea,  and  it 
used  in  medicine,  but  particularly  the  apikee  of  the 
flowers,  as  a  tonic,  stomachic,  nervous  stimulant, 
ko.  L.  Sowers  are  often  put  into  wardrobes  to  keep 
away  moths.  They  are  much  used  in  perfumery. 
Oil  of  L.  it  procured  by  distillation  of  L.  flowers 
with  water.  It  requires  70  lbs.  of  flowera  to  yield 
1  lb.  of  oil  It  is  rather  lighter  than  water,  pale 
vellow,  very  fluid,  and  very  fragrant.  Sptril  o^  L. 
a  made  by  distilling  L.  flowers  with  rectified  spirit ; 
L.  vnter,  one  of  the  meet  popular  of  all  perfumes. 


where  more  than  200  acres  are  occupied  by  it,  the 
light  and  sandy  soil  being  especially  suitable  to  it.^ 
BltOij>-LiuVKD  L.  (L.  lafi/otia  or  L.  ipica)  is  also  a 
native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  bnt  is  more  tender 
than  common  lavender.  It  is  also  less  fragrant,  and 
the  oil  which  it  yields  ia  called  Oil  of  Spike,  and 
sometimes  For^gn  Oil  of  Lantnder.  Thia  oil  is 
used  by  paintera  on  poroelain,  and  in  the  pr^aration 
of  varaisbet. 


ivCiUuyl' 


lAVEE— LAW. 


LAYER,  a 


e  giren  to  »  aombtr  of  kinds  of 


papp«r,  Tin^iu',  a 
regirded   r-  -— ' 


phyra  valgarU  and  P.  tactmaia, 
Cor^ervacras,  and  newly  ijlied  to  tha  genus  Ubia. 
Thew  planti  grow  on  rooks  and  itoQes  in  the  sea, 
and  nro  not  o^reqaent  od  the  Britiah  ahoreo.  They 
coiuiit  of  a  very  tnin  flat  purple  frond,  nhioh  is  not 
gehitinous.  The  frond  oi^  /*.  wigaTia  is  mvy  and 
ondivided,  that  of  P.  laa/Biaia  (aometiaiea  called 
Slokk)  is  deeply  deft,  and  has  the  a^meats  lobed 
and  cut  at  the  edge*.  L.  is  steved  and  brought 
t«  table  as  a  luzuiy  ;  alio  pickled  and  eaten  with 
r,  and  <h1,  or  with  lemon  juice.  It  is 
1  scrDfuloui  affections  and 
property  which  it  probably 
owes  to  the  iodine  whicA  it  contuns.^rhe  name  oE 
Gbxxn  L.  is  given  to  TJlva  latUnma,  a  common 
sea-weed  of  the  British  shores,  tha  &oud  of  which 
is  green,  membranons,  broad,  flat,  wavy,  and  some- 
time*  inflated.  It  is  bitterish,  but  ii  often  nsed 
in  tike  same  way  as  the  true  L,  and  poasessea 
tJTnilftr  propertiea. 

LA  T1LLEHAIIQ1T&     See  Sopp,,  Vol  X. 

LAVISH  FERSONa    See  iNrsBDicnoM. 

LAVOISIER,  AinoiHB  LAtmiHT,  tha  founder 
of  the  uitt[Uagislda  or  modem  chemisti;,  was 
bom  in  Pans,  August  1743,  and  devoted  himself  to 
•cientiflo,  and  putjoulsrly  to  chemical  stadies,  to 
obttun  the  mieans  of  more  fully  prosecuting  wh^h, 
be  accepted,  in  1769,  the  office  of  farmer-geDeniJ. 
Li  176^  be  was  made  an  aoademioian :  in  1776, 
disooTered  a  way  of  greatlv  impiovii^  Om  qniJity 
of  gunpowder;  and  mue  other  benoBcial  disooveries 
in  economics,  and  in  the  ^iplioation  of  chemistry  to 
agriCDltora.  Availing  himself  of  the  discoveries  of 
Hack,  Priestley,  and  Cavendish,  and  making  many 
erperimants  and  disooveiiea  himself,  he  was  led  to 
connect  the  reoently-diacovered  ns,  oxygen,  with 
the  phenoniena  of  combnation  and  of  acidity ;  and 
in  1783;  he  proved  that  water  can  be  formed  hy 
bDistoe  oxygen  and  hydrogen  together,  and  that  it 
can  be  decomposed  into  the  same  elements.  He  and 
his  associates  invented  a  new  chemical  nomencla- 
ture, adapted  to  the  advanced  stato  of  the  scienoe, 
which  wa*  veiygeDerally  adopted.  See  Chdhstrt, 
and  Cbxkicu.  NOKIHCLATVRI.  L.'s  services  to 
science  eonld  not  save  bim  from  the  popular  rage 
asunat  fumers  of  the  taxes  during  the  Heign  of 
^rror,  and  he  died  by  the  guillotme,  1794.    His 

L'ncipal  work  is  his  TVoitJ  EUmmiaire  de  ClUmie; 
i  of  course  his  chemical  works  are  now  interest- 
ing merely  as  marking  the  history  of  the  science. 

LAW,  in  Theologv,  a  term  varioualy  nsed.  In  the 
Bible,  it  often  includes  the  whole  of  revelatioii, 
docttinal  aa  well  aa  preceptive ;  but  it  is  often  also 
used,  in  a  more  restricted  and  somewhat  oonven- 
tioiud  sense,  to  aignifjr  the  books  of  Moms,  the  whole 
Jewish  soriptures  being  comprehended  under  the 
twofold  d«aigiu>tion  of  *  the  law  and  the 
Avery 

nated  as  lAe  l<ap,  and  the  other  as  lAe  gotpei.  When 
employed  in  scripture  with  exclusive  nJerenoe  to 
the  preceptive  part  of  revelation,  the  term  law 
sometimes  signifies  the  Jewish  code  of  preoepts  as 
to  rites  and  ceremonies,  called  by  theologiaiis  the 
CxamiOHUi.  Li.w,  and  which  'a  rwarded  m  having 
been  abnwated  when  the  Jewish  tfispensation  gave 
place  to  the  Christiaa.  The  oeremonial  law  is  tiiao 
regarded  as  having  in  its  rites  and  ceremonies — '  a 
shadow  of  good  uungs  to  oome'— symbolised  the 
great  doctnnea  which  fonn  the  system  of  Chris- 
Hanitj.— The  Moral  Law  is  that  preceptive  reve- 
UtioD  of   the  divine  will  which   u  of   perpetual 


n-  and  the  protects.' 
le  of  the  term  law  is 


and  nnlTeraal  obligation.  It  is  commonly  nigaided 
by  theologians  aa  summed  np  in  tiie  Tat  Comaaad- 
mtni»i  and,  aooording  to  our  SavicHir'a  own  state- 
ment, aa  atill  more  oriefiy  aitd  ocaiq«eh«nnTel7 
summed  np  in  the  two  conwMwdiaeirta  of  loving 
God  with  aU  our  heart,  and  soo],  and  atrength,  ania 
mind,  and  lovii^  our  ncdghbonn  as  otinelTe& 
Although  the  Ten  Commandments  were  given  to 
the  Jews  at  Mount  Sinai,  it  is  not  therefore  held 
that  they  were  intended  for  (he  Jews  alone,  or  were 
then  mat  promulgated ;  the  moral  law  being 
regarded  as  really  tile  lauto/natwrt,  wriUen  on  the 
heart  of  man  at  lus  creation,  althoogh  to  fallen  man- 
a  clear  and  express  revelation  of  it  has  becoma 
neoessary.  One  of  the  chief  oonteated  points  in  oon- 
naction  with  this  subject  is  that  of  the  Sabbatb 
{q.  r.).  Another  relates  to  the  law  of  nature,  and 
the  value  which  ought  to  bo  practically  assi^ed  to 
the  deciaiotia  of  the  judgment  and  conscienee  of 
man,  apart  from  express  revelation. — The  obligation 
of  the  moral  law  on  the  oonsaiences  of  Christians  is 
admitted  by  all  except  Antinomiana  (q.  v.). 

LAW  has  been  variously  defined.  Blackstone 
sns  it  means  the  rules  of  human  action  or  oondocb 
This  definition  is  too  wide,  for  it  is  confined  only  to 
such  rules  aa  conrta,  eapported  by  pcopec  aatb<nity, 
will  enforce.  The  law  of  natun  consists  of  thoae 
laws  which  are  common  to  oU  mankiikd,  and  ar» 
supposed  to  be,  as  nearly  aa  can  be  conjectured, 
independent  of  t^e  accidents  of  time  and  place.  Th* 
civil  or  municipal  law  of  a  nation  is  what  is  com- 
monly understood  by  the  term  law,  when  applied  to 
a  particular  oonntry.  The  '  Civil  Law '  is  also  some- 
times used  par  ecodimet  to  denote  the  old  Bomaa 
Law  as  embodied  in  the  IrtitUuteK  of  Juttuuan,  th« 
Code,  and  other  parts  of  what  is  conunonly  coUed 
the  Corpat  Jtiru  CMiis.  Manv  of  the  leading 
doctrines  of  that  law  have  been  adopted  by  modem 
nations.  England  is  the  civilised  connby  which 
has  adopted  Uia  least  from  that  code  of  law,  whUa 
SooUand  follows  the  continental  nations  in  adopt- 
ing the  Boman  or  Civil  Law  to  a  large  extent* 
and  on  many  eubjects  in  adopting  it  entirely.  Tha 
law  of  nationa  la  subdivided  mto  public  Inter- 
national Law  (q.  V.)  and  private  international  law, 
or  the  eomiltu  gtntiam.  Law  is  oftui  used  in 
Bngiiuid  as  ooatradiatinguishad  from  equity,  but 
this  is  chiefly  due  to  the  aooidental  drcumatanoe, 
that  there  is  a  subdivision  of  ooorta  into  courts 
of  law  and  equity,  according  to  the  nature  of  tho 
remedy  given.  See  Jcribpbdbkhcb,  iNTKRMiTioNij, 
Law,  (^JtvcERY.  Law  is  also  often  in  popolar 
parlance  distLngoished  from  joatioe,  the  latter  bang 
supposed  to  be  perfect  in  il«  natnre,  or  as  near  tha 
standard  of  perfection  oa  can  be  auppoaed ;  whereoa 
there  are  nomberleEa  caaea  of  injory,  hardship,  and 
oppression,  which,  owing  to  homan  infimuty 


imutTi  n» 

1  adequately   radreea  ; 

conflrmatio        '   '  * 


_, ._   human   laws 

and  this  is  often  adduced   ... 

doctrine  of  future  rewards  and  poniahmenta.    Law 

is   also   sometimes   subdivided   mto   orilainal  law, 

constitutional  law,  ftc,  according  to  the  partieolaT 

subject-matter. 

LAW,  RouAH  or  Cim.    See  Law. 

LAW,  WlLUAH,  an  inflnential  K^ifflous  writer  of 
last  centuiy,  was  b(»n  at  Eingsdiffe,  Northsmpton- 
shire,  in  1666,  and  educated  at  Emmanuel  CcJlees, 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  d^ree  of  M. A.  la 
1712.  He  was  for  some  time  tutor  to  Edward 
Qibboo,  father  of  the  historian,  who  speaka  of  his 

tiety  and  talents  with  unusual  warmth.  About 
740,  two  of  hia  friends,  Miss  Hester  Gibbon,  sistor 
of  his  pnpil,  and  Mn  Hutcheson,  widow  of  a  London 
banister,  having  reeolved  to  re<^  from  the  worid, 
and  devote  themselves  to  wiaks  of  charity  and  • 


■  Cooglc 


LAW— LAWBENCB. 


raligiouB  lifs,  choae  I*  for  thair  mlmoner  aai 
iiubTictor.  Tha  ladies  wHled  at  EingicMe,  ud 
here  L.  died,  April  0,  1761.  L'l  writii^  ue  deeply 
tuaged  irith  wut  ia  oonuoonly  called  myatieiuii. 
Hia  OTincipal  work  is  bit  Strioiu  Call  to  a  DtwiU 
and  Holy  Lift  (1729},  a  treatite  that  fint  a'vakaaed 
the  religioiu  aauubilitiea  of  Dr  Johuaon,  who  Ipeaka 
of  it  in  hi^  tuna,  and  from  which  the  brotlun 
Weole;  alao  deriTed  mnoh  advantage.    Ntxt  to  the 


lahop 


Bangor,  Tha  Way  to  KnowUdgt,  and  The  apirit  qf 
Lovt.  HU  collected  work*  were  puhUihed  in  0  vola. 
in  1762.  SeeOverton'ai,,AronJurora»rfJflMtto(1881). 

IiAW,  JoElT,  eomptroller'general  of  the  finance* 
of  France,  and  bmona  for  his  credit  aperati< 
during  the  minoritjr  of  Loui*  XV.,  waa  bom 
Edinburgh,  Slat  April  1S71.  Hi«  father  was  a 
goldmuth  and  banker,  and  proprietor  of  the  estate 
of  Lauriaton,  near  Edinhnrgh.  L.  eari;  shewed  a 
moat  remarkable  talent  for  arithmetic,  alMbra,  and 
kindred  aciencea.  After  tha  death  of  hU  lather,  he 
icmoved  to  London,  where  hs  wu  admitted  into 
the  first  circles  of  fashion,  bat  was  soon  oompelled 
to  flee,  in  cooaeqneace  of  a  duel  in  which  he  killed 
his  adversary.  He  went  to  Amsterdam,  and  spent 
hia  time  in  atadyiog  the  credit  operationa  of  the 
btuik.  Abont  the  year  1700,  he  returned  to  Edin- 
btugh,  a  zealous  adrocate  of  a  pajier  currency ;  bat 
hia  propoaala  to  the  Scottish  parliament  on  this 
snhject  met  with  ao  unfai 
now  viiited  different  parts  of  the  continent,  where 

ha  accumulated  a  lai^ge  fortune  by         

sought  in  vain  to  win  the  favour  i     ^.    .    

to  hia  banidng  schemes.  At  bst,  he  settled  _ 
Paris,  and  in  company  with  hia  brother  William, 
set  np,  in  1716,  a  private  bank,  which  was  soon 
sncceasful  and  prosperooa  to  such  an  extraordinary 
degree,  that  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  Itegeat, 
adopted,  in  1718,  L's  plan  of  a  national  bank,  and 
iasiwd  raodigioos  quantitiee  of  bank-notes,  which 
enjoyea  perfect  isrrait,  whilst  the  ordinary  national 
bondB  remuned,  as  thn  had  loiis  been,  at  a  price 
tax  below  their  nominal  valoa;  ui  1719,  L.  origin- 
ated his  iti»ri»lnppi  Sdiane  (q.  v.),  and  the  following 
year  waa  made  a  Councillor  of  State  and  Comn- 
troUer-geneml  of  Pinanoee;  bat  (Hitbe  failure  of  his 
sobecne,  and  the  insolvency  of  the  national  bank,  he 
reeigned  the  latter  office,  and  thought  it  prudent  to 
qiut  Prance.  He  proceeded  first  to  Brussels,  but 
noalJy  settled  in  Venice,  where  he  managed  to  eke 
out  a  wretched  living  by  gambling,  and  died  there 
in  May  1729.  A  complete  edition  of  hie  works  was 
published  at  Paris  in  1790,  and  another  iu  1843. 

LAW'BURHOWS,  Lkttbm  or,  in  Scotch  Law, 
a  writ  or  document  in  the  name  of  the  soFcreiEO, 
(Kuamanding  a  person  to  give  security  against  ofter- 
ing  violence  against  ano^er.  The  person  applying 
for  or  issuing  the  letters  must  swear  to  the  truth 
of  some  cause  of  alarm,  such  aa  actual  personal 
violence  or  threats  of  violence.  Sometimes  a  wife 
may  apply  for  lawburrows  against  a  husband.  The 
person  against  whom  the  letters  are  directed,  must 
find  caution  to  keep  the  peace  within  a  certain 
number  of  days  apscifled,  and  this  he  does  bv 
executing  a  bond  of  caution.  If  he,  notwithstanci- 
ing,  use  violence,  an  action  of  oontravention  of 
lawburrows  may  be  raised  against  him  before 
justices  of  the  peace,  and  he  is  fined  in  a  sum 
equal  to  the  actual  damage  resulting,  which  is  paid 
to  the  party  injured.  An  action  lies  against  a 
Mnon  who  mahcioasly  takes  out  letters  of  law- 
borrowa  against  another.    Lawburrows  corresponds 


to  what  are  called  Article*  of  the  Peaoa  (q.  i 
l^gl^wil  oj.  Ireland 

IiAW-HEBCHAITT,  a  dmim  cAsn  nsad  k 
to  deitote  the  ouitoma  whidi  hava  gmwa  np  among 
menhaoti  in  teferenos  to  meroaatile  docttmcnti  ana 
basincM,  luoh  as  bills  of  enfaasge,  Ulla  «j  lading^  fto. 
Theae  customs  beooma  inoorpor^xd  with,  amdlcna 
irt  of,  the  eommon  law,  and  are  binding  as  inoh. 
LAWS  TBKNIS.  See  Scpp.,  VoL  X. 
LATTRENCB,  a  city  of  Massachnsetts,  VS.,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Menimack  River,  26  miles  from  ite 
mouth,  and  the  same  distance  north  of  Boston.  It 
ia  a  handsome  manufaoturiag  city,  with  a  paik,  and 
fountaios  supplied  from  a  reservoir  140  feet  high  : 
has  21  ohurohea,  6  newspapera,  and  ootton  and 
woollen  mannfaotoriea  employing  a  capital  of  S 
milhona  of  dollar*.  Ihcse  are  sui^)lied  wiUi  watar- 
powsr  by  a  granite  dam  across  the  Memmack 
River,  1629  feet  bug,  and  at  the  deepest  nut  4«| 
feet  high,  which  has  created  a  baain  9  muca  bng. 
The  water  is  distributed  to  the  mill*  by  a  ™n«.i 
1  mile  long,  100  feet  wide,  and  12  deep.  Tha  citr 
sprang  op  rapidly,  and  was  inoorponted  in  ISSl 
Fop.  m  1870,  26,932 ;  hi  1S30,  39,17S. 

LAWRENOE,  Gnj  or  St,  a  wMtem  inlet  of  the 
Northern  Atlantic,  washes  at  once  all  Uie  foitish 
provinces,  pTOped|v  so  colled,  of  North  America — 
Newfonndlandj  (^nada.  New  Brunswick,  Nova 
Scotia,  and  Pnnce  Edward'a  Island.  It  has  threo 
communications  with  the  ocean^the  Strait  of  Belle- 
isle,  between  Newfoundland  and  Labrador ;  the  Out 
of  Canso,  between  the  island  of  Cape  Breton  and  the 
peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  ;  and  a  hkr  wider  passue 
than  either,  with  the  island  of  St  Paul  in  the  middle, 
between  Cape  Breton  and  Newfoundland  :  while  in 
the  opposite  direction  it  narrows,  at  the  west  end  of 
Anticoati,  into  the  eetuary  ot  the  mighty  river,  b> 
which,  as  far  even  as  its  sources,  it  has  gradnally 
extended  its  own  name.  Besides  Anticosti,  §t  Panl's, 
and  Prince  Edward's,  already  mentioned,  this  ana 
of  the  sea  contains  very  many  closters  of  i»la!ids, 
and,  more  particularly  iu  its  southern  half,  the 
Magdalens  and  the  Biids  ;  these  iiUnds  being,  one 
and  all,  rendered  more  dangerous  to  shipping  by 
the  thinVni.—  of  the  fogs  and  the  uncertainty  M^  the 
onrrenta.  The  Gulf  d^  St  L.  is  celebrated  for  the 
produotiveneBS  <A  its  fisheries ;  but  perhaps  it  is 
best  known  as  a  obonnel  of  traffic,  connectmg,  aa 
it  does,  the  busiest  thoroughfares  of  maritime  trade 
with  one  of  the  most  extensive  systems  of  inland 
navigation  iu  the  world. 

LAWRENCE,  St,  the  river  mentioned  in  tha 
preceding  article,  oonstituteB  by  far  the  largest  body 
of  fresh  water  in  the  world.  Including  the  lake* 
and  stiBams.  which  it  comprises  in  its  widest  aocep- 
tatioD,  it  covers,  according  to  the  lowest  estLmatE^ 
fnlly  73,000  aquare  milea ;  au<l  us  nearly  the  whole 
'  "  '  area  averages  oonaiderably  more  than  60O 
depth,  the  aiKregate  cannot  repreaent  less 
than  9000  solid  milea— a  mass  of  water  which 
would  take  upwards  of  40  years  to  pour  over  the 
Falls  of  Niagara,  at  the  oompatad  rate  of  a  millimt 
'  •    '    ■  '■    1  second.    Aa  the  entire  basin  of  this 


cubio  feet  ii 


the  water. 

This  mighty  artery  of  North-east  America 
under  the  name  of  the  St  Loui^  on  " 

which  sends  forth  also  the 
towards  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Red 
the  north  towards  Hudson's  Bay — all  three  being 
said,  in  wet  seasons,  occanonally  to  mingle  their 
floods.  Lake  Superior,  the  next  link  in  ^e  chain, 
finds  its  way  to  Lake  Huron  through  the  lauid 
of  St  Maiy,  which  has  been  overcome  by  a  ship 


ivGooi^I' 


canal  on  the  right,  or  American  lide.  Below  I^ke 
Hnnm,  which  receiTsi  Lake  Michimi  from  the 
■oath,  the  river  St  Clair,  Lake  St  Oair,  the  riTer 
Detroit  and  Lake  Erie  maintain  pretty  iieaHr  the 
■ame  level,  till  the  river  Niagara  deecendi  33i  feet 
to  I^ke  Ontario,  which  ia  its^  itill  230  feet  above 
aea-leveL  From  this,  the  last  of  the  connected 
teriea  of  inland  seas,  iamea  the  St  L.  proper,  which, 
with  a  few  compantivelv  inaiffnificant  expanrionE, 
preeenti  the  ohanKter  flnrt  of  a  river,  and  then 
of  an  ertuu7,  down  to  tlie  gnlf.  Between  Lake 
Ontario  and  the  city  of  Montreal,  which  marka  the 
head  of  the  navi^tioo,  ther«  are  various  cataracts 
or  rapids,  which,  besidea  having  been  gradually 
ascertained  to  be  more  or  leas  practicably  may  h« 
all  avoided  by  means  of  canals  ou  the  British  aide. 
At  about  two-thirds  of  the  distance  from  Lake 
Ontario  to  the  ci^  of  Montreal,  the  interaection  of 
the  parallel  of  4fr  determines  the  point  whete  the 
SI  ll,  after  having  been  an  international  boundary 
from  the  head,  or  nearly  ao,  of  Lake  Superior, 
broomes  exclnsiTe]]'  Canadian.  Immediately  above 
the  island  of  Montreal,  the  St  L.  is  joined  by  ito 
principal  aoiiUarv,  the  Ottawa,  from  the  north- 
west ;  and  a  little  more  than  halE-way  between 
this  confluence  and  Three  Rivera,  the  hiahest  point 
of  tidal  iDdnence,  tlie  Bichelien  or  Sorel.  from  the 
sottth,  brioBB  in  the  tribute  ot  Lake  Champlain. 
Between  Montreal  and  Qnebeo  the  8t  L,  has 
recently  been  much  deepened  (aee  MoirntEAi.].  At 
Quebec,  after  a  run  of  nearly  400  miles  from  Lake 
Ontario,  it  steadily  widens  into  an  estuaiT  of  about 
the  lame  length.  The  entire  length,  including  the 
chiuu  of  laka),  ia  about  2200  mile*. 

In  connection  with  the  improvements  on  itself  and 
its  affluent^  the  St  L.  offers  to  gea-going  ships  the 
noblest  systeni  of  inland  navigation  in  the  world, 
embracing  a  continuous  line  of  about  2000  miles  ; 
its  advantages,  however,  are  materially  irapaired  by 
the  severity  of  the  climate,  which  binds  it  in  the 
chains  of  winter  at  least  five  months  in  the  year. 

IiAWBENCB,  Si,  the  Deacon,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  martyrs  of  the  early  church,  the  sub- 
ject of  many  ancient  panegyrics,  and  nf  one  of  the 
moat  elaborate  of  the  hymns  of  Fnideatiua.  He 
was  one  of  the  deacons  of  Rome,  in  the  pontificate 
of  Siitus  L  (3d  c),  and  as  such  was  especially 
cborged  with  the  care  of  the  poor,  aud  tte  orphans 
and  widows.  In  the  peraecnhon  of  Valerian,  being 
aummoned,  according  to  the  legend,  before  the 
pnetor  as  a  Christian,  and  bein«  called  on  to  deliver 
up  the  treasures  of  the  chnrcn,  he  mockingly  pro- 
duced the  poor  and  the  sick  of  his  charge,  declanng 
that  '  those  were  bia  treasures ; '  and  on  his  per- 
sisting in  his  refosol  to  sacrifice,  being  condemned 
to  be  roasted  on  a  gridiron,  he  continued  through- 
ont  his  tortures  to  mock  his  persecutor.  Many  of 
the  detaila  of  his  martyrdom  are  probably  due  to 
the  imagination  of  the  poetical  nsnator;  but  the 
martyrdom  la  nnquestioDAbly  historical,  and  dates 
from  the  yoM  25S,  Hii  feaat  is  oelebnted  on  the 
loth  Augusb 

LAWRENCE,  Sir  Thomas,  President  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  was  bom  at  Bristol  in  1769,  and 
at  tiie  early  age  of  ten  years  entered  on  the  pro- 
fession  ot  a  portrait-punter  in  crayons,  at  Oxford, 
where  he  immediately  obtained  full  employment. 
There  is  on  engraving  which  bears  to  have  been 
'directed  by  L  K.  Sherwin,'  the  celebrated  eugraver, 
of  a  portrait  of  the  young  artist;  it  is  dedicated  in 
the  foDowina  terms  :  '  To  the  nobility  and  gentry  in 
general,  ana  the  uaivetsity  of  Oxfera.  in  particular, 
who  have  so  liberally  countenanced  his  pencil, 
Uiia  portrait  of  Master  Lawrence  is  inscrilwd  by 
their  moat  devoted  and  most  grateful  servant,  T. 


I^wrenee,  aeoior.'  It  was  pnbUshed  by  Lawrenoe, 
senior,  at  Bath,  Jone  IB,  1783,  oloag  with  a  print 
of  Mn  Siddons  in  the  character  of  Zars,  drawn 
by  Master  L.,  and  engraved  by  J.  R.  Smith.  The 
artist   next   set    up    at    Both,   where    he 


student  of  the  Royal  Academy,  having  a  year 
previously  taken  to  pointing  in  oiL  His  success 
vras  extraordinary ;  in  1701,  before  he  attained  the 
(We  required  by  the  laws  of  the  Academy,  he  was 
efected  a  supplemental  associata  by  desire  of  the 
king ;  on  Reynolds's  death  a  year  afterwards,  was 
appointed  limner  to  his  majesty;  was  made  a 
Royal  Academician  in  17SS;  knishted  in  1SI5;  and 
on  Benjamin  West's  death  in  ISiS,  succeeded  him 
as  President  of  the  Royal  Aoodemy.  He  died  in 
London,  7th  January  1830.  L.  was  the  favourite 
IKirtrait-nainter  of  hw  time,  had  ao  immenn  prac- 
tice, and  obtained  larger  prices  for  his  works  than 
were  ever  paid  to  any  previous  portrait-painter. 
His  talent  at  a  pointer  was  doubtless  ovenated 
during  his  life,  but  jusUoe  has  scaroely  been  done 
to  it  of  late  years ;  for  his  style,  t*""^*  in  many 
respecta  meretricious,  was  greatly  iufluenoed  by  the 
buhion  and  dress  of  the  period,  oud  in  time  to 
come,  impresuons  of  the  principal  characters  who 
figured  during  the  R^enoy,  and  in  the  reign  of 
George  IV.,  wUl  be  taken  mainly  from  his  works. 
His  portraits  [o  the  Waterloo  Gallery  at  Windsor 
are  of  the  greatest  historical  volue.  He  waa  a  man 
of  great  urbanity  and  fine  taste,  and  left  a  moat 
valuable  collection  of  drawings  by  the  old  mastecs, 
now  unfortunately  broken  up.  Sea  Li/e  and  Com- 
rpondenet  of  Sir  T.  Laumnee,  by  Williams  (1831) ; 
and  Cunningham's  Live*  q/Briiuh  Fainim  (1833). 
LAWRENCE,  Sib  WiLUAM.  SeeSupp.,  Vol  X 
LAWRENCE,  BjLBOK  TBI  Right  Hokoubjiblb 
JoHlc  LiUBD-Mair,  was  younger  son  of  Lieutanant- 
colonel  Alexander  Lawrence,  who  served  in  the 
Mysore  campaign,  and  at  the  capture  of  Seringa- 
patam.  Born  at  Richmond,  Yorkahire,  ISll,  ne 
obtained,  in  1827,  a  presentation  to  Haileybucy 
CoUt^  where  he  carried  off  the  chief  priies.  His 
first  ^eoni  in  the  Indian  civil  service  were  spent  in 
Delhi  and  the  neighbourhood.  On  the  annexation 
of  the  Punjab,  L.  waa  appointed  oommiasioner, 
and  afterwatda  lientenaut-govemor  of  the  Funjabu 
When  the  Indian  mutiny  broke  ont,  he  proved  the 
mainstay  of  the  British  <k>minion  in  India.  The  one* 
restless  Sildit  had  become  so  attached  to  his  firm 
and  beneficent  rnl^  that  L  was  enabled  to  send 
troops  to  the  relief  of  Delhi,  fto.  So  timely  waa 
thia  auccour,  and  so  great  was  hi*  foreaight,  that  he 
waa  styled  '  the  saviour  of  India.'  On  hit  tetom  ta 
England,  he  received  the  thanks  of  pariiament,  with 
the  grant  of  a  pension  of  £1000  a  year.  He  was 
made  a  baronet  in  1358,  and  a  privy-councillnr 
in  l&Sd.  In  1861,  L.  waa  nominated  one  of  the 
knighta  of  the  'Star  of  India.'  In  1863,  he  suc- 
ceeded the  late  Lord  Elgin  as  govemor-reaeral  of 
India ;  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Indian  coun- 
cil, and  the  Court  of  Directors  of  the  East  Indik 
Company  panted  him  a  life  pension  of  £2000  a 
year.  In  1869,  he  was  raised  to  the  House  of 
Peera.  Lord  L.  wai  chairman  of  the  London  school- 
board  from  1B70  till  1873.  He  died  Z7th  June 
1879.     See  hi«  Lift  by  Boaworth  Smith  (1883). 

Ks  elder  brother.  Brigadier-general  Sut  Hemet 
MotrTOOHERT  Lawrencs.  bom  in  1806,  was  chief 
commisuoner  of  Lucknow,  aod  virtually  governor 
of  Oude  when  the  Indian  mutiny  broke  ont  While 
in  command  of  the  handful  of  heroic  men  who 
defended  the  women  and  children  in  the  Residency 
of  Luclmow,  Sir  Henry  waa  woanded  bylhc  eiplo- 
aiou  of  a  shell,  and  died  Jidy  4,  1857.    He  wot  the 


-jr- 


LAW-TKEMS-LAZZAEONL 


founder  of  the  Lawrence  AjtjUaa,  for  the  reoe^on 
nt  the  children  of  the  Enn^wan  Boldiera  in  Indix 
A  monument  to  hU  memory  hu  been  placed  in  8t 


Paul's  Cathedral 

LAW-TERHa  The  OEuat  Liw-termB  in  En^and 
and  Ireland  meoa  thoH  perioda  of  the  ye»r  during 
which  the  law-ooorti  at  in  banc  or  in  full  coort  to  dia- 
poee  of  Imsinew.  These  are  of  ancient  origin,  and  ore 
now  filed  bf  statute  aa  followi :  Hilary  term  begins 
January  11,  ends  Slat  January;  Eaater  term  begina 
April  15,  ends  8th  May ;  Trinity  term  begins  May  22, 
ends  12th  June  ;  Michaelmas  term  begins  November 
2,  ends  25th  November.  Thoogh  the  courts  always 
■it  at  those  ^riods,  yet  they  have  a  power  of 
appointing  aittiDn  after  term  also,  which  pa< 
always  eiercisea  for  the  despatch  of   arre* 


another,  except  in   tbe   long   vacation,  which 


.   „     _   i  suspension    of 

hoetilitiea. 

In  Scotland,  the  law-terms  are  differently  orrai 
The  Court  of  Session  sits  from  tSth  October  to 
Alarch,  and  from  12th  May  to  18th  July.   But  there 
also  the  judges  are  employed  in  other  bnsitteM  during 
the  intervals. 

Afl  to  the  quarter-days  uatutl  between  landlord 
and  tenant,  sea  Landlord  and  TlHAlrr. 

LAWTEK,  in  the  United  Kingdom,  is  not  a 
technical  term  of  law,  but  a  popular  name  given  to 
those  who  are  either  practitioners  of  the  law  ur 
intimately  conoected  with  its  administration.  In 
Great  Bntain  and  Ireland,  lawyers  are  aubdivided 
into  two  clatsea.  See  ATroRMBva  aitd  Soucitobs, 
Barristkrs,  Advocates.  In  the  United  States,  an 
attoroey  acts  as  ooonsel,  and  vice  vtrid,  there  being 
no  similar  sabdivisioa  of  the  profeasioD,  and  the 
expediency  of  the  subdivision  has  often  been  can- 
vasaed  in  the  United  Kingdom  of  Uto  yean, 

LATAMOS.    See  Supp,,  Vol.  X. 

LATAHD,  AnacKs  Hekbt,  Eoglish  traveller  and 
diplomatist,  was  bom  at  Paris,  March  fi,  1817.  He 
was  deatined  for  the  law,  but  finding  the  profeuion 
little  congenial  to  his  tastes,  he  set  oat  on  a  conrse 
of  Eastern  travel,  visited  several  districts  of  Asiatio 
Turkey,  and  beoome  familiar  with  the  nuumera  and 
dialects  of  Penia  and  Arabia.  On  his  first  ionmey 
olODs  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  in  1S40,  he  waa 
stnick  with  the  ruins  at  Nimmd — a  village  near 
the  janction  of  the  Tigris  and  the  Zab,  pointed 
Dot  by  local  tradition  as  the  site  of  the  original 
city  of  Nineveh— and  felt  on  irreaiatible  deeire 
to  examine  the  remains  of  the  '  birthplace  of  the 
wisdom  of  the  wert.'  In  1842,  M.  Botta,  the  Fiencb 
consul  at  Mosul,  conducted  tome  eitenaive  exca- 
vations at  that  place,  and  L.  retnming  to  tjie 
region,  again  directed  his  attention  to  Ninirad.  It 
was  1845  before  he  ooold  obtain  the  reqoisite  means 
and  &eilities  for  his  search,  and  he  then,  vrith  the 
hdp  of  some  Arabs,  began  secretly  to  dig  in  the 
monnd  supposed  to  contain  the  mins.  He  soon 
oame  upon  some  scnlptared  remains,  and  became 
oonvinoed  that  he  had  touched  a  rich  vein  of  arduso- 
logical  treasure.  His  excavations  were  resumed  in 
1846  and  1S47.  and  his  energy  and  perseverance 
were  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  the  groimd 
remaios  of  four  distinct  palatial  edifices.  The  walla 
had  been  lined  with  large  slabs  of  gypsum  or 
alaliaster,  covered  with  bas-reliefs  and  coneiform 
inscriptions.  Many  of  these  were  aent  to  England 
by  L.,  together  with  pgantic-winged  homan-heoded 


bulla  and  lions,  and  ea^e-faeaded  deities.  They 
ware  placed  in  the  British  Muienm,  of  which  they 
have  since  remained  the  chief  attraction.  L.  at  first 
oondoeted  his  search  at  his  own  expense ;  he  was, 
in  1845,  Uberslly  assisted  by  Lord  Stratford  de  Bed- 
clifie,  then  British  ombas^dor  in  Constantinople ; 
and  eventually, 'as  the  value  of  these  specimens  of 
Assyrian  art  began  t^v-be  known,  the  Rouse  of  Com- 
mons voted  a  sum  of  £3000,  which  was  applied  by 
the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum,  in  continuing 
the  excavations  under  L.'s  superintendence.  On  hii 
return  to  Eoglood,  he  published  a  narratiTe  of  his 
explorations,  nnder  tbe  title  of  Ninaieh  and  iti 
Remaint,  and  another  work  entitled  Momtmtnta  iff 
Nineaelu  He  was  presented  with  the  freedom  of 
the  dty  ot  London,  received  the  honour  of  D.C.L. 
from  the  university  of  Oxford,  and  was  Lord  Rector 
of  Aberdeen  Uoiversity  in  1835—1856.  In  18S2  he 
became  M.F.  for  Ayleabnry,  and  in  1S60,  for  South- 
wark;  from  1861  till  186S  he  was  Under-Secretory 
of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs.  In  18^,  he  went  as 
British  ambaasadoT  to  Spain;  and  in  1S77  he  was 
■eat  to  Constantinople  at  flnt  as  temporwy,  then 
■■  ordinary  ambassador.  His  markedly  Philo- 
Tnrkish  iymp*thiea  during  and  after  the  war  pro- 
Toked  some  comment  at  home.  In  1878  the  order 
of  the  Bath  was  conferred  on  him. 

LATINO,  or  LAYERINO,  a  mode  of  propagat- 

g  trees,  shrubs,  and  perennial  herbaceous  phmts, 

nich  is  vary  frequently  employed  by  gudenera  and 

□nrserymen.    It  consists  in  oendiDg  and  fastening  a 

branch,  so  that  a  portion  of  it  is  tnibedded  in  earth, 

"  >re  to  throw  ont  roots,  the  extremity  being  made 

grow  erect  in  order  to  form  a  new  plant.    The 

jamtion  from  the  parent  jiisot  is  not  effected  till 

the  layer  is  Bnffieiently  provided  with  roots.     Any 

injurv  which  prevente  the  free  return  of  the  sap 

greatly  promotes  the  formation  of  roots,  aod  a  notcll 

is  therefore  usually  made  in  ooe  side  of  the  branoh, 

at  the  place  where  the  formation  of  roota  is  desired ; 

is  also  often  a  little  split  up  from  the  iu>tch ; 

d  sometimes  a  ring  of  bark  is  cut  off,  or  a  wire 

twisted  round  it.    The  time  which  must  elapse 

before   the  layer   should  be   separated    from    the 

parent  plant  is  very  various ;  a.  few  months  being 

sufficient  for  some,  and   two   years    reqnisito  for 

others.    Many  plants  which  can  be  prapagatod  by 

cnttingB  are  more  easily  and  sncceeafully  propagated 

LA'ZULITE,  or  AZURITE,  a  mineral  long 
confounded  with  Lapis  Lazuli  (q.  v.),  but  although 
somewhat  similar  in  colour,  very  different  in  com- 
podtioQ  i  conaistiug  chiefiy  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
alumina,  with  magnesia  and  protoxide  of  iron.  It 
"COTS  imbedded  m  quartz,  or  in  fissures  in  clay> 

ite,  in  Styria,  North  Carolina,  Brazil,  ix. 

LAZZABO'NI,  a  name  said  to  be  derived  from 
that  of  Lazarus  in  the  parable,  and,  nntil  lately, 

NaiSes.  They  had  no  fixed  habitations,  rt^olar 
occupation,  or  secure  means  of  anhsistonoe,  but 
occanonally  obtained  employment  as  mesaengers, 

'  JIB,  boatmen,  itinerant   vendors  of  food,    &c 

'  have  performed  an  important  part  in  all  the 
lutions  and  movemente  in  Naples  for  a  long 
period,  and  in  recent  timee  have  allied  them- 
selves to  the  cause  of  despotism.  They  were  wont 
annually  to  elect  a  chief  (6'apo  LaxaiTo),  who  was 
formally  recognised  by  the  Neapolitan  government, 
and  who  exercised  an  extraordinary  power  over 
them.  Of  late,  they  have  lost  many  ot  their  pecu- 
liarities, have  come  more  within  the  pale  of  civil- 
iaation,  and,  in  fact,  are  no  longer  recognised  aa  a 
separate  daas,  thou^  the  name  is  still  given  to  the 
boatmen  and  fishermen  of  the  city,  who  are  really 


,,Coogl( 


.  .1  iDoat  indiufarioiiB  and  beat-pTinci[l«d  of  the 
Neapolitaii  popolaca. 

LK  or  LEB,  the  cspiUl  of  L&d»kh  (q.v.)  or 
Middle  libet,  two  milea  to  the  north  oE  ths  Upper 
Indui,  in  lat  34*  Iff  N.,  ud  long.  77°  W  K,  at  an 
«levation  of  more  than  11,S00  feet  above  the  sea. 
Fop.  variantly  estimated  at  from  4O00  to  10,000, 
L.  ia  a  maia  enlrepil  between  Tartary  and  the 
Fnnjab,  and  for  the  ahawl-wool  of  Tibet. 

IjEAD,  T&s,  naed  on  ahipboard,  for  ascertaimng 
the  depth  of  water,  oonoata  of  a  pieoe  of  lead  shaped 
like  an  elongated  olock- weight,  attached  to  a  line  of 
about  20  fathomi.  The  lower  part  of  the  lead  is 
toooped  out,  and  filled  with  tallow,  that  portions  of 
th«  bottom  may  adhere.  The  detji-tea  tend  weichi 
from  S6  to  30  lb«.,  aod  ii  attached  to  a  line  of  tar 
jjreater  Irogth. 

UiAD  (aymb.  Pb^,  eqniT.  103-7^new  •yitem, 
207 — apeo.  grar.  11'4)  ia  a  bloioh-white  metal  of 
mniiderable  brilliancy,  which  aoou  diaappean  on 
«ipoanre  to  the  lair,  owing  to  Uie  formabou  of  a 
thin  film  of  oxide.  It  i*  to  loft  that  it  may  be 
readily  cnt  with  a  knife,  or  may  be  made  to  take 
unprendoDK,  and  it  leaves  a  atreak  npon  paper.  It 
may  be  cut  or  beaten  into  thin  aheeta,  bat  in  daa- 
tility  and  tenacity  it  ia  low  in  the  scale  of  metals. 
It  ia  readily  fnaible  at  a  tentperatore  of  about  625°, 
«nd  at  a  higher  tempetatore  it  abaorba  oxygen 
r^idly  from  the  air,  and  the  oxide  tbns  formed 
Tolatilisea  in  the  form  of  white  fnmes. 

The  oombined  action  of  air  and  water  on  lead  ia 
•  (nbject  of  great  practioal  importance,  in  oonae- 
qnance  of  the  metal  being  eo  frequently  employed 
in  the  conatmction  of  cisterns  and  water-pipes. 
The  lead  becomes  oxidised  at  the  surface,  and  the 
water  disaolvea  the  oxide ;  this  solution  absorba  the 
oarbonio  add  d  the  atmoaphere,  a  film  of  ^drsted 
oiycarbonate  of  lead  (FbO.HO  +  PbO,CO,)  ia 
deposited  in  tilky  tcalee,  and  a  freeh  portion  of 
oxide  of  lead  ia  Kirmed  and  diaaolved,  and  in  this 
way  a  rapid  corrosion  of  the  metal  ensuea.  This 
acbon  is  materially  increaaed  by  the  presence  of  aome 
aalta,  and  diminiahed  by  the  p'eBence  of  other  aolta 
in  the  water.  It  ia  much  increased  by  the  occur- 
renoe  of  ohloridea  (which,  aa  chloride  of  lodium, 
ia  often  present  in  aprii^  water),  and  of  nitrates 
and  nibritea  (which  are  onen  present  in  spring  and 
riTar  waters,  from  the  decompoeition  of  organic 
matter)  ;  wlule  it  ia  diminiahed  by  the  anlnutes, 
phosphates,  and  carhonatea,  and  espedatly  by 
carbonate  of  lime,  which  ia  an  extremely  common 
Impurity  in  Epring  water.  In  the  latter  case,  a 
film  of  insoluble  carbonate  of  lead  i*  rapidly 
formed  on  the  surface,  and  the  metal  beneath  la 
thua  protected  from  the  aotion  of  the  water.  If, 
however,  the  water  contain  much  carbonic  acid, 
the  oarbonate  of  lead  may  be  dissolved,  and  con- 
sidering the  dan^nra  that  arise  from  tiie  use  of 
water  mipregnat^  with  lead,  ciatems  oonatmcted 
of  date  are  far  preferable  to  leaden  ones. 

Pore  lead  ia  of  veiy  tvre  occnrFence.  Almost 
«Il  the  lead  of  commerce  ia  obtained  from  Galena, 
lie  native  aoljihide  of  lead  by  a  proces*  to  be 
presently  exploioed.  The  lead  thus  obtained  ia 
often  nearly  pure,  and  to  obtain  it  per/eellu  pure,  it 
ahould  be  reduced  with  blank  fini  from  the  oxide 
left  by  igniting  the  pmv  oitrate  or  carbonate. 

The  compounds  <a  lead  with  oiyaen  are  four  in 
number — viz,,  a  sub^iride,  Pb,0,  which  is  a  black 
powder  of  no  importance;  a  protoxide,  PbO,  which 
18  the  baae  of  the  ordinary  salts  of  the  metal ;  a 
binoiide,  PbO,;  and  red  lead,  which  is  a  com- 
pound of  the  two  last-named  oxides,  and  i«  (uaally 
represented  by  the  formula  2PbOJ'bO,.  The 
pnitoxido  i*  oommonly  known  aa  IMarge,    It  ia 


obtained  on  a  large  scale  by  the  oxidation  of  lead 
in  a  current  of  air,  when  it  forma  a  aoaly  mass  of 
a  yellow  or  reddish  tint  If  the  oxidation  be 
effected  at  a  temperature  below  that  required  fm 
the  fusion  of  oxide,  a  yellow  powder,  termed 
Aftuticol,  is  obtwned.  Litharge  ia  much  used  by 
the  assayer  (see  Ajbat}  aa  a  flux ;  it  enters  largely 
into  the  composition  of  the  daxe  of  common 
earthenware,  and  it  is  employed  in  pharmacy  in 
the  preparation  of  plaatera.  A  mixture  of  1  part 
of  masaicot  with  10  of  brickdua^  made  into  a 
paste  with  linseed-oil,  forma  the  compound  known 
aa  Dkil  mastic,  which,  from  the  hardness  with  which 
it  sets,  is  freqnently  employed  to  repair  defects  in 

The  moat  important  of  the  salts  of  the  protonde 
of  lead  are— 1.  The  earlxmaU  (PbO,CO,),  which 
oocuia  native  aa  a  beautiful  mineral  in  tauuparent 
needlea  or  flbroua  maaacs,  and  wfaidk  U  prepared 
under  the  name  of  vMle  lead  on  a  large  scale  aa  a 
mement  by  a  process  to  be  snbseqnenuy  described. 
Ths  carbonate  ia  insoluble  in  water,  unless  it  ia 
largely  chawed  with  carbonic  acid.  It  ia  (juickly 
blackened  by  exposure  to  hydroeulphuric  acid 
(sulphuretted  hydrogen),  either  in  the  form  of  gas 
or  m  solution,  and  this  is  a  serious  drawback  to 
the  use  of  the  lead  salts  as  pigmenta.  Z.  The 
ttUp!ial«  (I'bO,SO,),  which  occurs  native  in  white 
pnsmatio  cryitals,  and  ia  farmed  aa  a  heavy  white 
precipitate  on  adding  anlphurio  acid  or  a  soluble 
sulphate  to  a  soluble  lead  Salt^  3.  The  ailrale 
(PbOJJO,),  which  U  formed  by  dissolving  lead  or 
its  protoxide  in  dilute  nitric  add-  4.  The  cSiwnato, 
of  which  the  principal  are  the  nentraJ  ohromate  or 
dtrome  velloa  (PbO,CrO,),  and  the  dichromate  or 
onnifK  airome.  These  are  mneh  need  aa  pigments, 
and  m  oalico-dyeing.  6.  The  aedata.  The  ordinary 
or  neutral  acetate  (PbO,C,H,0,  +  Saq.)  is  jan- 
pared  on  a  large  scale  by  tiie  solution  of  lithaive 
m  distilled  vinegar,  and  evaporation,  when  tiie  aut 
ia  obtained  in  four-sided  prisms,  or  more  commonly 
in  a  mass  of  confused  minute  whit«  cryatala,  whiim 
at  212°  lose  their  water  of  crystallisation.  Vrom  ita 
appeamnce,  and  from  ita  sweetish  tast«,  it  dairEB 
its  common  name  of  (u^wo/fead  It  ia  much  used 
both  in  medicine  and  m  the  arts.  Basic  acetate  of 
lead,  regarded  by  soma  chemiata  as  a  diacetate,  and 
by  othen  as  a  triacel»te,  and  oommonly  known  as 
OKmiOT^i  Extraet,  is  prepared  by  boiling  a  solution 
of  sugar  of  lead  with  litharge,  and  adtung  alcohol, 
when  &e  aalt  aeparates  m  minute  transparent 
needles.  It  ia  the  active  ingredient  of  OinUard 
Water,  which  is  imitated  hy  the  Liquor  Plumbi 
Diacetalit  Dilvtnt,  and  of  uouJard's  Oeraie,  which 
ia  imitated  by  the  Ceraium  Pbaniii  Oompotitum  of 
tiie  London  Pharmacop<»ia. 

The  best  tests  for  solutioaa  of  the  salts  of  lead 
are  the  formation  of  a  black  sulphide  with  hydro- 
sulpbnrio  add  or  hydrosnlphate  of  ammonia, 
insoluble  in  an  eiceaa  of  the  reagent;  of  a  white 
insoluble  sulphate  with  aolphnno  acid,  or  a  soluble 
aulphate ;  of  a  yellow  chromate  with  chromate  of 
potash;  and  a  yellow  iodide  with  iodide  of 
pataadum-  All  the  Ball*  of  lead,  insoluble  in 
water,  are  soluUe  in  a  solution  of  potash.  Before 
the  blow-pipe  on  charcoal,  the  aalta  of  lead  yield 
a  soft  white  bead  of  the  metal,  auirounded  by  a 
yellow  ring  of  oxida 

Jli  v*e  tn  Medicate.— Th.6  most  important  com- 
pound of  lead  in  the  materia  medica  u  the  aaelaU 
nf  lead,  which  is  adminiater«d  internally  aa  an 
astringent  and  as  a  sedative.  It  it  of  service  aa 
an  aa^iugent,  especially  in  combination  with  oi^um, 
in  cases  of  mild  Engliah  cholera,  and  even  of  Asiatio 
dioleia,  and  in  vanoua  forms  of  dianliina.  It  will 
frequently   check   the   purulent  eiQieotoratioa   in 


/  ^i"^!"^':^!'-- 


ptiHii»i«^  and  the  profius  secretioD  m  brauchitiB. 
In  the  TuiouB  fontui  of  hmmorrhage — u  from  the 
Innga,  atoroacli,  bowel*,  or  womb — it  U  mnployod 
ci^rtly  with  the  vi«w  of  fJiTniniiih^ng  the  diameter 
of  tho  bleeding  vesseU,  tad  partly  witil  the  object 
of  lowering  the  benrt'l  action,  and  by  theae  meaiu 
to  stop  the  bleeding.  The  ordinary  doM  ia  two  or 
three  sraina,  with  half  >  grain  of  opinm,  in  the  form 
ot  ft  ^11,  repeated  twioe  or  thrice  daily.  If  pven 
for  too  long  a  time,  ■ymptoma  of  LeM-poiaoning 
<q.  V.)  will  ariia. 

Mvting,  AuUtntr.  ^ — Le«d  waa  lu-gely  worked 
by  Uie  RomuiB  in  Great  Britain,  Mid  dgi  with  Latin 
inaoriptiona  hare  been  freqoently  found  near  old 
■melbng-worka.  The  mining  of  kad  in  England  waa 
formerly  r^olated  by  onrioua  laws;  aome  placea, 
each  aa  the  Ein^t  Field,  in  Derbyalure,  having 
epemal  privilweB.  It  waa  the  cnatom  to  thia  die- 
biot  not  to  aOow  the  ore  to  leave  the  mine  till  it 
was  meaanred  in  the  preaence  of  an  official  called  a 
har-matUr,  who  aet  aside  a  26th  part  aa  the  king*! 
«ope  or  lot.  Up  to  a  eompantively  recent  period, 
perBoiu  were  allowed  to  teareb  for  Tana  of  uie  ore 
vithont  bung  liable  for  any  damage  done  to  the 
•oQ  or  cropa, 

Lead  ore  i*  pretty  gmeially  diabribnted,  bnt  by 
tar  the  larget  mipply  A  thia  metal  ia  obtained  from 
Britain  koA  Spam.  Brttadn  ptodnoea  acane  40,000 
tons,  and  importa  ore*  yielding  abottt  140,000  tons 
per  """I"*  A  large  proportion  of  the  total  BritiBh 
produce  ia  procnrM  from  the  Northumberland  and 
Ihirham  district,  where  there  eiiata,  at  Allenbeada, 
one  oE  the  Urgeat  mining  ettabliahments  in  the 
world.  Scotland  and  Ireland  fumiah  only  a  very 
small  qnaatity. 

With  the  exception  of  a  little  from  the  carbonate 
of  lead,  all  the  aappUea  of  thia  metal  are  obtained 
bom  the  anlphide  of  lead  or  Qalena  (q.  v.).  The 
lead  ore,  when  taken  from  the  mine,  ia  broken 
up  into  amall  pieoea,  *  botched,'  and  washed,  to 
separate  impnritua,  by  means  of  appaiatua  deecribad 
under  Mmu-raar.  Sulphide  of  lead,  when 
tolerably  pore,  ia  smelted  with  compvatd' 
It  ia  fint  roaated  ' 
BDcIi  aa  ia  shewn  ij 


reducea  much  of  the  lead,  aulphnreoiia  aoid  being  at 
the  same  time  evolved.  In  the  tluid  atage,  lime  ia 
thrown  in  and  mixed  wiUi  alag  tuid  nnre£)oed  ore. 
When  thia  becoma  acted  on,  the  triiole  of  the  lead 
ia  practically  aepareted  irMn  the  ore,  and  ia  then  run 
off  at  the  tap-hole  g. 

In  aome  diatriets,  the  roasted  ore  ia  smelted  on  a 
aeparate  ore-hearth  called  the  Sootoh  fomaoa,  where 
the  beat  ia  nived  by  bellows.  Peat  and  ooal  are 
naed  as  the  fu^    This  ia  a  alower  mods  of  (melting 


fig,  2. — Flan  of  a  Raverb«tatory  Lead  Furnace ; 

bcuth  DD  which  the  or«  1b  sprHd ;  b,  flreplue  or  gnl 
0,  tti«  flra  bri^TjTQ ;  d,  chLmnsr ;  t,  vorkLrf  doon  \  /,  Qpeni 
tor  nppljliig  ore ;  s,  t»p-luil«. 


deatroys  all  vegetation  for  aome  diatanoe  aronud  the 
worka,  and  poisons  cattle  and  other  aouuala  feeding 
near  them.  Much  attention  has  of  late  been  paid 
to  the  obviating  of  theae  evila,  and  aeveral  plana  are 
in  nse  for  the  pnipoeft  Where  it  can  be  done,  no 
method  ia  more  effective  than  aimply  oondncting 
the  smoke  from  the  fomaoea  tiirou^  aloo^  borixon- 
tal  flue — say  a  mile  in  lengtii — to  a  vertical  stack. 
The  fume  condenses  On  the  sides,  certain  openings 


ties,  they  are  separated  by  rasing  the  metal  in 
shallow  pans,  and  allowing  it  to  oxidiae  at  the  aar- 
Eace.  In  this  way,  the  antunony  and  tin  form  oiidte, 
and  as  such  are  skimmed  tS.  Lead  reduced  from 
lena  always  contains  a  little  silver,  tA  which  8  at 


Kg.  L — Section  of  a  BeTecberatci;  Lead  Fnrnaoe. 

20  to  40  ewta.  of  galena  are  pnt  into  the  for- 
nace  at  a  time,  either  with  or  without  lime.  In 
about  two  honiB,  the  charge  becomes  snfficiantiy 
roasted.  During  the  proceaa,  the  larger  portion  of 
the  ore  (PbS)  takea  np  four  equivalents  Ot  oxygen, 
and  beoomee  eolphate  of  lead  (FbO,SO,),  a  lUtie 
oxide  of  lead  (FSO)  ia  also  formed,  while  another 
portion  remains  unaltered  as  sulphide  of  lead. 
After  it  ia  roasted,  the  ore  is  thoroughly  mixed 
together,  and  the  heat  of  the  furnace  suddenly 
raiaad.  This  canaes  ■  reaction  between  the  nn- 
(^anged  and  the  ozidiaed  portion  of  the  ore,  and 


alihongh  it  often 


I  exista  in  mnoh  larger  quantity. 

thia  silveris  now  greatiyfatnlitateid 

>a  of  a  daailverising  ■giraotm  patented  by  the 

"     r 

-^^ 


LEAD— LSAD-POISONINQ. 


lata  Mr  H.  PattiasoD  o(  NmrcMtU-oo-Tyna.    It 

ooniHta  ID  meltiDg  the  lead,  and  allowing  it  to  cool 
alowlf ,  at  the  »une  time  briskly  itirring  the  melted 
maw.  A  portion  of  the  lead  ia  tbiu  made  to  crys- 
tallise  in  anall  graiiu,  which,  aa  pore  lead  loliditiei 
at  a  lower  temperature  than  when  alloyed  with 
■ilver,  leaves  the  uncryatalliaed  portion  richer  in 
•ilver.  In  tMs  operation,  a  row  oE,  aa;,  nine  caat-iron 

Cat«  used  timilar  to  the  one  ^ewn  in  Gg.  3. 
/  are  uroally  about  6  feet  in  diameter,  and  each 
heated  with  a  fire  below.  The  lead  from  the  smelt- 
ing fumaoe  is  treated  as  above  in  tlie  middle  pot, 
from  which  the  poorer  crystallised  purtion  ia  ladled 
with  a  straioer  mto  the  first  pot  on  the  right,  and 
the  richer  portion,  which  remains  liquid,  is  removed 
to  tlie  first  pot  on  the  left.  With  both  kinds,  the 
process  is  severol  time*  repeated— the  one  becoming 
poorer,  and  the  other  richer  in  silver  everr  time,  till 
the  lead  in  the  pot  on  the  extreme  riRht  has  had  its 
-■'--■T  almost  entirely  removed,  and  tost  in  the  pot 


3  the  ton.  The  silver  is  then  obtained  from 
h  lead  by  melting  it  on  a  flat  bone  ash  cupel, 
[daced  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  and  exposing  it  to 
a  current  of  air  vrhich  reduoea  the  lead  to  the  oxide 


way  annually  separated  from  British  lead,  the  latter 
at  tbe  same  time  being  improved  in  quality. 
Lead  is  ao  importuit  metal  in  the  arts.    BoUed 
a  sheets,  it  is  largely  naed  for  roofing 


tor 


o£  great  service  in  the  conetraction  of  large  chambers 
for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid.  Its  value  for 
the  manufacture  ot  shot  ia  well  known.  Alloyed 
with  antimony,  jtc,  it  ia  larsely  consumed  for  type- 
met^  and  wiUi  tin  for  solder.  Much  lead  is  also 
required  for  the  mannfaotore  of  pewter,  Britannia 
metal,  kc.    See  Allot. 

Of  the  compounds  of  lead  other  than  alloys  which 
occur  largely  in  commerce,  the  following  are  the 
principal : 

While  Ltad  or  Carhimate  of  Ltad,  a  substance 
very  extensively  used  as  white  paint,  and  also   ' 


White  lead  is  still  largely  made  by  the  old  Dutch 
process,  which  consists  m  treating  metallic  lead,  cast 
in  the  form  of  stars  or  gratings,  m  such  a  way  as  to 
facilitate  the  absorption  of  carbonic  add.  These 
stars  of  lead  placed  in  earthenware  vessels,  like 
flower-pots,  containing  a  Uttle  weak  acetic  acid,  are 
built  up  in  tiers  in  Uie  form  of  a  stack,  and  soi^ 
rounded  with  spent  tan  or  horse-dung.  The  heat 
given  out  from  the  dung  volatilises  the  acid,  which, 
along  with  the  air,  ozidisea  the  lead.  The  acetic 
acid  changes  the  oxide  into  the  acetate  of  lead,  and 
this  is,  in  turn,  converted  iuto  the  carbonate  by  the 
carbonic  add  given  oS  from  the  hotbed.  By  this 
process,  metallio  lead  requires  from  six  to  eight 
weeks  for  its  convendon  va\a  white  lead.  Several 
less  tedions  processes  tor  the  manufacture  of  s 
white  paint  from  lead  have  been  tried  at  various 
times,  but  the  only  one  now  praetised  is  that  for 
the  prodaction  of  an  oi^chloride  ot  lead,  by  acting 
9n  raw  galena  with  hydroohloric  acid. 

JtfiBium,  B(d  Lead,  or  Bed  OxiiU  of  Lead,  ia 
mnch  consumed  in  tiie  manufacture  of  flint-glass 
and  porcelain,  and  ta  aome  extent  as  a  pigment.  It 
requires  to  be  made  of  very  pure  lead,  as  a  Blight  trace 
of  copper  would  impart  a  colour  to  glass.  Minium 
'a  prepared  by  hestrns  moMicot  or  protoxide  of  lead 
bo  a  temperature  of  600*  F.  in  iron  trays,  in  a  rever- 
beratory  furnace,  carefully  avoiding  fusion.  More 
ea  is  thus  gradually  absorbed ;  anda  oomponnd 
e  protoxide  and  the  peroxide  of  lead  is  formed. 


having  a  bright  ted  oolonr,  which  is  the  red  lead  of 

commerce. — Lilkarije  baa  been  already  noticed. 

LEAD- POISONING.  Persons  whose  system 
becomes  impregnated  with  lead,  as,  for  example, 
painters,  who  are  constantly  handling  white  lead,  or 
persons  who  for  a  length  of  time  have  been  using 
water  charged  with  a  lead-salt,  exhibit  a  series  of 
phenomena  of  lead  or  satnmine  poisoning. 

The  early  phenomena,  whidi  constitute  what 
Tanquerel  des  Planches,  the  highest  authority  on  this 
subject,  terms  primitiet  tatamine  tnioxUation,  arc^ 
(1),  a  narrow  blue  line,  due  to  the  ptesenoe  of  sul- 
phide of  lead,  on  the  margin  of  the  gums  next  th* 
teeth;  (2),  a  peculiar  taate  in  the  mouth,  and  a 
peculiar  odour  of  the  breath ;  (3),  a  jaundiced  state 
of  the  skin,  with  more  or  less  emaciation;  (4),  a 
de^essed  state  ot  the  circulation. 

These  premonitoi7  phenomena  are  followed,  nnlesa 
remedial  means  are  adopted,  by  the  fonr  tolloiring 
tonns  of  disease,  each  of  which  may  exist  alone,  or 
may  be  complicated  with  one  or  more  of  the  othei% 
or  may  follow  the  others,  without,  however,  having 
any  definite  order  of  saccessiou. 

1.  Lbu>  Couo,  which  is  by  far  the  most  frequent 
of  the  diseaaes. 

2.  Lead  RamiuTraM  or  Abthralou,  which  in 
frequency  is  next  to  colic 

3:  LKaD  Palst  «r  Paraltsis,  which  may  affect 
either  motion  or  sensation,  and  is  next  in  frequency. 

4  Dqbase  of  Tmi  Btuur,  which  is  the  leut 
common  ot  all  the  forms  of  lead-poisoning,  and  i* 
manifested  by  delirium,  by  coma,  or  by  convuLnons. 

Lead  Coiie  is  chaiacterised  by  sharp  continuous 
abdominal  pains,  which  are  nauall^  diminialied  on 
pressure ;  by  hanJnesa  and  depreBsion  of  the  abdo- 
minal walls )  by  obstinate  constipation,  slowness 
and  hardness  of  the  pulse,  and  general  disturbance 
of  the  system.  The  blue  line  on  the  gums  serves  at 
once  to  distinguish  it  from  other  varieties  of  colic 

Zitad  Bheamaiitm  ia  characterised  by  sharp  pains 

the  limbe,  unaccompanied  by  redness  or  swelling^ 


Lead  Paity  is  characterised  by  s  loss  of  voluntary 
power  over  certain  muscles.  It  more  commonly 
aSects  the  upper  than  the  lower  extremity,  and  the 
muscles  most  frequently  affected  are  those  of  the 
ball  of  the  thumb,  and  the  extensors  of  the  wrist, 
giving  rise  to  the  condition  represented  in  the  figure 
as  lontt-drop. 


The  TreatmaiL — The  patient  shoold  be  placed  in 
a  sulphuretted  bath,  which  converts  all  the  lead- 
salts  on  the  skin  into  the  inert  black  snlphide  of 
lead.     These  baths  should  be  repeated  till  they  cease 

to  cause  any  coloratiDn  of  the  skin.  At  the  same 
time,  he  should  drink  water  acidulated  with  sol- 
phnric  acid,  or  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  magnesia, 
with  a  slight  exceas  of  sulphuric  acid,  by  whinh 


LEADEB— LEAHINGTOH. 


mckoa  Ml  ittgolnble  anlphato  of  laad  U  ftmoed, 
vbicli  is  eIimiiiBt«d  hy  the  pnrgAtire  actioii  ot  the 
c:(ce9B  of  snlphDite  Of  magnesU.  Iodid«  of  pota>- 
■ium  ii  then  administered,  which  acta  by  dinolTing 
the  lead  out  of  the  tiuuea,  and  allowing  it  to  be 
removed  by  the  urine. 

The  pal^  may  be  spedally  treated,  after  the 
elimination  of  the  lead,  by  electricity,  and  by 
strychnine  in  minnte  doiea. 

FenoHB  exposed  from  their  oocnpation  to  the  risk 
of  lead-poisooing  should  be  especially  attentive  to 
eleonliiiess  ;  and  if  they  combine  the  fi«queat  appli- 
catdon  of  t^e  warm  bath  with  the  tue  of  lulphuric 
lemonade  or  treacle  beer  acidulated  with  solphurio 
acid,  as  a  drink,  they  may  escape  the  effects  of  the 
metallio  poison. 


LEADING  NOTE  (Fr.  note  atnsOiU),  in  Mtudc^ 
ia  usually  understood  to  mean  the  sharp  seventh  of 
the  diatonic  scale,  or  the  semitone  below  the  octave, 
to  which  it  leads.  The  moat  of  the  German  theorists 
have  now  relinquished  the  term  leading  note,  as 
every  note,  when  it  is  felt  that  another  imme- 
diately above  or  below  it  shonld  follow,  mi^  be 
Raid  to  be  a  leading  note. 

LEADING  QUESTION  ia  a  technical  expres- 
aion  ia  Law  to  denote  a  question  w  pat  to  a  witoe«s 
as  to  suggest  the  answer  that  is  deaited  or  expected. 
Thus,  iia  witDeas  is  asked ;  '  Was  he  dressed  ia  a 
black  coat !'  it  is  supposed  the  witness  will  answer, 
yea ;  whereas  Uie  proper  way  of  patting  the  queation 
is:  'HowwaahednasedT'or,  'What  kind  of  coat!' 
Ac.  Themle  established  in  courts  of  justice  as  to 
the  ooitect  practice  in  such  matters,  is,  that  when  a 
witnesB  is  examined  in  chief,  i  e.,  by  the  party  who 
adduces  soch  witness,  leading  questions  are  not 
allowed,  except  in  one  or  two  rare  cases  ;  whereas, 
when  the  witness  is  cross-examined,  L  e.,  hy  the 
oppodng  party,  leading  questiona  may  bo  pat ;  for 
the  object  is  to  make  the  witnesa  contradict  and 
stultify  hinueU,  ao  that  the  jury  will  disbelieve  hiro. 
The  above  nile,  however,  only  applies  to  material 
questioas,  for  in  immatenal  questions  leading  ques- 
tions may  be  put,  so  as  to  save  time. 

LEAF-OUTTEB  BEE,  a  name  given  to  oertoin 
species  of  tolUary  beet  (see  BxB)  of  the  geaeia 
MegachUe  and  Oonio,  in  oonaeqaence  of  their  habit 
of  lining  their  aesta  with  portions  of  leaves,  or  of  the 
petals  ot  flawers,  which  they  cat  out  for  this  purpose 
with  Iha  mandibles.  SfegaAile  cerUuneularie,  a 
common  British  species,  uses  the  leaves — not  the 
petals — of  roses,  fitting  the  pieces  togeiher  so  as  to 
lorm  one  thimble-ahaped  cell  within  another,  in  a 
long  cylindrical  borrow,  the  bottom  of  each  cell 
containing  an  egg  and  a  little  pollen  paste.  The 
atmcture  of  these  nests  i*  very  uoe  and  oniiont. 

LEAF-INBECT,  a;  WALKING-LEAF   (P&yU 


insects  spend  their  lives  among  leaves,  move  slowly, 
and  would  be  much  exposed  to  every  enemy,  did 
not  their  leaf-like  appearance  preserve  them  from 
observation. 

LEAOTTE  (from  the  I^t.  leuM),  a  meanm  of 
length  of  great  antiquity.  It  was  used  by  the 
Bomana,  who  derived  it  from  the  Giauls,  and  Mti- 
mated  it  aa  equivalent  to  1600  Boman  paces,  i» 
r376  modem  ^igUsh  miles.  The  league  was  intro- 
duced into  Endand  by  the  Normans,  probaUy  before 
the  battle  of  Hastiiigs  (1066),  and  had  been  by  thia 
time  lengthened  to  2  TJhipli.h  miles  of  that  time, 
or  2A  n^dem  English  miles.  At  the  present  day, 
the  league  is  a  naatical  measure,  and  signifies  the 
30th  ]iui  of  a  degree — L  e.,  3  geographictd  miles,  or 
S-45Q  statute  miles.  The  French  and  other  natdona 
use  the  some  nautical  league,  bnt  the  former  nation 
had  (until  the  introduction  of  the  metrical  system) 
two  land-measures  of  the  aame  name,  the  legal 
poatmg-league  =  2-42  Eng.  miles,  and  the  leagus 
of  25  to  the  degree,  which  la  =  276  statute  Engfish 

LEAOUE,  the  term  generally  emplt^'ed  in  the 
16th  and  17th  oentariea  to  designate  a  politioal 
allianoe  or  coalition.    The  moat  famous  leagues  wer» 

those  of  Combray,  Schmalkald,  NUrnberg,  fto.  Bnt 
"*  '  peculiar  importance  in  the  history 

,.      .        _..   „ „  of  tlte 

of  their  religion  and  pohtical  rights  to 
the  Huguenots.  This  l^igtle,  known  aa  the  Holy 
Leoffue  (SainU  Ligut),  was  formed  at  Pironne,  in 
1576,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Boman  Cat^ilie 
rel^ion  in  its  predominance ;  but  the  object  of  ths 
Gaiaes  was  rather  to  exclude  the  Protestant  princes 
of  the  blood  from  the  succession  to  liie  throne. 
For  an  account  of  the  civil  war  that  ensued,  see 
HsNitT  m.,  TTvuBT  IV.,  and  Guibk. — See  Mignet, 
Hittoin  de  la  Ligne  (6  vols.  Par.  1829). 

LEAKE,  WlLLlAU  Maktin,  a  lieutenant-colonel 

in  the  British  army,  and  a  traveller  who  has  ooutri- 

'  knowledge 


admirable  power  of  clear  statement.    Hia'princr^ 
.  ..-.         jjjg  matured  fruit  of  his  obser- 

a,  are — Saeta-Aet  ia  Orteet,  Ac. 
(1814) ;  T/it  Tapo^pky  of  AtAau,  &&  (1821) ; 
Journalqfa  Toitr ta  Atm Minor, with  CcmparaUvt 
Remarti  on  Ihe  Aneiait  and  Modem  Oeography  of 
Oiat  Counirs  (1824) ;  Trwod*  in  lAe  Jforea  (1830) ; 
TraxOtiaNorlium  Qrtece  (1835);  aiK).Ariunfsnui(>M 
""    ■     (18M). 


the  coanty  of  Warwick,  Enghmd,  ud  one  v.  

ndsomest  towns  in  the  country,  is  beaotifnlfy 
situated  on  the  Learn,  a  tributaty  of  the  Avon, 
about  two  miles  from  Warwick,  It  oontains  publio 
mrdens,  a  proprietaiy  college,  erected  in  1M7  in 
the  Tudor  style,  and  other  institutions.  In  ths 
oentre  of  the  town  is  a  Pomp  Boom,  a  handsome 
stfuclure.  L.  is  wholly  of  modem  growth,  having 
become  important  only  within  the  present  century. 
Its  mineral  waters  sre  saline,  sulphureous,  and 
chalvbeate.  The  watering-season  lasts  from  October 
till  May.  The  town  sbuds  in  the  centre  of  a  line 
hontjng-conntry,  and  is  mneh  resorted  to  by  lovers 
otthechsM.    Fop^  (1871)  2%723;  (1881)25,133. 


v^ClOOgl 


LEAP-TEAB— LEATHBE. 


LEAP-TEAB,  a  yeu  of  366  days  (see  Calxh- 
DAX),  10  called  beCBOsa  it  laapa  forwud  a  day  m 
compared  with  sa  ordinary  year.  It  ao  bappani 
Ihat  the  leap-yean  coincide  with  the  years  that  are 
diviaible  by  lour,  and  thoH  they  may  be  known. 
Of  the  yean  oonoluding  centuriei,  only  eTary  fourth 
ii  a  leap-year,  beginning  with  3000,  which  ia 
diviaible  by  400,  as  is  abo  2400,  Ik.  The  term 
SittexliU,  applied  by  the  Romana  to  leap^ear,  oroae 
from  their  reckoning  the  6th  before  the  Kalenda  of 
March  (24th  Febnuur)  twice  (Mi),  whereas  we  add 
a  day  to  the  and  of  ua  month,  making  the  2&th  of 
Febraaiy. 

IjEiABE  is  the  contiaot  establiahing  the  relation 
between  I^ndlo^l  and  Tenant  (q.  v.).  If  the  tenn 
of  yean  i«  more  than  three,  then  it  mnat  be  by 
deed  under  Real  in  Englaod,  or  by  writing  in  Soot- 
luid,  if  for  more  than  one  year.  An  improving  lease 
is  where  the  lessee  agrees  to  keep  the  premiies 
in  repair.  A  building  lease  i*  where  the  tenant 
intends  to  build  a  house  on  Qie  land.  See  Bmj>iMa 
Lbabk,  also  Oboitko-hsmt. 

The  grantiag  of  teases  to  those  holding  land 
from  the  owners,  ha*  been  general  in  Sootlond 
for  more  than  a  oentoty.  To  this  is,  no  doubt, 
to  be  ascribed,  to  a  great  extent,  tiie  rapid  pro- 
gress which  improvemantt  in  farming  have  mode 
m  the  north  within  tikat  poiod.  The  length  of 
leases  in  Scotland  is  conunonly  nineteen  years. 
Beosntly,  in  pastoni  fanna,  where  no  rotaboo  of 
Drops  is  reqnued,  and  no  snbttantial  improvement 
expected,  short  leases  of  seven  or  ten  years  have 
ooma  into  usa.  What  we  have  to  notice  in  pard- 
eolar,  is  the  oommon  agricnltoral  lease  of  nineteen 
yeara,  which  forma  the  great  base  of  rural  proa- 
parity.  During  the  currency  of  this  spaoiea  of  lonsn, 
the  tenant  has  in  a  great  meaanre  the  uncontrolled 
of  Uie  land,  and  tahia  langthened  term 


„, _ -    -        Scotch  flwtem  are 

w  tiaoomins  mora  general  botli  in  Ebi^and  and 
baland.  No  oonbt,  lulding  land  fran  year  to  vear 
haa  wroD^t  well  in  some  parts  of  England,  where 
1 :?...i.  —  ! .^  j„  the  land  by  tenants 


large  capitals  are  invested  i 
who  liave  no   other  sacuri^  i 
thema^vet 


f&ith 

and  feeling  between  themaJvea  and  landlorda.  In 
Scotland,  however,  the  n'stem  of  leases  alone  meets 
the  tastes  and  genius  of  farming.  A  lease  ahould 
be  dearly  and  concisely  written,  bo  that  the  terms 
may  be  well  nndentood  by  both  parties,  and  all 
disputes  at  its  expiiy  avoided.  The  cropping  clanaaa 
of  kaaes  vary  with  the  localitieB,  In  the  neighbour- 
hood of  towns,  the  tenant  is  usually  allowed  to  sell 
the  whole  prodace,  including  the  sbaw,  bnt  is  bound 
to  bring  back  mauore  to  make  aip  the  wastes  In 
inland  parta,  on  the  other  hand,  where  tiie  selling 
of  the  attaw  year  after  year  mi^^t  impoverish  the 
soil,  it  ia  cnstcmary  to  reebiot  tenant*  firom  ao  doing. 
It  is  also  oommon  to  debar  tenants  from  selliox 
turnips.  Both  these  dansea  cannot  be  considered 
as  any  hardahip  to  improving  tenants.  The  laising 
and  aalling  of  potatoea  oO  uie  land  ahonld  not  be 
reatrioted.  In  ^Iie  boat  arable  district!,  tenants 
are  often  bound  not  to  take  two  white  crops  in 
sncoanion.  This  is,  perhaps,  a  good  enoo^  role  to 
be  applied  to  li^t  lands,  but  in  other  oases  barlev 
might  be  iUomd  to  lie  taken  iSber  wheat.  A^ 
fsrmara  ahould  be  allowed  to  grow  peaae  to  a  certain 
extent,  but  not  more  than  Uke  twentieth  part  of 
the  land  under  regular  cnltrratiiaL  The  cropiang 
alaose*  should  be  framed  in  accordance  wii£  the 
systems  prevailing  in  the  nei^booriiood.  Whatever 
tneae  ares  they  ahould  be  ciMiiy  defined.    " *• 


to  a  disagreement  in  defining  what  tbaM  rulee  are, 


The  terms  of  entry  are  ninally  Whitsunday  aind 
Martinmas,  which  leqnire  nay  different  arrange- 
ments in  Uie  terms  of  leaaea.  In  drawing  np  theae, 
the  most  experienced  farmers  of  their  respeddve 
diatricte  ahomd  be  consulted,  and  the  tanas  oamed, 


far  aa  possible,  to  encourage  the  free  applicatii 
of  ca^tal  to  land,  and  at  the  same  time  to  avoid  the 
detenoratdon  of  Uie  land  at  the  expiry  of  the  term. 

The  following  are  the  usual  dauses  in  an  vri- 
cultural  lease :  viz. — 1.  Landlord  lets  lands  specified 
for  term  of  years,  exdudiog  assignees  and  sub- 
tenants. 2.  Keserves  mines,  &c,  with  power  to 
work  themj  power  to  excamb,  plant,  alter  and 
make  roads,  hunt,  shoot  and  fiah,  cnt  and  carry 
away  treea,  fsu  part  of  lands  for  building  purposes, 
inspect  farm,  ftc.  When  exercise  of  reservationa 
causes  surface  damage,  this  to  be  paid  for. 
Clause  of  warrandice.  4  Assignation  to  obligi 
of  previous  tenant  to  leave  premises  in  order.  _ 
Specific  details  as  to  additional  houses  and  fences 
required.  6.  Obligation  on  tenant  to  pay  rent 
specified  at  two  terms.  6.  To  maintun  and  leave 
fanc«s  in  good  repair.  T.  To  insure  hotuea  aniost 
damage  by  fire,  8.  Cropping  clause  recuJating 
cultivation  of  lands,  and  manner  in  wbuh  they 
to  be  left ;  and  also  disposal  of  waygoing  arop^ 
lore,  fallow-break,  Sx.  9.  Arbitration  clause  for 
settlement  of  disputes.  10.  Obligation  to  remove 
at  expiration  of  lease.  11.  General  obligatory  clause. 
12.  Clause  of  registration.     And  13.  lasting  clause. 

Bvery  leaae  has  its  own  peculiar  details  in  refer- 
ence  to  drainage,  houses,  and  cropinng.  When  a 
tenant  enters  without  paying  Im  the  straw  or 
manure,  it  is  called  *  steelboitv  and  he  reoeivea  no 
value  for  these  when  he  leaves.  OccaaionBlly,  rent* 
are  paid  wholly  or  in  part  by  the  cnmnt  price  of 
grain,  a  quanti^  of  grain  bong  fixed,  convertible 
at  the  avera^  moAet  price  of  tiio  season,  as  deter- 
mined by  a  jni7  before  the  sheriff  in  a  court  called 
the  Fiors  Court.  In  consequence  of  the  predseneM 
in  which  Scotch  leases  are  drawn  up,  disputes  are  of 
^~~  occurrence.    It  will,  of  course,  be  understood 


thoroughly  in  order  for  the  tenant,  and  where  tha 
tenant  poBsesses  sufficient  capital  to  woA  the  farm 
advant^eoaely. 

LEASE  Aim  RELEASE,  a  name  ^ven  to  a 
oooveyance  of  loud  formerly  mncb  used  in  England, 
but  now  supeneded  by  a  Gnutt. 

LEASEHOLD.  A  leasehdd  estate  is  merely  the 
terest  or  property  which  a  man  haa  who  holds  a 
— isa;  and  he  is  also  sometimes  called  a  leaseholder. 
A  leasehold  estate  is  of  much  leas  value  than  a 
freehold  estate,  for  a  lease  must  tome  time  or 
other  otnne  to  an  end,  irtiereas  a  freehold  estate  is 
held  by  %  man  and  his  heirs  fen*  ever — that  is,  until 
'  ~   ~<r  they  choose  to  part  with  ib,    See  LamLoait 


Falconry,  the  thcng  of  leather  ij 
which  a  hawk  is  held.  The  word  also  signifies  a 
line  affixed  to  the  ooUar  of  a  greyhoaud,  and  ia 
used  in  both  significotiona  in  Heroldiy. 

LEASINO-MAEIKO,  in  Scotch  Law,  means 
seditiouB  word^  which  constituted  an  offanoe 
punishable  with  death  by  andeat  statatea  of  1984 
and  166G.  The  punishment  was  afterwards  mitigated 
to  fine  and  imprisonment,  or  both,  at  the  discretion 
*  the  court 
LEATHEB  oonmsts  essentially  of  the  skiiu  of 
animals  chemically  altered  by  the  vegetable  prin- 
ciple called  Tannin,  or  Tannio  Acid  (q.  v.J,  so  as  to 

'  that  pronenesa  to  deeompoae  which  is  charao- 

I  of  soft  animal  subatanoss.      Ita  invention 
•   beyond   tha  dawn   of   history,  and 


ii.C,i0^w,k"- 


c 


ibftbly  unoiig  the  buIubI)  germa  of  "ml'rtfi'nn ; 
M  tlie  ikiiu  of  aniTnaln  wouM  juhtimllj'  be 
araoag  the  Snt  artiolei  of  dothinA  any  menna  of 
preaening  them  man  eCeototdlf  uutn  br  dzviag 
would  be  highJj  prued.  1^  duoovoy  that  buk 
had  thia  efieot  wm  donbtl«M  the  nanlt  of  aocideDt. 
Iha  printi^  of  tbi  actual  mt  nuknown  np  to  tba 
proent  oectury;  and  the  aame  nnvatymg  method 
had  been  employed  from  the  eoflieat  timea  until 
the  last  few  yean,  when  tba  invention  of  new 
jirfTrnnimt  haa  much  facilitated  the  monofactnia 

The  akioB  of  all  ""'""i"  uaed  in  the  ^soduetioa 
of  ieathar  oonaist  ohiefly  of  palatine,  a  mbatauua 
whieh  eaaily  entan  into  chenuoal  con^iiDatLon  with 
tha  tumio  acdd  fevkd  in  th£  bark  of  moat  inn^^*  of 
treea,  and  fomi  what  may  be  termed  an  inaoluble 
lamu-gdatin.  TboM  ii  the  whole  theoiy  of  **""'"j[i 
oc  ocmwtina  the  akina  of  ■"^"*n1fT  into  Itathef i 
Formeriy,  oat-bark  waa  aiippoBad  to  be  the  only 
tanning  material  of  any  vaEoe;  but  lately,  yen 
nnmeTooB  additioua  have  bean  made  to  thia  btanoh 
of  economic  botany. 

In  addition  to  uie  iirooeaa  of  tanninbF  in  *"»H"fT 
leather,  there  are   other  modee,  one  5  which 


into  Iwither  in  the  atate  we  E ,  „ 

is  oalled  'rough  leather;'  but  if,  in  addition,  it 
ia  anbmitted  to  t^  piooeaa  oalled  cnrying,  which 
will  be  hereafter  described,  it  ia  tanned  'dnaaed 


hide*  or  ciop-hidea,  bntta  and  bB<^  benda,  o^ 
and  akitia.  The  cimiplete  hide  ia  aeen  in  fi^  1. 
The  same  rounded,  with  tiie  oheaka,  ahai^  and 
bdly-pieoe^  ie^  pared  off,  ia  called  a  butt;  the 
piecea  cut  o£E  oonrtitnte  the  tjfai;  and  atuM  are 
all  ijia  lifditer  fonua  of  laal£^,  inch  aa  ah~~~ 
goat,  deer,  &c. 

Besides  the  oz  and  oow  hidea  fomiahed  by  the 
home-bade,  raat  nombera  are  imported  from  Uonte- 
Tidao,  Bnenoa  Ayrea,  Buetia,  and  Northern  Oer- 
many,  and  a  Yerv  oooaideiaUe  number  of  dry 
baSalo-hidea  are  bronght  from  the  East  Indies. 
The  qnantity  of  all  aorti  imported  into  Qreat  Britun, 
in  18S1,  amoonted  to  1,475,634  owt ;  and  the  enUre 
valoe  of  the  hidw  and  leather  (nnmannfacturedj 
imported  in  1S81  waa  aauDchaa  £6,366,639.    Ihcae 


retunia,  however,  compriae  a  oonaidetable  number 
ot  hoiM-faidsi,  which  are  alao  sent  from  South 
AmeriotL     CW-akina  and  kip^kina  (that  is,  the 


in  large  qnantitieB  from  Australia  and  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope ;  and  tanned,  from  oar  Hiaat  Indian 

"aaiona.    The  latter,  with  the  Cape  akina,  are 

for  bookbinding,  furniture,  glcvea,  &o.     I^mb- 
__.   ! ..i"  _.__   f^Qj  Italy,  Sicily,   and 


lamba  and  sheep  are  tawed  and  oaed  for  maaona' 
aproni,   aawing   hameat,   plarter-akina,    tying    np 

Datr-ilaiu  are  dieaaad  by  the  oil  prooaaa,  and 
form  a  gnat  portion  of  the  ao-oalled  Aamm  leather, 
which  deriv«B  its  name  from  the  ehamoia  of  the 
Alpa,  from   the  akin  of    which  it  waa   fonaarlf 

Dog-Jsmi  are  tanned  or  tawed  for  (^vea,  and  for 
tiiin  ahoea  and  boota.  Seal-Aitu  are  manofaotored 
into  the  ao-oalled  'patent  leather,'  by  vamiahiiy 
Oieii  upper  cni&oe.  Hie  mannfactoie  of  thia 
kind  of  Ieathar  haa  of  late  become  U  neat  import- 
to  the  LMidoD,  Ediobor^  aai  Newoaid* 


Sag  or  pig  Mum  are  imparted  from  Boaata  and 
oOat  contmenial  eonntriea,  and  many  are  eupplied 
by  SootJand ;  their  use  ia  ohiefly  in  the  manuuctura 
of  aaddlea  for  homea,  iia 

Wtdna  and  hwpopoiamu*  hida  am  tanned  in 
ooniiderable  nnmbera  fo»  the  oae  of  cutlet*  and 
other  worken  in  steel  goods,  '  bofBng- wheels'  beins 
msde  of  them,  often  an  inch  thick,  which  are  <9 
great  importance  in  giving  the  polish  to  metal  and 
hom  goods.  Lately,  balta  for  driving  mochinaty 
have  aaoaessfnlly  been  made  from  them. 

Kangaroo-dint  ot  various  speoie*  sm  tanned  ot 
tawed  in  Anstcalia,  and  form  a  kind  of  leather  in 
great  favour  for  gentlemen's  diess^boot*. 

The  fiiat  TO^ocesa  in  making  iiamed  tolt  leaihera 
to  soak  tJie  atdns  or  hides  in  water  for  a  greater  or 
less  time,  to  wash  and  soften  them ;  they  are 
tiien  laid  in  heapa  for  a  short  time,  and  aftar- 
worda  hnng  in  a  hsated  room,  by  whioh  meana 
a  dight  pntrefactive  decomposition  is  started,  and 
thehair  Decomea  so  loose  as  to  be  easUv  detached. 
This  process  of  '  nahairin^ '  is  mostly  followed  in 
America  ;  but  in  Great  Britain,  milk  of  lime  is  used 
for  soaking  the  hide  till  the  hair  loosens.  Hides 
iv  skins  intended  for  dressing  purposes,  snch  as 
ahoev  ooach,  hsmess,  or  bookbinding,  after  the  hair  ia 
taken  off  by  lime,  have  to  be  submitted  to  a  prooesa 
oalled 'batout' for  the  pnrposeof  reducing  the  thick- 
anins  or  BweSUng  occasioned  by  the  introduction  of 
the  unuy  and  for  eleanaing  the  skin  from  gr^se  and 
otiisr  impnritisB.  Thia  ia  effected  by  working  the 
akina  in  a  deoootion  of  ^geona'  or  £)ga'  dung  and 
warm  water,  and  no  dt«aiinK-Ieather  is  ever  aob- 
mitted  to  bark  or  ihumao  will 


If  tiie  old  method  of  Ifuming  ia  fdlowed,  the 

Mdea,  after  unhairing,  are  placed  in  the  tan-pita, 
with  layers  of  oak-bark  or  other  tanniog  matmala 
between  tbem ;  and  when  as  many  layers  of  bides 
and  bark  are  armnsed  as  the  pit  will  hold,  water 
ia  let  in,  and  the  hides  remain  to  be  acted  upon  by 
the  tanning  material  for  months,  and  even  in  some 
caeee  for  years,  being  only  occasiooaUy  tamed.  But 
this  primitive  process  ia  now  rarely  carried  out ;  so 
much  improvement  haa  been  efieoted  in  Ulb  tannei's 
srt  ainoe  its  chemical   principles  wera  discovered, 

L _u,.,Coo;;, 


that  much  Ibm  time  anfficea  ;  and  materUll  u«  now 
med  which  act  bo  much  more  qoiokjy  thim  oak' 
bark  alone,  that  even  if  the  old  proce««  is  nsed,  it 
is  greatlj  aecelerate<l  The  mort  usefal  of  these 
mueiiala  are  catechu  and  cutch  (of  which  9000 
are  aimuallj  imported  into  Great  Britain  from  India 
and  SingqMire),  gambler  (about  1300  tons,  from 
Singapore),  divi-divi  (3000  tons,  from  Maracaibo, 
to.),  Talonia  (the  acorns  of  da  Qncrcua  .^ylope, 
36,000  tons  ot  which  are  yearly  importea  from 
Turkey),  and  iumaoh  leavea  (16,000  tons,  chiefly 
from  Torkey). 

The  first  attempts  at  improvement  in  tajminj 
were  die  method  invented  by  Mr  SjnlsbDiy  in  1823. 
and  the  improvement  on  this  method  by  Mr  Drake, 
of  Bedminster,  in  1831.  The  principle  coameted  in 
causing  the  ooze  or  ltm-liqfu>r  ti)  filter  through  the 
hides  under  pressure.  For  this  pnrpoae,  in  Dnike't 
procesB,  the  edges  of  the  bides  were  sewed  ap  sc 
u  to  form,  a  b^  The  bags  being  suspended,  were 
filled  with  cold  tan-liquor,  which  gradually  filtered 
thron^^  the  pores  of  the  hides,  and  impregnated 
"-—    — "-   '*--   '-—--       '^-  processes  by  infil- 


TarioDS  ptitents  tor  improvemoita  in  tanning  have 
been  in  operation  of  late  years.  Herepath  and  Cox, 
of  Bristd,  tied  hides  to  each  other  to  form  a  long 
belt,  and  pressed  Uiem  between  rollers,  to  equeexe 
out  the  partially  exhausted  tan-liquor  from  the 
pores,  BO  that  a  stronger  liquor  might  be  absorbed. 
Messrs  J.  and  G.  Coi,  of  (lorgie  Mills,  near  Edin- 
borgh,  made  an  improvement  on  this  mode,  by 
attaching  the  hides  to  a  revolving  drum,  so  that 
the  hides  press  on  each  Sther  on  the  top  of  the 
bang  suspended  in  the  tan-liquor  from  the 


of  the  liquor,  the  tanning  is  quickly 
effected. 

After  the  hides  have  beoome  thoroughly  tanned 
in  the  pit  by  the  action  of  the  tannic  acid  upon 
their  gelatinous  substance,  and  when  partly  dried 
(il  for  'struck'  sole-leatiier),  they  are  operated 
npoB  by  a  two-handled  tool  with  three  blunt  edges, 
called  a  pin  (fig.  2,  and  section,  a],  which,  by  bemg 


-A 

Bg.2. 

mbbed  with  great  pressure  backwards  and  for- 
waida  on  the  grain-side  of  the  leather,  makes  it 
more  and  mot«  compact ;  and  this  is  still  further 


The  tanning  of  goat-skins  (from  which  our 
morocco  is  made),  sheep  for  imitation-morooco, 
and  small  oalf-skina  for  Iwokbinding,  ia  done  by 
sewing  up  the  skins,  and  filling  the  bur  with  a 
decoction  of  shomac  in  a  warm  state.  They  ore 
kept  in  an  active  state  for  twenty-four  hours  or 
•0,  which  sufficiently  saturates  them. 

A  process  has  been  patented  by  Mr  Preller,  of 
Bermondsey,  within  the  last  few  yean,  by  which 
the  heaviest  skins  are  converted  into  leather  in  a 
Tety  short  space  of  time;  bntthsnroceM  is  tawing 
rather  than  tanning,  and  is  used  tct  maohinery- 
belts  principally. 

Taiemff  consists  in  dreasing  the  skins  with  antd' 
septic  materials,  so  as  to  preserve  them  from  decay ; 
but  by  this  operatiim  no  chemical  change  is  effected 
in  the  gelatine  of  the  skins ;  hence,  tawed  leather 


'  con  be  nsed  in  the  manufacture  of  glne.    In  tawing 

the  first  proceas  is  careful  washing,  next  dreasing 
them  with  lime,  then  removing  the  hair  or  wool,  and 
lastly,  steeping  them  in  some  one  or  more  of  the 
vorions  mixtures  which  are  nsed  for  converting  skins 
into  leather  by  this  method.  The  method  of  tawing 
laml>-skin8  will  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  process,  which 
is,  however,  much  varied,  according  to  the  kind  cd 
skin  and  the  experience  of  the  worker.  Lamb-skius 
of  home-production  are  generally  limed  on  the  fieth- 
side  with  cream  of  lime,  whicS  enables  the  wool  to 
be  easily  pulled  offl  Dried  lamb-skins  are  generally 
submitted  to  the  heating  procesi,  to  get  the  wool 
removed.  The  pelta,  aft«r  being  washed,  are  rabbed 
on  the  convex  piece  of  wood  called  the  beam  ;  and 
when  snmile,  the  flesh-side  of  each  skin  is  thickly 
besmeared  with  a  cream  of  lime ;  and  when  two 
are  so  treated,  they  are  laid  with  the  limed  surfaoea 
in  contact ;  and  a  pile  of  them  being  made,  they 
are  left  for  a  few  days,  when  they  are  examined  by 
pulling  the  hair.  U  it  separates  easily,  tjien  the 
lime  IS  washed  out,  and  the  hair  ia  removed  with 
de  unhairing  knife  (fig.  3],  as  in  the  com  of  hides. 


Fig.  3. 

unless  it  is  required  to  be  kept  on,  as  in  the  case 
of  skins  for  door-mats,  &a.  Alt«r  thorongh  deans- 
ixig,  the  pelts  ore  Steeped  for  two  or  three  weeks 
in  a  pit  filled  with  water  and  lime,  being  taken 
out  mim  time  to  time,  and  drained  on  sloping 
benches.  When  removed  finally  from  the  lime-^^ 
the  skins  are  worked  with  the  knife,  to  render 
them  still  more  supple,  and  they  u«  than  put 
into  the  branniitg  mixture.  This  oonsists  of  bran 
and  water,  in  the  proportion  of  two  pounds  of  bran 
to  a  gallon  of  water.  From  this  mixture,  in  about 
two  days,  they  are  transferred  to  another  bath,  con- 
sisting of  water,  alum,  and  salt.  After  the  proper 
amount  of  working  in  this  mixture,  i^ev  nndeigo 
what  is  called  the  patting,  if  intended  to  form  white 
leather.  The  paxU  is  a  mixture  of  wheaten-bran 
and  sometimea  ftoor  and  the  yolks  of  eggs,  liiey 
are  nanally  worked  in  a  rotating  cylinder  with  tins 
paste  and  water,  and  are  found  m  time  to  have 
absorbed  the  paste,  leaving  little  more  than  the 
water.  If  the  skins  are  nirt  intended  to  be  white, 
other  materials  are  often  used,  and  much  pigeons' 
and  dogs'  dung  is  emi^oyed,  some  large  leather- 
dressers  expending  as  much  as  £100  per  annum 
upon  each  en  these  materials.  Lastly,  the  skins  are 
dried  and  examined,  and,  if  necessary,  the  pasting 
is  repeated  ;  if  not,  they  are  dipped  into  pore  water 
and  worked  or  staked  by  pullmg  them  backwards 
and  forwards  on  what  is  called  a  etretdiiag  ot  aojt- 

ing  iron,  and  smoothed  with  a  hot  smoothing-iron. 

Another  kind  of  dressiug  is  by  treating  Uia  i ' ' 


with  oiL  By  hard  rubbing  with  cod  oil,  or  by  tho 
action  of  '  stocks,'  after  the  skin  has  been  propcaly 
cleaned  with  the  lime,  the  oil  works  into  the  skin, 


displaces  all  the  water,  and  becomes  united  with 
tie  material,  rendering  its  texture  peenliaHy  soft 
and  spongy.  Wash-leather  or  chamois-leather  is  so 
prepared,  and  toi  this  purpose  the  flesh-holvea  <^ 
Bpht  sheep-skins  are  chidly  used. 

Besides  tanning  and  tawing,  many  kinds  of  leaUiec 
require  the  currier's  art  to  bring  Uiem  to  the  atato 
lompletion  required  for  varions  pnrpoaes.  The 
. ...  ier  receivM  the  newly  tanned  skins,  and  finds 
them  harsh  to  the  feel,  and  rondi  on  the  fleah'sida. 
He  removes  all  the  roughness  by  carefully  shaving 
with  a  peculiar  knife.  After  a  soaUng  in  clean 
water,  he  then  screes  the  skin  witii  c<HiBidenbla 


T.T!  A  TmBB T,  W  A  VtKL 


,  _ .  iip(m  a  BCT^ai^-tool  or  «jiater,  ind  thiiB 

lemorea  uj  imgnluiUea.  The  moiitore  ii  then 
ranoTed  u  much  te  po««ible,  and  oil,  tunally  cod- 
oil  tad  UUow,  am  nibbed  over  the  leather,  wluch  ia 
lud  MJde  to  dry  completely,  and  ae  the  iDOJatare 
lectTCB  it,  the  oil  penetratei.  When  qnite  dried  and 
aktimted  yriOi  the  oil,  the  akin  ia  mbbed  on  a  board 
-with  roonded  ridgea,  hy  whicli  a  {>eaiiliar  grained 
appeannea  ia  preo,  and  the  leather  i*  rendered  very 
pbable.  IncniryiDi^alauMtereiy  variety  of  leather 
require*  Kane  variation  in  the  jnoceaiaa  employed, 
b«tt  the  onrriar'a  object  ia  in  all  caaaa  to  give  » 
m^^eneaa  and  tine  finiah  to  the  akina. 

Sonxco  leaAa;  fonncriy  an  article  of  import  from 
the  Barbai^  coaat>  ia  now  prepared  in  large  gnan- 
titiM  in  thiB  conntry,  tzoja  goat-akina ;  aheep-akini 
also  ant  oaed  for  imitation.  It  ia  always  dyed  on 
the  oater  or  grain  aide  with  aome  coloor,  uid  the 
leather-dresaer  in  finiahing  gives  a  pecnliar  ribbed 
or  a  rooghly  graDolated  lurface  to  it,  hy  meana  of 
engisTed  boxwood  balla  which  he  works  ovsr  the 


Auaata  Uailter  ii 
ndooT,  whidi  it  di 
birch-baik  naed  L 


mocA  ralnad  tor  it 


le  peoul 
nie& 


.1  and  other  inaecte,  renders  this 
leather  partknUdT  valnable  for  bindmg  books ;  a 
few  books  in  a  Uorary,  bound  in  Bnaaia  leather, 
'  '  ~  "  '  '  I  against  insect  enemies.  It 
prevent  the  v^et^la  evil 
•  very  liable. 

■  LEATHER,  Vkqetabuc.  is  a  compositioQ,  the 
base  of  which  ia  supposed  to  be  oxidised  oil  It  ia 
spread  over  cotton  or  other  cloth,  and  is  used  as  a 
watsr-proof  material  for  carriage-hoods,  seats,  gaitera, 
boota,  Ac  At  present,  it  ia  only  made  by  one  com- 
pany, which  holds  the  secret  of^its  manufacture. 

LEATHEB-CLOTH.    See  Sufp .,  YoL  X 

LEATHERWOOD  iDirca  pattutria),  a  decidnoos 
■hmb  of  3 — 6  feet  hi^  with  the  habit  of  a  minia- 
ture tree^  a  native  of  North  America.  It  belongs  to 
the  natural  onler  Thymdeaeea.  The  bark  and  wood 
are  exceedingly  tou^,  uid  in  Canada  the  bark  ia 
used  toz  Tcpea,  baskets,  &o.  The  leaves  are  lanoeo- 
late-oblomr;  the  floweia  are  yellow,  and  appear 
befora  theleavee. 

LEAVE  itSD  LICEITCE,  a  phrase  in  English 
law  to  denote  that  leave  or  permisdon  was  given  to 
do  aome  act  complained  oL  It  is  a  common  defence 
in  actions  of  treriMtas. 

IiKAVBIT,  ■  sour '  dongh,  or  dongh  in  which 
potrcdactiao  has  begnn,  and  which,  owing  to  tike 
pMMnce  and  tapd  growth  m  molti^plication  of  the 
veaat-plant  quickly  oommnmcatea  its  oharaotar  to 
treah  ooogn  with  irtiich  it  is  mingled,  canaing  the 
prooew  of  fermentation  to  take  place  sooner  than  it 
otherwise  woold.  The  oae  of  leaven  in  baking  dates 
from  a  very  remote  sntiqnity ;  the  employment  of 
jvaat  ia  more  recent    See  Yxast  and  Brxad. 

LEA'VENWOBTH,  a  dt^  of  Kansas,  United 
States  of  America,  founded  m  1854,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Missonri  Kiver,  25  xuiles  above  Ea^ss 
City.  It  is  a  handsome  town,  of  broad  avi 
Iiaa  twenty-six  chnrches,  namerous  schools,  ..  .. 
banksj  daily  and  weekly  ^pen,  and  large  mills  and 
bctones.  8iz  Udm  of  tadway  centre  here,  and  the 
river  is  eroaaed  by  an  fmmenae  iron  bridge.  L.  is 
tlM  largest  town  m  the  state.    F(^  (1870)  17^3 ; 

(1880)  f^ssa 

LKAYES  l/blia)  ate  organs  of  plants,  springing 
bom  Uie  sides  of  the  stem  or  brsoches,  generally 
mora  or  leas  flat  and  green,  never  bearing  flowei*. 
Mid  of   gient  nse  in   the  vegetable  economy,  as 


exposing  the  sap  to  air  and  li^t  on  their  extensire 
surfaces.  It  ia  usually  in  the  Axila  (q,  v.)  of  leave* 
that  hnds  and  branches  are  developed;  and  with 
reference  to  bnds  and  branches,  they  are  never 
Btoated  otherwise  than  beneath  them,  althonft'^  in 
the  axila  of  many  leaves  no  develi^iment  of  bi^  or 
branch  ever  takes  place.  Aft«r  its  full  develop- 
ment, a  leaf  retaina  its  form  and  size  onchanged  till 
its  death.  As  to  the  doration  of  tbeii  life,  leaves 
exist  either  for  one  year — tliat  ia,  daring  a  year'a 
period  of  active  vegetation — in  which  case  they  are 
called  Dtddtum*  (q.  v.),  or  for  more  than  one  year, 
when  they  are  called  Evergrten  (q.  v.). 

A  leaf  fint  miears  as  a  httla  corneal  bod^ 
pushed  out  from  the  stem  or  branch.  At  firat,  it 
consiats  entirely  of  cellular  tisme,  cantinaous  \rith 
the  bark,  but  vascular  tisrae  afterwords  generally 
appears  in  it.  When  fully  developed,  it  osnally 
consists  oE  two  parts  ;  an  expanded  port,  called  the 
blade  or  limb ;  and  a  stalk  Eapportine  thia  part, 
and  called  the  Uaf-aUdk,  or  pttioU,  which  sometimes 
assnmes  the  form  of  a  sAeolA  of  the  stem,  as  in 
masses.  The  leaf-atalk,  however,  is  often  wanting, 
m  which  case  the  leaf  is  called  sewt^ ;  and  when 
the  base  of  the  leaf  embracea  the  atem,  it  is  called 
amptdscoul.  A  leaf  which  has  a  leaf -stalk  is  called 
petialale.  Sessile  leaves  often  extend  in  wing-like 
pmlonptioDS  down  the  stem,  and  are  then  called 
ateamnL  They  are  sometimes  per/Matt,  entirely 
snrronnding  ihie  stem  with  thor  base,  so  that  it 
seems  to  paas  through  Q>»  leaf.  Opposite  leaves 
are  Bometimes  combined  in  this  way.  Leaves  are 
called  timplt,  when  all  their  part*  ore  united  into 
one  whole  by  a  connected  ceUiilar  tissue;  they  are 
called  compound,  when  they  consist  of  a  number 
of  distinct,  completely  separated  parts,  which  are 
called  kafifU. — As  to  the  place  where  leaves  arise 
from  the  stem,  they  are  either  nuficoi  (root-leaves), 
when  they  arise  from  the  very  base— and  many 
ijanta  have  radical  leaves  only;  or  cattlint  (stem- 
leaves),  when  they  arise  from  the  deetloptd  stem 
or  branches — the  radical  leaves  retilj  arising  from 
jforoi,  when  they  orise  fnm  the 
'.on  the 

. , ,  .  .       oppotite, 

aUtmatt,  or  teattervL  Opposite  leaves  ore  usually 
placed  so  that  each  pair  is  at  right  angles  to  those 
next  above  and  below.  All  these  modes  of  orrange- 
can  be  reduced  either  to  theuAorl 


that  the 


whorl,  the  spiral  arraiuanent  arisea,  and 
by  VbA  compression  of  the  spiral,  but  K 
whto'l  and  the  spiral  are  essentially  the  si 
nnmber  of  leaves  requisite  to  form  a  com^dete  egett, 
or  to  encircle  the  stem,  is  very  constant  in  the 
same  species.  In  the  Common  Honseleek,  the  cycle 
consists  of  no  fewer  than  thirteen  leaves,  which  are 
gionped  together  to  form  the  roitttt  of  tliis  plant. 

IiMves  oonsist  either  exclusively  of  cellular  tissne, 
as  in  mosses,  or,  more  generally,  of  cells  and  bundles 
of  spiral  vessels,  as  in  the  leaves  of  trees  and  rnoat 
other  phanerogamous  plants.  The  stronger  bandies 
of  vessels  form  nerva,  externally  coospicnous,  the 
finer  ramifications  of  which  are  called  twins.  In 
endogeoona  plants,  the  nerves  of  the  leaves  ran 
moeUy  in  straight  lines,  and  nearly  parallel; 
whereas,  in  exogenous  plants,  a  net-like  ramifica- 
tion of  the  nervea  prevaOa. 

The  leaves  of  phanocgamoua  plants  and  ferns  are 
covered  with  a  wfil-developed  separable  tpidermit, 
which  extends  over  all  their  parts,  and  which  is 
provided  with  nnmerons  small  pores — Slomaia  {t).  v.) 
— Bometimes  on  one,  sometimes  on  both  sides, 
serving  for  the  absorption  and  exhalation  td  gaaeou* 
substances.  Submerged  leaves,  however,  and  the 
tmder  aide  of  leaves  which  float  on  the  surf  aee  of 


(  ^nogli 


HUB  TjtBULUJv  uvni& 

Some  plMita  have  no  le&rei,  their  fimotioiii  bamj 
perfoniwd  hy  the  gretatjmcy  lind  of  the  rtalki,  ■ 
m  Oaetaeta  mud  lonM  of  the  senni  Smhorbia;  o 


It  u  in  tii«  Imtcs  of  planti  that  the  eUboratioD 
of  the  up  chiefly  tftkea  place,  uid  when  a  tree  is 
deprived  ot  its  laavea,  no  wood  in  formed  until  thay 
are  again  developed.  The  inoeesant  remoral  (rf 
learcH  m  they  are  formed  destroja  a  plant,  and 
thi«  method  is  lotnetiineB  advantageonafy  adapted 
ae  to  wecdfl  Imviiig  dixp  or  spn^ding  perennial 
roots,  and  otherwiee  difficult  of  ertirp^ktion. 

Leavoi  e»jiibit  more  or  lew  decidedly  a  periodical 
alternation  in  their  direotion  and  expansion,  gener- 
ally oarreeponding  with  the  alternation  of  day  and 
night.  Some  leaves  exhibit  a  pesnliar  irritability 
mids  Tarion*  tnflaences,  and  those  of  two  or  tlma 


spscits  of  [4aiiti,  by_  thmr  aladng  together,  otdi 
and  hill  insects  which  alight  on  tium,  »  thin^ 
howevar,  <A  which  no  reurfdon  to  the  ^wetalife 
economy  is  known.  See  Ikbitabiutt  if  Flakib, 
Slxhf  ov  Puma,  and  Dioaxi. 

The  fonni  of  leaves  ore  extremdj  various.  SimpU 
leaves  vaiy  from  a  fonn  almost  perfectly  mronlar, 
or  even  broadsi  than  long,  to  an  extreme  akmaatxm, 
aa  linear  or  fiiform  (thread-like).  The  braadth  of 
■oma  inoreases  towaids  the  ap«D(,  and  this  is  indi- 
cated by  the  terms  i:ftovjit,  lAeardale,  Jcft,  and 
Bometimes  ttj  the  word  iivBtndg  pnAzed  to  the 
term  which  desoibes  the  form.  Simpls  lesTSi  •!« 
either  mlire,  or  they  are  m<n:e  or  len  dssply  tootKld 
or  serrate;  or  the;  are  eul  or  Med  by  diviiiona 
extending  from  the  margin  towards  the  base;  or 
the  division  may  extend  towards  the  midrib  of  the 
leaf,  when  the  leaf  is  pinnalf/id,  or  ttmaHe,  or 
rundsotf,  ftc.  The  aocompanying  %ni«  exhibita 
of  the  forms  of  leaves,  and  explain*  more 


I,  aordiU  1  t,  ottU;  1,  luwMUta ; 


briefly  than  yror^  conld,  «ome  of  the  temts  nsed 
in  deBcribing  them.  Similar  terms  are  empli^ed 
as  to  the  luSeta  of  compound  leaves,  but  the  variety 
of  forms  is  not  searl;  so  great.  Compcnmd  leaves 
exhibit  two  chief  varieties  of  form,  according  as 
the  divisioiui  which  form  the  leaflets  ertend 
towards  the  boee  of  the  bUde,  or  towards  the 
70 


ibaluM;  S,  peetbuM:  t,  IjiMa;  10,  dIcllsW; 


>t>;l»,: 


midrib.  Of  the  former  class  are  ter,  .  .,  ^  .  .  .. 
quinate  leaves,  Su:.;  the  latter  are  called  pinnate 
leaves.  Bat  the  same  mode  of  division  may  be 
repeated  in  the  leaflets,  and  thus  a  leaf  may  be 
biternoM,  or,  if  again  divided,  tritemaie,  Ae.,  and 
very  many  leaves  are  bipinnaU,  tripinaalt,  Aa. 
Whm  tite  divitioD  ii  often  tepeitted,  the  leaf  il 


aiiz,»»CiOO^;lc 


LEBANON— LECTERN. 


pari-pirmaie,  or  abr^tlly 
/^•nnu#^  /  but  a  pmntite  leaf  very  often  termiii&tM  f 
»n  odd  leaflet,  <md  ii  then  called  tmpari-pinnat 
Th«  blade  of  a  leaf  ii  generally  in  the  same  pUi 
with  the  (talk,  bat  is  aamstimes  at  right  angUe  1 
h^  aa  in  orMeuiar  aaipMaU  leaTea. 


.     --,    of  diffH«lit  pianti 

*Dd  tnbea  ot  pljaita. 

Booi-UoBf  are  genmUj  larger  Qita  item4atmt, 
trat  an  onl;^  pioaent  in  herbaoBoii*  plauta,  and  ara 
gOMTillj  tba  fint  to  bde.  The  upper  atem-leaTei 
aro  gs&mllf  nnaUer  and  len  divided  than  the 
lower,  thow  ueamt  the  flowen  often  pMaing  into 
braota.  Bj  motamorphoaia  of  ]e»T«%  all  bracts, 
Ufolncmi,  &o^  am  prodiuwd,  and  all  tlw  different 
parti  (rf  flowara,  aa  catyz,  corolla,  atameni,  carpel^ 
and  tbarefore  eren  fnuta;  and  tbe  mode  of  ueir 


HoBPaoiooT.  -T  -I. 

Eeed-Uava  are  the  cotyledona  of  the  seed,  rtuted 
aDore  gronnd  after  germinatian,  and  aervir^  the 
pnrpoaea  of  leave*  to  the  yonng  pUnt,  althoo^ 
ganera&T  -very  unlike  ite  fatoie  leaves.  This,  how- 
ever, Dolj  take*  plaoe  in  aome  pUnta. 

LB'BAirOir,  Homrt,  or  JEBEL  LIBNAIf,  the 
irectmi  and  huher  of  two  motuitain-chainfi  which 
mn  tlmmgh  ^Ti»  from  norUi  to  aonth  parallel 
with  the  ooact  of  the  Levant  Its  average  height 
is  about  7O0O  feet,  but  its  loftieet  peak,  Dahral- 
Ehotib,  in  the  rsage  called  Jebel  Makmel,  attains 
an  elevation  of  lO.OSO  feet  For  aix  months  of 
tiie  year,  this  mountain  is  covered  with  snow.    The 


that  whitens  its  peaks,  but  from  its  chalk  diSs. 
The  v»etatDOn  of  L.   is,  on   the  whole,   scanty 


of  7330  feet.  From  ^e  westOTu  side  of  the 
raiige,  several  spars  (tr&e  off  across  the  narrow 
>tnp  of  level  eoart,  and  project  npon  the  Levant  in 
bold  promontories.  In  the  souui  are  the  sources 
of  the  Joidso,  the  most  important  river  that  rises 
in  Lebanon ;  not  far  from  Bohrel-Ehotib,  those  of 
tile  Orontea,  the  next  largest  stream,  which  flows 
northward,  and  intersects  tii«  chain  at  Antoki 
{AnUoA).    L.  derives  it*  name,  not  from  the  snow 

there,  woods  and  willow-groves 
Uie  lower  parts  ol  the  mountains,  however,  are 
everywhere  well  watered  and  cultivated,  and  the 
Talleji  are  often  covered  with  orchards,  vineyards, 
olive  and  mulberry  plantations,  and  comflelds. 
Tbe  habitable  districts  are  mostly  in  the  possession 
o(  Maronitee  (q.  v.)  and  Dmsea  (q.  v.).  Everywhere 
the  Tsnge  of  L.  is  wild  and  solitary ;  the  only  sound 
that  MJa  upon  the  ear  of  the  traveller  is  the 
scream  of  tlie  eagl&  Niuneroiu  monasteries  ofler 
comfortable  jMcommodation  to  tlie  weary  traveller 
at  the  clo«e  of  almost  eveir  day's  wanderings.  The 
ODM  famous  Cedars  of  L.  We  almost  disappeared; 
only  a  solitary  grove   remains.      See   Ckdab  or 

liEBAHOir. 

AMn-LxBAHDir,  or  JAd-uh-Slia-hi,  lies  east  of 
[Receding;  the  range  is  less  compact,  and  its 


Lebanon  terminates  sonthwards  in  Uonnt  Hermon, 
its  hifhest  point,  which  reaches  an  elevation  of 
8376  ^et  fts  sides  are  clothed  with  f^n  poplor- 
treee,  but  it  has  no  cedai?.  On  its  table-lands  ore 
found  nomerons  little  lochs  or  tama,  which  are  a 
characteristic  feature  of  this  lange,  and  distinguish 
h  ttom  Moout  Lebanon. 


LEBEDIA'N,  a  district  town  of  Great  Rusdo,  in 
the  government  of  Tambov,  100  miles  wes^^o^th. 
west  of  the  city  of  that  name,  on  the  Don,  in  lat, 
03"  N.  It  has  two  annual  fain,  the  commeroial 
transactiona  of  which  realise  £700,000.  One  of  the 
chief  articlea  of  sale  ia  horses  ;  and  government 
officers  frequent  the  fairs  of  L.,  m  order  to  furnish 
horses  for  the  cavalry  regiments.    Pop.  (1880)  6010. 

LEBEDrN,  a  town  of  Little  fittssia,  in  the 
government  of  Kharkov,  90  miles  north-west  of 
ae  town  of  that  name,  in  Ut  W  33"  N.,  long. 
84°  30"  E  It  was  founded  in  the  17tli  century. 
Pop.  (1880)  17,000,  who  mannfacture  girdles  and 
sashes  to  the  value  of  many  thousand  roubles. 
These  articles,  which  nro  worn  by  the  Rossian 
Ptasants,  are  sent  for  sale  to  Moscow,  and  to  the 
lairs  of  Nijui-Novgorod,  Kursk,  Ac. 

LEBRUlf ,  CmASX.f&,  a  French  painter,  bom  at 
Paris,  March  22,  1619,  studied  in  the  school  of 
Vouet,  and  afterwards  at  Rome,  under  Ponssin,  for 
six  yeius,  returning  to  France  in  IMS.  He  became 
mindpal  conrt-pamter  to  Louis  XTV.,  and  died  at 
Paris,  February  12, 1690,  L.'s  best  works  are  a  series 
of  pictures  refreaentiDg  the  battles  of  Alexander, 
which  were  feucitonaly  ew^ved  by  OSrard  Audran. 
L.  belongs  to  the  daaaicar and  artiflcial  school,  bat 
he  is  a  very  favourable  specimen  of  it 

HECCYi,  the  chief  town  of  a  province  of  the  some 

Lme  in  Southern  Italy,  10  miles  from  the  Adriatic, 
and  25  south-south-east  of  Brindisi,  bad  a  pop.,  in 
ISai,  of  21.742.  It  is  the  Lupico  of  the  andent 
Salentines,  tjie  name  having  become  Lycia  in  the 
middle  ages,  and  hence  Lecce.  It  coutuns  fine 
churehee  and  public  edifices,  the  architecture  of 
which  is  much  enhanced  by  the  beauty  of  the  fine 
white  stone  found  in  abundance  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, which  admits  of  exquisitely  minute  cutting. 
L.  has  a  large  trade  in  olive-oiJ.  Pop.  of  prov,  (1881) 
S54,41B ;  area,  3202  sq.  m.   See  Otkanto,  Tsbra  sl 

LECCyMPTOIT,  once  the  capital  of  KansBf^ 
United  States  of  America,  is  situated  on  Kansas 
River,  60  miles  from  its  mouth  at  Kansas  City.  It 
boa  greatly  declined  in  population  and  importanoa. 
The  population  is  now  only  about  1000. 

LE'OTBKN,  or  LETTERN  (Ut  Uetoriiaa  or 
Uetricium),  a  readina- 
deak  or  stand,  propra^ 
movable,  from  whiui 
the  Scripture  lesfOn* 
{ItxHona],  which  fomi 
portion  of  the  various 
church-services,  are 
chanted  or  read.  The 
lectern  is  of  veiy 
ancient  uae,  of  various 
forms,  and  of  different 
matenols.  It  is  found 
both  in  Roman  Catholio 
churches  and  in  the 
cathedrals  and  college* 
chapels  of  the  Church 
ofEnghtnd.  The  most 
ancient  lectema  are 
of  wood,  a  beautiful 
example  of  which 
is  that  of  Bamsey 
Church,  Huntingdon- 
shire (about  1460), 
represented  in  the 
wood-cnt ;  but  they 
were  frequently  also 
made    of    brass,    and  Leetein. 

sometimes  in  the  form 

of  an  e*^   (the  svmbol  of  St   John  the  BvaO' 
geUit),  the  ontipKAd  wings  of  wbiQhfonii.tlie  frame 

I  I  :■  ,.CiOg)gk 


LECYTHIDACEA— LEE. 


nipporting  th«volnina. — In  aonie  parti  of  the  east  of 


LEOTTHIDA'CBiE;,  a  natonJ  order  of  «iogen- 
OOB  plBnti,  or  stib-order  of  Mmiaeax,  the  diatiii- 
snishing  elukTusteristio  being  that  the  fmit  u  & 
urge  woody  capmle,  with  a  nimibez  of  cells,  -whicli 
in  eome  epedei  reotaiiu  closed,  and  in  aome  opens 
with  a  lid.  All  the  known  epeciea,  abont  forty,  ore 
natives  of  the  Itotteat  part*  <A  Soath  America.  All 
are  laise  trees,  ^u?  have  alternate  leaves,  and 
large  £owy  floweis,  solitvy,  or  in  racemee.  The 
stamens  ore  nomerous,  and  a  portion  of  them  some' 
timn  connected  into  a  kind  of  petal-like  hood. 
Brazil  Nut*  (q.  v.]  and  Sapncaia  Nnts  {q.  v.)  ai«  the 
SMJs  of  trees  of  this  ordsr.  The  Cannon-ball  Tree 
(q.T.)  bdoi 
are  blown 
of  the  seeds. 

LEDA,  in  Grecian  Mythologr,  the  wife  of  the 
Spartan  king  Tyndareos,  whom  Jupiter  visited  one 
night  in  the  disguise  of  a  swan.  She  became  by 
the  god  the  mother  of  Castor  and  Folliix,  and  after 
lier  death,  was  raised  to  a  divinity  under  the  name 
of  Nemeeia.  The  stoiy  has  supplied  a  theme  for 
nuny  works  of  art. 

LEDBUBY,  a  small  town  of  England,  in  the 
coun^  of  Hereford,  ia  sitnated  fourteen  miles  east- 
BOnth-east  of  the  city  of  that  name,  on  the  Here- 
ford and  Gloucester  caoaL  Glove-making  is  the 
principal  bnnch  of  industry.    Fop^  3000. 

LEDGER-LINE,  a  kind  of  tackle  used  in  fish- 
ing. It  consists  of  a  bullet  or  piece  of  lead  with  a 
hole  throng  the  centre ;  through  which  a  gut-line 
is  threadec^  havine  at  the  end  of  it  a  hook.  About 
IS  or  20  indies  above  the  hook,  a  shot  or  bead 
fastened  firmly  to  the  line,  to  prevent  the  lead 
from  slipping  down  the  line  neara'  to  the  hook. 
The  hook  bemg  baited,  the  tackle  is  then  cast  into 
the  water.  The  lead  rests  on  Uie  bottom,  and  the 
line  is  kept  tight,  but  without  lifting  the  lead  off 
the  bottom.  The  moment  a  fish  bil^  at  the  bait, 
it  ia  felt  by  the  angler,  who  immediately  mvet  a 
strong  pull  or  strike.  This  method  of  fistung  ia 
tuedSiiefly  for  barbel  or  bream. 

LEDRU-ROLLIN,    Alkxandrx    Adcubte,  a 
noted  French   democrat,  bora  in  Paris  in    ISC" 
studied  for  the  bar,  to  which  be  was  admitted 
1S30.    He  was  counsel   for  the  defence  in  m< 
of  the  proaecations  of  opposition  journals  during  the 
reign  of  Louis  Philippe,  and  obtained  a  great  repn- 

tation  among  the  lower  orders.    In  ""'    '- 

,  ity  by  th 
beeamea  prominent  i 
InIS46,l        "■'    ' 

■whichbe o-    -    _  -    „ 

panacea  for  the  miseriea  of  the  workiDg-dasses. 
Be  waa  also  an  ardent  promoter  of  the  reform- 
meetino  that  preceded  the  crash  of  1S4&  On  the 
ontbrnu  of  the  revolution,  he  advocated  the  forma- 
tion of  a  Frovimonsl  Government,  and  when  this 
was  carried  oat.  was  intrusted  with  the  portfolio  of 
the  Interior.  He  was  afterwards  one  of  the  five  in 
whose  hands  the  National  Assembly  placed  the 
interim  government.  In  this  high  position,  he 
shewed  great  want  of  perception,  firmness,  and 
energy.  Tin  consequence  of  the  insurrection  of  Ju-- 
ISiCne  ceased  to  hold  office,  and  then  Bought 
recover  (what  he  bad  lost  by  accepting  office) 
infloence  with  the  extreme  democrats.  He  partially 
tnooeeded,  and  even  ventured  on  a  candidatm^  far 
the  presidency,  but  obtained  only  370,119  votes. 
The  unsnccenfnl  immte  of  Jane  1349  put  an  end  tr 
L.  E.'s  political  rtie.  He  fled  to  England,  and  ii 
Isn  than  a  year  politely  jiubliehed  a  work  against 


departmE 
mber  of 


the  eitreme  Left 


the  land  which  had  given  him  an  asylum,  De  ta 
DieadoM  dt  VAngUUm.  For  the  nert  twenty 
years,  he  lived  alternately  in  London  and  Brosaela. 
His  name  was  excepted  from  the  amneatJM  of  1860 
and  1868;  but  in  1870,  a  decree  having  been  pnl>- 
lished  permitting  him,  he  returned  to  Prance,  In 
rebruary  1871,  he  was  returned  to  the  National 
Assembly,  but  at  once  resigned.    He  died  in- 1874 

LB'DUM,  a  genns  of  plants,  of  the  natural  order 
Eriaa,  sub-order  Wtodorea,  consistiDg  of  small  ever- 
green shrubs,  with  comparatively  iMge  flowers,  of 
which  the  corolla  is  cut  into  nve  deep  petal-like 
B^menta.  The  specie*  are  natives  of  Europe  and 
North  America  ;  some  of  them  are  common  to  both. 
The  leave*  of  L.  bil^alium  are  said  to  be  used  in 
Labrador  a*  a  snbstitiite  for  tea,  whence  it  is  some- 
times called  Labrador  Tea.  Sir  John  Franklin 
and  his  party,  in  the  arctic  expedition  of  1819 — 1EQ2, 
used  in  the  same  way  the  Ledum  •pdhiitrt,  which 
produced  a  beverage  vrith  a  smell  reiembling 
rhnbarb,  yet  they  found  it  refreshing.  The  leaves 
of  both  these  shrubs  PO^ee*  narootia  properties,  and 
render  beer  heady.  They  are  regarded  as  nsefnl  in 
agues,  dysentery,  and  diiurhcea. 

LEE,  or  LEEWARD,  a  nantical  term  for  the 
quarter  to  which  the  wind  is  directed,  as  distin- 
guished from  vjuKbeard,  or  the  part  loAenee  the  wind 


LEE,  the   name  of   a  „ 

family.  Their  ancestor,  Richard  Le^  emigrated 
with  a  numerous  household  to  America,  in  the  reign 
of  King  Charles  L,  and  settled  in  the  coontry  lying 
between  the  Bappahanuock  and  Potomac  rivers. 
He  waa  a  bold  royalist,  and  during  the  Protectorate 
of  Cromwell,  waa  mainly  ingtramental  in  inducing 
the  colony  of  Vir^nia  to  osaume  a  semi-indqtendent 
attitude. —Bjchaki)  Henry  Lee,  great-grandson 
of  the  preceding,  and  the  moat  illustrious  member 
of  the  family,  was  bom  at  Stratford,  in  Vimnia, 
January  20,  1732.  He  was  educated  first  at  home, 
and  afterwards  in  England.  He  did  not  come  promi- 
nently before  his  countrymen  till  after  the  British 
parliament  had  passed  (1764)  the  act  declaring  its 
right  to  tax  the  colonies,  and  also  the  Stamp  Act 
(17&5),  when  he  immediately  became  the  centre  of 
an  active  oppoailion  among  the  colonists,  associated 
himself  with  Patrick  Henry  (q.  v.},  and  drew  up 
most  of  the  'resolutioiis'  of  Uie  period.  He  was  sent 
as  a  delegate  from  Virginia  to  the  first  American 
Congress,  which  mat  at  Philadelphia  (September 
6,  If 74),  and  at  once  became  a  leader  in  the 
assembly.  He  wrote  most  of  those  addreasea  to 
the  king,  the  people  of  England,  and  the  cdonies, 
which  compelled  the  great  Chatham  to  admit,  that 
'  for  solidify  of  reasoning,  force  of  sagacity,  and 
wisdom  of  conclosion,  under  such  complication  of 
circumstances,  no  nation  or  body  of  men  can  stand 
in  preference  to  the  geueial  congreHS  at  Philadelphia.* 
When  war  between  the  mother- country  and  the 
colonies  became  ineviteble,  Lee  was  placed 


a  yigoron*  resistance  to  the  British  government. 
His  labour*  at  this  time  were  enormous.  On  the 
7Ui  of  June  1776.  Lee  made  the  most  celebrated  (and 
important)  of  all  his  speeches,  when  intn>ducing 
before  the  congress  of  Philadelphia  a  mesaure 
declaring  the  '  miited  colonies '  to  be  <  free  and  inde- 
pendent statra,'  and  'abeolvcd  from  all  allegiance 
to  the  British  crown.'  During  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence, he  was—in  spite  of  ill-health — one  of  the 
most  active  of  the  patnotic  part?,  chiefly,  however, 
as  a  civilian.  In  1784,  he  waa  deoted  prasident  of 
d  when  the  fedetal  constitntian  waa 
he  entered    the  senate   for  Tit^pnijk 


Towtuds  Qia  doae  of  hia  oaner,  he  became  a  decided 

federalist,  althongfa  originally  he  had  vieired  that 
■yatem  of  goveiruaent  with  great  auapicion,  as  tend- 
ing towards  B  deepotio  centralisatioii  of  power.  In 
1792,  he  retired  from  public  affaire,  and  died  in  his 
native  state,  Jnne  19,  1791  His  Life  and  Com- 
gxmdtna  was  published  by  his  grettt-grandson,  E, 
E.  Lee  (2  voU.  Philadelphia,  1826).— Lbs,  Abthdh, 
ycmngeat  brother  of  the  preceding,  waa  bom  in 
Virginia,  December  20,  1740.  He  waa  educated  at 
Eton,  then  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh,  and 
after  travellinf  on  the  continent  for  lome  time, 
returned  to  .Unerica,  and  started  as  a  physician. 
C^rcnmBtances,  however,  soon  drew  Tijiri  into  the 
field  of  politics  ;  he  returned  to  England,  advocated 
the  ri^ts  of  the  colonies  in  the  English  newspapers, 
and  In  1776,  took  up  his  residence  at  Paris,  as 
the  secret  agent  of  the  American  congress.  In  this 
capacity,  he  was  busily  employed  during  the  w>"i'- 
straggle,  and  conducted  his  business  on  the  co 
nent  neatly  to  the  advantage  of  the  colonists.  He 
died  December  12,  1792.  Lee,  like  his  brother, 
was  an  admirable  scholar  and  writer,  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  some  of  the  most  eminent  men  of 
his  time,  Burke,  Wyndbam,  Sir  William  Jones,  the 
Abbs  Baynal,  and  the  Duke  de  Bochefoncauld. 
See  I/ife  and  Corretpondaict,  by  R.  H.  Leo  (2  vols. 
Boston,  1829). — ^Ln,  Henby,  a  diBtingniehed  Ameri- 
can general,  whose  fatiier  was  consin  of  the  preced. 
ing,  waa  bom  in  Virginia,  January  29,  1766-  He 
was  one  oE  the  most  daring,  vigilant,  and  anccesefiil 
cavalry  officem  on  the  side  of  the  colonists.  '  Lee's 
Legion '  was  probably  the  most  effective  and  cour- 
ageous body  of  troops  raised  in  America.  In  the 
famous  retreat  of  Qrsene  before  Lord  Comwallis,  it 
formed  tlie  rear-guard,  the  post  of  honour,  and 
covered  itself  with  gloty.  At  the  battles  of  Guild- 
ford Court  House  and  Eutaw,  at  the  liegea  of  Fort« 
Watson.  Motte,  and  Oranby  and  Augij^to,  and  at 
the  stoimii^  of  Fort  Orieison,  Lee  particularly 
ugnahsed  hunsalt  After  the  war,  he  was  gent  to 
congreB  as  a  delegate  from  Yirginis,  advocated  the 
adoption  of  a  fed^al  constitution,  and  in  1792,  was 
chosen  governor  (rf  Virginia.  In  1309,  he  published 
a  valuable  work,  entitled  Mentoin  of  the  War  in  Ihn 
Sovilitm  Department  of  the  United  SiaUi,  He  died 
at  Cumberland  Island,  Georgia,  March  26,  1816. — 
T.me,  SoBEBT  E..  General  and  Commander-in-chief 
of  the  onnv  of  tiie  Confederate  States  of  America, 
Tas  a  sou  <M  tiiepreceding,  and  was  bom  in  Virgiaia 
about  1810.  He  was  educated  at  the  military 
academy  of  West  Point,  entered  the  army  of  the 
United  States,  served  aa  cajitain  of  engineers  under 
Oeoeral  Scott  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  was  raised  to 
the  Mnk  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  brevettcd  colonel 


. _^ .      from  the  Union,  April  1861, 

when  he  leeieiied  his  commission,  and  was  appointed 
eoitimiuider-m-ohid  of  the  forces  of  Virgnia.  When 
that  state  entered  the  Oontederac]r,he  was  appointed 
to  its  hi^ieat  mihtary  rank  of  g^enl,  and  though 
not  the  smiior,  was  selected  by  Freddent  Davis  as 
commonder-in-cbieL  In  July  1S62,  he  defended 
Richmond  sgsinet  the  Federal  army  under  General 
MHHellan,  and  after  six  days  of  sanguinary  battles, 
drove  him  to  the  shelter  of  his  gun-boats.  March- 
ing north,  he  defeated  General  Pope,  August  29,  in 
the  second  battle  of  Manaaeaa.  Crosaine  the  Foto- 
niac  into  Maryland,  with  a  force  of  40,000,  he  Was 
met  at  Antietam  by  General  M'ClellaD  with. 80,000, 
and  after  a  bloody  bat  indecisive  conflict,  Septem- 
ber 17,  recroised  the  Potomac,  and  took  a  position 
at  Fredeiicksbur)^  on  tiie  Bappahaonock,  where, 
December  13,  he  was  attacked  by  General  Bum- 
sidev  whose  army  he  defeated  with  great  slaughter. 


General  Hooker,  the  suocMsor  of  Generals  M'Clellan, 
Pope,  and  Bumeide,  whom  Lee  had  ancceaalvely 
defei^«d,  crossed  the  Rappahannock,  May  1,  1863, 
and  was  attacked  by  General  Lee  on  the  2d  and 
3d,  routed  with  heavy  loss,  and  compelled  to 
escape  in  the  night  across  the  river.  He  aftenrarda 
earned  the  war  mto  the  northern  states ;  but  finally, 
being  overpowered.heeurrenderedto  General  Grant. 
After  the  war  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Lexiag- 
ton  College.  He  died  October  12, 1870,  leaving  a  char- 
acter ertolled  for  integrity  and  piety.  Lee  married 
the  adopted  grand-danghter  and  heiress  of  Washing- 
ton, by  whom  he  had  bve  sons.  See  lice's  Lift  ami 
Campaigat,  by  his  nephew,  Ed,  Lee  Childe  (1874). 
LEE,  Samubl,  D.D.,  an  English  orientalist  and 
linguist,  was  bom,  14th  May  1783,  at  Longnor,  in 
Shropshire,  studied  at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge, 
and  took  his  degree  of  B.A.  in  181?.  Two  years 
after,  he  was  chosen  Arabia  Professor  in  the  same 
university,  obtained  the  d^ree  of  D.D.  from  Halle 
(ooaohcited)  in  1822,  and  from  Camhridge  in  1833, 
was  appointed  Begins  Professor  of  Hebrew  in  1831, 
and  £.ed  rector  ot  Barley,  in  Hertfndshire,  ]6Ui 
Deoember  1862.  TTiii  Oraamar  iff  the  Heitrea  Laa- 
guage  (2d  ed.  Lend.  1831),  his  Bonk  of  Job,  traat- 
hied  from  the  Original  Harisia  (3  vols.  Lond.  1S37), 
his  Hriireu},  C/ialdaie,  and  Englidt  Lexicon  {Loud. 
1840),  his  translation  from  the  Arabic  of  the  Travels 
of  Ibn-Batnta  (Lond.  1833),  have  secured  for  him 
a  very  high  reputation.  His  Sertaam  on  the  Study 
of  tlie  Boly  Scripture*  (1830),  and  EvtnU  and  Tima 
of  the  Vieiom  qf  Dantti  and  St  John  (Lond.  ISBl), 
are  also  highly  esteemed.  He  took  charge,  tor  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  of  editions  of 
the  Syriac  Old  Testament,  and  of  the  Syriac  New 
Testament,  or  Peshito,  of  Uie  Malay,  Persian,  and 
Hindustani  Bibles,  and  of  the  Psatans  in  Coptio 
and  Arabic. 

LEE,  Frxdkrio  Ricbabd,  B.A.,  an  English  land- 
scape painter,  bom  at  Barnstaple,  Deronihire,  in 
June  179£^  was  obliged  by  ill-health  to  quit  the 
army,  and  in  1618  becune  a  Royal  Academy  student. 
A  constant  exhibitor  from  1822  till  1870,  he  was 
elected  an  A.R.A.  in  1834,  and  an  fi.A.  in  1838. 
Lee  was  one  of  the  moat  thoronghly  national  painters 
of  his  day,  the  characterietio  scenery  of  his  native 
country,  its  qniet  river-bonks,  its  parks,  its  leafy 
lanes,  and  ita  picturesque  villages,  forming  the 
favourite  subjects  of  his  penciL  Among  his  best 
ictures  are  '  The  Broken  Bridge,' '  The  Mill,'  '  The 
Fatering-plaoe,'  'The  Fisherman's  Haunt,'  'The 
Silver  Pool," The  Ploughed  Field,'  'A  Devonshire 
Village,'  'A  Village  Green,"  'Cover  Side,'  'Harvest 
Field,'  'A  Devonshire  Lane,'  'Panshurst  Avenue,' 
'Avenue  in  Shobrook  Park.'  In  1848,  he  began 
o  paint  a  series  of  works  along  with  S.  Cooper,  the 
attle.painter — the  former  executing  the  landscape, 
ind  tlie  latter  the  animals.  Lee  died  in  Cape 
Cobny,  4th  June  1879. 

LEECH,  John,  an  English  artist,  was  bora 
in  London,  29th  Ausnet  1817,  and  received 
his  education  at  the  Charter  house,  along  with 
Thackeray,  his  lifelong  friend.  His  reputation  is 
almost  entirely  associated  with  Fwtch,  to  which, 
beginning  about  1840jhe  contributed  thousands  of 
humorous  jsketchea.  These  sketches  are  frequently 
as  full  of  grace  as  of  humour ;  the  drawing  is  often 
excellent ;  and  his  female  faces  have  a  quiet,  health- 
ful beauty,  which  would  be  attractive  in  the  ball- 
room, but  more  attractive  by  the  fireside  and  with 
children  on  the  knee.  In  the  FuncA  sketches,  be 
has  satiiised  keenly,  yet  on  the  whole  humanely, 
the  vagaries  of  male  and  female  attire,  the  precocity 
of  the  young,  the  pomp  of  Paterfamilias,  the  pride 
of  domeatio  serrants,  and   the  singular  relatioos 


Xkibgl 


which  Bometime*  sabMrt  between  the  parlour  and 
(he  kitcheiL  To  the  f  otare  hutorian  of  the  Tictorian 
era,  these  admirabte  nketohes  will  be  invaliiable. 

A  Gollection  of  L.'a  beat  contribataons  to  Puneh 
hae  teen  ptibliahed  ie^^ately,  in  lereral  ieriea,  »a 
Pieiura  of  L\fe  and  Character;  also  a  volome  of 
FtsnaUinga  from  Punch.  He  died  28th  Oct.  1864. 
See  the  enay  on  L.  by  Dr  John  Brown  (1882). 

LEEOH  [Sirvdo),  a  Linnaan  genna  of  Atmdida, 
of  the  order  SueUrna,  now  forming  the  family 
Hirudiaida,  and  divided  into  a  nomber  of  genera, 
■ome  of  which  cootain  many  gpeciea.  They  are 
ma«tly  Inhabitanti  of  freah  wat^,  although  aome 
live  amonffgraBa,  &o.,  in  moist  placM,  and  lome  are 
marine.  They  are  mort  common  in  warm  climate*. 
The  body  ii  soft,  and  cotQpoeed  of  linga  like  that 
of  the  earUiwonn,  but  not  ftaviBhed  with  biirtlea 
to  aid  in  progreasion,  aa  in  the  earthworm ;  initead 
of  wtiich,  a  EDoking  disk  at  each  extremity  enables 
the  leech  to  avail  itedf  of  ita  power  of  eJongating 
and  ahortening  its  body,  in  oraer  to  pretty  rapid 


locomotion.  The  month  ie  in  the  anterior  ancldng 
diak.  The  monUi  c^  many  of  the  apeoiea,  as  of  tiie 
conmuffl  medimnal  leeahce,  ia  adminbly  adapted 
not  01^  for  killing  and  eating  file  minnte  aanatio 
aniinaU  whidi  conatitato  thor  ordinary  food,  but 
for  making  little  woonda  in  the  higher  animala, 
when  oppoitonity  oooora,  throngh  which  blood  may 
be  sncked.  The  month  of  the  medicinal  leech  haa 
three  email  white  hard  t«eth,  minntely  serrated 
along  the  edges,  and  carved  so  as  to  form  little 
aemioircular  uw«,  provided  with  mnaclea  powerful 
enodf^  to  work  them  with  mat  effect,  and  to 
jnvdnoe  a  triradiate  wonnd.  The  itomach  i>  very 
laras,  aod  ia  divided  into  compartments,  aome  of 
winch  have  large  lateral  c«oa;  and  a  leeoh  which 
haa  onoe  gorged  itaelf  with  blood  retaina  a  atore 
for  avervToDg  time,  little  ohwiged,  in  thcae  rec 
taolea,  wbilat  the  digeatire  proceaa  alowly  goes 
lie  dicolating  nstem  oonatata  of  fonr  great  pnlaat- 
ing  tznnki,  one  dotaal,  one  venbal,  ana  two  latentl, 
with  their  branchea ;  there  is  no  heart.  The  aSm- 
tion  of  the  blood  takea  plaoe  hv  nomeroiu  i 
apertnrea  on  the  veatral  sorfaoe,  leading  into  reapir- 
atocy  aaoa.  Leeohea  are  oviparous,  and  eaoh  indi- 
yidaal  ia  hermaphrodite.  They  have  small  eyes — in 
the  medicinal  leechea  ten — appearing  bb  black  apota 
near  the  mouth,  and  of  the  most  mmple  atractiire. 

Their  epidemiia  acales  off  readily;  and  one  i 

of  the  great  mortality  ao  often  experienosd  ai 
leechea  kept  for  medicinal  nae,  ia  the  want  of  aq 
ijanta  in  the  veneU  oontuning  them,  aToong  which 
to  mb  themaelvee  for  aid  in  thia  proceaa,  and  for 
netting  qnit  of  the  alime  irtiich  their  ikina  exnde. 
Leech  aquaria  in  vrtiich  aqoatio  plnnta  grow,  are 


therefore  mnoh  more  taTonrable  for  Uie  health  of 
leeches  than  the  tanks  and  veMeli  formerly  in  n' 

—The  MroicwiL  L.  (ff.  TnaHelmaiU  or  " 

offitinalit)  ia  a  rare  native 
<n  Britain;  hut  leeoh- 
gathering  ia  the  occu- 
pation of  aome  poor 
ticnlarly   in 

however,  are  geneially 
imported  from  Hamburg 
and  from  the  aontb  rd 
Eorope.  The  collecting 
of  leeches  givea  employ- 
ment  to  many  peiBons 


ofE 


leech  -  gatherera 
«  adopt  the 
aimple  mode  of  wading 
into  the  water,  and  aeix- 
ing  the  leeohea  which 
atlach  themaelvea  to 
their  bare  lege.  IHeoea 
of  liver,  &c,  are  aome- 
timea  naed  for  baits, 
and  a  kind  of  net  is 
aometimea  naed.  Some 
ptuta  of  Europe  are  aup- 
plied  tram  more  eastern 
region!.  Slight  differ- 
eneea  have  led  to  the 
establishment     of     two 


em,  and  one  more  aonth- 
em — among  tboae  com- 
monly imported  Into 
Britain.  The  more  north- 
ern—whioh  is  that  above 
named — haa  tiie  belly 
--"»d  with  black;  the  ■] 

Bonthem  (H.  pro- 
mneialit,  or  Sanffuiitiga   Ai,  tla   itonueh;   k,   laMrd 
m«rfieinaK»  or  tneMitM-  «"» I  «.  Intaitlii* 

alu)  has  the  belly  nn- 

spotted.  Other  speciea  are  naed  for  the  tame 
medicinal  purpose  of  blood-ancking  in  other  parts 
of  the  world,  llie  anolotts  were  well  acquainted 
with  leechea,  bnt  their  medioina]  uae  aeemi  to 
liave  originated  In  the  middle  ages.  Many  milliona 
of  leechea  are  annoally  imported  into  Britain. — 
The  HoRSl-LXlOB  (Samopia  sangnitorba)  is  com- 
mon in  Britain ;  it  is  mnch  larger  than  the  medi- 
cinal species,  bnt  its  teeth  are  comparatively 
blunt,  and  it  ia  little  of  a  blood-sockei^-ootwith- 
atanding  the  popnlar  notion — and  naelraa  for  medi- 
cinal purpoaS*.  It  feeda  greedily  on  earthworms, 
which  iaane  from  the  banks  of  the  ponda  or 
.1 .-.1.  ^ — . —  which  it  inhabits. — In  many  parts 


grass   Bwaims  with  .  .    .. 

them  very  small,  but  very  troublesome  to  cattle 
and  to  men  who  have  occasion  to  walk  throng 
the  grasB.  Sir  James  E.  Tennent's  description  o( 
the  bnd-leech  of  Ceylon  (fiimuHlipM  Ckylanka.)  is 
very  amusing.  In  mn,  it  is  about  an  inch  in 
lengUi,  and  aa  fine  as  a  oommon  knitting-needle,  but 
capable  of  distenmon  to  tiie  thiekneas  of  a  quill  and 
It  lengthof  neariytwoiif*''"    '''  — ' — ' — '-  -'-- " 


..Google 


through  &»  m«ahea  ol  the  fineat  ctookiiig.    It 
•Ivftva  ready  to  Msul  >  pMnns  tanidlsr  or  qu 
raped.    The  coffee-planten  an  obliged  to  wearleon- 
jraiferfofdoKlr-woTenolothforprotectioD.   Hones 
are  driTen  -wild  by  theM  peat^   'and  ftamp  tiia 


gnmnd  in  foiy,  to  shake  them  from  thmr  fetloclu. 
to  which  tiiey  hsng  in  bloody  touela.'  The  bare 
Wi  of  palanquin-bearer*  am  adorned  with  clnntera 
ol  titem  like  bnnchea  of  gispea.  ^alr  ciunlien 
hare  often  oceaaianed  the  aeal;h  of  nun  compelled 
to  spend  days  where  they  abounded.  The  moist 
Tall<n«  of  Java,  Sumatra,  Chili,  and  other  tropical 
coiiDtriea,  swarm  with  land-leeohei  aa  tnach  as 
thoae  ol  ^dia  and  Ceylon. 

liERCHINa,  or  the  ap^Jioation  of  Lnmn  (o.  t.), 
for  tha  purpose  of  abatiat^ing  blood,  is  preferal      ' 


detnminationB  of  blood, 
ded  with  febrile  •yn^toma,  as  in  acnte 
MHoa  of  tba  female  OimKt,  when  the  prea- 
BOre  of  tb*  otip]^iig|glaaa  woold  «aiua  intanae  pain. 
3.  In  abdominsl  inSammataoni,  eapecdaUy  in  Peri- 
tonitiB  (q.  v.),  the  application  of  leMhea  la  often 
pnfeiable  to  genenu  blood-lettiiiA  partionlarly  in 
patientaof  aweakooualilntion.  3.  u  Tanoos  organic 
a&otiima  of  the  heart  and  looga,  leeching  often 
affords  great  reliet  Indeed,  then  an  few  diaeaaea  in 
which  loaa  of  blood  is  required,  aroepting  erraipelaa, 
in  which  tha  qij^oation  of  leeohes  ia  i^eotionable ; 
althongh  it  is  toeqiedieDt,  aa  compared  with  rene- 
aection,  in  thoae  caaea  in  whioh  it  ia  demrable  to 
make  an  immediate  impnadon  on  tha  diaeaae  (aa  in 
perifanitia  In  robnit  pertoiu),  or  whera  the  diaeaae 
1*  vety  rapid  and  fatJ  (aa  in  onnp). 
In  Uia  diBeaaca  Di  infanta  and  yomu  ohildre 
lechaa  mnat  b«  applied  with  oantion.    Infanta  a 


pored  fatal  to  a  ohild  and  six  yeai&  bi  ^m^'iDg 
Uedtes,  the  part  ahould  be  thonn^jr  cleaned,  and 
the  leechea,  after  bww  dried  by  robtnng  them  in  a 

clean  linen  dotJi,  ahonQ  be  placed  in  an  open  pill- 
box, or  in  a  wiae-sLua,  ood  applied  to  the  spot  at 
which  it  is  detJTed  that  they  shoold  attach  thetn- 
■elTea.  When  it  is  wished  to  affix  a  leech  to  the 
inside  of  the  month,  it  is  placed  in  a  narrow  tube 
csUed  a  leech-glass.  When  the  aniiiiaTi  will  not 
attach  themselves  readily,  they  may  sometimes  be 


It  blood.' Artificial  leechea '  i 


a  sometimea  n; 


a  drachm  and  a  half,  slthoogh  occaaionaUy  a 
will  abstraot  between  three  and  fonr  drachms  ;  and 
this  qoontity  does  not  include  tliat  lost  after  the 
animal  has  fallen  off,  which  is  frequently,  especially 
ia  children,  reiy  conriderable.  In  order  to  canae 
the  leech  to  dis^nve  the  blood,  tha  nsqal  praatioe  it 
to  apply  salt  to  ita  oody. 


When  the  leeches  have  Ulen  ofi^  it  ia  uanally 
deeiisble  to  promote  to  some  extoit  the  flow  of 
blood  from  their  bites,  and  thia  ia  readily  done  I^ 
1^  application  of  warm  fonentationa  or  poultioea. 
The  bleeding  generally  stopa  apontaneona^  after  a 
ahort  time;  if  it  goes  on  longer  than  ia  desirable, 
mm  ezpcsore  to  the  air,  or  ttie  applioation  of  the 
floff  of  a  hat,  or  of  a  bit  of  cobweb,  will  uanally 
check  i^  the  ftbrine  of  the  blood  ooagulatiDg  on 
the  applied  filaments,  and  forming  a  small  dot.  If 
these  means  fail,  a  Uttle  cone  of  lint  shoold  be 
into  the  bite,  over  which  a  compress  should 
be  laid  and  a  bandage  applied ;  or  the  bile  should 
be  tonched  with  a  stick  of  nitrate  of  ailrer  (lunar 
caustic)  aoraped  U)  a  point 

Leeches,  whan  applied  to  the  mouth  or  interior 
of  the  nose,  have  b»en  occasionally  swallowed,  and 

'"'"'  ~ ■'"  **  yeiy  unpleasant  symptoms.    The 

-1  a  case  of  this  kind  is  to  pre- 

•cribe  wine— half  a  ^aas,  or  even  a  glaaa  ereiy 

rirter  of  an  houi^wHch  wiU  spee£ly  destroy 
leech.  A  moderately  strong  aolntion  of  com- 
:>n  salt  wonld  probably  exert  a  similar  fatal  action 
the  aniTnal. 

LEEDS,  the  fin*  town  in  Yorkshire,  and  fifth  in 
iglaod  in  point  of  population^  is  a  parliamentary 
and  municipal  boroagh,  retarmng  five  members  to 
the  House  of  Commons.  It  is  situated  in  the 
north-weat  of  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Aire,  and  is  t^e  seat  of  important 
manufactures,  especially  of  clotting.  The  woollen 
trade  carried  on  here  exceeds  ia  extent  that  of  any 
other  part  of  England.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
genetal  goods  to  the  annual  value  of  £11,000,000 
pass  through  the  warehouses  in  L.  liie  staple 
manufactures  are  saperflne  broad  and  coarse  oarrow 
doths,  pelisM  doth,  shawls,  blankebLand  Scotch 
camlets.  At  Holbeck,  a  suburb  of  L,  there  is  a  flax 
mill,  tbe  largest  of  the  kind  in  Europe,  which 
employs  upwards  of  2fi00  hand*.  About  2500 
hands  are  employed  in  the  wonted  and  silk  trades, 
tore  of  leather  is  carried  on  in  some  of 
the  largest  tanneries  in  the  kingdom,  and  aboat  SO 
"  ~  engaged  in  makins  boote  and  shoes.  The 
atnes,  which  have  been  largdy  developed, 
employ  about  10,000  persons.  Tbe  other  diief 
monnfactures  are  those  of  glass,  paper,  tobacco,  oil, 
chemicsl^and  earthenware.  There  are  34  chon^m 
in  L,  8  Roman  Catholic  and  about  80  dissenting 
places  of  worship.  The  diief  church  is  St  Peter's, 
which  is  in  Eirksate,  and  was  rebuilt  in  1838  at  a 
oost  o£  £29,770.  It  is  160  feet  long  by  86  feet  wide ; 
the  tower  is  13S  feet  hiah,  and  coDlaia*  a  peal  of  13 
bdts.  It  is  a  very  noble  edifice.  The  principal 
windows  are  of  beautiful  stained  glass.  It  also 
oontoina  some  fine  statoe^  one  of  which  is  erected 
in  niemory  of  those  natives  of  L,  who  fell  in  the 
Crimea ;  the  church  has  a  good  choir.  The  moat 
ehnrdi  in  the  town  is  3t  John'*,  New 


church,  and  still  retaining  the  original  flttinga. 
The  otjier  OTindpal  buildings  are  ohiefly  of  recent 
erectdon.  The  Town-hall,  completed  in  1868,  ia  260 
feet  louB,  200  feet  broad,  and  the  tower  ia  22&  feet 
"^.  n  covers  0600  sqoaro  yards.  The  great  hall 
161  feet  long,  72  fset  wide,  and  75  feet  high.  It 
richly  decorated,  and  contains  one  of  the  largest 
..^d  mc«t  powerfnl  onana  in  Enrcme,  also  atatuea  of 
Edward  BMnea  and  Ifobcat  Hall,  formerly  membera 
for  tiw  boroagh.  ^Hiere  is  also  a  colossal  atatae  of 
tbe  Queen  in  tha  veatibule,  and  of  Wellington  in 
the  front  of  the  building.  EirkataU  Abbey,  about 
three  miles  from  L^  was  founded  between  1147  and 
1103  by  Henry  de  Lacie  for  the  Ciatraoian  order  ef 


^iUgJl 


LEEK— LEEWaIT. 


monks.  It  u  «  fine  old  mm,  rem&rlublo  for  ita 
■imple  gniDdeaT  and  unity  of  design.  Adel  Church, 
ftbout  four  miles  from  L.,  is  an  interestia^  building, 
«rected  1 140.  Near  it  was  a  Homan  station,  where 
seTerol  antiquities  have  been  found.  The  General 
Infinnary,  wu  erected  in  1868  from  designs  by  Sir 
a.  O.  Scott^  at  a  coat  of  £100,000,  and  cantainB 
accommodation  for  300  in-patients.  The  Mechonica' 
Inetitute,  erected  in  1867,  at  a  cost  of  £25,000, 
contains  a  lecture-hall  accommodating  ITOO  per- 
BODs.  The  Free  Libroiy,  established  in  1870 
<nnder  the  Free  Libraries  Act),  contains  30,000 
rolnnes.  The  Grammar-school  was  built  in  1859, 
at  a  coat  of  £13,000 ;  it  is  built  in  the  shape  of  a 
crosa  in  the  Oothio  style,  decorated  period,  and  was 
designed  by  E.  M.  Bury,  Esq.  The  borough  Jul  is 
a  Isjge  castellated  building  at  Annley,  admjrsbty 
adapted  for  ita  purpose.  The  Com  Eichanzc^ 
B  handsome  boilding  of  an  oval  form ;  the 
Poat-office,  formerly  t£e  Ooort  Hoose,  near  which 
is  a  itotne  of  Sir  Bobert  Peel ;  the  Queen's  Hotel, 
recently  erected  by  the  Midland  Railway  Company ; 
the  Philosophical  Hall,  bnilt  in  the  Doric  order  of 
architecture,  and  having  a  fine  museum ;  the 
Wealeyan  Training  College,  in  the  Gothic  style, 
erected  in  ISeS ;  TurkUli  Baths  (cost  £14,000) ; 
BeckeU's  Bank,  a  fine  work  by  Sir  Q.  O.  Scott;  &c. 
There  is  also  a  library  of  30,000  volumett.  founded 
by  Priestley  in  1768.  The  number  of  subscribers  is 
liiuited  to  500.  Among  charitable  institutions  may 
be  mentioned  the  Dispensary  ;  House  of  Recovery ; 
Hospital  for  Women  and  Children ;  Tradesmao's 
Benevolent  Society ;  Industrial  Sdiool ;  Conva- 
lescent Home ;  a  handsome  new  workhouse ;  the 
Befonaatory  at  Adel,  where  about  60  juvenile 
criminals  are  usefully  employed  in  agricultural  and 
other  occnpationa.  L-  has  oleo  a  Royal  Exchange, 
which  was  opened  in  1876,  a  Stock  Eichaoge,  two 
general  markets — one  of  which  is  a  handsome 
stmcture  of  iron  and  glass— a  cattle-market, 
coloured  and  white  cloth  htdls,  five  railway  stations, 
eleven  banks,  two  theatres,  four  daily  and  five 
weekly  newspaper*.  Roundhay  Park,  two  miles 
from  L..  was  bought  by  the  corporation  in  1872,  at 
•  cost  of  £140,000,  and  converted  into  a  recreation 
ground  for  the  nse  of  the  public  The  Yorkshire 
College,  opened  at  L.  in  1874,  an  important  centre 
«f  higher  education  in  science  and  languages,  has  10 
professors  and  instruotors.  Pop.  in  1871,  259,212  : 
&i  1881, 309,112. 

LEEK  {Alliam  Porrum  ;  see  AUJim],  a  biennial 
plant,  and  a  native  of  the  South  of  Entupe ;  with 
no  proper  bulb  at  the  root,  bnt  generally  a  slight 
incresse  of  the  thickness  of  the  stem;  a  stem  about 
3  feet  high,  leafv  at  bottom:  the  leaves  about  an 
inch  wide ;  the  nowers  in  a  large  and  ven  dense 
terminal  globular  umbel,  which  is  not  bolbiferous. 
It  has  been  long  in  cultivation,  and  some  of  the 
varieties  exhibit  the  effects  of  ctUtivation  in  greatly 
increased  size  and  ddicacy.  The  lower  part  of  the 
stem,  before  it  bos  run  up  into  a  nower-stalk, 
blanched  by  earthing  np  or  other  means  which  also 
iodnee  it  to  swell  and  extend,  Js  much  esteemed  for 
culioa^  parpoaes.  Its  flavour  is  much  milder  than 
that  of  the  onion,  or  any  other  spedea  of  AUiupL. 
The  L.  has  long  been  an  eapedal  favonrite  of  the 
Welsh ;  and  much  attention  bos  of  late  been  paid 
to  its  cultivation  in  some  parts  of  SooUand.  It  is 
cenerally  sown  in  spring,  and  is  used  during  the 
following  winter.  It  detigihts  in  a  rich  bnt  %ht 
and  dr^  toU.  Oardeners  often  transplant  seedmB 
leeks,  instead  oC  merely  thinning  out  the  orinnd 
rows ;  and  sometimes  make  deep  holes  for  uiem 
with  tiie  dibble^  into  whieh  tbey  merely  throw  a 
little  earth  to  cover  the  looti,  leaving  the  stem  to 
•wall  in  the  open  hole. 


LEEK,  a  manufacturing  and  market-town  of 
EngUud,  in  the  county  of  StofFord,  24  miles  north- 
north-eaat  of  tie  town  of  that  name.  The  poiiaii 
chorch  datea  onginoUy  from  1180,  and  the  town 
contuns  also  numerous  educational  and  benevolent 
institutions.  Pop.  (1881)  1^865,  who  ore  employed 
chiefly  in  the  manuf  actore  of  iilk  goods. 

LBET  COTTBTS,  in  ai^^ish  Law,  mean  cotute 
held  in  a  manor,  township,  or  hundred,  for  looal 
purposes. 

IiEEU'WABDBN,  a  town  of  the  Netherianda, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Friealand,  in  a  rich  and 
extensive  plain,  on  the  Harlingen  and  GrSningen 
Canal,  16  miles  east-north -east  of  Harlingen.  It 
contains  a  handsome  town-hall,  on  andent  polftce 
ol  the  Frinoes  of  Orange,  and  many  ohurohe0. 
Nomenras  canals  intersect  the  town.  '  ' —  ~ 
Booieiy  for  the  investigation  of  Friaii 
antiquities,  and  languMS,  and  another  for  the 
of  natmvl  history.  Qnen  fabrics  and  paper 
mannfacttued,  and  a  trade  in  horses  is  carried  on 
Pop.  (1880)  29,161. 

liBEXJWENHOEK,  or  LBUWENHOEK,  Am- 


1   histoiT', 
the  study 


aKUfiiHi  lu  uiA   uiiiu,    wiu    vmy  liiH>eoevb,  WDU 

ct  to  many  errors,  which  induced  L.  to  employ 
limpU  tmerotcopei,  that  is  to  say,  very  snuul 
I   of   short   fo^   lengths,   which  were  fixed 


the  some  town  in  1723.  The  cOTi^Knmd  mkroteopt, 
as  it  existed  in  his  time,  was  very  imperfect,  sjod 
subject  ' 

lenses   of   short   fo^   lengths, 
«n  two  olates  of  j     ■  ■  ■' 

the  Royal  Society  of  London  (where  they  : 
fully  preserved)  a  collection  of  these  microscopes- 
It  was  in  the  PAtlosopAtcoI  TVonsoeCtoiM  of  this 
Society,  to  which  he  contributed  112  papers,  that 
most  of  his  observations  were  originally  published. 

Amongst  the  most  important  a  his  mvestigotiona 
may  be  mentioned  a  Memoir  communicated  to  the 
Boyol  Sodaty  in  1690,  in  which  he  discovered,  and 
clearly  demonstrated,  the  continuity  o(  the  orteri^ 
and  veins  tbrongh  intervening  capillariee,  and  thua 
afibrded  ocular  demonstration  of  the  truth  of 
Harvey's  views  regarding  the  circulation ;  he  also 
examined  the  structure  of  the  crystalline  lens  and 
of  the  brain.  He  is  perhaps  most  generally  known 
as  the  discoverer  of  the  Rotifera,  and  as  lieing  the 
first  to  recognise  the  property  which  these  aDimals 
possess  of  alternately  dying  and  being  resuscitated, 
according  ss  they  are  dried  or  provided  with  the 
water  nece^ary  for  the  maintenance  of  their  vitality. 

His  writings  were  collected  and  published  in 
Dutch  at  Leyden  and  Delft  in  seven  4to  volumes,  the 
publication  extending  from  1686  to  1732.  A  Latin 
translation,  under  t£e  title  of  Opera  Omnia,  mu 
Airana  Xatung,  was  pnbUshed  at  Iieydm  in  1792 ; 
and  an  English  tnuislation  was  published  by  Mr 
Samuel  Hoole,  in  two  4to  volumea,  in  1798—1800. 

LBB-WARD  ISLANDS.    See  Amtillk. 

LEEWAY.  When aship  is  steering  in  a  direc- 
tion AB,  and  a  strong  wind  is  blowing  as  indicated 
by  the  arrow,  the  ship's  actual  course  is  the  result- 
ant of  two  forces,  one  represented  by  her  headway 
(or  locomotive  power),  the  other  by  lie  force  urging 
her  in  the  direction  of  the  wind.  This  resultant 
must  be  somewhat  in  the  line  CD ;  and  with  the 


same  power  oE  wind,  the  aDde  BED  will  be  great  or 
small  aa  the  headway  it  diminished  or  increased. 
This  angle  npceeeata  tite  leeway;  and  tlie  amoont 

ii...,„:,.c;ooQic 


tEFEBVRB— LBQACr. 


distance  Buled 

jubtending  this 

ui^e.  In  all  compatttdoiu  of  tte  conrse  punned, 
allowaoce  hu  to  Im  made  for  leeway.  Some  ulups, 
in  tolerable  weather,  make  Bcarcely  any  perceptible 
leeway,  while  bad  »ailers  fall  off  aa  mnon  u  feren 
pomti  of  the  compose. 

LEFEBVRE,  FRANgoia  Josepb,  Duke  of  Dandj; 
and  Marabal  of  Franoe,  waa  bom  at  Buffach,  in 
Alsace,  2Sth  October  1755.  He  entered  the  army 
at  tbe  aeo  of  eighteen,  and  was  a  se^;ean(  in  *''>'° 
Frenoh  Gnarda  when  the  Revolution  broke 
He  rose  in  rank  with  wonderfnl  rapidity.  He  took 
part  with  Bonaparte  in  the  eoup  iTilat  of  1799. 
In  1804,  he  waa  made  a  Uarshol  of  t^e  Empire. 
He  also  conducted  the  aiege  of  Banzig,  and  after  its 
capture  was  created  DiUe  of  Dansig.  He  di». 
tinguiahed  himself  in  the  early  part  of  the  Penin- 
Bular  Wat,  and  auppressed  the  insurrection  in 
the  TyroL  During  the  Kusaian  campaign,  he  had 
the  command  of  the  Imperial  Guard,  and  in  1814, 
of  the  left  wing  of  the  army  which  resisted  the 
advance  of  the  allies  in  France.  Snbmittiiig  to  Uie 
Boorbona  after  Napoleoa'a  abdication,  he  was  made 
a  peer.    He  died  14th  September  1S20. 

T^^n^9F^  °*^^  »^''  NIKOSI'A,  anoieul 
LEUCOSIA,  capital  of  the  i.Und  of  Gyp™  (av)  i, 
situated  on  the  Pidias,  in  the  centre  of  an  agriclil- 
miles  inland  from  Famagoeta 

,  n «w  ,v^v  uigh,  and  i 

altered  by  three  gateways.  It  was  fortified  in  th 
tame  of  Constontme  the  Great,  but  the  old  works 
were  destroyed  by  the  Venetians,  who  conrtmoted 
™*  l^e^nt  fortifications,  h.  was  taken  in  1670  by 
the  greater  portion  of 


the  Turks,  who 

the  inhabitants.  It  contains  several  bafidii.„  „. 
mtareat  as  the  moaque  of  St  Sophia,  the  church  of 
St  Aicholas,  now  converted  into  a  granary,  and  the 
govemort  palace.  There  is  also  a  Latin  convent, 
and  a  Mohammedan  college  with  a  library  of 
Onental  books.  The  kings  of  Cypma  of  ""- 
Luaignan  dynasty  resided  here.  The  itreets  ^^ 
narrow,  ill-kept,  and  badly  paved.  L,  under 
Turkish  rule,  was  separated  from  the  prorince  in 
which  It  stands,  and  regarded  aa  a  fortress  govenied 
by  a  military  chief;  in  1878,  when  Cypms  came 
to  be  administered  by  Britain,  it  paseed  under  oivil 
rale,  and  is  now  die  headquartets  of  the  oiril 
oommissionar  tor  the  province.  The  climate  of 
the  place  ia  nnniited  for  Eoropeaos.  The  mana- 
iBctatB  of  carpets,  tanning,  silk  weaving,  and 
aaddleiy  are  the  principal  employmenta.  Accord- 
ing to  a  census  taken  Jan.  1879,  the  pop.  of  the 
town  was  11,197.  Of  this  number,  B628  were 
Mohammedans ;  S261  of  the  Greek  Church ;  Catholics. 
121 ;  Armenians,  166  ;  English,  28  ;  Jews,  a 

LEPORT,  FaiN50is,  was  bom  at  Geneva  in  185a 
After  serving  for  some  time  in  the  French  and 
Dutch  service,  he  went  to  Bnstia,  where  he  obtained 
a  captain;!  oommisaion  in  the  army.  He  fought 
with  distmotion  againat  the  Turiis  and  Tartars, 
and  took  an  active  part  in  the  intrignee  which 
plaoed  Peter  the  Great  on  the  throne.  The  czar 
never  torgfA  L,  who  became  his  diief  taTooiite, 
and  next  io  Peter,  the  modi  important  peraonase  in 


iprisea  al 

^rtremity  which  lies  beti . 

ankle.  It  conaists  of  two  bones,  the  tibia  and 
fibula  (see  Sskleton  and  Foot),  and  of  masaes  of 
muscles  (together  with  nerves  and  veaaela)  which 
are  held  in  their  position  by  coverings  of  faacia,  ai  ' 
are  enveloped  in  the  general  integument. 

The  shaft  of  the  tibia  is  of  a  triangular  pris- 
moid  form,  and  presenta  three  surfaces  and  uree 
borders.  The  internal  surface  is  smooth,  convex, 
and  broader  above  than  below  ;  except  at  ita  upper 
third,  it  lies  directly  under  the  skin,  and  i —  ■■  - 

readily  traced  by  the  hand.    The  external  a _, 

posterior  surfaces  are  covered  by  numerous  nusclea. 
The  muscular  mass  forming  ihe  calf  (formed  by 
the  gailTocrtemivi,  telmt,  and  plantarit  moMlea)  is 
peculiar  to  man,  and  is  directly  connected  with 
his  erect  attitude  and  his  ordinary  mode  of  pr< 
gre««ion.  The  anterior  border  of  the  tibia,  the  moi 
prominent  of  the  three,  is  popularly  known  as  Vi 
iMn,  and  may  be  traced  down  to  the  inner  ankle. 

The  fibula,  or  amall  bone  of  the  1^,  lies  on  th 
outer  surface  of  the  tibia,  and  articulatea  with  ita 
upper  and  lower  extremities,  and  with  the  astntgalus 
inferiorly.  It  affords  attachmenta  to  many  of  the 
muacles  of  this  r^on. 

This  r^on  is  nourished  by  the  anterior  and  pc«- 
t«rior  tibial  arteries  into  which  the  popliteal  arteiy 
separates.    Both  these  arteries  occasionally  require 


•bUity.  He  remodelled  the  Bnasian  army,  and  also 
laid  the  foundation  of  ita  navy.  In  1694,  he  was 
made  Admiral  and  Qenerahaiimo.  When  Peter  the 
Groat  nndertook.his  visit  to  foreign  countries  in 
1897,  Lofort  was  the  chief  of  the  embassy,  in  the 
trwnof  which  the  car  travelled  iaeognito.  L.  died 
m  1690.  See  Gohkof  s  Vie  de  L^ort,  and  the  Ger- 
man monographs  by  Poaelt  (1866)  and  Blum  (18*7). 


ihe  deei^ 

the  arteries,  and  the  superficial,  which  are  kDOWn 
as  the  internal  or  long  saphenout,  and  tiie  external 
short  saphenous  veins.  These  superficial  veins 
are  very  liable  to  become  permanently  dilated  or 
varicose  (a  condition  the  nature  and  treatment 
of  which  are  considered  in  the  article  VaKlcoai 
Veens),  if  there  is  any  impediment  to  the  fi«e 
transmission  of  the  blood,  or  even  from  the  mere 
weight  of  the  ascending  column  of  blood,  in  persons 
whose  occupation  requires  continuous  standi^. 

The  nerves  of  the  leg,  both  sensory  and  motor, 
are  derived  from  the  great  aciatlo  nerve  and  from 
ita  terminal  branches,  the  internal  popliteal  and  the 
external  popliteal  or  peroneal  nerve- 
In  cases  of  fracture  or  hrdkea  leg,  the  two  bones 
are  more  frequently  broken  together  than  aingly, 
and  the  most  common  situation  ia  at  the  lower 
third.  The  tibia  is  more  often  broken  by  itself 
than  the  fibula,  in  consequence  of  ita  sustainmg  the 
whole  weight  of  the  body,  while  the  fibula  has 
nothing  to  support.    See  Foot. 

LEGACY  is  a  bequest  or  gift  contained  in  the 
will  of  a  deceased  person  of  a  chattel  or  sum  of 
money  or  other  thing.  In  England,  it  is  provided 
by  statute  that  if  a  l^acy  is  given  to  the  witness  of 
a  will,  or  to  hifl  or  her  mfe  or  haaband,  the  legacy 
iavoid;  therefore,  a  It^tee  should  never  act  as  a 
witness.  So  beqneata  to  Hnperstitious  uses  are  void, 
as,  for  example,  to  maintain  a  priest,  or  an  anniver- 
sary or  obit,  or  a  lamp  in  a  church,  or  to  say  masses 
for  the  testator's  soul,  or  to  ciroulato  pamphlets 
inculcating  the  pope's  supremacy.  Legacies  of 
money  for  charitable  purposes,  as  for  the  use  of 
schools,  churches,  kc,  are  valid,  but  if  the  money  is 
directed  to  be  laid  out  in  the  purchase  of  Imd  for 
such  purposes,  tiie  legacy  is  void  by  what  is  called 
Mortmain  Act  (q.  r.),  9  Geo.  U.  c  36.  The 
policy  of  this  statute  has  often  of  late  been  qnee- 
tionftl.  and  it  is  enough  to  say  that  thra«  is  a  mode, 
often  practLsed,  of  evading  it. 

I<egaciee  are  divided  mto  spediio  and  general 
A  specific  legacy  means  a  legacy  of  a  specifio 
thing,  aa  a  jNirticular  horse,  picture,  silver-plate, 
Ac,  or  a  sum  of  atock  in  the  fnuds.    A  general 


,  silver-plate, 
L    A  general     I 

■  Cooglc 


LEGATE-LEGEND. 


legacy  meuu  a  nun  of  moiiBy,  witbont  nTUig 
cat  of  whrnt  fond  it  i«  to  otaaa,  and  it  it  r  ~  ''' 
out  of  the  MwtB  gmenOj,  The  impoHanJ 
onee  between  the  two  kinda  of  Ugf^  is  thit,  that 
if  the  mbJMt-matter  of  the  qieafia  Ugtaj  ful, 
*a  if  the  hMM  die  or  he  prerioiulj  aold,  ko.,  the 
iMAcy  i>  goie,  and  no  oompeiuatioa  ia  given  for  '' 
lie,  OQ  tha  other  hand,  if  tliere 


...  [t  atdll  be  paid  in  folL    Th^ 

variou*  rnlea  of  peat  nicety  and  iutrioaof  con- 
ted  irith  the  proper  otMutrnction  of  legam««  in  a 
1,  which  are  too  technical  to  he  nodoed.    It  is 
11  legaeiee,  that  they 


e  Ugaoy  tt 
lath.   Ifal 


will,w; 

a  general  rule  appHoaUe  to 
are  <ml]r  payable  if  there  ii  uuud^  « 
poipoae,  after  paving  all  the  teatator'a  deCti,  for  the 
mazin  i^pliea,  that  a  man  mnit  be  joat  before  he  ia 
smerooa.  The  rule  ii^  that  a  lagaoy  ii  not  payable 
by  the  exMutoc  till  a  year  hae  elapaed  a^  the 
teatator'a  death,  for  it  ii  preeomed  he  reguiree  thia 
time  to  inquiia  into  the  atate  of  the  property ;  and 
iren  thoogh  the  testator  Haa  ordered 
.  be  paid  within  nz  montlia  after  the 
Jalegacyialefttoaninfant  under  twenty- 
one,  it  cannot  be  pud  to  the  father,  or  any  other 
relation,  without  the  aanctdon  of  the  Court  ' 
Chanoei?.  If  a  leg»^  i*  I^  to  a  married  worn  . 
the  hntMud  wa«  entitled  to  claim  it,  nnleaa  it  wa* 
left  to  her  aeparate  n«e,  or  nnkaa  ihe  waa  nnpro- 
vided  for  by  the  huaband ;  bat  now  in  all  raara, 
the  wife  geta  for  her  aeparate  nae  all  property 
coming  to  her.  Interest  ia  doe  on  legaoiea  from 
the  time  when  the  printapaJ  aum  ia  payable — i.  e., 
one  year  after  the  deatii — unleai  otherwiae  ipamfied. 

If  the  legatee  die  befora  the  teatator,  the  lej 

lapaea  —  tiiat  i%  baoomea  void;  but  th«re 
acme  ezceptiona,  aa  where  the  legatee  ia  a  child 
or  gi«ndc£ild  of  the  testator. — In  Scotland,  the 
ndea  aa  to  Waciea  are  mainly  the  aame,  but  not 
«ntinly.  In  Sootland,  a  legacy  can  be  emorced  in 
•ix  monUia  after  the  teatator'a  death,  and  bean 
interest  from  anah  death.  If  a  k^puy  ia  left  to 
manied  woman,  the  hniband  i*  now  ia  genen 
boond,  aa  in  '''"g'f"'*.  to  aetUe  it  on  the  wife. 

In  the  United  Kingdom,  a  lesacy  or  anoceasic 
da^ia  levied  ontheamonnt  of  alTIwaaiea  above  £20 
(eieept  to  hoaband  w  wife).  Chilomn  and  iaine, 
alao  paranta  and  anoeatMa,  pay  one  per  oent  doty ; 
brotheia  and  uaten,  and  their  ieaue,  pay  three  per 
centfe ;  unirlta  and  annte,  *"^  their  iaaoe,  pay  nve 
par  cent. ;  grandnnelea,  ftc,  and  their  iaine,  pay  aix 
per  centk  Stracgera  in  blood,  and  diatant  relabvea, 
abo  iUeptJmate  children,  pay  ten  pw  cent.  The 
chanBM  introdiicad  by  Mr  OladatanB  in  1881  an  in 
Qie  lurection  of  aboliahing  legacv  dutiea  and  replac- 
ing them  by  addition  to  toe  pioWe  dn^ ;  it  being 
airangsd  that  iriien  all  the  pattiea  are  aoeed,  t^ 
legatee*  may  pay  at  ouca  S  per  oent  probate  duty 


for  former  probate  duty  and  2i  inatead  of  le 
y),  and  have  no  other  payment  to  make. 


aentative,  whether  temporatr  or  pennanuit,  acot  by 
the  pope  to  •  particolar  ^nroh.    In  the  aodent 

ehnrch,  wa  meet  many  examples  of    ~ 

"      '     moeritiarim,  and  in  Latin  .  _ 

i  Conatantinaple  j  but  their 


chureh,  three  olaaaaa  of  legatee  are  diatioguiahed . 

1.  Legati  a  latere,  'l(^t«s  deqtatched  fiom  the 
Hide  *  of  the  ponti:^  who  are  commonly  cudinala : 

2.  Leoali  mi*ri,  called  ^ao  '  apoatoUo  noncioa,'  and 
indiuUag  a  lower  grade  called  '  intemnncioa  {>  3. 
Ltgati  mti,  'legate*  bom,'  whoee  office  ia  not 


peraonal,  but  ia  attached  by 
uawe  to  the  aes  or  other  ecoleataatical  difmity 
which  thef  hdd.  Of  the  laat  o1«m  tiiera  were 
<*Titfnp1pe  m  moat  national  i^hHwJn—  *  t^^«,  ^Jyfc 
^ihop  of  l^iessalonioa  waa  lente  bom  for  Illyii* 
cum,  the  Biabop  of  Arle*  for  Uanl,  the  Biahop  of 
Maim  for  Oermany,  the  Biahni  of  Toledo  (tboo^ 
hia  claim  waa  often  diaputed)  tor  8paiii,  the  Biahop 
of  Canterbnry  for  England,  &&  ^ua  inatitntimi, 
however,  has  gime  entira^  into  ab<7«iwe;  and. 
Indeed,  the  aotaority  of  leotea  w  ntnoh  medined  in 
the  modon  ohnrch.  In  ui*  medieval  tiniea,  the 
legate  claimed  fall  pt^ial  joriadiaidon  In  the  ooaBby 
aadgned  to  him,  even  ovemlin^  the  local  juriadio- 
tiou  of  the  biahopa  of  the  national  dmieh.  Thia 
led  to  many  diapidea;  torefmala  to  receive  I^tea, 
aa  in  Fraitoe,  wham  the  legate  waa  obligm  to 
wait  at  Lyon  till  hia  credentials  ahonld  have  been 
examined  and  approved  at  court ;  and  to  cootiter 
l^ialatian,  aa  in  England,  to  t^  atatnte  of  Ifl 
Richard  n.,  conmtoi^  known  aa  the  8tatat«  o( 
Premiinire ;  and  the  Conntal  of  Trent  maoved 
ihe  ground  of  oontention 
;Uimi  to  local  juriadiotio 
authority  of  the  biahopc  The  legate,  in  tiw  modem 
church,  ia  little  other  than  the  ambaaaador,  mainly 
for  apiritual  putposea,  of  the  pope.  He  ia  held  aa 
belongiaa  to  ttwdi^omatio  body,  and  br  the  uaage 
of  C^dic  court*  o^oy*  pfeoedenoa  <x  all  aOur 
ambaaaadoia.  The  le^rfei  at  the  ieoond-rate  oonrti 
have  the  title  of  tntewMKio.  Legatee  are  oom* 
monly  biahopa  or  arohbiahopa,  in  partHmM  iB/td^inat. 
The  establiahinent  of  a  nunciature  at  Munich,  in 
1785,  led  to  an  animated  oontroveny.  In  the 
pope's  own  atatcs,  aa  they  existed  before  the  late 
revolution,  the  governors  of  the  L^ation*  (see 
Italt,  Fash,  EtetTra)  were  oalled  Ugatet. 

LEGATO  (ItaL  tUd),  in  Muaio,  means  that  the 

>tea  are  to  be  played  aa  if  bound  or  tied  twetlier, 

in  such  a  manner  that  the  one  note  is  aa  S  were 

rounded  off,  or  flows  into  the  following  one.    Many 

LTUi   think  that  legiito   paesagea  ahould    be 

slower,  whioh  is  a  great  mistake.    Wherever 

ia  marked,  either  ae  the  character  of  the 

whole  [seoe,  or  only  over  a  part  of  the  notea,  it  i* 

'*  3  i^n  that  the  musio  rei^oirea  to  be  peifcmed 

a  flowing  mauner,  and  without  any  interruptioD 

between  the  striking  of  the  notea. 

LEGATUM  BEI  ALtB'N^  in  the  Roman 
Law,  ia  the  legacy  of  a  thing  which  doe*  not  belong 
to  the  testator.  In  England  and  Ireland,  such  a 
legacy  ia  limply  null  andvoid ;  but  in  SootJand,  the 
Bomsn  law  baa  been  adopted,  by  which,  if  th* 
testator  knew  the  thing  bequeathed  waa  not  his 
own,  the  exeoutor  is  boond  to  puicbaas  """"**<"£ 
else,  aa  compensation  to  the  legatee. 

LEGEND  (Lat.  legaida,  Uihigs  to  he  i«ad, 
lessona)  waa  the  name  gireii  in  eady  tiinea,  in  the 
Boman  Oatholio  Oharofi.  to  a  bovk  «Mt.miiig  the 


played  si 
Ltgato  i 


daa< 

(rf  d  _  

of  aainta  and  maityn,  aa  well  aa  ttw  ooUMtkun  of 
■oeh  nanative*,  received  thii  name,  beoanae  the 
moDka  read  from  them  at  "'H"-^  »»vl  after  dinMr 
in  the  refectMie*.  Sndt  legenda  were  alao  inawted 
in  the  breviarie*  (aas  Buvuxy),  in  order  that 
th^  might  be  read  on  the  fntivala  of  the  aaint* 
and  mar^ra.  Among  th*  madieval  eoUaotian*  of 
legends,  that  drawn  op  by  the  Oenoeae  arohbkhon 
Jaoobas  de  Torazine^  m  the  aeoond  half  of  the  u£ 
c,  under  the  title  of  lAgenda  Autm  (the  Golden 
L^ends),  or  HMoria  LonAardica,  ii  the  most  oale- 
bratod.  But  the  mo*t  oomprehenstve  and  valuabl* 
work  on  the  iubject  ia  that  oomuenoed  by  th* 
BolUndiits  (q.v.}  in  t^e  17th  <s.-~Aaa  BmOorvm 


,v  Google 


LEOENDKE— LEGHORN. 


(q.T.) — and  stiU  aoing  on.  The  wfty 
nradnloiu  loro  of  the  wandstfol,  exaggantioii  of 
f&ocy.  Mid  BnrJ<«iiirtia»l  eotkniiMiii,  »t  bmes  oven 
piou  fraud,  mixed  theoiMlTef  op  in  thtae  iimiT»- 
Utm  wHh  tane  liutoty,  CMued  ftcniei  of  »  nligiotu 
or  eoelnJMttf  1  iwtiue  ^moallr  to  b«  dMis]ttt*d 
tM  legend^  in  ooutfAdutinotdoii  from  Attthentio 
eodeuMtiakl  hiatorx;  and  Qtna  the  word  'lunula' 
also  t^tet  to  Mparate  idisunu  from  nonlar  faadi- 
tkm^  and  fnnn  thoaa  wild  talcs  (Ger.  ntdrehen) 
th&t  delisted  lim  peaaantn  of  medieral  Europe. 
I^c^enda  m  thia  aenaa  ^  Oie  word,  aa  ipbitnAl 
or  eoolcHMtaoal  Mgaa,  ara  found  not  cmljr  in  tha 
Boman  Cstbolio,  bnt  also  in  the  Qreek  Cbiui;h,  and 
tbmz  origin  reaohea  back  to  the  earlieat  agea  of 
OirirtiuutT — Christ  himaell,  the  Yii^iii,  John  the 
BaptJat,  the  apoatlee,  and  other  prominent  persona 
at  the  goapel  hiitorf  having  become,  at  a  very  early 
period,  the  tiibject  of  them.  But  thij  teadenoy 
to  mythio  enibellishmeiit  shewed  itaeU  mora  eape- 
oallv  in  r^ard  to  Marf,  the  later  samte,  martYra, 
and  holy  men  and  women.  From  the  eccIesiMtical 
literature  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches, 
e^eeiallf  of  the  latter,  the  legends  also  fonnd  an 
entnmoe  into  the  natioaal  Lteratnre  of  Christian 
nstions.  Among  the  Germans,  this  was  very 
nuokedly  the  case  after  the  second  half  of  the 
12tli  <x,  altboogh  spe<nineni  of  legendary  poems  are 
mrt  altogether  wanting  at  an  earlier  period.  We 
mar  mention,  for  example,  the  SaUtrArmik  (Impe- 
riw  Chronicle),  where  the  legendary  element  forms 
ft  ven  important  part  of  the  whole ;  and  Werner's 
vendfled  Joari«nkwn  (Life  of  Marv)>  written  in 
117^  &«.  The  anthors  of  these  works  were  eccle- 
nasties ;  but  already  laymen,  too,  had  appeared 
in  the  same  field.  The  poetio  verrions  of  the 
legend  of  St  Oswald  and  that  of  Pilate  spmng 
from  this  class  ;  and  in  the  following  age,  when  the 
medieTol  poetry  of  Germany  was  in  its  richest 
bloom,  and  the  fosterers  of  the  poetic  art  were 
emperon  and  prince*,  rather  than  ecdesiastica,  the 
l^end  was  employed  by  laymen  on  a  grand  scale, 
•a  tb«  •nbject-matter  of  epic  narratirea.  Thus, 
Haitmaon  tod  Aua  (q.  t.)  worked  ap  into  a  poem 
the  religions  l^ends  abcnit  Qregory ;  Konrad  von 
FiuaealMDiiikei), tbose  oonceraing  the  'childhood  of 
Jeans:'  BndcJl  von  EmA  thoee  aboat  'Bariaam  and 
Joeapnat'  (q.v.) ;  and  Beinbot  tod  Dnrae,  thoee 
aboni'St  Qemet'  Between  the  14th  and  16th 
centorie^^  l^endi  in  prose  began  also  to  appear, 
melt  aaHermann  Ton  Fritzlar^  Von  der  HeSigen 
IfcieM  (written  about  1343),  and  gradually  sup- 
[danted  the  other*.  Finally,  in  the  16th  c,  when 
Protataatisni  began  to  powerfnlly  influence  the 
whole  of  Genoan  literature,  the  legtmd  disappeared 
~  maa  poetry,  or  paiaed  over  into  the  moral- 
and  idio  Uie  oomio  narratiTe,  in  which 
ifdoyed  by  Hans  Saohs  with  the 
Nnmooiis  attempta  hav*  been 
^  it  in  Bodom  times,  lb*  flnt  of 
iriia  dearly  apprehended  the  poetia 
ementa  of  tiie  old  ChristiaD  legend 
(4.T.) ;  and  sines  his  day,  many  German 

^ ...    Bxample,  the  'Bomantio  School' — iiara 

•odMTonied  to  giTe  theae  a  new  embodiment 
LBODTDBB,    Anitnir    Kaxos,    an     eminent 
bom  at  Paris  ii  """     " 


admitted  a  mranber  of  Mhe  Academy.  In  17ST,  be 
««•  nafioyA  by  Uw  hench  gorenunent,  alone 
with  OMsini  and  Ueohain,  in  measoring  a  Aigne  d 
htitn'^",  and  was  ohosen  to  perform  the  oaloalationB 
■ftor  the  work  ol  ofaaervation  had  been  flni«hed.  In 
1808,  be  was  ai^iuted  by  tiu)  imperial  goTemmeot 
..__.  .__  iJfa  of  the  university,  and  after  the 


seoond   Beatorataon,  an   honorary  member  ot   the 

Commission  for  Public  Sdnoation,  and  chief  of  the 
committee  of  Weights  and  Measure*.  But  because 
in  an  electioD  to  a  place  in  the  Academy  be  did  not 
vote  for  the  ministerial  candidate,  he  was  depriTed, 
in  1621,  of  his  pension  of  3000  bancs.  He  died 
9th  January  1833.  L.  is  the  author  of  TMorU 
da  Nombrei  and  EUmeiUt  d»  OSoiltttrit,  and  par- 

of  the  difficult  snbjeo 

dliptio  spheroid,  and  ol 
the  paths  of  oonieti. 


a  method  for  detsnnining 


LBGBIt-LINES,  in  Uumo,  the  name  of  Hi 
short  line*  aboTe  or  below  the  staff  which  are  ui 
to  expreM  thoee  note*  which  extend  beyond  the  fire 
lines  of  the  sta£ 

LB'GHOBJT  (LtKorno),  one  of  the  chief  Uediter- 
ranean  seaports,  i«  a  dty  of  Tuscany,  in  the  modem 
raorinoe  of  Livonto,  CO  miles  weet-south-west  of 
florenee,  and  14  mile*  south-south-west  of  Pisa : 
lat  «•  32"  7'  N.,  long.  10°  17'  7"  E. ;  pop.  {1881)  of 
I^  77,781 ;  of  commune^  with  the  three  suburb*, 
Torrett^  Sta  Laoia,  and  S.  Jaoopa,  07,615. 

Till  1868,  L.  was  a  free  port,  and  it  ba*  long  been 
one  of  the  leading  emporium*  of  tiade  in  Italy.  Its 
import  trade  used  to  be  estimated  at  £2,000,000 
yeaily;  the  chief  imparts  being  from  England  and 
Franoe.  Even  since  the  abolibioa  of  its  priTilegea 
a*  a  free  port,  the  trade  of  L.  has  not  been  lessened, 
but  only  changed  in  character.  It  is  now  le**  a 
port  ol  deposit  than  of  transit  to  and  from  the 
mterior  of  the  kingdom.  The  town  i*  partly  inter. 
aected  with  canals,  by  which  merchandise  is  oou- 
veyed  from  the  harbour  to  the  numerous  ware- 
house* of  the  dty.  The  port  oonriata  of  an  inner  ' 
and  outer  harbour,  the  latter  being  shelteted  t^  a 
~~  ale,  which  projects  into  the  sea  upwards  ol  halt 

mila^  close  to  the  great  light-house.  To  saonia 
inoreaMd  stuping  acoommooation,  a  new  harbonr 
has  becD  eonitraned  lor  the  teoeptioD  of  Teaseh  ot 
ooDBideraUe  tonnage.  The  readitead,  which  t* 
capacioii^  lies  west-nortb-wert  of  the  harbour,  and 
is  protected  by  towen  and  a  CMtlsL  On  an  island 
south  ot  the  harboni  atanda  the  lasarettcL  The 
town  is  connected  by  railwan  vrith  Bome,  Fisa, 
Carrara,  and  the  ether  parte  of  Italy. 

Ihe  popnlaticm  eomprise*  native*  ot  many  dime* 
(Greeks,   Aimenian^   Tnrki,    Moon,   fta],   whose 


esque  appearance  i. 

stnngen  i(  fortluir  enlarged  in  the  Mmuuu  ehhu 
by  a  great  iuflnx  ol  native  and  <"—■£"  Tisitors,  who 
naort  to  Ii.  fw  it*  bath*  and  mineral  springs,  the 
latter  of  which  enjoy  high  medical  repute.  Tba 
town  itself  is  ohiedy-^  medani  origin,  and  destitute 
of  the  grand  histcrioal  Msociationa  and  nlsssiirsi 
monument*  which  inveat  meat  Italian  dtiea  wiUi 
thdr  higheat  intanst;  ita  fine  Meditmanaan  tit^ 
animated  aspeeli  and  great  oomnMcdal  lit^  are  its 
priodpal  Bttraotion*.  13m  ctreala  IM  regolar  and 
wall  paved,  but  naiTow,  and  in  ooMegoenee  of  bsing 
flanked  1^  hi^  bcose^  titer  are  for  tha  moat  paii 
dark  and  gloou^.  The  omrobMi  are  numerous. 
Manv  of  the  private  dwellings  of  L.  are  tasteful 
and  luxurious,  and  ohanning  Tills*  abound  in  the 
euTirons.  The  public  inalitnnon*  are  well  organised, 
and  indnde  three  hoapital*,  aa  observatory,  a  poor- 
hoose,  Kod  a  free  library.  Bome  yea»  •»>,  the  di- 
onit  of  the  town  wa*  extended  by  the  damolitioa 
~d  fortifications,  and  tlw  ezteodon  of  tha  barriers 
ity  walls.  The  manofaotures  of  L.  are  Tarious 
and  important;  it  possessee  great  fsctoriea  of  oil, 
tobaooo,  soif ,  sslt,  sud  the  well-known  liqueur 
Botolio;  ita  distillerira  and  dyeing  woi^  are 
d*o  odebrated.      Ita  ddef  eipwta   are  raw  and 


h  Google : 


LEGION— LEGION  OF  HONDUE. 


manufaotimd  ulks,  ttnm-haia  uid  atraw-pUitiDg, 
oil,  frnita,  bono,  clieeee,  anchoviea,  marble,  sulphur, 
and  coraL  Ita  imports  comprise  colonial  produce,  raw 
and  monnfachired  ootiton,  and  wool,  cutlery,  hard- 
ware, metallic  goods,  earthenware,  and  salted  fish. 

Towards  the  end  oE  the  13th  c,  h.  was  an  unpro- 
tected village,  whicli  only  assmoeil  some  importance 
n  the  destruction  of  the  port  of  Pisa,  and  espedallj 
n  its  being  asngned  to  Florence  in  1421.  Ales- 
.  andro  dei  Medici  constructed  ita  citadel  and  forti- 
fied the  town  ;  Cosmo  L  declared  it  a  free  port,  and 
from  that  time  dates  ths  rise  of  its  ptoeperity.  In 
the  17th  c,  under  Ferdinand  L,  it  vas  a  town  of 
ereat  oommercial  importance ;  and  dutiiig  tha  French 
tiDperial  occupation  of  Italy,  L.  was  proclaimed  the 
chief  town  of^tbe  department  of  t^e  Meditemneau. 
In  tiie  Italian  rerolntions  incceeding  1830,  L. 
took  a  foremoat  part 


timea  we  should  call  a  torpi  d^armSe.  It  differed  in 
constitution  at  different  periods  of  Bomon  history. 
In  the  time  of  the  Bepubhc,  a  l^on  comprised  4500 

0,  tiius  divided :  1200  htutaU,  or  ioeiperienced 
troops  ;  1200  prindpa,  or  well-trained  soldiers  ; 
1200  vdittt,  or  sVirmishen  ;  600  triarn,  or  pUani, 
veterans  forming  a  reserve  ;  and  300  apiitei,  luiights 
who  acted  ss  cavalry,  and  belonged  to  families  of 
rank.  During  this  period  the  legions  were  formed 
only  for  the  sesson ;  standing  annies  being  of  later 

wth. 

.The  hastati,  principes,  and  triarii  formed  three 
separate  lines,  each  divided  into  10  moBipkt  or 
companiea,  of  130  men  each  in  the  cose  of  the  two 
front  lines,  and  of  60  men  in  the  triarii.  A  maniple 
'  was  commanded  by  a  centurion  or  captain,  mio 
had  a  second-ceaturion,  or  lieutenant,  and  two  eub- 
offiben,  or  sergeants,  under  him :  as  non-commis- 
sioned officen,  there  was  a  dioimit,  or  corporal,  to 
every  squad  or  tent  of  ten  men.  The  senior  centurion 
of  each  line  commanded  that  line,  and  bad  therefore 
functions  corresponding  to  a  modem  lieutenant- 
coloneL  The  pnmipUwt,  or  senior  centurion  of  the 
triarii,  was  the  most  important  regimental  officer, 
and  commanded  the  legion  in  the  abeence  of  the 
tribmtes.  The  300  cavalry  formed  a  regiment  of 
ten  tvmuB,  or  troops  of  30  horsemen,  each  aoder 
three  d^airion*,  of  whom  the  senior  had  the  com- 
mand. The  velites  were  light  troops,  not  forming 
port  of  the  line  of  battle  ;  had  apparenUy  no  officers 
of  their  own  ;  and  were  attached  to  the  30  maniples 
in  equal  proportions.  The  staff  of  the  legion  con- 
sisted of  six  tribunes,  who  managed  the  paying, 
quartering,  provisioning,  tc  of  the  troops,  and  who 
ocamnonded  the  legion  m  turns  for  a  period  each  of 
two  months.  This  changing  command,  although 
inoouvenient,  lasted  till  the  tunes  of  the  civil  wars, 
when  a  UgaOu,  or  lieutenant-general,  was  appointed 
as  penuanent  commandant  of  the  legion. 

The  offensive  weapotui  of  the  hastati  and  principes 
were  two  barbed  iron-headed  javelins,  one  of  vhich 
was  hurled  at  the  enemy  on  the  first  onslaught, 
while  the  other  was  retained  as  a  defence  against 
cavalry.  The  triarii  had  long  pikea.  In  addition 
to  these  arms,  every  soldier  bMe  a  short.  Strong, 
cnt-and-throst,  two-edged  sword.  The  legionaries' 
defensive  armour  cooHistod  of  plumed  helmet,  breast- 
plate, iron-bound  boot  for  the  right  leg,  and  a  semi- 
cylindrical  shield  4  feet  long  by  2^  broad.  The 
velitca  had  no  defensive  armour,  wexo  lightly  armed, 
and  in  action  usually  operated  for  flanking  purposes. 
£ach  maniple  bore  an  ensign  aloft,  and  each  legion 
had  ita  distinguishing  eagles  Up  to  the  time  of 
Marina,  service  in  a  Ic^on  was  soi^t  as  honourable 


the  legions  into  corps  of  a  purely  merceuarjr  army. 
At  the  some  period,  the  manipuiar  formation  waa 
abolished,  the  three  lines  were  assimilated,  uid 
the  legion  was  divided  into  10  oohorts,  each  of  3 
maniples.  Soon  the  oohorta  were  raised  to  600 
men,  making  the  l^on  6000  infantry  besides  cavalry 
and  velites.  It  was  ranged  in  2  lines  of  6  coliorto 
each ;  but  Cosar  altered  the  formation  to  3  lines,  of 
respectively  4,  3,  and  3  cohorte. 

During  the  later  Empire,  the  l<^on  became  cmn- 
plex  anil  unmanageable  ;  mai^  sorts  of  atma  betog 
thrown  together,  and  balistn,  catapults,  and  aaag«m 
added  l:^  way  of  artillery.  Having  so  d^enerated 
from  ita  pristine  simplioity  and  completeness,  the 
legionary  formation  was  soon  overthrown  anud  tbo 
incninons  of  the  victorious  bsibarians. 

LEOION,  Thb  THUHDEBiHa  (Lat.  Legio  Fulmi- 
natrix),  a  legion  of  the  Soman  army  which  is  tbe 
subject  of  a  well-known  miraculciu  legend.  During 
Moicns  Aurelius's  war  with  the  Morcomaoni  (174 
A-  r.),  his  army,  according  to  this  narrative,  being 
shut  up  in  a  moontainous  defile,  was  reduced  to 
mat  straits  by  want  of  water ;  when,  a  body  of 
Christian  soldien  having  prayed  to  the  God  of  th« 
Christians,  not  only  was  rvn  sent  seasonably  to 
relieve  their  thiiet,  bnt  this  rain  was  turned  upoa 
the  enemy  in  the  shape  of  a  fearful  thunder- 
shower,  under  cover  of  which  the  Somans  attacked 
and  utterly  routed  them.  The  legion  to  which 
these  soldiers  belonged  was  thence,  according  to 
one  of  the  noiratoie,  called  the  Thundering  Legion. 
This  legend  has  been  the  subject  of  much  contro- 
veny ;  and  it  is  certain  that  the  last  told  circvun- 
stance  at  least  is  false,  as  the  name  '  thundering 
jwion'  existed  long  before  the  date  of  this  story. 
There  would  appear,  nevertheless,  to  have  been 
some  foondatiou  for  the  story,  however  it  may 
have  been  embellished  by  the  pious  zeal  of  the 
Christians.  The  scene  is  represented  on  the  column 
of  Antoninus.  The  event  is  recorded  by  the  pagan 
historian  Dion  Cassius  (Ixxi  8),  who  attributes  it 
to  Egyptian  sorcerers  ;  and  by  Capitolinns  and 
ThemistiuB,  the  latter  of  whom  ascribes  it  to  the 
prayers  of  Aurelius  himself.  It  is  appealed  to  by 
the  nearly  contemporary  Tertullian,  m  his  Apologj/ 
(c  5),  and  is  circumstantially  related  by  Busebiua, 
by  Jerome,  and  Oroaius.  It  may  not  improbably 
be  conjectured,  suppoeing  the  subetantial  truth  of 
the  narrative,  that  the  fact  of  one  of  the  legions 
being  called  by  the  name  'Thundering'  ma^have 
led  K>  the  localiauig  of  the  stoiy,  and  that  it  may 
have,  in  consequence,  been  ascribed  to  this  parti- 
cular legion,  which  was  supposed  to  have  received 
ita  name  from  the  <  ' 


LEGION  OF  HONOUR,  an  order  of  merit 
instituted  under  the  French  Kepnblia  in  1802  by 
the  F>r*t  Consul,  as  a  recompense  for  military  and 
civil  services.  It  was  ostensibly  founded  !m  ths 
protection  of  republican  principle*  and  Hui  laws  of 
equality,  and  for  the  ahohtion  of  differencee  of  rank 
in  socie^,  evmy  social  grade  being  equally  ^igible ; 
but  its  real  aim  doubtieee  was,  by  popularising  the 
idea  of  personal  distinction,  to  pave  the  way  for 
the  establiahment  of  the  Empire  and  of  the  more 
eiclnsive  titiea  of  nobility  that  were  to  aocompany 
it.  The  proposal  for  its  institution  was  at  first 
violentiy  opposed  by  the  legislative  body  and  the 
tribunate,  on  democratic  grounds,  and  carried  ereu- 
tually  by  a  narrow  majority. 

The  order  originally  comprised  three  classes — 
Grand  Officers,  Commanden,  and  L^onarim.  The 
class  of  Grand  Officers  was,  on  the  coronation  of 
Napoleon  L,  divided  into  Knidila  of  the  Grand 
Eagle,  (the  highest  cUss),  and  tirand  Officeis.  On 
tiis  restoratioii  of  the  Bonrbona,  the  Legion  was 


» Google 


LEOITDiI— I^BOS. 


retained,  bnt  nmodelled  wo  ta  to  loae  mneh  of  its 
origiiial  chamctar.  The  eagle  wm  oalled  a  oron,  and 
the  effigy  ot  Henry  IV.  replaced  that  of  Napoleon, 
The  Kmghte  of  the  Grand  Eagle  became  Grand 
CroMBU  the  LegioQariea  -were  traaaformed  into 
Kni^tt,  and  the  naineroua  edacatioaal  institutions, 
foniided  by  Napoleon  for  the  children  and  relativee 
of  the  Diembera  of  the  order,  were  much  reduced  in 
Mala,  In  1837,  a  now  miUtary  cisu  called  Offioe™ 
was  admitted.  XJoder  the  PreBidentehip  of  Lonis 
Ni^eon,  part  of  the  property  of  Louis  Philippe, 
which  had  been  reatored  to  the  state,  was  set 
■put  as  an  endowment  for  the  Iitgion,  and  new 
mralatiMis  were  made  ref^rding  the  penaiona  of  the 
dfieient  olaasea.  The  originarftniD  of  decontion 
wu  reintoodaoed,  which  nnder  the  teoond  Empire 
was  aomewhat  modified.  Aa  won  then,  it  oonaisted 
of  a  croea  of  ten  pointa  of  white  enamel  edged 
with  gold ;  the  pomta  connected  with  a  wreath 
of  laorel  proper,  and  in  the  centre,  within  an  aznie 


to  a  red  ribbon.  The  Grand 
Officers  also  wore  on  the  right  breast  a  silver 
charged  with  the  imperial  e^e.  "Ihe  aame  star  waa 
worn  on  the  left  breaatbythe  Knighta  Grand  Cross, 
and  their  creaa  waa  attached  to  a  broad  red  ribbon 
which  paBsea  over  the  right  ahouMer. 

The  vast  numbers  of  thia  ordJet,  and  the  inal 

ficaoce  of  manv  of  the  persons  on  whom  it  

bean  conferred,  have  detracted  much  from  ita  value. 
The  nnmber  of  membera  in  1S72  wu  69,170 ;  bnt 
the  law  passed  in  that  year,  that  only 
member  should  be  added  (or  every  two 
redaced  the  membership  in  the  next  five  ye 
to  69,208.  The  revenue  of  the  College  of  t 
haa  been  augmented  by  tiie  addition  of 
belonging  to  Looia  Philippe.  Oat  of  .  _  _ 
penaiona  are  pad  to  those  members  of  the  older 
who  have  served  in  the  army  or  Jiavy ;  the 
civilian  members  receive  no  pension,  lieae  pen- 
uona  amonntod  in  1877  to  the  sum  of  £454,664. 
By  the  anating  statutes,  candidates  in  time  of  peace 
moat  have  served  in  some  military  or  civil  capacity 
for  twenty  years ;  exploita  in  the  field  or  severe 
wounds  constitute  a  claim  in  time  of  war.  Xwo 
diatribations  take  place  in  the  year.  The  nomi- 
nation of  military  peraona  takea  place  on  parade 
and_  of  civil  in  the  oourta  of  justice.  No  ignoble 
pnniahment  can  be  inflicted  on  a  member  of  the  order 
so  long  as  he  belongs  to  it.  To  rise  to  a  superior 
rank,  it  is  indispensable,  at  least  for  natives  of 
Franco,  to  have  passed  through  the  inferior  gradt*. 

LEGITIM,  or  BAIRN'S  FAST,  in  the  Scotch 
Law,  is  the  legal  provision  which  a  child  ia  entitled 
to  out  of  the  movable  or  personal  estate  of  the 
deceased  father.  In  Scotland,  a  father  is  not  allowed 
to  diainfaerit  hia  children  to  a  certain  extent,  the 
extent  varying  according  as  the  wife  survives  or 
not.  If  a  wifo  survive,  and  also  children  aurvivs, 
the  movable  estate  ia  divided  into  three  equal  parts- 
One  is  the  widow's  Jus  Rdktas  (q.  v.),  another  is 
the  children's  lentim,  the  other  third  ia  the  Dead's 
Part  (q.  v,),  which  the  father  may  bequeath  by  will 
if  he  pleases,  but  if  he  make  no  will,  tiien  it  goes  to 
the  children  aa  next  of  kin.  If  the  wife  ia  dead, 
then  half  ia  legitim,  and  the  other  bulf  is  dead'a 
part.  Moreover,  a  father,  though  in  his  lifetime  be 
may,  without  miy  check  &om  hia  children,  squuider 
his  property,  still  ia  not  allowed  on  his  death-bed 
gSts  BO  as_to  lessen  the  fund  which  will 
children's  claim  to  le^tim 
inptial 
other 


the  children's  daim  oannot  be  defeated  by  anything 
the  father  can  do  by  msona  of  a  will  or  WDatia 

auivalent  to  a  wilL  The  leoitim  is  claimable  by 
the  children  who  survive  the  fatiier,  but  not  by 
the  issue  of  those  children  who  have  predeceosedi 
It  is  immaterial  what  the  age  of  the  child  may  be, 
and  whether  married  or  not.  Children  claiming 
legitim  must,  however,  give  credit  for  any  provision 
or  advance  made  by  the  father  out  of  his  movable 
estate  in  bis  lifetime.  Ail  the  children,  though  of 
different  marriages,  share  in  the  legitim.  In  England 
and  Ireland,  there  is  no  similar  right  to  legitim,  for 
the  father  can  bequeath  all  hia  property  to  strangers 
if  he  please ;  but  a  similar  custom  once  sxiated  in 
the  city  of  London,  and  York,  now  abolished  by  19 
and  20  Vict  e.  M. 

LEQI'TIMACY,  Pnrnojf  to  Dbcuxb.  In 
Scotland,  it  has  always  been  competent  for  a  party 
who  wiahed  to  establish  that  he  waa  a  l^itmute 
person,  to  raiae  an  aotioD  of  declarator  of  levitimaCT, 
when  the  court  solemnly  decided  the  qnes^on.  hx 
EngUnd,  thia  could  not  be  done,  exoent  indinotly 
in  the  course  of  some  suit  for  another  purpose, 
until  1358,  when  the  statute  21  and  22  Viot  o.  93 
allowed  all  natoral-bom  subjects  whose  l^tima<^ 
was  donbted  to  present  a  petition  to  the  Divorce 
Conrt  to  have  the  qneation  decided.  A  similar  act 
for  Ireland  was  paaaad  la  1668  (31  and  ^  Vict  o.  20), 
LEOITIMA'TION,  in  Scotch  (and  Foreign)  Law, 
is  the  rendering  legitimate  a  person  who  was  bom 
illegitimate.  Tbia  ia  done  bv  the  father  aabaeqaeatlT 
marrying  the  fttothw  of  too  child,  uid  hence  it  w 


Una  effect,  lutwevcr,  can  onlv  I 
at  the  time  of  tiie  birth  the 
been  motried,  or  thrae  waa 


marryins,  if 
were  both  us 


prodnced  nnivided 

B  parenta  might  have 

obatacle  to  ^niz  then 

iclined,  as,  for  example,  if  they 

rj  ._j  ik ipedimant 


unmarried,  and  there 
■   ■       ■  "  th( 

birth, 


mother,  B,  after  the  .child's  birth,  marriea  a  third 
person,  and  has  i^dren,  and  after  the  diaaolution 
of  the  marriage,  A  and  B  then  marry.  In  this 
perplexing  case,  the  courts  have  held  that  the 
mtervaning  marriage  with  a  third  party  doea  not 
prevent  tM  bastard  child,  bom  before  that  event, 
rom  being  Intimated  by  the  subsequent  marriage 
of  A  and  B.  But  it  has  not  been  settled  what 
are  the  mutual  rights  of  the  children  of  the  two 
marriagea  in  such  drcumEtanoee,  though  it  appears 
that  the  legitimate-bom  children  cannot  be  diaputoBd 
by  the  legitimated  bastard.  The  doctrine  of  Inti- 
mation per  titbtiquiCM  mairimoaium  is  not  recfw- 
nised  in  England  or  Ireland,  having  been  aolenw^ 
repudiated  by  the  famoua  atatote  of  Merton,  and 
the  maxim  provaita  then^  '  once  a  bastard,  always  a 
baatard.'  Legitiination  is  also  recognised  in  Soctland, 
but  not  in  England  or  Ireland,  where  the  parents 
were  not  really  married,  though  they  both  bond-fid» 
believed  themaelvea  to  be  married.  This  is  called  a 
putative  marriage.  The  Scotch  law  on  these  subjects 
follows  the  canon  law,and  the  French lawistlie same. 

LEGS,  Humjln,  are  not  unfreqnently  bonte  aa 
charges  in  Heraldry,  sometimes 
nak^  sometimes  booted,  and 
they  may  be  cooped,  L  e.,  cut 
evMily  off,  or  erased,  cnt  with 

jagged  edge,  and  that  either 

,  the  thigh  or  below  the  knee. 
The  knee  when  represented'  is 
always  embowed.  A  remark- 
able device  of  three  legs  in 
armoor,  conjoined  at  the  thi^u. 


supply  l^tim.      The 

may   m  qualified  by  an   uitennptial   contract  of  I  and   flexed  in   triangle,  forms 

mairiage,  iriucb  provides  some  oUier  provision  to    the  insigiiia  ot  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Han  (see 

tinchildrcaiinlieaof  ksitim;  bat,  as  a  general  rale,  |  fig.),  wiQi  the  apfoopriate  motto,  QttMunjwiecsHi 

—^ .X',an4 


LBOnME-UIBNITZ. 


fioM*  '  Tho  fllBflftio»1  aymbol  of  Hib  island  of  SuoIt 
(Triiuwrw)  ini  formed  of  thiee  naked  legs  eiiiu- 
Utiy  coDjoined,  and  the  triple- manntaiiied  Iile  of 
Man  might  haTe  awakened  in  ita  Nonnan  •orereigoi 
•DmeieoollediODaoftheirMedit«truieaii  •   > 

—PltmdJ, 

IiE'GUHB  (Ltgvmen),  in  Bobuir,  a  fruit  oonsiat- 
iug  of  a  dngle  eaipel,  twO'valved,  and  with  the 
•eeda— one  or  many — attached  to  the  ventral  Butnra 
only.  It  is  commonly  called  a  pod,  and  occura  in 
most  of  tike  ipecies  of  the  great  natnnd  order 
Leguminone  (q.  v.),  of  whioh  tlie  Bean  and  Pea  are 
fanuli)Lr  ezamplsa.  The  legume  geoerally  opena 
when  ripe,  and  then  both  by  the  doraal  and  ventral 
niture  ;  whcreai  tba/oiticU,  which  nearly  reaemblei 
it,  opens  by  a  sntore  along  its  face,  and  i»  one- 
valved,  A  tew  legwnea  do  not  open,  but  the  lutiuee 
are  present.  Some  are  divided  by  transverse  par- 
btioiis  [tUaphragmt)  ;  and  the  kind  oalled  a  lomt»~ 
Iwm  is  oontracted  in  the  spaoas  betwixt  the  seeds, 
sod  sepsiatsi  into  pieces  iast«ad  of  opening. 

LBQCHIHE,  M  VEGETABLE  CASEINE. 
Tfae  seeds  of  most  l^aminous  plants  {pease,  beans, 
lentils,  (tc),  and  of  the  sweet  sad  bitter  almond^ 
contain  a  prateine  or  albumbous  body,  wbioh  in  all 
its  essential  properties  correaponils  with  the  caieine 
of  milk.  For  example,  it  is  precipitated  from  its 
eolations  by  renoet,  acetia  acid,  ajoohol,  &o.,  and  is 
not  cosgulsted  by  boiling ;  while,  as  in  the  ease  of 
milk,  the  applioation  of  heatoooaaionsthe  formatioa 
of  »  peltiofe  on  the  snrfaoe.  The  afBoity  of  the 
two  kinds  of  caseine  is  further  shewn  by  the  fact, 
thst  cheese  is  made  by  the  Chinese  from  pease  and 

In  order  to  obtain  legnme,  pease,  beans,  or  lentdls 
are  well  Boaked  in  hot  water,  and  after  being 
reduced  to  s  pnlp,  are  mixed  with  a  oonsiderable 
qaontity  of  water.  The  starch,  membranes,  ftc., 
soon  sink  to  Uie  bottom,  and  the  l<«iunine  must  be 
precipitAted  by  aoetio  acid  from  ttie  deoanted  or 
filtered  fiuid.  Dry  pease  contain  about  one-fonrth 
of  their  weight  of  legumine. 

LBOnUINO'BiC  {Fabaeta  of  Lindley),  a  great 
natural  order  of  eiogenoos  plants,  contwning  her- 
baceons  plants,  shrubs,  and  t^es,  many  of  them  of 
t^  gre«Hst  magnitude.    The  leaves  are  alternate. 


die  grsM 

jsnally  i 


iy  compotlnd,  and  have  two  stipulet  at  the 
uaae  of  the  leaf-stalk,  which  often  soon  fall  o£ 
The  inflorescence  is  various.  The  colyz  is  inferior, 
S'parted,  toothed  or  cleft,  the  segments  often 
unequal.  The  petals  are  6,  or,  by  abortion,  fewer, 
inserted  into  the  base  of  the  cslyz,  usually  unequal, 
often PfqnWonjKwitw (q. v.).    The-' 


,  generally  of  a  single   carpel;  the  styU 


__  a  Drape  <q.  t.).    The  aeeds  are  aolita^  < 

ons,  oeossionally  with  an  aril,  often  curved  :  the 
oo^ledons  veiy  large. — There  are  three  sul>orden  : 
1.    Pap^ionaceft,  with  papilionaceons  flowers;    2, 


Catcdpinea,  with  irregiuar  flowers  and  spreading 
petals  ;  3.  JfimOMO,  with  small  reguUr  flowers. — 
liiis  natural  order  contains  almost  7000  known 
species,  of  which  about  5000  belong  to  tho  snb-oider 
PapUioaacea.  They  are  spread  over  all  parts  ct  the 
world,  from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  but  their 
number  is  greatest  in  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
regions.  They  are  applied  to  a  great  variety  of 
porpoaes,  and  some  of  them  are  of  great  inporUnce 
in  domestio  eoonony,  the  arta,  medicine,  &,o.  To 
this  order  belong  the  Bean,  Pea,  Kidney-bean,  and 
•11  kinds  of  jiute;  Clover,  Liquorioe,  Broom,  Labur- 
num, Lupine,  Senn^  and  many  other  medicinal 
plants ;  Tamarind,  Logwood,  Indigo,  and  many  otheiB 


which  afbrd  dyas,,fci.;  Uie  Aeaeku,  Mimotiu,  Ac 
Many  species  are  interesting  on  oooonnt  of  thcdr 
beauty  of  form,  foliage,  or  flowers.  In  the  seeda 
of  many  is  fonnd  a  nitrogenous  snbstanee  oolled 
Ltgmaiaa  (q.v.)  or  Vegtlabb  Oamme. 

LErA,Mi  importanttnding  town  of  India,  in  tb« 

Punjab,  is  situtted  in  a  fertik  district  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Indus,  60  miles  south  of  Den  lamael 
Khan.  Lot  31°  N.,  long.  71*  B.  Besides  being  a 
mart  for  the  sale  of  the  prodnoe  of  the  smroundrng 
district,  it  carries  <m  an  extensive  tronsittrade  Itt- 
tween  the  Punjab  and  Uia  raoions  west  of  Uie  Indua^ 
Provisioos,  metals,  grain,  ^d  cotton  and  wool  are 
the  chief  articles  of  sale.    Pop.  (1868)  17,033. 

LEIByiTZ  (more  accurately  Lkibhti),'  Oott- 
FBltD  WiLHBiji  VOW,  perhaps  the  most  extraordi- 
nary example  of  universal  scholarship  upon  record, 
was  bom,  July  6,  1648,  at  Leiprig,  where  his  father 
was  professor  of  law.  He  studied  at  tho  '  Nicholas 
School '  of  his  native  city,  under  Thomaaiua ;  but  he 
derived  mnch  more  of  the  vast  store  of  miscellaneoua 
learning  which  his  aftcT'life  exhibits  from  his 
private  studies  In  a  library  to  which  he  had  accna, 
and  thus  entered  the  univerrity  with  peculisr 
advantages,  in  his  IGth  year,  aelecting  the  law  as  his 
professiou,  but  devoting  himself  also  to  philosophy 
and  literature.  He  spent  some  time  at  Uie  univer- 
sity of  Jens,  and  on  his  return,  presented  himself 


for  the  degree  in  law,  for  which  li 


imposed  two 


.  ,  he  woa  refused  the  degree  at 
„,  and  ultimately  (in  his  20th  year),  in  1668, 
.  luated  at  Altdorf,  where  he  was  offered,   but 
deolined,  a  professordiip ;   accepting  in  preference 
Uie  post  of  secretary  and  tutor  in  the  family  of  the 
Boineburg,  to  whom  he  renderra,  from 


Iifflpzig,  I 
graduabed 


dation  he  was  appointed  member  of  the  judicial 
oonncil  in  the  service  of  the  Archbishon-eleotor  of 
Mains.  In  1672,  he  acoomjianied  Boinebnn^sons 
to  Paris,  and  there  submitted  to  Louis  XXV.  an 
essay  entitled  CoiuUnim  jEgvptiaeum,  contsining 
a  plan  for  the  invasion  of  Egypt,  which  is  by 
some  supposed  to  have  led  to  the  Egyptian 
expedition  of  Bonaparte  in  1793.  In  the  course 
of  this  tODT,  which  extended  also  to  London,  he 
formed  the  acquaintance  of  the  most  eminent 
philosophers  of  France  and  England,  and  among 
them  ot  Newton.  On  the  death  of  the  Elector  <9 
Mains,  L,  declining  an  appointment  at  Paris  wMoh 
would  have  neces;tated  bis  becoming  a  Catholic, 
entered  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick, 
and  followed  that  prince,  in  1676,  aa  prin.ooun- 
cillor  and  librarian,  to  Hanover,  whet«  be  per- 
uuuiently  fixed  his  residence.  His  literary  services 
to  this  oourt  ware  of  a  very  miscellaneous  cluu«oter. 
After  a  tonr  ot  historical  exploration,  he  prepared 
a  eeriei  of  works  illustrating  the  History  ot  the 
Bouse  of  Brunswick,  seven  volumes  of  wluch  were 
published  by  himself,  and  two  have  been  edited 
m  our  own  time  by  Dr  Pen,  AHoaiei  Imperii  Otei- 
dentit  Bninttckatms  (1843— IMS).  He  undertook 
likewise  the  edentifio  direction  and  organiaation  of 
the  royal  nunee,  into  which  he  intioduced  many  im- 
provements ;  and  he  also,  at  the  desire  of  the  priuoe, 
took  an  active  part  in  the  negotiations  for  church 
union,  and  the  theological  discussiona  connected 
therewith,  which  formed  the  subject  of  a  protraoted 
correepondenoe  with  the  celebr^ed  Bossuet  (q.  v.) 
and  with  M.  Pelisson,  and  led  to  the  preparatioB,  on 
his  own  part,  of  a  very  curious  eipoaition  of  doctrinal 
belief  (published  from  his  HS.  within  this  oentuiy, 
under  the  title  i^«l«ma7%eaIo|rieiHn),whkh,althou^ 
written  in  the  asmmed  ohaiaoter  of  a  Cathohc^ 

ii..-„:,.C;ooqlc 


LEIOESTEE— LEICESTERSHIEE. 


afly  pMlo 

Bod^duloIogicaL  HisMiinapoiiil«noBcaUMMaabj«ote 
wu  mo«t  eztanoTe,  ilid  Iw  oontribnted  Itt^y  ' 


Id«M, 

Vabei 


Bn^  «j  whioh  ho  wu  tha  Bnt  praddeDt,  uid 
ongmatcd  both  at  Dietdoi  and  Vieniut  %  project  for 
tlie  e*biblulim«nt  of  aimilar  bodjea.    It  wu  to  him, 
UkewiM,  that  Petar  th«  Qreat,  who  InTited  him  to  & 
masting  at  Torgso,  and  bestowed  on  him  a  penaion 
of  IDOO  rubles,  with  the  title  of  privy-coimciUcir, 
owed  the  plaa  of  the  siDce  celebrated  Academy  of 
Bt  Fetanhnrg.     On  the  acoeasion   of  the  Elector 
Oeorge  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain,  a*  Oaorge  I„ 
h.  was  disappointed  in  hia  expectation  of  aoco- 
panying  the  prince  to  Us  new  oonrt ;   nor  did 
urns  BorviTa  that  event.     His  death,  which  i 
nthOT  imeipected,  oconrred  at  Hanorer,  November 
that  hia 

oontemporarica  J  bat  a  tardy  atonei — '  '"  -■-"- 
neglect  haa  betm  raoently  offered  by 
a  monument  in  one  of  the  aqnares  of  the  city  of 
Hanover.  "Hie  icholarshjp  of  L.,  aa  reguda  the 
TaatneM  ol  it*  nnge,  is  probably  nncomniFled.  Ho 
was  emm«iit  in  langnagea,  hiatoiy,  diruuty,  phUo- 
eophj,  politjoal  studies,  experimental  adeiio^  UW' 
chamcal  scdenos,  ami  eren  belles-lettees.    But  it  ii 


»  popnlu  Aetol^  a  oonect  Dotion  (rf  hit  pbiiiMOpbi- 
CM  sysUm,  espsciaUy  m  be  hw  nowb^  himseU 
methodiaed  h.  He  was  denilr  inflnenoed  by  the 
OBTteaian  philosophy,  but  he  diBmedfronDeBcartea 
hotii  in  his  msUiod  and  in  Bome  of  his  principle*.  The 
Bost  important  pecoliaritiea  d  L-'i  ajvinn  may  be 
ndaoed  to  four:  his  doatrine  as  to  the  Origin  of 
theoty  of  MoiUDB  (q.  v.),  the 'fre-utab- 
nnDiqr,'aDdths  theory  of  OpiiiaaM(q.  t.). 
thes^  three  will  be  found  disouned  under  tepar- 
—i  heada.  The  Pre-eatabliihed  Hannony  rea  urea 
a  few  woida  of  acplanatiiHi.  The  object  of  thia 
■ngolai  oonoc^tioa  waa  to  explain  the  myitarioiu 
pc^lson  <i  tiie  ioJut  aetiui  of^  mind  and  hody,  or 

of  tho  Kh^aUed '  monada,'  since  L.  held  tiiat  no 
•mooada'  oonld  a«t  upon  eaoh  other.  De 
liad  nsolved  this  raroblem  by  hia  theoiy  of  . . 
anoa,  whioh  attiibated  all  acticm  to  the  direct 
•Miataooe  of  Qod.  L.,  rejeotit^  thia  hypotheai^ 
nmpoaed  the  mind  and  the  body  to  be  two  diatinct 
and  independent  machines,  each  having  its  own 
indapendent,  thoogh  limQltaneaa*  action ;  bnt  both 
■0  lesnlsted  by  a  hannony  pre-e*t«blisbed  br  God, 
that  uieir  nmtaal  aotima  shall  ooireapond  witA  eadi 
other,  and  shall  occur  in  exact  and  in&llible  imiaon. 
^da  hanuooy  L.  explained  by  the  example  of  two 
tima-iMoe*,  one  of  whioh  ahoold  be  made  to  strike 
jott  aa  the  other  pointed  to  the  hour.  In  the  same 
wi^,  jnat  at  llie  momoit  when  the  mind  freely 
datcrminM  itself  t^i  a  particular  act,  the  body,  by  a 
bamony  pm-vranged  by  God,  will  [nijduca  the 
part^mlar  action  whioh  ia  nqaired  to  aye  efficacy 
to  the  volition  of  the  min£  One  u  the  most 
painfol  inmdenti  in  the  literary  and  ecientifio 
history  ol  L,  waa  his  controversy  with  Newton 
as  to  priorily  in  the  discovery  of  the  method  of  the 
calculns.  See  CiJUiai.va,  FLimotja.  L.  waa  the 
invents  of  a  calcnla&ig-machine,  the  worki^- 
model  of  which  ia  itiU  preserved  at  GHttiugen.  Eia 
worka  were  fint  collected  by  Dutens,  in  6  vole.  4to, 
OenevB ;  his  philosophical  worka  by  Saape,  Amster' 
dam,  1767 ;  and  bis  letters  at  Lansanne  uid  Genera, 
S  vols.  4ti:^  1746.  Other  ooDectiTe  editions  are 
those  of  Perta  (1S43— 1869);  Foncher  de   Carei] 


(begnn  in  1859],  and  Klopp  (begun  in  ISM).  The 
best  edition  of  ll's  philosophical  works  is  Erdmanu'a 
aS40) ;  and  the  beat  life  of  L.  is  by  Ouhraner, 
LeibnUx,EintSiographie,2vo'lK,S^t>  {Brealan,  1M2). 

liBrOESTBR,  a  town  of  Eu-!:uid.  mnntcipal  and 
parliamentary  borooeh,  and  capital  of  the  county 
of  the  same  name,  is  sitnafced  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Soar,  about  100  milJei  north-north-west  of 
London.  It  oontuns  nnmerons  interesting  ehurahesi, 
one  of  which,  St  Nicholas,  is  partly  built  of  bricks 
from  an  ancient  Boman  building  near.  There  are 
several  educatioDal  and  benevolent  institntioiia. 
The  Cook  Memorial  Hall  and  a  pnblio  park  ««m 
opened  in  16S2.  Manufactures  of  boots  and  shoea, 
and  of  woollen  and  hoaieiy  goods,  lace-making  woot- 
combing  and  dyeing,  are  extensively  carried  on.  L.  is 
the  centre  of  a  famous  agricultural  and  wool-raising 
district.  Thoe  are  about  twelve  fain  aanoally. 
The  town  of  L,  retnnis  two  membcn  to  pariiamant. 
^op.  (1871)  96.084 ;  (1881)  122,381. 

L.,  known  to  the  Bomnn*  as  Saia,  derivea  its 
naent  nam*  either  from  LaiRs  the  former  name  of 
heSoar.orfioni  its  having  baoi  a  (7iaUa«£4pio«MH% 

station  or  camp  (ofwlns)  of  tho  legions,  iriiioh 
the  Saxons  would  tnuslat*  into  L«ge»^osacter, 
correaponding  to  tba  British  i^  Welsh  Gaar-leon. 
Under  the  Lucastrian  prince*,  ita  castle,  now  almost 
entirely  destrOTed,  waa  frequently  a  royal  rstd- 
denoe.  Hie  nuns  of  the  abbey  of  St  Mary  Vrt,  or 
De  Pratis,  where  Cardinal  Wolsey  died,  still  exist. 

LEICESTBB,  Bobxbt  Dudi-ev,  Eabl  of,  bom 
1531,  was  the  son  of  John  Dudley,  Duke  of 
Northumberland.  His  fathar  was  executed  on 
account  of  the  part  which  he  took  in  the  oause  of 
Lady  Jane  Qrey,  and  he  waa  him«aif  impriaoned 
same  aoconut.  He  waa  liberated  w  16S4; 
1658,  on  the  aooeuion  of  Elixabeth,  the  dawn 
of  hia  fortune  began.  He  waa  made  Mftit"  of  tba 
Horse,  Knight  of  the  Garter,  a  Privy-oooncillor, 
High  Steward  of  the  university  of  Cambridge,  Baron 
Diuley,  and  Earl  of  Leicester.  For  thnsfi  high 
rs,  he  seems  te  have  been  indebted  acJaly  to 
laome  penon  and  a  oourtly  manner,  for  the 
of  his  life  shews  him  to  have  been  poasesaed 
a  single  quality  either  of  head  or  heart 
of  ai£niratioa.  When  young,  he  married 
^ter  of  Sir  John  Bobasrt.     The  general 

-_  the  times  bas  charged  bim  with  being 

aooeaaoiy  to  her  murder;  and  it  ia  oeitain  that 
ahe  died  suddenly,  and  very  opportunely  for  hia 
amlutious  viewa,  lie  being  at  tliat  tame  a  suitor 
for  the  hand  of  Etinbeth.  Hiiabeth  save  out 
that  ahe  wished  him  to  many  Mary  of  Sjotland; 
but  in  this  the  Engliah  queen  was  acting  with  her 
usual  insincerity.  She  encooragad  L.  openly  aa  a 
tiatot  long  after  hi*  arrogance  had  disgusted  tiia 
nobles,  and  hia  ptoBimiy  had  brought  him  into 
disrepute  with  the  nation.  His  marri^  to  Lady 
Essex  for  a  time  excited  the  auger  of  his  royu 
mistress,  bnt  slia  soon  forgave  him.  In  1585,  ha 
went  into  the  Low  Cwintriea  at  tlu  head  of  a 
military  force ;  bat  on  this,  as  an  two  subsequent 
oocaaions,  he  shewed  himself  ntterly  unfitted  for 
command.  He  diisd  suddenly,  on  September  4, 1588. 
It  was  commonly  said  Ukat  he  was  poisoned  by  his 
wife,  she  having  given  him  a  potion  which  he  had 
intended  for  her. 

LEI'OBSTBRSHIBE.  an  inland  county  of 
England,  sonth  of  Derby  and  Nottingham.  Area, 
511,719  acres ;  pop  (1871)  269,311 ;  (1881)  821,26ft 
The  surface  of  the  ooun^  is  conred  through- 
out by  low  bills.  The  district  in  the  south-west^ 
still  called  '  Chamwood  Forest,'  retaina  ita  name 
althou^  it  ia  now  almost  destitute  of  wood. 
The  'Forest'  is  occupied  by  hilli^  which,  thon^ 


jLilQgIc 


LEIQH— LEIPOA- 


inconaiderable  in  height,  a; 
indiTidDkl  in  oatline.     Fro 

Budon  Hill.  863  feet  in  height,  &n  . 

is  obtained.  The  climate  ui  mild,  and  the  soil, 
which  TKiies  in  fertility,  is  chia6y  loamjr.  The 
richest  tracte  ore  kept  in  posture,  for  which  this 
oouQ^  ia  famous.  In  1630,  the  acreage  wider  com 
croi«  WM  M,OgO ;  green  crops,  21 ,385  ;  aoA  perman- 
ent  pastnie,  312,11J,  Grazing,  and  sheep  and  cattle 
breeding,  are  carried  on  with  great  skill  and  8ucc««il 
An  imj^OTed  bag-honi  is  toe  favourite  breed  of 
cattle.  In  1380,  there  were  in  the  connty  17,960 
horses ;  126,902  cattJe  ;  367,757  sheep  ;  and  21,606 
pigs.  The  '  Stilton '  variety  of  cheese  is  for  the 
moat  part  made  in  this  county.     Coal-mines  are 


LEIOH,  It  TapidlT  increaung  poor-law  union  in 
Lttneashire,  England,  a  station  on  the  Bolton  and 
LiTerpool  Railway,  is  situated  13  milea  west  of 
Manchester.  Sillu,  combriM,  mnsUns,  and  fustians 
are  erteoaiTely  nuuinfaotured ;  cotton-spinning  and 
weaving  ore  carried  on ;  there  is  a  huge  foundiy, 
where  agricnltiuiJ  implements  are  eitenaivc^ 
made ;  and  in  the  vionity  are  productive  coal- 
mines and  flour  loilla.  Pop.  (1861)  10,621 ;  (1871) 
83,692;  (1881)21,733. 

LEIGHTON,  BoBERT,  Archbishop  of  Glasgow, 
was  bom  in  Bdinbuigb,  or,  as  others  think,  in 
London,  in  the  year  1611.  He  entered  the  miiveisity 
oE  the  former  city  in  1627,  took  his  degree  of  U.A. 
in  1031,  and  afterwards  proceeded  to  I>njice.  Here 
he  resided  with  some  relativea  at  Dooay,  and 
formed  the  acquaintance  of  several  Boman  Catbolio 
students,  whose  Christian  virtues  conSimed  the 
natural  charity  of  hia  spirit.  L.,  indeed,  could  never 
have  been  a  bigot.  Gentle,  tender,  and  piooa  from 
his  earlifflt  years,  he  ahriuik  from  aU  violence 
and  intolennce;  but  hi*  intercoorae  with  men 
whose  opinions  were  so  different  from  his  own, 
reaeon  of  the  folly  and  sinfulness  of 
.  ..  „  ..)  rigidly  of  doctrine'  Betomina  to 
Scotland,  he  was  appointed,  in  1641,  to  the  parish  of 
NewbatUe,  near  Edinbnrah ;  but  he  was  not  militant 
enough  to  please  hia  cerce  co- presbyters.  They 
appeared  to  him,  who  had  studied  far  more  deeply 
than  any  Scotchman  of  his  time  the  various  eccle- 
siastical polities  of  Christendom,  tmonlent  about 
trifle&    According  to  Bishop  Bomet,  'he  soon  came 


He  found  Utey  were  not  capable  of  lalge  thought* : 
theirs  were  narrow  as  their  tempers  were  sour ;  so 
he  grew  weary  of  mixing  with  them.'  Yet  we 
cannot  altogether  approve  the  facility  with  which 
he  fraternised  with  the  party  that  had  inSicted 
Inch  horrid  cmelties  on  his  excellent  father,  Dr 
Alexander  Leighton,  in  1630,  for  merely  publidiing 
a  book  in  favour  of  Presbyterianism.  In  1652,  he 
^1,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
elected  Principal  "of  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  a 
dignity  which  be  retained  for  ten  yean.  Earnest, 
spiritual,  and  utterly  free  from  all  selfish  ambition, 
be  laboured  without  ceasing  for  the  welfare  of  the 
students.  After  the  restoration  of  Charles  IL,  L,, 
who  had  long  separated  himself  from  the  Presby- 
terian party,  was,  after  mnch  reluctance,  indnoed  to 
pt  a  bishopric  He  chose  Banblone,  becaose  it 
small  and  poor.  Unfortunately  for  his  peace, 
men  with  whom  he  wu  now  ^ed  were  even 
a  int<derant  and  unscrupuloos  than  the  Preaby- 
tn*.  The  despotic  measures  of  Sbarpe  and 
Lauderdale  sickened  him.  Twice  he  proceeded  to 
London  (in  1665  and  1669)  to  implore  the  king  to 
"^      '       "■   ol   t£e«e 


adopt  a  milder  course — on  the  fonner  i 


occasions  declaring  'that  he  could  not  concur  in 
planting  of  the  Christian  religion  itself  in  such  k 
manner,  mnch  less  a  form  of  gorernmenL'  Nothing 
was  really  done,  thoo^  much  w««  promised,  and  !• 
hod  to  endure  the  misery  of  seeing  an  ecdeaiastical 
system  which  he  beheved  to  be  intrinsically  tha 
liest,  perverted  to  the  worst  of  pnrposefl,  and  himself 
the  accomjdice  of  the  worst  of  men.  In  1670,  on 
&e  reugnation  of  Dr  Alexander  Bnmet,  he  waa 
made  Arohbiahop  of  Glasgow;  an  office  which  h« 
accepted  only  on  the  concUtion,  that  he  should  he 
asaifited  in  his  attempts  to  carry  out  a  Uberot 
measure  for  'the  comprehension  of  the  Preal^- 
teriana.'  Hia  efforts,  however,  were  all  in  vain ;  th« 
high-hondcd  Uranny  of  his  colleagues  was  renewed, 
and  L.  felt  that  he  must  resign,  which  he  did  in 
1673.  After  a  short  residence  in  Edinburgh,  ha 
went  to  live  with  his  sister  at  Broadhuist,  in 
Sussex,  where  he  spent  the  reet  of  his  days  in  a 
retired  manner,  devoted  chiefly  to  works  of  religion. 
I{ediedJuue25,16S4.  L's  boat  works  (he  published 
nothing  during  bis  lifetime)  ore  to  be  fonnd  in  an 
edition  published  at  London  (4  vols.  1826).  All  hi* 
writings  are  pervaded  by  a  spirit  at  once  loft^  and 
evangdicaL  The  truths  of  Christianitnr  are  set 
forth  in  the  spirit  of  Plato.  It  was  this  that  recom- 
mended them  so  much  to  Coleridge,  whose  Aidi  to 
R^eOion  are  only  commentorie*  on  the  taoching  tA 
the  saintly  archbishop. 

LEIOHTOK-BUZZARD,  a  market-town  of 
England,  Bedfordshire,  is  situated  in  a  large  agri- 
cultural district,  40  miles  north-north-west  of 
London.  It  has  claims  to  considerable  antiquity — 
its  church  was  erected  in  the  beginning  of  tha 
I3th  c,  and  in  its  market-place  is  an  anient  and 
elegant  mntaugolar  cross.  Many  of  the  inhabitanta 
are  em^oyed  m  making  straw-plait.     Vap.  oboul 

eooa 

LEI'MNOEN,  the  name  of  one  of  the  wealthiest 
of  the  mediatised  Houses  of  Germany,  was  fonnerly 
applied  to  a  German  county  in  the  district  of 
Worms  and  Spires,  with  which,  in  the  huginning 
of  the  13th  c,  the  county  of  Dachaburg  became 
connected  as  part  of  the  family  possesaona.  Tha 
family  is  one  of  the  oldest  still  existing  in  Germany. 
In  1779,  the  head  of  one  of  the  branches  into  whidi 
it  had  become  divided,  the  Coont  of  Leiningen- 
Hardenbai^-Dachsburg,  was  raised  to  the  tank  of 
a  prince ;  but  the  peace  of  Lnngville  deprived  him 
of  his  ancient  ponesinons — about  252  square  mile* 
in  extent,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  lUiine.  He 
received,  however,  a  compensation  in  other  parts 
of  Germany;  and  though  no  lo^er  on  independent 

Erincs,  the  princely  bead  of  the  House  of  L.  retain! 
is  rank  and  wealth,  his  possessions  being  within 
the  territories  of  Baden,  Bavaria,  and  Heese. 

LEI'NSTER,  one  of  the  four  provinces  of  Ireland, 
t^iioiea   the    south-east  portion  of    the  country, 
bounded  on  the  E.  by  St  George's  Channel 

iidi"i 

kingdoms, ..._       _. 

the  reign  of  Henry  VUt,  the  province  had  beci 
divideainto  the  countieH  of  Dublin,  Meath,  Louth, 
Kildore,  Corlow,  Kilkenny,  and  Wexfoni  The 
following  countiea  were  erected  subaeqnently ; 
Wicklow,  formed  from  a  portion  of  the  county  of 
Dublin;  West  Meath  and  Longford,  from  a  part  of 
Meath;  and  King's  and  Qneen's  Countiea  formed 
out  of  part  of  Kildore. 

LETPOA,  a  genu*  of  gallinaaeon*  birds,  of  the 
family  ilenajxidida,  of  which  the  only  known 
specie*  is  L.  oeeUata,  a  native  at  Auatr^ia,  inha- 
biting Bandy  and  buliy  trains.     It  ia  called  U, 

Uiaiii.=^.,GOOglC 


tStFOA— LEIPZIG. 


or  Natiti  Fhusuit.  br  the  odouutB.  Like  the 
Atufandiui  inngle-fowl,  Uie  L.  coutmoti  moonda 
<d  Mod,  or  eirth,  kud  Imvm,  in  wMdi  to  lay  '' 


Leipo*  [Ldpoa  oallata). 

«gg*.  More  tiun  ■  dozen  ire  often  foniid  in 
"iSBy  are  aboDt  three  time*  oa  iMve  aa  thoc 
common  foirl;  mnd  ue  mnch  esteemed  u 
Wlien  pnraaed,  it  leelu  to  escape  mthei  bv  numitig 
and  hidiiw  in  the  hn^  Uuui  Ly  the  use  of  ita  wingi. 
Few  Inr£  laem  more  likely  to  prove  iwef  ' 
dtaneslication  than  the  Leipoa. 

LErPZia  (formerly  Libtk  or  Lipilc,  loid  to 

the  home  of  the  linden  ot  lime  tree*,  from  the  Slavic 
Lip  01  Lipa,  a  lime-tree),  a  ci^  of  the  kingdom  i  ' 
8»ony,  situated  about  65  mileB  weat-north-we: 
of  Dresden,  near  the  Prussian  border,  in  a  laree 
and  fertile  plain.  The  Etster,  the  Pteisse,  and  the 
Farthe  flow  through  or  past  the  city,  uid  unite 
about  3  milea  below  it  The  inner  or  ancient  city 
was  formerly  surrounded  by  walla,  which  have  now 
diaappeared,  bat  it  is  still  aeparated  from  the  far 
more  ertenaiTe  suburlM  [Friedrifia-atadt,  Jolumntt- 
lladt,  ftc)  b^  protnenadea  planted  with  beautiful 
avenues  of  lime  and  chestnut  trees.  Many  of  the 
atreets  of  the  inner  city  aie  narrow  and  crooked ; 
those  of  the  more  modem  part  are  wide  and  weU 
bnilt  The  Boaenthal  is  a  delightful  poblio  park. 
The  itiner  city  is  the  principal  aeat  of  buainess  and 
mercbandiae.  The  popnUtton  in  1861  waa  78,495  : 
in  1871,  106,925 ;  and  in  1880,  149,081.  The  vast 
majority  are  Lutherans.  Of  the  pablio  bnitdiaga  of 
L,  few  are  in  any  way  remarkable.  The  two  prin- 
cipal  ci^  ohnrchea,  the  Thomatlcinhe  and  the 
SkoUUhrdie,  date  from  1496  and  162S  respectively. 
The  stately  HaJhluait  (town-hall)  was  bnilt  in  155G. 
The  Oaean^uuu,  in  which  for  100  years  «ome  of  the 
best  ooncerte  in  Europe  were  oiven,  waa  %a  called  aa 
being  bnilt  over  a  Drapers'  Hall ;  the  old  bailding 
«aapiilleddawDinl88l,anewonebemgbiiilt.  An 
old  caatle,  the  Pleisaenbnrg,  it  now  used  for  govern- 
ment offices  and  barracks  ;  tlie  diteh  has  become  a 
jdace  for  drill ;  and  the  tower  is  now  an  observatory. 
The  finest  btuldinga  in  L.  are  the  Muscuid,  bailt 
1856—1858,  and  the  new  Theatre,  one  of  the  largest 
and  haadsranest  in  Germany.  Near  it  are  the  main 
buildings  of  the  universi^,  which  ia,  however, 
now  equipped  with  spacious  anatomical,  phyaiologi- 
cal,  and  other  lahorateties  in  other  part*  of  the 
town.  The  nnivenitv  owea  ite  origin  to  the  re- 
moval of  a  large  number  of  German  atndeala  from 
Prague  to  L.  m  1409,  in  oonaeqnence  of  diaputei 
between  the  Bohemians  and  Oemaiis.  It  has 
alwaya  maintained  a  high  npatation  amonz  the 
uuTetntiea  of  Qermaoy,  and  many  dia^gtuahed 


are  eonneoted  with  it  There  are  npwaidi 
of  100  professors  and  SO  lecturera  on  the  teachit^ 
staff;  sM  the  number  of  students,  above  3000,  la 
leo  than  the  total  at  Vienna  and  at  Berlin. 
The  libranr  containa  300,000  vols,  and  2600  MSS. ; 
and  the  City  library  has  100,000  vola  and  2000 
MSS.  L.  is  the  centre  for  the  adminiatratioa  of  a 
wide  diatrict ;  and  in  1877  it  haa  been  made  the 
aeat  of  the  mpreme  courte  of  justice  for  the  German 
Empire.  The  town  haa  many  educational  institu- 
tions, including  two  gymnasia,  aeveral  benevolent 
foundations,  nnmervus  tcieutiiic  oasooiationB,  and 
varioos  inatitatdons  for  the  cultivation  of  the  fine 
■te.  In  particular  msy  be  mcDtioued  the  oonaerva- 
irium  of  music,  which  is  reckoned  one  of  the  flirt 
Europe.  See  CoBsmviioiKK. 
The  three  aiuinal  fairs  (held  at  Eaater,  Miohael- 
as.  and  the  New  Year,  and  lasting  fnnn  three 
Lu  five  weeks)  add  mnch  to  the  importance  of  L., 
and  render  it,  with  the  exception  of  Hamburg  the 
^eatest  soit  of  trade  in  Gwrnany.  Th*  crigm  of 
uiese  fairs  ia  traced  back  for  mora  than  600  years. 
They  are  attended  by  Jews,  Turks,  Qresks,  Arme- 
nians, Persians,  and  even  (of  late)  by  Chinese.  The 
accession  of  Saxony  in  18^  to  the  German  Cnstoma 
Union  [ZMvtT^)j  and  the  opening  of  railway^ 
produoed  a  great  luorease  of  the  coucouna  and  of 
the  buuness  at  these  fui^  which  had  previooily 
begun  to  dedine.  Tranaactiant  to  tbe  extent  of 
70,000,000  thaler*  (above  £10,0O0j(KW  sterling)  now 
take  place  at  the  Easter  fair.  Tiha  wool-market^ 
in  June,  is  much  frequented.  An  enormou  tnde  is 
done  in  leather,  skins,  and  hldesL 

L.  is  the  princi^  seat  of  the  bookselling  and 
publishing  trade  m  Germanvi  and  indeed,  in  this 
reepeot,  ranks  third  among  the  citiea  of  the  world, 
coming  immediately  after  Iiondon  and  Pans.  Up- 
wards of  800  houses  are  engaged  in  the  book-tiade. 
There  were  also,  in  1871,  SO  printing  estebliahmenta. 
Here  the  German  booksellers  have  founded  a  com- 
mon exchange,  and  annual  settlements  of  accounts 
take  place  at  the  Easter  Fair.  One  thousand 
houses  are  then  represented  by  thedr  commissioners 
at  Leipzig.  In  consequence  of  this  activity,  L. 
has  become  the  principal  seat  of  type-founding  in 
Qeimany.  Among  ite  other  manufaotures  are 
pianofortes,  BcientiSo  instruments,  wax-clotha,  oils, 
chemical  prodncts,  perfumes,  &c. 

""  "  f  sprung  up  round  a  castle  built  by  King 
-.  .-  .  .  -,  at  the  junction  of  the  Pleiase  sjid  the 
Partbe.  It  is  first  mentboed  as  a  town  in  lOlS^ 
and  in  the  Utter  part  of  the  12(h  c,  had  from  SOOO 
to  6000  inhabitants.  It  graduallT  increased  in 
Ity  and  importance.  The  famous  Ldipag 
nee  between  Luther,  Eck,  and  Carlatadt,  in 
1610,  greatly  tended  te  the  promotion  of  the  Refor- 
mation. L  suffered  greatly  in  the  Thirty  Yeara' 
"War,  iu  which  it  was  five  times  besieged  and  taken, 
and  again  in  the  Seven  Years'  War ;  and  although 
the  commercial  changes  connected  with  the  French 
EertJotaon  at  fijst  ^ected  it  veiy  favourably,  yet 
it  sufleiod  not  a  little  amidst  the  terrible  struggles 
of  the  years  1812  and  1813,  when  it  was  alternately 
'  I  possession  of  the  French  and  of  the  allies. 

The  immediate  neighbourhood  of  L  has  been  the 
scene  of  two  battles  of  great  importence  in  the 
histoi^  of  Germany  and  of  Europe — the  battle  of 
Leipzig,  or  of  Breitenfeld  (q.  v.),  on  September  7, 
1631 ;  and  the  great  battle  of  Leipzig--called  the 
BatSt  ofNaUont,  which  continued  for  three  days — 
from  the  16th  to  the  18th  of  October  1813.  The 
latter  was  one  of  the  most  bloody  and  decisive  ot 
thoso  which  effected  the  dehverance  of  Europe  from 
French  domination.  The  troops  under  Napoleon  in 
this  battle  amounted  to  about  180,000  men,  and  those 
of  the  allies,  commanded  by  Prince  Schwarzenbera 

II      .  ^lOOQ 


M»tIi»1  Bincher,  Mid  BeriutdoHe,  Cromi-prmM  of 
Sweden,  to  almoot  SOO.OOa  The  Ion  of  the  Timrih 
waa  reckoned  at  about  38,000  killed  and  wonnded, 
and  30,000  priiODsn;  that  of  the  alliei  to  abont 
48,000.  The  victoif  of  the  aUiea  tm  complete 
and  the  Ftench  had  to  evacuate  Leipmg. 

LEITH,  an  important  leaport,  a  mnmcipal  and 
parlianuntuy  burah  of  Soottand,  on  the  eouthem 
•hoie  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Water  of  LeiCh,  two  milea  north  of  Edinburgh,  with 
which  it  ia  now  comieoted  by  a  oontinuona  Ima  i^ 
houiea.  Althonah  not  withoat  niany  fino  edificea, 
the  town,  oa  a  miole,  ia  rather  mean  m  appearanoey 
being  irregular  and  dingy,  eepeoiaUy  in  the  older  ood 
central  parts.  The  Tnnity-bouae,  Cnitom-hoose, 
Town-hall,  Eoyal  EzohaDgB,  Com  Exchange,  and 
banks  are  really  handaome  ouildiiig&  Leith  haione 
of  the  Urgart  and  meet  elegant  flour-milla  in  the  king- 
n.  Vftet  of  the  towi^  on  the  ahore.  is  Leith  Fort, 
an  artillery  atation.  L.  la  oonoeoted  by  branch-linea 
with  the  rariova  laiiwaya  oentiinE  u>  Edinburgh. 
The  harbour  eitenda,  by  meani  ot  two  piers,  up- 
warda  of  a  mile  into  the  Firth,  and  haa  a  depUi  of 
from  SO  to  2S  feet  at  high-water.  There  are  foar 
wet-docka ;  the  neweat,  the  Edinburgh  dook,  began 
in  1ST4,  waa  opened  in  1881.  It  haa  a  qoay  frontage 
of  677G  feet,  ib  1600  feet  long,  OBO  feet  wide,  and 
oost  in  all  £400.000.  Bailway  communioatiaa  ia 
eontinned  from  the  various  Leith  atationa  throogh. 
oat  tiie  qnaya  and  across  the  harbonr.  There  are 
di  graring-docka,  one  of  them  being  73  feet  wide 
and  460  feet  long,  with  24  feet  of  water  at  aprr-  - 
tides.  The  trade  of  the  port  ia  chiefly  in  colonial 
fordgn  produoe,  but  ia  Biaa  exteotive  in  coal  and : 
■xport&  Grun,  thnbtt,  esparto  graai,  and  wine 
among  the  leading  importa.  In  1S40  the  hart 
duea  wera  £2S,000 ;  in  ISBO  npwarda  of  £SS,00a 
In  1802,  the  tonnage  of  orrintfi  wa«  860,266,  while 
in  1880  it  was  992,680  ;  the  aailingt  shew 
tponding  increase.  There  ia  regular 
with  London,  New  York,  the  north  of 
Norway,  and  the  Continent  In  1880,  the  importa 
ot  grain  amounted  to  3,383,091  cwta.,  sad  thoae  of 


machinery,  sailcloth, 
ropes,  ale,  reconea  apints,  soap,  bottles,  flour.  Pop 
(1871)  44,277;  (18811  89,488.  L.  unitea  with  Porto- 
bello  and  Mniselbnrgh  in  sending  a  mambw  to  par- 
liament. 

liEI'TTtTM,  a  conntjr  in  the  north-east  of  the 
province  of  Coniian^t,  in  Ireland.  Area,  613  sq. 
— ,363  acres,  of  which  249,360  ara  arable. 
e  ot  L.  is  irregular.  It  ia  divided  into 
two  parts  bya  considerable  lake  called  Lough  Allen. 
The  southern  division  ia  broken  up  bv  low  narrow 
ridges,  which  enclose  munerooa  small  lakes,  Uie 
chief  (rf  which  ia  called  Longh  Rion.  The  more 
level  portion  of  this  diyision  of  the  connty  forma 
part  (rf  the  great  limestone  plain  of  Ireland, 
and  contains  some  excellent  arable  and  pastore 
land.  The  northern  division  is  much  more  irregular 
in  snrfaoe,  being  intersected  by  several  ridges  of 
considerable  elevation.  To  the  north  of  Lough 
Allen  the  aoil,  except  at  rare  interv^  ia  nnfavoar- 
able  for  agncolture,  and  the  climate  ia  damp  and 
nngeniitL  The  principal  craps  are  pobitoea,  oats, 
and  hay ;  bat,  on  the  whole,  the  conditian  of  the 
agricolt ure,  conaidering  the  many  inventiona  and  ua- 
provemeats  recently  made,  is  not  forward,  the  total 
number  of  aorea  under  crops  al  all  kinds  having 
been,  in  1880,  81,C30l  L-.however,  ia  more  a  gramns 
than  a  tillage  district  Large  qoantitiee  of  homed 
cattle  are  rused  in  the  Boathem  division.  The  toUl 
numbw  of  cattle  in  1880  wat  81,142 ;  ot  iheei^ 


10,7M.  Tufti  abundant  in  all  partaot  the  oouuty. 
~ie  population  in  1881  nan:dKred8^79Ci.  Ofthew, 
w.,OH  were  Soman  Catbolics,  761B  Proteatants  of 
the  Epiaoopal  Church,  and  the  rest  Protestants  of 
other  denominatioua.  The  noniber  of  children 
attending  Nstionalsohools  in  1880  waa  24,392.  The 
river  Saannon  (q,  v.)  eaters  this  county  near  ita 
aource  in  Cavan,  and  traversing  Lough  Allen,  psasea 
out  at  the  southern  extrenuty  of  Leitrim.  Of 
other  rivers,  the  Bonnet,  the  Yellow  Biver,  and 
the  Daff,  may  be  specially  mentioned.  The  only 
towns  of  any  note  are  Carnok-on- Shannon,  Manor- 
Hunilton,  uid  MohilL  The  northern  division  of 
the  county  ^  more  rioh  in  minerals  than  moat 
districts  ot  Ireland.  Coal  ia  found  in  the  Lough 
Allen  bamn,  the  chief  working-beds  bein^  in 
the  Slieve-an-Ierin  Mountaina  where  it  ia  raised 
for  smelting  purposes.  In  the  same  district  ia 
found  iron,  the  ore  of  the  Arigna  minea  yielding 
as  much  aa  SB'S  per  cent  of  mataL  Lead  ore  ia 
alto  abundant,  although  the  mining  operations  have 
been  diBcontinned.  llie  occupation  of  the  people 
being  chiefly  agricultural,  there  are  hardly  any 
manufactures.    L,  returns  two  membeta. 

L.  anciently  formed  part  ot  the  territory  of 
Breifne  O'Eourk.  It  was  reduced  to  the  Ruglish 
submisdon  in  the  ragu  of  Elisabeth,  but  revolted  in 
1588,  submitting  once  more  in  1603,  irtien  the 
O'Bourk  accepted  a  patent  of  the  rendne  of  his 
artate.  The  conflsoatioils  which  followed  the  great 
civil  war  may  be  aaid  to  have  exttognisbed  the 
native  proprietary  and  the  family  ot  O'Eourk. 

LELAin),  JoHK,  DIt  an  English  divine  and 
apologist  for  Chiiitaanity,  waa  bom  at  Wigan,  in 
LancaahiH^  in  1691,  became  a  dissenting  minister  in 
Dublin  in  1761,  and  firat  appeared  aa  an  aathor  in 
1733,  by  publishing  a  reply  to  Tindal's  deistieal 
work,  CAnttiiMits  at  OJd  at  tftt  Creatha.  In  1737, 
appeared  another  apology,  Tht  Divine  Avtkori^  t^ 
&a  Old  and  Jfeie  Tetlameni  asatrUd  a^aiMl  Ot 
ITi^vtt  Amrtiont  and  Faiti  Bauoningt  qf  a  Boot 
tntMtd  '  The  Sloml  Pl^oaopher.'  As  tiie  leuning 
dispWed  in  these  works  was  nwit,  and  the  abilities 
consiiJerable,  tiis  university  m  Aberdeen  confeiTed 
on  L,  the  Aema  of  D.D.  ffis  best  work  is  A 
View  of  He  Prindpal  Deiiiieal  WrUeri  thai  kavt 
apptartd  it  England.  It  onoe  held  a  hi^  poution 
in  Christian  ^ologetio  literature,  and  many  people 
still  regard  it  aa  a  aatiafootory  dsoudition  of  dnam. 
L.  died  in  1766.  To  his  honour  it  should  be  added, 
that  Uiongh  his  life  waa  ons  of  oontroveray,  the 
apirit  of  faimeas  and  diaiity  never  forsook  him, 

LELT,  Sir  Peter  (Peter  TamsK  Fan), 
waa  the  son  of  one  Yander  Faes,  a  cuitain  of  a 
regiment   of   infantry,   who   waa  generally  called 


Le  Capitaine  dn  Lys,  or  Lely,  from  having  been 
bom  H  the  Ea^e,  '        '  ........ 


.  _  . houae  tiie  front  of  whidl 

waa  decorated  with  a  fleur-de-lis.  L.  was  bom  at 
Soeat,  in  Westphalia,  in  I6ia  His  fatber  placed 
him  in  the  school  of  Feter  Orebber,  a  painter  of 
talent  at  Haarlein,  where  he  i«mained  two  yean. 
painter  of  laod- 
■;  bnt  l 
I    exolui-   . 

irtrait-painting.  and  soon  after  the  death  of  Tan 
-  yck,  he  aettled  in  London.  He  was  einphiyed 
successively  by  Charles  L,  Cromwell,  and  Charles 
IL,  who  nonunated  him  eoort-painter,  and  con- 
fdied  on  >i'Tn  the  honour  of  kniriithood.  Be  had 
great  facility  of  execution,  and  nia  s^Ia,  though 
deflcient  in  all  tiie  hi^er  qnaHties  of  art^  waa  well 


auited  for  his  pcsitioo  aa  the  favourite  porbait- 
painter  ot  such  a  court  as  Uutt  of-bia  duel  patron. 
There  is  a  laijm  eoSeetion  of  hli  portnuts  at  1 
too  Oour^  wSn  ksown  to  tba '^ 


auvnua  viHton 

,  Google 


UatAK-tMdM. 


tha  palilia  ■parimnnfai  theM  h  the  B«kiitics  of  tlie 
Court  of  Cbulea  IL    He  died  in  Lonaon  in  168a 
lilCHAH,  L^KK.    8m  Oxhhta,  LlxB  of. 


Galioia  ami  Lodconeria,  ii  mhuted  on  a  amali  ittMin 
c*Ued  the  Peltew,  in  •  narrow  buds  amoiu;  faiUa. 
Vap.  tit  L.  with  ita  6  mbnrbi  (1680)  109,746,  of  whom 
aboat  SO/XPO  are  Jewa.  L.  ia  tha  aeat  of  a  Boman 
QAolio,  a  Onek  United,  and  an  Armenian  anh- 
ladiop,  ud  hM  30  dmrehM  and  a  doMn  moiiMttriea. 
8«TMal  ef  the  ehnrchaa  sm  Aim  bmldingi ;  also  th* 
towii-haU,  the  theBbe,UwluMpitaI,  andthe  teohnical 
■BtdoH,  Ths  DDmnitr,  founded  in  17M,  and  re- 
MtaUiahed  in  1817,  hw  about  aopnifeaaora  and  800 


Th«  DUivenily  Ubrniy  containa  06,000 
TtdnoM,  470  iSB&,  and  a  collection  of  coin*  amomit- 
ing  to  lO^OOO:  Hoto  liBO  is  the  aeat  of  the  institnte 
foviidsd  bj  Oraolinahl,  with  a  libra^  of  100,000 
Totsmca  and  1700  MSfl.,  ohiefly  of  Polish  Uterature. 
Tbe  tnda  ol  L.  i«  eUennve,  and  th«re 


louoded  in  1295,  wm  long  >d  important  Foliah  oil 
It  fell  to  Amtria  at  the  Siai  partitiQii  of  Poland. 

J.mtMJk  (Or.  a  thing  oaaiimed),  a  preparatory 
yaupuailiea  introduced  for  the  pnrpoie  of  rendeiing 
ibe  damoDatratJon  of  a  theorem  or  oonitnioiioii  of  a 


The  term  ia  oonflned  t 


per»p 
the  Bcience  of  nuttb 

LEHMIITG  Ujenmut  or  Myoda),  a  genu  of 
rodent  qaadraped^  of  the  familj'  Munda,  and  tab- 
funil;  Arvkolida,  nearly  allied  to  Tolee,  hat  diSerinB 
frtHD  them  in  the  extreme  diortnoH  of  the  ears  and 


...  foi  digging.  ^The;  an  also  more  heavily 
fanned.  The  mott  noted  spacMa  ia  th«  3c»ndin- 
mwitM  L.  IL.  or  M.  ivfTvtfiau),  an  animal  of  about 


Lemmitig  (JJnuRW  norfQ^idu). 


■""■"**■"■.  where  it  ordinarily  feeds  on  reiadeer- 
moaa,  and  other  lichena,  graaa,  catkins  of  birch,  Ac 
Bat,  breeding  often  in  Uie  coar«e  of  a  year,  and  pro- 
docing  four  or  five  at  a  birth,  it  mnltipliee  so  mach, 
that,  periodically,  rsat  troops  leave  their  native 
l^toD^  miKrating  either  towud  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
or  the  Gulf  of  B^Jmia.  They  proceed  persistently 
in  a  ataaiaht  line,  swiianiing  tivers,  orossiitg  moaa- 
taina,  and  devoilriag  every  green  thing  in  their 
ootuBci.  They  move  chiady  m  the  night 
jng.     Bears,  wolvea,  foxes,  lynxes,  nai 

fiulow  and  pre """"   "' 

on  finally  dm 
o(   |>TevaleQt   superslitioi 


7  upon  thenv  md  most  of  the 


IiKHlTIAir  EARTH,  a  mineral  found  In 
tba  Island  of  Lemnos ;  masiive,  ohalk-like,  soft, 
ydfowish  ray,  or  whitish,  and  falling  to  powder 
in  w»ter.     It  coniista  of  about  66  per  cent,  silica. 


.  14  of  aliiiniik%  and  a  little  oxitte  of  iron,  soda, 
water.  It  long  had  a  great  and  undeserved 
reputation  in  medicine,  ana  being  Sold  in  liUle 
pieces,  each  stomped  with  a  wficolar  stamp,  it 
aoquired  the  Dome  of  T«Tra  Bigulaia  (Sealed  Elsrth). 
The  belief  in  ita  medicinal  power  is  of  very  great 

itiqnity.     The  stamp  in  ancient  times,  Qalen  says. 

w  the  head  of  Diooa,  the  tutelary  goddess  01 
Lomnos ;  but  1*  now  only  the  Turkish  came  of  the 
mineral  The  ancients  had  more  than  one  legend 
respecting  the  discovery  of  the  virtues  of  Lenmiwi 
Earth. 

LFHirOS  (also  called  Aalinmc),  an  island  belong- 
ins  to  Turkey,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Archi- 
peluo,  about  40  miles  wast  of  the  entranoa  to  the 
Daidanelles.  It  is  irregolar  in  ■hapa,  and  U  nsariy 
divided  into  two  islands,  by  two  deep  bays — Port 
Paradise  on  the  north,  and  Port  8t  Antony  on  the 
south.  Area,  ITS  square  miles.  Pop.  obont  29,000. 
The  women  are  famed  for  their  beaiity.  It  is  billy, 
rather  bare  of  wood,  and  bear*  unmistakable  traost 
of  volotnio  ootion  at  oo  earlr  period,  which  hot 
probably  originated  the  anoiont  myth  of  Vabtsa 
lightiDa  on  tiiis  island  whan  Jupiter  hurled  )um 
from  heaven.  Mosohyloa,  a  volcano,  no  longar 
active,  was  believed  to  be  the  woAshop  and 
favourite  resldenoe  of  this  deity.  The  pnnmpol 
product  of  L.  is  the  Ltmaian  Binik  (q.  v.),  n«ad  in 
ancient  times  as  a  cnia  for  wounds  and  aerpent- 
bitea,  and  stiti  highly  valued  by  both  Turks  and 
Greeks.  The  chid  town,  Eastnm  (on  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Myrma),  has  a  population  of,  GOOO. 
It  furnishes  excellent  sailors. 

LEMON  ((%nMi>inum(«»),  a  tree  which  has  by 
many  botanists  been  regarded  as  a  variety  of  the 
Citron  (q.  v. ),  and,  like  it,  a  native  of  the  north  of 
India.    Its  leaves 


it  ia  oblonn 
h  general^ 


I   or   oblong,    nsuslly 

__^   a   winged  stalk;  the 

d  and  reddish  on  the  ontaide :  the 

nkled  or  farrowed,  pale  yellow, 

otHMWeral-cyvtain  tltennd.    In  the 


Lemon  {Oitnu  Hmonvn). 

common  variety,  whidi  is  veiy  extensively  oolti- 
vated  in  many  tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries, 
the  pulp  of  the  fruit  is  very  add,  abounding  in 
citric  acid.  There  is,  however,  a  vorie^  called  ths 
Sweet  L.,  occasionally  cuHiVBted  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  of  which  the  jnioe  is  sweet  It  is  Citma 
Lwnta  of  tome  hotanistB,  and  has  both  ooncsve  and 
oonvex  ml-cysts  in  the  lind.    The  aoid  jnioe  (rf  the 


'■ ,.c;<-i'(->gi 


LXMONABB— LEUDB. 


inoch  OMd 

led  LtTiumade, 
fomu  in  febrile 
and  aoorbotio  oompluiiti.  It  ii  mnch  med  by 
c»lico-pniitera  to  diachar^  colonrs,  to  produce 
gi«&ter  oleariieaB  ia  the  white  part  of  patterns,  dyed 
with  djm  containing  iron.  As  a  preventive  of 
•ea-Bcarvf,  it  is  an  important  article  of  aea-storea. 
CStric  acid  and  lemon-juice  are  likewiae  mode 
from  it  ia  great  quantities.  The  tind  of  the  fmit 
[LemOTt-pee^,  separated  from  the  pulp,  and  kept  ia 
K  dried  state,  is  a  grateful  stomachic,  and  is  much 
died  for  flavouring-  The  prodnce  of  the  lemon- 
groves  of  Italy,  the  Trrol,  Spain,  Portugal,  the 
•cmth  of  IVanca,  and  otiiBr  countries  bordering  on 
the  Heditemne»Q  Sea,  i«  largely  exported  to  more 
northern  regions.  Sicily  alone  exports  annoally 
90,000  ohestg,  each  oontaining  440  lemons.  The 
L-tree  is  very  fniitful;  it  is  more  hardy  than  the 
orange,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  south  of  England 
jatidacea  very  good  crops,  being  trained  to  a  wall. 
Mid  protected  by  a  movable  fr^e  in  winter. — The 
Ik  is  snppoaed  to  have  been  introdnoed  into  Eoroi 
dming  the  Cmsadea.  It  ie  almoat  naturalised  in  tl 
south  of  Europe.  It  is  so  completely  natoraUsed 
•oms  parts  of  the  south  of  Brazil,  that  the  fleah  of 
the  o^e  which  pastm«  in  the  woods  aoqnires  a 
strong  smell  of  lemony  from  their  eating  fallen  froiL 

LEMONA1>E  is  fonned  hy  adding  two  lemons 
sliced,  and  two  onDCee  of  white  sugar,  to  a  quart 
iji  boiling  water,  and  dizesting  till  cold.  It  is  a 
oaefnl  dnnk  for  allaying  Uiirst,  and  as  a  refrigerant 
in  fsbrile  and  inflammatory  complaiat^  and  is 
luemorriiwtt,  in  which  cues  it  HhooM  be  given  iced. 
ASrated  Water  (q,  v.)  flavoured  with  sugar  and 
essence  of  lemcms  is  also  so  called. 

LEHON-GBABS  (Andropogon  acJuenanAiu),  a 
beantifnl  perennial  grass,  tluee  or  four  feet  hidii 
with  DMiide  mostly  leaning  to  one  side.  It  is  a  native 
of  India,  Arabia,  Ac,  and  is  extremely  abondant  in 
many  places.  It  has  a  strong  lemon-like  fragrance, 
oppressive  where  the  grass  abonnds.  It  ia  too 
ooaise  to  be  eaten  by  cattlt)  except  when  young, 
and  is  therefore  often  burned  down.  Europeans  in 
India  make  an  agre6aUe  stomachic  and  tome  tea  of 
the  freah  leares.  By  distillatioa,  on  etaentia]  oil 
ii  obtaiiied  {Lemon-grtu*  Oil),  which  is  employed 
ezteraallv  as  a  rtimnlant  in  rhcamatic  aSectioas, 
and  is  yellow,  with  a  strong  lemon-like  smell.  This 
OH  is  used  in  perfomaty,  and  is  often  called  Oil  of 
Veihtna  by  perfumeia.  L,  has  been  introduced  into 
the  West  &diea,  Australia,  Jcc    See  also  Qkas  On. 

LEHOIT-JUICE  is  a  somewhat  opaque,  very 
■our  liquid,  obtained  from  lemons  by  ex[K«asion  and 
■training.  Its  acidity  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
oitrio  and  a  little  malic  acid.  Its  principal  nses  in 
medicine  are  the  following  :  1.  As  an  anti-scorbutic- 
— '  Those  only,'  says  Sir  Gilbert  Blane, '  who  have 
made  themselves  acquainted  with  the  early  part  <rf 
the  naval  history  of  this  country,  can  duly  apioe- 
ciato  the  value  of  this  simple  remedy.'    Ita  active 

Srindple,  citric  acid,  is  now  freqaently  substituted 
ir  it  2.  In  rheumatUm. — Dr  G.  O.  B«ea,  who  first 
employed  it  in  this  disease,  '  oonsideis  the  citric 
acid  bo  undergo  changes  in  the  stomach,  and  to 
supply  oxygen  to  such  elements  as  tend  to  prodi 


of  e^rvesdng  drao^ta. — A  semide  ol  bicarbonate 
of  potash  in  Mlntion,  mixed  with  about  three 
draohas  and  a  half  of  lemoD-jnicek  so  as  to  form  a 
citmte  of  potaah,  forms  an  excellent  efFerrescent 
draught ;  it  acts  as  a  mild  diaphoretio  and  dioretic, 
tends  to  allay  febrile  disturbance,  and  serves  to 
check    nausea   and  vomiting.      If   the   object   is 


specially  to 

posed  of  a  temple 

in  solution,  with  dz  drachma  of  lemon-jnict 

to  form  a  citrate  of  ammonia,  is  preferable. 

vescing  draughts  are  often  employed  aa  agreeable 

vehicles  for  the  exhibition  of  other  remedies. 

LEMONS,  On.  or  fbsKNOB  or,  is  extracted  from 
the  minute  cells  which  are  Tisibla  on  the  lind  of 
the  lemon,  by  Bobmitting  raspings  of  the  fruit  to 
pressure  in  hair  aaca.  It  may  alaa  be  obtsined  by 
distilling  the  peel  with  water;  but  its  flavour,  when 
obtained  in  (his  way,  ia  less  agreeable,  altllongh  the 
oil  itself  IB  purer,  owing  to  me  absuice  of  nincil- 
agjnona  matter.  The  distilled  oil  ia  sold  under  th« 
name  of  mavrii^-dropt,  for  removing  greaae-spota 
from  silks  and  other  fsbncs.  Pure  oil  of  lemons  is 
mai^y  composed  of  a  hydrocarbon,  cilren  or  aironyX, 
O,  (,H„  which  is  consequently  isometrio  with  oil  of 
toipentine,  with  which  it  ia  often  adulterated.  It 
is  principally  used  for  ^t  pnipoee  of  oommunicating 
an  agreeable  odour  to  other  medicines,  although  it  ia 
sometimes  taken  in  the  doae  ol  two  or  three  drops 
on  sugar  as  a  carminativs.  From  ita  agreeable 
scent,  it  is  often  added  to  evaporating  lotionB  and  to 


LBHONS,  Salt  or,  a  name  commonly  but 
improperly  apphed  by  druggilFts  to  binoxalate  of 

Cab  nixed  with  a  little  of  the  quadroxalate. 
mixture  occurs  in  the  OxoSm  aettoeeSa,  and 
hence  it  has  been  designated  Salt  of  SorrA.  It  is 
employed  in  taking  ont  mk-spota. 

LEMPBIERB,  Johk,  D.D.,  bom  in  Jersey  about 
1760,  was  educated  at  Westminiler  School  uid 
Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  and  died  February  1, 
1S34.  His  name  was  once  well  known  to  every 
classical  student  in  the  British  empire,  but  the 
rising  generation  is  forgetting  it,  and!^  it  will  soon 
become  vox  a  vraiena.  nihO.  L's  Olatikat  Dic- 
tionary (Bibliotiieca  Clasaica,  1788)  woe  for  many 
years  the  standard  work  of  reference  in  England 
on  all  matters  of  andetit  mytholoj^,  biography,  and 
geography.  To  elderiy  scholars,  ffie  name  will  call 
up  many  pleasaut  memories  of  years  long  gone  by ; 
but  the  book  itself  ceased  to  i>osaees  any  intrinsic 
value  after  the  publication  of  the  excellent  clsnniral 
diaionaricB  edited  by  Dr  WiUiam  Smith,  1842— 
1S57.  Another  work  of  L.'s  was  Univenal  Bio- 
graphy (Lond.  180S}. 

LEMUR,  a  gaans  of  mammalia  which  raves  its 
kine  to  the  family  Lemuridal,  a  family  allied  to 
monkeys,  and,  like  them,  quadromanon^  having  on 
of  the  four  exttemitiea  a  well-developed  thumb 


opposed  to  the  fingers,  but  in  other  respects  exhibit- 

lU  approach  to  the  ordinary  quadrupedal  typ& 

genial   form  is  slender   and   elongated,  the 

muzzle  poiated,  the  eyes  large,  the  ears  very  small, 

hind  limbs  longer  and  larger  than  the  fore  limbs. 

;: ^   (^nojil.-- 


LElfURB9 — UiNB. 


The  nudar  bath  mre  fnnuBhed  with  pointed  tubarolea 
fitting  into  taoh.  other,  u  in  Inaeetivora,  and  the 
frlude  dentitioa  of  nuuiy  of  the  f&mily  u  adapted 
(o  »"p"»'  lathar  than  Tegetable  food.  All  the 
Xiemurida  are  natdvea  o(  the  mrm  parts  of  the  old 
wmld,  and  Kts  chieflj  in  foretts,  most  of  them 
limbing  traea  with  all  the  ^ility  of  moDkeya.  The 
name  £  <Lat.  lamar,  a  ghiMt)  ii  aUiuive  to  their 
npid  and  pecnlUr  noijeUea  moTementt.  Ilief  are 
gnoefol  &nd  beantifDl  creatoret,  and  ^enlly 
gentle  Mid  oMily  tamed ;  but  thejr  hare  neither  the 

gence  of  monkeya  The  epedea  of  the  genua  L.,  ae 
now  restricted,  are  all  nativee  of  Madagascar.  They 
■n  gresuinta,  and  their  food  ooniials  partly  <^ 
fndta.  The  names  Mala  and  Maameo  ore  giveD  to 
tome  tA  thm,  and  sometimes  extended  to  ^  Hie 
largest  speciea  is  kbont  the  size  of  a  large  cat. — To 
the  L.  (Moiiy  belong  alio  the  Loria,  Indns,  Gables, 
andTarnen. 

LB'HintBS,  the  general  derignation  (pTen  by 
the  Bomam  to  all  ■pfaits  of  de]^ui«d  persona,  ol 
whom  the  good  were  honoqied  as  Lares  {q.  v.),  and 
Uie  bad  (lAme)  were  feared,  as  ghosts  or  speotres 
vtaOl  are  \tj  tha  anpentitdoiw.  Li£e  the  latter,  they 
■mm  said  to  wander  about  daring  the  night,  seeking 
for  an  oppcatanity  of  inflicting  injnry  on  the  living. 
Tb*  festml  oUled  Lemaria  was  held  on  the  »E, 
lltb,  and  IStli  of  May,  and  was  accompanied  with 
wremoniM  of  wuIudk  hands,  tbtvwing  black  beans 
OTor  the  head,  Jkc,  and  the  ^nmnnoiataon  nine  times 
of  these  words :  *Begooe,yoa  spectres  of  Uie  bouse  J' 
which  deprived  tbeL.  of  their  power  to  harm.  Ovid 
describes  Uie  Lenntria  in  the  filth  book  of  his  Fadi. 

LBHA,  an  important  river  d  Eattem  Siberia, 
rites  amid  the  monntsios  on  tlte  nrath-west  shore 
«i  Lake  Baikal,  in  Uie  govmiment  of  Iikntsk, 
flows  first  in  a  Dorth-eastem  diredion  to  the  town 
of  Jskatak,  then  nottil  to  the  Arotio  Ocean,  into 
wldd>  it  falls  by  several  mouths^  Ite  oonrse  is 
30OO  miles  in  length,  and  its  chief  affluents  are  the 
Vilni  on  the  left,  and  ths  Vitdm,  the  Olekma,  and 
tiie  AUan  on  the  right  I4avigation  on  the  L.  is 
opea  from  May  till  Novemliar.  During  apring,  the 
waten  of  Uia  river  regularly  overHow  their  banks. 
Near  the  town  of  JakuUk,  the  breadth  of  the  river 
is  61  miles.  L.  is  the  principal  artei?  of  the  trade 
vS  Esstem  Siberia.  Runian  and  Chinese  (foods,  m 
well  as  Siberian  fora,  furnished  by  the  natives,  are 
expected  from  this  river.  The  chief  harbours  on 
the  liver  are  Oldcminsk,  Jakutsk,  and  Eaohugsk, 
wher«  £SOfiW  worth  ol  goods  from  Irkntsk  aie 
^pped  annoally. 

IiENCZI'ZA,  an  ancient  Polish  town,  in  the 
goremment  of  E^aliaz,  aboat  90  miles  we«t-sonth. 
west  of  the  dtyof  Warsaw.  It  contain*  the  mint 
of  a  castle  of  Koiimir  IT.,  erected  in  1180.  Pop. 
nSSO)  16,55(1,  half  of  whom  are  Germans  and  Jews. 
I^nen  and  woollen  clotha  and  soap  are  manufactured. 

I.ENKORA'N,  a  Banian  aeaport  on  the  Caspian 
8^  and  a  district  town  in  the  goremment  of  Baku, 
in  the  Cancaans,  in  lak  38°  46 ,  is  a  place  of  great 
importance  for  the  trada  between  Hunia  and 
Persia ;  bat  a  defective  harbonr,  and  the  vioinity  of 
warlike  tribes,  have  hitherto  rendo^  its  natoral 
adrsntage*  of  little  avniL    Pop.  (1880)  6320. 

LEmiEP,  Jam  Dakhlvau,  a  Dutch  jdiilolof^ 
waa  born  at  Leeowarden,  in  the  province  of  Fnes- 
la&d,  in  1724,  aod  studied  at  Praneker  and  Leyden. 
In  ]762,ho  was  appointed  Frofeaaor  of  Ancient  Iau- 
gnages  at  Oroningen,  and  fifteen  years  afterwards 
aX  VnDBka.  Be  died  in  1771.  The  works  which 
nrindpaUy  obtained  him  a  repntation  for  learning 
and  aeateneaa,  are  liis£^nnaloi;>eHm  Lingua  Qraea, 
wl  hit  D«  AuaiofpA  I/iitjaa  Ontect,  both  of  which 


etymological 


:    IiKMKKP,    . 


member 


«nblished.  The 
science,  noi 
useless.— ^D^viD  Jaoob 
of  the  same  family  as  the  preceding,  was  btm 
at  Amsterdam,  Ifith  July  1774,  devoted  ^ '"»»«<* 
to  the  study  of  philo1<^,  and  ultimately  became 
ProfesKT  of  Rhetaria  at  Leyden.  He  died  10th 
FebnisiT  1863.  Besides  being  one  of  the  best 
Latiniats  among  his  coontryiaen,  be  wrote  several 
a^ointe  pieces  of  jpoetry  in  his  mother-tongne. 
His  principal  wribngs  are  Oartnaut  JtivotiUa 
(Amst  1791),  EjxnMtUiima  JiaU  (Leyd.  1796), 
valuable  annotated  editions  of  some  of  the  cUssio 
authors,  and  a  metrical  Dutch  translatum  of  tiie 
Worix  and  Dayt  of  Hoiod  (Amst  1823).— His 
son,  Jacob  vak  Lbhnef,  bom  at  Amsterdam,  2fitli 
March  1802,  is  proudly  called  by  his  countrymen, 
the  'Waltw  Scott  of  Holland.'  Edacated  for  tbe 
law,  he  passed  as  a  barrister,  and  soon  achieved  a 
great  repntation  tor  legal  knowledge.  Yet  with- 
out neglecting  hit  extensive  jwactice,  he  for 


1  work  entitled  Vaderlandtd>a  Ltgenden 
(national  Lwends).  Since  then,  his  most  popular 
works  have  been  the  comedies,  Hd  Dorp  aan  die 
Graaen  {The  Frontier  Village,  1830),  Htt  Dorp 
oatT  die  Orensxn  (The  Village  over  the  Frontier, 
1830),  and  thu  novels,  Oitie  Vooroudert  (Our  Fore- 
father*}, Dt  Soot  van  DdMtaa  (The  Bose  of 
Dekama,  1837— Fnglish  by  Woodley,  1S47),  and 
De  PUegioon  (The  Adopted  Son— English  by 
Hoskins,  New  York,  IWTl-  L,  who  poisessed  a 
remotbble  knowl«dge  of  the  Bnelish  langnags 
and  literatare,  has  ttantUted  into  Dutch  some  of 
Sbakspeare's  fin«et  pkyt,  and  of  Bvron,  Southey, 
and  Tennyson's  poems.  A  complete  edition  of 
his  dramatic  works,  comprising  tragedies,  comedies, 
and  operas,  appeared  at  Amsterdam  in  1852^1866. 
He  was  engaged  for  several  years  on  an  edition  of 
the  great  Dutch  poet  VondeL    He  died  Aug.  26,  I86& 

LB^NOXTOWK,  a  village  of  Stirlingshire, 
Scotland^  is  situated  in  a  pictureeqne  district  on 
Glazert  Water,  on  the  Campeie  and  Bkne  Valley 
Railway,  eleven  miles  north -north -east  of  Glasgow. 
It  contains  (1881)  3249  inhabitant,  employed  ohieQy 
in  the  print-works  and  alum-works  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood. 

LENOCl'NIGM  is  a  term  borrowad  from  the 
canon  law,  and  used  in  Ttpgljl't'i  but  more  frequently 
in  Scotch  law  to  denote  a  hniband'e  cmnivanoe  in 
his  wife's  adultery.  The  wife  can  let  up  such 
defence  to  a  suit  for  divorce,  on  the  ground  of  her 
adultery  so  procured. 

IjEKS  (Lat  '  a  lentil ')  is  a  circular  seotion  of  any 
trantpareot  substance  having  it*  surfaces  either 


both  spherical,  or  one  of  them  plane  and  the  other 
spherical  As  represented  in  fig.  1,  a  raf  of  light  in 
patsing  through  a  lent  is  bent  towards  its  thickest 
part ;  lience  l^iea  aie  either  convex  (Uuckert  in 


.ClOQgl' 


liSKt— t£KftL 


middle}  or  oonoava  (UiiokMt  at  edgei).  The 
former  mkkM  tbe  rays  more  Convergent  (q.  t.) 
thMi  before)  the  latter  make  them  more  Divergent. 
The  punt  to  irhioh  the  ravi  co&Terge,  or  froia  Which 
they  direffge,  i«  oaJled  the  fooiu — prindpal  Cocas 
whan  the  niTll  bm  parcel  Ths  Wu  for  a  convex 
leu  la  real,  Le^  tha  rayi  aotnallT  paaa  thiongh  it, 
Mtd  form  an  inverted  image  Hnaller  or  larger  than 
Um  object  acovding  aa  tM  object  ii  at  a  distaooe 
greater  ot  ItH  than nrioe  die  principal  focal  length; 
hnt  the  imaoe  i>  areot  and  macnified  if  tha  object 
be  irithin  tba  principal  focal  length.  For  a  oon- 
cava  laoB  the  fooiu  i*  virtaal — tiit  raji  aeem  to 
oome  fKHn  it  and  form  an  erect  image  amaller  than 
the  object 

The  following  ia  the  mode  of  finding  the  principal 
foons  when  parallel  rayi  fall  on  a  donble  codtcx 
lens  (fig  2) ;  0  is  the  centre  of  tbe  curved  aorfaae 
PAF,  and  (F  of  the  mrfaoe  PBP;  9  u  the  point 
towards  which  the  ra^s  tend  while  patslng  throngb 
the  leni,  and  F  the  point  to  wMoh  they  converge 
after  emergence.  LetOA.nr,t>B<-«,  A7-/,and 
BF  (Uie  focal  length)  —  /;  then  negleotiiig  the 
t**'"*'"""  of  the  lene,  which  may  be  done  when  the 
cnrvatore  of  the  leoe  ii  amall,  Aq^Kq,  and  AFi* 
BF.    By  the  demonstration  given  nnder  the  article 


DioiTRica,  we  findy  — 


r.for  the  refraotioa  a 


the  flrat  mrfoaa ;  and,  tor  the  aeoond  anrface,  we 
find,  In  tiie  ordioary  tnatisee  od  Optica,  that  vhen 
a  pencil  of  converging  raya  emergea  from  a  leiia, 

%=•— ••  7>      Adding    thia    fonnula    to    the 

former,  we  obtain  0  =  O-  -  l/i  +  ^)  -  ^  or  ^ 


-O*-!) 


^    .   ^} 


:  md  if  the  leni  be  eqtii-a 


(ma),  and  of  glai*  Oa^-I),  we  have^  =  ^or/Br. 
Una  result  ia  eqnaUr  correct  for  a  double  ooncsve 
lena;  bnt  if  tile  thickneu  of  tbe  lena  be  taken  mto 
account,  there  is  a  small  quantity  which  ia  addi- 
tive to  the  valne  of  ^  in  the  eoave^  bnt  aabttaotiva 
in  tbe  concave  len&      Hie  determination  of  the 

Eirincipal  focns  in  the  other  forma  of  lenses,  will  be 
Dond  in  the  ordinary  text-booka.  The  lenses  in 
fig.  1,  though  they  may  be  of  the  same  focal  length, 
hare  pecalur  prr^ierties  which  render  them  snitaUe 
for  particiiUr  optical  instnunents  ;  thaa,  the  con. 
vexo-pUoe  lens  has  only  one-fonrth  of  the  aberra- 
tion of  a  plano-oonvei,  or  two-thirds  of  an  equi-con- 
vex  or  equi-coDcave  of  the  aame  focal  length ;  bnt, 
in  general,  the  equi-convex  is  the  most  desirable 
form.  Aberration*  has  been  to  opticians  what  re- 
fiaction  is  to  tlls  astronomer,  an  unwelcome  in- 


indeed,  been  destroyed  by  combining 
eqoal  and  opposite  aberrations,  as,  for 


tiia  tod  of  lenses, apply  onl7  to  tajs  . ,_  __._„_ 

and  near  the  centre  ol  tbt  leni:  tha  ran  which  pui 
near  the  edges  eonverga  to  a  duTareot  focns,  and  fhe 
diatanoe  heMaan  theea  two  fad  is  sailed  tbe  lon^ 


uniting  by  means  of  Canada  balsam,  a  donUe  oon* 
vex  wiUi  a  double  concave.  A  still  better  method 
wouM  be  the  formation  of  leneet  having  one  aide 
spherical,  and  the  otiier  of  an  eUipaoidal  or  a  hype^ 
boloidal  form ;  bnt  this  haa  not  yet  been  auoeiosa 
fnlly  aooompliahed.  Convex  lenses  of  glass,  nek- 
mII^  ioe,  Jre.  mi^be  need  a*  *  bnming-glasBs^*  linoa 
radiant  beat  ia  refracted  aooording  to  the  same  law* 
it — the  hot  foona  bong  neaHjr  eoineideot  witii 


aalight- 
the  Tumi 


LEKT  (An^-Sax.  Uncten  =  Ger.  laix,  spring;  Qr. 
TeuamiMtlt  ;L»t.  Qutidriigt*ima),Qa  fasting-tinie 
before  Easter,  whicn  !■  observed  in  the  Boman, 
and  in  the  Oreek,  and  other  Oriental  dorchoft 
Under  the  head  of  Fast  have  been  considered 
tiie  doctrinal  and  historical  questions  connected 
with  the  general  practice  of  usting.  It  remains 
only  to  explain  briefly  what  is  peonliar  in  the 
iostitntian  and  tiie  observance  of  the  Lenten  fast. 
It  it  certaJnly  of  very  andent,  If  it  be  not  even  of 
primitiTe  inttitntion.  Tha  earlieet  allD«on«  to  it 
speak  of  it  as  an  eetobtisbed  otage  banded  Aaim 
from  tiie  Fathera.  The  taftf  dayr  period,  a*  com- 
memorative of  om'  Lord'a  lartj  days*  fast  or  of 
Uie  similar  perfmiotory  fasts  ot  Mosea  and  e(  EBaa, 
oommenoea  witli  Ash-Wedneaday,  between  H^ileh 
day  and  Easter-9nnday  (omitting  ttie  Simdaya  on 
which  the  fast  ia  not  ohaerved),  fb^  clear  days  mtar- 
vene.  Hie  Tizonr  of  the  ancient  obaemnoe,  which 
exdnded  all  flesh,  and  even  the  so-called  'lAite 
'  *  '  r  mnch  relaxed;  but  tba  prlnd^  ol 
it  (me  meal,  wiUt  a  d^t  refeebon  or 


the  Crusades  ai 

tice  arose  of  po  ^, 

tution  of  a  oontribntioQ  to  the  holy  war  t<x 

obanrMice  of  the  Lenten  abstinence  ;  and  althon^ 

the  object  haa  long  sinoe  oeased,  the  ouuipuaiLion 

Is   still   permitted,   under  the   same  title  of   the 

Crtttada.    In  the  Oraek  Churoh,  tiie  ante-paachal 

fist  ia  of   4S  days ;   but  it  is  only  one  of  four 

similar  fasting  periods  observed  in   that  ebnroh. 

See  FAfrr.   In  ths  Anglican  Church,  Lent  is  retained 

as  a  church  season  of  the  calendar,  witii  special 


LENTA'ITDO,  in  Music,  the  san 
or  ritardando,  meaning  a  gradnal  decrease  in  tha 
speed  of  the  movement. 

LEKTIBULABIA'CE^,  a  natural  ords  of 
exoBcnoua  plants,  allied  to  PrinmUieM,  bnt  distin* 
KHidied  hj  an  irregnlar  ooroll^  and  diandroaa 
Sowers.  It  has  alao  intimate  relatiana  with  £cnipfttt< 
lariaaa.  It  contains  nearly  200  known  spedes, 
all  herbaeeons,  and  all  Living  in  water  or  marshes. 
They  abound  chiefly  in  the  trofdca.  A  few  species 
of  Bladderwort  (q.  t.)  and  Butterwort  (^  vl)  are 
its  only  representatives  in  Britain. 

LENTIL  {Brvum  Unt),  an  annual  plant  of  tiie 
same  genns  with  Taree  (q.  v,),  a  native  tf  the 
countries  near  the  Mediterranean,  and  which  ha 
been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  timae,  yidding  ao 
esteemed  kind  of  pulse.  The  English  tnntlatioD 
of  Uie  BiUe  is  probably  correct  in  calling  tiw  rtd 
pottage  with  which  Jacob  parcbaaed  Esan's  \aii^ 
Ti^t,  pottage  qfteniilt;  the  red  otdonr  bdng  vary 
characteristic  of  this,  which  is  still  a  very  oommon 
article  of  food  in  the  East  The  L.  is  extensivdy 
cnltivsted  in  t^e  south  of  Europe,  Egypt,  aad  the 
East,  md  to  some  extent  in  other  parte  of  the  wotld. 
It  has  a  weak  and  brsnching  stem,  from  6 — 18 
isoliss  high,  and  pinnate  leaves  with  6 — I  pair  trf 


ii«^:,,  Google 


leafletH,  the  ni^ier  leavec  oaty  numing  into  tendrili. 

The  flowers  are  nnall,  white,  liUo,  or  p»le  blue, 
the  coroLU  much  concealed  by  the  calyx,  whieh  ia 
divided  dmo>t  to  its  base  into  five  narrow  teetL 
The  pods  are  very  sliort  and  blunt,  thin,  two-aeeded, 
>nd  smooth ;  the  seeds  bare  the  form  of  a  ronnd 
leaa,  convex  on  both  aides.    There 


alow,  gentle.    Aooordins  to  the  bflll  MitbMitlM, 
-      ■  ■      '"  '  ^  Lanto  ii 
AAndaMt. 


the  morement  implied  02 
between  it  k 


Lanto  i*  qviolur  than 


of  ntodarate-Dsed  pease.  ', 
food,  oontamiiu;  an  nnoi 
nitrogeuoDt  auMtanee^ 
than  peaae.  They  have  recently  become  oommon  in 
the  BhopB  of  Britain  in  a  tana  rssembliog  tplit  paue, 
and  in  that  of  meal  (L./orina),  which  ia  the  baaiB, 
if  not  the  whole  substance,  ol  Eeoaienia  Arairiea 
and  Srwkala,  so  mnch  advertiaed  aa  food  for 
dyspnitio  patients,  at  prices  greatly  exceeding  thoss 
for  which  L.  meal  can  be  obtained  under  ite  own 
name.    lentils  mixed  with  peaae  '      ' 


horses ;  and  the  herbage  nsed  aa  green  food  tor 
eowa,  rendera  them  extremely  productiTa  of  milk. 
The  Ik  grows  beat  in  a  light  and  rather  dry  soil. 
In  a  Terr  rich  soil,  it  pra&cee  comparatively  few 
pods.  Some  of  the  varieties  succeed  well  even  on 
very  poor  soils.  The  whole  life  of  the  plant  is 
shorter  than  that  of  any  other  of  the  Legummoaoi 
cultivated  in  Biit^n.  The  seed  may  be  sown  in 
April  in  the  olimate  of  Britain ;  bnt  althongh 
there  ia  nothing  in  the  coldneaa  of  the  climate 
to  prevent  the  aaccesafnl  cultivation  of  lentils,  it 
•eems  to  be  too  tncist  for  them,  tlie  ripe  or  ripen- 
ing seeds  being  very  apt  to  be  injured  by  moisture. 
There  ia  no  evident  reaaon,  however,  why  this 
plant  ahonld  not  be  cultivated  for  green  food  of 
cattle. 

LEtrrilTI,  a  town  of  Sioilr,  in  the  provinoe  of 
Siracusa,  stands  near  the  lake  of  the  aaiue  name, 
on  a  hill  1ft  miles  aouth-aonth-weat  of  Catania,  and 
baa  12,000  inhabitanta.  It  haa  a  large  gonpawder 
mill,  and  derives  a  good  revenue  from  the  fialiatj  ii 
liftke  Lentini. 

LCirrO,  or  LEKTAMETNT:^  in  Music,  meani 


LEO,  tiw  flfth  sign  of  tite  ZoDiao  (q.  v.). 


oall  for  particular  notice.— Lio  L,  snmamed  'the 
Great,*  who  it  held  a  sunt  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Ohnrch,  and  i»  one  o(  the  most  eminent  of  the 
Latin  Fathers,  was  boru  of  a  distingiuahed  BtruriaD 


s  chosen  aa  his 
It  is  in  hia  pontificate  that  the  regular  aerica  of 
papal  letters  and  decretals  mav  be  said  to  commenoe. 
Leo's  letters,  addrened  to  all  parts  of  the  church. 


n  evidence  of  tlie 

Roman  we.    In  a 

couiHni  QBUi  sb  Aume  m  vw,  be  Set  aaide  t^ 
proceedings  of  the  oonnoil  ot  Epheaoa,  iddch  had 
pronounced  in  favour  of  Entyohea  (q.  v.),  summoned 
a  new  oonnoil  at  Chaloedon,  in  \nuch  his  l^atsa 
pr««idBd,  and  in  which  Leo's  oelebrated  '  Dogmatical 
Letter'  waa  accepted  'as  the  voioe  of  Peter,'  and 
adopted  as  the  antiientio  exposition  of  the  orthodox 
doc&ine  on  the  paraon  of  Christ.  The  hiitory  of 
Leo's  interposHdoQ  with  Attila  in  defence  of  the 
Boman  city  and  people  will  be  found  under  the  head 
Arnu.  i  and  his  subaequent  aimilar  intarpoaition 
with  Geuaerio,  if  less  dramBtio  in  the  incidontf  with 
which  history  or  legend  haa  invested  it,  waa  at  least 
ao  far  succ«eafu]  as  to  save  the  Uvea  of  the  eitliens, 
ha  poblio  and  ^^te  buildings  of  tile  eity  of 
I.  Leo  died  atBome  in  4S1.  His  worka,  the 
important  of  which  are  his  Letters  and  Sv 

,  were  fitat  printed  in  1479,  and  afterwards  1^ 

Qoeancl  {2  vols.  t»aa,  16TS)i  but  a  much  more 
complete  and  tmstworthy  edition  is  that  of  Caooiari 
a  vols.  foL  Borne,  1793—1765),  and  of  the  Brothen 
Balleriai  (Venice,  1767).— The  pontifloate  of  Lbo 
HL  is  chiefly  notioeable  as  the  epoch  of  the  formal 
establishmeat  of  the  Empire  of  the  Weet.  He  was 
a  native  of  Rome,  and  waa  elected  pope  on  the  death 
of  Adrian  L  in  796.  During  the  gr^iater  part  ol  the 
Sth  c.,  the  popes,  through  the  practical  withdrawal 
ot  the  eaatem  emperors,  had  exercised  a  temporal 
supremacy  in  Kome,  which  was  fully  recognised  by 
^^~  gift  of  Pepin,  and  placed  under  thaprotecto- 
of  the  Fnuik  sovereigna,  who  receirea  the  title 
of  Fatrioian.  The  jK>ntifi<nte  of  Leo,  however,  was  a 
troubled  one,  and  in  799  he  waa  treated  with  mnoh 
violence,  and  obliged  to  See  to  Spoleto,  irtience  he 
afterwards  repaired  to  Faderbom,  in  order  to  hotd 
conference  with  Charlemaene.  On  hit  tetnm  to 
Home,  he  was  received  with  much  honour  by  the 
Bomans,  and  the  chiefs  ol  the  conspiracy  against 
bitn  were  sentenoed  to  banishment.  In  the  following 
year  (800),  Charlemaraie,  having  come  to  Bome,  was 
Bolemjily  crowned  ai^  saluted  emperor  by  the  pope, 
and  the  temporal  sovereignty  of  the  pope  over  the 
**  >man  city  and  state,  mider,  however,  ttie  snset^ 
._jty  of  the  emperor,  was  formally  eataUidied.  In 
804,  Leo  visited  Charlemagne  at  nis  court  at  Aix- 
la-Chapelle.  With  Charlemagne's  sucoeasor,  Louie 
le  D^bonnaire,  Lao  waa  embroiled  in  a  dispute 
about  the  right  of  sovereign  jurisdiction  in  Some, 
which  had  not  been  brought  to  a  oonoluaion  when 
Leo  died  in  816. — Lbo  X.,  Giovanni  de'  Medid,  the 
aecond  son  of  the  celebrated  Lorenzo  de*  Medici, 
bom  at  Florence  in  December  1476.  From 
his  cradle,  he  was  destined  to  the  ecclesiastical 
career.  His  edncation  was  intrusted  to  the  ablest 
Bcholars  of  the  age ;  and  through  the  infiuenoe  of 
hit  father  with  uie  pope.  Innocent  TIIL,  he  was 


tEO  Xm—LEON. 


onrted   Midiiwl  At  the 

thirteen  yttn,  in  14SS. 

Medici  from  Florenoe,  after  the  iui 

the  jroQUg  oardiukl  wm  iuoladed,  and  he  used  Uie 


the  war  vith  the  French,  he  woe  taken  prisoner 
the  battle  of  BuTeuna,  bat  soon  afterwards  effected 
Mb  eacapo.  On  the  deaUi  of  Julius  IL  in  1513, 
Cardinal  d^  Medici  was  chosen  pope  at  the  earlj 
age  of  37,  under  the  name  of  Leo  X.  TTin  first 
appointment  of  the  two  great  schalars  Bembo  and 
Sadoleto  m  hia  secretanea  waa  a  pledge  of  the 
favour  towanJB  learning  which  was  the  oharac- 
teriitio  of  hia  pontificate ;  but  he  did  not  neglect 
the  mora  matenal  iatereete  of  the  church  ana  the 
Boman  lee^  He  brouffht  to  a  successful  oooda- 
■ion  the  fifth  council  tn  the  Latenm  (see  Cocncil), 
and  the  sohism  which  waa  threatened  by  the  rival 
council  of  Pisa,  He  concluded  a  concordat  with 
I^mida  L  of  France,  which  continaed  to  regulate  the 
French  church  till  the  lUvolution.  In  the  political 
relationa  of  the  Soman  see,  ha  consolidated  and, 
in  some  degree,  extended  ijia  re-conqueets  of  his 
warlike  prei^eesor,  Julius  IL,  although  he  also  used 
his  position  and  his  infiuence  for  the  aggrandise- 
ment of  hia  family.  His  desertion  of  the  alliance 
of  Francis  L  for  that  of  hia  youn^  rival,  Charles  V., 
although  the  sabject  of  much  criticism,  was  dictated 
by  a  Bound  consideration  of  the  interests  of  Italy. 
But  it  is  moat  of  all  as  a  patron  of  learning  and 
art  that  the  reputation  of  Leo  has  lived  with 
poaterity.  Hims^  a  scholar,  ha  loved  learning  for 
ita  own  take ;  and  his  court  was  the  meeting-point 
of  all  the  acholara  of  Italy  and  the  worliL  He 
fonnded  a  Qreek  college  in  Rome,  and  established 
a  Qreek  press,  which  he  endowed  munificently  (see 
LAScaJUS).  In  the  encouragement  of  art,  he  was  no 
less  munificent.  Paiating,  aculpture,  architecture, 
were  equally  favoured  -,  and  it  is  to  his  vast  project 
for  the  rebuilding  of  St  Peter's,  and  to  the  step  to 
which  he  had  recourse  for  procuring  the  necessary 
funds — his  permittiiiff  the  preaching^  of  aa  indulg- 
ence, one  of  the  conditions  of  obtaining  which  was 
the  conbibutiou  to  this  work — that  the  first  rise 
of  the  Befonnation  in  Germany  is  ascribed.  He 
himself  seems  to  have  regarded  the  movement  as 
of  little  importance,  describing  it  as  '  a  squabble 
among  the  friars;'  and  though  he  condemned 
the  propositiona  of  Luther,  and  issued  a  commis- 
ckm  to  inqnire  into  his  doctrines,  his  measures, 
on  the  whole,  ware  not  marked  by  much  severity. 
Hia  personal  habits  were  in  keeping  with  his  taste 
— qjleadid  and  munificent  in  too  highest  degree ; 
but  in  hi*  moral  conduct  he  maintained  a  strict 
proprie^,  and  hia  character,  although  not  free 
m>m  the  stain  of  nepotism,  the  vice  of  that  age, 
and  more  modelled  on  the  ideal  of  an  nnlightoned 
prince  than  on  that  of  a  lealoua  and  ascetic 
churchman,  was  beyond  all  imputation  of  nnworthi- 
nesB  or  irregularis.  His  death,  which  occurred 
rather  suddenly  on  lat  Dec.  I52I,  during  the  public 
rejoicings  in  Rome  for  the  taking  of  Milan,  was  by 
■ome  aaoribed  to  poison;  but  there  seema  no  solid 
reason  for  the  suspicion.  See  Boscoe's  Lift  and 
PotUifieaU  of  Leo  X.  (1806). 

LEO  XIII.,  the  present  head  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  waa  elected  to  the  pontificol  chair, 
20th  Feb.  1878.  Descended  from  an  old  patrician 
family,  Gioicohino  Pecoi  waa  born  2d  March  1810, 
at  Carpineto,  a  village  in  Central  Italy.  He  studied 
at  the  CoUegio  Romano,  graduated  in  law  and  theo- 
logy, and  becoming  a  favourite  with  Pope  Gregory 
XVt,  waa  named  by  liim  a  prelate  of  Wie  house- 
hold. Aa  delegate  successively  at  Beneventt^ 
Spoleto,  and  Perugia,  he  displayed  great  energy  in 


the  goramnunt  of  these  provinoes,  and  waa  eipa- 

oiaUy  vigorous  and  successful  in  the  work  of  aup- 

Eressing  bri^dage.  Though  but  33  yean  of  tg^ 
e  was  in  1843  imtde  Archbishop  of  Dahnatia,  ua 
sent  to  BruBsals  aa  papal  nuncio.  In  1646  Gragcn^ 
selected  Pecci  fur  the  dignity  of  cardinal,  but  his 
friendly  views  in  favonr  of  the  young  archbishop 
ware  frustrated  by  death,  and  it  was  not  till  1853 
that  Gregory's  suocessor,  Pius  IX.,  saw  fit  to  confer 
the  cardinals  hat.  Cardinal  Pecci  was  no  favoorrte 
of  the  all-powerfnl  Cardinal  Antonelli,  and  was 
accordingly  not  promiueot  in  papal  councils.  But 
in  1877  ne  was  made  Camerlengo  {papal  Finance 
Uiaister),  and  was  chosen  to  be  t&  ~  * 

Pius  IX.  in  the  pontificate  in  1S7& 

LEO  III.,  FiAViira,  sumamed  'Ui 
(from  his  birthplace).  Emperor  of 
(718 — 741  A.'D.),  waa,  like  most  or  ma  eascem 
emperors,  first  a  soldier  m  the  imperial  army,  and 
soon  rose  to  eminenoe  through  his  military  talenta^ 
Anaataains  IL  appointed  him  to  guard  tiie  Aisatio 

C»rtion  of  the  empire  from  the  ravages  of  the  Arabs, 
lit  on  the  deposition  of  the  former  by  Theodoeiua 
III,,  Leo  overthrew  the  usurper,  and  assumed  the 
crown  (Mareh  718).  He  was  scarcely  seated  on 
the  imperial  throne,  when  the  Calif  Suleiman 
laid  siege  to  Constantinople  by  land  and  sea; 
thii^  the  third  atege  of  the  capital  by  the  Arabs, 
lasted  for  two  years,  bat  waa  finally  raised  through 
the  energy  of  Leo.  The  governora  of  several  pro- 
lelled,   and  it  cost  Leo 


latholia 
The  edict  pro- 
duced a  moat  stertling  effect;  rebellions  breke  ont 
in  all  qnartera,  and  luvenna,  Rome,  and  the  other 
Greek  poeseuiona  in  Italy  were  finally  severed  from 
the  empire.  Leo,  enrag^  at  his  losses,  determined 
to  take  revenge  on  their  author,  the  pop^  and 
accordingly  removed  Oreeoe,  Hlyria,  and  Macedonia 


permanent  breach  between  the  I^tin  and  Greek 
churehea  (734).  During  the  remainder  of  his  reign, 
little  of  importance  occurred,  excepting  an  indeci- 
sive war  with  the  'Arabs,  arid  a  great  earthquake 
(October  740),  whi<j|  oauaed  dr^dfnl  calamities 
throughont  the  empire.    Leo  died  18th  June  741. 

LEOBSCHUTZ,  a  town  in  the  south  of  Pruasia, 
iu  Sileaio,  near  the  river  Zmna,  has  large  com  and 
fiax  markets.    Pop.  (ISSO)  12,018. 

LBOMIITSTEB,  a  market-town,  and  municipal 
{till  18SS  also  parliamentary)  borough  of  England, 
in  the  county  of  Eercfoi^,  situated  12  miles  north 
of  the  city  of  that  name,  on  the  river  Log.  The 
immediate  vidoity  of  L.  is  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated catUe-breding  districts  in  the  world.  Fop. 
(ISSl)  6U4Z 

IiB'ON,  a  city  of  Nicaragua,  near  the  north-west 
extremity  of  the  lake  of  it*  own  name,  distant  abont 
10  miles  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  is  finely  situated 
in  a  moat  picturesque  district,  and  contains  a 
cathedral,  a  noble  etufice,  and  a  university.  Fop^ 
about  25,000.— The  lake,  also  called  Managua, 
from  the  city  at  its  south  end,  measures  35  miles  1^ 
IG.  It  derives  peculiar  interest  from  its  being  an 
essential  part  of  one  of  the  proposed  canal  routea 
acrosa  Central  America  between  the  Athuttio  and  the 
Pacific.    See  Nicarauita  T;J^^[lt, 

LEON  {the  Leyio  teplima  oembta  <d  the  Romans), 
capital  of  the  former  Spaniim  province  of  the  aame 
name^  is  situated  betwem  the  riven  Bemesga  and 
Torio,  in  a  beautifully  wooded  plain,  85  milea 
north-weat  of  Valladolid,    Part  of  the  old  BMiun 


iv  Google 


LEOIT— LBOKIKE  YEBSBS. 


wsU,  ao  feat  thiek,  ii  atill  ctanding.  The  ttreeti 
an  crooked  and  dirt^,  bnt  the  ahut«fae«  are  both 
nqmerous  and  aplendid,  utpecMty  the  eathednd,  a 
gpecimea  of  the  pnreat  Gotbio,  coDtoiniiig  the  totnba 
ol  nuDv  Borereigiu  of  L.,  Hunta,  and  nuabyn.  The 
trade  cd  L.  is  now  mimportant.    FopL  6720. 

LEON,  tonnerly  a  kjjwdom,  and  BubBequently  a 
ptovince  of  Spain,  now  sobdiTidcd  into  the  smaller 
ptivincee  of  Sohuaanca,  Zamora,  and  Leon,  ia  situ- 
ated in  theN.W.  of  Spain,  S,  of  Aaturiao,  and  border- 
ingonPortngal.  Areaabout  tSiOOOsq.m.  Pop.  (1870} 
881,930  (of  modern  province,  350,092).  The  counby, 
which  ia  interaectod  by  the  Douro,  la  monntainoua, 
ganetally  fertile,  but  miaerably  cultivated.  It  afforda 

CBtnrage  to  vaat  flocks  of  merino  aheept    The  ia- 
bitimtB  are  for  the  moat  part  uneducated  and  lazj, 
but  are  very  high- imiri ted,  rich  in  iwoulior  oust — 

of  pure  Sfuuiiiih   deacaQt,  Binccre,  hospitable, 

brave.  It  ia  auid  that  in  the  hi^  districts  south 
of  Salamanca,  temiuuits  of  the  pure  G«thio  tribes 
eiist,  and  at  Astorgo,  rcmiiantB  of  the  old  Celtiberi 
— the  Marayatoa.  The  tneana  of  communication 
are  everywhere  very  defective.  The  Kingdom  of 
Leon  was  erected,  in  746,  by  Alfonso  the  Catholic 
out  of  the  provinces  he  had  wreated  from  the 
Saraceno,  and  the  older  kingdom  of  ABturios,  and 
in  1230  it  was  pennaneotly  united  to  Castile. 

LEONABDO  DA  TINCL  This  great  geoini, 
whose  works  in  painting  are  classed  with  those  of 
Kapbael  and  Michael  Angelo,  was  also  a  sculptor, 
architect,  and  engineer,  and  ho  cultivated  aaccesa- 
fnlly  anatomy,  botany,  mathematics,  astronomy, 
poetiy,  and  music.  He  was  bom,  in  1462,  at  Vinoi, 
m  the  Val  d'Amo,  near  Florence ;  hia  father,  Fietro 
da  Vinci,  notary  bo  the  aigniory  of  Florence,  pUaad. 
him  in  good  time  with  Andrea  Verrocchio,  who 
was  an  able  sculptor,  and  a  good  painter ;  but  in 
painting,  his  pupil  soon  surpassed  him.  In  1483, 
tie  weut  to  Milan,  and  the  Duke  Lodovico  il  More 
conferred  on  him  an  annual  pension  of  600  dollan. 
Besides  performing  various  services  for  the  duke, 
particularly  as  an  engineer,  he  institnted  an  Academy 
of  Arts  in  1485.  '.uus  Academy,  of  which  he  was 
named  director,  was  attended  by  many  eminent 
ftrtists,  and  influenced  moat  beneficially  the  Lombard 
school  of  painting.  It  was  in  1497,  when  45  years 
of  age,  that  he  executed  his  fiimona  pictnre,  '  The 
Last  Supper,"  which  was  painted  in  oil  on  the  wall 
in  the  rSectory  of  the  Dominican  oonvcnt  of  Santa- 
Maria-deUe-Qracie.  He  remained  in  Milan  till 
1600,  when,  on  its  oocapation  by  the  French,  be 
returned  to  Florence,  and  id  1602  was  appointed 
amhitect  and  chief  engineer  to  Cesare  Borgia, 
captain-general  of  the  pope's  army.  In  1503, 
he  was  emplaned  by  Soderioi  Gonfaloniere  of 
Florence  to  pamt  one  end  of  the  oouncil-hall  of 
the  Paluto  vecchio.  For  this,  L  only  completed 
the  celebrated  cartoon  called  the  'Battle  of  the 
Stukdard;*  another  cartoon  for  a  painting  in  the 
same  apartoient,  the  eijually  celebrated  design 
called  the  *  Cartoon  of  Pisa,'  having  been  executed 
at  the  sune  time  by  Michael  Angelo.  He  returned 
to  Milan  in  1606.  In  1613,  he  visited  Bome  in  the 
bun  of  Ginliano  de'  Medici,  who  went  there  to 
asiiBt  at  the  coronation  of  his  brother,  Leo  X. ;  and 
in  1S16,  accompanied  Francia  I.  to  Bologna,  where 
he  signed  the  ixaicordat  with  Leo  X.  On  the 
pressing  invitation  of  Francis,  he  accompanied  that 
monarch  to  Franoe.  in  1616,  along  with  his  pupils 
Salai  and  Melzi.  la  bad  health  aoring  the  whole 
poiod  he  was  in  Prance,  he  executed  no  paintings 
there,  being  chiefly  occupied  in  engineenog.  His 
death  occnrred  at  Amboise,  2d  May  1610.  The 
genins  of  L.  was  nnivennl :  paiutiag  was  not  his 
■ola  oconpatton-    n«  ipqartetf  to  ^  works  certain 


qnalitips  of  the  highest  kind,  for  his  drawing  evinces 
veiT  great  delioacy  and  elevation  of  style,  not 
modelled  on  the  antique,  bnt  formed  on  a  profound 
knowle^  of  nature ;  and  in  his  treatment  of  light 
and  shadow,  he  infused  a  degree  of  power,  combined 
with  softness,  into  his  prmluctions  that  invests 
them  with  a  peculiar  charm ;  while  the  influenoe 
of  his  atyte  has  operated  powerfullv  on  the  aohool* 
of  Milan  and  Parma.  L.'a  l^^atiae  oa  Painting, 
Trattato  ddla  PiOura,  has  been  published  in  several 
languages.  The  principal  edition  is  that  published 
at  Pans,  in  folio,  bv  Du  Freane,  illustrated  with 
dtawingabyNicolssPonsaia;  the  best,  as  r^ards  the 
text,  was  published  at  Borne  in  I8I7.  Mr  Hallam 
says,  in  his  laltoductioa  to  Ae  Literature  o/£luropt : 
'Leonardo's  greatest  literary  distinction  ia  derived 
from  thoae  short  fragments  of  hia  unpublished  writ- 
ings that  appeared  not  many  years  since,  and  which, 
according,  at  least,  to  our  common  estimate  of  the 
ago  in  which  be  lived,  arc  more  like  revaUtions 
01  physical  tntths  vouchsafed  to  a  single  milid, 
than  the  auperatructure  of  its  reasoning  upoa  any 
established  baaia.  The  discoveries  miicn  made 
Galileo  and  Kepler  and  Maestlin  and  Manrohons 
and  Castelli,  and  other  names  illustrions,  the 
system  of  Copernicus,  the  venr  theories  of  reoent 
geologists,  are  anticipated  by  Da  Vinci,  within  the 

pass  of  a  few  pages,  nol^  perhaps,  in  the  most 

:ise  language,  or  on  the  most  conclusive  reasoning, 
—  so  as  to  strike  ns  with  something  like  the  awe 
of  preternatural  knowledge.'    These  writings  were 
published  by  Venturi  (Paris,  1797),  entitled:  Eaiai 
ear  leg  Ouvraget  P/iytko-XatMjnaiiqua  d»Lto«ard 
da  Vinei,  smc  <Ut  Fragmtna  tirfa  ia  Mamueritt 
apporUt  de  Vltalit.    The  M89.  were  afterwards  re- 
turned to  Milan.    See  Leonardo  da  Finci  and  ftii 
IConl:^  with  Life,  by  Mrs  a  Beaton  (London,  1874), 
LBONFO^TE,  a  Sicilian  tcwn,  in  the  province 
of  Messina,  situated  in  a  moimtainons  neighbonr- 
hood,  on  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean.     It  is 
d  by  ^oUs,  and  has  a  pop.  of  11,622 
X.    There  is  a  thriving  trade  in  oil,  wine, 
and  grain. 

LBOIflDAfl  L,  son  of  Anaiandrides,  king  of 
Sparta,  succeeded  his  half-brother,  Cleomenes  L, 
about  491  B.a  When  the  Persian  monarch  Xerxes 
approached  with  an  immense  army,  L.  apposed  him 
at  the  narrow  pass  of  Thermopyhe  (4S0  s.  a.)  with  a 
force  of  300  Spartans,  and  ratiier  more  than  6000 
auxiliaries.  The  Persians  attempted  in  vain  to  win 
L.  by  tito  promise  of  making  bim  ruler  of  the 
whole  of  Greece ;  and  when  Xerxes  sent  a  herald 
calling  the  Gre^  to  lay  down  their  arms,  the 
%iartan  answered :  '  Let  him  come  and  take  them.' 
Ilie  treachery  of  one  Ephialtes  having  made  it 
impossible  to  bar  any  longer  the  progress  of  the 
foe,  L  and  his  little  band  threw  themselves  on  the 
swarming  myriads,  snd  found  a  heroic  death. 

LE'ONINB  TBBSES,  the  name  given  to  the 
hexameter  and  pentameter  verses,  common  in  the 
middle  ages,  which  rhymed  at  the  middle  and  end. 
They  were  so  named  after  Leoninos,  a  canon  of  the 
church  of  St  Victor,  in  Paris,  about  the  middle  of 
the  I2th  a.,  or,  as  others  say,  after  Pope  Leo  IL, 
1  lover  and  improver  of  music  Ttacea  of 
this  kind  of  versification  appear  here  and  there  in 
tho  Itoman  poets,  especially  in  Ovid,  in  some  of 
whose  Epistko,  indeed,  they  are  as  common  on  an 
average  aa  once  in  every  eight  lines.  Camden  gives 
some  curious  specimens  from  Walter  do  Mapes, 
Michael,  the  Cornish  poet,  and  Dan  T^.lingbam,  a 
monk  of  Linton.  The  story  of  the  Jew  who,  haring 
fallen  into  a  rt^use-pJt  on  Saturday,  would  not  be 
helped  out,  because  it  was  Am  Sabbath,  while  tlie 
G)ui*tiiui,  who  olTered  him  assistanoe,  refused  to  do 


^ 


LBOPABD-LEOFASDI. 


Salomon,  ego  te  de  iterooie  Mtamj 
--'-   da  ■Ceroora  mrgera  nolo. 

mt  Salomon  mlebnlds  ibUai^ 


ittOmxt  orow  from  her  oonoh  of  mom 

In  tha  AanMerMmiMt  motuit^iu, 
from  pMk  «Dd  (rom  frofi,  with  muiT  >  joff, 
Shepherding  her  bright  tinuituna. 
LEOPARD  {FcHt  Uopardvi),  one  of  the  lu^ 
Felida  (q.T.),DoiTgeQei^7Eappo«ed  tobeidentitM] 
with  th«  puithei  {F.  panbu),  altbovgh  by  some 
tht7  are  ragftrded  u  varietiei,  and  othras  BtiH  ■ap- 
pose tium  to  be  distinct  apeciea.    Great  oonfoaioii 
haa  piOTsiled  in  the  nomenoLttnm ;  the  paxthxr  and 
pariaU*  of  tlis  andenta  are  not  oerttunly  known ; 
th«  jognu  was  erroneoasly  described  m  the  panther 
by  BofFon ;   the  puma  ia   often  called  panther  in 


Leopaid  {FUii  Uopardiu). 

America ;  the  L.  ia  known  by  the  oame  of  tiaer  in 
Afrioa ;  and  a«  Sir  J.  B.  Tennent  tells  na,  it  la  by 
mistake  often  oalled  cheetaii  in  Ceylon.  Snpposiiig 
the  L.  and  panther  to  be  one  specwa,  we  may 
deecribe  it  aa  choracteriaad  by  a  peculiar  gracefuf- 
neM,  alendanieBa  and  flexibility  of  form,  wiui  a  vety 
long  tail,  and  spotted  for,  the  Kpota  b^ng  arranged 
in  uiunerong  rows  along  tbe  aidcB,  and  each  spot  com- 
poaed  of  five  or  six  small  spots  arranged  in  n  circle 
or  rosette.  The  general  colour  ia  yellowiah ;  the 
lower  parts  ligliter ;  the  spots  darker  tlian  the  general 
colour  d  tie  loT.  The  L.  ia  extremely  agile,  mdpoa- 
■enes  the  power  of  leaping  and  also  that  <^  climbiDg 


possible,  ia  a  tree,  and  if  hard  pressed,  springs 
down  on  its  asaailanta.  It  is  cunning,  and  odoj^ 
devices  similar  to  those  ot  the  fox  tor  carrying  on 
its  depredations,  and  concealing  its  plaoe  of  retreat. 
Deer  and  antelopes  are  its  habitual  prey;  but  it  is 
equally  ready  to  feed  on  pigs,  poult^,  or  whatever 
may  be  fonnd  in  the  vioinity  of  a  farm  or  village. 
The  size  and  strength  of  the  L,  render  it  a*  danger- 
ous to  man  as  any  of  the  I'eiida ;  but  it  generally 
seems  to  dread  and  flea  from  man,  unleaa  asaailed. 
It  is  Tery  capable  of  domestication. 

LEOPARD,  in  Heraldry.  The  leopard  has  been 
described  by  some  heralds  as  the  issue  of  the  pord 
and  lioaest;  and  the  circumstance  that  such  hybrids 
are  unproductive,  is  assigned  as  a  reason  for  appro- 
prialing  that  ariimal  to  the  armorisl  enaigns  of 
abbots  and  abbesses.     However,  the  ...■..- 

of  leopards,  at  least  in  Bng" 
exactly  like  those  of  the  lioa  . 
it  has   been    made   a   question  whether   there  ia 
any  difierenoe  between  the  two,  and  it  has 


hersJdry,    an 
ardont, 


especially  been  a  keenly  oonteatid  pmnt  ^leUur 
th«  three  "i"!*!*  intlw  royal  esonteheonof  England 
wete  lions  or  leopudi.  In  eariy  times,  w«  find 
thttn  blazoned  in  both  ways,  and  the  true  solution 
of  the^luwCtoeenrid  sesms  tobe,  that  at  one  period 
the  henddia  leopard  oame  to  be  considered  as  a 
mere  synonym  for  the  lion  passant  gardant,  though 
the  two  pniinuT^  were  originally  r^arded  as  distinct. 
In  the  iniauoy  of  hecaldiy,  b^ore  distinctive  appel- 
lationa  wera  invented  for  the  different  attitude* 
of  rmimal.^  it  wBS  costomary  to  draw  a  lion  in 
the  attitude  since  oalled  rampant,  and  a  leopard  aa 
poHsant  gardanb  This  difference  of  positiaD  snffi- 
ciently  indicating  which  animal  was  meant,  they 
were  otherwise  sinularly  represented,  and  no  atteimt 
was  made  to  exhibit  idie  spots  of  the  leopard.  B^ 
and  by,  aa  ooata  of  armour  were  mnjtiplied,  it 
became  necessary  to  difference  them  by  vaiying  tha 
position  ot  the  aniirn'-l"  depicted ;  and  the  blasonen 
of  those  days,  thinking  more  of  attitude  than  of 
soology,  had  recourse  to  a  compromise  in  their 
nomendatnre.  The  Uon  was  naturally  sui^iosed 
to  be  tampMit  and  in  pro6Ie,  the  leopard  pssssnt 
gardant.  When  the  conventional  aiumal  tiiat  nn^it 
stand  for  dther  was  passant  and  in  profile,  he  was 
deugned  a  iton-IeopariM;  aud  when  rampant:  gardant, 
he  was  a  leopard-Uormt.  The  king  rf  beaits  wos 
very  early  aasomed  se  his  appropnaf«  insignia  by 
UiesoTerugnof  Engbmd,aBW«ll  as  by  the  soveredgns 
of  other  oountries  in  Western  Europe.  The  lion 
was  at  first  borne  singly,  and  his  natural  attitude, 
like  that  of  other  lions,  was  considered  to  ba 
ranqiaat.  But  whan  a  second  and  third  lion  wcao 
added,  tt  beouue  lesa  oonvenient  to  draw  them 
in  the  rampant  attitnda,  and  the  lions  became 
lioos-leopard£  or  passant,  aa  seen  in  the  seal  ot 
King  John ;  a  furUiu  change  of  position  to  passant 
gardant  made  them  heraldioally  leopards.  Edward 
IIL,  Edward  the  Black  Piince,  and  Richard  IL, 
apeak  of  their  areat  of  the  leopard.  Nicholas  Serby 
was  deaignated  Leopard  Hendd  in  the  reim  <^ 
Henry  Iv. ;  and  it  wae  not  till  the  middle  lU  the 
IStb  0.  that  tha  lions  of  England  r^ained  Uieir 

'^ough  leopards,  properly  so  called,  hardly  ooour 
heraldry,  having  passed  into  liont 
it,  their  heads  or  faces  are  ooooaionally 
part  of  the  neck  is  shewn,  the  proper 


r  with  a  jagged 
enge. 

LEOPABDI,  QuooHO  Cotmr,  »  modon  po«* 
and  classical  scholar  of  Italy,  was  bom  at  Beconati, 
a  town  in  the  march  of  Ancona,  on  the  29th  Jnns 
1T9S.  Without  the  aid  ot  instructors,  L.,  at  tha 
age  of  seventeen,  had  attained  to  a  degnw  of 
classioal  soholarship  almost  marvellous.  Lran  and 
Greek  he  mastered  as  his  own  mather-tonnu^  and 
composed  some  of  his  philological  oritieisms  at 
the  age  (^  nineteen,  when  he  vras  elected  member 
of  the  Aeademy  of  Science  at  Viterbo.  Shortly 
after,  he  departed  from  his  secluded  home  for 
Boms,  when  he  won  the  friendship  of  several  oele- 
brated  men,  amongst  others,  of  Niebohr,  who  was 
deputed  to  i^er  him  the  chair  ot  Greek  philosophr, 
in  the  university  of  Berlin,  which  he  declined,  fit 
health  acting  on  the  temperament  characteristic  of 
genius,  seems  to  have  cast  a  gloom  over  his  spirit 
whi<^  deeply  tinaed  his  general  impressions  of  mm 
and  things.  On  his  return  from  Bome  to  his  native 
place,  his  health  grew  seriously  impaired,  from  tha 
ardour  with  which  he  pursued  his  varied  studies. 
He  finally  took  up  his  aVjde  in  Florence,  friiere  he 
published  Ma  admired  Camoni  and  other  wcnks, 
amidst  a   conflict   with  failing  health,  sbaitsMa 

u.,iii..',»  Google 


LBOFOLD  L— LKPIDOFTEBA. 


ot  waiit  iMcune  muiifeat  m 
u  a  tJi»  poat  had  learned 
"fe  and  fnend*  only  when 


(hip  wikh 
leotlioate 
«irt«r,  the 
-»  ...^....n^  .~  the  hoax 
period,  a  aeiuibla  aoftanine 
m  hii  TTitingi ;  it  mtmea 
■"   ■  3  value  and  ding  to 

mnoned  to  relinqniah 

both.  He  di«d  in  bii  friend'i  «rna  at  Naplei, 
14th  Jane  1837,  at  the  ms  oE  39.  Hia  remaina  11a 
in  ft  amall  ohunih  at  Poailippo.  The  works  of 
L.  aio  all  more  w  leat  the  reflex  ot  hia  morbid, 
dcaponding  mind.  They  are  remarkable  for  arigia- 
aUtf,  TJgoor,  and  elesanoe  of  atvle.  Hia  oollediad 
worka  were  pnbliahed  in  1849,  by  Le  Monnier,  at 
LDoder  the  title  ol  VenieProtediOiaeomo 
, . .  H.  Hia  Italian  love^wmneti  ate  full  of  fire 
and  graoe;  and  hia  ingenlooi  iuutationa  of  the 
■atiqna  form  of  oompoaituiD,  written  in  Greek  and 
Iiatin,  were  ao  pcrfeo^  aa  to  be  miataken  by  many 
lor  genuine  loug-loet  gmna  of  uUaaioal  hteratore. 

LEOPOLD  I.,  OBoitai  Christun  Fredekiok, 
King  oE  the  Belgiuui,  aon  of  Francis,  Duke  oE  Saxe- 
-    -'       ""iiDecembernBO.    Hereeeived 
,  and  BCtentiflo  edncation,  and  at 
IS  stndiea  had  the  reputation  of 
being  one  of  the  best  informed  prinoea  in  Europe. 

Doke 


Cobuig.  waa  bom  Idth  Dece 
an  ezcellent  literaiy  and  ac 
tbe  oonoluslon  of  his  stndit 


The  marriage  of  hia  aiater  Juliana  with  the  Grand 
Doke  ConsMutiae  haviiif;  cloielT  allied  the  Bonae 
of  Soxe-Coburg  with  tbe  uo^rial  family  of  Ruasia, 
he  became  a  aeneral  in  the  Eusaiau  army ;  bat  the 

reaigii  hi 
thTSui. 


NapolBo 


1  1810.  to 

Ho  afterwards  again  joined 

3  army,  and  was  present  at  the  battlet 

of  LUtien,  Bautzen,  Leipzig,  aud  Kulm.  Having 
Tiaited  Bngkud  after  the  peace  of  ISIS,  he  won  the 
affectiona  of  the  Frinc«M  Charlotte,  the  heireaa  of 
the  throne.  L.  was  now  naturalieod  by  act  of 
parlioinent  in  1816,  and  reoelved  an  annual  pen- 
sion of  £00,000.  Tbe  marriage  took  place  on 
al   May    1818;    but  the  — " ■"■"' *•=" 


1  ohild' 


1  Stb  Jfovember  1817,  and  her  ohild  did 
not  mrvire.  Prince  Leopold  now  lired  in  com- 
plete retirement,  aometimea  in  London,  and  aome- 
timca  at  his  seat  of  UloramonL  He  n-ceived, 
in  February  1830,  the  offer  of  the  crown  of  Qrraoe, 
and  at  fiiat  favourably  entertained  the  proposal, 
but  afterwwda  rejected  it,  because  of  the  diewtis- 
faotion  of  the  Qreeka  with  the  arrangements  deter- 
mined upon  by  the  Great  Powers.  In  June  1831, 
.  he  "was  eleoted,  by  a  National  Congraa,  king  of  (he 
Balgiana,  and  on  Slat  July  of  that  year,  his  inaogura- 
tion  took  place  at  Bruuela,  In  16S2,  he  nuwried 
tiie  Princeaa  Louise,  dau^ter  of  Lonia  Fhilipm^ 
King  of  the  French,  who  died  in  Oetober  1860,  by 
whom  he  had  iaaue  the  Crown  Prince  Leopold, 
Duke  of  Biabant,  another  aon  and  a  daughter.  Ai 
a  tnonanih,  he  condueted  hinuelf  with  great  pru- 
dence, flrmnesi,  and  moderation,  with  constant 
regard  to  the  principlea  al  the  Belgian  ooostitation. 
He  died  December  1S6S,  and  waa  ancoeeded  by  his 
•QB  Leopold  IL 

LBOPOLD  OF  BABENBEBO  or  BAMBERO, 
the  deaoendont  of  a  noble  family  which  derived 
its  origin  from  the  Fraokish  kings,  was  the  tinrt 
hereditary  Mark^of  of  Anatiia  (633  a-d.),  and  hia 
desoendonta  cootinued  to  rule  over  that  oountnr 
till  the  line  became  extinct,  in  the  giciwin  of  Fred- 
erick the  Warlike,  in  1246.  This  foiuily  played  an 
important  part  in  Ote  Gneiph  and  OhibalBne  conflicta 
of  the  12th  c,  and  obt&ined  the  duchy  of  Bavaria, 
in  1138,  on  the  rebellion  of  Henry  the  Proud,  but 
after  a  'oner  oonfiiot  with  hia  aon,  Henry  the  Lion, 
waa  oompeUed  to  neigu  it  to  that  prinoeln  1166. 


ident  iTaupa'ctu*),  now  oalled  by 
9,  Ulo  obief  town  of  the  eparchy 
e,  in  the   proviuoe   of   .^tolia- 


LSPAOHTO  (ancient  iU 
the  Oreeka  Spaelo,tiia  ol 

of  the  same  name,  in  Uie   proviuoe   <. 

Aoaraania  in  Oreeoe,  is  sitoated  on  the  north  side 
(rf  the  Qnlf  of  Lepanto,  25  railea  east  of  Mitao- 
longhi  The  town,  which  ia  ill  built,  and  haa  a 
miserable  appeonuoe,  is  the  seat  of  an  arohbishop, 
and  hat  an  excellent  port.  Pop.  280(X  In  the 
middle  ues,  it  was  eiven  by  the  Greek  ranperois 
of  the  &st  to  the  Venetians,  who  fortified  it  ao 
■tronaly,  that  in  1477,  it  stood  a  siege  of  four 
montha  by  80,000  Turks,  and  was  only  taken  '- 
1499  by  Bajazet  II.,  at  the  head  of  160,000  n  .  _. 
Near  L.,  took  place  tbe  oelebrated  naval  battle 
between  the  Turks  and  Christiana  in  lATl,  in  which 
the  latter,  oonunauded  by  Don  John  ot  Auatiia 
{q.  T.],  achieved  a  decisive  victory. 

LEPrDODETTDBON,  a  genua  of  fossil  plants, 
abundant  in  the  ooal  measarei.  Some  speoies  were 
of  email  siie,  bnt  the  greater  number  were  large 
trees,  40  or  60  feet  long,  and  more  than  4  feet  m 
diameter.  They  taper  upwards,  and  branch  gene- 
rally in  a  dichotor ""■*   — '-—  -- 


The  mrface  i 


like  leavea,  or  marked  with  lozenge 

of  the  falleu  leave*— airanged  in  a  apiral 
The  leavea  which  are  found   aeparated 

from,  but  associated  with  the  tmnlu,  have  been 


ijnpoaed  of  a  conical  a 

imbricated 

firogniort  and  J-  D.  Hooker  considec  that  Lepido- 
dendja  aro  gigantic  Lycopoda.  Thar  modem  repre- 
— '--- —  would  thus  be  a  olasa  of  amall,  generally 


approaoh  tham  more  nearly  than  any  other  liviim 
plauta;  Lindley,  however,  seea  in  the  Couifene,  and 
aapeoioUy  in  the  Norfolk  Island  pines,  the  closest 


reeemblanoea  to  this  ancient  class  of  planta. 

LEPIDO'PTERA  (Qr.  scaly-winged),  an  order  of 
insecte,  undergoiog  complete  metamurphoaia,  bavins 
the  mouth  in  their  pofeot  state  aioluuvely  adapted 
for  anoking,  and  fnnher  oharaoteriaed  by  four  mem- 
branooB  winga  oovared  with  minute,  oleecly  aet 
acalea.  The  order  contains  a  vast  number  ot  speoies, 
abounding  chiefly  in  warm  climates ;  bnt  the  Bfibsh 
"leoies  tJone  are  about  two  thonsand.  The  L.  w 
ivided  by  Limuens  ioto   three  great  aeotion 


1 z.xo.Cidbgll: 


•ecn  on  wing  oaij  during  the  day,  thoM  of  tb« 
•eoood  more  seoenlly  dnring  the  twilight,  whiltt 
&0M  of  the  thud  are  mon  QoctonuJ ;  ttrait  popQlar 
dengnatioM  reapedivelr  being  Bottsbvuk,  Hawk- 
xoim,  and  Uoraa.  ■  See  theae  heads.  Among  the 
L  are  inolnded  many  of  41m  laigeat  and  moat  bntnti- 
M  of  inaecta,  with  oolonra  as  exqmaitely  varied  aa 
ttwy  ai«  btilliaat ;  there  am  olio  many— partiaD- 
larly  among  Ihe  motha — of  amall  aize  and  sober 
hne^  bat  not  one  of  them  can  be  denied  the  praise  of 
beauty.  The  difference  between  the  larvie  and  the 
perfect  insecta  in  food,  atmotnre,  and  habits,  ia  veiy 
wonderfoL  The  larvn  are  described  in  the  article 
Catbspillab,  the  pnno  in  Chribaus.  The  perfect 
insect  feeds  only  on  the  nectareoos  jnices  of  plants. 
The  principal  oi^os  of  the  mouth  tra  the  maxiUts, 
the  mandibles  and  labrum  being  reduced  to  mere 
rudiments ;  and  the  msxilbe  appear  in  t^s  form  of 
two  long  slender  filamenta,  which  combine  to  form 
a  proboscis  or  trunk,  spirally  tolled  up  when  not 
in  use  This  truak  is  capable  of  great  Toriety  of 
movement,  and  is  of  extremely  d^cate  structure. 
— The  scale*  of  the  wings  are  of  very  variooa  forms, 
but  witi  a  general  aimUarity.  Smne  of  them  are 
figured  in  the  article  B(rmKn.T.  The  wings  are 
generally  large,  and  at«  not  folded  when  at  rest 
The  three  legments  of  the  thorax  are  much  united. 
The  abdomen  nas  neither  sting  nor  ovipositor.  Nona 
of  the  L.  form  toeieliet,  alSough  great  numbers 
are  often  found  together.  Sll.K,iB  obtained  from 
the  cococms  of  various  species  of  moths.    See  Silx- 

LEPIDOSI'REH  (or  ProbmUnu)  hOoagi  to 
the  Dipnoi,  an  order  of  fishes  which  present 
affinities  to  the  Amphibia  on  the  one  hand,  and  to 
the  Qanoids  on  the  other ;  there  are  two  living 
oenera  of  Dipnoi— Lepidodren  and  Ceratodus ;  the 
nmner  genus  contains  two  species — L.  atuiteteni 
fonnd  in  the  rivers  of  tropical  Africa,  and  L.  para- 
doxa,  from  3.  America ;  there  is  hnt  one  species  of 
Ceratodus,  C.  Farateri,  which  inhabits  Australia. 
As  mi^t  be  exfiected  from  the  distribntion  of  the 


Lspidositen. 

in  the  old  red  sandstone  the  genera  Dipt«nu  and 
Cttnoditt ;  and  Traquair  has  shewn  that  Holodiu 
and  Paladapkvs,  from  the  some  formation,  must  be 
classed  with  the  Dipnoi.  Ceratodus  ia  known  to 
have  existed  during  the  Triaasic  period,  but  no 
fossil  remains  of  Lepidosiren  have  been  hitherto 
discovered. 

The  skeleton  is  mainly  cartdli^iinons  ;  the  noto- 
ohord  is  persistent,  as  in  many  ganoids  ;  the  orauiam 
is  entirely  cartilaginous,  with  the  exception  of  the 
exoccipitals,  but  is  protected  by  membrane  bones. 
The  respiratory  apparatus  consists  of  external 
(absent  in  Ceratodus)  and  internal  gills,  snd  the  ur- 
blodder,  which  in  this  order  of  fishes  is  modified  to 
serve  ss  a  lung ;  it  is  ssoculated  within,  and  draws 
its  blood  supply  from  the  two  posterior  aortic  archee, 
which  thai  become,  as  in  the  higher  Wpea  of  verte- 
brata,  true  pnlmonary  arteriea.  In  Ceratodus  the 
sin^e  air-bladder  is  supplied  with  blood  from  the 
ocenoo  artery  as  in  most  fiahes ;  the  d ucfus  tmeu- 
malkut  connects  the  air-bladder  or  lung  with  the 
DBBophagOB.  The  sir-bladder  thus  having  become  a 
long,  both  Lepidoairan  and  Centodns  Ke  enabled 


to  snstain  a  torpid  existence  daring  the  diy.  inintii 
in  mud,  in  which  they  form  for  themselTM  a  kind 
of  nea^  so  that  specimens  of  L.  oaneelttu  have 
■innatimeB  been  bionght  from  Africa  among  the 
roots  of  plaata.  In  etmfinement  Uiey  do  not  require 
the  annual  period  of  torpidity.  They  readily  eat 
animal  food,  and  attack  other  fishes. 

The  heart  has  two  auricles  and  a  mnscniar  conna 
arteriosus  with  iDDgitudinalvalvea,  resembling  then- 
fore  the  heart  of  the  Amphibia ;  in  Ceratodus  there 
is  but  one  auricle,  and  the  valves  of  the  conns  ar- 
teriosus are  like  those  of  Ganoids  ;  the  loDgitodinal 
sre  also  present,  though  rudimenb^.  The  mteatine 
has  a  spiral  valve  as  in  Ganoids  and  Elasmolnanchs. 
See  Nicholson,  Handbook  of  Poiaont<A>m  (Lond. 
1881). 

LE'FJDUB,  an  illoitriona  Soman  family  of  the 
ancient  .^milian  gens.  It  makes  its  first  appear- 
ance in  history  about  the  beginning  of  the  3d 
D.  before  Christ ;  and  was  long  one  <rf  the  most 
distinguished  in  the  patrioian  order,  reckoning 
among  its  members  many  who  held  the  ereatest 
dignities  in  the  state.  It  disappears  about  the  close 
of  the  let  c  a.D.  Mabous  jShujob  L,  when  war 
broke  out  (49  B.  c.)  between  Ctesar  and  Pompey, 
declared  for  Cffisar.  During  his  own  absence  in 
Spain,  Cffisar  made  L.  Dictator  of  Bom^  and  his  etd- 
league  in  the  consulate  (46  E.C.].  He  afterwards 
supported  Antony,  and  became  one  of  the  trinm- 
vinite  with  Octavionus  and  Antony ;  but  his  weak' 
oesa  of  character,  and  want  both  at  military  talenta 
and  of  statcamaiiship,  made  him  of  Tory  inferior 
importance  to  the  other  two,  who  assigned  him 
Africa  as  his  province  (40 — 39  B.C.).  After  the 
defeat  of  Sextus  Fompeius,  he  thought  to  have 
maintained  himself  in  Sicily  against  (^tavian,  bat 
his  soldiers  deserted  him,  and  went  over  to  his  rival, 
who,  however,  allowed  him  to  retain  his  wealth  and 
the  dignity  of  pootifex  tn^Timna,    He  died  13  s.a. 

I<E'POBID.£.    SeeHA&B. 

LEPRA  is  a  Greek  term  which  is  now  geoentl^ 
employed  by  medical  writers  to  designate  a  scaly 
aSection  of  the  skin.  These  scsles  occur  in  circular 
patches  of  a  grayish  colour,  with  a  red,  slight^ 
elevated  margin.  If  the  scsles  fall  off  or  sre 
removed,  the  surface  of  the  skin  is  red  and  shining 
and  new  scalea  rajodly  form.  The  patches  vary  m 
size,  beiiig  often  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
sotnetimea  much  larger.  Lepra  moat  commonly 
occurs  on  the  limbs,  and  espeoially  on  those  porta 
where  the  bones  are  most  thinly  coverad.  Its 
duration  is  unoertoin,  and  if  not  inteimpted  by 
treatment,  it  will  frequently  oontinne  for  years, 
without  materially  affecting  the  general  health.  It 
is  not  contagious.  The  local  a|^catioD  of  tsr 
]r  the  iodide  of  salphnr  ointment,  vrill 
remove  it.  If  it  does  not  yield  to  tUa 
small  doses  of  Fowler'a  Aiaanical  Soln- 
tion  (three  to  five  minims)  may  be  pnaoribed,  twice 
or  thrioe  a  day,  either  in  wat^  or  m  the  decootion 
of  dulcamara,  which  is  supposed  to  be  specially 
beneScial  in  chronic  skin  diseases. 

LEPROSY.  Thistermhssbeeuveiy vagnelynsed 
both  by  medical  and  other  writers ;  we  aball  hen 
restrict  it  to  the  Ltpm  tiibtrcaiomi,  as  it  appears  to 
have  prevaileil  during  the  middle  ^es  and  down  to 
modem  times  in  Europe,  and  as  it  is  now  met  with 
in  various  warm  climates ;  the  scaly  variety,  whioh 
in  reality  is  a  perfectly  separate  disease,  being 
noticed  m  the  aiiide  IJfSA.  The  affection  here 
discussed  is  identical  with  the  dqilutMiaai  qf  lit 
Qrtda,  and  the  lepra  of  tht  Aivinant,  wlfile  it  ia 

is  the  seo^  l^pm  dL  onr  own  4ay> 


LEPSI03— LBRNEADA. 


tiuckened  or  ngcm  atate  of  tlie  ddu,  k  diminnt 
ti  its  muibilit^,  kud  falling  off  of  the  hair,  eioe 
il^  Uut  of  tlM  •oalp ;  lumrae,  nagal,  or  loat  roice ; 
Mieoa;  nlceratioiiica  Uiemifaoeuidaxtreine  fcetor.' 
T1ie««  tobwcU*  Tsry  in  nze  frmn  that  of  a  pea  to 
u  (dtTe,  Of  all  parts,  the  face  ia  particulaiiy 
affected,  and  eipedally  the  noea  and  ean. 

The  leprosy  of  loeland,  deacribed  by  Dr  (after- 
wards Sir  Heni?)  HolUad  nnd  other*,  that  of  the 
Fanie  and  Shetkiid  laUnds,  deaoribed  bjr  Dr  Ed- 
mooston  and  otbera,  and  that  atiU  met  with  in 
Africa,  in  the  East-and  West  Indiea,  and  io  niany 
trtfiioal  iaianda,  are  all  identical  with  the  diaeaae 
BOW  described— the  leproay  of  the  middle  ages. 

Cloaehrallied  to  it,  and  often  confonndedwith  it, 
are:  I.  The  Lepra  AmttlhaiiKa  of  Winterbottom, 
Ccqdand,  and  othere,  which  ia  characteriaed  by 
muarkable  abaanoe  of  --"*!^5i»*"  ^  ••*■•  itm^m^i 
anrf B0«,  by  oomp 
nlcentioa  and  f 
The  caiea  tecorc 
were  acen  in  Afriea. 

2.  Tht  JtaiA  Lepro*^,  reKatding  which  nothing 
certain  ia  known.  The  term  leprcay  [or  BenU  in 
the  Hebrew)  wai  probably  applied  by  the  prieata  to 
rariona  cntaneona  aSbctiona,  particnlarly  thoae  which 
irere  of  a  chronio  and  contaeioua  natoM.  *  It  ia 
probable,'  aaya  Dr  Copland,  'that  frambceaia  or  the 
yaws  (a  tnbercnlona  oiaeaae)  waa  one  of  tbeae,  aa 
well  ae  other  inveterate  entoneoua  maladiea  ariaing 
frcm  the  mode*  of  living,  the  habita  and  drcmn- 
atances  of  the  Jew*  at  that  time,  and  of  the 
Egyptian*;  and  tiiat  theee  ntaladiea  hare  changed 
their  Gharacteia,  owing  to  change*  '    ^'"'      '  ' 


Dothn. 


and  falling  off  of  the  fingera  and  toea. 
recorded  ^  Wiat«ibottom  and  Copland 


n  the  natnre  and 


Nodiingc* 


tain  ia  known  r^ardiiuF  the  caoaea  of 
una  diseaaa.  The  inveatigatiooa  of  Mr  Stewart  at 
T^anqoebar,  when  it  ia  very  prevalent,  led  him  to 
eanolDde:  1.  That  women  are  leaa  hable  to  thia 
DuJadT  titan  mm;  2.  That  it  ia  hereditary;  3. 
That  ita  coataeioQaiiew  ia  artremely  probleou^ical ; 
<  ^bat  a  fian-diet  i*  fonnd  to  render  eveiy 
mnptom  wone ;  0.  ^Htat  poor  living,  want  of 
iliMiiliniW.  and  erpoanre  to  cold  and  damp,  are 
eonstaot  attendanta  on  thia  affliction.  Dr  Copland 
aacribea  ita  origin  to  the  nae  of  aenupntrid  meat  and 
fiah,  "H  of  randd  oila ;  to  iuaamcieot  vegetable 
food  ;  and  to  the  contact  of  mattw  diacharg^  from 
leptoua  aorea. 

The  diaeaae  may  continne  withont  cauains  death 
for  many  yean.  When  it  ia  far  advanced,  it  ia 
vrobthVj  incnraUe,  and  even  in  the  eariy  atagea, 
ha  core  ia  nncertain.  Probably  Bach  alterative 
mfiliHTtw  aa  corronve  anblimate  and  araeniooa  acid 
in  minnte  doaea  are  the  moat  likely  to  be  of  aerrice. 
SnljJnn-  fnmigaj^g  hatha,  and  varioos  medicated 
watep-batha,  luve  luao  been  reoommended. 

IiBPSrUS,  Kaw.  Rich.,  a  dirtingoiahed  Oerman 
iDVMtigator  of  Emitian  antigviitiea,  waa  bom  at 
Nanmbni^  20th  December  1811  Hia  father,  an 
adrooite  and  manitrate  there,  was  a  zealous  '"ti' 
qnary,  and  pablia&ed  many  works  on  the  antiqoitiea 
of  that  part  of  Germany.  The  youn^  L.  atudjed 
at  Lcip^  Oettingen,  BerUn.  and  Paris.  Hia  first 
work  waa  hia  Die  PtMegraphie  aU  Mittd  der 
8pme\fi?r»ehuog  (BerL  1834t,  for  which  he  obtained 
|£e  Voiney  pnie  of  the  French  Institote.  This 
was  followed  by  works  on  the  moat  ancient 
alpbabeta  and  otner  kindred  subject*.  In  1S36, 
be  awociated  himaelf  intiioatelv  with  Bnnaen  at 
Bome:,  and  eagerly  pnwecBted  hia  favourite  atndie* 
then.     Between  IBM  and  1842,  he  pnbliahed  hia 


monuments  of  Egyptian  art  and  their  general 
arcbitectnral  atyle,  which  were  inserted  m  the 
TrcauadioTti  of  the  Archsological  Inatitute.  He 
also  applied  himself  to  the  atudy  of  the  andent 
Etrorian  and  Oacan  longuagea,  the  remains  of 
which  he  poblished  in  hia  Iiueriptiona  Umbrica  et 
Oteas  ILeia  1S41),  and  other  worka.  In  1842,  he 
was  plaoed  at  the  head  of  an  antiquarian  ezpedi- 
tioo  aent  to  Egypt  by  the  king  of  Fruaaio,  and 


den  ertten  Atirppt-  OoeUtrkrdt, 
for  a  aoientiJSo  treatment  of  the  earlier  parte  of 
Egyptitui  hiaUuy.  To  the  atud^  oi  Egvptian  acdue- 
ology,  he  joined  the  inveatigatioii  of  toe  laoguagea, 
hiatorf,  and  momuneot*  of  the  regions  farmer  np 
the  Ni^  Other  worka  ai«  his  letters  from  Egypt, 
Ethiojiia,  and  Sinai  (18f^  ;  a  communication  on  the 
Egyptian  mMiiuDent*  (1S53),  the  work  in  which  he 
exponnda  Um  StandaTd  AlpMbet,  a  modified  Boman 
alphabet  for  hitherto  nnwritten  laDgnagea,  now 
naed  in  many  oaaea  (1S6C) ;  a  work  on  3m  Egvptiai) 
ell  and  other  measure* ;  the  KSnig^baeh,  a  u*t  of 
kinn  (1S68) ;  the  Todteafmch,  Ute  %vptisa  Book  of 
the  Dead  (1867).  He  vrrote  alao  on  Chiaeae,  Arabic, 
and  Aaayiian  ^liloloKy ;  waa  editor  of  the  Berlin 
Zeiltehr^  of  Egyptol^y;  waa  »  member  of  the 
Royal  Aoademv;  and  ^ef  librarian  of  the  Boysl 
Hbraij  at  BeHin.  He  wa*  a  creator  of  Egyptology 
aa  a  scientific  atudy,  and  a  perfect  type  of  a  German 
profeeaor.  He  received  numeroua  deffreea  and  other 
tumonra.    He  died  in  the  middle  of  July  1834. 

LEPTOSPIMtMUM,  a  genus  of  treea  and  ahraba, 
nativea  (k  Aoatndia,  New  ZoUand,  Ac,  of  the  natural 
order  Myrlaeea,  tub-otda  Leptotpermeia.  They  are 
evergreen,  with  leavw  aomewhat  reeembling  thoae 
of  myrtle*.  Some  of  them  bear  the  name  til  Tsi- 
TBKB,  OS  L.  Uttlgervm,  L.  baetatum,  L.  Jttxmntm, 
and  L.  ffrandifloruta,  becanae  the  leavea  have  bean 
naed  aa  a  anbatitnte  (or  tea.  L.  tcopaTium  it  aome- 
times  called  the  New  Zealand  Tea-plant,  aometimea 
the  Broom-tne  or  Dogwood-tree.  It  ia  oommon 
both  in  New  Zealand  and  Anatralia. 

LEIUOI,  a  town  and  port  of  North  Italy,  on  the 
OoU  of  Speaia,  with  lead-work*.     Pop.  3600. 


and  two  cathedral  cbuiohea. 

factnrea  of  woollen,  cotton,  leather,  and  gUsa.  Pop. 
20,600.  L.  i*  probably  the  Celtibenan  Iltrda. 
Near  it,  Soij^o  Africanna  defe«ted  Hanno  and  Oraaar, 
tiie  lientenanta  of  Pompey.  A  conodl  waa  held  at 
L.  inCUA-D. 

LBBMONTOF,  Mikxaii.  JirBJXTiTCK,  a  Bnadan 
poet,  and  one  of  the  balf-doien  ^reat  Btunan 
anthora.  Descended  from  a  Scottaah  immignat 
caUed  Learmonth,  L.  waa  bom  16th  Ootober  1814, 
became  an  officer  in  the  Bnasiaa  Goard,  and  fall  in 
a  duel  in  the  Cauoasna  on  the  2Tth  Jnly  1S41.  He 
wrote  admirable  lyrics  and  poetical  narratives  [The 
Novice,  Ismail  Bey,  TAe  lAmon,  Song  qf  On  Taar 
Ivan);  and  a  novel.  The  Hera  of  oar  Dayt,  in 
which  he  caricatured  a  fellow -of&cer,  being  oonae- 
qnently  challenged,  and  ahot. 

IjBRNB'ADA,  an  order  of  Cmatacea,  having  the 
month  formed  for  auction  alone,  and  in  organiaation 
very  inferior  to  any  of  the  other  crustacean*,  so  that 
the  genu*  Lenuta,  from  whioh  the  oider.dertTH 


■i0OQi 


its  nuDe,  WM  ;Jao«d  ev«u  by  CuTicr  not  •mone 
ornrtacMiu,  but  Sniotoa.  Th«  true  reUtioD*  M 
theae  creatnTM,  bowavsr,  after  Iwniig  b«eo  randered 
invbabla  by  other*,  were  BiuJly  demoutnted  \y 

liat,  when  Toiuig,  the;  naemble  tiie  hightr  cnu 
taceans  much  more  tun  in  ibfOx  DUlt^  state 


eye  u  in  Cyckipa,  to  which  they  exhibit  much 
geaenl  reaemblance ;  whilst,  when  mature,  the;  are 
fixed  to  a  dn^  spot,  u  panaitea  on  flihea,  and  are 


LEROT  DE  SAUTT  AIOUTJV-LBSUK 
7  CuTicr  not  a 


<  a  dnole  ipot,  >a  panaitea  on  flihea, 
destitute  both  of  eyea  and  of  orgua  of  locomotion. 
Ha  number  of  the  L.  ia  Teiy  great,  each  Idnd  of  fiah 
harinff  apparently  ita  own  peonliar  qradea  of  para- 
site. Some  of  tnem  adhere  to  Hm  eye*  of  fi*h««, 
which  they  render  blind,  some  to  the  fpUt,  Kime 
to  other  part*  of  tbe  body.  The  ancienta  were 
acquainted  with  mch  panudtei  of  the  tunny  and 
sword-fish,  and  Aristotle  mentiona  them  as  causing 
irreat  annoyance  to  the  fishes  infested  by  them. 
Tie  L.  Hmma  in  tl  ' 
and  groteaqne  forma. 

LEnOT  DB  SAUrr  AHNATID,  Jaoqub,  a 
French  in>i'^''f'  of  tha  seooDd  Empire,  wa*  born 
at  Pari*,  2Dth  Au£a*t  1801,  entered  the  army  in 
1S16,  but  tbnnd  it  neoeaaary  mora  than  oace  to 
leave  it,  BO  that,  in  1831,  after  a  lapse  of  fifteen 
yeais,  he  waa  only  a  lientenant  In  1S37,  he  was 
appointed  captain  of  the  foreign  le^on,  and  firat 
rooe  to  aminenoe  in  th«  African  wara  The  valour 
be  exhibited  at  the  «i<ge  of  Constantine  won  him 
the  orosa  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  In  1S40,  he 
became  a  cA^  de  bataiBon ;  in  1S4^  a  lieutenant- 
colonel  ;  and  in  IS4^  a  ooloneL  Diirins  the  risiog 
of  tiie  deaert  tribca  under  Bon-Maca,  Cotonel  L.  die 
St  A.  aignalised  himself  at  the  head  of  the  aolamo 
plujed  under  hia  orders,  T«duoed  the  Dalira  to 
Bobjection,  and  made  Bon-Maza  a  prisoner.  On 
the  terminiitioD  of  the  camnugn.  he  was  promoted 
to  be  a  Commander  of  l^e  Legion  of  Honour.  In 
1847,  be  wBB  nused  to  the  ranli  of  a  field-marahal ; 
and  in  the  early  part  of  I85J  carried  on  a  bloody 
but  fnccemfuJ  warfare  witii  the  EabylBa.  Ho  was 
now  appointed  a  general  of  division.  At  tiiis  period, 
Lonia  Napoleon  was  plotting  the  overthrow  of  the 
repnblio,  and  waa  on  the  look-oat  for  reaolnte  and 
nnscmpnlons  accompUoes ;  and  scoordingly,  abont 
the  beginning  of  antmnD,  I*  de  8t  A.  appeared  in 
Paris,  and  waa  hnmediatdy  appotated  to  the  com- 
maad  of  the  seecBd  divioMa  of  the  oil^  fiHce*.  On 
the  26th  October  be  became  war  mioiatn,  and  took 
an  active  part  in  the  ooup  tCttat  of  2d  Deocnber, 
and  the  anbaeqaent  maaiaorM  at  the  barrieadee. 
On  the  breaking  ont  of  Che  Crimean  war  in  18C4, 
be  waa  intmstad  with  the  ocanmaad  at  the  FreiuJi 
forces,  and  oo.apaiBted  witb  Lord  Raglan  in  Uie 
battle  of  the  Ahna,  20th  Ssiptember.  He  died 
nine  day*  sAennwds,  the  ncbm  of  an  ianncablg 


LEItWICK,  *  bor^  of  barosy,  (dilaf  knm  of  the 
Shetland  lalands,  ia  sitwited  on  the  Mainland,  oo 
Breasay  Sound,  110  mile*  north-eaat  of  EirkwalL 
L.  hae  no  rwnlac  street*,  tbe  only  thoroorilfiuea 
between  the  honses  iMing  badljr  kc^  and  winding 
pathway*.  Much  poblio  aptnt' has  lately  been 
ebewn  m  securing  new  water-work^  reading-rooma, 
a  handsome  town- hall,  and  extensive  harboar-worka, 
inclnding  iron  and  atone  [ncra,  and  an  aaplaaade. 
Pop.  (18ii)  404a.    See  Shbtumd. 

LESAQE,  ALaiH  REirt,  a  French  dramatist  and 
novelist,  bom  Stb  Hay  1668,  at  Saneao,  new  in 
the  department  of  Uorbihan,  and  atodied  under 
Ae  Jeauita.    In  lfKI2,  he  came  to  Paris,  to  potaoe 


favonrabla  regard  ol 
her  hand ;   Gnt  in 


qoalitiea  atbaeted  tbq 

,    f  rank,  who  eflered  him 

1S9S  he  married  ttie  daoghtar 

ot  a  oitizai  of  Paria.      He  renounced  the  practioa 

of  his  nrofeaaion  aa  an  advooate  to  devote  himself 

and   lived   entirely  by  hia  literaiy 


.     _  .  popularity ;  and  in  1709  he 

waa  offered  100,000  franca  to  siqtpreas  one  of  them, 
TvrcarA,  a  bitter  satire  on  the  financier*  of  tha 
time,  but  he  lefoaed  the  offer.  His  comio  novels, 
which  have  never  bean  excelled  by  anything  of 
the  same  kind,  won  for  him  a  still  hi|^ier  ^aoe 
in  literatnre,  particularly  La  IHabh  Bviiatx,  La 
AveRtoTtt  de  Ovxman  £A\fixTaAa  (an  abridged 
translation  from  the  Spanish  of  Aleman],  and  Chi 
Bta*  de  SantiUane  (2  voV  Par.  I7Ift},  which  ia  nni- 
veraally  regarded  as  his  maater-inece.  He  died  17tit 
HovemW  1747.  A  ooiD[4ete  edition  of  hia  wcrfca 
was  pnbliahed  in  Paris  in  1730.  Tbe  novel*  above 
named  hne  been  transUted  into  different  '"tpf*. 
poplar. 


LB'SBOS.tl 

Oredan  Archipelago,  belonging  to  Tnriuij,  called, 
during  the  middle  am,  Ilitjf&M  {from  tto  oaptal 
city),  and  hence,  by  tSe  modem  Greek*,  JTAtUm^  <» 
Jfeltiu,  and  W  the  Turks  Jfiifm  It  lie*  ^  milea 
Eoath-eaat  of  Lemnoa  jq.  v.),  near  the  ooast  of  Aaia 
Minor,  from  which  it  is  distant  only  10  miles ;  area. 


rather  mountainous,  but  only  one  of  tha 
ain*  attuQS  an  ekvation  of  3000  feet  The 
climate  ia  ■alnbriona  b^ond  that  of  any  other  i*land 
ia  the  ^gtan,  and  the  ami  i*  fertile.  Anciently,  it 
was  fsniMi*  (or  it*  wine* — Horace  oelebmte*  the 
nmoeenfit  poeuia  Labii — but  tha  modem  ]^oduae  ia 


It* 


bntit 


prindnal  ezporta  are  oil,  timber,  and  gall-nnta.  Tha 
chief  town  i*  Castro  (q.  v.). — L.  waa  the  birthplace 
of  Terpaadtr,  Arion,  *ii— n«,  Sappho,  Pittacnsr 
Theopbiastori,  and  Cratippns. 

IiEiBIOIf ,  a  term  in  Scotoh  Law  to  denote  injury 
or  preiudice  aturtaioed  by  a  minor  or  by  a  person 
of  weak  capacity,  •nfltdent  te  be  a  gnnnd  of  action 
to  rednee  or  aet  aaide  the  deed  whidi  canpad  the 
leeieD.    See  brrjijrr. 

LESLIE,  LESLT,  or  LESLEY,  Ths  Furar  or. 
The  firat  trace  of  this  Scottish  historical  house 
is  found  between  Hie  years  I17I  and  1199,  when 
Davii^  Earl  of  Huntingdon  and  the  Garioah,  brother 
of  King  William  the  lion,  granted  a  charter  to 
Malcolm,  tbe  son  of  Bartbolf,  of  tiie  land  of  Laeslyo 
(now  written  Leslie),  a  wild  pastor*!  pariah  in 
Aberdeenshire.  Bartbolf  s  desoeodanti,  takiiw  their 
surname  from  their  land*  of  Leslie,  acqnired  large 
domain*  before  the  uid  of  the  13th  c,  %  marria^ 
with  the  heireH*  of  Botbe*  on  tht  Spey,  and  with 
one  of  the  oo-hedresses  of  Abemethy  on  the  Tay. 
Sir  Andrew  of  Lcolie  upean  as  one  u  tlie  msgnates 
of  SaoUand  in  1220^  and  from  this  time  the  &mily 
figntva  in  the  history  of  tlie  ooonby. 

£1abu  AMD  Ddxb  or  RotHB. — It  became  ea- 
1  14S7,  whea  George  of  Lerii&  of  Bathes, 
:die  npon  Leven  (the  family  had  transferred 


po**enian  in  the  0«riacb_ti) 
,  _    Fife),  wa*  m   ' 
and  Lard  Lealie.    ThaUiirdei 


land*  of  Fethkil,  in  F 


m  made  Earl  <d  Rothe* 


•  ^iloaaiihin  s 


•on,  (Oaroely  lea*  abU^  thondi  almoat  unadncated, 
baoma  ItaA  Cfaancdlw  at  aMtbad  is  1667,  aad. 


in  16S0  WM  cra&ted  Duke  U  Botha,  MMqnii  of 
BklliiibrBicli,  Eul  of  Leilie,  Ao.  Th«M  honoon, 
being  limited  to  the  hain-nula  ct  bia  bod;,  beonw 
wctinct  npoD  hit  deftth  witboot  nuJe  iMde  in  16SL 
Hm  earldom  of  Bothe«  went  to  his  eldwt  daughter, 
wbcw  dewendaot,  the  present  CoimteaB  of  Bothes, 
ii  the  nxteenth  who  baa  held  the  digoi^. 

K^Ki^  or  LiTEK. — Before  the  family  fonook 
fint  Mat  in  Abudetd^ure,  it  had  thrown  off 
bnuiahea,  lome  of  whiob  ttiD  flonriah  there.  The 
ehief,  tJiat  of  Balqubain,  ha«  given  birth  b;  ibelf 
or  bf  ite  offeboota  to  atvgni  men  of  mark,  mcb 
M  -Uie  teamed  John  Lealist  Bishop  of  Bom  (b«ii 
in  1G27,  died  in  1S06),  the  devoted  obuDpioo  ' 
Ma^,  Qaeea  of  Scotii  Sir  Aleiandor  Lulie 
Ani-tiintjinl,  ,«  general  in  tiie  Moaoovite  aorvioe, 
wbo  died  soremor  of  Smoleoeko  in  1063 ;  aed 
Charlai  Le^c^  chancellor  of  the  diooeaa  of  Coimor, 
•nthor  of  a  Short  Mtthod  infA  the  DtItU,  wbo 
died  in  1732.  A  atill  more  diitinniibed  m 
was  Alexander  Lealia,  a  aoldier  of  loitone,  wL., 
banting  tbe  tnumneb  of  illegitimate  biith  and  a 
Maoty  edaoation  (be  eonld  write  bia  name,  bnt 
nothing  more),  rate  to  be  a  fldd-manbal  ol  Sweden 
nnder  the  great  QoataToa  Adolpbna.  He  — 
recalled  to  Gotland  in  1S3Q,  to  take  the  comi 
of  the  CovenantiiiR  army ;  and  in  IS41  waa  mads 
Earl  of  Leven  aod  Lord  Balgony.  He  died  in  ISSl, 
leavins  two  gTandchUdran,  the  yonnger  of  whom 
marriM  tbe  &ul  of  HelvtUe,  and  left  a  son,  wbo 
became  third  Earl  of  Leven  and  aeoond  Barl  of 
Helvilte.  Hii  deacendant  ie  now  twelfth  Bad.  of 
Xieven  and  nistb  Earl  of  Melville. 

LoBDs  LiNiMRn. — Tbe'  leoond  ton  of  the  fifth 
Bail  of  Bothea  waa  created  Lord  Lindorea  in  leoa 
The  title  haa  been  dormant  iiBOe  tbe  death  of  the 
mntaitt  lord  in  177S. 

LcADS  Nkwulk. — David  Lealie,  fifth  aon  <d  tbe 
fiiat  liird  Lindoree,  served  with  diatinction  under 


Sootliod,  CO  tbe  outbreak  of  the  Great 
wai  one  of  the  leaden  of  the  Parliamootary 
amy  at  Maraton  Moor,  md  Kupiised  and  rooted 
Hontroae  at  PhiliphaogK  He  wa*  defeated  by 
Cromwell  at  Dunbel  in  1660,  and  after  ten  years' 
impriaonment  in  tiie  Tower,  waa  let  at  liber^  at 
the  lUatoration.  He  was  made  Lord  Newark  in 
1661,  and  died  in  168^  Tbe  title  bas  been  dormant 
■inoe  the  death  of  bia  great-grandson,  the  fonrth 
lord,  in  1791. 

CoDMis  LrauK— Walter  Leslie,  a  yoiuger  son  of 
tbe  Home  of  Balqnbiun,  diatingoiabed  himself  in  tbe 
Austrian  army,  and  in  1637  was  created  a  count 
of  the  empire,  as  a  rewud  for  big  services  in  tbe 
murder  of  Wallenstein.  He  died  without  issue  in 
1667,  when  he  was  mcoeeded  by  his  nephew,  Jamea, 
a  field.marshal  in  the  Austriaa  service,  wbo  died  in 
1694.    The  title  became  extinot  in  IS44 

The  history  of  the  Leslies  was  written  by  Father 
William  Aloyains  Leslie,  a  yonnger  brother  of  tbe 
second  oouut,  in  a  large  and  sumptuous  folio  pub- 
lished at  Grstx  in  1692,  with  the  title  of  Xauros 
LeMtna  ExpUcata.  The  Pedyp-fe  of  iJte  FamUy  of 
LtMe  ^  Balguhain  was  printed  at  Bakewell  in 
1861,  fOT  private  drculatiau.  Some  hiatoriea  of  the 
family  still  remain  in  US.  One  of  tbem  boasts 
tiiat  'at  one  time  three  Leslie*  were  generals  of 
armiea  in  three  kingdoms — Walter,  Connt  Leslie, 
in  Germany;  Alexander  Leslie,  Earl  of  Leven,  in 
SooUand  i  and  Sir  Aleraodw  Leelie  of  Anohintoul, 
in  Husoovy.'  See  alao  Hidorieal  Rtcord*  of  the 
Fam^g  o/LaUt,  by  CoL  Leslie  of  Balqnbain  <£din- 
bnigh,l»B9}. 

LBSLIE,  Sir  Johv,  a  oelebnted  natural  phil- 
oBopher,  waa  bom  in  Lfgo,  Kfe,  10th  April  1700. 
WbJle  •  boy,  ih«nring  «  itroDg  bias  for  the  esaot 


•deDoas,  be  waa  sent  to  St  Andnwa  TTnivstsi^  ia 
177SL  In  178S,  he  entend  tbe  EdinbnrEb  Divinity 
Hall,  but  devoted  moat  o(  his  timo  to  &e  stncDoes, 
particularly  cbamistry.  In  1788,  be  left  Edinburgh, 
and  after  being  two  jream  in  Ameiiaa,  as  tutor  to 
tbe  sons  of  a  Ynginian  planter,  be  retusnsd  to 
London  in  1790.  Horn  that  tame  till  160S  be  waa 
enjoyed  as  tutor  to  tbe  family  of  Mr  Wedsewood, 
at  Etnuia,  Stoffordahira,  in  travelling  on  um  con< 
tinent,  in  contributing  t«  the  prea,  and  in  making 
experimental  reseambaa :  the  fniita  tA  his  laboon 
were  a  translation  of  Buffon'B  Natural  Hialory 
of  Bird*  (1793),  the  invention  af  a  Differentba 
Tbermometer,  a  Hygrometer,  and  a  PhototDster, 
and  the  pttbluMtion  oT  tm  Acperlawnfal  In^try  ialo 
tit  NaloTe  aid  PropofaOim  af  ifMt  (1804),  a  most 
ingenious  work,  oonstituting  an  em  in  tbe  histoiy 
of  that  branch  of  pl^ndoal  seieaoc^  and  for  whien 
the  Boyal  Sodety  awarded  blm  tbe  Rumford 
medals.  In  Maroh  1805,  be  was,  after  a  peat  de«l 
ippositioii  from  th«  Edtuborgb  oleny,  elected 


butgh,  and  won  after  aommcuMd  the  puU 
bis  Oourti  ^  MaAmiatiet.  la  1810^  L. 
the  proeeM  of  sitifioial  oongelationt^eifcnBed  the 
experiment  in  the  following  year  befotu  tbe  Binal 
Society  of  London,  and  in  1813  published  a  flUl 
explanation  of  his  views  on  tbo  subject ;  suba^- 
qoently,  be  disoovend  a  mode  of  freesing  mer- 
cury. In  1819,  be  was  tranaferrsd  to  the  ^lui  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  a  poation  better  adapted  to 
bia  peculiar  genius,  and  in  1823  published  osa 
volume  of  Bianaiit  qf  ifatu/nd  PiSotophy,  never 
oomideted.  In  1832,  be  waa  created  a  knight 
of  uie  Quelpbio  Order;  and  on  Noven^ier  3  of 
the  same  year  «xpired  at  Coatea,  a  small  estate 
which  be-  had  purchased  near  Largo.  Beaides 
"      '    '  above  mentioned,  he  invented  an 


.^Ithrioacope,  l^roseope,  and  Atanometer,  aod  con- 
tributed many  artieua  to  varioaa  periodioali  on 
Heat,  Ugb^  Meteorology,  Che  Theory  of  C^aapmt- 
sion.  Electricity,  Atzoasi^isria  PresBue,  fto.     Hii 


sion.  Electricity,  Atzoasi^isria  PresBue,    ...     . 

ortant  work  waa  his  disconne  on  tbo  Pro- 
,  MathemaUcal  and  Phgtieal  Seiaiet  daring 
lite  EiffhleatiA  Caitury,  whldi  oonstitatea  tbe  fiftA 
dissertation  in  tbe  Bnt  voluiue  of  the  Eneydoptedia 
Bnianmea,  seventh  and  eighth  editions. 

LESLIE,  Cba*i,h  Bann&T,  K.  A.  This  distin- 
guished artist  waa  bent  in  London  in  179^  His 
panmti  were  Ajnerican*  resident  there  at  Uie  time 
of  his  Urtb ;  they  went  baok  to  Animn»  in  1799, 
taking  with  thoB  Cfaaiica  Bobart  along  with  their 
oth^  children.  His  father  died  in  ISO^  leaving 
the  family  in  straitened  cironmatancea.  Young  L 
having  from  infancy,  been  fond  of  drawing,  wiued 
to  be  a  p<uBter ;  bnt  bia  mother  not  having  the 
means  of  giving  him  a  painter'a  edaoation,  he  wai 
bound  (^pmalsoe  to  Meana  Bradford  and  Inakeem 
'     '     "  '  -  -  blishras  in  PhiladdiJiia.    He  h*d 

at  hia  apprentioMiup,  wbeo  b* 
managed  to  exeento  a  drawing  of  the  popolar  actor, 
Osorge  Frederick  Cook.  The  likeness  haviDjg  be« 
pronowoed  excellent  by  a  number  of  conaouseora, 
a  subacriptum  w*a  raised  to  enable  the  rising 
artist  to  study  painting  two  yesis  in  Europe.  He 
aocordingly  letoraed    to    Kudiod   in    1811,   and 


1    to    fiudud 

.     .  t  in  tlie  Boyal  Acadstny.     He 

BQu  at  first  to  have  attempted  sabpecto  in  what 

called  tbe  claosioal  styla,  together  with  portraits ; 

but  by  degrees  he  oame  to  follow  out  the  bent  of 

his  genius,  and  tain  bis  attention  to  works  in  that 

style  in  which  he  distinguished  himself — viz.,  genie- 

'■'■■».      Ibe  firet  picture 

„_ _.tioe   was   'Sir   Bcwec 

da  Coverley  goiiu  to   Cbardi,*   exhibited  in  uie 
Boyal  Aeadamjr  in  ISIO.    Ib  1821,  bis  picture  of 


LESSEP8— LBTTEHaL 


'ISxj'iay  in  the  Itmgii  of  Qneen  Etimbeth'  tecnred 
bit  elecboD  u  &n  Asaodrte  of  the  Academy ;  and 
■  Sancho  Panza  B.ad  the  Duchen,'  mintai  for  Lord 
Efremont,  and  exhibited  in  ISZi,  lui  beat  work  (of 
which  there  a  »  repeHtion  amoi^  the  painting  of 
the  Britigb  school  bequeathed  %  Mr  Vemoo  to 
the  Ifatioo&l  Gallery),  obtained  for  him  the  nnk 
cf  Aoademicioa.  After  thiR,  till  atat  the  period  of 
fail  death,  there  were  few  exhibitiinu  of  tne  Horal 
A.oodemv  to  which  L.  did  not  contribute.  Ii.'i 
prindpol  pictdres  are  embodimeDt*  of  ocenet  from 
the  worka  of  monj  of  the  mo«t  popolar  autbora— 
Shakipeore,  Cervaatei,  Leuse,  Uoli^re,  Addison, 
Steme,  Fielding,  and  SmoU^t.  Bis  works  have 
had  a  ereat  inHneace  on  the  Enzlilb  school ;  and 
though  he  akaoat  always  ezecutea  repetitions  of  his 

Srincipol  works — a  prootice  that  generally  leads  to 
ecreaie  the  value  of  pictures — his  pictures  bring 
immense  prices.  Qreat  power  of  expression,  and  a 
delicate  perception  of  female  beauty,  ore  the  leading 
pointe  iu  L.'a  pioturea.  In  the  early  part  of  his 
career,  his  style  may  be  objected  to  as  deScient  in 
colour,  and  rather  dry  and  hard  ;  but  the  influence 
of  Newton,  his  talented  compatriot,  led  him  to 
direct  his  attention  to  the  works  of  the  Venetian 
masteie,  and  impart  greater  richness  to  his  colour- 
ing. Later  in  life,  the  examine  of  Constable  inclined 
him  to  strive  at  produd^  empaiio,  or  fuiuees  of 
■orface,  in  his  pictores.  £.  accepted  the  appoint- 
ment of  Profesaor  of  Drawinz  at  Uie  military 
academy  of  West  Prant,  New  York ;  but  be  gave 
np  this  occnpation  after  a  Eve  months'  residence, 
and  retomed  te  Enf^and.  In  184S,  he  was  elected 
Profeesor  of  Painting  at  the  Boyal  Academy,  bat 
lesiKQed  in  1S6I.  He  died  in  London  in  May  1659. 
His  lectures  were  published  in  1S4S  under  the  title 
of  A  Handbook /or  Young  PahUen — a  very  sound 
and  meat  useful  work  on  art  A  most  able  life  of 
his  intimate  friend  and  brother- artist.  Constable, 
whose  great  talent  he  was  the  flrat  fully  to  appreciate^ 
was  pnbli^iad  by  him  in  1S4S.  Tim  AvtobiogmphioiU 
Steotltctima  of  1.  were  edited  by  Tom  Taylor  (1860). 
LESSBPS,  M.  St.  See  Sdfp.,  Vol.  X.. 
LESSING,  GoTTHOLD  EFHum,  an  illDstriDns 
German  author  and  literary  reformer,  was  born 
January  22.  1729,  at  Kamenz,  in  Saxon  Upper 
Lusatus  where  his  father  was  a  clerOTman  of  the 
highest  orthodox  Lutheran  schooL  J^ter  spendins 
Are  years  at  a  school  in  Meissen,  where  he  worked 
Tery  hard,  he  proceeded  to  the  nniversify  of  Leipzig 
in  1746,  with  the  intention  of  stndying  theol<KQr. 
But  he  soon  began  to  occupy  himself  with  other 
matters,  mode  the  ocquaintaoce  of  actors,  contracted 
a  great  fondness  for  dramatic  eDtertainments,  and 
set  about  the  compoaition  of  dromatio  pieces  and 
Anacreontic  poems.  This  sort  of  life  pained  his 
■evere  relatives,  who  pronounced  it  'sinful,'  and  for 
a  short  time  L.  went  home ;  but  it  was  his  destiny 
to  revive  the  national  oharacta:  of  German  litero- 
tuTfii  and  after  one  or  two  literary  ventures  at 
Leipzig  of  a  trifliog  charaoter,  he  proceeded  to 
Benin  in  17^,  where  he  commenced  to  publish,  in 
conjunction  with  his  friend  Myliua,  a  quarterly, 
entitled  BetirOge  air  ffiitorte  and  AufmihTm  det 
Theai^t,  which  onl^  went  the  length  of  four  num- 
bers. About  tliis  time  also  appeved  his  collection 
of  little  poeme,  entitled  Kl^ntgitittn.  After  a  brief 
residence  at  Wittenberg,  in  compiianoe,  once  more, 
with  the  wiaiiee  of  his  parants,  be  returned  to  Berlin 
in  17fi3,  and  in  17SS  produced  hia  Jftw  Sara  5ainp- 
fon,  the  first  specimen  of  bourgeome  tragedj;  m 
Gennany,  which,  iu  spite  of  some  hostile  cnticisin, 
became  very  popular.  L.  now  formed  valuable  lite- 
nry  friendshipa  with  Gleim,  Kamler,  Nioolai,  Moses 
Mendelssohn,  and  others.  In  company  with  the 
last  two,  he  started  (17S7)  the  BiUioUiek  der  SckUnen 


Wiuai»dU^flait  the  best  literary  Journal  of  its  time, 
and  still  valuable  for  its  clear  natural  criticisi 
he  also  wrote  his  Fabdn,  his  LUtraturbn^t,  am: 
variety  of  miscellaneous  articles  on  literature  a 
isBthetica.   Between  1760—1765,  he  lived  at  Breal 

as  secretary  to  General  Tauenzien,  governor  of  Silei 

The  year  after  hia  return  to  Berlin,  he  published  hia 
master-piece,  the  Xooeoon,  peiliaps  the  finest  and 


Jft'nna  con  Bantkdm,  a  national  drama,  h 
celebrated  than  the  Laocoon;  and  in  1768,  1 
Dramaturgie,  a,  work  which  exercised  a  powerful 
influence  on  the  controversy  between  tiui  French 
and  the  English  styles  of  dromatio  art — i.  e^ 
between  the  artificial  and  the  natural,  between  the 
conventional  and  the  true,  between  shallow  and 
pompous  rheteric,  and  genuine  human  emotion.  In 
1770,  L.  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  Wolfenbuttel 
Libraiy.  Two  years  later  appeared  his  ffinUioGoIoiW, ■ 
and betweeDl774— 1778, thefor-famed  Woi/oMUUl. 
mAe  FragmenU  emea  UngeBaToUat.  These  Wolfan- 
btlttel  Fragmente  are  now  known  to  have  been  the 
composition  of  Beimarus  (q,  v.),  but  the  odiom  of 
their  authorship  fell  at  the  time  on  L.,  and  he  was 
involved  in  much  bitter  controversy.  In  1779,  he 
published  his  NaJJuat  der  Wom,  a  dramatic  expo- 
sition of  his  religious  opinions  (his  friend  Moaes 
Mendelssohn  is  said  to  have  been  the  original  of 
Natiian) ;  and  in  1780,  his  Eniehung  da  Mem^ica- 
getAUtJtU,  a  work  which  is  the  germ  of  Berdei's 
and  all  later  works  on  the  Edncation  of  the  H~ 
Bace.  He  died  February  16,  1781.  L.  is  o 
the  greatest  names  in  German  literatnre.  If  his 
worlu  seem  hardly  eqnal  to  his  fame,  it  il 
he  soaifioed  his  own  genins,  as  it  were,  for  the  sake 
of  others.  When  be  anpeaj^  the  litereton  of  his 
country  was  corrupted  and  enslaved  by  French 
influences.  The  aim  of  L.  was  to  reinvigorata  and 
emancipate  the  national  thought  and  taste ;  and  the 
splendid  oatboist  of  national  genius  that  followigd, 
was  in  a  large  measure  the  result  of  his  labours. 
See  Stahr'i  Lt$»ing  (1809) ;  Sime's  Lttdng,  JU«  Life 
and  Worka  (1877) ;  sod  Miss  Zimmem's  L.  (1878). 

LESSON,  in  litorgical  literature.  See  SCTT- 
Vol.  X. 

LETHAL  WEAPON,  In  Scotch  oriminal  law, 
means  a  deadly  weapon  by  which  deathw  ' 

as  a  aword,  kiufe,  pistol. 

LE'THE,  in  Grecian  Uythol<vr,  the 
forgetfulness  in  the  lower  world,  &«m  which  souls 
druik  before  passing  into  the  Eiysian  Fields,  that 
they  might  lose  all  recollection  of  earthly  sorrows. 

LBTTEB  OF  MARQUE  (because  the  sovereign 
allowed  a  market  or  mart — Le.,  authorised  t£e 
disposal  of  the  property  token),  tiie  commismoo 
autiiorising  a  privateer  to  make  war  upon,  or  seize 
the  property  of,  another  notion-  It  must  be  granted 
by  the  Lords  Commissioners  of  the  Admiralty,  or 
by  the  Tice-odmiral  of  a  distant  province.  Vessels 
sailing  under  such  commissions  are  commonly 
spoken  of  as  leUeri  i^marqiu.  Making  war  without 
letters  of  marque  by  a  private  veesel  is  piracy. 
Letters  of  marque  were  abolished  among  European 
nations  at  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1856. 

LETTERS,  a  legal  term  used  in  the  United 
Kingdom  in  oombination  with  other  words.  Letten 
of  AdmimttraSioa  in  England  and  Ireland  mean 
the  legal  document  granted  by  tiie  Probate  Court 
to  a  person  who  is  appointed  administrator  to  a 
deceased  person  who  has  died  inteatata.  SeeAsms- 
iSTRATios,  Wnx,  iMTBsrAOi.  LtUo-  of  Atlontji, 
or  power  of  attorney,  in  F.ngli.h  i^^^  it  a,  writing 
or  deed  authorising  au  agent  (whether  he  is  a 
certificated  attorney  or  not]  to  do  any  lawful  act 


.X\iM-\0\c 


LETTEBS— I^ETTEES  ASD  ABTICniATB  BOmTDa 


in  tlM  rtead  of  the  puty  ezecntme  it  LetUr* 
conform,  in  SootcL  Ikw,  mean  k  writ  iMoed  br  the 
■nprema  oooit  enforciiig  ft  decree  of  hi  inferior 
conrL  Lttier  of  endU  ii  an  uithoritr  from  ons 
banker  to  another  to  pay  money  to  a  third  penon. 
LtUeri  <^  aaiipaiion,  m  Scotch  oriminal  law,  are 

*  warrant  obtained  by  a  priaooer  to  tmamon 
witnoaea  on  hia  behalf  at  bia  trial  LtOer  of  guar- 
aniee,  in  Scotch  law,  meana  a  writing  giuuknteeiiig 

•  debt  or  engagemoit  of  attotber.  LSltroflke$KsiM 
a,  deed  or  inatnnnent  eieoated  b^  the  crediton  of  a 
bttder  who  i*  inadvent,  piing  km  time  to  pay,  and, 
in  the  meantime,  to  cany  on  m«  biuineai  onder  anr- 
veillance.  £«tt^(  rauniw,  in  England,  ia  in  wder  from 
Hie  Lord  Chutoellor  to  a  peer  reqauting  the  latter 
to  enter  an  appearance  to  a  bill  died  in  Chanooy 
•galnat  auch  peer ;  in  Scotland,  the  word  mean*  any 
written  agreement  or  memorandum  relative  to  aome 
baigain  aa  to  mercantile  matters,  or  as  to  the  tale  of 
land  or  bonaea  or  the  letting  of  land.  £etf«r>  patent 
mean  a  writing  of  the  Qneen,  settled  with  the  Gtreat 
Seal  of  Great  Britain,  anthoriidng  or  appointing  the 
party  to  whom  it  ia  addrtaaed  to  da  lome  act,  or 
execute  aome  office,  aa  creating  a  peer;  a  jud^  a 
Qneen'a  Coimael;  alao  granting  a  patent  rig)it  to  a 
peraon  who  ii  the  Srat  uvemtorof  some  new  contariv- 
auce.  See  Patent.  L«aen  t^f  requai,  in  English 
eccleaiaitical  law,  mean  a  writ  which  oommenoea  a 
anit  in  the  Coort  of  Arches  agunat  a  clerf^man, 
instead  of  praceadinx,  in  the  fint  instance,  m  the 
Conaiatory  Court.  LtOv*  of  »aft  amduct  mean  a 
writ,  nnder  the  great  seal,  to  the  mbject  of  a  state 
at  war  with  this  ooantry,  authorising  and  ^miteotang 
sach  subject  while  deijing  or  traTelliiif  in  this 
country,  ao  that  neither  he  nor  his  gi>o&  may  be 
seized,  aa  they  otherwise  might  be. 

I>ETTEBS  AND  ARTICULATE  SOUNDS. 
Lettcra  are  coaTentiona]  marks  or  Tisible  signs  of 
the  elemental  sounds  of  spoken  langnage.  The 
earliest  symbols  of  sonnds  represented  ^ablea 
rather  than  simple  Bounds  (see  Althabit,  HnotO' 
flLTPHira,  Chimbib  Lakouaos).  It  was  only  ^adu- 
ally  that  syllables  were  redooed  to  their  ultimate 
elements,  and  all  alphabets  yet  beat  marks  of  their 
syllabary  oiinn  (see  letter  K).  displaying  variona 
imperfections  Doth  of  excess  and  defect. 

Articnlate  sounds  are  divided  into  vowels  and 
consonants ;  and  the  latter  are  subdivided  into 
voiceless  and  voosi  elements  (otherwise  called 
'  shnrpe '  and  '  flats ' ),  obstracttve  and  oontinnons 
elements  (otherwise  called  '  mutes '  and  *  semi- 
vowels'),  and  liquids.  Many  other  dividon*  have 
been  proposed,  but  the  above  olssaification  embraces 
all  real  Tarieties.  The  elements  are  likewise  classi- 
Ged  according  to  the  organs  which  form  them,  as 
latnals,  lingoaU,  gattnrab,  nasals,  Ac  A  physio- 
logical description  of  the  artioulate  sounds  used  in 
English  speech,  will  shew  the  neoesui^  extent  of  a 
periect  system  of  letters,  and  exhibit  the  short- 
comings of  our  present  al^jiabet 

All  the  element!  of  speech  *re  sosceptable  of 
separate  formation ;  and  in  the  foUowing  description, 
rHexence  ia  always  intended  to  the  euct  sound  of 
each  element,  and  not  to  the  name*  of  the  letters. 

Emitted  breatli  mechanically  modified  forma  every 
articnlate  tonnd.  The  breath  i*  firat  modified  in 
the  throat,  by  a  certain  amount  of  constrictioD 
in  the  larynx,  wantino  which  restraint,  the  sir 
would  flow  out  noiselessly,  as  in  ordinary  breathing, 
or  gushingly,  aa  in  ughmg.  The  breath  is  thus 
economised  into  a  steady  stream,  and  rendered 
audible  by  the  degree  of  roughness  or  'aaperation' 
it  acqoirea  when  forced  through  a  narrow  apertnnb 
Thia  'anierated'  enrrent  of  air,  when  artiCDlated, 
forms  wtiiapC9Md  ^eeeh.    In  passing  through  the 


laryn:^  the   breath   ia   further  ■ 


vocalised  or  asperated  breath  receives  vowel  and 
articulate  modification  in  its  passage  throngh  the 
mouth.  When  the  mouth  ia  sufficiently  open  to 
allow  the  breath  to  flow  without  obstruction  or  oral 
Bsperation,  the  air  is  Inoulded  into  the  various 
qualities  of  vouw^sound ;  and  when  the  ohannel 
of  the  mouth  ia  obstructed,  or  narrowed  *o  mnch 
a*  to  cause  a  d^ree  of  aspeiation  of  the  breath 
between  the  tongue  and  the  palate,  the  lips,  Ac, 
coiucnian(-sounds  are  produced. 

The  upper  part  of^  the  mouth  is  an  immovable 
arch :  all  variations  in  the  shape  of  the  oral  passsn 
are  consequently  effected  by  the  tongue  and  the 
hps.  [A  nasal  variety  of  vowel-sounds  occurs  io 
French— represented  by  n  after  the  vowel-letters. 
These  sounds  are  formed  by  depressing  the  soft 
palate,  which  otherwise  covers  the  inner  end  of  the 
nostrils,  and  allowing  part  of  the  breath  to  pas* 
through  the  nose,  wMle  the  remainder  is  modified 
in  the  usual  way.] 


the  breath,  tlu  resulting  vowel  qnuity  is  that  tieard 
in  the  word  ed ;  and  progreasively  less  degrees  of 
elevation  produce  a  series  of  lingual  vowels,  of 
which  AK  it  the  most  fiattened — the  lips  being 
equally  expanded  throughout  the  series,  to  allow 
the  breath  to  escape  withont  labial  modification. 

When  the  aperture  of  the  lip*  is  contracted  in 

the  greatest  degree  short  of  asperatiog  the  breath, 

"     resulting  vowel-quality  isthat  heard  in  the  word 

,-  and  progressively  lesa   degrees  of  labial 


the  resulting  vowel-quality  is ' 

ively  less   degreei 

of  labial  vowels,  of  which 
A\B  a  the  most  open-~~the  tongue  being  retracted 
throughout  the  aenee,  to  direct  the  breath  without 
lineuu  niodifii«tion  forward  auinst  the  lips. 

A  third  serie*  of  vowel*  ia  lormed  by  combining 
elevated  positions  of  the  tongue  and  contracted 
positions  of  the  lips,  or  retracted  positions  of  the 
tongue,  and  expanded  positions  of  the  lips.  Of  this 
labio-tingual  series,  the  German  A  is  the  most  con- 
tracted, and  the  £ikgliah  sound  heacd  in  the  word 
err  the  most  open. 

The  foUowing  table  shews  the  principal  vowels  of 


jS     fr 


i"wf 


The  poKible  modifications  of  the  oral  channel 
are  endleaa,  and  untraceably  minute,  aa  are  the 
shade*  of  vowel-quality  heard  in  dialects,  and 
among  individual  speakers.  In  Englisli,  there  are 
altogether  thirteen  established  varieties,  as  heard  in 
the  words  ed,  JU,  die,  di,  on,  oafc,  oA,  m-,  UJ^  oil, 
ore,  old,  ootf.  Besides  these,  which  a  periect 
alphabet  must  represent,  we  have  the  diphuiongal 
sounds  heard  in  the  words  ide,  oubI,  oil,  and  the 
asperated  compound  jioo — the  sound  of  the  letter  « 
in  UM — which  is  often,  bat  erroneously,  supposed 
to  be  a  diphthon«d  voweL 

The  Aspirate  H.—The  letter  H  {see  Aspieati) 
represents  an  expulsive  breathing,  modified  b^ 
the  form  of  the  vocal  element  which  follows  it 
— aa  in  he,  hay,  high,  hoe,  Ac,  in  which  the  E  will 
be  observed  to  have  the  quality  of  l,d,l,d,  tc,  but 
without  the  laryngal  contraction,  and  consequent 
aaperation  of  Uie  breath,  which  forms  a  whispered 
voweL  ... 

OnHMonb.— When  the  tongue  ts  raised  conveily 
against  the  back  of  the  palatal  arch  so  as  to  stop  the 
teeath,  the  separation  of  the  tongue  from  the  roof 


,vGuu^(i 


LVTTEBS  Aim  ABTIOULATE  SOUSIK. 


or  back  of  the  monlili  ia  Moompsnwd  \if  i.  percTudre 
«Bect,  which  i>  repraented  in  the  GnsUgh  »lphkbet 
by  C,  K,  »nd  Q,  »nd^  G  -wiara  the  obBtonoted 
breath  it  TocaliMd.  While  the  tongiM  ia  in  thii 
ob«tnictiTe  pcntion,  if  the  toft  palate  be  de^reawd 
to  at  to  oneoTer  the  inner  end  of  the  Doetnli,  the 
breath  vill  pMO  tiuoti^  the  coee.  Tbis,  with 
Tocalited  breath,  i*  the  tonnation  of  the  element 
repreoented  in  En^lith,  for  laok  of  an  alphabetic 
charactar,  by  the  di^afui  ng. 

rrhe  pennuBiTa  3S«it  61  K — Q  it  ilightly  modi- 
fied by  the  point  at  which  the  tongne  lesrea  Hie 
palate  hefora  different  Towela,  as  in  tlie  worda  tej/ 
and  eate;  the  consonant  of  the  latter  word  being 
■tniok  from  the  soft  palate,  and  that  of  the  former 
word  farther  forward,  from  the  bard  palate.  A 
pecoliar  Anglicitm  of  pronunciation  ii  d^ved  from 
the  tnbttitation  of  the  anterior  for  the 
formation  of  K— G  in  certain  words,  as  t 
guide,  gaard,  girl,  4c] 

When  the  fore-part  of  the  tongue  it  raited  to  the 
front  of  tlie  palate,  to  at  to  ttop  the  breath,  the 
■eparation  of  the  tongne  ii  accompanied  by  tbe 
peronsaJTe  effect  which  it  represent^  by  T,  and  by 
D  when  the  obetmcted  breath  ia  vocuiacd.  The 
oncoverina  of  tbe  end  of  the  nostrils  while  the 
tongtie  is  m  this  obstmctiTe  pomtion  produces,  with 
TocoUsed  breath,  the  aonnd  represented  by  N. 

When  the  lips  are  hronght  in  contact  (the 


pereoanTe  effect  reprewnted  by  P,  and  by  B  when 
the  obttmeted  bremi  it  vocalised.  The  nncovering 
of  the  naree  while  tite  lipa  are  in  contact,  producn, 
with  Tooaliaed  breath,  the  tonnd  repreeented  by  M. 

The  remaining  contoaaata  are  aQ  of  the  eontinuoue 
or  noD-obatnictive  olaa ;  the  organs  of  articulation 
being  eo  pWal  at  merely  to  narrow  the  apertnree, 
central  or  lateral,  throu^  which  the  breath  innee 
with  a  degree  of  hiasing  or  asperation. 

Tbe  elevation  of  the  base  of  the  tongue 
leave  a  narrow  aperture  between  its  centre  and  tbe 
back-port  of  tbe  palate,  fonot,  with  vocalised  breath, 
the  Bound  of  Y  i"'ti'*'  »a  in  ye.  The  sound  of  y 
resembles  that  of  the  vowel  I,  but  with  the  con- 
bscted  aperture  and  reeulting  oral  aaperation  of  tbe 
breath  eeaential  to  B  consonant.  The  «ame  poeition 
with  voicelcM  breath  forms  the  German  cfi  at  in  jeft 
— an  element  which  is  heard  in  English  at  the  Bound 
of  H  before  u,  a«  in  Aut  [The  Scotch  guttural  heard 
in  locA  differe  from  thia  only  in  the  Wore  retracted 
pomtion  of  the  tonsne,  which  ia  approximated  to  the 
*>ft  instead  of  the  hard  palate.  The  tame  position 
with  vocalised  breath  pn>dncei  the  soft  Parisian 
burr.  Tbe  approximation  of  the  ooncave  root  of  Ha 
tongne  to  the  fringe  of  the  toft  palate  causes  the 
uvma  to  flutter  in  the  breath,  and  forms  tbe  rough 
Nortbnmbrian  burr.] 

Tbe  elevation  of  the  middle  of  the  tongue  towards 
the  front  of  the  palatal  arch,  with  a  narrow  central 
posaage  for  the  tn'sath,  prodnoea  the  element  which, 
for  lack  of  an  alpbabetia  character,  is  represented 
by  the  digraph  Sh;  and  the  ssfoe  position  forms, 
with  vocalised  bieatji,  tbe  oommon  element  heard  in 
pUaturt,  ifis!ur<t  kc,  bnt  which  baa  no  appropriate 
literal  symbol  in  English. 

The  approximation  of  the  flattened  point  of  the 
tongue  to  the  front  of  the  mouth,  to  aa  to  leave  a 
narrow  central  passage  between  the  tongne  and  Uie 
npper  goia,  tonaa  the  sonnd  represented  by  B  ;  and 
by  Z  when  the  breath  ie  vocalised. 

The  elevation  of  the  tip  of  (he  tongne  towards  the 
rim  of  the  palatal  arch  oauses  a  d^ree  of  vibration 
of  the  edee  of  the  tongue,  and  oonseqnent  aspera- 
i:-_   .1  .t-  i„,^tij^  proportioned  to  the  degree  of 


elevation,  idiiah  is  the  English  sanikd<rf  the  leMer  B. 


fE  final,  or  before  a  oonsonant,  haa  litUa  <r  bo 
asperation,  but  haa  almost  tiu  pure  sonoransneti 
of  a  vowel,  as  in  err,  earn,  Ac.  llie  roomily  fariUed 
Sooteb  or  Spanish  R  is  fonnad  by  the  quivering  of 
the  whole  fore-part  of  tlie  tangos  as  it  it  laxly 
aptmndmated  toibe  palate.] 

The  approximation  of  ^»  loirar  to  the  vpan  lip, 
to  at  to  leave  a  central  iqminre  for  the  breifh,  pr*- 
duoes,  with  vocidiaed  biwh,  tiie  soiiDd  el  W  initial, 
aa  in  tmo.  The  somtd  of  u>  rasembks  that  of  Um 
vowel  00,  but  with  a  more  oonttaoted  apsTtarei 
Tbe  same  poaitaon,  wiUi  vodoeleas  tHSKtb,  foms  tha 
element  represented,  for  lack  of  aa  alphabetio 
oharacter,  by  the  digruih  Wk. 

The  remainimg  vanetiea  of  T!"gl">'  artioilato 
(oundt  are  formed  1^  forciitg  t^  nreath  thtmi^ 
lateral  apertures,  instead  of  tnte  central  ^tertnra. 

When  the  fore^iart  of  the  tongne  it  spread  againat 
the  front  of  the  palate,  and  vooaliaed  breath  ptatet 
laterally  over  tbe  middle  of  the  tongne,  Um  aoud  «f 
L  is  heard.  [Ilie  same  pontdou  of  uie  tongne  fotno^ 
with  votodeM  bre«tb,  the  aonnd  ei  LI  la  W«Ul 
The  English  L,  at  beard  before  H  {*  wo)  ia  modifiad 
by  oonvexi^  of  the  back-part  of  titO' tcogoe  towards 
'*-  poaitdon  for  Y,  forming  Uie  aoond  which  is  repre- 


formed  by  rtisng  the  back-part  of  the  tongne  to  tba 
Boft  palate,  and  passing  tbe  voice  laterally  ovvr  tito 

'  of  tbe  tongue.] 
ben  the  tip  of  f 

teetb  (or  the  gam),      _  .._ 

ally  ovBT  the  point  of  tbe  tongne,  tbe  soond  of  tha 
di^wdi  7^  at  in  lAis  ia baara;  latd,  with  voeijiaed 
breaUi,  tim  eound  of  TA  in  tJten — neither  of  whkh 
elements  it  repreeeoted  in  our  alphabet. 

When  the  middle  of  the  lower  lip  is  apidied  t» 
tiie  edge  of  the  upper  teeth,  and  Uie  breath  is  emitted 
later&Uy  between  tbe  teeth  and  tbe  lip,  the  sound 
represented  by  F  ia  produced ;  and,  wilji  vooaliaed 
breath,  the  sound  of  V. 

Liquid*. — The  voice  is  so  little  interoapted  in 
passing  throng  the  nostarila  {forming  m,  n,  or  ng), 
and  tbrongh  the  wide  apertures  of  I«  and  also  of 
R  when  not  initial  in  a  eyllable,  that  the  aonnd 
has  almost  the  pure  sonorooflnesa  of  a  vowd;  and 
these  elementn  have  received  the  name  of  Liquids, 
their  property  of  eyllabically  cooibin- 

and  to  be  absorbed  by  tbem,  and  loaug  much  of 
their  natujal  quantity  at  vocal  sounds ;  aa  in  tamp, 
lemte,  teni,  aoise,  lenfA,  ink  {=^  ingi:],  Ac ;  milt,  iput, 
Mp,  je(^,  tUe,  WeUh,  health,  ftc  ;  hark,  heart,  harp, 
terf,  earth,  harih,  horte,  jto.  Tbe  cbanictenatie  effect 
of  the  Liquids  will  be  best  perceived  by  contrasting 
mch  words  as  tanse  and  Thamet,  /unee  and  ften*, 
lite  and  eUt,  curse  and  curs — in  which  the  normal 
influence  of  vocal  oonsonants  on  subsequent  elements 
is  manifested  in  Ute  vocaliaing  of  the  sibilant  in.  the 
seooikd  word  of  each  pair. 

From  this  review  of  Uu  phyiitdogical  varietaea  of 
•rtionlKte  sounds,  it  will  be  evident  uiat  onr  alphabet 
ef  28  letten  is  very  iroperfect,  both  by  redundancy 
and  deficiency.  (I.)  The  same  sounds  are  repre- 
sented by  more  than  one  letter ;  aaC,  K,  andQ;  C 
and  3 ;  a  and  J.  (Z.)  The  same  letter 
more  than  one  aonnd;  at  C,  which  is 
£,  and  sometimes  S ;  G,  wMch  it  lomi  . .  . 
'  '  I  of  K,  and  tomsEtimes  Ji  N,  which 
N,  and  sometimes  ng ;  S,  which  it 
i,  and  aometimca  Z ;  imd  T,  which  is 
consonant  (when  initial},  and  i 


represent  articulate  compouoB* ;  aa  G 
and  J,  which  are  Bounded  dsA  [the  voioelest  form 
cf  J  is  rei»eaented  by  cA,  na  in  ciair] ;  U,  which  ia 


uMiiMiiXiOoglc 


LETTEB-WOOD— LETTUCI. 


MtiJj^  foo/  (od  Z,  whioh  ii  Kmnded  tt,  and 
■omBtOBM  g^  liL)  The  alphabet  containa  do  chai^ 
meUaa  fM  nx  «  mu  nadonbtad  oooaonaiit  elementa 
— Tix,  Vk,  Tklin),  Tli(an},  Sh,  Zh,  Ng.  (&)  Each 
vnwd-lattar  npniMnt*  many  aounds  ;  and  the  lack 
it  nrvB  charMtn*  to  dmota  the  ezcen  of  our 
vmral-atMBda  onr  the  nninher  of  our  vowel- letten, 
ii  BBiplied  hf  aboBt  Aitj  oambinatioiu  of  two 
«r  of  time  laUar^  m  tliat  the  origiiul  phonetio 
""■^TfrtT  <^  the  alphabet  ii  klniort  eDCii«l]r  lost  in 
the  ooafukin  of  our  orthogntphy. 

GoiMMiaiita  form,  aa  it  were,  the  ban  and  bony 
ikdeton  of  apeech ;  voweli  gire  definite  ahape  and 
individuaiit;  to  words.  Thu>  the  conaonanfa  iprt 
~"  'i  the  oommoD  akeleton  lA  nidi  diTane 
^ort — *pin,  tprat — tprtte,  ipirii,  mppori, 
a^nraie — (Uperait,  which  reoetre  their  die- 
oonwuration  and  filling  op  &om  the  vmnl- 

__i»,  wEtoh  Mirat  Uie  oonaonant  akeleton  witii 

iiw^HM  eleganoe  and  variety.  ConaonaDta  are 
thna  tiie  more  atable  elementa  of  worda,  and  their 
interchmgea  in  the  oDrreaponding  worda  of  allied 
tongoes  are  found  to  follow  certain  genei^  Uwb 
dqieudent  on  the  relaljoni  and  affinitiei  of  letten. 
See  Qkhd^b  Law.    Theae  relationa  are  ezliibitcd 


In  imnouocing  the  letten  of  the  fint  daaa,  the 
Bpa  are  diiefly  oottMnwd ;  »  the  seoond,  the  prin- 
etpal  araam  ii  the  tancne.  or  tlia  tongue  and  the 
teeth  tA^ioetiMWM«alM  called  (ioAili);  and  b 
the  thud,  the  bad-part*  at  tiie  tongne  and  paUte 
ai«  employed.  Bat  wlule  all  the  aounda  ol  each 
filaai  haTe  thna  a  oommon  OTganio  relation,  the  first 
pail  diflin  frun  the  other  leneia  of  the  aame  clasa 
E^b«ng  obrirvdios  or  •hot— otherwiae  called  Mute 
(q.  T.) ;  lie  lewainina  letten,  having  open  apertnre^ 
an  mmMnimu  or  ntuWt  in  effeot— otberwue  called 
AapeiBt*  (q.  v.).  The  difference  alao  between  the 
monben  M  ^  aereral  pain  i*  of  the  aame  kind 
fKiwwigtirtMt  -  p  differa  frcnn  b  M  /  doea  from  t^  or  I 
frran  3,  If  at  bmn  iL 

In  Hr  Xaiia'B  Pka  for  Phimetie  Smiliitg,  and  Mr 
Melville  Bell'a  JVineMu  qf  Speech,  the  atadent 
will  B»u<  a  oom^ete  development  of  the  theory  of 
Artionlato  Sonnda.  Tarioiia  attempta  have  been 
»i»A>  to  inbodnoe  a  lyitem  of  phouotypea,  in  which 
Mcb  Bonnd  ahonld  be  rqireaented  by  one  invariable 
diaiacter.  None  of  the  aohenea  cornea  near  in  luo- 
oem  to  the  ayatem  of  Fuiila  SpttA  (q.  v.)  published 
^  Ui  Melville  BeU  aoms  yean  aga 

LBTTEB-WOOD,  one  of  the  mart  beaotifDl 
prodnotioDa  of  the  vegetable  Ungdon ;  it  ia  the 
^irt-wood  of  a  tree,  fonnd  aparingly  in  the  fuwte 
of  Britiah  Guana,  the  Pwotinera  ffuMUunnt  of 
AnUet,   and  the  £nuinum  AtiMeOl  of   Poej^, 

•  The  '  ihaip '  or  voiatilew  r  ii  of  fnqnent  hut  unn- 
Mfnned  oacmnenosL  It  1<  beard  in  Frenoh,  aa  the 
aonnd  of  r  Snal  after  a  cenaoluuit,  ai  in  tAmtre ;  and 
in  Seotdi,  m  a  mbrtitute  for  tV,  la  hi  Utree, 
prcoodDPed  rAo. 

+  The  '  iharp '  tonm  of  the  niaala  an  in  eenatunt  oie 
■■  intraJHtioiul  aounda  u  in  krnnpkl  (pniiioiuieed 
'*«•/),  '*»/  (exiw««iTe  of  meering),  and  'tiAml  naed 


belonging  to  the  Bread-frait  family  (Artoearpaeea). 


wood  (albumnm)  an  white  and  hard ;  the  central 
portion,  or  heart- wood,  which  ranly  eioeeda  T  inchee 
in  thiukneai,  ii  eitramaly  hard  and  heavy,  and  ia  of 
a  rich  dotk.brown  oolonr,  moat  baantifnUy  mottled 
with  vei7  deep  brown,  afanoat  black  apots,  arransed 
witti  mooh  greater  reeularity  than  u  naoaUy  the 
oaae  in  the  markinn  oTwood,  and  bearing  a  alight 
reaemblaiioe  to  the  thick  letten  of  tome  ^  blaok< 
ld;ter  printing.  It*  ■ewdty  and  valne  make  it  an 
article  of  ran  and  limited  applicatJoo.  It  ia  aaed 
only  in  thii  oountry  for  fine  veneer  and  inlaying 
work,  and  in  Guiana  for  amoll  artiolea  of  cabmet- 
work.  The  nativea  make  bowa  of  itate  of  it,  but 
are  *aid  to  prefer  a  variety  which  ia  not  mottled. 
I1BTTBE8  DB  OAOHEr,  the  name  nven  to 

king*  of  Fraoee  befon  the  Bev^ntaoo.     AU  royal 

letten  (lettm  royouc)  wen  either   lettrei  paienim 

lettnw  de  eacbeL    The  former  wan  open,  aigned 


caUed  M*«>dMM,  or  laaled  letten,  which  were  folded 
np  and  aealed  wHh  the  king'a  little  aeal  {eadttt),  and 
by  which  the  royal  pleaanre  waa  made  known  to 
individuals  or  to  oorporationa,  and  the  adminiatr*- 
of  juctice  wa*  often  interfered  with.  The  oae 
of  lettraa  de  oachet  became  mnoh  more  fraqiuDt 
after  Uie  aoomion  of  Loui*  XIV.  than  it  had  been 
before,  and  it  was  veiy  ooramon  for  peraona  to  ha 
arrested  upon  moh  warrant,  and  confined  in  Om 
BarUUe  (q.  v.),  or  loms  other  (tate  priaon ;  when 
some  of  tnem  remained  fOT  a  very  long  time,  and 
ne  for  life,  either  beoanee  it  wae  ■□  intended,  or, 
-_  otiier  eaaea,  beoanie  th^  wen  forgotten.  The 
lieutenant-general  of  the  police  kept  form*  of 
lettr«a  de  cachet  ready,  in  which  it  wm  only 
necoeaary  to  ioaert  the  name  of  the  individual  to 


de  cachet  11 


LETTUOB  {Laetma),  a  genua  of  plaate  belong- 
ing to  the  natural  order  Camponia,  eub-order 
C^oraeete,  having  Email  floirerB  with  Imbricated 
bmoten,  aod  all  Uie  corolla*  ligolste,  flatly  com- 
pmaed  fruit,  with  a  thread-like  beak,  and  thread- 
fika,  *oft,  deciduotts  pappus.— The  Oarddt  L. 
{L.  eaUva)  ia  auppoaed  ta  oe  a  native  of  the  Ealt 
Indiea,  but  is  not  known  to  eziit  anywhen  in  a 
wild  state,  and  from  remote  antiqui^  ha*  been 
cultivated  in  Europe  M  an  eaouleDt,  and  particularif 
a*  a  aalad.  It  hu  a  leafy  stem,  oblong  leave*,  a 
spreading  Sat-topped  panide,  aomewhat  resembling 
a  ooTym^  with  yellow  flower*,  and  a  fruit  without 
margin.  It  ii  now  generally  onltivated  in  all  parts 
of  the  world  where  the  elimate  admits  of  it ;  and 
there  an  many  varieties,  all  of  which  may,  however, 
be  regarded  ■*  Bub-varietiee  of  the  Cosb  L.  and  the 
Cl^uai  L.,  the  former  having  the  leavea  mem 
oblong  and  nprigbt.  requiring  to  be  tied  together 
for  blanching — the  latter  with  rounder  leaves,  which 
spread  out  nearer  the  ground,  and  afterwards  boU 
or  roll  together  into  a  nead  like  a  small  cabbage. 
The  L.  is  easy  of  digestion,  gently  Us:ative, 
and  moderately  natiitioaa,  and  is  generally  eaten 
iw  with  vinegar  and  oil,  more  rarely  as  a  boiled 
■aetable.  The  white,  and  somewhat  narcotic 
luky  jnioe  of  thi*  plant  is  Inspissated,  imd  used 


vegetable.      —     .._     , 

jnioe  of  thi*  plaiit  is  Inspissated,  a 
undto'  tJie  name  of  Laetaearivm  (q.  v.],  or  T/iridaee, 


„Googli 


LEUCADIA— LB  VAILLANT. 


._  ,         U  obtained  by 

^ the    flowering    items,    and 

allowing  the  juice  which  flowi  to  £7  apon  them. 
l«ttucea  ore  lown  in  gardens  froni  tim*  '■"  '■■ — 
that  they  may  be  obtained  in  good  condi 
the  vhole  Boouner.  In  mild  winters,  tb 
kept  ready  for  planting  out  in  spring. — The  other 
(peciea  of  this  genua  exhilnt  natbinK  of  the  bUod 
quality  of  the  garden  lettac&— -The  Strono- 
SCBTTBD  L.  {L.  vtrota]  is  distinguished  by  the 
prickly  keel  of  the  leavee,  and  by  a  bUck,  smooth 
seed,  with  a  rather  broad  margin.  It  is  found  in 
some  parts  of  Britain.  Lactncarium  is  prepared 
from  its  fresh-gathered  leaves,  in  the  nowering 
season.  The  leavea  have  a  atroug  and  nauseoiu, 
narcotic  and  opinm-lika  smeU. — L,  ptrennit  adorns 
with  beautiful  blue  flowen  Che  stony  declivities  of 
mountains  and  clefts  of  rooks  ia  some  parts  of  Qer- 
many,  as  in  ths  Ealz,  Sx.,  bat  is  not  a  native 
(rf  Britain,  whioh,  however,  poasessea  one  or  two 
other  speoiea  in  qualities  resembling  L.  virota. 

LBTJOA'DIA,  the  ancient  name  of  B±ini  Mumi. 
(q.  v.). 

LEVCHTENBERQ.    See  BuuHAiuiAia. 

LEtroniE  (derived  from  the  Oreek  word  leaeo*, 
vriiile)  belongs  to  the  daas  of  bodies  to  which 
diemista  now  apply  the  tenn  amido-amds,  and 
which  are  aubatancea  in  whioh  ona  equivalent  of 
the  hydrogen  of  the  radicle  of  an  aoid  is  replaced 
by  one  equivalent  of  amidogen  (NH,).  The 
empirical  formula  for  leucine  is  C,,H,,NO„  while 
Qiat  of  caproio  acid  (whose  amido-acid  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be)  is  C,,H,,0,.  It  is  obvious  that  if  for 
one  of  theae  twelve  eqoivalents  of  hydrogen  one 
equivalent  of  amidogen  is  substituted,  the  latter 
formula  becomes  C„Hj,(  NH,)  0,,  which  contains 
the  same  equivalent^  an  the  formnla  C,,E,,NOi, 
but  indicates  more  closely  their  mode  of  grouping. 

Leucine  ia  of  great  importaace  in  pbyiialogioal 
<diemistTy,  being  a  constttoeot  of  moat  of  the 
glandnUr  jnicea  of  the  body.  Considering  ths 
Morcea  from  wbieb  it  is  obbuiied  artificially,  there 
can  be  no  donbt  that  tlie  lenoiDe  found  in  the  body 
is  one  of  the  nameroos  products  of  the  regressive 
metamorpbosia  of  the  nitrogenous  tissues. 

LBUOI'PPUS,  the  founder  of  the  Atomistic 
School  of  Qredan  philcaophy,  and  foremnner  of 
Semoeritoa  (q  v.).  Nothing  ia  known  oonccming 
him,  neither  the  time  nor  the  place  of  hia  birth, 
DOT  tha  diCDUUtancea  of  his  life. 

LETJOrSOUS,  a  geaoa  of  fresh-water  Gshei,  of 
Uie  family  Cypriaida,  oontainiag  a  great  number  of 
specieSi  among  wbidi  are  the  Koaoh,  Ide,  Dace, 
Onining,  Chi£,  B«d-eye,  Minnow,  ftc  Iliere  are 
ao  barbdi.  Tha  anal  and  dorsal  fina  are  destitute 
ct  Strang  ray*. 

LBUOOOYTHB'MIA  (derived  from  the  Greek 
words  teueot,  white,  eulot,  a  cell,  and  kama,  blood) 
is  a  disease  in  which  the  number  of  white  corpuscles 
in  the  blood  appears  to  be  greatly  increased,  while 
there  is  a  simultaneous  diminution  of  the  red 
corpuscles.  Tha  disease  waa  noticed  almost  at 
the  same  Idme  (in  1S30)  by  Bennett  of  Edinbuivh 
and  Ylrchow  of  WUrzburs  ;  the  former  giving  it  t£e 
name  standing  at  the  beginning  of  the  article,  white 
the  latter  ffkve  it  tin  less  expressive  name  of 
Ltulmmia,  or  WUu  Blood. 

The  increase  of  the  white  or  colourless  corpuscles 
seems  to  be  always  aooompanied,  and  probably  pro- 
oeded,  by  other  tnortud  ootnpUcatdons,  of  which  the 
most  heqoent  are  enlal«ement  of  the  spleen,  of  the 
liver,  and  of  tha  lym^iatio  glanda.  In  nineteen 
oaans,  it  wm  foond  tlurt  enlai^emeot  of  the  spleen 


was  present  in  sixteen,  enlsrgement  of  the  liver 
in  Uiirteen,  and  enlaraement  of  the  lymjdialaoa 
in  eleven  instances.  Benoe,  tomefaotion  of  the 
abdomen  is  one  of  the  moat  prominent  symptoms. 

The  microscopic  examination  of  a  single  dn^ 
of  blood  is  sufficient  to  determine  tbe  nature  at 
the  diaeasB.  The  causes  of  leucooythemia  are 
unknown ;  and  slthough  the  most  varied  remiediea 
have  beea  tried,  the  disease  ia  almost  invariably 
fatal 

Uin'COL,  LEtrCOLINE,  or  QTTINOLINB 
(C,,H,N),  is  one  of  tlie  compounds  obtained  by 
the  distillation  of  coal-tar.  It  is  also  obtained  by 
the  distillation  of  quinine,  cinchooine,  or  strychoina 
with  potash.  It  ia  a  colourless  and  strongly  refract- 
bg  oil,  which  boils  at  about  460°,  Has  a  s^ecifia 


ciystallisable  salts  with  them.  On  boiling  two  parts 
of  leueol  with  three  of  iodide  of  amyl,  crystals  are 
obtained,  whioh,  when  dissolved  in  water,  treated 
with  an  excess  of  ammonia,  and  boiled  iai  some 
time,  yield  a  resinous  substance,  which  is  readily 
soluble  in  alcohol,  and  furnishes  a  splendid  blue 

LEUOCMA  (derived  from  the  Greek  word 
hueo*,  white)  is  the  term  applied  to  a  white  opaci^ 
of  the  oomea — the  transparent  front  of  the  Eye 
(q.  v.).  It  is  the  result  of  acute  inflammation, 
raving  rise  to  the  deposition  of  coagolabla  lymph  on 
the  surface,  or  between  the  layera  of  the  cornea. 
It  is  sometimes  re-absorbed  on  the  cesMtian  of 
t.ha  inflammation,  and  the  cornea  reoovera  its  trana- 
but  in  many  oasea  it  is  peraisteot  and 


psreney; 
ucurable. 


LEU'OTRA,  anciently,  a  villsge  of  Bceotia,  in 
Greece,  famous  for  the  great  victory  which  the 
Thebana  under  Epaminondas  (q.v.)  here  won  over 
the  Spwtan  king  Cleombrotus  (371  B.C.),  in  conse- 
mce  of  which  the  influence  exercised  by  Sparta 
centuries  over  the  whole  of  Greece  was  broken 
for  ever. 

LEUK,  a  small  town  (pop.  about  1200)  in  Uw 
canton  of  Yalais,  Switzerland,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  lUione,  15  miles  above  Sion.  It  is  noted  in  asso- 
ciation with  the  Batla  of  Leak,  situated  8  milea 
northward  at  the  head  of  the  valley  of  the  Dala  and 
the  foot  of  the  ascent  over  the  Oemmi  pass.  At 
this  plaoe,  which  is  4600  feet  above  the  sea,  there  is 
s  hamlet  of  600  inhabitants,  and  several  lodging- 
houses  and  hotels  for  the  accommodation  of  patients 
and  travellers.  The  springs  have  a  high  temperature 
(120'  F.),  are  slightly  saHne,  chsljbeate,  and  >nl- 
phuTeous,  and  are  used  both  for  drinking  and  bath- 
' —  They  are  chiefly  useful  in  diseases  of  the  skin ; 
ODO  peculiarity  is  the  length  of  tnme  the  patients 
- . .  jun  in  tbe  baths — as  long  as  8  hours  a  day.  For 
this  purpose  there  are  several  niartments  of  20  feet 
. ._  i-  _i.:..h  ..  _.__  ..  tK  «  on  »»./»..  »i  k,.u. 


IB,  clad 


vhiobas  many  as  16  or  26  persona  of  boUi 

1  in  long  wooUen  dreeaea,  bathe  in  oommoa ; 

to  their  neoks  in  mttr,  &e7  bwiile  the 

1  convetsatioii,  cksss,  leading  the  newa- 

papers,  ftc    There  appeals  to  have  been  a  bathing 

establishment  heie  as  esil;  as  the  I2th  oentuiy. 

LEUTHBN,  a  village  of  Prussia,  in  Lower  Sileaia, 

m.  W.  of  Breslau,  celebrated  for  the  victoiy  won 

there,  6th  Dec  1767,  by  Frederick  the  Great,  with 

33,000  men,  over  the  Austrians  under  Prince  Charles 

of  Lorraine  at  the  head  of  92,000^    ThaAostriaiia 

lost  7000  killed  and  wounded,  21,600  prisoner^  and 

134  piecea  of  artillery ;  the  Pmsiiaiis  3000  killed  and 

wounded.     The  result  waa  the  teoonqueat  of  the 

greater  [wrt  of  Sileaia  by  the  Prussiatit.    Pop.  870. 

LB  TAILLANT,  FKUiton.    See  Sun.,  V<d.  X. 


TGoogIc" 


LEVAST— LEVEE. 


I^EVATST,  THE—btm  th*  Itelun  Jl  Lanmle, 
Iba  OriaO,  at  MMtg,  tlMt  ia,  the  ^it— >  pms 
«iiiploTed  tbTOD^iont  the  whole  of  Europe  to  desig- 
tuto  tue  eaatero  parta  of  the  Heditemuieaii  8e>  >nd 
mdjacent  oonntriM.  In  K  wider  eenie,  it  is  applied 
to  all  the  KgioD*  eMtward  from  IbJ;,  m  far  u  the 
Eaidintee  and  the  Nile ;  but  more  irenenillj  ia  uaed 
in  a  mine  raatricted  wiue,  as  indndiog  onlj  tiie 
coaata  of  Atia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Egyyt. 

LEVANT  AKD  COUCHANT,  a  phiaie  _ 
Engliah  Law  applied  to  cattle  which  have  atrsyed 
into  another'a  Uads,  and  have  been  to  long  there 
tiiat  they  have  lain  down  and  ^ept  there. 

LEVATII  PA'CIAS,  WETT  OF,  in  Enaliah  L«w, 
ii  »  writ  of  eiecutdoa  iiaued  upon  a  jo^ment,  by 
which  the  judgment  oreditor  takes  the  real  and 
penonal  eatate,  iQch  aa  landa,  homet,  furniture, 
kc,  of  Ma  debtor  to  aatiafy  hia  debt  The  mode  t^ 
which  thi*  was  done  waa  by  the  sheriff  drawing 
the  rents  and  paying  the  creditor.  The  writ  u 
now  ptactieally  sapuaeded  by  the  writ  of  Elegit 
(q.  V.)  M  n^ida  real  eatate,  and  Fieri  Faetat 
(q.  V.)  as  r^anla  personal  eatat«i 

LBTBB,  the  atate  ceremonial  of  the  sovereign 
receiving  visits  from  those  snbjeota  whose  position 
entitles  them  to  that  honour.  By  the  nu^  of  the 
ooort  of  Oreat  Sritain,  a  Isvee  differs  from  a  draW' 
ing-room  in  this  respect,  that  gentlemen  only  are 
prnent  (excepting  the  chief  ladies  of  the  court), 
while  at  a  drawing-room  both  ladies  and  gentlemen 
apjiesr.  The  name  ia  owing  to  auch  rec^itions  being 
originally  held  in  Hie  monuoh's  bedchamber  at  the 
boor  of  rinng  (^.  fevej. 

LEV^E,  the  Frendi  name  for  on  Embankment 
(q-v.}. 

LEVEL  .LHD  LEVELLING.  Level  is  »  term 
applied  to  surfaces  that  are  parallel  to  that  of  atill 
water,  or  perpendicnlar  to  the  direction  '  " 
plmnb-line;   it  is  also  ai^lied  '      " 


drical  glass  tube  very  slightly  convex  on  one  side, 
and  so  nearly  filled  with  water,  or,  what  is  better, 
with  alcohol,  that  only  a  small  bubble  o(  air  remains 
inside.  The  level  is  then  mounted  on  a  three  or 
tour  legged  stand,  with  its  convex  side  upwards, 
and  by  means  of  a  pivot  and  elevating  screws,  ia 
made  capable  of  asauming  any  requited  position. 
If  the  level  be  properly  contracted,  the  bubble 
ahonld  lie  emetly  in  the  middle  ai  the  tube  when 
the  iostmntent  is  projierly  adjusted,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  the  line  of  sight  of  the  telescope  attached 
to  the  level  should  be  accurately  potalle]  to  the 
surface  of  atill  water.  In  ordinary  level^  this 
first  condition  is  seldom  seen,  and,  instead,  two 
notclies  are  made  on  the  glass  ' 


of  the  two  exbetoitieB  «f  the  babble  when  the 
instmmeait  ia  level  The  tube  and  bubble  ahould 
be  of  oonsidcrable  length  to  insure  accuracy.  Tlia 
Isrelliz  reqnirsa  two  assistants,  eadi  famished  wiUi 


a  pole  from  10  to  14  feet  high,  and  gmdoatod  to 
feet  and  inches,  or  feet  and  tenths  of  feet.  If  he 
wiahea  to  measure  the  height  of  A  above  B,  he 
may  da  thia  by  bc^ning  either  at  A  or  B.  Let 
the  latter  be  Uie  case,  then  one  aadstant  is  jilaoed 


Eta  down  in  the  back-sisht  column  of  bis  book,  sad 
m  turns  the  level  to  C,  readingoff  Co,  which  is 
entered  in  the  front-sight  column.  The  surveyor  and 
his  aasistant  at  B  then  take  up  new  poaitians,  the 
latter  at  D ;  the  back-aight  Ce  and  the  frant-aight 
Dn  are  read  o^  and  the  proceaa  ia  repeated  till  one 
of  tiie  assistonta  reochea  A.  The  exoess  of  ths  sum 
of  the  back-siKhts  over  that  of  the  front-sights  gives 
the  height  ofA  above  B.  A  little  oonsideiation 
will  shew  that  thia  method  can  only  hold  brae  when 
practised  on  a  small  scale,  and  conaequsntly  in 
extensive  aurveys.  the  level  (aa  found  by  Uie  abore- 
described  method)  requires  to  be  redoaed  by  on 
allowanoe  for  the  earth  a  curvatore. 

LETBIf,  LooH,  a  beantifnl  aheet  of  water,  of  su 
oval  form,  in  the  east  oC  Kinross-shire,  Scotiand, 
meaanring  betweeo  10  and  \l  miUs  in  circuit,  and 
dotted  here  and  there  with  small  islands,  the  chief 
of  which  are,  St  Serfs  Inch,  at  the  east  end,  80 
acrea  in  extent,  with  the  remains  of  a  religious 
house  of  ip^oat  antiquity  (see  Cdldkes),  and 
another  of  G  acres,  opposite  the  town  of  Kinross, 
on  which  stand  the  ruins  of  Loch  Leven  Castle. 
The  loch  is  supplied  by  sevetal  small  streams, 
and  empties  itself  by  the  Leven  into  the  Firth  of 
Forth.  It  has  lon^  been  celebrated  for  the  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  its  trout,  which  are  of  excellent 
flavour,  aod  averase  about  a  pound  in  weight, 
although  some  are  found  of  4,  6,  and  even  10  Ibo. 
Pike  and  perch  also  occur ;  a  pike  waa  caught  in 
1846  weighing  39  lbs.  The  rich  colour  of  the  Loch 
L  trout  la  due  to  the  abundance  of  a  certain  kind 
upon  which  they  feed.  Loch  Leven 
Castle  is  connected  with  severel  events  in  Scottiah 
histoiy,  the  most  noted  being  the  imprisonment 
'  Queen  Mary  in  June  1567-  Here  she  was  forced 
sign  her  abdication  of  the  throne;  and,  after 
a  unsuccessful  attempt,  succeeded,  by  the  aid  of 
orge  Douglas,  the  governor's  brother,  and  of  Willie 
ualas, '  a  foundling,'  supposed  to  be  a  relative  of 
the  Umxly,  in  effecting  her  escape  (2d  May  1S6S]. 

LEYEN,  Lock,  an  arm  of  the  sea,  or  rather  of 
Loch  Linnhe  (q.  v.),  on  the  weat  ooait  of  Scotland, 
between  Argyle  and  Invemesa,  ia  about  II  milea  in 
lengtii  by,  on  an  average,  lesa  than  one  mile  in 
breadth,  and  ia  reinarkd>le  for  the  wildnesa  and 
gtandeur  of  its  scenery.  The  current  produced  in 
this  loch  by  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide  runa  at 
"  e  late  of  at  least  4  milee  on  hour. 

LEVER,  the  most  simple  and  cranmon,  but, 
at  the  same  time,  most  important  of  the  seven 
mechanical  powers,  consists  of  an  inflexible  rod — 
straight  or  bent,  as  the  case  may  be — supported  at 
some  point  of  its  length  on  a  prop  which  is  colled 
the/ulcrum,  and  having  the  waght  to  be  moved  and 
the  vwtr  to  move  it  uiplied  at  other  two  points. 
In  tne  acoompsoying  illuatrotioQ  (flg.  1,  a],  AB  ia 
the  lever,  F  the  ful- 
ornm,  Aand  ~ 


points  of  applioi 
if   P  and  W, 
power  (or  p: 
and  we^ht 
lively.    Btl 


the    w— 

ths    0' 


1 


krma  AF  sod  BF  be  equal,  the  power 
ht  W  most  also  be  equal  to  produce 
the  anu  ol  the  power,  AT,  be  longer 


iMbUf  of  V 


thu  the  arm  «f  tlia  wndit,  BF,  then,  to  prodDoa 
•qnUibrinm,  ths  ptmer  P  mmt  b«  lew  thui  the 
wught  W,  Mid  via  vend ;  if  AF  bs  donbls  the 
Ibd^  of  BF,  then  P,  to  prodnoe  e^oilibriimi,  mut 
knd,  gmenUy,  m  m  ihewn  in  the 
ttiM*  on  tncdkanics,  lAc  poteo'  and 
i»  the  invtrM  ratio  qf  thar  dutemem  frirm 
At  fuJenaa.  Thk  ii  eqiull;  tnia  for  itrmight  or 
bant  leven;  Irat  (fig.  1,  b),  the  dirtuioa  of  Uie 
power  and  wei^t  &iom 
tha  folcnim  u  not,  in 

Fi8.1,&.  Uwloi^ 

dionhui  from 
onun  npon  the  dirootiona  of  the  power  and  weight. 
This  prmciple  holds  good,  whatever  be  the  relatiT« 
TKiettionE  of  the  power,  weight,  and  folcnim ;  and  aa 
uiere  can  be  three  diffm«it  airaiwemeiit*  of  then, 
'  we  thni  obtain  whrt  are  called  '  the  three  kind^  of 
lerera.'  T/teJirit  kind  (fig.  !)  ii  where  the  fulcnuu 
ia  placed  between  the  power  and  Ow  weight ;  the 
Balance  (q.  t.],  apade  (when  lued  for  ndaing  earth), 
•ee-«aw,  Ik.,  are  wtam^ea  <d  thia ;  and  amaaora  and 


r 


v^ 


Pig.  2, 


IlftS. 


pfaioen  ate  ezami^el  of  dooble-leven  of  the  aame 
kind.  Lerera  of  At  tcand  land  (fio.  3)  are  ttioae 
in  which  the  wei^t  ia  between  Via  power  and 
folcnim ;  examples  of  thii  are  the  crowbar,  when 
naed  for  pushing  weighta  forward,  the  oar — the 
water  beiiis  the  folcmm,  and  the  row-lock  the 
punt  of  application  of  the  weif^t — and  the  wheel- 
baiTow ;  and  of  donble-Ierera  td  thia  kind  we  have 
nnt-crackera  aa  an  example.  In  lever*  of  Vie 
lldrd  iind  (fig.  1),  the 
power  ia  between  the 
weight  and  tha  ful- 
cmm.  Fiahing.roda,  whhia, 
nmbiellaa,    and   moat  m- 

atromenta  uaed  with  the 

hand  alone,  are  lever*  of 

the  third  kind,  and  aheara, 

tonra,   Ac,  are  example* 

of   doable-lever*    of    thia 

claaa.    It  ia  evident  that, 

.  t.  to  produce  eqoilibtium  in 

leven   of  the  first  kind, 

may,   aooordins  to   the  ratio   of    the 

le  arm,  be  either  greater  or  leaa  than 

in  Uie  second  kind,  it  muat  always  be 

the  tMrd  kind,  always  greater.    Thia 

*    technical  phrase  by  saving  that  the 


r 


lenguia  of 


first  kind  of  lever  gi' 
ditadvaniage  (see  MlCKXNlciL  Powerb),  the  second 
always  f^ve*  a  mechanioal  advantage,  and  the  third 
always  a  mechanical  diaadvantage.  Leven  of  the 
■ecood  kind,  having  the  same  mechanical  advan. 
tagc^  are,  when  wo»ed  by  man,  twice  aa  powerfnl 
as  Uiose  of  the  first  kint^  beoauae  in  the  one  caae 
be  uaea  his  mnscnlar  force  aa  the  power,  ia  the 
other  case  only  hi*  weight.  Levers  of  the  third 
kind  are  nsad  whoi  velocity,  or  a  large  extmit  of 
motion,  ia  required  at  the  expanae  of  power,  and 
we  conaeqvently  find  tiiij  form  much  naed  in  the 


sbnotore  of  tlie  limbs  of  «nii"«J«     The  atouuigrw 

of  Uie  human  arm  (fig.  ff)  ia  a  Tery  good  frrsmpln 
of  Oa»  %  the  fnlomm  is  the  aockrt  (C)  of  the  elbow- 
joint,  the  power  is  Ilis  abnng  mnacla  {the  Mo^m^ 


hich  paaaea 

attached,  at  A,  to  the  nufnu  (see  Auf) ;  the  weight 
ia  the  weight  of  the  forearm,  b^gether  with  any- 
thing held  m  the  hand,  the  two  Ming  anppoBed  to 
be  oombinfd  into  one  weight  acting  at  B.  By  tiiia 
arrangement,  a  large  extent  of  motion  ia  gained,  by 
a  alight  contraotion  or  axtenaioo  of  the  muade. 

'Vl^en  a  large  mechanical  advantage  ia  required, 
thia  may  be  obtained,  withont  an  inordinata  length- 
ening of  the  tevir,  ^  meana  of  a  cconbination  of 
tiiem  (as  in  fig.  t).  Efets  the  leven  have  thdr  anna 
in  the  ratio  of  3  to  1,  and  a  little  oonaidenition  will 
make  it  plain  tiiat  a  power  (F)  of  1  lb.  will  balance 


^ 


inches,  Uie  power  requires 
inn^neu.  \i,*.t,i  or)  64  inches;  and  as  the 
extent  of  sweep  of  Uie  power  cannot  be  largely 
increased  without  inconvenience,  the  advantages  dl 

LEVEB,  Coau^iB,  liish  novelist,  waa  ttom  in 
Dublin,  Stat  Angoat  1806.  He  waa  edncated  for  the 
medical  profeanon,  atodying  flnt  at  Trinity  CoIl»e, 
and  afterwarda  on  the  continent.    After  taking  Eia 

degree  at  (Mttingen,  he  wo*  attached  (a*  ph^aiaan) 
to  the  legation  at  Brunei*,  and,  on  his  reaunation 
of  that  [^,  became  editor  of  the  Dublin  Umvertity 
Magazine.  He  opened  bis  brilliant  liteiary  career 
by  Harry  Lorrcgmr ;  after  which  he  pnblished  a 
whole  library  of  fiction,  the  larger  proportion  of 
which  waa  issued  in  the  aerial  form  wita  illnatra- 
tions.  Among  L.'b  beat  novels  may  be  specified 
Ckarla  0'M<&y,  Tom  Bvrie,  Roland  CasheC,  Tha 
Knight  (^  Ov^/nnt,  Tht  Dodd  FamUy  Abroad, 
Davenport  Dunn.  When  he  undertook  the  editor- 
ship of  the  famoua  Irish  magazioe,  L.  fixed  bis 
reeidence  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dublin ;  but 
when,  after  a  few  years'  trial,  his  work  became 
distaatefnl,  he  removed  to  Florence,  He  was 
appointed  vioe-oonsut  at  Spezti*  in  ISISSt  and  waa 
transferrad  in  1867  to  Tneste,  where  he  died  ia 
1S72.    The  earlier  novels  of  I.  are  remarkable  foi 

„Goo';lc — 


LEVEBXT— UEVITEB. 


Hia  I&diea  Mid  gentlanun  Mem  luidar  the  mflnoaoe 
of   chammgDt,  hU  peManti  and   larTuit-iiiBn 
'poUieoL      IMtnij,   the  onrrent   of   hii    gen_   . 
becmw  bit«der  and  oleuvr,  and  ■erenl  ot  hii  later 
•wotkt  haTs  a  higher  iutereat    A  life  otl^ij" 
PHxpatrick  appMrad  in  187B. 

LETVERBT,  the  jomig  ol  the  hara  dniing  the 
fiist  jear  of  ita  age. 

LEVBBfilEB,  Ckbaix  Jcak  JoazrB,  a  Fnnoh 
aabeiioma  of  gieat  oelebrity,  waa  bom  at  St  LA, 
in  the  dmarbnent  of  Manche,  11th  March  1811. 
He  waa  atbnitted  into  the  Polrtechnio  io  1831,  and 
wa«  anbaeqaeotlj  employed  for  Bome  time  u  an 
engineM  in  oooMoticai  with  the  Tobacco  Board. 
In  1B36,  he  pnbliihed  MimcArt*  mr  la  Combmaaout 
iu  Fhotphore  aeee  tHydrfygine  ri  oree  Oxygtna.  Hk 
TcdAa  dt  Xereure,  and  Mveral  memoira  on  'the 
•ecnlar  ineqnalitiea,'  opened  to  him  the  door  of  the 
Academy  in  1646  ;  and  at  the  imtigation  of  Arago, 

*  ' ''    "  le  examination  of  the  diituA>- 

of  the  planeta,  from  which 


he  applied  himself  Ec 


inferred ;  and  aa  the  remit 
tiona,  directed  the  attention  of 
point  in  the  heaveni  whert^  a  few  daya  afterward*, 
the  planet  Neptune  waa  actually  diaoorered,  tha  aame 
thing  being  also,  hy  a  remarbable  coinddence,  done 
about  the  same  tmie,  and  independently,  ^  the 
Engliih  aatronomer  Adam*  (q.  v.).  For  UiiB  L  waa 
revrarded  with  the  Oiand  Croaa  of  IJie  Lepon  of 
Honour,  a  proferaorehip  of  astronomy  in  the  Faenlty 
irf  Sciencee  at  Paris,  and  'nvioaa  minor  honoma. 
When  the  BeTolntion  of  1848  broke  out,  !•  aonght 
diatinctioa  aa  a  demociatio  politician ;  tiie  dep*^- 
meot  of  La  Manche  diose  lum  in  Maj  1849  to  be 
a  member  ot  the  L^^alative  Anembly,  where  he  at 
once  became  counter-rerotntionary ;  and  in  1S62, 
Lotua  Napoleon  made  him  a  aenator.  In  1354  L. 
waa  appointed  to  the  directolahip  of  the  Observatoiy 
of  Pana,  an  oCBce  which,  aave  during  an  internal  of 
three  yean  (1870-79),  he  held  tiU  bia  death,  23d 
Sept  1877. 

LEVI,  the  third  ton  of  Jacob  and  Leah  (Oen. 
xzix.  34).  He  ia  conapieaooa  thronch  tha  part  he 
took  with  hia  brotlier  Simeon  in  the  uTaugfater  of  the 
inhabituita  of  Shechem,  together  with  Hamor  and 
Sheohem,  their  princes,  whSe  in  a  defencdeas  rtate, 
in  order  to  avenge  the  wrong  inflicted  by  tha  latter 
on  Dinah  (Oen.  ixiiv.).  Jacob,  even  on  his  death- 
bed, coold  not  forgive  this  Uieir  bloody  '  anger  and 
self-will,'  and  proDoiuiced  Uiis  curse  on  them  both, 
that  they  should  be  scattered  among  lerael  (Oen. 
xlix.  T).  How  this  waa  fnlfilled  in  the  case  of  Levi, 
nboae  descendants,  singled  out  for  the  service  of  the 
sanctuary  and  the  generat  instraction  of  the  people, 
had  to  reside  in  cities  set  aside  for  them  throughout 
the  length  and  the  breadth  of  Hib  land,  will  be  more 
fully  shewn  under  Levttes.  In  Hgypt,  tiie  House 
of  Levi  had  divided  itself  into  three  lamiliea,  tiiose 
of  Qershon,  Kohatb,  and  Herari. 

LEVrATHAIT,  a  scriptiinl  term  for  a  great 
'  sea-ninDster,'  bat  more  eapeoially  aCrooodilefq.  v.). 
In  the  Propheta  and  Psalma,  it  a  occasionally  iwed 
as  a  symbol  of  Egypt  and  Pharaoh.  Many  wondrona 
allegorical  tales  are  connected  with  this  word  in  the 
Talmud  and  liidraah. 

Li:VITA,  Eluak  {HaleBi,  Ben  AAer;  AtMxnaM 
=  the  German,  Saiadmr  =  the  Master,  Ilamedat- 
dek  =  the  Gnunmarian),  a  Jewish  gnnunarian  and 
eieget«^  who,  though  much  overrated,  still  holda  a 
high  rank  among  Hebrew  scholani,  waa  bom  at 
Nenitadt  on  the  Aiioh,  near  Ifuremben,  in  I4T(X 
One  of  the  then  freqnent  expnlsiona  of  the  Jewi 
farced  him  to  seek  refuge  in  Italy,  where  he  held  a 
high  porition  aa  teaohor  of  Hebrew,  fir«t  in  Venice^ 


1  Padna,  final^  ia 
bere  became  hia  p 


cnty,  together  with  hia  Jewish  bretiirai,  in  1027. 
He  than  returned  to  Teoice,  where  he  lived  for 
the  moat  part  until  hia  death,  ItMIL  Hi*  piuc^al 
eiegetioal  and  biblical  wwka  are  a  Chmmmtarji  m* 
J<A  kt  ptrtt,  a  Oerman  TrajuUxtiott  af  eA«  Pmbu, 
an  SdiHiM  of  ihn  Paainu  wilA  KimcltCt  Ctmmntn- 
lary,  an  BdtHoA  iff  lAc  TargwiA  to  ProBerbt,  and 
Git  KhTielifi  Commaitaty  to  Amot.  Hi*  gnomatioal 
work*  are  chiefly:  Mamrrtlh  Hammfortth  (Tradi- 
tion ot  Traditions),  a  treatise  on  the  vowel-pointi, 
fta,  in  the  Old  Testament;  Tvb  Taam  (Good  Judg- 
ment), a  treatise  on  Acoante ;  S^fer  Habadmr  tw 
DUdvk  (Grammar),  beodes  many  minor  beatiaaa. 
In  the  field  of  lezioography,  he  baa  oontribnted 
Jftturgenuut  (^i  Dragoman),  an  attempt  at  a  Tal- 
mndiod  and  Targnmioal  DictLODaryj  Tijibi,  a 
oompkonent  to  Hebrew  dictiouanea ;  ShemoA 
Diiiarira  (The  Namea  ot  Things),  a  Hebrew-German 
dictionary;  SimaJma,  gloasee  to  David  Kimchfa 
Btxdc  qf  BArea  Jtoott,  &c  Moat  of  L's  work*  have 
been  repeatedly  edited  and  partlv  translated  by 
Buxtmf,  MUnstv,  Pagiua,  and  ot^era,  who  owed 
moat  of  their  Hebrew  knowledge  to  !•  excluaively  i 
a  fact  not  generally  recogniaed. 

LBVITES,  the  desoendanta  of  Levi  {q.  v.),  who 
««  tingled  ont  for  the  service  of  the  aanotuaiy. 
The  term  i*  more  particularly  employed  in  oon- 
tradiatioction  to  Priest*  (q.  v.),  in  designating  all 
tboa*  manbar*  of  the  tribe  who  ware  not  of  ^ 
tamUy  ol  Aaron.  It  was  tbeir  office — tor  which  no 
further  ordination  was  required  in  the  case  of  the 
tndividnal — to  erect,  to  remove,  and  to  oarty  the 
tabernacle  and  ita  ntensila  dmiog  tiie  aojoum  ci  tha 
Israelites  in  the  wildameaa.  When  the  aanotnaty 
had  found  a  ^ed  abode,  they  acted  a*  ita  serrantii 

medical  capacity  among  tin  people.  The  vocal 
and  instrumental  music  in  the  tample  waa  like- 
wise under  tiieir  care,  aa  were  alio  the  general 
of   the   people,    certain    Judicial   and 


the  Law  SDioDg  the  community.  In  orda  to 
enable  them  better  to  fulfil  these  functions,  no 
special  part  of  the  land  waa  allotted  to  tiiem,  but 
tbey  were  BCattered— in  aooordanoo  with  Jacob'a 
lost  words  (Geu.  ilix.  7)— in  Israel ;  forty-e^t 
Levitioal  cities,  among  which  there  were  also  certain 
'  cities  of  ref  Tige,'  being  act  aside  for  them  on  both 
sides  of  the  Jordan ;  without,  however,  preventing 


the  second  tithe,  due  every  third 
year,  and  in  the  sacrificial  repasts.  The  length  ot 
their  aervice  varied  at  different  times.  No  special 
dreaa   wa*  preacribed  for  them  nntil  the  time  of 


While  inti 


they  had,  under  David,  reaehed 
the  number  ot  38,000  men  fit  for  the  aervioe,  S4,000 
of  whom  this  king  aeleoted,  and  divided  tinan 
tour  classes — saoerdotal  assistanta,  doorkeepan, 
singere  and  musicians,  and  judges  and  officer*.  A 
very  small  namber  only  returned  from  the  exile,  and 
all  the  Mosaic  ordinancea  with  respect  to  their  dtiea, 
tithes,  share  in  sacrificial  repasts,  fto.,  were  virtn- 
slly  abrogated  during  the  second  temple.  Nothing 
but  the  service  in  the  temple,  in  which  tbey 
assisted  by  certain  menials  called  ffeUtMm, 
ieft  to  them.  It  may  be  presumed  that  tikey 
earned  their  livelihood  partly  like  the  rest  ot 
'*  ~  LUni^,  partly  a*   tsaohen,  •oribes,  and 


,,  Google 


LEvrriCDa— LEWIS. 


the  lika,  Thar  bardUng-gub  connited,  accord- 
ing to  the  Talmnd  (JebanL,  122  a),  of  >  itaff;  a 
pouch,  lud  a  Book  of  the  Law.  Far«igii  mien 
kUo  granted  them  ezemptian  from  taxes.  Thi*  U 
the  only  tribe  which  u  mppoaed  to  have  kept 
Qp  ita  pure  linea^  to  Qiia  day,  and  oertain,  albeit 
tniill,  ligni  of  distinction  are  still  beatowed  npon 
ita  membera,  more  eapecially  in  the  case  of  the 
precomed  deecendanta  of  Aaron  {the  Soianint).  Bnt 
the  parity  of  linewe  i«  more  than  qoeationable  in 
tnanjr  instucea. —  h.  i*  alto  the  name  raven  to 
cGTtua  raoerdotal  aasittaat*  in  the  Romiih  Cbnrcb. 

LETITICTTS  (Helk  Vajitra)  is  the  name  of  the 
Hiird  book  of  the  Pentateuch,  containing  chiefly  the 
lawB  and  ordinancee  relating  to  the  Levites  and 
priesta.  Little  or  no  progresi  is  made  in  it  with 
recpect  to  Oie  hiatory  of  the  people,  and  the  few 
events  recorded  are  closely  connected  with  the 
■pecial  aim  and  purport  of  toe  book.  The  erection 
IX  the  sanctuary  having  been  described  at  the  end 
of  Ezodna,  the  nature  of  tlie  worship— revealed 
•by  God  within  this  tabernacle— is  set  forth  in 
lieviticas,  which  fonn*  its  contiauation.  The 
order  fallowed  is  not  strictly  systematical,  bat  ■ 
certain  plan  is  apparent,  in  ita  outlines  at  least. 

The  age  and  authorship  of  LeviticnR  will  be  con. 
ndered,  together  with  that  of  tlie  other  'Moaaio' 
records,  nnder  FBitTATSUCH.  We  shall  confine  our- 
selves to  mentioning,  in  this  place,  that  the  whole  of 
the  anppoaed  '  original '  or  Hlohistic  document  (see 
Qonaia)  is  by  midem  critics  held  to  be  embodied, 
in  ita  primitive  shape,  *a  nearly  as  poasible  at 
least,  in  the  'Leviticas'  as  we  have  it  now.  Among 
the  few  additions  and  alterations  ascribed  to  the 
Jehovist,  are  reckoned  chapters  x.  16 — 20,  icx. 
20—29,  xzv.  18—22,  and  the  greater  port  of 
cha^  zrvL  (3—33),  the  second  vene  of  which  {end 
of  ParaAah  zzxiL)  is  held  to  have  concluded  the 
Sinaitic  legislation  in  the  ori^^nal  document. 

I.BVY  (Pr.  UoU),  is  the  compulsory  raismg  of  a 
body  of  troops  from  any  specified  class  in  the  com- 
munity for  purposes  of  general  defenoe  or  ofileDce. 
When  a  country  is  in  duger  of  instant  invasion,  a 
ttvie  en  matte  u  sometimes  made — L  e.,  every  man 
capable  at  bearing  anus  is  regnited  to  contribute  in 
pert<mtowaidst&  common  ^enoe.  On  leas  urgent 
occaaiolM,  the  leyymay  be  cestrioted  to  a  class,  as 
to  men  between  eighteen  and  fortyyeara  of  age.  At 
other  times,  a  levy  of  so  many  thoosand  men  of  a 
certain  age  is  decreed,  and  the  diatricts  concerned 
dnw  them  by  lot  from  among  their  eligible  mole 
papulation.  In  armies  soatolned  by  volunteering, 
iba  i»vj,  which  is  a  remnant  of  ttorboroiu  times, 
is  nnneosssory ;  but  the  aystem  was  frequently 
resorted  to  in  France  before  the  enactment  of  the 
oonscription  laws ;  1S62  has  shewn  great  levies  in 
tbe  United  State*  of  America ;  and  in  any  country 
where  great  danger  is  apparent,  and  volunteers  ore 
not  sufficiently  numeroua,  recourse  must  at  all  times 
be  had  to  a  levy  of  the  people. 

IjB'WBS,  the  county'town  ot  Sussex,  market- 
town,  and  pariiamentory  borough  of  England,  most 
nctnresquely  situated  on  the  navigable  river  Ouse, 
SO  miles  south  from  London,  and  7  from  tbe  port  ot 
Newhaven.  Pop.  (ISTI)  10,753;  {ISSl)  11,109.  L. 
it  the  seat  of  tbe  osstses:  It  retnms  one  member  to 
palliameilt,  and  i*  the  seat  of  election  for  East 
Smsex.  Fairs  are  held  here  on  Whit-Tuesday 
and  etli  Hay  for  horaea ;  on  the  20th  July,  for 
wool :  and  on  21st  and  2Sth  September,  for  South- 
down sheep,  of  which  from  40,000  to  60,000 
■re  often  collected.  The  chief  trade  is  in  grain, 
■hoqi,  and  cattle^  There  are  three  iron  foundnea ; 
and  thip-building  brewing,  tanning,  rope-making, 
and  Tiiwu-hnming,  employ  many  of  tlie  inbabitanu. 


Bacea  are  held  here  annually  in  July  or  Angnst, 
near  Monnt  Harry,  on  the  Down^  where  the  cele- 
brated battle  ol  Lewes  was  fought,  between  Henry 
IIL  and  the  insoTKent  barons  of  the  kiiuplom,  on  w 
I4tli  May  1264.  The  caatle,  the  principal  tower  of 
which  now  forms  tbe  mnsenm  of  the  Sussex  ArcluB- 
ological  Society,  was  long  the  ae«t  ot  William  d« 
Worrenne,  whose  remains  and  thoee  of  his  wife, 
Gundrsda,  douditer  of  the  Conqueror,  were  dis- 
covered here.  L.  is  of  very  remote  origin,  and  was 
the  site  of  a  Roman  station  or  camp.  Three  papers 
are  here  published,  and  the  town  is  governed  by 
two  high.conatab]et. 

LEWES,  QtORGB  Hsinir,  a  versatile  and  influ- 
ential Eagliah  author, «-»«  bmn  in  London  on  the  IStb 
of  April  ISI?.  He  was  educated  at  Tariout  schook, 
studied  medicine  for  some  time,  and  fioolly  tMolred 
to  devote  himself  to  authorship.  In  bis  twen^-firat 
year,  he  proceeded  to  Germany,  where  be  remained 
for  two  years,  studying  the  life,  language,  and 
literature  of  that  country.  On  his  return  to 
EnBlaod,  he  took  up  bis  residence  in  London,  and 
till  nis  death,  was  one  of  the  most  indastrioas  oa 
well  as  succeesfiU  of  lUUrateart.  An  intellect  clear 
and  sharp,  if  not  remarkably  strong ;  a  wit  lively 
and  piquant,  if  not  very  rich  ;  Bympathie*  warm,  if 
not  wide  ;  and  a  style  as  firm  aa  it  u  graceful,  mode 
L.  one  of  the  best  of  critics  and  biographers.  He 
contributed  to  most  ot  the  quarterlies  and  magazines 
of  the  day  ;  edited  the  Xeoder  newspaper  from  1849 
to  1S54  ;  composed  novels,  comedies,  and  tragedies  ; 
and  ultimately  turned  his  active  mind  to  tbe  study 
of  physiology  and  cognate  bnnchea  ot  science,  in 
which  he  won  a  hi^  repntatioii.  I*,  who  was  the 
husband  of '  GeorgeMiot '  (see Etajis  in Sitpf.,  Vol. 
X.),  died  30th  Nov.  187&  His  principal  works  are 
hia  BiographiaU  HidorV  of  PhUotophy  [1846,  a  new 
edition  of  which,  much  enlarged,  was  aftimvarda 
published) ;  The  SpaaiA  Dravux,  Ltipe  dt  Vtga  and 
CaU«ron  {1846)  ;  ChmW»  Philofophs  ^Ihe  SdoKt* 
(forming  0|ie  of  the  volumes  in  Bohn'a  Sdentijic 
Library,  ISG3),  a  work  which  is  not  k  mere  transla- 
tion of  the  French  savant,  but  in  several  pari*  a 
complete  remodelling,  by  which  the  style  does  not 
niSfer ;  Lffe  and  Workt  ofOottht,  Ac  (ISSS) ;  Bea- 
tide  Stadia  at  Ilfracomht  {1S58) ;  Pkyii^an  </ 
Conunon  i/i/e  (1860);  Problmt  of  UJe  and  Mad 
(1873—74) ;  On  Adort  and  the  Art  o/AtOng  {1875); 
and  The  PhgtUat  Sana  a/ Mind  (1877).  In  1S«5 
L.  founded  the  Forinighlly  SevicK,  and  for  a  lima 
was  its  editor. 

LEWIS,  or  SNAKE  EIVEK,  the  great  aontliem 
branch  of  Columbia  Biver,  United  States  of 
America,  rises  in  the  Bocky  Mountains,  on  the 
weetem  borden  of  Kebraska  Territory,  aind  after 
a  circuitous  course,  the  general  direction  is  north- 
weit,  through  Oregon  Territoiy,  it  joins  the 
Columbia,  near  Fort  Walla- Wollo,  Ut.  46°  6'  N, 
long.  US'  40'  W.    Length,  900  miles. 

LEWIS,  RiORT  Kan.  Sot  Gkobqi  ConinwALL, 
Bart.,  English  statesman  and  author,  was  bom  in 
London  1806.  He  was  eldest  son  of  Sir  Thomaa 
Frank  land  Lewis,  Gist  baronet,  of  Harpton  Cooit, 


L.  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ-church,  Oxford, 
where,  in  1826,  he  was  first-class  in  olaasics,  and 
second-claaa  in  mathematica.  He  w«*  called  to  the 
bar  of  the  Middle  Temple  in  1S31,  and  otter  acting  on 
variona  conmissionB  of  inquiry,  succeeded  his  bthsr 
OS  Poor.law  Commissioner  in  1839,  Kid  remained  at 
the  Poor.law  Board  until  it  was  broken  up  and  recon- 
stitnted  in  1847.  He  had  meanwhile  mairied  Lwly 
Maria  Theresa,  sister  to  the  fourth  Earl  of  Clann- 
don,  and  a  oonnectkni  by  maniage  ot  ^rl  Rnifill 


„Guu^Il' 


LEWIS-WITH-HABBIS— LETDEir. 


Hmng  detmniiud  to  adopt  a  political  oaraer. 
boDfi  thni  inoorpontad  into  the  number  of  Wtau 
official  *""'*"«i  hiB  promotiaii  iraa  ootain  and  lai^ 
He  lat  for  Henfordahire  from  1S47  to  1852,  atid 
became  niaoaaaiTefy  Secretair  to  the  Indian  Boaid 
of  Contr^  Under-aecretary  for  the  Home  Depart- 
meat,  and  Financial  Secretair  to  the  Tieaanry.  In 
1S02,  he  lost  his  seat  in  the  Honae  of  Commona,  Mid 
auhaeqnently  accepted  the  editonbip  of  the  £dtn- 
bur]^  Btmae,  which  he  oontinued  to  condnct  onti] 
ISSfi,  irhen  he  waa  elected  for  tlie  Radnor  diitriot 
of  hnmuha.  He  had  acanwly  taken  his  leat  when 
Lord  Fa&ieiBtoii  offered  him  the  Chancellorthip  of 
the  Exchequer  in  hia  fint  adtniniatration,  wLidi 
he  held  frron  Haroh  1855  to  the  diaaolation  of  the 
Bovemmeot  in  February  185S.  On  the  retnm  of 
Lord  PalmerBtcm  to  power,  in  June  1859,  !•  accepted 
the  post  of  Seoretaiy  of  Stete  for  the  Home  Depart- 
mein^  which,  to  tbe  anrpriae  of  the  nation,  he 
eiehanged,  in  1861.  on  tile  death  of  Lord  Herbert, 
for  the  iMca  of  Secretan  of  Stato  for  War.  In  the 
•ame  year,  he  pabliohed  a  work  of  much  reaearob, 
entitled  the  Attrtmomy  t^  the  AndenU.  Thia  umre- 
mittillg  labonr  weakened  hii  frame,  and  a  cold 
caught  while  he  waa  enjoying  the  Easter  holidays 
•t  Cs  family  seat,  was  fallowed  by  congestion  of 
the  lunga,  which  prared  fatal,  Apnl  13,  iS63.  L 
wa*  an  able,  earnest,  and  sincere  politiciaa.  At  an 
orator,  he  could  scarcely  be  said  to  eiyreas  him- 
self with  eloqneaoe  or  viracity ;  yet  liis  sound 
neose,  varied  knowledge,  and  moial  and  intellectual 
qitalitiee,  made  him  one  of  the  chief  onuunents  of 
public  and  political  life  in  England.  Hts  Inquiry 
Hiio  tie  Cridibiiiin  qf  Early  Reman  HUtory,  is 
conducted  oa  the  critical  principlee  of  NiebUhr, 
but  ia  more  risorons  and  scepticid  in  spirit  than 
Uie  work  of  the  great  German  historian.  The 
treasares  of  varied  knowledge  and  wisdom  which 


the  Rtnnance  Language,  The  Faiilet  <if  Babrhu,  The 
Ute  and  Abute  afPoUtieal  Ttrmt,  The  Influence  of 
Authority  in  MaUa-t  of  Opinion,  The  Method  of 
Obienyatton  and  Rttuonittg  in  PeUttet,  Local  Digtuii- 
aneet  and  the  Irith  CkanM  Question,  The  Ooaemment 
of  Deptadtnaa,  A  Glotmry  of  Proeineid  Wordi 
uled  in  Hmford^ire,  and  the  A^rononu/  of  the 
AneUnlt.  Hu  lateet  work  was  a  Dialogae  on  the 
Bitl  Form  of  QaverameM,  which  waa  published  a 
few  days  before  his  death. 

LEWIS-wrrH-HAKKia  (the  name  Lewis  U 
derived  from  the  Norwegian  Ljodhhut,  the  sounding 
house),  an  island  af  Scotland,  one  of  the  Outer 
Hebrides,  tbe  most  northern  and  the  laivest  ot  Qie 
group,  lies  about  30  miles  north-west  firjm  Boss- 
uire,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Minch  (q.v.). 
Lewis,  the  larger  and  most  northerly  part  of  the 
ialand,  belongs  to  Ross-shire ;  the  other  portion, 
Harris,  belongs  to  lavemees.  length,  60  mite* ; 
greidest  breadth,  30  miles;  area,  770  sq.  miles.  Fop. 
(1871)  26,0*7  ;  (18S1)  28,33!l.  The  coasts  are  wild 
and  ragged ;  the  chief  indentations  being  Broad 
Bay,  Lochs  Eriaort,  Seaforth,  Besort,  and  Koog. 
The  Butt  of  Lewis,  a  promontory  at  the  extreme 
north,  in  lat  BBT  31'  N.,  long.  6°  15' 30"  W.,  rises  142 
feet  above  sea-leveL  Tbe  sorfacs  ia  ragged,  with 
tracts  of  swamp,  a  conaiderable  portion  u  covered 
with  peat,  and  there  are  remains  of  ancient  forests- 
Barley  anil  potatoes  are  the  principal  crops  raised. 
Hemaina  of  ancient  ediiicea  abound  on  the  island. 
The  inhabitants  are  almost  all  of  Celtic  extraction, 
with  the  exception  of  a  colony  in  the  north,  who, 
althoni^  they  sjieak  the  Gaelic  language,  are  of 
purely  Scandmavian  descent  Stornoway,  on  the 
east  coast,  is  the  principal  town.    Sear  it  it  Stcnto- 


way  Oaatle,  the  seat  of  Sit  James  Mathason.  Bart, 
wbo,  as  pro^etor  of  Lewis,  haa  expended  lai;ga 
snius  in  Tanoui  kinda  of  improvemeuta.  atomo< 
viaited  by  steamers  &om  Glasgow.     See 


LEVI'SIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natnral 
order  Portulaixieea  (see  PcBSLim),  named  In  hononr 
of  the  Amerioan  traveller  Lewis.  L.  rediviva  is 
found  in  the  regions  of  his  explorations,  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Rock^  Mountains.  Its  roots  are  gathered 
in  great  qnantitiea  by  the  Indians,  and  are  highly 
valued  a*  nutritive,  and  also  as  restorative,  a  very 
small  qnanti^  beiiw  deemed  sufficient  to  anttain  a 
man  tarotwboat  a  long  journey  and  much  fatizne. 
It  is  oaUed  Totaeeo  Soot  because,  when  cooked,  it 
hss  a  tobaooo-like  smell. 

LBTVIBTON,  a  town  of  Maine,  U.  S.  of  America, 
on  the  Androscoggin  River,  33  miles  N.  of  Portland. 
The  river  has  here  a  fall  ot  50  feet  in  200,  and  the 
water-power  is  distributed  by  a  dam  and  canal  to 
nmneroQs  manufacturing  companies,  large  saw-mills, 
&c.  There  are  several  churches,  newspapers,  schools, 
andaoollege.    PopL  (1870)  13,600;  (1880)  19,08a 

LEX  FCBI,  a  legal  expression  oftrai  used  to 
denote  the  law  of  the  counti^  where  a  suitor  brings 
hia  action  or  suit    See  Intuikationai.  Law. 

LEX  LCCI,  a  legal  expression  to  denote  the 
law  of  the  country  where  a  particular  act  was  done, 
or   where  land  ia  situated.      See  IntekkatiohaIi 

LEX  NGN  BOBI'PTA,  the  nnwritten  kw,  aa 
expression  often  applied  to  the  common  law,  or 

LEX  TALIO-BIS,  the  law  of  nitaliatiou,  c«m. 
mon  among  all  barbarous  nations,  by  which  an 
^e  for  an  eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth,  was  con- 
sidered the  appronriate  punishment  The  doctrine 
is  repudiated  by  all  civilised  countries. 

LEXICON.    See  Dictionary. 

LE'XTNGTON',  a  town  of  Msssachnsetta,  U.a 
of  America,  10  miles  K.W.  of  Boston,  celebrated  aa 
the  scene  of  the  first  conOiot  between  the  colonists 
and  British  troo»  in  the  War  of  Indepeudencc^ 
April  19,  1775.    Fop^  of  township,  300a 


tributary  of  Kentucky  River,  77  miles  east  M 
Louisville.  It  b  a  haodaome  c[ty,  surrounded  hy  a 
oonntty  of  great  beauty  and  fertility.  Its  principal 
edifices  are  a  court-house,  the  State  unireisl^. 
State  lunatic  asylum,  city  hospital,  orphan  asylon^ 
banks,  18  churches.  There  ore  4  newspapers,  ud- 
establishments,  mostly  of 
Fhe  town  waa  being  Imd  ont 
when  news  arrived  of  the  skirmish  at  Lexington, 
1775,  wben  tbe  name  was  adoptd  It  has  a  &an< 
tiful  cemetery,  with  a  haodsome  monument  to 
Henry  Clay.  Pop.  (1870)  H,801;  (1880)  ie,85d. 
LEXINGTON,  a  town  of  Missouri,  United  States, 
I  the  right  bank  of  the  Missouri,  350  m.  above  St 
Louis.  It  has  11  churches,  4  newspapera,  and  4 
banks.  It  was  the  scene  of  repeated  conflicts  during 
the  War  of  Secession.  Pop.  lOOa 
LBYDEN,  John.  See  Sitpp,  Vol  X 
LB^YDEN  (Br.Leyde,  the  Lngdmuun  Ralavorum 
of  tlie  Romans,  arigiaally  Luijiduin,  from  lu^/k, 
an  end,  and  dun,  a  hill ;  during  the  middle  ages, 
Lu^duia  or  Lei/ds»),  a  celebrated  seat  of  learning  in 
HoUand,  situated  oa  the  Old  Rhine,  22  miles  south- 
west oE  Amsterdam,  and  17  miles  north  of  Rotter- 
dam. Fop.  {18S0J  40,S0a  It  is  the  oldest  town  in 
Holland,  and  has  space  for  three  times  its  pre«ent 
population.  In  1640,  L.contuned  100,000  souls)  in 
1750,  the  Dombers  had  fallen  to  70,000 ;  and  at  tha 


ivGOOgl' 


LETI)Hn-^JUU& 


of  the  praMiLt  oentniy,  to  80,000;  Sinoa 
tntde  hu  again  bwpn  to  flanriih,  and  the 
popolktiaii  to  iniaeaae.  'Dis  itoeato  are  wide,  the 
polilia  boildinge  beantifal,  and  the  canaU  bread  and 
numeroiu;  Within  the  <nt7  are  the  mini  of  an 
•Id  oaatle,  called  the  'Bnrg/nippoaed  to  have  beeu 
bnilt  by  the  Bomuu  beEne  the  birth  of  Ghriat  The 
priuciiul  manofaotiinB  are  linen  olotha,  oalicoet, 
wooIleoB,  bat  on  a  very  email  scale,  aa  compuvd 
with  former  timea.  There  ia  a  oonaiderabte  weekly 
market,  for  the  whole  oE  Uiat  part  of  Eolland  called 
Bhinelaod,  held  at  L.,  at  which  ntnch  butter  and 
oheeae  cbange  bm^i  But  tJie  thief  <nnunent 
and  dory  of  the  dty  ii  its  onivernty — onoe  onauT' 
puaed  by  any  in  Europe.  Tbs  origin  of  the 
nniveraity  ia  well  known.  In  1GT4>  whoi  Holland 
wai  atrucgUng  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Spain, 
L  waa  beaieged  by  the  Spaniardi,  and  had  to 
endure  all  the  horrorti  of  famma.  For  aeveo  ueeka 
the  dtizena  had  no  bread  to  eat,  and  multitudes 
periahed  of  hanger.  The  heroin  burgpnutstor, 
Fieter  Adriaanizoou  Van  der  Weiff,  erea  offered 
his  body  as  food  to  sons  who  wers  im^oring  him  to 
capitulate.  At  laat^  tJie  Prince  of  Orange  broke 
down  the  dykea,  flooded  the  conntiT,  drowned  a 
^leat  number  of  the  Spaniards,  and  relieved  the 
lahttbitaBtt  The  Prince  of  Orange  now  offered,  as 
some  compensation  for  their  unparalleled  sufferings, 
either  to  remit  certain  taxes  or  to  establish  a  uni- 
veiw^  in  the  city.  The  Leydeners  nobly  ohose  the 
tatter,  which  wbb  inaogurated  by  Prince  William 
in  1675.  Many  anineat  men,  fl«m  all  eonntries  of 
Eorope,  have  been  coiuKcted  with  it,  both  aa  pro- 
fessors and  Rtudenls.  We  may  mention  Soahger, 
Qomanu,  Anmniut,  OrotiuB,  Descartes^  Boerhaave^ 
Camper,  Spanheim,  BuhokoL  Wlien  it  recently 
o^ebrated,    with   befitting   solemnitiaa^    '*-    " 


of  whom  atrant  half  are  law  stndentB. 
a  valuable  library,  with  many  rare  USS. ;  a  mag- 
nificent collection  in  mediciQe;  a  botanical  garden, 
valuable  for  iti  tropical  plants ;  a  muaenm  of  natural 
hiatory,  one  of  the  rioheat  in  Europe ;  and  another 

Soally  fine  of  comparative  anatomy.  The  Museum 
Antiqiutias  is  also  exoelleat.  Oa  12th  Jan.  1807, 
the  moat  beautiful  quarter  of  the  city  was  destroyed, 
■nd  many  livei  lost,  by  the  explosion  of  a  ship's 
cargo  of  ganpowder,  and  the  site  of  the  ruined  streets 
ia  now  »  plain  on  which  the  troops  ore  exercised. 

LG YDEK,  LucAB  tam,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
paiotet*  of  the  early  Dutch  school,  was  bom  in 
Leydea  in  14M.  His  talents,  which  were  developed 
when  be  was  very  yoong,  were  first  cultivatod  by  his 
father,  Hugo  Jacoba,  an  obscure  painter ;  but  be  waa 
afterwards  placed  in  the  school  of  Cornelias  Engd- 
brechaten,  an  artist  of  repnto  in  his  day.  He  com- 
ueDoed  engravingwhen  scarcely  nine  years  of  age. 
His  picture  of  St  Hubert,  painted  when  he  was  o^r 
twelve,  brought  him  very  high  commendation ;  and 
the  celebrated  print,  so  well  known  to  coUectot*  by 
the  name  of  'Mahomet  and  tlte  Monk  Serdiis,' 
waa  published  in  lOOS,  when  hs  was  only  foui^een. 
He  practised  succesafolly  almost  every  braaiji  of 
painting,  was  one  of  the  ablest  of  those  early  painters 
who  engraved  their  own  works,  and  he  succeeded, 
like  Albert  DUrer,  in  imparting  certain  qualitieB  of 
delicacy  and  finish  to  his  tmgnivings  that  no  mere 
engraver  ever  attained.  The  pictures  of  Lucas  van 
L.  are  noted  for  deamesi  and  delicacy  in  colour, 
variety  of  character  and  eipreeBion ;  but  bia  drawing 
is  hard  and  Gothic  in  form.  Eiamplea  are  to  be  seen 
in  many  of  the  galleries  on  the  contmenL  Hin  range 
of  subjects  was  veiv  wide,  and  embraced  events  m 
sacred  hiatory,  incidents  illustrative  of  the  manners 
of  his  own  period,  and  portraita.     Hia  eogtavinp 


■boat  aa   highly  aa  those  of  Albert  DUrer. 
alao  azeoated  some  woodmntB,  which  are  varr  i 
Baztsch  gives  a  list  of  174  engraviiuB  by  h 

habits  were  ezpenova.   TTii  isiiiiiis  In  b 

entertained  hia  l»other-artiata  ina  m 


nviiuB  by  him.    Hii 
as  to  haveoooasifaullj 


DUrer,  whose  talents  Iw 
admired  without  professiinial  jealoun.    He  married 

y  of  the  noble  family  of  Bastuigen, 

~     „    ar.    He  died  in  1633, 
He  had  been  otmfined  to  bed  six  years 
before  his  death,  but  oontiiTed  to  paint  and  engsaTe 
till  within  a  abort  period  of  his  deoease. 
LBTDEN  JAB.    See  Eucthioitv. 
IiE'ZE  MAJESTY,  an  offenoe  against  sovereign 
power — icEsa  majataa, 

LIABILITY  (LIMITBS)  ACTR     See  Joiht- 
gncK  CoMtAjriEa. 

LIA'NAS,  a  term  fint  need   in  the  French 
cohmies,  but  afterward*  adopted  by  Bncliah,  Ger- 
'  other  travelleis,  to  designate  One  wood^. 


climbing    and  twining   pli 
trcpioal  forests,  and  constitate 
ever-varying  fi  "         '  " 
comparatively 
honeysncklee  and 


species  of  Cknaiu  a&brd 


fsmiliar  examples  of  them  j  but  aa  these  often  OTer> 
*~~  *'—  '"dges  or  buahes  m  whioh  they  grow,  and 
aaiin  by  the  wei^t  of  their  leaves  as 
their  stems  ^ongate,  so  the  L.  of  tropical 


lefrt    traes,  deecend   again   to  the 
festoons,    pass    from  one    tree    to 
another,  and  bind  the  whole  forest  to) 


ground   in  vast   festoons,   pass   fiom 

another,  and  bind  the  whole  forest  together  in 

maze  of  hving  network,  and  often  by  oaUes  oa  thick 


I  those  of  a 

-OS  in  the  alluvial  ragiona  o  .  _  . 
Orinoco — thus  become  unpenetrable  without  the 
aid  of  the  hatchet,  and  the  beasts  whii^  inhalat 
them  ather  pass  throngh  narrow  covered  paths, 
kept  open  by  continnal  use,  or  from  bough  to  boogh 
&tr  above  Uie  nnund.  Many  L. — as  some  of  £e 
specieaof  Wrig&ia — become  tne-like in  thsthioktwss 


Lilt]  II, 


v;  Google 


LIAS— LIBEL. 
^  uid  often  kill  by  oonttrietion  the  j  occur,  (or  the  «Ua  which  ntaj  of  the  (pade*  ftttun, 


faew  irtdch  oii^nally  mpported  them ;  and  whea 
ttteae  have  decand,  the  oonvolntioiu  of  the  L. 
«xbfl>it&  wondertal  nam  of  oooftuioD  nukgnifioent 
in  the  luxuriance  of  foliage  and  Sowen.  No  tropioal 
flowers  excel  in  iplendoor  thoae  of  loma  Hanu. 
Among  them  aie  found  alio  some  Tiloable  medicine] 
plaota,  *s  mwpMilla.  The  rattans  and  vaailla  are 
iBnaa:  Botaaieallv  eonadered.  L.  belong  to  nataral 
twden  the  iBoat  <USeranl  Tropical  plant*  of  thia 
description  are  wldom  to  be  seen  in  our  hothooaee, 
owing  to  tbe  difficulty  of  thor  cnltiTatioD. 

I1IA&  The  liu  ii  Hie  lower  dividon  of  the 
Oolitio  or  Jaraasia  Period  (q.T.)-  The  beds  com- 
pcMDg  it  may  be  considered  ai  the  annllaccona  bam* 
«f  that  mmau  of  locka,  con 

thooaaad  feet  ai  altemationa  of  1^7  and  limeatone, 
with  bnt  a  f«w  nnioqNnisDt  depcaita  of  land.  '" 
ooiwiat*  of  th«  following  gronpa : 


Lisa  connate  of  thin  linnetona  bodi 
ngh  a  great  Uticknen  of  bine  cl*y, 
more  or  iea>  tndnrated,  and  to  alnminooi  that  it 
IiBB  been  WRKuht  for  alnm  at  Whitby.  A  tiiick 
band  of  tegetaMe  matter  or  impnre  lignite  oocnn  in 
this  diviaion,  in  irtueh  are  fotmd  nodmei  and  Imnpe 
at  jet,  a  pccnliar  mineral  oomposed  of  carbon  and 
faydn^en,  and  probably  having  a  dmilar  orion  to 
toe  amber  of  the  tertiary  lignites.  A  eenee  of 
brown  and  yellow  nnda,  >nd  a  peculiar  layer  called 
tlie  cephalopoda  bed,  from  the  abnndance  of  tiuee 
ftedls  contained  in  it,  ooour  abore  theae  claj^a ; 
recently,  tlu^  have  been  a*p«rat«d  from  the  inferior 
<xJita,  and  jomed  to  thia  divinon,  on  the  evidence  of 
tha  contained  foaailH. 

The  MarUtone  it  on  aienaoeona  deposit,  bonnd 
togethor  either  by  a  oaleareoua  or  fem^ginoos 
cement,  in  the  one  CMO  paaaing  into  a  ooarse  ahslly 
limestone,  and  in  the  other  into  an  ironitoncs  which 
has  been  exteniiTely  wionght  both  in  the  north  and 
sdhUi  of  Bngtuid. 

Ths  Lower  Lisa  beds  ootiaiat  of  an  extendre 
of  bine  chiys,  intarmin;^  with  la^an  of 
tana    In  weathering,  the  thm  beda 


arallaceoua 
n(  MneorgT 


_  , of  this  rode,  at 

r  ribbon-like  appearaooe,  whenoa,  it  ia 
.  the  minei'a  name  liaa  or  Isyets  ia  derived. 
Oeneially,  the  day*  rest  on  triamo  rooks,  but 
oocssianally  there  is  interposed  a  thio  bed  of  lime- 
atone,  containina  ftagmtaita  of  die  bone*  and  teeth 
<f  niptileB  udliih,  genenlly  of  nndonbted  liaaaio 
^e ;  occssionally,  the  bones  of  kenper  rmtilcs  are 
Bet  with  in  it,  earning  it  to  hB;n  been  i^eired  to 
IbeTriaa. 

Thx  Lias  ia  Udlly  toaailifenMU,  the  oontained 
ergo'iisnis  being  w9l  jiiMeiTod ;  the  fithea  are  often 
so  perfect  aa  to  exbioit  the  ocniplete  form  of  the 
— nn.l,  wiUi  the  fim  and  aealee  in  their  nataral 
position.  £f  nmeroiiB  remains  of  plants  ooonr  in  the 
Egnito  and  in  the  shales.  The  nams  Oryphito 
limestone  haa  bean  given  to  the  Liai^  from  the 
neat  qtuuititie*  of  Oryphta  tneurrata,  a  kind  of 
•jster,  fboad  in  it.  Some  of  the  older  genera  of 
nMdloaca  are  tiall  fonnd  in  theae  beds,  but  the 
gBBeral  chancter  of  theae  aoimala  men  nearly 
qiproacbea  the  newer  escondary  forma.  Flah- 
nonain*  are  frequently  met  with;  the  reptiles, 
howerer,  are  the  most  striking  featm».  They  are 
tsmaAable  for  tb«  great  nnmbers  in  which  they 


•nd  for  the  adspUtiona  in  tbeii  atractare  which 
fitted  than  to  live  in  water.  The  most  oote- 
worthy  are  spades  «i  Idithyosaaraa  (q.  v.)  and 
Fleaiasanrnt  (q.v.) 

The  Liassio  rodu  extend  in  a  belt  of  varying 
breadth  acroex  Eoslaitd,  from  Whitbv,  on  tiie  coaM 
of  Yorkshire,  eoalh  to  Leicester,  Uun  sooth-eaat 
by  Oloacetter  to  Lyme  Regis  in  Doraetahire. 

LIBA'NICB,  one  of  the  latest  and  moat  eminent 
of  the  Greek  sophista  or  thetoricians,  waa  bom  at 
Antioch,  in  Syria,  about  314  or  316  A.&.  He  atodied 
at  Athens  nnder  varioos  teachers,  and  first  aet  up  a 
school  in  Constantinople,  irtiere  Us  prelectionji  vrars 
■o  attractive  that  he  emptied  the  benches  of  the 
other  teachers  of  rhetoric^  who  had  Ti'ii  bron^it 
before  the  prefect  of  the  dty  on  a  ehai^  of  '  magn,' 
and  expelled.  He  then  proceeded  to  NioomaSa ; 
bnt  after  a  reaidenee  of  five  yean,  was  foroed  by 
iutrirnes  to  leave  it,  and  retomed  to  Constan- 
tinope.  Here,  however,  hia  adreraaties  were  in  the 
aaoendant;  and  after  aareral  vkhaHudea,  the  dd 
•ophiet,  broken  in  health  sod  spirit,  aatded  down  ia 
his  native  dty  of  Antiodk,  where  he  died  aboat  303 
A.l>.  L.  waa  the  instmctor  of  St  Chiysoatom  and 
St  Basil,  who  always  remained  his  friends,  though 
L  waa  himself  a  pagan.  He  waa  a  great  friend  of 
the  Emperor  Julian,  who  oorreaponded  with  >'■"' 
His  works  are  amnerons,  and  mostly  axtaot,  sad 
coDsist  of  nations,  dedamatians,  narntivea,  lettos, 
&c  The  most  complete  edition  ol  the  ontiona 
and  declamations  ia  ttiat  by  Bdake  (4  vdl.  Alfamh. 
and  Ldp.  1791—1797),  and  <4  tiie  letteta  that  hw 
Wolf  (Amat.  1738). 
LIBANOK  See  Lkbahok. 
LIBATION  (I«t  abort,  to  poor  Mt),  literaDy. 
anything  poured  out  before  the  gods  as  an  act  of 
honian  or  worahipj  a  drink-offering.  The  tern 
was  Often  extended  m  aigni  filiation,  t^wever,  to  the 
'  '  which  thia  formed  a  part,  aiul  in 
_ ,  ..  little  wine  waa  poured  upon  ths 
..    ..  amall  cake  waa  laid  upon  it.     This 

prevailed  even  in  the  hotues  of  th    " 

who  at  their  maaU  made  an  offering  to 
in  Uw  fire  which  homed  upon  the  hearth.  The 
libalum  WM  thiM  a  aort  of  ncathen  'graoa  befors. 
teat.' 

LFBAIT,  a  aeaparl  of  Cotiriand,  Ruaia,  en  tl» 
altic,  S26  miles  sonth-w«st  of  St  Petanbnr^ 
It  existed  previou  to  the  settlement  ben  of  ths 
Teutonic  flights,  who  lunonnded  the  town  witk 
walls,  and  erected  in  I30O  a  cathedral  sod  a  castle. 
In  1795,  it  waa  annexed  to  Bnssi*.  ^e  port  ■ 
open  almost  the  whole  year.  Its  inhahituita,  ~ — 
the  17th  c,  have  devoted  thema  '  "  ' 

ing.     In  a  year,  about  200  ships  . ^ 

clear  die  port.  The  import*  ormnat  of  salt  herring 
wines,  firiit,  and  oolonial  produce ;  the  exports 
[about  £3,800,000  in  sonaal  value)  are  chiefly  cereals, 
leather,  fiax,  seeds,  and  timber.  Through  thi*  rail- 
way, the  importance  of  L.  haa  greatly  intreaaed. 
The  town  is  alao  a  wstering-place,  and  there  is  some 
trade  in  amber.    Fop.  (ISSO)  about  !KI,00a 

LIBEL,  b  Scotch  Law  and  in  English  Bodui- 
asticoJ  Law,  meaoa  the  summons  or  similar  writ 
commencing  a  suit,  and  oontaioing  the  plaintiff's 
aili^tioua. 

LIBBL  is  a  pnblication  dther  in  vrriting,  print, 
'  by  way  of  a  piotnre,  or  the  like^  ths  tembncy  of 
which  ia  to  d^ads  a  man  in  the  opinion  of  hia 
nei^iboma,  or  to  midie  him  ridiouloua.  When 
sinulsr  resdts  follow  fi«m  woidi  apoken,  the  sat 
is  cajled  Slander  (%.  v.),  whidt,  however,  is  leaa 
•everdy  pnniahed.  It  is  extMndy  difficult  to 
Ul 


shm  build* 


LIBELLULA — LIBERriTS. 


define  wtul  tunoonta  to  libelloni  mattar,  for  tbe 
queitioD  vliether  a  pnblicktdon  amounts  to  libel 
must  tlvrayB  be  left  to  the  decision  of  a  JQi7> 
and  thia  deoiaion  ii  aomewhat  uncertain,  and  variee 
irith  the  popular  mood  for  the  time.  Bui  the 
tert  is,  in  point  of  lav,  whether  there  reeolbs 
demdfttion  of  character.  There  are  tworemed"- 
in  England  for  the  wrong  canaed  b}r  libel ;  c 
ia  bj  mdictment,  the  other  ii  hy  action.  If  I 
ofiance  ia  of  a  pubUo  nature,  an  indictment 
eenerally  roeorted  to,  for  erecy  libel  tenda  tc 
breaeh  of  the  peace  ;  or  the  libeUed  part;  ap^iliei 
to  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench  for  a  criminal 
infonnation,  which  ia  a  variety  of  indictment.' 
When  an  action  ia  brought,  ite  object  i»  to  recover 
damage*  for  the  private  mjury  aoatained.  The  rule 
formerly  woa,  in  indictments  and  criminal  iuforma- 
tione,  that  the  defendant  was  not  allowed  to  plead 
in  defence  that  the  libelloos  matter  waa  true.  But 
Uie  law  waa  in  1S43  altered,  and  the  defendant  is 
now  allowed  in  criminal  as  well  as  civil  proceed- 
ings, to  prove  the  truth,  and  that  it  was  loi 
tbe  public  beneGt  that  the  matter  should  be  pub- 
liahed,  atating  how.  If,  however,  the  jury  by  their 
verdict  find  otherwise,  thia  defence  often  aggravates 
the  ^ishment  Tbe  statute  6  and  7  Vtct  c.  96 
also  improved  the  law  of  libel  as  regards  editors, 
and  proprietors  of  newspapeiB,  and  periodical  pnbli- 
ootiona,  who  were  formeny  held  Uable  for  libels 
inserted  without  their  knowledge.  By  the  piesant 
law,  the  defendant  may  plead  m  defence  that  the 
article  in  qaestion  was  ina^ted  without  actoal  malice 
and  without  grosa  negligence,  and  thati  before  the 
oommencement  of  the  action,  or  at  the  earliest  oppor- 
tunity afterwards,  the  defendant  inaerted  an  apology, 
or  if  the  periodical  did  not  appear  within  on  interval 
of  a  week,  that  he  offered  to  publish  an  apology  in 
any  newspaper  or  periodical  to  be  selected  by  the 

BiatiS.  But  the  defendant,  when  he  pleads  this 
ence,  must  also  pay  into  court  a  mm  of  money, 
W  way  of  amends  for  the  injury  done.  A  new  act, 
the  Newspaper  Libel  and  KWistration  Act  (44  and 
46  Vict  c  60],  was  psated  in  1881,  with  the  view  of 
defining  further  the  editor's  responsibility,  and  giving 
him  reasonable  security  under  proper  conditions. 
Then  are  certun  libels  which  aie  called  blasphemoua 
«B  aooonnt  of  Uieir  denying  the  fundameotal  truths 
^Chriatiaiiity,and  theaa  ore  ponishable  by  fine  and 
imprisonment.  So  there  are  aeditioua,  treasonable, 
and  immoisl  libeH  aooording  to  tbe  nature  of  the 
•nbjeet-matter.  If  any  peraon  threaten  to  publish 
a  libel,  or  offer  to  [a«vent  auch  publication,  with 
intent  to  extort  any  money,  seonrily,  or  valuable 
thing,  or  with  intent  to  indoce  anyperson'to  confer 
or  procure  any  appointment  or  office  of  profit  or 
trust,  he  is  liable  to  imprieonmant  with  or  without 
hard  labour  for  three  years.  It  any  person  mali- 
ciously publish  a  defsjnatory  libel,  luiowing  the 
aame  to  be  false,  he  ts  liable  to  two  years'  imprison. 
meat  and  a  fine ;  and  the  malioiouB  publication,  even 
thoi^  not  with  knowledge  tiut  it  i*  faUe,  niokes 
the  author  liable  to  one  year's  impriiounent  and  a 


<    LIBELLULID^ 


fine, 

LIBELLULA 
Draqoh-ilt. 

LIBER.    See  Bark  and  But. 

LIBEBATION,  in  Scotch  Law,  means  discharge 
frran  imprisonmeuL  Formerly,  if  a  peraon  waa 
imprisoned  for  debt,  and  paid  the  amount,  he  had  to 
present  a  bill  of  liberation  and  suspension  to  get  out 
of  prison,  which  ia  not  now  necessary. 

JjIBKBIA,  a  negro  republic  on  the  Grain  Coast 
of  Upper  Gumea.  The  territory  of  the  republic 
extei^  from  long.  6°  64'  to  12*  2?  W.  The  length 
of  oooat  is  abent  600  miles,  tbe  average  breadth  of 


theterritory  about  100  mile*.  On  December  31, 
1S16,  an  association,  of  which  Henry  Clay  (q.v.) 
was  prendent,  styled  the  American  Colonia^on 
Society,  was  formed,  for  the  purpose  of  founding 
a  colony  of  emancipated  negroes,  and  of  giving 
them  favourable  opportnnitiea  of  self-improvement. 
The  first  attcanpt  failed,  in  conaeqnence  of  tho 
selection  of  an  unhealthy  locality ;  but  in  December 
1821,  a  treaty  was  concluded  with  the  native  princes, 
by  which  a  tract  of  loud  fit  for  the  purpoae  waa 
acquired.  The  aasodation  immadiatety  commenced 
operations,  and  allotted  to  eaoh  man  30  acres  of 
land,  with  the  means  of  cultivating  it.  A  town, 
called  Monrovia,  was  founded  at  Cape  Afesurado; 
the  .boundaries  of  the  colony  were  enlarged  by  tlio 
purvhaae  of  new  tracts;  and  a  second  town,  colled 
Caldwell,  in  honour  of  the  originator  of  the  associa- 
tion, was  founded  upon  the  nver  Mesurado,  New 
settlements  were  afterwords  formed  at  Cape  MoDt« 
and  in  the  newly  acquired  Baaaa  Land,  m  which, 
in  1834,  a  town  was  founded,  and  called  Ediiut, 
in  acknowled^ent  of  pecuniary  aid  sent  to  the 
colony  from  !£^nburgb.  Many  of  the  neighbouring 
chiefs  were  received  into  the  colony,  whUst  otheiB 
were  subdued.  In  1847,  L.  was  left  to  its  owa 
reaourcee,  declared  an  independent  republic,  and 
the  Bovemmeut  oommitted  to  a  preeident,  senate, 
and  house  of  representatives.  The  president  and 
representatives  are  elected  for  two,  and  the  sena- 
tors for  four  years,  all  citizena  being  qualified 
electors  when  they  reach  SI  yeari  o/  age,  and 
possess  real  rtlale.  The  judicial  power  is  vested 
m  one  aupreme  and  several  subordinate  courta. 
Slavery  and  the  slave-trade  are  prohibited,  and 
the  right  of  petition  eatablished.  Whites  ore 
excluded  from  rights  of  citizenship,  but  this  is 
only  a  temporary  measure.  The  prosp^ty  of  the 
colony  soon  became  veiy  obvious ;  chunmea  and 
schools  were  founded  in  greater  proportion  to 
the  papulation  than  in  most  parts  of  Britain 
or  America;  a  regular  poeial  system  was  estab- 
lished, newspapers  published,  and  slavery  in  the 
neighbouring  states  aboliahed.  Negroes  from  the 
neighbouring  remans,  tettling  in  the  republic  and 
sutaitting  to  its  lows,  were  admitted  to  partici- 
pation in  civil  and  political  freedom  equal^  with 
the  colonists.  The  new  repuUic  waa  Tscogiiiaed 
t^  Britain  in  1848,  and  since  by  other  European 
powers.  The  British  government  made  it  a  present 
of  a  corvette  of  war  with  four  guns.  The  prosperity 
and  uaefulneaa  of  L.  have  since  continued  to  increase, 
but  the  number  of  settlers  from  North  America  hu 
never  been  great  in  onj  year,  and  the  whole  num- 
ber in  the  country  ia  reckoned  not  to  exceed  19,000, 
Additional  negro  tribes,  are,  however,  from  time  to 
•="16  included  within  its  territory.  These,  with  the 
ive  inhabitants  of  L.,  ore  estimated  at  1,050,000, 
and  about  50,000  have  a^uired  the  Engliah  laogu^e, 
of  whom  about  3000  are  members  of  the  Chnatun 
church.  Agriculture  ia  carried  on  with  increasing 
success.  Sugar  is  the  principal  article  of  produce, 
ond  also  of  mannfacture.  Cocoa,  cotton,  coffee^ 
arrowroot,  and  rice  aro  also  cultivated.  Lime  is 
made  from  burnt  shells.  Trade  is  rapidly  eztend- 
'n^  ond  palm-oil,  ivory,  gold-dust,  camwood,  wax, 
Hjtlfee,  indigo,  ginger,  arrowroot^  and  hides  ore 
unongst  the  prind^  articles  of  ejqwrt  The  chief 
ixport  to  Britain  ts  pobn-oil,  and  the  chief  import 
thence  is  cotton  goods.  Bevenue  and  eipendituis, 
each  about  £25,000  a  year.  The  capital,  Uonrovia, 
baa  a  population  of  aliout  4000L 

LIBEVITTS,  a  native  of  Rome,  bom  in  the 
early  part  of  the  4th  c,  succeeded  to  the  see  of 
Rome  m  353,  on  the  death  of  Pope  JuUua  L  Hia 
pontificate  folia  upon  the  stormiest  period  of  the 
aemi-Arion  controveny.    See  Akiub.    The  Emperor 


,,  Google 


LIBEETY— LIBKETT,  ajUAUTY,  FRATia»nT. 


Canrtaittiiu  •npport«d  Um  Mmi-AjiaD  party  with 
all  hia  anthoriw ;  and  the  ooandl  of  Axlea  ia  36^ 
and  that  of  Milan  in  3S6,  formally  condamoed 
Athanaaiiii  (<i.  v.),  the  great  reprasentatiTe  of  the 
orthodox  behet  h.  nfosed  to  oonfinn  this  decTeo, 
and,  evan  in  oppoaitioD  to  the  peraonal  commands  of 
Conttantiiu,  withheld  hii  aabaoiiption.  He  wm,  in 
ooneeqaenoe,  in  ommnim  with  aereial  otlwn,  depoiad 
and  baoidied  to  Beroa  l^  tha  empetor,  who  caoasd 
a  Soman  deaooo,  Fdix,  to  he  etocted  is  hia  atead 
Tba  later  hiatoiy  of  L.  ia  a  inbjeot  of  controv 
He  WM  r««tored  to  his  aae  in  3H,  bat  the  tern 

wfaieh  he  wm  teoalled  are  mnoh  dispntad.     . 

•omTed  hia  ratom  from  wdle  wght  fean,  and  died 
in  high  rmnte  for  aanotity  at  B«ane  in  36&     *'" 

only  remains  are  some  ktten  pnMrred  by  Com 

in  the  Spidola  Somanorum  Pont^iaim.  During 
his  life,  manv  ■pariooi  letten  sod  daoieee  wer~ 
oinmlated  in  nit  name. 

LIBERTT,  in  English  Law,  is  often  used  i 
denote  a  franchise,  or  portion  of  the  royal  prerogati) 
del^Bted  to  a  subject ;  also  a  mivile^eil  district  in 
a  ooonty  exempt  mim  the  iheria'a  janadiotioD. 

LIBERTY,  EQUALITY,  FBATBRHITY- 
Tor  neaiiy  a  cmtory,  these  three  words  have  been 
aooepted  as  embodjrmg  tiie  creed  of  those  who 
Maintain  the  rightful  sopremaoy  of  the  nnmerioal 
majori^;  and  thm'  hare  been  sonnded  as  Uie 
watdiintrd  ^  that  fonnidsble  morsment  known  on 
the  cootiiMnt  of  Eorope  as  'the  HerolntiMt,'  of 
whioh  the  object  is  to  assert  this  snpramaoy  by 
orertaming  the  existing  fabria  of  society.  When 
oontiwted  with  the  democntia  creed  of  antiquity, 
the  only  norelty  which  the  modem  symbol  axiiibits 
consiste  in  the  proclamataon  of  '  eqa&litrf ; '  for 
'liberal'  in  the  widest  sense — meaning  tJiereby  the 
nhjmate  extenmon  of  pditioal  power  to  the  whole 
body  of  the  dtiwns— hac  been  the  object  of  Uie 
most  enlightened  pditioians  of  all  sgesi  whilst  the 
protest  in  taToar  of  'fraternity'  is  a  mere  lenti- 
mental  oonunonplMe,  abont  the  speculative  sonnd- 
sast  of  irilioh  there  nerer  was  any  real  diffeienoe 


the  doctrine  of  eqoality 

Declaration  of  Independence  ol  July  4,  1776.  llus 
odebnted  docnment  proceeds  thus  :  '  We  bold  thoe 
troths  to  be  self-evident :  (Aol  oU  nun  an  ertaied 
igval ;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with 
certain  tmalienable  ri^ts ;  that  among  these  are 
life,  liber^,  and  the  puiauit  of  hiypinoes,  ka.'  Thi^ 
as  we  have  said,  was  in  1776.  But  as  a  speculatiTe 
opinion,  the  doctrine  of  eqnali^  had  been  pro- 
claimed by  HoblMB  more  'Uian  a  oentory  before, 
and  from  hia  lime  down  to  the  period  at  irtuoh  it 
thuB  lecedTed  practical  recsosmbon,  it  had  never 
been  hat  mght  of  by  the  <^ss  of  qmculaton  to 
whioh  Hobb^  belongM.  Under  di^rent  forms,  and 
from  various  points  of  view,  it  had  been  reasserted 
by  Spinoza,  Kaaneaa,  Helvetina,  and  ultimately  by 
the  class  of  political  dechumen  whose  works  were 
simultuieoas  with  the  American,  and  immediately 
Iteeeded  1^  Atmch  Bevolutiou. 
.  Hobbas  was  bolder  than  his  followers,  and  by 
•warning  a  premise  which,  had  it  been  true,  would 
certainly  have  Justified  his  oonolnsion,  saved  his 
lofpc,  though  he  did  not  secure  a  very  stable  fonnda- 
timi  for  Us  law.  He  anarted  that  men  are  not  ontr 
bom,  bnt  oontinne  in  riMiiiitislii  vcn  nearly  equal 
'  NatuR^'  he  saidf  *  1"^  wimi^*  litiie  odds  »^ft"g 
men  of  matore  age  ta  to  atniigth  and  knowledg^ 
BousMMi,  CD  the  other  hand,  feeling  that  snbjecbve 
and  objaotive  expczienoe  would  at  once  npndiate 
•uoh  an  AMnmption,  admitted  the  existenoe  of 
ine^nalitiea  in  mtttniity,  and  scarcely  ventured  to 


deny  tiiem  even  at  birth,  but  ascribed  them  mainfy 
to  education,  and  to  other  distorting  and  denuiging 
principles  in  human  nature  andhnm»n  K>ciet)r, 
which  it  is  the  object  of  law  and  govenuneat  to 
counteract.  A  third  class  of  reasoners,  whilst 
admitting  the  fact  of  inequality,  and  not  condemning 
-'-  -  -  abnortnol  in  Uie  coee  of  individnals,  asserted 
— ,  the  argoinent  in  support  of  social  and  poll* 
tical  eqnali^  is  sufficiently  founded  on  the  generio 

^aaltty  of  mankind — on  the  propositioii,  vis.,  Uiat 
'  men  art  apu^  men.  They  forgot,  or  found  it 
convenient  to  ignore,  that  the  argument  of  their 
Of^iolieDtB  reeted  on  the  propoaitian,  that  aH  nt«n  on 
tut  ejual  nun ;  and  consequently  would  not  have 
been  m  the  oliditest  degree  offeoted  even  by  the 
•'*'"'— *™  of  the  generic  equality  for  which  they 
To  this  last  class  belongs  PMlcasar 
Ahrena,  whoae  work  on  Natural  I«w  has  been 
used  as  the  text-book  in  the  EaiU  tie  Droit  in  Paris, 
these  writers  agree  in 
between  ec 


I  m  momtaining  tha 
m  equality  and  hberty ; 
lalisation  of  the  latter 


must  of  neossdfy  be  in  proportion  to  the  oomj^ete- 
nesB  with  iriiioh  the  former  is  realised.  Li  Great 
Britain,  hitherto,  the  oppodte  creed  biaa  pcerailed. 
Experience,  both  aubjeative  and  objecttre,  has  led 
to  the  oonclnmon  that  in  point  of  foot  men  come 
into  the  world  and  oontinue  during  the  whole  oourse 
of  their  earthly  sojoum  to  be  extremely  nnequal 
in  strength,  intelligcmca,  virtus,  and  worth.  A  is 
""  i-his  assnmptiou  that  tha  whole  fobrio  of  onr 
iea  rests.  So  far  from  believing  liberty  to 
involve  the  fictitions  recognition  of  on  equality 
which  does  not  exist,  or  the  creation  of  an  equality 
which  is  contrary  to  nature,  we  bold  it  to  necessitate 
the  reooguitioa  of  the  ineqnalitiee  which  natnre  has 
established,  and  which  God  as  the  author  of  nature 
has  decreed.  Nay,  further,  we  conceive  its  perfection 
to  be  in  direct  proportion  to  Hm  completeness  with 
which  these  inequolitiee  sre  recognised,  and  their 

qnenoee,in  the  shape  irf  property,  social  poai- 

,  and  the  like,  are  vindicated  by  the  political 

madiinery  of  the  ~'"*^"     "----'—  =-  ■  —    '  ■■ 


, „ . ,  iurt  mso 

fu  as  it  recognises  these  ineqnalitiee ;  and  bupn*  to 
*"  ■lorsanio,  chaotic,  the  moment  that  it  ignores 
.  In  like  manner,  the  political,  which  is  the 
ir  of  the  social  orgonisalian  of  the  state,  per- 
forms its  appropriate  function  ouly  when,  and  in  so 
it  truly  refiecta  the  inequalitiee  whioh  society 


has  recoraiised  ai 
to  nor  tdie  from 


._ .  from  tha  facta  which  soinety  presents  .. 

_..  To  each  it  must  assign  his  own,  uid  notJiing 
but  his  own ;  and  his  oum  politically  is  the  J^ace 
which  Bociaty  has  already  conceded  to  him.  These 
views,  which  in  a  somewlkat  iirwilar  mormer  have 
always  been  recognised  and  acted  upon  in  England, 
have  been  thon^t  out  and  systematised  within 
ese  lost  few  years  by  Ur  Mul  and  the  doss  of 
lUticians  to  whom  in  mture  the  title  of  FrogreasiTe 
>aBerTativea  will  probably  be  uplied.  By  no 
titer,  perlume,  has  the  true  doctnne  been  stated 
with  greater  force  than  by  John  Adams,  the  friend 
and  suooaesor  of  Washingtou,  and  second  president 
of  the  United  States.  The  following  passage  is 
selected  from  many  to  the  like  effect  m  the  recent 
edition  of  hi*  works  by  his  grandson,  Charlea 
FronoiB  Adams :  '  That  ul  men  are  bom  to  equal 
rights,  ia  troe.  Sveiy  being  has  a  right  to  hia  own 
as  dear,  aa  moral,  as  sacred,  as  any  ouier  being  hai; 
lliia  ia  as  indubitable  as  a  moral  govenunent  in 
the  univene.  But  to  teach  that  all  men  ore  bom 
with  equal  powers  and  faculties,  to  equal  influ- 
in  aode^,  to  equal  property  and  advantages 

igh  Me,  it  as  gross  a  Iraiul,  as  glaring  an 

inqwodaon  on  the  credulity  of  the  people,  aa  ever 


i.Gou^l 


UBSBTT  OF  TBX  f 


WH  piKoUiBd  hf  monki,  br  Druid*,  tj  _.    .. 

W  i^nte  of  tOB  immoitkl  I^raa,  ov  bjr  the  mU- 
•fyled  tihilow^han  of  th*  Tnnoli  EavbhilioiL  Fw 
hononra  Mka,  Hi  3k*lor,  for  tenth  and  Tirtas*! 
■Jul  lat  Anarloan  nUloMDhwi  and  poUtidaiu 
dM^  ii'— (ToL  ii  p.  461) 
LIBBBTT   OF   THS    PBBSB.     9««   Fmbc^ 

IdBSsn  01;  LiBKL. 

UBBBTT  OF  THB  STmjXCI  ia  ■  Muanl 
<gbzam  d(MTiptiT«  d  the  right  of  the  inamdnal 
■oUaol  to  do  mil  thin^  not  ipwiaUj  piohitMted  by 
tha  ]»w,  uid  the  Imi  nttiiotlDn  thai*  ii  by  tiu  law, 
tlw  graftter  !■  Uu  Bxtont  of  tha  liberty  mjujed- 
Ib  iU  widot  mm,  the  phnwa  may  be  nndtretood 
M  oomninnK  tha  ifluds  of  th«  righta  allowid  by 
lawtot)ie«a&)Mli  but  what  iaganeianyiuMlMwtooa 
it  the  liber^  of  the  mraon,  at  of  n^ti  ooqnMted 
wilh  the  penon— ition  aa  pwwnal  Ubarty  or  fiae- 
dotn  tHoi  ilaTaiT,  the  liffiA  of  be*  ipeoch,  liberty 
of  oonaeiauM,  HbMir  of  Uia  inH,  and  eonrtitatioiiM 
UbOF^,  or  die  lib«riy  to  inAnnm  «id  taka  part  in 
l^.lj^ilnn,  whiak  may  be  fnlthai  ■obdividod  into 
Um  liiaitaii<m  of  the  loyal  {ireropklTai  tha  poweia 
and  pMbgaaof  parliaoiant,  tha  ng^tof  applying  to 
oonib  of  law  lor  radreat  of  injartM^  tha  nght  of 
patitiaDiiig  tha  <rowa  or  parliHiant,  tha  right  of 

^oTlllthei 


a,  tiia  ri^t  <4  ^ 


LIBtDIBI.    Bee  Ditii>itl 

IiIBOTTBlTE,  a  handMiiiie  torn  of  EVanoe,  in  tho 
daportansnt  of  Otioude,  on  the  right  biuik  of  the 
Dordogne,  at  Hm  conAoence  with  the  lale,  20  ndlee 
aorth-aatt  of  Bordeaaz.  It  is  one  of  the  andeat 
Battida  or  Free  Towns,  and  wat  fonnded  by 
Edward  L,  king  of  Enghuid,  in  128fi.  It  curiea 
on  oonaldeiable  toada  in  winee,  spiritc,  grain,  aalt, 
and  timber.  Cotton-yani,  iron,  leather,  ropea,  and 
nail*  an  mannfaotnred.    Fop.  (1881)  13,036. 

tiFBRA,  the aaranth rign in  tha todiac.    Attbe 


baing  thn«  the  aalimmal  agi**"^ 

LIBRARIES.  Tie  tarn  Bbraiy  ii  applied 
Indiflerently  to  boildlnn,  fto.,  deatined  to  oontidn 
booki,  and  to  the  books  themselvea  depodted  hi 
theas  bnlldingi.  In  the  present  artlol<^  it  la  wed 
ohieSy,  if  not  axclnniely,  m  tiie  latter  wiue. 

Paning  over  the  '  libraries  of  day,'  aa  the  ooU«o> 
tionB  of  uucribed  brioki  and  tilea  of  the  Asayiiani 
and  Babyloniane  hare  been  optlT  dedenated,  the 
first  library,  properiy  so  calle>£  oi  whidt  we  hare 
any  knowledge,  is  that  irtdch,  according  to  Diodoms 
Siculns,  was  formed  by  tha  Egyptian  king  Osy 


mandyoB.  The  existanceof  this  ei 
its  appropriate  inscription,  Ptydta  iiar^aa--^tM 
atorehoQse  of  medidna  for  the  mind — vaa  long 
reesided  as  labnloos ;  but  the  reaearehea  tl  Oham- 
piSlion,  WilkinaoD,  and  other  modetn  inTeatinton, 
go  far  to  prove  that  ttie  aocotmt  of  IHodMva,  umo^ 
pertiapa  exaggerated,  la  at  least  based  upon  tnnn. 
A  mora  celebrated  Egnitun  library  waa  that  fonnded 
at  Alexandria  by  FtoleiOT  Soter,  for  an  acoonnt  of 
which  see  Aicukhkum  LiBKiiir.  ^e  librarr  of 
Fe^mna,  a  formidable  rival  to  that  of  Alexandria, 
was  foonded  probably  by  Attains  L,  and  wsa  largely 
Increased  by  the  fostering  care  tA  his  socoessonb  jCt 
stated  In  the  article  JDst  refcned  to.  It  was  nltimaMy 
removed  to  Alexandria,  bung  sent  by  Antmy  aa  a 
gift  to  Cleopatra.  At  the  time  that  tide  transfer- 
ence took  place,  it  cootainad,  acowdlng  to  Plntaroh, 
200,000  volu-- 

The  first. 
Mud  to  have  b 


Qreoian  libiariaa  la  m 


■  mgaidi^  tUa  and  ottir 

ere  Mid  niwafafaatory.    Th* 
e  thoa*  Mlloeted  hy 


LnenUai  and  by  Audu  Polllo.  "Sht  laMw  ma  » 
imUia  Ubniy,  in  tha  follaat  aanw;  and  thefamsr, 
flkOdA  Btivata  proi-atty,  waa  adminiatiiind  wiUi  •» 
mod  libaralily  aa  to  plaaa  it  aaadj  i»  tiw  Mma 
Ibotiw  VarioM  ottw  lilnariaa  weaa  landed  ak 
Binaa  by  AngBstna  and  Ua  aneeaMetai  Iba  auMk 
impertanti  perfaapa,  beins  the  Dlpian  libcasy  of 
tha  ffiinjyoi  Trajaau  Tue  ^vata  soUaatlttia  «l 
BtnilhisFMiliu,  Sulla,  Lncnllna  (already  DiBntuaedJt 
and  Cioso,  an  wdl  known  to  arery  atadent  of  tba 

The  downfsll  first  of  tiia  Westan,  and  aob- 
saqoently  of  iha  BMtvn  Bmpire^  inrolved  tha 
dsatraotion  or  dlapardon  of  thiaa  smm*  Ubnrieft 
The  wadlke  hotdaa  br  whom  thaaa  enoa  nightgr 
monaiduea  were  overtniown,  had  naUiar  tiaia  ner 
inclination  for  the  cnllivatian  tl  Isttoc ;  bnt  even 
in  the  dai^eat  of  the  daik  tge^  the  lamp  of  learning 
oontioued  to  ihine,  it  with  a  feeble,  yet  still  with  a 
steady  light.  Within  the  ibeltenng  walla  of  tha 
monastenes,  the  books  which  bad  eaeaped  desfano- 
tion,  the  salvage,  if  we  laaij  mt  axpieH  its  of  tiia 
geBsral  wreak,  foond  a  safe  aayhm  |  and  noi  oal^ 
wen  they  carafol^  preaarved,  Mt  m  mnttipliad  tm 
the  indiuFbr  of  tha  tBansonber,  ••  to  be  plaeaa 
beyond  all  itik.  of  loai  for  tha  tnlnNk  AmongM  th* 
oonventnal  Ubnriea  of  tha  middla  aoea  ^eaiaUr 
worthy  of  notice  an  tbaaed  Ohriat  Onaxtb,  and  (tf 
tiie  mooastvT  of  Bt  Aunatana,  CanteWy :  of  fiia 
abbns  of  Fbory  and  Oingni,  in  France  i  at  Mnto 
Oaaaino,  in  Italyi  and  of  St  Gall,  in  Switoariaod. 
Private  collaotora,  too,  existed  tiioi  a«  " 

of  cooraa,  their  nomber  was  smaU.  Ai 
Blobard  de  Bory,  Bishop  of  Dnrham, 
tingiuBhed  plao«> 

The  rovivsl  of  learain^  in  tha  Uth  and  IBth  oa^ 
kiriea,  fdlowad  hnmsdiatsly  by  tha  inveatiaai  ef 
tha  art  of  printing,  lad  naturally  to  a  vast  ineraMi  ^ 


exceed  tiia  lunits  rf  an  artisls  hhe  tlia  ptaaMtt. 
therefor^  that  wa  jmc^ea*  to  d»  ia  to  give  a  anon 
aoeount  of   tha   most  tmportant   and    btanattng 
amongst  tiiam. 

First  among  tha  librwiea  of  Cheat  Britain,  and 
seeoud  to  few,  if  to  any  abroad,  ii  that  of  the  &tMi 
Unseam,  For  >n  aooonnt  of  this  magniflosnt  oolleo* 
tion,  see  Bkrism  i&atBm.  Next  In  nnk  i«  ttta 
Bodleian  Ubniy  at  Oxford,  whioh  baa  also  bean 
already  deaoribad.  Sea  BosLKrjur  or  BoDUOui 
T.TPMiBv.  Hm  third  and  f onrHi  placea  are  oawiHad 
by  the  Pnblio,  or  Univei^,  litmir  of  CtMbraga, 
and  the  library  of  the  FiwaltT  A  Advoaataa  at 
Edlnborgh,  whioh  an  neaiiy  on  a  par  aa  recEards 
extent  md  vafau.  A  mora  partssolar  notiss  Mtha 
latter  will  be  fmuid  under  the  heading  Advooat^ 
LiamtT ;  tiie  number  of  vohuaaa  whioh  it  odR- 
tains  at  present  mn  be  stated  as  not  lasi  thap 
885,000.  Tie  library  of  Trinity  Collags^  DoUin, 
with  aboat  192,000  TohiiDeB,  U  the  largest  and  moat 
valoable  in  Ireland.  Itwse  fire  libnnM  have  kag 
been,  and  still  wm,  entitled  l^  atatnte  to  a  ooot  d 
•very  book  published  In  the  ampin  i  tihe  act  Of  par- 
liament by  whioh  the  piMlega  ia  at  locaant  ragn- 
latedisaeSaDdeTiolctf.  Bendoa  »>a  above, 
di  other  Ubnuiea  had  been  in  the  eujcnnawt  of  tiie 
samejiririlwe  up  to  tha  mar  1836.  By  tha  aot  6 
and  7  WilL  IT.  o.  110,  which  waa  then  pawed,  tba 
ntunber  was  reduced  from  elarai  to  five ;  eouipaa 
aation  for  the  loss  of  the  pitvllega  being  ^toiMa,  in 

t  :/^i^nl,' 


file  tonn  of  na  anntul  grant  of  nuHuy  ohMf;«d 
the  Coniolidatad  Fund.    The  •momrt  of  tU*  grant 
ma,  in  each  cue,  detaniun«d  hv  ft  aonumtition  of 
tbe  KTar^B  anniutl  Tahie  of  the  books  noived 
dniing  the  time  jtm  immediately  fceeeding  the 
puaDs  of  tbe  Mt.     nie  nanue  of  the  lilmriai 
lefeiM  to,  vith  the  onmbei  of  volnmea  tbn 
preeent  ooDttin,  mod  the  aimnBl  «iun  raodTed 
Eea  of  tike  privil^e,  are  w  Mkiwt  i 


(0,DW 


us 


IRtB  mfMV  libnriM  of  Qtea/t  Blitlin  are 
«iia,tiMt  auMreliatof  llieiTiianMewoiildazeeed  the 
liimts  witidn  iridoh  an  artiole  like  tfce  pwetpt  nnut 
be  oonfined.  Anongit  tho—  dueaviug  ipeoial 
notioeaie  tbeUbrBiTirfttwBoaMtTofWriten  to 
Uw  Signed  Edinbar^ccaituning  npwaida  i£  70,000 
Tolnmei  i  th*  Himtwiu  libnwy,  Glasgow,  with 
ftbmrt  13^000  Tdnmei,  inohiding  many  ohoiae  ■peoi' 
tDeu  of  eariy  printing ;  the  Cbetikara  Librvr,  Man^ 
cheitei,  iipwarda  of  16,000  Tolttmea ;  Dr  Wuliami'a 
library,  B«d  Crow  Street,  London,  with  more  than 
20,000  Tdnme^  freely  open  t 
Archimuoopal  libraiy  at  Lam 
leaet  tlflOO  volmnea;  MarEh'i 
with  abont  l&OOO  rolnmea;  t 
Pnblin  lU^al  Society;  and  ue 
to  tiie  different  ooll^ea  at  Ozfo 
•ome  of  whioh  ara  oi  conAdenK 
The  Pablio  Librariee'  Aota  h« 
Mveral  of  tile  large  towns  in 


lingham,  LiTerpooL  uid  GlaL^- 


*■" li""'",  J^nmymi, -"Mum-o- „ 

important.    He  fine  libraries  eetabliib^ 
pbMta  under  tite  proriiionB  of  the  acta  jnat 


„ t 


SfMooer,  ftt  AMiotp,  oontainiag  a[iwarda  of  60,000 
Tolumei,  many  of  extaeuie  nuity  and  y»lae,  and  all 


The  gieat  national  library  of  France,  Ia  Biblio- 
tii^oe  dn  Eoi,  as  it  need  to  be  called.  La  Biblio- 
Ihtane  Nationale,  aa  it  ii  oalled  at  pre«ent^  ia  one  of 
the  largest  and  moat  ralnable  coUeotiona  of  booka 
and  mmntmrtr  ia  tiie  world.  AUempte  to  fonn  a 
lilnary  had  been  made  by  Louia  XI.  and  his  bucooi- 


IV.  may  be  if^acdsd  as  Uie  tbnndatioa  <rf  the  •■tab' 
lishment  as  it  now  toists.  The  number  of  printed 
mrfnmea  eontained  in  it  ia  estimated  at  nearly 
U00,000t  and  ol  mannaoripM  at  about  ISO/MM. 
Amoa^nt  hbraries  of  the  aeoond  ekw  in  Parii,  the 
Anenal  Idbnuy  with  300^000  Tolnme^  the  Library 
td  Ste  GenevitTe  with  SOI^O0(^  sod  the  MaEarine 
Ubtary  with  160,00(^  are  the  diisf.  Many  exod- 
lent  libraries  are  to  be  found  in  the  pnmnoial  towns 
of  AsDoc^  partionlarly  at  Bonmi,  Bordeaoz,  and 

Italy  is  liidi  In  important  libraries  amongst  which 
that  of  Um  Vatioan  at  Knna  stands  pre.eminent 
ntentmiber  of  printedToIonNB  is  oolyahoat  90(^000 : 
bat  in  the  mannseript  deparbnent  the  nninber 
amonntg  to  oo  less  thau  2Dfi60,  tiw  finest  oolleotion 
in  Uie  wotld.  The  Osnnata  Libnar,  also  at  Rome, 
Is  swd  to  oontain  npwaids  of  120.000  volnme*.  Tbe 
Ambrflsian  library,  at  Milan,  has  a  coUectioD  of 
nearly  140,000  Tolumes ;  and  the  Brera  Lilvary,  c^ 
the  lame  dty,  one  of  abo&t  180,0Da  At  Florence 
TO  fJTkA  the  Lanreotian  Library,  consistijig  almost 


entirdy  of  mannacripta ;  and  the  UagliabechI 
librarr,  with  about  9)0,000  Tolotoes.  AioODgit  the 
other  libraries  of  Italy  worthy  of  notice  are  '' 
fioyal  library  at  Naples,  with  200,000  Tolumea, 
that  of  St  Mark  at  Venioe,  with  120,000,  and  10.000 


The  pnnoipal  libraries  of  Spain  are  the  Bibliotecs 
Taoional      '--■■•>■ 
voltunet, 

been  already  notioei 
Ubniies  of  Portugal, 
be  obtained. 

The  Immrial  Library  at  Vienna,  fonnded  by  the 
Anperor  Ftedaiiok  IIL,  in  the  year  1440^  is  a  noble 
Dolleatio&  of  not  fewer  than  iXIfiOO  volumea;  of 
which  lfi,000  are  of  tha  olais  called  inmnabula,  or 
hooka  printed  befine  the  year  ICOa  The  KotbI 
Lihnry  at  MnniA  owes  its  ongin  to  Albert  v., 
Duke  cd  BaTsiia,  aboot  the  midd£  el  the  16tii  oen- 
tnry.  The  nninber  (rf  volnmas  is  estimated  at 
900,000,  inolndinf;  13,000  inannabnia,  and  SZflOO 
mannamipta.  It  u  wortiiily  lodged  in  the  splendid 
biulding  erected  by  the  late  kiua  LndwigL,  in  the 
Ludwig  Stnoa.  The  Boyal  litowy  at  l>rMden  is 
a  collection  of  abont  SOO.OOO  Tolnmes,  amongst 
which  are  inolnded  aome  of  the  acarcest  apecimena 
^  amoD^  othera  the  Mains  Fsaltar 
rst  book  printed  with  a  date.  The 
foundation  of  the  Boyal  Library  at  Berlin  dates 
from  about  the  year  165a  It  now  extenda  to 
abont  700,000  volumes  of  minted  book«,  uid  15,000 
Tolumes  M  eunoscripta.     Of  the  other  libraries  i£ 


Qermaoy,  it  will  perhaps  be  enough  t 
of  the  univeraity  of  GattiDsen,  with  upwarda  of 
600,000  volumes ;  the  ducal  llWrv  of  Wolfeiibttttd, 
witii  about  270,000 ;  and  the  university  library  at 
Straasburg,  whiiib,  though  fouaded  only  in  1871,  had 
fil3,0OO  books  and  manuacripta  in  1SS2. 
lu  Holland,  the  principal  library  ia  the  Royal 
ibiary  at  the  Huue,  containing  abont  200,000 
inted  rolnme^  of  which  about  1600  are  good 
lens  of  early  printioK  and  4000  manuscripts. 
Boy»l  Library  at  Oopenhagen  waa  founded 
ibe  middle  of  the  16th  eenttuy.    Its  oontenta 


and  OUatan', 
31X000. 

In  Sweden,  the  largest  libnuy  ia  that  of  the 
oniveisity  of  Upsola,  conaiating  of  nearly  200,000 
Tolomes.  One  of  its  chief  tteaeures  ia  the  funons 
manuscript  of  the  Gothio  Qoapels  of  Ulfilos,  com- 
monly known  as  the  Codez  Argenteus.  The  Boyal 
Library  at  Stookbolm  is  next  in  tdze,  numbenng 
ipwards  of  96,000  Tolnmes. 

The  library  of  the  university  of  Chrisl£ania  in 
Korway,  founded  in    ISll,  ooutauns    upwards   of 

)0,000  ToIumsB. 

liia  Imperial  Library  of  St  Petersburg  waa 
founded  about  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century. 
In  the  year  1795,  it  waa  largely  increased  by  the 
addition  of  the  Zaluaki  Library  of  Warsaw,  which 
was  seized  and  carried  off  to  St  Petereburg  by 
Suworoff.  At  present,  the  total  number  of  volumes 
'   estimated  at  900,000,  and  abont  35,000  manuscripts. 

In  the  United  States  of  America,  though  there 

'e  no  libraries  equalling  those  of  the  drat  rank  in 
Europe,  there  are  Btill  not  a  few  of  considerable 
magnitude  and  value.  The  oldeat  and  one  of  the 
largest  among  them  is  that  of  Harvard  College, 
Cambridge,  Masaachusetts,  which  has  been  in  exist- 
ence for  more  than  240  years,  and  contains  abont 
,000  volumes.  Libraries  ore  also  attached  to  the 
other  collegiati!  institutions  of  tbe  couaby.  Hie 
Astor  Library,  New  York,  named  ajtet  its  libera] 
founder,  was  □i>ened  in  1354  with  a  collection  of 


.Google 


IIBBABQS  A0X3-LIOHENIH. 


about  80,000  Tolumea,  smce  iiicre4ied  to  npw&nli 
190,000.  It  u  in  the  fulleat  aeaae  k  free  pnblin 
lifaraiy.  The  Library  of  Congress,  the  onlj  librwy 
■npporbed  by  government^  to  which  >  copy  of  every 
oopyrigbt  book  most  be  sent,  is  natnrBlly  tbe  Iftrgest 
in  the  States,  Qombeiine  about  400,000  volnmee 
and  130^000  iiamphlets.  The  Smitbtoaifta  Institn- 
tioB  at  WaahingtOD  embnuwa  in  it«  plan  the  forma- 
tion of  an  SEtaniiTS  lilnary,  Bnt  littk  progress  hu 
been  made  in  oanying  ont  this  part  of  the  scheme. 
The  proprietary  libraries  are  nDmeroni,  and  several 
of  them  are  of  coniiderable  extent :  that  of  Phila- 
delphia, in  the  fonndation  of  wHiui  Ftanklin  was 
largely  concerned,  niunbers  npwards  of  120,000 
TOlnmea;  and  that  of  the  Boston  AthenUDm, 
fonnded  in  1806,  has  123,00a  The  Boston  Public 
Libraty  i*  the  second  laraeet,  and  perhap*  the  most 
widely  asefnl  Ubiwy  in  tne  States ;  it  now  nombert 
360,000   volomea.      The    New    York    Mercantile 


TVonsaelHnM  and  Proeeedingt   of    the 
Idbmy  Auociatuat  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
its  Monthly  If  eta. 
LIBBARIES  ACTS.  Though  there  is  no  «yat«- 

mattc  provision  of  libraries  for  public  uie,  at  the 
enwnse  of  the  state,  except  the  British  Moseom 
Library  in  London,  an  attempt  has  been  made  by 
the  leaslatore  of  late  yean  to  empower  distriots  to 
eltaUuh  libraries,  and  to  tax  tbe  inbaUtants  for 
that  purpose.  The  first  act,  pa»ed  for  Buj' 
in  1850,  has  since  been  auppfemented,  amei  .  .  , 
and  extended  to  Ireland  and  Scotland  by  the  aote 
of  1865,  1866,  1871,  and  1877.  It  is  applicable  to 
any  burgh,  district,  or  parish,  whatever  the  an 
of  the  popolatiOQ ;  a  meetiug  of  the  ratepayers  may 
be  obtained  by  the  requisition  of  ten  of  their  numb^ 
addressed  to'  the  town-council,  or  other  local  board, 
and  the  adoption  of  the  aot  is  decided  by  a  simple 
majority  of  those  present  at  the  meeting.  Tbe  rate 
to  De  levied  io  all  inch  cases  is  not  to  exceed  Id. 
in  the  pound.  All  such  libraries  are  to  be  open  to 
the  publio,  free  of  all  charge;  Up  to  1871  only  36 
free  libraries  had  been  opened ;  but  by  1883  they 
numbered  113,  with  a  total  of  2,345,000  volumes. 
See  J.  D.  Mnllins'  Free  Libraria  cmd  Neunnxmu 
(3d  ed.  1879). 

LIBRARIES,  MiUTAJBT,  are  either  garrison  or 
regimentaL     The  former  oomprise  large  oollectioii* 


from  the  gin-shops  ant 

ever  prevalent  in  ganisOD  towns.  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  provide  tbe  soldiers  with  books,  both 
for  instruction  and  amusement ;  but  statistios  prove 
that  tbe  meo  patronise  few  besides  Octioa  and 
Uaveb.  Begimental  libraries  are  smaller  collection* 
of  booka,  wbidi  accompany  rc^imenla  ia  theii 
various  morements.  The  charge  for  military 
libraries  in  the  British  aimy  ia  over  £4000  per 


Eindng  or  oscillating  motion),  aterm  applied 
n  phenomena  of  the  moon  s  motion.  The 
mooaa  ubrations  (or,  more  properly,  apparent  Wbr^ 
tkau)  are  of  three  kinds— Hbratioo  in  longitude,  in 
latitnde,  and  the  diurnal  libration.  If  the  moon's 
rotation  in  her  orbit  were  uniform,  as  her  rotation 
on  ber  axis  is,  we  should  always  see  exacUy  the 
same  portion  of  her  sorfaoe,  but  as  this  is  not  the 
case,  there  are  two  small  strips  of  sorfaoe  runnios 
from  pole  to  pole,  on  the  east  and  west  ddes,  whi<m 
become  alternately  visible ;  thia  is  called  the  moon's 
langUvdimd  l3>raAin.  The  Ubration  in  latitude 
arises  from  the  moon's  axis  not  being  perpendicular 
to  her  orbit,  in  onuequtmce  of  which,  a  portico  of 


her  sorfaoe  round  tbe  north  pole  is  visible  during  c«u 
half,  and  a  correniondlna  portion  round  the  south 
pole  during  the  otber  baS  of  her  rerolntion  in  her 
orbit  "Se  dittmal  lOtration  hardly  deserves  tho 
name,  and  is  simply  a  oonseqnenoe  of  the  observer'* 
position  on  the  surfaoe  of  tbe  earth,  and  not  at  the 
centre :  it  consists  in  the  gtadnal  disappeannce  of 
certain  points  on  one  edge  of  the  uumd'*  disk  aa 
she  approaches  ber  culmination,  and  the  aweataitoe 
of  new  paints  on  ber  opposite  border  as  she  oeacend^ 
The  Erst  and  third  ot  these  librationi  wars  dis- 
covered by  Galileo,  and  tbe  seoood  by  Hevelius. 

LI'BT  A,  the  name  ^ven  bv  the  oldest  geograpben 
to  Africa.  In  Homer  and  Heaiod,  it  denoted  the 
whole  of  this  quarter  of  the  globe,  except  Egypt;  in 
Herodotus,  occamonally,  the  aitue  oontinent;  but 
it  i*  dio  ^)pUed  by  otiun  in  a  mon  restricted 
sense,  to  tiia  norQiem  part  of  the  coaub7,  from 
I^ypt  and  the  Arabiaa  Quit  westward  to  Mount 
Mlaa.  "na  mtM.t  sandy  Izaot  of  which  the  Sahara 
forms  the  pnncipal  put,  was  called  the  Libyan 
Desert  To  what  extent  it  w>*  known  to  the 
ancients  is  not  very  clearly  aacertained.  See  Amo*. 

LIOBNOK  See  Qua,  PosuQ-Honan,  Mix- 
ituaa,  AuxH. 

LICB^TIATB  (from  Lat  lUet,  it  ia  lawful), 
one  of  tbe  four  ancient  university  degrees.  It  is  no 
longer  in  use  in  England,  except  at  Cambridgt^ 
which  oonfeiB  tbe  degree  of  licentiate  of  medicine. 
la  France  and  Qermany,  however,  where  it  i> 
more  general,  a  licentiate  is  a  person  who,  having 
undergone  the  prescribed  examination,  has  reoeiTed 
permission  to  deliver  lectures.  The  degree,  as  an 
honour,  is  intermediate  betwemi  Baehdor  of  ArU 
utA,  Doctor. 

LIOBNTIATB,  among  Presbyteiiana,  is  a  per- 
son autiicrised  by  a  presbytery  or  nmilar  body  to 
preach,  and  who  thus  peoomes  eligible  to  a  pastoral 

LI'CHEN,  a  papular  disrinsn  of  the  akin.  Thtn 
are  two  speciea,  viz.,  L.  mmplec  and  L.  agriiu,  the 
latter  of  which  may  be  r^arded  aa  a  very  aggravated 
form  oF  tbe  former.  L.  timjilec  conmats  in  an  erup- 
tion of  minate  papnls  of  a  red  edour,  which  nevee 
oontun  a  fluid,  and  are  distributed  irrcgnlariy  over 
tbe  body.  Tbey  appear  fii*t  on  the  faae  and  arm*, 
then  extend  to  the  trunk  and  lower  exbemities,  and 
are  accompanied  with  a  sense  of  beat,  itching,  and 
tingling.  In  a  mild  case,  the  disease  is  over  in  a 
we^  but  aometiinea  one  crop  of  papain  succeed* 
another  for  many  weeks  or  montha.  In  L.  agritu, 
the  papulte  are  more  pdnted  at  tiie  summit,  and  are 
of  a  brif^t-red  colour,  with  more  or  lea*  redneis 
extending  round  them.  In  this  form  of  the  iti>f  *n. 
the  general  health  i*  nmaUy  affected,  in  eonte- 
quenoe  of  loss  of  sleep  and  Densral  iiritatioik 

It  is  often  hardtoaay  what  ia  the  oanse  of  lidien. 
The  (imidw  f<aiD  is  often  depcndcsit  in  ohildMn  cm 
intestinal  iiritation,  while  in  other  cases  it  may 
frequently  be  traced  to  exposure  to  hsat,  or  mroisM 
diet  The  aevere  form  i*  also  oocasianed  by  exIraiM 
heat  and  by  the  abuse  of  apiritiiau*  drink*. 

In  ordiiiuy  cases,  an  antiphlogi*tie  diet,  a  few 

EtIe  aperimti,  and  twuor  three  tepid  batb*.  are  all 
tisrequired.  When  the  disease  aasome*  a  chmuie 
character,  a  tonio  teeatanent  (baik  and  the  Bunatal 
Boids)  is  neoissaiy;  and  in  very  obstinate  esis^ 
small  doses  (three  to  five  nuninw,  well  dilntsd)  it 
Fowler's  Arsenical   Solution   nu^  be  given  with 


LICHENIN  is  a  starch-like  body,  found  in 
Iceland  moss  and  other  lichens,  frrnn  whioh  it 
is  exbacted  by  digesting  the  moss  in  a  cold,  weak 
solution  of  carbonate  A  soda  for  some  time,  and 


uoMBNs— usmo. 


Umb  bciliiig.  By  thii  pt'ocw,  tJie  ''"^n^W  it 
diMolved,  and  on  ooolini^  Moumtoi  ■■  a  coloorleM 
}«Ut-    Aoocuding  to  Oornp-BemiBi  (IuMvA  dtr 

oryoMMAai  OAMtl«;  1860,  -     ' 

■WBiMi  •  bhi^  and  Mm 
when  tiMt«d  Witt  iodin& 
U  with  ndinar 


LICHENS,  ft  n&tonl   older   of   uoMedono 
plaiits,  sDied  to  Fongi  aad  to  Algn.      They  ■ 


and  oonriihed  throtuh  their  wlude  nuiaoe  W 

medium  in  wUah  way  lire,  which  is  tut,  and  not 
watw,  aMiongh  -  — '-   '    ' 


donnant,  ready  to  i 


•ome  ii  potvenilent ;  that  (rf  othen , 

of  othen,  baf-like ;  of  othan,  flbrona.  B«iirodao- 
tioD  takea  pboe  by  Bpom,  iinullj[  contained  in  ue« 
ttuei,  Ata^,  emliodiod  in  Tepo«itori«fl  of  Tarioni 
fonn,  often  ihield-like  or  di*c-like,  called  <ipoJueia 
(or  shields},  irtdoh  ariae  from  tlie  outer  la^  of  the 
thallaa,  and  are  gmwrally  very  different  in  colour 
from  the  thalliu.  Snt  there  ia  al«o  another  mode  of 
popaeatioD  by  gonidla,  aepamted  oella  of  the  inner 
or  mednllaiy  layer  of  the  thaUna,  ninally  n^etioal  or 
nearly  lo,  and  always  of  a  green  oolonr.  Tltit  aeeoM 
to  be  a  proviaioti  for  the  piopagation  of  L,  even  in 
oiioiunatancoa — ■•  of  the  aMenoe  of  light— onfaTonr- 
aUa  to  the  formation  c£  theon  and  iporM.  L.  are 
^anti  of  1^  life,  differing  in  thil  vwy  widely 
DomfimgL  ^niey  are  moat  widely  diffoaed,  growing 
equally  in  the  wmimeet  and  the  ooldeet  regioni.  On 
tbe  atmoat  limita  of  Twetation,  in  rery  nigh  lati- 
tndee,  or  on  the  Teiy  higheet  monntuni,  they  cover 
the  loil  in  great  mmiini  Some  grow  on  earth, 
othen  on  atraiea,  othen  on  IJie  ban  of  treee,  and 
some  of  the  trofooil  apeciea  on  evergteeu  leaveo. 
h  the  gre*t  economy  ot  natote,  they  eerva  for  the 
firit  commencement  of  vegetation,  eapecially  to 
nmiare  ttu  aoil  for  pUnta  of  Ughei'  oreMiiaation. 
The  gray,  yellow,  and  Mown  abuus  on  old  walla  are 
prodncea  by  minnte  L,  which  have  btgmi  to  vege- 
tate wh««  nothing  elae  oonkL  Hie  cnrionaly  scat- 
tered i4>otheoi*  of  acme  preacnt  the  (q^Manume  of 
written  ohaiaotera  often  aeen  on  the  ban  of  trees. 
Some  hang  aa  tnfta  or  iliaggy  bearda  from  old  treee, 
Bome  STOW  amidst  beatha  and  raoawe  to  oover  the 
•oil  oithe  moat  frigid  i^iona.  L.  contain  a  peonliar 
eelatanoni  anbatAnoe  resembling  itarcli,  and  callod 
Licienbt  OF  JAAet  StanA;  gmerally  tiao  a  bitter 
aabatance  caUed  Cetrarine;  reein;  a  red,  brigJit 
yellow,  or  biown  colouring  matter ;  oxalate  and 
phoaphate  of  lime,  Ac  ;  and  are  therefore  adapted 
to  pnrpoaep  of  domeatia  economy,  medicine,  and 
the  arta  Some  are  used  for  food,  as  Iceland  Moia 
(q.  T.)  and  Tripe  de  Roche  (q.T.) ;  lome  afford  food 
for  oattle,  aa  Kondeei  Moai  (q.  v.);  aome  are 
medicinal,  at  Iceland  Mass ;  aome  afford  dya-atnfEi, 
aa  Archil  (q.  v.),  Cudbear  (q.  v.),  &o. 

LrOHFIELD,  an  ancient  e^nMopal  oi^  of  Staf- 
fordahire,  England,  a  mnnicipal  (and  till  1885  a 
pariiamantwv)  boreogh,  it  aitaatod  17  miles  aontb- 
eaat  of  9taffOTd,  and  US  north-weat  of  London. 
Ita  ohiaf  edifice  ia  the  cathedral,  part  of  wbioh  ia 
in  the  Bariy  Enslith  style.  It  baa  three  towen, 
each  (Qimonntea  by  a  s^nre,  and  ia  profnae  and 
elabcrato  in  ita  ornamentatioa.  The  Free  Grammar- 
aohool,  m  whid)  Addison,  Aahmole,  Johnson,  and 
Oairiok  were  edncated,  haa  an  income  of  about  £100 
a  year,  and  haa  nine  ezhifaitioni,  tenable  for  three 
yaan.  Conaider»Ua  bnwing  ia  cairied  on.  Fop. 
(1881)8860. 


LIOINnTB,  a  Boman  emperor.    See  ComuK- 

LICTOBS'facoording  to  Aalna  Gellina,  from 
Kgart,  to  bind,  because  Uie  lioton  had  to  bind  the 
hands  and  feet  of  criminals  before  punishing  them) 
were,  among  the  Bomans,  the  official  attendanta 
of  masistratea  of  the  highest  rank.  They  carried 
the  ratna  (q.  v.)  before  the  magistnitee,  olearing 
the  way,  and  enforcing  tba  use  of  the  appropriate 
marks  of  respect  It  whs  their  duty  to  execute  the 
pomahments  ordered  by  the  roaeistretes,  such  as 
•oonrging  with  rods,  and  behea£ng.  Iliey  were 
originally  free  men  of  the  plebeian  order,  ud  not 
tUl  the  tmu  ot  Tacitus  oonld  the  office  be  held  1^ 
fmndmrm      Slaves  were  never  appointed  lioton. 

LIE,  in  point  of  Iaw,  ia  not  a  Dround  of  acljrai, 
nnleaa  in  peonliar  oiroumatanoea.  iL,  for  aiamides  it 
ia  mateiisl,  and  ia  uttered  by  a  witness  or  depanat, 
it  ia  the  criminal  offenoe  of  perjury,  SometinMai 
also,  if  a  person,  knowing  that  another  will  aot  npoB 
his  information,  tell  a  lie,  and  whioh  is  believed  to 
be  tme,  and  aoted  on,  and  damue  follows,  the  partr 
telling  the  lie  may  be  sued  for  the  damsgea.  But  in 
other  oaaea,  Ijing  per  m  ia  not  pnniah^le  by  law, 

LiBBia,  Jmrnt,  Buuni  vos,  one  of  the  greateat 
ohemistB  of  tba  nineteenth  a.  was  bom  at  Daraiatadt, 
12^  May  1803.  He eaiiy  shewed  a strongpredileo- 
ticm  for  natunl  sdeoce.  He  studied  at  Bonn  and 
Erlaneen,  and  afterwaida  in  Fans,  when  be  attracted 
the  attenidon  of  Alexander  von  Hnniboldt  by  a  paper 
on  Fnhninia  Acid.  This  led  to  bis  appointment  in 
1824,  as  Eitnordinary  Prefeasor,  and  in  1826,  aa 
Ordinary  Kofeasor  of  Chemistiy  at  Oieaaen,  iriien 


a  centre  of  attraction  to  atndiBitB  of  chemiatiy  from 
all  porta  ot  Germany  and  from  foreigii  oonntriea. 
Many  houoon  were  oonterred  on  him.  The  Duke  ot 
Heaae  raised  him  to  the  nnk  of  baron.  In  1862,  he 
accepted  a  profeaaonhip  in  the  oniveraty  of  Munich, 
and  the  charge  of  the  chemical  labontoty  there ; 
and  in  1860  was  appointed  president  of  the  Munich 
Academy  of  Sciences,  as  the  sncoeasor  of  ThieracL 

L.  laboured  with  sacceea  in  all  d^Mtfiments  of 
chemistiT,  but  particularly  in  organio  chemistry. 
in  whiui  he  made  many  discovenea,  and  did 
much  to  improve  the  methods  of  analyais.  Be 
investigated  with  great  care  the  relations  of 
organic  chemistry  to  phvsiology,  pathology,  agricul- 
ture, Ac;  and  alUiougti  many  ot  his  views  have 
been  combated,  and  several  were  abandoned  by 
the  author  himself,  it  is.  nevertbeleae,  univeraallv 
admitted  that  his  researches  have  greatly  advanoed 
the  science  of  agrionltnre  in  particular.  Many  A 
his  papen  are  contained  in  the  Annaha  do-  Cnmim 
utuf  rhannaae.  He  published  the  WUrtei^mA  ier 
OhemU  (Brunsw.  1837 — 18S1)  in  oonjunction  with 
Fo^ondorf,  and  also  a  Supplement  to  this  wio'k 
(1^0— 18C2),  but  the_  discovenea  of  mora  reoent 
yean  are  ^hibited  in  the  later  TDlume&  He 
wrote  the  part  relative  to  O^anio  Chemisby  in  Um 
new  editiint  of  Geiger'a  Hamdbaeh  Aer  PharmtteU 
(Heiddb,  1839),  pnbliabed  aftentarda  u  Die  Or- 
gaiiMife  dumie  ia  Hirer  Amemdmig  auf  PhgUotogU 
wid  PatMogie,  which  waa  tnmslated  into  Ftanch 
and  English  |l842).  His  work  on  Oroatiie  Chemittry 
in  ita  AppUtatiim  to  Agriaiiturt  ^runsw.  1840; 
English  translation  by  Dr  Lyoa  Flayfafr,  1640; 
and  French  ttanslatba  by  Oeriiordt,  1840),  and  hia 
Chaniad  LtOen  (Paris,  18C2),  all  of  which  have 
gone  throngh  numerous  editions,  and  have  been 
&aiialated  mto  different  languagea,  are  among  the 
valuable  oontributious  to  ohamoal  literature 
I  in  our  oga    He  died  April  18|  1878, 


^-c;ooyic 


XT- 


LieoBTSttBffitt-LttitmEKAM'. 


.    )  iuclApendail 

ity,  thfl  unidleet  in  the  former  Germtui 

tbn,  hu  tm  uea  of  oalyfiOunuenuleiLwiUiApop. 
oHlSSOjnSi.  L.  ii  ft  nunmtainonTdMWct,  1^ 
on  tha  trpper  Bliine,  betweeo  Switieriuid  and  tiie 
Tyrol,  the  latter  bounding  it  to  tike  N.  and  R,  while 
Hie  Bhine  fornu  ito  westeni,  and  tiie  eanton  of  the 
Giuona  ita  Muthem  bm    ' 

the  diitrioti  of  Tadntz . 

principal  town  is  UecAteiutein  (pop.  100^,  foimerijr 
known  ■«  Yadati.  The  ra^xiaotB  are  wheat,  flu, 
and  good  winea  and  fruit.  ConaideMble  nnmben 
of  cactle  are  raised.  L.,  .with  seTeral  other  "miLiI 
■tatei,  farmed  the  ISth  me^MT  of  Uie  Qeiman  Con- 
federation, but  in  the  Plamm,  or  fnll  Oonnoil  of  the 
Diet,  it  bad  a  separate  Tote.  It  fnmiahed  a  con- 
tJnnnt  of  70  ma  to  tbe  federal  anny.  Tb«  Prince 
of  II,  whoM  faunily  U  (me  of  the  mo«t  ancient  and 
Ulaitrions  of  Oeotral  Europe,  poeaeHea  extMudra 
mediatiaed  prindpalitiea  in  Anatria,  Fnuda,  and 
9azoDr,  whvA  together  extend  ow  nearly  r~" 
atjuare  milea,  iritit a  pop^  otmon  1ban6M^000, 
Tiekl  th^  proprietor  an  aumial  rerenne  of  1,400,000 
florini.  Hm  garemment  ^  L.  is  adinini(tei«d  by 
the  aid  of  a  ohamber  of  repreaentatiTai^  who  meet 
annually  to  hold  a  diet,  bnt  irtioaa  acta  an  under  the 
oontiol  of  a  Counoil  of  State,  whiiAi  luia  Urn  aeat  at 
Vienna,  where  tbe  prinoa  nanally  leaideB.  The 
revenne ofUa  6O,0M  to  aVWOBoriDa.  Now. it 
ia  not  formally  muted  with  the  Oennan  Eknjare, 
bntj. "      "    ■'     "    ■  ■        -    ■     ■  - 


LIBTOB  (ao  called  In  ITrench,  bnt  b 
LiiKidt,  and  by  the  P^emingi  Ittit/f)  is  the  most 
easterly  province  of  Belginin.  Area,  1100  aqnare 
milee ;  pop^  (1881)  ff!2,WI.  The  eonthem  part  of 
the  prorince  ia  UUy,  rocky,  heathy,  and  muoh 
oovered  with  wood,  in  Bome  pUcee  yioldiM,  how- 
ever, great  qnantitiea  of  ooal  and  iron ;  bnt  the 
[lart  railed  ttie  Servtland  (north  of  t'     ~  ~ 

■  ordinaril;'  '  '''  '  —  "...-. 
also  splendid 
the  Weeze  is  i 
divBrsity  of  i 
Chapelle  t«  L.,  which  pasaa  throngb  tbie  valley, 
has  had  InunenBa  difflcnltiee  to  overcome  in  the 
natnra  of  the  ground,  and  ia  conaeqnently  re^alded 
as  a  di^-iTaitvre  of  the  kind.  Neariy  a  sixth  of 
the  whole  road  had  to  be  artifidaUy  oonstmoted. 
The  inhabitants  are  Walloons. 

IiIB'GE,  capital  of  the  piovinoe  of  ihe  aanw  name, 
is  sitnated  on  the  Menaa,  immediately  below  its  oon- 
Snenoe  with  the  Ourtike,  in  a  magni&Mot  plain.  A 
hill  riaea  oa  och  side  of  the  oity,  one  of  which  is 
occa^iid  by  the  dtadeL  The  rivar,  whioh  dividea  L 
into  two  porta,  the  old  and  tha  new  town,  ia  croaaed 
I^17bridi^  L.  is  taid  to  be  tlw  nwat  piotnrsaqne 
mty  in  Be^nm.  Many  of  the  pnbUo  bnikUnai  are 
Sne^  especially  the  ohorohea,  of  wbicii  the  principal 
are  the  Chnroh  of  St  Jamn  Ifeanded  1014,  finished 
1S38),  the  cathedral  (finished  1557),  the  Chnroh  at 
St  Martin's,  the  Chnroh  of  the  Holy  Crosa  (ooaae- 
orated  07S),  and  8t  Bartbelemy  (whidk  haa  S  navaa)- 
The  Palace  cl  Jnatioa,  with  ita  paintings  tu>d  00 
rooma— formeriy  the  reaidenoe  of  the  epiac^al 
prinoM  of  L. — and  the  TJnivainty,  noted  for  ita 
miuing-sahool,  alao  deserve  mention.  The  general 
interior  of  the  city,  however,  is  by  no  means  pleasant ; 
eveiything  is  blajikened  by  the  smoke  of  the  coal- 
pits, whicli  have  been  worked  for  300  years;  the 
streets  are  narrow,  the  konseB  high,  badly  airei^  and 
uncleanly.  The  mann&cture  of  arms  is  tiie  great 
staple  of  industry.  Everywhere  the  hammer  is  heard; 
ooontlcea  forges  flaah  oat  their  sndden  sparks,  and 
whole  streets  ate  red  with  the  rofleotion  of  flree. 


7  beantff at,  and  exhibits  ai 


All  kinds  of 

bo■tl^&o.,  are  made  hen  toi  Germany,  btbie: 
diate  nsi^ibonriiood  ara  important  idna-fonndriaa, 
L.  ia  Muutectad  by  nulwaya  with  BroaaelL  Antwera, 
Namiir,fto.    Pop.  (18811  lS6,23S. 

Lbeotiaethe  seat  of  a  bubopin  thaSbcMd 

continiMd  to  be  M  till  ITM;  and  its  biAopa  wsn 

reckoned  among  the  (oinaea  of  the  German  enqoie: 

Imt  aa  it  eariy  aomiited  eondderabls  magnttnde  and 

importance,  tta  inbabitanta  maintained  a  atm^le 

for  their  own  independence  agunst  thmr  Uahopi^ 

in  which    freqnant  appeals  were  made  to   amuL 

""^ttriag  the  wan  of  Lbnia  XIV.,  it  w»a  Bcraral 

mea  biken  and  retaken. 

liIEGE  POUSTIE.    See  BuTH-BSU 

LIE'GlflT^  a  town  of  Pruani,  in  tha 

mant  ti  Silasia,  at  the  oonflnance  of  Um  8 

w*Ba«  and  the  EatabMh,  40  milea  weat-ntoti^ 
weat  of  Brealaa.  It  haa  nnmercoa  edoMtional  and 
bssiavolant  inatatnliona,  art-oalleatHO%  and  indm^ 
ifiai  mnaenma*  fJ*^i*.  leather  and  tobacco  an 
laigaty  manu&ctatad,  and  TcgelaUea  an  estssk* 
sively  colliTated  in  tbe  gardena  cf  t£e  mbntfaa, 
Hub  town  waa,  from  1164  lo  1675,  be  rendenee  «< 
the  Dukea  of  Iiegnit&  Here,  in  1313,  BlUchai 
defeated  tbe  FtenehT  Poo.  (ISBO)  37,157,  of  vhca 
bont  one-fifth  an  Cathdice. 
UBK,  in  English  and  Irish  Law.maaoa  the  aecnri^ 
r  hold  over  gooda  or  land  for  a  debt  which  ia  dnfc 
A  right  of  lien  is  Uie  right  to  retain  modi  of  a  third 
party  which  are  in  the  creditor'a  bMula,  until  a  deU 
doe  by  BD^  I»r^  to  the  creditor  is  p«id.    Posaw 


»geue 

papers  and  title-deeda  till  tha  amount  of  hia  bill  d 
coataispaid.  So  havebankers,  dyers,  oalioo-ndntcz^ 
factota.  A  perticnlar  lien  ia  a  hen  over  goods,  for  a 
debt  ocnbaoted  in  reapeot  <rf  sooh  gooda,  aa  for  tha 
-rice  d  them,  or  soma  labonr  ax|Maded  en  tJum. 
Iiiia,  a  miliar  has  a  ben  on  the  floor  be  haa  ground, 
bunet  on  the  borse  he  has  bained,  kc  T&ie  are 
lao  "*"*■""■  liena  and  equitable  lisn%  which  d* 

not  require  i ssiiiii  to  oonstitate  tha  righ^    In 

Scotland,  lien  is  gencMlly  called  vthar  Betentian 
—  HypoUieo  (see  ommaa), 

LItnUtE,  a  town  of  Belgmm,  in  tbe  ptwrioea  ol 
Antwerp,  10  mila  aonth-east  ef  the  m^  of  Oat 
name,  at  the  DOBflaaBoa  of  tite  Great  and  littU 
Hatha.  L.  haa  noted  btawariaa ;  extsaire  mann* 
boturea  of  lincai,  silk,  lac*^  aod  masioal  instomnmta 
an  carried  <ai,  and  there  are  seveial  ■ogae-rrfncBka 


andoa-mills.    Pop.  (1876)  lS,10a 

LIEUTE-NANT  (Fr.  from  Lai  Jomm-kmrnt, 
bolding  the  place  of  another);  a  tcnn  applied  to  a 
— '--^  of  omoes  of  a  re^oeeantative  kmd.  TliiM, 
iutaiy  mattera,  a  liBuiatatil-gaiaiU  penunataa 
each  diviaion  of  an  army  tbe  generiil-in-duat 
A  lAadatani-cohnd  (q.  v.)  eommauda  a  battalion 
for  a  colonel,  in  the  lattei'a  abeenctb  But  tbe  title 
lieutenant,  withost  gnaliflowtiwi,  deaotea  tbe  aaeond 
officer  and  d^«^,  or  looom-tenen^  of  the  captain 
-gbosmpM^ot  ckvaW  or  infantry.  Aliratsik- 
n  the  nrioah  Foot  Goarda  ranks  as  irsptain  in 
tha  army,  Mtd  exdutngea  with  a  captain  in  another 
legiment.— CbpCain-JtCKioiant,  an  obaolete  rank,  was 
the  subaltern  who  oommaaded  the '  colond'a  oom- 
pauy '  in  each  regiment. — A  aecond-Ueulataiii  is  tbe 
jomor  subaltern  ol  a  company,  and  corresponds  to 
what  formerly  was  ao  Snsign  (a.  v.).  Hie  pay  of  a 
lieutenant  vaiiea  from  lOa  4a.  a  day  in  the  lifa 
Guards  to  Gr.  6d:  in  tbe  linch 
In  the  British  navy,  Ilentenant  is  a  misnomer 
the  case  of  the  officer  bearing  that  titlaL     Hit 


L'ln  II 


iiGoo^lc 


tiUcUtlSVAHT— Ufffi. 


fiiillMW  In  dl  rHpMil*  cowwiuoBd  to  Hmm  oI  • 
omUttiBllieHiiir,  witJtirhamiie  nnlu^  and  itltk 
lAon  he  alM  imcht  mato}u>  ta  reMKl  to  Mf.  A 
B«atenMinifBOii^lilO«.kd«r;  nmI  Ui  teU-pqr 
nngat,  MWonUng  to  loiglh  of  MCtioait  (Mn  4i;t« 
7«.»dar.  Ks  jram*  MrrlM  afloat  are  nqidRit*  to 
qoalifr  an  ofllotr  tar  tli«  lank  of  Bcntanaut,  tad  the 
wodldat*  ha«  alw  to  pMM  a  aatirfaotorjr  anadnrtlii 


il  ptofawtoBi 


^ „ d  kooiriadgB. 

Afl  leaden  In  all  ndnor  — ^— ■ —  — ■-  —  ^--- 

•ipeditaoiia,eitttiiu'Ont,A_., 

unj- oft  moat  of  fin  latmb  awvded  to  aotian*  of 
rittgnlaf  peiaoul  d«iii(^ 

LXJfUTiUIAVT,  I^BS-,  01  ^  OouKTT,  a  par- 
giaiwot  pTDTinoial  pmruor  uppmiAai  by  tbe  ioto- 
raign  bf  patent  vnoer  the  ^sat  uaL  xb*  offioa  in 
EclglaBd  arcN  from  tlie  owaumal  wmmiuioDa  of 
artay  iMoed  if  tbe  coomi  in  luaea  at  dangar  oi 
diitmliaace,  Mqniiing  azparitnoed  pmonato  mnitti 
ihs  inhaHtmta  of  tke  oountiee  to  wludk  ibe  oamrnia- 
Bonan  wve  aeot,  and  att  tbem  in  miliUij  oidar. 
the  li^t  d  the  snnra  to  bne  nwh  oommiuioiia 
mi  dn^ed  b^  the  Long  PatUanent,  tfaia  qMstion 
iRoving  the  immftdiatt  oaoaa  of  the  tceach  Mtwawt 
Chailea  L  and  Ida  anbjeota.  Thar  hgii&y  in* 
estaUiahad  at  the  Baatomirai  W  a  dtcwratory  act. 
At  pMaenb  tlis  main  funotion  oi  tba  JcoJ-lientanant 
IB  to  racommend  qualified  penou  Ua  the  <n£o«  of 
jDitioeof  peue,luBiDi]itiB  joriadiotiou  tiavipgbeea 
takoi  from  hiin,  and  reveated  in  Ote  Crown,  in  187L 
The  hiaton'  of  the  office  seema  to  have  bean  nma- 
vbat  timibr  in  Scotland.  In  Act  1438,  e.  3,  the 
'lieutenant'  ia  oonunatided  to  'raiaa  tile  ooaaty' 
whensTer  it  may  be  neetsiary  to  bring  the  leb^ 
hona  and  lurnlf  poaaoaiora  tA  oiatlea  and  fortaUea* 
into  anbieetion  i  and  though  hii  poweni  wwe  oceeB' 
tiva  raUkv  than  jndieiaf  ha  seenu  aomeUmaa  to 
hare  had  antbority  to  exardee  the  functions  oE  the 
sheriff,  crovecroleluBdedaiona.  Xiielind-lieataiian^ 
peer,  c«  other  )a)^  laiidowiMr,aa  a 
(Wo«  BoOtionmt  (q.  *,),  Ha  ia  at 
mt^iatM  ■  ■    ■*      ■  ■  • 

_    fenniiu  1  . 

mnnieation  b^wean  t£a  goventnent  and 

tracy,  and  oonsidered  as  naponrible  in  t^ira^f 
eltMrge&oy  for  Um  pregerration  of  pdUio  traaqoiDit?. 
Under  hun,  and  of  hta  appointing^  aea  parmaani 


who  ia  MoaUy  a  peer,  c«  otlier  Iwge  landoi 
rule  ia  alao  Uia  Oiutoi  BoOtionmt  (q.  *,),        .      _ 
Urn  liead  cd  the  mt^iatMtcj,  and  ia  ue  idiief  exeetv- 
tire  authority,  fenniiu  tlte 


depaty-lieatenanta. 

LIEnTEITAKT,  Lomv,  of  Ikelaitd,  the  viceroy 
ot  deputy  of  the  aovereim  to  vbom  the  govenmuoC 
of  Ireland  ia  oommitted.  The  office  baa  eiiited 
from  a  lemote  period,  the  appointment  having  been 
made  nnder  diflBreat  des^ifltloaa:  Hll  powara 
were  in  eufr  tinea  rwy  «tlwmirt,  aliMat  npL 
For  the  last  naif  centtuy  following  tiie  nerolntina, 
the  lotd-lieatentuit  nahM  Uttb  la  Ireland,  yisitmg 
it  only  once  in  two  years,  to  hold  the  aeamon  oi 
nadl^ient.  8tBa  loida-lienilM*  navw  WMt  to 
Ireland  at  aO,  and  octaawnally,  iaitmd  cf  •  naann, 
Ierda-}aati«M  (aea  Jvaaoa,  ljOta»)  were  mointear 

Iha  ioid4i*«t*MMt  ia  appeinted  aader  the  gnat 
aaaloltfaa  Dinted  EiiwdMn,  and  bears  ttie  swrniof 
atate  aa  the  symbol  of  hia  Tioereeiri  idSca.  He  baa 
tha  aaaiatanee  oi  a  psivy^oonneil  of  OS  memben. 


B  of  Ireland,  and  to  a 


is  hiiparthtUy  admlnwterad.  He  haa  the  aoi^Hd  of 
tba  poboa,  sad  kocj  inoa  <sdeia  to  the  mera) 
ODMandinc  the  toon*  for  the  sBnxwt  of  the  civil 
■alben^.the  proteetnn  of  the  inMk,  the  defnoe 


wHBtiT'  ^^*  B>*ntfau  of  iMiney,  and  lands,  and 
psndoM,  «<  aU  ttUet  of  iMnou  exo^  rimple  knight' 
hood,  Oe  afipobtnent  ot  priry-eonnalUet^  J™8*<^ 
Lnr-oOeen,  and  gcmrooni  of  fott^  and  Iha  appoutt' 


dation.   NooompUntoHnlw 

tloe  or  opppgaaiim  In  Irtiand  wU  be  raliiitainnif  bj 
tike  tanM^  until  flnt  made  to  the  brdJleDtananL 
who  is  in  no  ease  raqnlred  to  «Mmta  the  rojal 
instniotdons  in  a  matter  of  whlidi  he  may  diaapprove 
until  he  can  ooisnniniaate  with  tha  soraeign  and 
reoeiTe  tnttber  ordeta.  TM,  notwittiatawding  tbi 
dlgnltr  nd  reapoDiiUUtr  of  hia  offlaa,  tha  krf  Ilea* 
tniaBt  aola  in  a««i7  matter  of  importanoe  uftdar  tiU 
dlMot  oontral  ot  the  eablnet  of  Qnat  Britain,    Thi 


but  Tlrtnallr  '  lieittenant.ocJonel  oommanda  every 
battalion  ot  uitantry  and  teginMnt  of  oavaliy,  Aapoet 
of  colonel  bdng  merely  m  -i-— — ^.i- 


him  by  tha  Home  flaeretary, 
who  is  held  naponsibla  for  wa  oonnnMnt  of  li«> 
land,  and  wMk  when  It  ia  tha  ddiy  <rf  Iha  la(d-liaa< 
tMaot  tobeinaloaeaonMnondenea)  on  matfari  of 
nmmie^  ha  mnat  be  in  oonnant  eomnnnication  with 
theTrsaaniy,  OnhiaoccaMnalortaMotaryabaenoa 
from  Irdand,  lorda-luatieM  at*  Mpamted,  who  an 
nanallr  Uia  Lord  Frtaaatst  tha  Wd  Ohaneallor,  and 
theOonmaDdsofUiefotaM.  Hia  aalM7  la  1090,000, 
wiUi  a  Tsaidenae  in  DnbUn  OasU^  ae  wdl  ae  one  in 
Phcsniz  FiA.  His  teimre  of  oOoa  depends  on  that 
at  tba  naiiiatry  of  which  he  ia  a  msmber.  By  act 
10  Geo.  IV.  o.  7.  a  Bonan  Catludic  ia  ineligible  for 
tba  limtaaanc?  ri  Irdasd, 

lilBTTTKNAITT-OOIiOKBIi,    In    the    British 
Amy^  is  nomlaany  the  aaoond  oAotr  it 


with 


omcer.  xne  iieuienanii-ooionei  m  reaponsuiie  lor  uie 
discipline  of  bii  battalion,  the  comfort  <A  bii  men, 
and  ultimately  (or  atay  detail  wnnected  with  their 
oi^aniution.  He  is  aided  by  the  major  and  adju- 
tant. In  tba  MtiUety  and  engineeia,  where  tke 
rank  of  colonel  U  a  Bubstalitive  rank,  with  tangible 
re^DMnM  dutiee,  the  funottoni  ot  lieateiuuit-coloDd 
are  more  Hmlted,  one  having  charge  ot  every  two 
batteHM  of  artillery,  or  two  compacdea  ot  en^eers. 
The  pay  of  a  linttenant-colonel  varies  from  £1, 9».  2d, 
per  diem  in  the  Honsebold  Cavalry  to  IT*,  in  Oia 
u^antry  of  the  lino.  Kve  yeara*  renmental  eervioe 
as  lientenuit-colonel  entltlea  an  officer  to  bnrel 
rank  aa  colon 
)b  tha  army, 
Ida  raiment. 

LIEnTENAST-aHnTERAL.  See  QekxsaL 
OmaxB. 

LIFE.  In  saeldiig  a  definition  of  life,  it  is  diffi* 
onlt  to  fbd  one  that  dow  not  inolnde  men  thaa 
ia  aaosaaaiy,  or  ezolod*  something  ttiait  rikoold 
be  tah«  in.  Bisbenad'B  dafinitieit  of  lil^  that  it 
ia  *a  oolleotaon  ot  lAaaottMia  whieli  aoeoead  each 
other  doriag  a  Umited  feisae  in  aa  orgmiiaed  body,' 


the  twofold  internal  movement  ot  oompositioa  and 
deoompoatioQ,  at  osoa  fencsal  and  contmaona.'  As 
Mr  Herbert  Speaear  m  hia  Prineipim  sg  BMon 
well  obaarresr  tba  caioqition  ia  in  BoMe  raapeota  ta* 
narrow,  and  i>  athw  raspecta  too  Wide.  Thna,  it 
eseladea  tiiaae  aaVTOM  and  Mnsanlar  fancftioaa  wlnoh 
form  tha  moat  aDaaraeMoa  and  disUnotive  claaaea  of 
vital  phanoiMMt,  wUk  it  aqpMUr  ivpli«a  to  the  fm* 
aessea  froins  on  in  a  living  lx>dy  and  in  •  galvanie 
U>  apSDOWE  fin  iesSi  propoaed  to  define 
the  oo-grdiwitinn  elaotioM^  Ifrt,     ' '^- 


LIFE_LIFB-BOAT. 


oljaeiTM,  'like  the  otiien,  this  definitum  utolndea 
too  mniJi,  for  it  may  be  uid  of  the  solar  ayHem, 
with  iti  ngolarly  recurrmg  moTements  uid  iti 
■alf-baUiuiiig  pettnrbatioDS,  that  it  also  exhibita 
oo-OTdination  of  actions.'  ffis  pKoent  and  onended 
ooDoeptioQ  c^  life  is :  *  The  deniiite  comUnatioD  of 
htterogeiieoiia  changes,  boUi  smmltaDeotw-'and  aoo- 
oewTe,  in  conespoiideiioe  with  extcntaloo-azisteiioes 
One  at  the  lateet  deSnitioH  of  life 


both  of  atnictnie  and  oompoaitkni,  whiob  tak«  pUce 
within  an  individual  withont  destroying  its  iden- 
tity.'  Thi«  is  perhaps  at  good  a  definition  h  Ium  yet 
b«en  given ;  but  no  one  of  those  we  have  quoted 
is  mora  than  approxLoiately  true,  and  a  perfeot 
definition  of  life  seemi  to  be  an  impossibility'. 

LIFE,  Muji  Du^iXtos  OT.  By  this  term  it 
meant  the  aTersge  length  of  life  enjoyed  by  a 
given  nnmbor  of  persons  of  the  same  age.  Snppose 
we  look  at  Uie  Northampton  Table  of  Mort^ly,  we 
Snd  that,  of  363S  pernmi  aged  for^,  3669  reuh 
forty-one,  3*82  reach  forty.two,  and  so  on ;  the 
whole  faUing  at  ninety-six.  The  average  age  then 
attained  by  the  3635  persons  being  Mcertamed  on 
these  data,  would  be  t£e  mean  dnration  of  life  after 
the  age  of  forty  haa  been  reached.  Suppose,  then, 
llut  a  be  the  given  number  alive  at  a  given  age 
by  a  given  mortality  table,  and  b  the  number 
alive  at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  e  the  number 
alive  at  the  end  of  the  seoon^  and  so  on  ;  than 
there  die  at  the  end  of  the  flrit  year,  a  —  b;  and 
ssaun^ng  that  thoae  who  hare  died  have,  on  an 
average,  lived  half  a  year,  the  aggregate  length 
of  life  enjoyed  by  those  who  have  tUed  doriiu;  uie 
first  year  will  be  l(a— 6)  yean;  then  ' 
•till  live,  ■■  '  ■       .     . 


I  penons  have  enjoyed,  at  the  e 


In  the  second  year,  the  a  persons  enjoy 
in  the  third,  the  e  persona  enjoy  ^e+di  yean; 
Samming  these,  and  dividing  by  the 
tber  of  Eves,  so  as  to  ascertain  the 
b*e  +  d 


average,  gives  i+  - 


i  henoe  the  mk :  Add 


the  numbers  alive  at  each  age  above  that  given, 
divide  bj  the  nnmber  alive  M  the  given  age,  and 
add  half  a  year.    The  mean  dmaliwi  of  life  at  a 

pven  age  it  often  called  the  'expectation    '  '''    ' 
bnt  this  ia  elearly  a  wrong  term  to  use. 
"'  "  '   twenty,  suppose  600  to 


rone  by      . 

lat  munt  be  derited  for  Mtving  lift 
veaseu.  They  immediate^  oBoni 
a  preminm  for  the  beat  form  d  life-boat;  and  ths 
first  boat  bnilt  with  the  txp«m  objeot  (daniu  life 
was  that  oonstoueted  on  this  ocoauon  by  Hr  Hamj 
Oreathead.  It  was  of  great  sbength,  having  tlu 
form  of  the  quarter  ti  a  spheroid,  with  lidai  pto- 
'  '  '*  rendered  buoyant  within  and  withont  by 
—***''"  -^  layers  of  eork.    ^^  »■— f-i  ™™-  <* 


1  the  first  twenly-fme  years  after  its  intawiuction, 
tiat  300  Uvea  woe  saved  through  its  iiwtrumentali^ 
I  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne  afone.    Hr  areathead 


receiTOd  the  gold  medals  of  the  Society  of  Arts  and 
Boyal  Humane  Socie^,  £1200  from  pariiunent  in 
1802,  and  a  purse  of  100  guineas  from  Ll^^'e,  the 
members  of  which  Boaic%  also  voted  £iOOO  to 
encoursAe  the  building  of  life-boala  on  different 
parts  of  the  eosat.  Althongh  varioos  other  lif*- 
boats  were  invented  from  time  to  timei  Oreathe«d'i 
remained  the  general  favourite  until  atnut  the  year 
ISfil,  and  maoy  of  his  construotion  are  still  to  ba 
seen  on  diffaient  points  of  the  cosst  They  f^ed^ 
however,  occasionally;  and  several  sad  mishaps  befell 
the  crews  of  life-boata,  eapeoiatly  in  the  esse  of  one 
at  Soath  Shields,  in  whi^  twenty  pilota  perished. 
Upon  this  the  Duke  of  Northumberland  ofFered  a 
prize  for  an  improved  constmction,  and  nnmerous 
designs  were  submitted,  a  hundred  of  the  best  of 
i^  were  exhibited  in  18S1.  Mr  James  Beeching 
obtained  the  award ;   bnt  his  boat 


wsa  intrntted  vilh  the  task  of  producing  a  life- 
boat ■wtadl  ihoold  combine  the  best  qnalities  of 
the  diSetmt  inventions.  His  efforts  were  very 
meeeesfnl,  and  the  National  Life-boat  Institution 
adopted  his  model  as  the  standard  for  the  boatt 
they  should  tiiereafter  establish  on  the  coasts. 

Sections  of  Mr  Feake's  life-boat  are  shewn  below, 
one  lengthwise  through  the  keel,  the  other  euMt- 
wise  in  the  middle.  A,  A,  are  the  thwarts  oo 
which  the  rowers  sit ;  BB,  a  water-tight  deck,  nissd 
sufficiently  above  the  bottom  of  we  boat  to  be 
above  the  level  of  the  tea  when  the  boat  i*  loaded ; 
0,  C,  are  air-ti^t  obamben  running  along  each 
side,  and  ooouiTing  bom  3  to  4  feet  at  eaon  «ad : 


follow  that  taking  tiie  600  who  have 
not  reached  twenty-five,  along  with  the 
SCO  who  have  survived  it,  we  should 
find,  on  extinction  of  the  whole,  that 
Qie  mean  duration  was  twenty-five  years.  It  might 
be  rither  greater  or  less.  The  term  '  expectation  of 
lif^'  as  generdly  applied  by  assurance  companies  to 
denote  mean  duration,  it  therefore  a  wrong  one.  In 
connection  with  this  sul^eot,  tee  Mokcautv,  also 

LIFE-ASSHRASOE.    See  iDBinuitOE. 

LIPB-BOAT,  a  boat  adapted  to  'live'  in  a 
itonny  sea,  with  a  view  te  the  saving  of  life  from 
shipwreck.  Itt  qualities  must  be  ouoyanoy,  to 
avud  foundering  when  a  sea  ia  shipped ;  strength, 
to  escape  destruction  from  the  vifdnice  of  waves, 
frmn  a  rocky  beach,  or  from  oollision  with  the 
wreck;  facility  in  tnniisg;  and  a  power  of  righting 
when  capsized. 

A  melanoholy  wredc  at  l^nenioiith, 
1789,  tnggected  to  the  mMcribcn  t 


the  budjraiuiy  affinded  by  these  more  t 
to  snitam  the  boat  wheo  fnUy  ladtoi,  even  if  filled 
with  water.  To  '^■'"■""*^  the  liability  to  chaise  in 
a  heavy  sea,  the  life-boat  ha*  great  beam  (breadt^ 
in  proptifftion  to  her  length,  viz.,  8  feet  beam  to  30 
length.  Ia  addition,  the  OOtCflm  is  almost  flat.  Aa 
in  ner  build  it  has  been  found  convenicot  to  dis- 
pense with  cTMS-piecet,  some  means  are  required  to 
wasoi'votherigkb^of  the<riiole  ttraotuie  amid  the 
buffetings  of  a  tempest  To  achieve  thit,  and  also 
to  serve  the  porpotes  of  light  ballast.  Hi  Pesike  fill* 
the  space  between  the  boat's  bottom  and  the  water- 
ti^t  deck  (BB)  with  blocks,  tight^TedgedtogeUur, 
of  oork  and  light  haid  wood,  D,  I>.  These  would 
form  a  false  bottom,  were  a  rent  made  in  the  onter 
oovcsing  and,  W  their  comparativs  wugM,  ooon- 
taract  in  Mme  degree  the  top-heavineM  indiMtd  by 
the  air-Twselt,  whuh  are  tatintj  abora  tba  inlM 

>.  Geiogic 


tJfB.x8rA'FB-Ltr&  atTAbba 


lfaw(^  llii ttnngammt woold be inBoffleieDt to 
■-.intin  tha  eqnihlBiDni  of  the  bcwt,  hmrevw.  mi 
Mpedally  nnder  Mil,  ao  Hr  Peaks  lua  added 


bany  iron  keel  ffi)  cd  from  4  to  8  <nrt,  iriiioh  affeo- 
toiIlTkeepa  the  boat  stiai^t.  Some  bnilden  object 
to  thu  iron  b^lait :  the  Livrapool  and  Norfolk  boati 
take  out  their  plaga,  and  ^efenUj  admit  water 
oirtil  ateadineae  ia  aecored ;  but  Hr  Peaks  haa  on 
additioiul  object  iu  view — (Jiat  of  oauain^  the  boat 
to  immadiatelr  right  itaeU  if  tnmed  urode  down, 
aa  the  beat  boata  aometiniea  will  be  in  heavy  galea. 
It  will  be  notieed  that  the  ends  of  the  boat  liae 
above  the  oentre  1^  to  2  feet  This,  for  one  thing, 
Uoilitatos  tumioE,  aa  the  pivot  on  which  her  wei^t 
testa  ia  ahortened ;  tor  another,  if  ahe  oapaitoB  and 
la  thrown  bottom  up,  theae  ruMd  caiMWoa  are  aoffi- 
dent  to  snatain  hra  by  their  buoyancy.  So  long, 
then,  aa  ahe  floata  predaely  in  an  inverted  atat«,  ihe 
will  be  ateady ;  but  the  alighteat  motion  to  either 
dde — whioh,  of  oonne,  in  pracUoa  toanea  instaiitly 
— throwa  the  heavy  keel  off  the  perpendiealar,  in 
which  ita  oentre  of  gravity  waa  exactly  over  the  line 
between  bow  and  atem,  and  the  boat  moat  imme- 
diately right  itaell    Thia  praoen  ia  ahewn  in  fig.  3, 


fit.  3. 

wbeie  it  will  be  pwoeiTed  that  the  ovartnined  boat 
nonat  forthwith  right  itaelt  in  the  direction  indi- 
cated by  the  arrow,  on  aooonnt  of  the  heavy  top- 
waight  at  E.  F  ia  a  covered  trongh,  to  contom  the 
taoUe,  a^Ia,  Ac,  when  not  in  uae ;  in  service,  it  is 
•too  oaefnl  to  reeeiTe  any  water  that  may  penetrate 
among  the  oork  and  wooden  diocks  beneath  the 
water-ti^t  deck  :  thia  leakage  ia  at  timea  con- 
•idertdde  when  the  outer  akin  of  the  boat  haa  aoa- 
tained  damage.  The  trough  may  be  fitted  with  a 
amall  hand-pomp,  to  enalue  one  of  the  aitten  to 
dear  it  out  when  necaaaary. 

Perhapa  the  moat  beaotiful  oontrivamoe  in  the 
life-boat  ia  that  for  diaoharging  the  water  which 

ahe  ahipa.    Thia  coDtiatt  of  r '-----  ^i-—   n 

each  aiz  inches  in  dianwter, 

deck,  B,  the   boUaat,  D,  aiL — 

tabee,  whioh  are  near  the  centre  of  the  boat,  three 
on  each  aide,  have  at  the  bottom  a  valve  opening 
ootwardi.  A«  the  deck,  B,  ia  alwaya  above  the 
water-level,  any  water  in  the  boat  necesaorily  fiowB 
oat  tJiroogb  theae  tubea,  lo  that  if  a  wave  bmata 
over  her,  and  completely  filla  the  boat,  the  relieving 
tabea  free  her,  and  alie  ia  emp^  again  in  a  few 
minntea.  The  oraatar  tiie  height  of  water  within, 
tiie  faatei  will  a  ran  out.    The  advantagea  o!  the 


iatt  of  mx  relievinE  tubes,  G, 
,  D,  and  the  Irattom.     The 


lifa-boat  may  be  thna  summed  op.  The  air-chom- 
bera  and  the  lisht  ballaat  render  amking  impoaaible ; 
the  keel  nearly  pteventa  oapaiaing,  and  rectifiaa 
it,  if  it  doea  happen ;  while  the  relieving  tubea 
efieotnaUyoleor  off  any  water  that  finds  ita  way 
within-  With  aooh  precautiona,  the  safety  of  t^ 
crew  m>san  almost  oiaured,  and,  m  fact,  loaa  of 
life  in  a  Iife-k>oat  ia  a  very  rare  occnrrenoe. 

The  boat  ia  kept  on  a  tmck — of  oonaiderabia 
sbength,  aa  the  life-boat  weighs  two  tona — cloae  to 
the  beaoh,  and  ia  drawn  to  tits  water'a  edge  iriisn 
reQiiired ;  the  orew  ate  trained  to  their  work,  an], 
it  need  not  be  added,  are  among  the  hardiart  of 
aeamen.  Ordinary  life-boata  are  rowed  by  eisht 
or  twelve  oais  (ot  tba  best  fir)  double  banked;  vnt 
for  smaD  atationa,  where  it  would  be  diffleiut  to 
oolleot  BO  many  men  at  short  notice,  amallet  boata 
are  made,  rowing  aix  oars  single  banked. 

The  importonoe  of  the  life^boat  in  uving  life  can 
scarcely  be  over-eatimated.  Hundreds  m  vcasela 
have  their  orewa  reacoed  through  ita  use  every  year  { 
and  aa  the  National  Life-boat  Inatitutioii  obtaina 
funda,  thia  invention  is  beings  gradually  extended 
all  round  the  coast  of  the  United  Ein^om,  whOe 
foreign  nation*  have  not  been  remisa  m  thua  jvo- 
tecting  their  ahrae*. 

The  Bosal  Ifatioma  Lifeboat  IjuliMion,  after  an 
tmrecOgnised  existence  for  several  yesia,  waa  fbrmallv 
incorporated  in  1824  Kb  objeota  are,  to  provide  and 
maintain  in  effident  working  order  life-boata  of  the 
moat  perfect  description  on  all  parte  of  the  coaat ;  to 
provide,  throueh  the  inatrmneutolity  of  local  com- 
mittees, for  their  proper  management,  and  the 
occasional  exercise  of  their  crews ;  to  bestow  pecuni- 
ary rewarda  on  all  who  riak  their  lives  in  saving,  w 
'^mpting  to  aave,  life  on  the  coast,  whether  by 
leana  of  ita  own  or  other  boats,  and  honoraty 
iwards,  in  the  form  of  medals,  to  all  who  dis^Jay 
unwanted  heroism' in  the  noble  work.  It  is  sup- 
entirely  by  voluutaiy  contributions.  It  saves 
abciat  900  lives  annually,  and  is  therefore  eminently 


S9),  Ac    The  society  has  now  a  fleet  of 

boats  stationed  all  round  onr  shores.    Theco   .    .._ 

of  the  boats  alone  are  paid  at  the  rate  of  aboat  £8 .. 

year.    The  members  of  the  crew  are  paid  for  each 

ice  performed.    From  its  formation  op  to  the 

of  18S1,  the  Society  was  instramental  m  saving 

29,182  lives,  and  gave  rewards  to  the   extent  S 
£50.000,  besides  near  100  gold  and  900  silver  medals. 

The  size  of  a  common  Ufe-boat  renders  it  incon- 
venient for  atoww  on  shipboard.  To  obviate  this, 
the  Rev.  E.  L.  Berthon,  of  Farebam,  invented  a 
callapeing  boat,  which  is  readily  eiplAuled,  posaeasea 
great  streneth,  and  at  the  some  time  occupies 
comparatively  little  space  when  ont  of  nse.  Ita 
sides  are  conoected  by  various  hinges.  This  boat  ia 
extensively  employed  for  ocean  steam-ships. 

LIFE-ESTATE,  in  English  Law,  is  an  estate  or 
interest  in  real  property  for  a  life.  The  life  may  be 
either  that  of  am  owner  or  of  aome  third  party,  in 
wbioh  latter  case  it  is  called  an  estate  pur  aalre  vU. 
Life-eatates  in  lands  are  claaaed  among  Freeholda 
(q.  v.).  The  tenant  for  life  haa  certain  rights  in 
regard  to  the  usee  of  the  estate.  Ee  is  entitled  to 
out  wood  to  repair  fences,  to  bum  in  the  house,  &c. 
Ee  cannot  open  a  wine  on  the  estate,  but  it  it  was 
already  opened,  he  is  entiUed  to  carry  it  on  for  his 
own  profit.  Life-estates  are  created  by  deed,  but 
there  are  certain  estates  created  bj^  law,  as  Coortesy 

a.  v.),  Dower  (q.  v.),  tenancy  in  t^  after  posHbility 
isane  extinct.    As  to  Scotland,  see  laritjan. 
LIFE  GUABDS,  the  two  senior  r^ments  of 
the  mounted   portion  of   tlie  body-guafd  of   tba 


♦■  t  If  It-Wt.  Hwlt  h.  Uli  IW_t.tflW*f, 


BiWih  WT«vdgn  uid  gaohoo  of 

took  thtir  tama  In  two  Uoop*  of 

niMd  rMjMcbTah^  in  16S3  and  ITI 

mre  ndobed  in  17S3,  and  Mfomei 

Lile  Onaida.    AMionrii    nma^  smfdo^    aboot 

iAw  eonrt  and  netrapofia,  tha  Ufa  OiiaHi  ara  net 

•zonpt  bum  tha  lialnlitf  to  fordgn  aarrfoe  wb^ 


and  alad  lialmvta.    Ilm  abo 
Out  vOaifr  of  ^trtdcA  IB  ooDBid 


:be  pT«aer- 
Tha  fire 


.    ,   ._ Idend  Teiy  doabtfoL 

Witt  tluB  mnrieldj  annovr,  tliey  nvBN  pownfol 
hoMaa,  iridoh  an  imifonnlT  Uaok.  Tba  two  ng^- 
mentiDomptlie 868 Mun, with CSOhoren;  tMra^ 
and  p«(M»*l  aUowaooea  amoont  to  abont  £60flm. 

LIFE-PBESEK  V  KBS,  inTenti<mB  for  tbe 
ration  irf  life  in  caua  of  fire  or  ibipwreck. 
llfe-praaarrera  will  be  foond  treated  of  nndar  Fikb- 
noAf  n.  TIw  otlier  claas  i«c1i]d«a  tbe  Tariow  oon- 
triinuiaea  for  preierviiig  tba  buoyancy  of  tike  bnniaa 
body,  and  (or  mchbg  the  Bbar&  Of  tiiese,  tlie 
readieat  and  moat  effe^ve  ore  empty  water-caaks, 
wen  bnnged-up,  and  with  ropea  attocbed  to  them 
to  bold  on  by.  It  baa  been  found  that  a  30-jaUon 
caak  ao  prepared  can  lapporl  ten  men  oonramently, 
in  tolerably  imooUi  water.  Cook'i  and  Hodgeo^a 
patent  Ule-rafta  conoist  of  aqoare  framea  bnoyed 
ap  by  a  caik  at  eaob  comer.  Amnng  foreiga 
nations,  framea  of  baml>oo,  and  inflated  goat  and 
seal  skins,  bare  been  long  employed  aa  life-pre- 
■erven ;  and  in  China,  it  i«  ourtoma^  tor  tnoae 
liviof;  on  the  bank*  of  the  canal*  to  tie  gonrds  to 
tbeir  childreiL  to  bnoy  then  up  in  caae  of  thar 
fallinij  into  ^e  water.    Since  tLe  iotrodaction  of 


dlcea  of  cork  »«at^  and  ocnwaot^  arranged,  lo  aa 
to  fonn  a  bni^ant  aona  Ot  aboot  30  or  32  inchea 
in  diamets,  B  in  width,  and  4  in  thicktifai.  It 
conaeqoently  oontaina  about  12  Iba.  of  cork^  and  is 
generally  oonred  with  patBted  emtrm  to  add  to  ita 

thewater.  AbvojaoconrtnietedeannMtainCpM- 
aona,  and  it  la  generally  fnraiAed  wiUi  a  l^t-Hm  (a 
cord  moninz  ronnd  tlt«  outside  of  Ui0  bw^  «ad  hat- 
ened  to  it  ri  4  pointa)  to  afford  a  more  conTenient 
hold.  This  lifejmiMfl'vei  la  found  on  board  bU  Tea- 
■elo,  SeeljnMoBTUaainiRoaixn,8tnT.,Ti^X 
LIFBBEKT,  in  Scotch  Law,  means  a  right  to 
uae  a  heritable  eatate  for  life,  tha  perBoa  enjoying  it 
beipg  oalled  a  libiuatei.  The  ri^ta  of  a  liferenter 
nearly  resembles  tiioagh  the^  are  not  identical  with, 
those  at  a  tanant  for  Ufa  in  Bn^and.    See  Litx- 

hTFTS,  ropei,  on  sbipboard,  for  ndabg  or  lower- 
ing and  maintaining  in  poflition  Ae  yaraa.     Hiey 


paaa  fram  the  dedt  over  paUara  at  tha  : 
audthoDoa  to  nnsr  &/>  exizamitua  of  tiw 
lift  baata  tlia  dsrisnation  ol  tha  yard  to  whlih  it  ii 
ittaohed,  aa  fan-lift,  main4cp-galhoit-lift,  to.    Sea 


LI'OAHBNTB  we  oordt,  haada,  or  mamhranons 
azpansioni  <rf  white  fibroiu  tianui  whiob  pl^  an 
exbemely  important  part  in  tha  maimankni  of  joints 
saeioK  t£at  UMy  paM  in  fliad  dmolka*  tern  one 
bone  to  anoQter,  and  icrre  to  limit  at * 


iomk,  iriule  they  freafy  allow  oHmm^ 
Todd  and  Bowman,  in  thiir  i'AiwitilavwaUnatonK 

roon^d  cards,  miA  m  ttie  «xtei«al  lateral  ligament 
cj  the  knee-joint,  the  perpendionlar  ligament  of  the 
Bnkle-}<A)1i  fto. ;  2  Jbadtulor,  flattenad  baadt,  nore 
or  leas  expanded,  anoh  aa  tiie  latentl  tmunenta  of  tbe 
ribow-jolnt,  and  the  treat  ma}ori^  of  liganunta  i> 
the  body ;  3.  Oapmaar,  whioh  are  baml-ahnied 
eipanaiona  attadied  ly  their  tnv  tnda  to  the  two 
bonea  entorinKfnto  tha  formatioa  of  tha  Jcinl,  whioh 
they  completely  but  looaely  nmal ;  thar  eomlttiita 
one  of  the  duef  charaetaa  of  tha  ball-aad-ao^el 
joint,  and  occur  in  the  ihonldsr  adod  hip  joiuta.    Sea 

IjIOA.TU'BA,  an  ItaUan  tent  In  MnaiiL  meaning 
binding  ftequeutly  marked  by  a  alar,  thna  ^ — s. 
which  la  ^aoedovn  ooiaiaaoteafof  thepupoaecd 
Aewing  that  thay  an  to  be  blended  togetnra ;  if  ia 
vooal  nraaic,  tiiat  they  are  to  be  ano^  wiH  ona 
bceaSk ;  also  uied  in  inatnuneDtal  moato^  to  atA 
tha  phrnwnji 

LI'GATTTKB,  ihe  tarm  mplied,  in  SntsevT,  to 
the  thread  tied  ronnd  a  blood-reaiel  to  atop  tdeed- 
ing.  He  ligatarea  moat  oomnuntly  naed  ooarfal  of 
strong  hempen  or  silk  threads ;  but  catgut,  horae- 
hur,  its^  hare  been  emfJoyed  by  eotne  snrgeons.  A 
ligature  sboold  be  tied  roKnd  an  aitoiy  with 
BcdScient  ti^tneas  to  cat  bhrough  ita  ""^la  and 
internal  wi^  AHbongh  the  opaatioa  of  tying 
arteries  wita  dearly  known  to  Irafos  of  Ephnu^ 
who  flourished  in  the  time  of  Tn}ai,  it  aubsaqoently 
fell  into  deanatuda,  till  it  waa  radiscorerad  1^ 
Ambroae  Pari,  in  tlM  16&  centuij, 

LIGHT  ii  Hm  aubject  ol  tha  adoioe  of  Optica 
(q.T.).  We  hqre  jort  notice  ita  principal  phenomena, 
and  tbe  hypotbesea  advaaced  to  ezplaia  them. 
Every  one  uowb  that  li(^t  dirama  from  a  lumia- 
ons  oeatn  In  aQ  dii«attona,  Md  Sial  Ha 
U  tw 

WLtellitaB 

id.  flhadpw^i 

1  ita  dlreraiBr  ia  all  dkeotl' 

itiTBiBely  aa  tba  aqioBa  d 

centre.  'Wlen  it  fall*  m  tua  aunaoB  si  DOONi^ 
it  la  TtOeatfii  (rona  them,  ngiAaity  «r  liiiiilsslj. 
totally  or  partislly,  or  ia  pntly  or  wbally  tnaa- 
uitted  or  Toti'aeted  tfaraa^  than.  Tha  nhaaoaiena 
ol  tbe  nSeetlon  aod  of  tha  ratectton  A  tAt  aN 
ttcated  of  nepeetiviriy  udAw  tha  heada  Ortaytrisa 
(q.  T.)  and  Dioiitriea  (q.  r.).  Ike  Caeta  ad  okaw- 
▼ation  oa  which  oatoptrica  ii  Inndad  an  two; 
I.  In  the  refleation  of  light,  tta  iaaidaBt  raj,  the 
noimal  totbe  aurtaoe,  and  tka  trtacted  nv«eta 
one  jdana ;  £  Tbe  angle  of  refleation  ia  eqaal  to  A* 
angle  of  iDoldeBce.  gimilar  to  tb^  a»»  tba  iilij  rt  LSJ 
laws  on  whidi  diopbiea  ia  lo«ndad.  WIm*  a  laf 
of  homogmeoM  tiaht  ia  hiddaa*  as  a  ntaoliBg 
surface,  1.  Tbe  inoUut  and  rebMtad  fay  U*  ia  Um 
same  planeaa  theaonnalattba  faiataf  iaeidMaak 
aiidon<9poriterideaof  itf  2.  Tliiiaii  iilMwaa|lii 


■  -^;jj^ 


ttotft-tjaHt-aotrs& 


tf  {nddcnoe,  wtaiavtr  HimIi  » 


-      ■      ■  ,  =    ."»J  H  ^'^'^ 

the  uigk  of  refraODOn,  a  ntoo  oqiaiiaeDt  onlj 
on  tke  wttnTe  of  the  meillB  bstween  irtiioh  the 
rafrwtioa  takes  plaoe,  and  on  the  nature  of  the 
light  In  statdnB  theee  Uwi,  w«  hare  hinted  at 
tight  being  of  different  kind*.  At  one  time,  it  wu 
not  (nppomd  that  aohrar  bad  anything  to  do  with 
H^;  DOW,  there  i«  no  ■ertooi  diipnte  hot  that 
there  an  licbti  of  diftoent  eohnri  (aea  Cerok- 
j,Tict  and  BrKTrBTTK),  with  dffleront  p«i])ertie«^ 
thoo^  obeying  the  mme  gmenl  lawt.  Among  the 
moat  rtrikmg  phenomena  of  light  are  (ihOBe  boated 
of  nnder  the  head  FoLUOHATioir  (q.  v.).  Next  to 
then  in  intereet  are  the  phrenomena  at  dmble 
re&aiitaoii.  See  RantAcnoir,  Dodbli.  Tta  an 
aocoont  of  the  oldef  obemioal  p 
Phcttosripht  and  SnorRVK 
nena  not  noticed  aborc^  llie  artiolv  AsraiUTioir, 
]>irTKi.(Tncur,  Dnraaaioir,  IimBiKBaxoK 

Two  hTpotheeea  hare  been  adranoed  to  axpUn 
the  different  phenomena  of  Bght,  ▼!■.,  the  Viuarj  of 
mMon,  or  Ibe  oorannnilar  thoMj,  and  the  th*or7  of 
vthY)Nait,ortiieandalatoi;&eca7.  Aooordtngtothe 
fonner,  li^  li  an  attCBiiatied  impondaraUM  Kib- 
•tanoe,  w&>se  ooloon  depend  oa  the  Telooity  of  it* 
tnratminon.  It  reearda  refleotdon  aa  analogoii*  to 
the  rebounding  of  ^atio  bodiee ;  while,  to  explain 


.  ,t  by  iDeoial 
grant ;  whereaa  in  England,  if  nothing  is  (aid,  the 

^-^i 


refraotion,  it  a 


t  tiiere  ore  intenrticea  i 


traniparent  bodies,  to  aDow  of  the  [laaiijiii  of  the 
paitielea  of  hght,  and  that  titeae  partaolea  ne 
atbaeted  by  the  mideoidea  of  bodie*— their  attnMi* 
tion  eombitiliig  wmi  the  ttioatts  ol  Um  partklw  of 
^ttoaanM  tiiemtod«<naUiBtli«r  ooniM.  Iba 
ImiDunHrTBKiBT(q.v.)antnMBtbatluditiif(o- 
3^agated  b;^  thenbmtiMaiif  anin^ondenUOE  "' 
termed  Btter  <q.  v.).  On  thi*  view,  li^  i« 
what  rimihlr  to  somid  (ne  ImxUEi  ~  " 


right  of  proapeot,  or  til  haTiitg  *  flae  Tieir,  ia  not 
reoogmeed  by  the  law,  except  ao  far  that  the  lig^t% 
after  90  year^  mnat  not  be  eensbly  darkened.  In 
Scotland,  a  lerTitade  of  hgbt  may  axi«t  in  like  m 

....         . ,.        '-  ■  A  «      ■  ' 

right  ie  acquired  by  prescription,  or  n  . 
time.  In  Scotland,  a  neighbonr,  B,  may,  after  St 
yeuB,  or  any  distance  of  time,  bnild  on  hie  own  lud, 
and  darken  A'l  windowa,  provided  he  do  not  wit 
wantonly,  eoinlonalj,  or  k>  aa  to  caiue  a  nniaance. 

LIGHTER,  a  large  flat-liottamed  barge  or  boat, 
nmally  propelled  or  goided  by  two  heary  oaiH,  and 
tued  for  conveying  merchandiat^  otmb,  Ac.,  Iwtween 
Biiipe  and  portaoni  of  the  ahore  Uiey  oaimot  reach  by 

aaon  of  tiielr  dnnght. 

LIOHTFOOT,  Jomr,  one  of  tiiB  eariier  Hebrew 
■oholara  of  England,  waa  bon  in  ISOS  at  Stoke-npon- 
Trent,  in  Stoabrdshire.  He  itndied  at  Chrufa 
College,  Cambridge,  and,  after  entering  into  orders, 
became  nh«fl»in  to  Sir  Rowlaod  Cottm,  who,  being 
"         "   ■■  Hebrew  scholar,  inr^rad  L.  with  a 


iriuch  were  dedicated  to  Sir  Bowlaod,  who,  in  1031, 
preamted  him  to  tho  reotoi;  of  AahW  in  Stafford- 
shim  Snbaeqnently,  be  removed  to  Loudon,  tiiat 
he  might  have  better  opportniutie*  for  Uie  prcso- 
outiou   of   hia   favonrite  study;   and  In  1642  he 

I 


. itiMMtiiOTottbetonnertiieery,  Bd  Hnyghena 

may  be  regarded  aa  the  author  of  tb*  Isttw.  Tb* 
theories  wars  kmg  rivals,  bat  now  no  doobt  tsmsina 
that  the  theory  al  ondalatioin  has  triompiied  over 
the  cAher,  Its  soondntiBS  may  be  said  to  rot  on 
similar  evidnrce  to  that  which  we  have  for  the 
theory  of  gnvitation  :  it  bad  not  only  satiabatarily 
aooonted  for  all  the  phanomena  of  light,  bot  it  has 
bean  the  meana  of  discovsiil^  M»  phemmona.  In 
iaet,  it  has  snpidied  (he  ptdlcat^^im  wiUitiu  poww 


of  nraseieBca  m  rsnrd  to  ito  sabject.  ^DioBa  who 
wiMi  to  stodT  ths  tbeoi^  may  advantaoaonalf  con- 
aaU  Ha  popiMt  exposition  1^  Yonng  Jlieelurm  as 
JtroMrol  nUmopk^  London,  IStf),  and  Lloyd'a 
Wm»  Tktmy  ^  Lt^t  tDoUin,  ISSS).  The  mathe- 
nalieal  thaoiy  is  very  fnlty  investigated  in  Aiiy'r 

LIOHT.  Inpmntof  lAWjtheri^toI^Etiaone 
of  the  rigjif  inddent  to  the  ownership  of  und  aad 
booses.  When  it  is  daioMd  in  aw^  a 
Intcsfere  wXii  a  nei^bonr'a  aba^nta  li 
railed,  in  Ku^aod  aiid  Irstaad,  an  Bast 
and  in  SooOuid  a  aervitoda  (q.  v.). 
Mid  bdmai,  the  rigbt  to  li^  as  h"- 
boorst  is  qtialifled  in  this  way,  and  Ic 
of  freqnetit  dispnte  in  ' 

If  A  bnild  a  luMse   __   ..^. ^ 

iritb  windows   looking   into  B's  field    oi  garden 
whkb  it  adjaoent^  B  may  next  day,  or  any  ^~~~ 
wtthfn  SO  yean^  ran  19  a  boose  or  seseen 
to  A's  window^  snd  ■Ifrkm  them  sjl,  for  one  has 
at  good  a  iMit  to  bnild  aa  his  own  land  aa  1' 
otbar.    But  2  B  allow  A'a  bona*  to  atand  SO  ya 
ivilltont  bnldia^  B  ia  lor  wcr  after  rnrrmt 
fnmi  boiUiag  on  im  own  Uod  so  aa  £>  darken 
"~  lights,  fw  A  then  aeqaina  a  prMeriplivo  right 
— ■  — —  ™- '  -  •-     '-  ''1^  Roman  Uw, 


LIOHT-HOUSE;  abnilding  on  I 
point  of  tho  saft'Shaia,  island  or  rock,  from  wHch  a 
Wit  is  ^hibited  at  nii^t  as  a  gaid«  to  mariners 
"tSt*  liebt-boDses  of  the  United  KiDgdom  now  aum- 
bn,  ^mh  harbour-lights,  upwards  of  BOO  statiooa, 
~    le  aome  of  we  finest  specimens  of  eof^neer- 

^ OS   Douglass's   Eddystona  (aucceaaor  to 

S^atos's),  &.  Stevenson's  Bdl  Rock.  A.  Steven- 
'MB'a  Skenryvore,  and  Walker's  Bishop  Sock. 
fioinewhat  hit 'la**  stractui^s  have  been  erected  on 
the  Wolf  Book  in  tiie  English  Channel  by  Mr  Dong- 
lass,  and  on  the  DnlicaTtaidi  Bock,  Ar^lslhire,aQd  od 
tho  Chiekena,  oS  -Uie  Isle  of  Man,  by  Messrs  D.  &  T. 
StevensiMk  As  information  will  be  found  under 
tbeir  reapeotive  beads  re^vrding  some  of  these  inter- 
eatuK  works,  wa  ihail  restrict  ourselves  in  the  foUow- 
ing  .tinrt  mpmoir  to  the  moat  approved  means  of  pro- 
ducing a  powerf ol  ]^  for  the  use  of  the  mariner. 

"- -.Cc-inoif 


LIOHT-HOUSEL 


OaM«pMe  or  St/keting  .%(«m.— AU  of  thow  n^ 
of  li|^t  prooeadins  from  the  fociu  of  »  pwaboloid 
(fig.  1),  whiali  fftll  upon  ita  iorfkce,  *n  raflected 
nmllel  to  tha  axis  lo  m  to  form  a  solid  beam  of 
lighti    When  a  miea  of  auoh  refleoton  aie  airanged 


Hj.  1. 

dime  to  each  othw  nmnd  a  cvlinder  fat  a  light- 
hones^  tiiej  illnmiitate  conatantly,  thoneh  not  with 
3aal  intnii^.  tite  whole  horizon.  Ai  t&e  property 
Uie  paiabclic  ndeotor  ii  to  coUeot  the  raye 
inodant  apon  Hi  ani&ca  into  ooe  beam  of  paial- 
lel  raya,  it  wonld  ba  abaolateljr  impassible,  irere 
tha  flame  from  ifjuah  the  rays  proMed  a  mathe- 
matical point,  to  prodnoe  a  li^t  which  would 
iUamioate  the  whole  of  the  honzon,  nnien  there 
were  an  infinite  number  of  reflectors.  But  ca  tti 
radiant,  instead  of  being  a  mathematical  point,  ia 
[diyiical  object,  consiiting  ot  a  flame  of  very  notable 
aiia,  the  rayi  which  come  from  tike  onter  portian  of 
the  luminous  cona  piooeed,  after  reflection,  in  inch 
diversent  direotioni,  as  to  render  it  practically 
nosaible  to  light  np,  though  unequally,  the  whole 
horizon.  The  nselnl  divergence  produced  in  thia 
way  by  a  bnmer  of  one  inch  in  diameter,  with  a 
tiKal  £stanoe  of  four  inahei,  is  in  ttie  horizontal 
plane  abont  14°  2?.  The  whole  horizon  may  thus 
be  illuminated  by  reflectoia. 

I^  for  the  pnrpose  of  distinctiou,  it  ia  desired  to 
•hew  a  TtvolviTig  fight,  then  aeTcral  of  thcae  reflectors 
are  placed  with  their  axes  parallel  to  each  other  on 
each  of  the  faces  of  a  four-sided  frames  iriuch  is 
made  to  revolve.  In  snch  a  caa^  the  mariner  aeea  a 
li^t  only  at  those  times  when  oaa  of  the  facea  of 
the  frame  is  directed  towards  him,  but  at  other 
time*  he  is  left  in  darkneaa.  The  rotation  of  the 
frame  upon  its  axis  thus  prodnoea  to  his  eye  a 
succession  of  light  and  dark  intervals,  which  .enables 
him  to  distingniah  it  from  the  fixed  light  whioh 
i«  constantly  va  view  in  every  azimnth.  The  dis- 
tinotian  of  a  red  light  is  produced  by  using  a 
chimney  of  red  inateadof  white  iilass  for  each  burner. 
ThaS ^^ 

■econda,  which  is  o 


Kobert  Btevenaoo,  the  en(rineer  of  the  North- 
li^it-house^  in  1822,  at  Ahinns  of  IsUy,  in 
Argylesbiift  llie  same  engineer  alao  introduced 
whM  baa  been  called  tha  mlenaiUaa  Ught,  by  which 
a  stationary  frame  with  reflectors  is  instantaneously 
eclipsed,  and  is  again  as  suddenly  revealed  to  view 
by  the  vertical  movement  ol  opaque  cylinders  in 
frant  of  the  refiectois.  The  intermittent  ia  distiii- 
gniabed  from  the  revolving  light,  wfaicJi  also  appears 
and  diiappeaiB  suocenively  to  the  view,  by  the 
Boddennesi  of  the  edipaea  and  of  the  re^tpearancea, 
whereas  in  all  revolving  lights  there  is  a  gradnal 
waziiiK  Hid  waning  of  the  light     The  lata  Mr 


Wilson  intradnoed  at  Tiooa  Harboni  an  intermit- 
tent light  which  was  produoed  by  a  beaatiAilly 
simple  oontrivance  for  suddenly  lowering  and  rais- 
ing a  gaa-flame.  Mr  Bobert  Louis  Stevenson  hw 
light  of 


propoaed  ^   .   ._  ^.._.  ^ 

by  caosing  nnequal  sactora  of  a  spherical  ininar 
to  revolve  between  the  fiame,  and  a  fixed  dioptaio 
apparatns  (inch  a*  that  shewn  in  figi.  3  and  4). 
The  powar  of  the  light  ia  increased  t^  tha  aotdm 
of  the  aphonoal  mirror,  which  abo  acta  aa  a  maak 
in  the  oppoBta  aaimu^  !nie  number  of  diatino- 
tire  lirii^honse  charactcriatiaa  has  not  yet  bem 
exfaauated  in  prsotioe,  for  various  other  distinetioiu 
may  be  prodnoed  by  oombination  rf  thoM  tintdj 
in  nae ;  aa  for  example,  revolving,  flaahin|t  or  intar- 
mittent  lighta  mi^t  ba  made  not  only  red  and 
white  alt^tatelf,  ont  two  red  or  whit^  wiUi  csw 
white  or  red.  Similar  combinations  oould  of  ooorae 
be  employed  where  two  lights  are  shewn  from  fte 
~ime,  or  from  separate  towers. 

Dioptric  Bytttm. — Another  method  of  bending  the 
divar^mg  ray*  prooeedins  from  a  lam^t  into  snidi 
directioui  •«  shall  be  oselnl  to  the  manner,  ia  that 
of  r^Tottioa.  If  a  flame  ba  jdaoad  in  the  foona  of  » 
lena  of  the  proper  form,  the  diverging  raya  will  be 
bent  parallel  to  each  oUier,  so  aa  to  form  a  single 
solid  beam  of  light  M.  Angustin  Freanel  waa  file 
Arst  to  propose  and  to  introduce  lenticular  acticai 
into  li^t>-u)ase  illumination,  by  the  adoption  cd 
the  annular  or  built  lens,  which  bad  be^  sug- 
gested as  a  burning  instrument  by  Bafibn  and  Con- 
ooroet.    He  also,  m  oonjunotioa  with  Arago  and 

Mathiau,  used  a  large  lamp  having  four   

trio  wick*.  Id  order  to  produce  a  rev~'~ 
on  the  lenticular  ot  dioptrio  avsten, 
ariansement  waa  adc^ited  from  wat  whioh  we  have 
deaonoed  for  the  catoptric  system,  nie  large  lamp 
waa  now  made  a  fixture,  and  four  or  min«  "ifilwr 
lensea  were  fitted  together,  so  as  to  fbim  a  frame  c< 
^U«a  which  surrounded  the  lamp.  When  this  frame 
la  mode  to  revolve  round  the  hunp,  the  mariner  gete 
the  full  effect  of  the  lens  whenever  its  azia  ia 
pointed  towards  him,  and  this  full  light  fadsa 
gradually  into  darkness  si  the  sxis  of  the  £ns  pssnna 
unm  him.  In  order  to  operate  upon  tiioss  ray*  of 
'■  '  ■      '  ■  ■-  ■     '  -  -     "  -,  lena,  a  system  of 

i^yed  by  FreaneL 
pyramid  of  lonaea,  a, 
,   ,  ^  .  .  the  proper  aoj^  for 

Tendering  the  raya  paavng  upwards  paralld  to  those 
whioh  oaue  from  tae  annnlar  lena,  L.  Bqt  Fiesnel 
did  not  stop  here^  foi^  in  «rdw  to  make  the  lentionlar 
system  suitable  for  fixed  aa  well  aa  revolving  lights, 
he  deaigned  a  new  optical  sgsnti  to  which  the  name 
of  eyUMrie  rtfractor  has  be^  given.  Thia  oonaisted 
'       lindricsl  lenaea,  which  were  the  sidids  that 


Mr  Bobert  Stevenson,  the  e 


would  b 


oCai 

axis.  The  action  of  this  instrument  i*  obviously, 
while  allowing  the  rays  to  spread  naturally  in  the 
horisontal  pluie,  to  atmer  refraction  in  the  vertical 
plane.  The  effect  of  thia  inatrnment  ia  therefore  to 
shew  a  light  of  equal  intend^  conatantly  all  round 
the  horizon,  and  thus  to  form  a  better  and  mom  equal 
light  than  tiiat  which  was  formerly  produced  iot  fixed 
lighta  by  parabolie  reflection.  It  is  obviona,  how- 
ever, £rom  onr  deaeription  that  the  divaawng  rays 
which  were  not  interoepted  hy  this  lylindiio  hot^ 
or  those  whioh  would  have  pswed  upirards  and  bani 
useleasly  expended  in  illominating  the  clouds,  or 
downwards  in  useleasly  illuminating  the  lij^ioom 
floor,  were  lost  to  the  mariner;  and  in  order  to 
render  tjiwe  effective,  Freanel  ultimately  adopted 
the  use  of  what  has  been  called  the  intomal  or  total 
reflection  oE  glass  j  and  hen  it  i*  neoeasaiyto  e^iUn  | 
e  of  the  great  advantages  of  the  action  \tf 
M3\C      I 


1  of  nearlv  one-Iourtti  (-249)  b; 

am  initewl  of  metalJui  lefleotcn 
liuaticin.  Tliere  wen  therefora 
d  below  the  cylindiio  nfnwtiiig 


boop  ittadh  m  lure  detcribed,  lepanta  ^jmi  priiroi 
of  triiignlir  notion,  tiia  tint  mr&ioe  of  each  of 
wbicb  rancteA  to  »  cartun  extent  anj  ray  of  light 
tlut  tell  npOD  it,  vhQa  the  leoond  roniMM  wu 
pUoed  at  nicli  an  uule  u  to  i^eet,  bv  total  rafleo- 
tioD,  tiw  ray  whiob  £»d  before  been  refracted  bvthe 
flntaorfacei  and  the  bet  or  outer  mrhoe  prawicsd 
■■other  refraction,  whjoh  made  (be  rayi  Snidly  pMa 
ant  panlld  with  thoae  ra&acted  by  Ihe  centaal 
crliiidrio  hoi^  Hu  li^t  fkHing  above  the  cyliodrio 
Mop  waa  lima  by  lefraotioiu  and  leflectioii*  bent 
downwaida,  and  that  falling  belcnr  waa  bent  apwarda, 
■o  aa  to  be  nutdo  horizoiAal  and  p«nllel  with  that 
pMoeadiBg freo the  refnwtiiig  bo^     Fi^3and4 


Wlg.X 

imnMnt  IB  eleration  and  vertical  Mdicai  thi*,  which 
ii  (he  movt  perteot  of  ?reanel'a  inveniioiui  is  light- 
hooaa  ilhtiDUiation,  eapedally  whan  nude  in  pieoee 
id  lite  ritomboidal  form,  and  need  in  oonnection 
Etaming  introdneed  hj  Ur  AltM 
figq  p  (hewa  the  refracting  and 


■eea  that)  in  ao  far  aa  regaida  fixed  Iigbt«,whidiai 


tlliuninata  eoiuteuitiy  the  whole  of  the 
.     ._i  eqnal  intennty,  the  diopbio  lif^  of 
Btanel  with  Mr  Abu  StsTenaon'.    ' 


iTtothei 


Bat  Uie  caaa  ia  different  aa 

regards  revolring  lights  or  thoae  wbera  the  whole 
raya  have  to  be  concentrated  into  one  or  more  beMna 
of  ptndlel  nya.  To  rerert  to  Uie  nnboUo  re&eotor, 
it  wast  be  obviona  {aae  fig.  1)  that  all  rayi  whioh 
eacape  paat  the  Upa  of  tbe  reflector,  and  which  are 
shewn  by  hard  linea  in  the  diara-am,  nerer  reach  the 
e^  irf  the  manner,  while,  3  we  retoni  to  the 
diopbio  reTolvins  light  of  Fieenel  (%  2),  we  find 
thM  thoae  rayi  wniim  escape  paat  the  Mia  ate  aeted 
on  br  two  i^jenti,  boQi  ot  which  eanae  loM  <rf  light 
b]r  abaorption.    The  Iom  oooaaioiwd  by  the  inolined 

m*T  mg  9Jj  mnA  in  pMff  jng  ^^fnii^  tbfl  TPyrftTnUftl 

ined  lenaea,  wae  eatimated  by  Fnmel  hnnielf  at 
one-haff  of  the  whole  inoident  nyi.  In  otdtt  to 
avoid  tlue  loae  of  light,  Mr  Thranu  StereDam  pro- 
poaed,  in  IMS,  to  introdnce  aa  amngemeot  by 
which  the  nae  of  one  of  theae  *KentB  ia  avoided,  and 
the  emidoyiiient  of  total  refiet^on,  which  had  bean 
■nooeMialhr  enjoyed  by  Freanel  tor  fixed  liditi^ 
waa  introditoed  wiui  great  advantage  for  Te?omng 

■Thia  effect  may  be  produced  in  the  eaae  of 
metallic  lefleeton  1^  the  oombinatton  of  an  """t"- 
'  0^  L  (%.  6) ;  a  parabolic  oonoid,  a,  tronoated  at 
I  parameter,  or  between  that  and  its  vertex  ;  and 
portitm  of  a  apherical  mirror,  b.  The  lena,  when 
at  iti  pnper  focal  diatanoa  &om  the  fiame,  anbtenda 
the  same  angle  tron  it  aa  the  outer  lip*  of  the 
paraboloid,  eo  that  no  ray  of  light  coming  from 
the  front  of  the  flame  can  eaoape  being  intercepted 
either  by  the  paraboloid  or  the  leni.  Ths  aj^rical 
TeiSeotor  ooonpiea  the  place  of  the  parabolic  oonoid 


which  haa  baao  ont  off  behind  tiie  parameter.  Tht 
flame  ia  at  once  in  the  centre  of  the  apherical  mimr, 
and  in  the  common  fooui  of  the  lona  and  paiiri>oloid. 
The  whole  aphere  of  r^a  emanating  from  the  flame 


LIGHT-HOUSE. 


rirt  01  tbe  uitanor  nemiiphen  of  rsys 
Gspted  bj  tiia  Itmrn,  and  nude  parallel  by 
while  the  ramainiW  ii  interoeptod  by  the  para^ 
boloidal  snriaoe,  and  mods  parallel  by  itt  aotion. 
The  ray*  toiming  the  postonor  honuphere  fa,"  — 
the  aphniMi  tniirar  b«hind  the  flaoML  wid  an 
leoted  forward*  again,  throiuli  Ae  footu  in 


linea,  but  in  oppodte  < 

which  tiiar  enot,  whano*  pMtiiu  oawaid*,  they  ft 
inpMtienaat«db7lli*lena,aiid  the  reat  are  tnai 
pamllel  by  tiia  panboloUL    The  bMk  rava    ' 
finally  enurge  koriioitaUf  in  wiiaa  with  the 
from  the  anteriiw  haninben.     Hui  iartnu 


ttwretore^  Mfili  Uw  naotwMy  oondttioiu,  by  collect- 
i^  Om  aUte  •pttn  qf  dkmiKg  rag»  into  one  beam 


What  ha*  been  joat  described  ii  what  Mr  Sleven- 
■on  tertn*  a  catoptric  holophoU.  What  follow*  i*  a 
deaoripttoii  of  hii  dioptric  MophoU,  in  wliich  total 
reflectioti,  or  the  moat  perfect  tyitem  of  illmnination, 
b  adopted.  The  front  half  of  Uie  lay*  i*  operatea 
npon  by  totally  refleotiiig  glaai  prism*  (p,  p,  fig.  6], 


Fi8-& 


to  IboM  ^ipHed  bjr  Premel  for 
fixed  liglit* ;  but  in*t«*d  of  being  onrrilinear  in  the 
horisoatal  fdaoe  only,  tbey  are  also  curvilinear  in  tbe 
vcrtdoal  plane,  and  tint*  prodnoe,  in  union  with  an 
annnlar  frau,  a  beam  of  pacaHel  n^  nnubtfto  what 


pliuie,  and 

fena,  a  beam  of  parallel  nm,iifflil 
it  efteoted  by  tin  parabdic  tnlrrot  (fig.  1).  Th»  ray* 


prooeedins  Mokwards  fall  apon  ^an  primna,  ab,  ab, 
yrU^  pTMnca  two  total  renecboBa  npon  euh  ray, 
and  oauaa  it  to  paaa  back  thronda  the  flame,  so  *« 
nltimateW  to  fall  in  the  proper  Sbection  npoa  tihe 
dioptric  nolopliote  in  front,  ao  that  tite  whole  of  tiie 
Ul^it  pfODeei£iig  fnun  the  flame  !■  thu*  ultimately 
paralleled  by  mean*  of  the  smallest  nnmber  and 
the  beat  kind*  id  optical  agents.  It  is  a  remarkable  i 
prc^ter^  at  the  spherical  mirror,  a6,  that  no  ray ' 
paa*e*  lAnxuA  it,  so  titat  an  obawrer  itanding 
behind  Uia  iMtramant  percdrea  no  light,  thoa^ 
tliere  is  aotiiiDg  between  him  and  tlta  Same  bat  a 
■craen  li  taanaparent  glsM. 

Where  the  li^t  is  prodoeei  by  a  great  central 
atatjonafy  bnnier,  the  upaiatoi  amimea  the  form 
(fig.  7}  of  a  polysonal  Irame,  conmatiiig;  of  eeotora ' 
of .  lenMs  ana  holophotal  •prua*,  wbiSi  reTolves 
ronnd  the  flame,  and  each  face  of  which  produce* 
a  bean  of  puallel  ray*.  Hence,  ^en  the  frame 
lOToWca  round  the  central  flame,  the  mariner  ia 
alternately  illuminated  and  left  in  darknesa,  accord- 
ing ai  the  Bii*  of  each  ancoeaiive  face  is  pointed 
toward*  him  or  from  him.  The  diSereooe  between 
the  revolving  light  of  Freenel  and  the  holophotal 
ligh^  win  1>e  readily  teen  by  comparing  flg.  7  and 
flg.  S,  in  the  former  of  which,  one  ^ent  i*  enabled 
to  do  the  work  of  two  agents  in  the  latter,  while 
total  reflectbn,  or  that  by  which  least  light  is  loe;^ 


i*  nbditnted  for  metaHio  refleddon.    The  dioptric 
hoh>photal  ayitem,  or  that  by  which  toted  r^/i«tioa 
Umedat  a  portion  iff  thervBoMmg  appartOas, 
nnt    employied   on    a 
acde  in  1800  at 


the  Honbnrgh  Ligjit- 
house,  and  on  the  large 
—•-  in  I851j  at  Koilh 
'dahay  u  Oilney. 
that    date,  thu 


America. 

AtmuiUuii  Ooitdttu- 
«V  LigH—TbA  above 


graieral  (oindple*  on 
which  light-tKoie*  are 
iUnminated.  In  plac- 
ing a  light  in  soms 
aitoatioai,  regatd,  how- 
ever, moet  be  had  to 


e  phvaical  peooliaii* 

a    of    the   localiiyt 

E  plan*  of 


Hg.7. 


Mr  Thomas  Stevenson 
may  be  cited  as  ex- 
amples. In  fixed  lights  of  the  ordinary  oonitmo- 
tioD,  the  light  is  distributed,  a*  already  e^dained, 
eqnaUy  all  roimd  the  borixon,  and  is  well  adapted 
for  a  rook  or  ialand  snnmnded  by  tiis  sea,  Bnt 
where  it  i*  only  neoenaiyto  illnminate  a  narrow 
Soond,  aa  shewn  by  the  ohui,  Sa  B,  it  i*  obvioiu  that 
the  raqnirementi  are  very  difleiwib  On  tbe  side 
next  the  shore, no  light  isnqniradat  all;  aenssfiie 
Sonnd,  a  feeble  light  is  all  tut  is  naoewary,  becaoae 
the  distance  at  wliiah  it  baa  to  be  Men  i*  aniiU, 
owing  to  the  nanowaeM  of  the  ohannel ;  irtnle  vo 
tbe  Sonnd  (DO)  and  down  tbe  Soond  (Mi,  tbe  sea 
iUomiHted  ia  of  gieatw  or  lesser  eoDbeBti  and 
re*  a  wnrespoDding  intsnii^.  If  the  li(^  weie 
I  s«iffiaiently  powwfnl  to  answer  for  the  neaW 
MSk  it  mmld  be  aanoh  too  povetfnl  for  the 


Kg.  8. 

■horter  distance  acron  the  Soond.  8ach  an  anan^ 
ment  would  occasion  an  nnneoesaaiy  waste  of  oil, 
while  the  light  that  ww  oa*t  on  the  landwatd  side 
wonld  be  sJtcigetheT  melee*.  Fig.  9  tepreseot*  (in 
plan)  the  coodeniing  light,  by  whicA  tAe  Ught  proceed- 
ing from  the  fiameia  aMxattdm  tbt  different  minmOu 
^portion  to  tht  dittanem  at  tsUcA  tA«  %Al  rtquira 
Men  by  lie  mariner  in  lAote  axinuilAt.  ]>et  n* 
BnppoBe  that  the  raya  maiked  s  reqnire  to  be  aeen 
at  tJie  greatest  distance  down  the  Soond,  and  those 
marked  |I  to  a  somewhat  smaller  distance  up  thb 
Sound.  In  order  to  strengthen  those  aice,  the  spare 
light  proceeding  landwarda,  whitik  wonld  otherwise 
be  lost,  is  interoepted  b^  portions  of  holophotes,  B 
--'  C,BabteDding  sfdiencal  angles  proporticned  to 
rdatare  ranges  and  ansolar  spaces  of  the  arcs 
id  s.  The  portion*  of  light  thns  interoepted  are 
parallelised  by  the  holt^diote*,  and  fall  npon  Urtdght 
prjams  a,  o^  and  6,  ^  respeotiTUy,  wfaioh  Midn  rtfiMt 


LIGHTHOUSE. 


(hem  in  the  horlswU  plana  only  J  and,  nft«r  pMriw  be 
throng  focal  pointl  ^idependent  for  each  priam),  (o 
tbej  aacrge  in  aaparate  equal  beams,  and  dlTerge  m 
tbrongh  l£e  Mine  *ii^e«  aa  ■  and  0  reapestirelj.  |  and 


aaHed  an  apparent  light,  from 
-eeedflvmafiunae»  iStrotk,  tekiietMliglJin 

pr««M(b>vm  lAa  (bon,  aboal  6S0  feet  diatant, 
u  refracted  brglaM  prumi  daoedcm  the  beaonL 

Floating  Li^Ut  are  Taenia  fitted  with  lightB 
nuxced  at  tea  in  ilia  Tidnity  ol  leafi.  Fiiorto 
1S07,  tlM  laotMn  waa  hnng  at  the  raid-ann. 
The  lata  lb  Bobert  Sterenaim  th«i  ioti^noed 
tiie  preeent  qpatem  of  knterni,  hkrin^  a  *0PP*r 
tabe  in  Utim  centra  oapable  of  reeeinag  tlM 
*eMa?i  maat,  which  nned  tdinm^  the  tabe, 
tile  lighti  being  {Jaood  all  ronnd.  In  tiiia  way, 
pnmer  optical  apptianaef  can  be  cmplOTed,  aad 
the  lantvn  can  be  lowend  on  tba  iMat  lo  aa  to 
pMi  throngli  the  roof  of  a  home  oa  the  daok, 
wherathelampaanfflledortoinuned.  lit  1864, 
rii  floating  li^ta  «u«  oonatrnoted  for  the 
Hooghly  nnder  the  direotiooa  of  Hewn  SlcTsn- 
eon,  m  which  the  dioptric  prinoiple  waa  applied. 

Erfit  half-fixed  V  "  '        '    "" 

ipherical  mirron 

lantern  round  the  meat,  .  . 

azimath  nva  from  three  of  (bem  at  onoe. 

V^ermiiai  Lou. — Thia  ia  ao  anniilar  leni, 
onrred  to  different  radii  on  boUk  ddet,  ao  ai  to 
increaae  die  divergence  in  any  rinn  ratio.  Hie 
■mail  am  of  about  6*,  wluoh  ii  tmeqnallv 
iDnminated  bythe  lena  ae  prtaentlr  oolwtmated, 
may  be  nude  of  eqnal  intensity  tW^iant  by 
the  difforential  form,  or  by  meana  ofieparate 
ctndght  priimi  placed  at  the  eidea. 

Stmna  of  Light. — The  daeoriptiona  irtiiah 


^  _  the  mamier  we  luva  dncribed,  t^  light 

which  would  oUierwiae  hare  been  loet  on  the  land. 
These  in«biimenta  were  firat  inttodnoed  at  three 
Somid  lighti  in  the  weat  of  Bootland,  in  1807,  when 
appamtna  of  a  email  liie,  oombiued  with  a  imaU 
binn«r,  wai  foond  to  prodnocs  i^  ^*  '"'^  directiona 
in  which  great  power  waa  required,  bninii  of  light 
woal  to  ^e  largeat  daaa  of  vpparatua  and  burner, 
lie  aaTing  tbua  effected  in  ou,  Ac,  haa  been  eati- 
aiated  at  aWt  £400  or  £500  per  umnm  for  tiieae 
three  atationa. 


f  a  beam  of  parallel  raya  Ikroum  /torn  the 
aa  certain  opbcal  apparatua  flsed  in  tlie  top 
icon  ereotea  npon  toe  rook  iUeU.  It  was 
■Qggeited  that  the  HgKt-hooee  ahonld  be  boitt  on 
the  ontlyiog  aabmerged  reef,  but  the  coat  wonld 
hBTC  been  Tcry  great,  and  Mr  Stevenson's  ea^estion 


of  the  apparent  light  waa  ad(^ted.  By  meaua  of 
thil  jdui  {vide  chut,  fig.  lOJ,  the  expense  of  erect- 
ing *•  light-hooae  on  the  rock  itself  lua  beeu  Bdvod, 
ana  all  the  purposes  of  the  mariner  served.    It  luis 


r.r 


agL 


LIQHTNINO— LIQHTNINGM30NDU0T0B. 


UOHIHUTO  (Fr.  tdaif,  G«r.  Elib],  the  OMn« 
giTBn  to  the  niddea  disohaige  of  elediia^  between 
ona  gnnip  of  olonda  Mid  asotlur,  or  brtween  the 
ohnuu  and  tho  ffTOimd.  It  is  etuntullj  the  ■*n*ft, 
Uunuh  on  s  mnoh  gnnder  vnle,  u  the  ipkA 
-^•^ — lied  from  an  eleobio  machine.  Olonda  chugad 
eleulriuity  are  called  thnndei-alooda,  and  ara 
J  known  by  their  peculiariy  daifc  and  deuM 
appearaoca.    The  hevht  <&  thondar-olond*  it  Tcoy. 

2S,700  feet,  and  a  thnnaetHdond  ia  reoorded  irhoae 
hoght  wa«  only  89  feet  abore  the  ^oond.  According 

to  Arago,  there  are  three  iloAa  ol  lightning,  whioh 
he  natoee  ligbtning  of  the  fint,  tecond,  and  third 

known  aa  tnrkaJ -lightning  (Fr.  idair  en  ng-zag). 
It  appears  as  a  br^en  line  of  light,  danae,  thm, 
and  well  defined  at  the  edges,  OccauoDally,  irtten 
darting  between  the  cbnda  and  the  earth,  it  twe«ka 
op  near  the  latter  into  one  or  two  forkt,  aikd  i«  then 
oaUed  biforoate  or  trifuroale.  The  temunatioiit  of 
these  branchea  are  totneliinea  serertd  Uiotuand  feet 
from  each  other.  On  laTerBl  ocoaaiona,  the  lei^tii  ol 
forked-I^tning  haa  been  tried  to  be  got  at  tngono- 
metiicalfi',  ana  the  reenlt  gare  a  length  of  aereral 
milea.  liigtitming  of  the  second  class  u  what  is  com- 
monly called  sh^lightning  (Ger.  FtOehaiilUz).  It 
hail  no  definite  form,  ont  seems  to  be  a  great  mass 
of  light.  It  has  not  the  intensity  of  Lgbtmng  of  the 
first  class.  Sometimes  it  is  tinged  decidedly  red,  at 
othor  times,  blue  at  violet.  'Wben  it  occurs  behind 
a  olond,  it  light*  np  its  oatline  only.  Occasionally, 
it  iUainiMS  the  worid  of  clouds,  and  appears  to 
eome  fnth  from  the  heart  of  them.  Sheet-ughtning 
is  my  mnoh  more  frequent  than  foAed-li^tning. 
^jghtning  of  the  third  kind  is  called  b^-hghtiiing 
(Ft.  sflfibe*  de  /at,  Ger.  KvgObltii).  This  so- called 
ifght^mg  deeoribee,  perhape,  more  a  meteor,  which, 
on  rare  occasions,  aocompaniee  electric  discbnige, 
or  lightaiing  proper,  than  a  phenomenon  in  itself 
elactrioaL  It  is  said  to  occur  in  this  way  :  After  a 
Tidsnt  explooon  of  lightning,  a  ball  is  seen  to  pro- 
ceed from  the  region  of  the  explosion,  and  to  make 
ita  way  to  the  earth  in  a  curved  line  like  a  bomb. 
When  it  reaches  the  groand,  it  either  splits  up  at 
once,  and  disa^Mua,  or  it  rebonnda  like  an  elwtic 
ball  several  time*  b«foi«  dmng  so.  Itisdescribed  as 
being  very  dangerous,  readily  iettiDg  file  to  the  build- 
ing on  whiab  it  alight* ;  and  a  ligntuin^-conductor 
is  no  protectioD  against  it.  Ball-lightmng  lasts  for 
aeveral  seconds,  and,  is  ttiis  teep«ct,  difeis  very 
widely  from  lightning  of  the  firat  and  second  claBaes, 
which  are,  in  the  etnotest  sense,  momentary. 

nie  thunder  (Fr.  tonnerre,  Oer.  Donner)  which 
accompanies  lightning,  as  well  u  t^e  snap  attending 
the  electric  spark,  has  not  ret  been  satisfactorily 
accounted  for.  Botli,  no  doubt,  arise  from  a  commo- 
tion of  the  air  brought  about  by  the  passage  of  elec- 
trici^;  bnt  it  is  difficult  to  nnderitand  how  it  takes 
place.  SiqtpoM  this  difficulty  cleared,  there  still 
nnuuns  the  prolonKed  rdling  <H  the  thnnder,  and  its 
strange  rising  and  fiJliag  to  acoonnt  for.  Tti»  echoes 
sent  between  the  clouds  and  the  earth,  or  between 
objeeta  on  the  earth's  sarface,  stay  explain  this  to 
some  extent,  but  not  fnlly-  A  person  in  the  imme- 
diate neif^ibonrhood  of  a  Qash  of  lightning  hean  only 
ona  sharp  raport,  which  is  peculiarly  sharp  when  an 
object  is  struck  by  it.  A  person  at  a  distance  hears 
tiie  same  report  as  a  prolonged  peal,  and  persons  in 
different  situations  hear  it  each  in  a  difierent  way. 
This  may  be  so  tar  explained.  The  path  of  the 
lightning  may  be  reckoned  at  ona  or  two  miles  in 
leugUi,  and  each  point  of  the  path  is  the  tnigin  of  a 
separate  sound.  Sappoae,  for  the  sake  of  simpUcity, 
that  the  path  ia  a  strught  line,  a  person  at  the 


fbr  though  the  sound  originating  at  each  pcunt  eC 
the  path  is  prodneed  at  iSe  same  instant,  it  is  some 
time  before  tha  eonnd  coming  frcoa  the  more  distant 
points  of  tha  line  reaches  the  ear.  A  petaon  near 
the  middle  of  the  line  beaia  the  whole  lest  prolonged, 
because  he  is  more  eqnidistant  from  the  diffemt 
parte  of  it  Eaoh  listener  in  this  way  hcMS  a  difler' 
ent  peal,  according  to  tha  poation  he  stands  in  with 
referuoe  to  the  line.  On  this  snppositdon,  howerer, 
Unutder  ought  to  begin  at  its  loi^st,  and  nadnalljr 
die  away,  beoanse  the  sound  oome*  first  frun  the 
neareet  points,  and  then  from  points  more  and  more 
distant.  Such,  however,  it  is  well  known,  is  not  tha 
case.  Disbmt  thunder  at  the  beginning  is  just 
audible,  and  no  more ;  then  it  gradiudljr  swells  mto 
a  crashing  sound,  and  again  grows  fainter,  till  it 
ceases.  l%e  rise  and  fall  are  uA  c<Hituinans,  for  the 
whole  peal  wpe&rs  to  ha  made  np  of  Mrend  sooces- 
stve  pmls,  which  rise  and  fall  as  the  whole.  Soma 
have  attempted  to  account  for  this  modalation  fnn 
the  forked  form  of  the  li^tning,  which  make*  so 
many  different  centres  of  sound,  at  difierent  ui^ea 
with  each  other,  the  wave*  coming  from  idiicii  iniMS 
fere  with  each  otiier,  at  one  time  moving  in  <»TKMita 
directions,  and  obliterating  the  toimd,  at  anMur  In 
the  same  way,  and  thai  strengthening  the  aound, 


_     .  _.  report  of 

artilleiy  has  been  heard  at  mneh  greater  dislauoes. 
It  is  said  that  tbe  cannonading  at  Uie  battle  of 
Waterloo  was  heard  at  the  town  of  Creil,  in  the 
north  of  France,  about  115  milea  from  the  field. 

LIGHTNING-CONDUCTOE  (Fr.  ponitoa- 
ntrrt,  Ger.  BlUzaiilaler).  The  principle  of  the 
li^tning-condnctor  is,  that  electriciiy,  of  two 
conducting  passages,  selects  the  better;  and  that 
when  it  naa  got  a  snfGcient  conducting  passage, 
it  i«  disarmed  of  all  dettmctive  energy.  It  a 
person  holds  his  hand  near  the  prime  conductor  of 
a  powerful  electric  machine  in  action,  he  leoeivea 
long  forked  stinging  spaAs,  each  of  which  causae 
a  very  sensible  convulsion  in  his  frame.  But  if 
he  holds  in  his  hand  a  ball,  connected  with  the 
ground  by  a  wire  or  chun,  the  above  sensation 
IS  scarcely,  if  at  all,  felt,  as  each  spaA  oocors, 
for  tha  electricity,  now  having  the  ull  and  wire 
passage  to  the  ground,  prefers  it  to  the  less  oon- 
ducting  body.  I^  instead  of  a  ball,  a  pointed  rod 
were  used,  no  sparks  would  pass,  and  no  sensation 
whoever  would  be  felt.  The  point  silently  dis- 
chM^ee  the  prime  conductor,  and  does  not  alknr  the 
eleoteicity  to  accamulate  in  it  so  as  to  prodnoa 


sufficient  to  affect  tlie  nerve*.  If,  for  the  prime  con- 
ductor of  the  machine,  we  subatitute  the  thunder- 
clouds ;  for  the  body,  a  bailding ;  for  the  conmlnve 
sensation,  as  the  evidence  of  eledric  power,  heat- 
ingandotherdeatroctiveefi'ects;  tor  the  ball,  or  rod, 
ai^  wire,  the  lightning-condnctor,  we  have  the  same 
conditions  exhibited  on  a  larger  uatntal  scala.  It 
is  easier,  however,  to  protect  a  building  from  the 
attacks  of  lightning  than  tha  body  from  uie  eleotcio 
spa^  as  the  irod  in  the  one  ease  is  a  much  better 
conductor,  compared  with  the  building,  than  it  is 
compared  with  the  body,  and,  in  oonsequence,  mora 
easQy  diverts  the  electricity  into  it. 

The  lightning-oonduotor  confflsts  of  three  parti : 
the  rod,  or  put  overtopping  the  building;  tlie 
conductor,  or  part  coDsecting  the  rod  with  the 
ground  ;  and  the  part  in  the  ground.  The  rod  is 
made  of  a  pyramidal  or  conical  form  (Uie  latter 
being  [neferable),  from  8  to  30  feet  in  height, 
securely  fixed  to  the  roof  or  highest  part  of  tha 
building.  Gay-Lussac  proposes  tut  this  rod  should 
conrat,  for  the  greater  part  of  its  length  below,  of 


aCiUOl^lC 


LIOHTNINQ-CONDncrOE— LIGHrNrNQ-PEIKTS. 


iron ;  thkt  it  ihauld  then  be  inrnioDiited  by  a  short 
■hajrp  CODB  of  bnaa;  uid  that  it  ihould  finaUy 
end  in  a  fine  phltinom  needle ;  the  whole  beinf; 
riveted  or  KJdraed  togother,  «o  as  to  render  perfect 
the  condncting  coimectioii  of  the  parts.  The  diffi- 
culty of  constniGtiiig  each  a  rod  has  led  generally 
to  the  adoption  of  aimple  rods  of  iron  or  oopjier, 
whoee  points  are  gilt,  to  keep  them  from  beooming 
Uant  l^  oxidation.  It  is  of  the  atmost  importaooe 
that  the  upper  extremity  of  the  rod  should  end  in  a 
(harp  point,  because  the  sharper  the  point  the  mf 
is  the  eleotiical  action  of  the  conductor  limited 
the  point,  and  diverted  from  the  rest  of  the  ci 
dnetor.  There  is  thus  less  danger  of  the  electhoi^ 
sparking  from  the  oondoctor  at  the  aide  of  the  build- 
ing into  the  building  itseli  Were  the  quantity  of 
the  electricity  of  the  clouds  not  so  enormous,  the 
pointed  rod  would  prevent  a  lightning-di^chare^ 
altogether;  but  even  as  it  is,  the  violence  of  the 
Hghtning-dischai^  is  considerably  lessened  b^  tlie 
»ilent  ^schatging- power  of  the  jxiint  previously 
taking  place.  According  to  Eis^ohr,  a  cooicu 
rod,  f  feet  in  he^ht,  ought  to  have  a  c" 
its  base  of  13.3  linea,  and  one  of  30  feet 
of  28.6  lines. 

The  ^art'of  the  liehtning-ooaduotor  forming  the 
oonnection  between  the  rod  and  the  gcoaod,  is  ee~  ~ 
rally  a  prismatia  or  cylindrical  rod  ofiron  (^e  Ut 
being  preferable),  or  a  strap  of  copper ;  sometime 
rope  of  iron  or  copper  nire  ia  used.  Iron  w 
imiODTee  as  a  conductor  when  electric  currents  pass 
throogh  it ;  coj^ier  wire,  in  the  same  circumstances, 
becomes  brittle.  An  iron  rope  is  much  better,  there- 
fore, tor  condudinff  than  a  copper  one.  Galvanised 
iron  is,  of  all  nutenals,  the  beat  for  conductors.  The 
conducting- rod  ought  to  be  properly  connected  with 
the  conicu  rod  either  by  riveting  or  aoldering  or 
botL  Here,  as  at  every  point  of  juncture,  the 
utmost  care  must  he  taken  that  there  is  no  break 
in  the  conduction.  The  oonducting-rod  ia  led  along 
the  roof,  and  down  the  outside  of  the  walls,  aud 
is  kept  in  its  position  by  holdfasts  fixed  in  the 
bnilding.  There  must  be  no  sharp  turns  in  it,  but 
each  bend  must  be  made  as  round  as  possible. 
Considerable  disouMioQ  has  arisen  as  to  the  proper 
thicknese  for  the  conductiag-rod.  If  it  were  too 
small,  it  would  only  conduct  part  of  the  electricity, 
and  leave  the  buiMiug  to  conduct  the  rest,  and  it 
might  be  melted  by  the  electricity  endeavouring  to 
force  a  passage  through  it  as  an  insufficient  con- 
ductor. The  Paris  Commission,  which  sat  in  1823, 
gave  the  minimTim  gectiou  of  an  iron  conductor 
as  a  square  of  15  millimetres  (about  {tha  of  an  inch] 
in  side,  and  this  they  considered  quite  sufficient 
in  all  drcumstanceB.  A  rod  of  copper  would  need 
to  be  only  {th*  of  this,  u  oopper  condnot*  elec- 
tricity abont  six  t^iea  more  readily  than  iron. 
This  ctlcnlatioD  is  very  generally  followed  in  prac- 
tice. In  leading  the  condoctor  along  the  building  it 
•hould  bokspt  as  much  uNutaa  possible  from  masses 
of  conducting  matter  about  the  building,  Buch  at 
iron  beams,  machinery,  Jux  Theae  may  form  a 
broken  chain  of  condui^ora  communicating  with  the 
ground,  and  divert  a  portion  of  the  electricity  froni 
the  lightning-oonductor.  If  such  took  place,  then  at 
each  mterruption  electricity  would  pass  in  a  visible 


insulated  from  these  masses  of  metal,  the  necessary 
•eourity  ia  got  by  putting  them  in  connection  with 
the  conductor,  so  as  to  urm  a  part  of  it.  Water- 
runs,  leaden  roofs,  and  the  like,  mnat,  for  this  reason, 
all  be  placed  in  oondacting  connectiaa  with  the 
oondnctor. 

The  portion  of  the  lightning-oonductor  which  is 
placed  m  the  ground  i*  no  leas  worthy  of  ••'•''>'<(^™ 


than  the  other  two.  Shonld  the  lower  part  of  the 
conductor  end  in  dr^  earth,  it  is  worse  thui  useless, 
for  when  the  lightning,  attracted  by  the  prominence 
and  point  of  the  upper  rod,  strikes  it,  it  finds,  in 
all  likelihood,  no  passage  through  the  uncouducting 
dry  earth,  and,  in  consequence,  strikes  off  to  a  port 
of  the  ground  where  it  may  easily  dispsne  itself  and 
be  tost.  Wherever  it  is  practicable,  a  lightning- 
conductor  should  end  in  a  well  or  large  body  of 
water.  Water  is  a  good  conductor,  and  having  vari- 
ous ramificationB  in  the  sail,  offers  the  best  facility 
to  the  eleotricity  to  beoome  dispersed  and  harmless 
in  the  ground.  The  rod,  on  reaching  the  ground, 
shonld  be  led  down  a  foot  and  a  haff,  or  two  feet, 
into  the  soil,  and  then  turned  awa;^  at  right  angles 
to  the  wall  from  the  bnilding  in  a  hoiiEOntal 
drain  filled  with  charcoal,  for  about  from  12  t«  16 
feet,  and  then  turned  into  the  well  so  far  that  its 
temunation  U  Uttle  likely  to  be  left  ^.  Where 
a  well  cannot  be  made,  a  hole  6  inches  wide  (wider, 
if  possible)  should  be  bored,  from  9  to  16  feel^  the 
rod  placed  in  the  middle  of  it,  and  the  intervening 
space  closely  packed  with  freshly  heated  Charcot 
The  charoou  serves  the  double  purpose  of  keeping 
the  iron  from  rusting,  and  of  leading  away  " 
electricity  from  the  r<^  into  the  ground. 


sufGdent  protection  from  the  ravages  of  lightning. 
The  circle  within  which  a  lightning-conductor  is 
found  to  be  efficacious,  is  very  limited.  Its  radius 
~~  generally  assumed  to  be  twice  the  height  of  the 
L  On  Isi^  buildings,  it  is  therefore  necessary 
have  sev^ol  rods,  one  on  each  prominent  part 
of  the  building,  all  being  connected  so  as  to  form 
~  ~  3  condocting  system.  In  shim,  a  rod  is  placed 
-_  every  mast,  and  their  connection  with  the  seats 
established  by  strips  of  copper  inlaid  in  the  masts, 
imd  attached  below  to  the  metal  of  or  about  the 
keeL  See  Anderson's  Lightning  OonduelOTt  (ISSQ), 
LIGHTNINO-FBINTS  ore  appearances  some- 
nes  found  on  the  skin  or  clothing  of  men  or 
animals  that  ore  either  struck  by  lightning,  or  are 
the  vicinity  of  the  stroke,  and  currently  believed 
be  photographic  representations  of  surroonding 
objects  or  scenery.  The  existence  of  such  prints 
appears,  from  a  theoretical  point  of  view,  highly 
improbable,  as  the  essential  conditions  of  forming 
a  photographic  image  are  wanting ;  still,  sevenu 
apparently  weU-authenticated  instances  have  been 
recorded,  which  have  led  scientiGc  authorities  to 
at  least  partial  credence  to  them.  One  or 
instances  may  serve  to  give  a  general  idea 
of  what  are  meant  by  lightning-print&  At  Can- 
delorta  (Cuba),  in  1828,  a  young  man  was  struck 
dead  by  lightning  near  a  house^  on  one  of  the  win- 
dows of  which  was  nailed  a  horse-shoe ;  and  the 
image  of  the  horse-shoe  was  said  to  be  distinctly 
printed  upon  the  neck  of  the  young  man  beneath 
the  right  ear.  On  the  14th  of  November  1S30, 
lightning  struck  the  Ch&tean  of  Benatonnitoc,  in 
Ia  Vendee ;  at  the  time,  a  lady  happened  to  he 
seated  on  a  chair  in  the  sslon,  and  on  the  back 
of  her  dress  were  printed  minutely  the  ornaments 
on  the  back  of  the  chair.  In  September  18fiT,  a 
peasant-girl,  nrhile  herding  a  cow  in  the  department 
of  Seine- et-Home,  was  overtaken  by  a  thunder- 
storm. She  took  refuge  nnder  a  tree ;  and  the  tree, 
'^'--   TOW,  and  herself  were  struck  with  lightning. 

cow  was  killed,  but  she  recovered,  and  on 

loosening  her  drees  for  the  sake  of  respiring  freely, 
she  saw  a  picture  of  the  cow  upon  her  breast. 
These  aneodotes  are  typical  of  a  great  mass  of 
others.  They  teU  of  metalhc  objects  printed  on 
the  akin;  of^ clothes,  while  being  worn,  recdving 
impressions  of  neighbouring  objects;  or  of  the  skin 


„Goog[( 


UGHTS-LIQNTIM.VITi 


being  piotored  with  nnrormdiiiK  Meuety  or  object*, 
daring  tJiiutder-itoTmB.  One  objoot  vary  ^enenllj' 
ipoken  of  ai  being  printed  ii  K  neigHtrannng  b^e. 
Thii  may  be  aooamited  for  by  BUppocinK  tlult  the 
lightning-diacharge  boa  taken  plaoe  on  the  akin  in 
^e  form  of  the  eleotria  braih  (lee  Blzotbicitt), 
which  hai  the  Etrongeat  poerible  reeemblance  bo 
a  tree,  and  that  thii  being  in  MMe  way  or  other 
imprinted  on  the  akin,  haa  led  obserrerB  to  oon- 
fonnd  it  with  a  neighbonring  tr«e.  Of  other  prints, 
it  wonid  be  diffictilt  to  give  a  Mtiafactoiy  aoooont. 
However,  obeerren  have  done  somethiiig  in  imita- 
tion of  them.  It  has  been  shewn,  for  instance,  by 
Qermaji  obaerrers,  that  when  a  coin  is  plaoed  on 
glass,  and  a  stream  of  i^iarks  ponred  on  it  from  a 

Kwfu^ul  electrical  machine,  on  the  glass  being 
satbed  Qpon,  after  ita  removal,  a  diAinct  image 
of  the  coin  u  traced  ont  by  tike  dew  of  the  breath. 
Mr  Tomlinson,  by  interposing  a  pane  of  glaaa 
between  the  knob  of  a  chargSi  Leyden  jar  and 
that  of  the  dischaxging-tonga,  obtained  a  perfect 
bnaih-Jigure  ot  the  diaoharge  (">  ^"^  '°^^  »'  the 
glasB,  which  bore  the  most  striking  resemblance  to 
a  tree.  With  all  due  allowance  lor  the  probable 
printing-power  of  lightning,  the  acconnti  given  of 
it,  in  moat  coses,  bear  the  stamp  of  exaggeration ; 
and  Bonh  of  them  ■■  have  been  inqnired  mto  have 
been  fonnd  to  dwindle  to  a  very  small  retddaum 
of  fact,  in  which  there  remuned  little  Umt  was 
wDnderCul 
LIGHTS,  na«  o; 

■■'  "'   '■    ti , .-, 

aninent  reli^ons,  and  which  is 

tetained  both  in  the  Roman  and  in  the  Oriental 
ohnrches.  The  nss  of  li^ts  in  the  night-servioee, 
and  in  sabterranean  chnr^eo,  snch  as  uiosa  of  the 
early  Christiaaa  in  the  catacombs,  is  of  coarse  eaaily 

intelligible ;  bnt  the  practice,  as  bearing  also 

bohc^allnsion  to  tile  'Light  of  the  Worli' ' 
the  ■  Xiight  of  Faith,'  was  Dot  confiaed  to 
of  neoesaity,  bat  appears  to  liave  been  from  an  early 
tine  an  accompaniment  of  Christiaa  worship,  espe- 
cially in  connectioQ  with  the  saoraments  of  baptism 
and  the  cocharist.  The  time  of  the  service  in  which 
lights  are  used  haa  varied  Tery  mock  in  different 
agee.  St  Jerome  apeaka  of  it  odIj  during  the  reading 
M  the  gospel ;  AnMlarini^  from  the  begmnins  of  the 
mass  till  the  end  c^  the  gospel;  Isidore  of  Seville, 
from  the  gospel  to  tile  and  of  the  canon  ;  and  event- 
sally  it  was  extended  to  the  entire  time  of  the 
mass.  In  other  servicai,  also,  Ughta  have  been  naed 
from  an  early  period.  Lighted  tapers  were  placed 
in  the  hand  oi  the  newly  baptised,  which  St  Gregory 
Nasiaozen  interprets  as  emblems  of  fntore  glory- 
Indeed,  in  the  Kaman  Catholic  Chnrch,  the  moat 
jffofuH  nse  tit  lights  is  reserved  for  the  services 
connected  with  Uat  aaorament.  The  naage  of 
Meeting  the  Paschal  Light  is  described  elsewhere. 
See  HoLi  Week.  The  material  used  for  lights  in 
chnrohea  i«  either  oil  or  wax,  the  latter  in  peni- 
tential time,  and  in  service*  for  the  dead,  beii^  of 
a  yellow  colour.  In  the  Anglican  Church,  candle- 
tticks,  and  in  some  instanca  candlea  themselvee, 
are  r^ained  in  many  charcbee,  on  the  ooinmunion 
taUe,  but  they  ore  not  lighted.  The  retention  of 
them  is  greatlv  faTonred  by  the  'High  Church' 
party,  ana  much  disapproved  by  the '  Low  Church ' 
or  'Evangelical'  pai^.      la  the  Presb|rterian  and 


LrONITIE  (derived  from  the  Latjn  word  liqmtm, 

wood)  is  the  incmsting  matter  contained  within  the 
ceUular  tissue,  which  gives  hardness  to  wood.  Ijke 
cellDkae,  of  which  the  cellnlar  tisme  is  oompoaed,  it 


is  insolnble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  and  dilute  aold% 

more  readily  soluble  In  alkaline  liquids  than  oelln* 
looe.  Its  exact  compoaitiim  ia/uncertain,  bat  it  [« 
known  to  consist  of  carbon,  hydnwen,  and  oxygen, 
and  to  differ  in  ita  oompontioD  mm  oellokiae  in 
containing  a  greater  pannntue  of  hydrogen  than  is 
necessary  to  form  water  wiui  its  oxygeu.  When 
submitted  to  dealt  uotive  distillation,  n  yields  acetic 
add ;  and  that  it  ia  the  source  d  the  pyroligneous 
acid  (which  is  merely  crude  acetic  add)  obtained  by 
the  destructiTa  distiUation  of  wood,  it  proved  by  the 
fact,  that  the  hardest  woods  (those,  UMnely,  which 
contain  the  greatest  proportion  ti  Ugnine)  ^eld  the 
largest  amount  of  acid.  Ugnine  is  identical  witii 
the  matiin  inemtUmte  ot  Psyen  and  other  EVendt 
botaniste. 


therefbre  not  impT  ,      _  .  .._ 

between  peat  and  coaL  SrmBK  ami,  Surturbrand, 
and  JA,  are  general^  regarded  as  varietiea  of  lignite> 
The  fossil  planta  of  limits  are  alvrays  terrerarial ; 
mlms  and  ooniferoos  ta«Ga  are  amongst  them. 
Remains  of  terrestrial  ■"■■"""I'*  are  Sita  foand 
in  it. 

LI'QNtnH  RHOTJIUM,  a  kind  of  wood  which 
occurs  as  an  article  of  commeros^  having  a  pleaauit 
smell  resembling  the  smell  ot  rosea.  It  it  Droogfat 
to  Europe  in  atrong,  thick,  and  rather  heavy  pieces 
which  are  cylindrical  but  knot^,  and  tometimes 
split  They  are  externally  covered  with  a  crocked 
gray  bark ;  internally,  theyore  yellowish,  and  often 
reddish  in  the  hearL  They  have  an  aromatio 
bitterish  taste,  and,  when  rubbed,  emit  an  agreeable 
rose-like  smelL  This  wood  comes  from  the  Canary 
Islonds,  and  is  produced  by  two  slmibby  and  erect 
species  of  ComxAeulv*,  witn  small  leaves,  CL  teopa- 
mu  and  O.  Jtoridtu.  It  is  the  wood  both  of  the 
root  and  of  the  stem,  bnt  the  latter  is  rather  inferior. 
An  essential  oil  {Oii  of  L.  A.),  having  a  strong  smell, 
is  obtained  from  it  by  distillation,  and  is  used  for 
salves,  embrocations,  Ac,  and  also  very  frequently 
for  adulteration  of  oil  ot  roses. — Besides  this  L.  £. 
of  the  Canary  I^ands,  an  American  khid  is  also  a 
common  article  of  commerce ;  it  is  produced  by 
the  Amyrit  hahaiiaj'fra,  a  native  of  Jamaica,  and 

S'  elds  an  essential  oil,  very  similar  to  the  former. 
le  Ii.  B.  of  the  Levant  is  now  scarcely  to  be  met 
with  in  commerc&  It  is  the  produce  of  Liipad- 
amfiar  Orieniale.  From  this,  however,  the  name 
haa  been  transferred  to  the  other  kinds. 

LiarrtTM-VITiB,  the  wood  of  Ouaiaeum  <^tA- 
naZ«(nat.  ord.  ZggophyUaeem),  and  probably  of  soms 
other  spedes,  natives  of  Jamaica  and  St  Domiiua 
Tha  hardness    and  exceeding    toughnea*   of  ^is 

■- by  Frofi 

, -.,  ,. r  interl* „ 

flbreiv  The  heart-wood,  which  is  the  part  used,  it 
vary  dense  and  heavy,  of  a  dark,  greeniah-brown 
colour,  rarely  more  than  8  indies  in  diameter;  the 
stem  itself  seldom  reaches  18  inches  in  diameter, 
and  grows  to  the  height  of  about  30  feet  The  wood 
is  much  valaed  for  making  the  wheels  of  pulleys 
and  other  small  ariidea  m  which  hatdneaa  and 
toughness  are  required  ;  large  quaotitiea  are  con- 
sumed in  making  the  sheaves  (see  Pullit)  ot  shiprf 
blocks  Besides  these  uses,  the  wood,  when  reduced 
to  fine  shavings  or  raspinn,  the  bark,  and  also  a 
greenish  resin  which  exudes  cram  the  stem,  are  muoh 
gd  in  medicine,  being  renrded  as  having  powerfHl 
ti-syphilHio  and  anti-rhenmatio  properties.     See 


LIONT— LILIACE^ 


koeoout  of  the  battle  Coaght  here  by 
the  French,  iioder  Napoleon,  and  the  Prassuuis, 
iind^  BlUcher,  16th  June  1810,  the  same  day 
on  whioh  the  French,  under  Marshal  Nej,  were 
engaged  with  the  Britiah,  nnder  Wellington,  at 
Qoatre-Braa.  Napoleoa  had  formed  a  plan  for 
overpoweling  hii  antaeonitti  in  detail  ere  the] 
conld  conceotrate  their  fotcea  ;  and  contrary  to  thi 
expectatiDiiB  both  of  Wellington  and  BlUcher,  bwu 
hia  opemtiona  by  aaauling  the  PmmianB,  Thi 
battle  took  place  m  flie  afternoon.  The  poMetdoi 
of  the  villagGB  of  L.  and  St  Amand  w&i  hotly  coD' 
tested ;  bat  the  Fraseiaoa  were  at  laat  comp^ed  tc 
give  way.  The  Fnuaians  lost  in  thia  battle  12,000 
men  and  21  cannon;  the  French,  7DQ0  men.  A 
miatake  proTented  a  corps  of  the  Frentji  army, 
under  Erlon,  from  taking  the  part  aiatgned  to  it 
in  the  battle,  And  led  to  Ney^i  encountering  the 
Belgians  and  BritUh  at  Qnatre-Braa  (a.  t.),  instead 
«f  nniting  hi«  forces  with  those  engagaa  a^punst  " 
Pnutians  at  Ligny. 


spLt  on  ( 


aide,  and  spread  

stisp,  toothed  at  the  extremity. 


Vbs  form  of 
tremity.  This 
form  of  corolla  i»  very  common  in  the  OmnponCa, 
appearing  in  oil  the  florets  of  some,  tt  the  dandelion, 
and  only  in  the  florets  of  the  ray  of  othen,  as  the 
daisy  and  aster.  The  term,  howerer,  is  of  general 
appUcatioii. 

LIGUI^B.    See  Giuasn. 

LIOUOBI,  Altohzo  Masu  db,  a  aunt  of  the 
Boman  Catbolio  Church,  and  founder  of  tha  order 
of  ligDoriau  or  RedeMptorista.  He  waa  bom  of  a 
noUe  tarnHv  at  Naplea,  27Ui  September  1696,  and 
embraced  the  pn^easion  of  the  law,  whieh,  however, 
he  •oddenly  retinqniahed  for  the  ptitpoae  i^  derotinK 
ImnseU  entirely  to  a  rdisiona  life.  He  reoeived 
ftiM't  orden  m  1126 ;  ana  in  1732,  in  oonjonotion 
wiUi  twelve  companions,  founded  the  assooiation 
whieh  is  now  called  by  his  name.  See  LiocoriajiSi 
In_  1762,  he  waa  appointed  biahop  o£  Sant'  Agata 
dei  Ooti,  in  the  Icii^om  of  Naples,  and  his  life 
«B  «  bishop  is  confened  by  ProteBtoat  as  well  as 
Catholie  historian*  to  have  been  a  model  of  the 
pastoral  character ;  bat  thrjnlimg  from  the  respon- 
nbilities  of  mch  on  office,  he  reainted  his  see  in 
1775,  after  which  date  be  tetaniea  to  hi*  order, 
and  contdnned  to  live  id  the  aane  aimde  atitterity 
which  had  choiacterised  his  early  life.  Having  snr- 
vived  bis  retirement  twelve  years,  ha  died  at  Nocera 
dei  Pagant,  August  1,  17^,  and  was  solemnly 
-canonited  in  the  Boman  Catholic  Church  in  1839. 
L.  is  one  of  the  most  volominous  and  most  popular 
of  modem  Catbi^o  theologioal  writers.  His  works, 
which  extend  to  seventy  volumes  Svo,  embrace 
almost  every  department  of  theological  learning, 
divinity,  casuistry,  exegesis,  history,  oonon  law, 
ll«g^ogra[^y,  aacetidam,  and  even  poetry.  His 
«ornn>ondenc0  also  is  voluminous,  but  is  almost 
entiraly  on  spiiitaal  sabjeota.  The  principles  of 
CMOisby  explained  by  L  have  bean  reoeiveii  with 
much  favour  in  the  modem  Boman  schools ;  and  in 
that  <diurch  hia  moral  theology,  which  is  s  modifl- 
-cation  of  the  so-called  '  probabiUstio  system'  of  the 

E  immediately  before  his  own,  is  lugsly  used  in 
direction  of  consciencta.  See  Pbobabilism. 
It  vrould  be  out  of  place  here  to  enter  into  a 
discusiton  of  the  eiceptions  which  have  been  token 
to  certain  portions  of  it  on  the  score  o(  morality, 
whether  in  reference  to  tiie  virtue  of  chastity  or  to 
that  of  jnatioe  and  of  veracity.  Theee  objections 
apply  equally  to  moat  of  the  oaauisia,  and  have  often 


betn  the  aul^ect  of  oontroveny,      L.'i 

JUoralit  (8  vola.  Svo)  haa  been  reprinted 

timet,  OS  abo  moat  of  hia  asoetdo  works.  The  moat 
oomplste  edition  of  bii  woriu  (in  Italian  and  Latin) 
is  that  ol  Monza,  70  Tolninea.  They  have  bem 
translated  entire  into  Fnoch  and  Oetmoo,  and  in 
arvat  part  into  English,  Sponiah,  FoUah,  and  other 
jBuropean  languages. 

LIOUOltlAKS,  called  tita  BKCEUProsisiB,  a 
congregation  of  miuionaty  prieaia  founded  by 
Lijmon  in  1732,  and  tmnviA  by  Popa  BeneduA 
XIV.  in  1769.  Their  object  ia  the  leligioua 
instmetion  of  &a  puajib  and  the  reform  of  pablio 
morality,  by  periodically  visiting,  preaohinff,  and 
hearing  coniesaiont,  with  the  connnt  and  undw  tba 


unch    Nothing 
n  the  eonstdtn- 


direction  of  the  parish  clei^.  Their  instrnctionB 
are  ordered  to  be  of  the  pUmest  and  moat  nmple 
choiaoter,  and  their  mtnistrationa  are  entirely 
without  pom^  or  oeremoniolr  lihe  oai^;r^ation  waa 
founded  raiiiiially  in  Kaple^  but  it  aftemrdi 
exteodad  to  Gennauy  and  Switzerland.  In  the  Aus- 
trian pMvincea  they  had  aevaral  houses,  Hid  were 
by  some  lepratanted  aa  but  estahliahmeDts  of  the 
suppreaud  Jeauits 
however,  could  be 

.  _id  especially  since  Uie  Bavolu^on  <^ 

),  the  L.  have  effected  an  cotnooe  into  France, 
several  hauees  of  the  ctrngregatioil  have  been 
founded  in  England,  Ireland,  and  America;   but 
their  place  is  m  great  measure  occupied  I^  the 
'■  nation  of  the  Laisrist  or  Vin- 

centian  jraUiera,  whose  objects  an  tabstantiolly 
the  same,  and  who  ore  much  more  wid^y  spread 
See  Faui,  Tinoxkt  di,  and  Tivcbktuk  CoKOBBai.- 

LIGU-BIAK  REPUBLIO,  the  name  pna  to 
the  republic  of  Genoa  in  1797,  when,  in  oouBsquenoB 
of  the  conquests  of  Bonaparte  in  Italy,  n  waa 
obliged  to  exchange  its  aristodatio  for  a  demcoratio 
constitution.  See  Gkmoa,  The  name  was  ohoaen 
because  the  Qenoese  territoty  fonned  the  principal 
part  of  ancient  Liguria. 

LILAO  [Syringa),  a  getnis  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  Okeuea,  and  eonmstins  of  shniba 
and  small  treea,  with  4.aleft  oordla,  2  stamens,  and 
a  2-celled,  2-vaIvnUr  capanle.  Hie  Comicon  Lilao 
{S.  valgarit)  is  one  of  the  naet  common  oniamental 
shmbe  oolttvatod  in  Europe  and  North  Ai 
is  a  native  of  the  north  of  Fera'a,  and 
brought  to  Vienna  by  Busbecq,  the  ambi 
Ferdinand  L,  to  whom  we  also  owe  the  introductioa 
of  the  tulip  into  European  gaidena.  From  Vienna 
it  soon  spread,  so  that  it  is  now  to  be  found  half 
wild  in  the  hedges  of  some  parts  of  Europe,  lliere 
are  many  vanetio.  The  flowers  grow  in  large 
conical  panicles ;  are  of  a  bluish  >  lilac '  oolonr, 
purple  or  white,  and  have  a  veiy  delicious  odour. 
The  leaves  are  a  favourite  food  of  cantharideo.  The 
bitter  extract  of  the  unripe  capsules  has  very 
marked  tonic  and  febrifugal  propnties.  The  wood 
is  floe-gnuned,  and  is  used  for  inlaying,  turnini^  and 
the  muiog  of  small  articles.  A  framaut  <m.  can 
ba  obtained  from  it  by  diitillatiou.  The  Chotssi 
LdiAO  {S.  Chimyuu)  boa  larger  flowers,  but  with  leM 
powerful  odour,  and  the  PattauK  Liuo  (S.  Ptnie») 
has  narrower  leaves.  Both  an  often  planted  in 
gardens  and  pleasure-grounds.  There  are  serenl 
other  speoiesi 

IjHiIA'CEJE,  a  natural  orin  of  endogenooi 
plant*,  containing  about  1900  known  apsdea.  'niey 
are  most  onmerons  in  the  wanner  parti  of  the  tem- 
perate Kone*.    TIot  are  mostly  turbaoeous  pUnti, 


with  bulbous  or  tc 


,,GcS)gl( 


LILLE— LILY. 


raraly  shnilfl  or  trees.  Tha  shrabby  ud  arbores- 
cent species  ore  mostly  tropicaL  The  stem  is  simple, 
or  branching  towards  the  top,  leafless  or  leafy. 
The  leaves  are  simple,  generally  narrow,  BometimeB 
cylindrical,  sometimes  fistular.  The  flowers  am 
generally  large,  with  6-cIeft  or  6-toot^ed  perianth  ; 
Slid  grow  sinuy  or  in  spikes,  racemes,  imi1>els,  heads. 
or  panicles.  The  stamens  are  six,  opposite  to  tht 
■sgmenta  of  the  perianth  ;  the  pistil  has  a  auperioi 
3-celled,  manv-seeded  ovary,  and  a  sinde  style.  The 
fmit  is  saccnlent  or  capsular  ;  the  seeds  packed  one 
upon  another  in  two  rows.  This  order  contuns 
many  of  our  finest  iprden,  green-house,  and  hot- 
house flowers,  as  lilies,  tulips,  dog's-tcotb  violet, 
lily  of  the  vall^.  taberose.  crown  imperial  and 
other  fritdllaries.  hyacinths,  Olorioaa  gvp^ia .-  many 
species  useful  for  food,  as  garlic,  onion,  leek,  and 
other  species  of  Milium,  Asparagiui,  the  Quamash  or 
Biscuit  Root  {Camama  ueaimea)  of  North  America, 
the  Ti  {Dnaima  la-minaiit  or  Cordt/Une  Ti)  of  the 
South  Seu,  &0. ;  many  speciea  valuable  in  medicine, 
as  iquill.  aloes,  &c. ;  and  some  valuable  for  the  fibre 
which  their  leaves  yield,  as  New  Zealand  Flax,  and 
the  species  ol  Bowstring  Hemp  or  Sametnera.—TiuB 
natural  order  has  been  tbe  snbject  of  a  number  of 
splendid  works,  omon^  which  may  be  particularly 
named  Bedoute's  Ltt  LUiiKiu  (8  vols.  Paris,  1802— 
1816). 

LILLE  (formerly  L'Islb,  '  the  island ;  *  Hemish, 
Syitd),  an  important  manufacturing  town  and 
fortress  in  tbe  nortli  of  France,  chief  town  of  tbe 
department  of  Nord,  is  situated  on  the  Deule,  in 
a  level,  fertile  district,  140  miles  north-north-east 
of  Paris,  and  62  mUes  south-east  of  Calais.  The 
streets  are  wide,  the  squares  imposing,  and  the 
bouses,  which  are  mostly  in  the  modem  ityle.  well 
built.  The  principal  buildings  and  institutions  are 
tha  Medical  School,  the  Lyceum,  the  Bonne,  and 
the  palace  of  Bichcbonig,  now  tbe  Hdtel-de-Tille, 
in  which  is  the  school  of  art,  with  a  famous  collec- 
tion of  drawings  by  Raphael,  Michael,  and  other 
masters.  I,.  (briveB  its  name  from  that  of  the 
castle  around  which  the  town  oiiginollj'  aroee,  and 
which  from  its  position  in  the  midst  of  manhes  was 
called  Isla.  It  was  founded  in  1007  by  Baldwin. 
the  fourth  Connt  of  Flondera,  and  has  suSered 
greatly  from  frequent  sieges.  Of  these,  Uie  most 
recent  and  perhaps  the  most  sevoie,  took  place 
in  1708  and  1792:  On  the  former  occanon,  during 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  the  garrison 
o^tuhlted  to  the  ollieH,  after  a  bombardment  of 
1st)  days ;  on  the  latter,  tbe  Austrians,  after  a 
tenifio  bombardment^  were  obliged  to  raise  tbe 
sieg&  L.  is  an  important  military  centre.  It  is 
^so  the  seat  of  extensive  and  thriving  manufactures. 
Tbe  goods  principally  manufactured  ore  liaea, 
hosiery,  gloves,  blankets,  lace,  LiiU  tiiread,  and 
tulle.  The  town  contains  many  spinDing-mills, 
bleach'fields,  mgar-reiineriea,  disUIleries,  tan-pita, 
d^e-bonses,  fto.  In  the  vicinity  are  numerous 
oil-mills,  porcelain-factories,  and  glass  and  pottery 
works.    Pop.  (1881)  145,113. 

LI'LLIPUT,  the  name  of  a  fabulous  kingdom 
described  by  Swift  in  OuWiwr'i  Tmcde,  of  which 
the  inhabitants  are  not  in-eater  in  size  than  an 
ordinary  man's  finger.  The  term  HUipatian  has 
come  into  common  use  as  a  desgnation  of  anything 
very  diminutive. 

LILLY,  WiuAAM,  an  English  astrologer,  bom 


larly  the  .^^rs  Nolaria,  of  ComelioB  Aglippa,  and 
soon  acquired  a  considerable  fame  as  a  caster  of 

nativities,  and  a  predictor  of  future  events.  In 
1G34,  he  is  said  to  have  obtained  permission  from 
the  Dean  of  Westminster  to  search  tor  hidden 
treasure  in  Westminster  Abbey,  but  was  driven 
from  his  midnight  work  by  a  storm,  which  he 
ascribed  to  helLsh  powers.  From  1614  till  his 
death,  he  annnally  issued  bis  Merlinia  AnglUui 
Junior,  containing  vatidnalions,  to  which  no  small 
importanoa  was  attached  by  many.  In  the  Civil 
War,  he  attached  himself  to  the  parliamentaiy 
party,  and  was  actually  sent  in  1648,  with  another 
astrologer,  to  tbe  camp  at  Colchester,  to  encourage 
the  troops,  which  service  he  performed  so  well  that 
he  received  a  pension  for  itii  which,  however,  he 
only  retained  two  years.  Neverth^esa,  he  made 
a  small  fortune  by  his  'art'  during  the  Common- 
wealth, and  was  able  to  purchase  an  estate.  Alter 
the  Bestoration,  be  was  far  some  time  imprisoaed, 
on  tiie  supposLMon  that  he  was  acquainted  with  the 
secrets  of  the  Republicans ;  but  being  set  free,  he 
retired  to  the  country.  He  was  again  apprehended 
on  suspicion  of  knowing  something  of  the  causes 
of  the  great  fire  of  London  in  160C.  He  died, 
9th  June  1681,  at  his  estate  at  Henham.  L. 
wrote  nearly  a  score  of  works  on  his  favourite 
subject.  They  are  of  no  value  whatever,  except 
to  illustrate  the  credulity  or  knavery  of  thar 
author. 


jiluuxa,  containing  a  number  of  Epedta  much 
priced  for  the  si2e  and  beauty  of  tnar  flowers. 
The  perianth  is  bell-shaped,  and  its  acgmenls  are 
often  bent  back  at  tha  extremity.  The  root  is  a 
scaly  bulb,  the  stem  herbaceous  and  simple,  often 
several  feet  high,  bearing  the  flowers  near  its 
summit;— The  Whttb  Lely  [L.  mnrlidum),  a  native 
of  the  Levant,  has  been  lone  cultivated  in  gardens, 
and  much  snog  by  poets.  It  bos  large,  errct,  pure 
white  floweiB,  as  much  prized  for  their  fragnnce 
as  for  their  beauty.- The  Orange  Lily  (L.  ImGn- 
firum),  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  with  large, 
erect,  orange-coloured  flowers,  is  a  well-known  and 
very  ebowy  ornament  of  the  flower-oardeiL^rho 
Mutagen  or  Turk's  Cup  Lily  {L.  Martagon),  a 
native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  allied  species 
with  Tertictllat«  leaves  and  drooping  flowers,  are 

-'■" —    ■-    gardens.     The   Timr   Liiy   {L. 

-.   re  of  China,  remanable  for  the 

axillary  buds  on  the  stem ;  and  some  very  fine 
species  are  natives  of  North  AJnerica,  as  L,  tuptrbttm, 
which  grows  in  marshes  in  the  United  States,  has 
a  stem  6 — 8  feet  high,  and  reflexed  orange  flowers, 
spotted  with  black ;  L.  CaTtadente,  kc  Several 
very  fine  species  have  been  introduced  from  Japan, 
as  L.  JaponicuTn,  L.  tptaoaum,  and  L.  Zonct/bUum. — 
The  bulbs  of  L.  Pompotuum,  L.  Hariagon,  and  £. 
Kamitdioixnat,  are  roasted  and  eaten  in  Siberia. 
That  of  L.  candidum  loses  its  acridity  by  drpng, 
roasting,   or   boiling;    when  cooked,  ■•  —   ~—-^ 


Diseworth,  in  Leicestershire,  in  1602.  Whilst 
h  young  man,  be  wos  employed  as  book-keeper 
merchant  in  London,  who  could  not  write,  and 


generally  prouogated  by  o&et 

bolbs.  A  single  scale  of  the  bulb  will,  however, 
suffice  to  produce  a  now  plant,  or  oven  part  of  a 
scale,  of  wfuch  skilful  gardeners  avail  themselves. — 
The  name  lily  is  often  popularly  extended  to  flowers 
of  other  genera  of  the  same  order,  and  even  of 
aUied  orders. 

LILY,  GiGAimo  {Doryant3\tt  eixdaa),of  Australia, 
a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Amargllidax,  with 
flowering  stem  10  or  14,  sometimes  20  feet  high, 
bearing  at  top  a  cluster  of  large  crimson  bfosaoms. 
Tbe  stem  is  leafy,  but  the  largest  leaves  are  near 
tbe  rooL  This  plant  is  found  both  on  the  : 


..CiOOOlC 


LILY  OP  THE  VALLEY— LIMB0EG. 

nipted,  in  Ut  12°  ? 


Ulj-TiM  iDotyatHhm  taetlta). 
been    found  eioallent  for  ropM    and   for   textile 

LILT    OF   THE   TALLET   (CbneaSanb),   a, 

geum  of  pUnta  of  tlie  natural  order  Liiiiuxa,  bavins 
tertninal  lacemes  of  flowers ;  a  white,  beU-shape^ 
or  tubular  6-cleft  or  6-tootbed  perianth ;  a  S-celled 
eennen,  witb  two  ovules  in  each  cell,  and  a  lacca- 

lent  fruit The  species  commonly  known  as  the 

Lily  of  the  Valley  {G.  majalit),  the  MaiMunu  or 
Mayflower  of  the  Germans,  grows  in  bushy  places 


Lilf  of  the  Valley  (C  vuvalti), 

and  woods  in  Europe,  the  North  of  Ajna,  and  North 
America,  and  has  a  leafless  scape,  with  a  raceme  of 
small  flowers  tamed  to  one  side.  It  is  a  universal 
Favourite,  on  account  of  its  pleasing  appearance,  the 
fracrance  of  iti  flowers,  and  the  early  seaaoa  at 
which  they  appear.  It  is  tiierefore  very  often 
cnltivated  in  gardens,  and  /orerd  to  earlier  flower- 
'  in  hothonses.  Varieties  are  in  cultivaldon  with 
1,  variegated,  and  doable  flowero.  The  beniea, 
the  root,  and  the  flowers  have  a  naoaeoiis,  bitter, 
and  lomewhat  acrid  taste,  and  purgative  and 
diliretio  cflfeots.  The  smell  of  the  flowers  when  in 
larce  quantity,  and  in  a  cloee  apartment,  is  narcotic 
Dned  and  powdered,  they  become  a  itemutatory. 
The  erteemed  Bou  Jw  of  (he  French  is  a  water 
distilled  from  the  floweni. — Allied  to  Lily  of  the 
Valley  is  Solobon'b  Skal  (q.  v.). 

LI'MA,  the   capital  of   the  republic   of   Fern, 
stands  on  the  Bimac,  from  whoee  name  ita  own  is 


and  loDg.  77*  5*  W.    It 

19  SIX  mues  oisiani  irom  its  port,  on  the  Faciflc, 
Callao,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railway. 
Including;  its  suburban  villages,  ten  in  nnmbu', 
it  cont^  (1870)  100,073  inhabitante,  L  u  of 
Spanish  origin,  and  ita  generally  magnificent  public 
bnildinss  entitle  it  to  rank  aa  the  mindsomest  d^ 
of  South  America.  At  one  time  the  grand  tnCrrjM 
for  the  west  coast  of  the  continent,  it  still  carries 
on  a  large  trade,  imnortlnE  cottons,  woollens,  silks, 
hardware,  wines,  and  brandy;  and  exporting  silver, 
copper,  bark,  soap,  vicuna  wool,  chinchilla  skins, 
nitr«,  sugar,  &c  The  temperature  is  agreeable, 
and  the  climate  is  fairly  b^thy,  abundant  devrs 
making  up  for  the  want  of  rein.  In  1S81  L.  was 
captured  by  the  Oiilians,  as  was  also  Callao. 

LIMA  WOOD,  a  name  of  the  dye-wood  also 
called  Penuunbnco  Wood,  Nicaragua  Wood,  and 
Peach  Wood,  the  heart-wood  of  Cmaipiiiia  eeMaala. 
See  Bbazil  Wood.  It  is  extensively  used  for 
dyeing  red  and  peoch-colour. 

LIMAX  uiD  LIMACIDAE.    SeeSLUO. 

LIMBER  is  half  the  Geld-equipaga  of  a  cannon 
>r  howitzer.  The  one  half  oonsista  of  the  carriage 
itself  with  the  gun;  while  the  limber,  a  two- 
wheeled  carriage,  fitted  with  boxes  for  the  field- 
ammuoitiDn  of  the  piece,  and  having  ahafta  to  which 
the  horses  ore  harneaaed,  forms  the  remainder.  At 
the  back-port,  the  limber  has  a  strons  hook,  to 
which,  on  the  march,  is  attached  the  foot  of  the 
by  a  ring  at  A,  in  the  figure  under 

IB  (q.T.).    This  constitutes  at  once  a 

four-wheeled  frame,  which,  whilst  easier  for  trans- 
port than  a  gun  on  two  wheels  only,  has  the 
advantage  of    Keeping  together  the  gna  and   ite 

rear)  but  in  coming  to  action,  the  artillerymen,  by 
rapid  evolution,  wheel  roond,  so  that  the  gun 
points  to  the  front.  It  is  then  titUimbatd,  or 
unhooked,  and  the  limber  conveyed  far  enough  to 
the  rear  te  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  men  working 
the  piece.  To  Itniier  wp  again,  and  retreat  or 
~~inue,  is  the  work  bnt  of  a  few  moments. 

LI'MBURG,  on  old  province  of  Belgium,  which, 
after  having  formed  part  of  Belgium,  France, 
Holland, and  Austria,  woo,  in  ISSO.divided  between 
Belgium  and  Holland. — Brlqian  LmBUBO,  or  T,r«- 
BODHO,  in  the  north-east  of  the  kingdom,  is  separ- 
ated from  Holland  by  the  Meuse  up  to  lat.  61°  9'  N., 
and  thenoe  by  a  line  running  eosti^north-east  to  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  kingdom.  The  eurface 
of  the  province  is  flat,  and  a  large  portion  of  it  is 
by  batren  heath ;  but  in  the  south  and 
centre  there  is  good  arable  land.  There  ia  excellent 
paaturaffe  along  the  banks  of  the  Ueuse,  and  large 
hards  M  cattle  and  swine  are  here  reared  The 
iclude  soap,  salt,  pottery,  pap<^r. 
tobacco,  straw-hats,  beet-sugar.  &c  The  area  ui 
province  is  928  English  square  miles,  and  the 
lulation  (ISSS)  213,770.  The  capital  of  the 
province  is  Hasselt  (q.  v.). 

LIMBURQ,  a  province  of  Holland,  which  was 

..ice  also  a  daohy  in  the  Germanic  Confederation, 

forms  the  sonth-east  comer  of  the  kingdom,  being 

ntignous  to  the  Belgian  province  of  the  same 

me.    Ita  inrfoce  is  gener^ly  level,  and  the  sinl 

poor,  a  great  part  m  it  consisting  of  moors  and 

uahes.     However,  in  the  valleys  of  the  Mouse 

.    d  its  chief  tributariea,  excellent  crops  of  grain, 

hemp,   flax,   oil-seeda,  &c,  ore  raised,  and  cattle 

and  sheep  raaied.    There  are  many  manofaotories 

of  gin,  tobacco,  soap,  leatlier,  paper,  and  glass.    The 

capital  ia  MaeEtricht  (q.  v.).     Area,  84S  English 

square  miles  ;  pop.  (1883)  246,298. 


IV  Google 


T.TMBTTft—T.TMH, 


111116173  [IaL  Kmbiu,  a  botder),  tha  nams 
UDgned  in  RomAo  CatboUo  tbeolog;  to  that  place 
or  condition  of  departed  soida  in  which  those  are 
detained  who  have  not  offended  by  any  personal  act 
of  their  own,  bat,  narertheleKa,  are  not  admitted  to 
the  divine  TJaion.  They  diBtuigniBb  it  into  the 
Limbttt  FtUrum,  and  the  Limbus  IrtfinUmm.  By 
the  former  name  they  nnderetand  the  place  of  thoaa 
jait  who  died  before  the  coming  of  the  Bedeemw, 
aod  of  whom  it  it  Mud  (1  Peter  iiL  19),  that  he 
preached  to  tho«e  ipirita  that  were  in  pruon.  By 
the  latter  i*  meant  the  place  or  state  of  the  BonU 
ot  infanta  nbo  die  without  baptism.  Sea  Heu. 
Begarding  the  natora  of  both  theae  places  of  dsten- 


earUu.  Iti  lymbol  ia  CaO,  ita  equivalent  is  38,  and 
its  n>ecifla  gnvity  ia  3'IS.  In  a  ttate  of  purity,  it  is 
a  white  canitio  powder,  with  an  alkaline  reaction, 
and  Ml  infnnble  aa  to  reaist  even  the  beat  of  the 
jet    Sea  Dtmaiairit  Light.    It  is 


radncas,  when  the  carbonic  add  is  expelled,  and  lime 
is  left.  Commercial  lime,  which  18  obtained  by 
bnming  common  limeetono  in  a  kiln,  is  osoallj  rery 
far  from  pnre.  Thia  compoond  (CaO)  is  Iinowii  as 
jfukJUiTnc,  or,  from  the  ordiiiaiy  method  of  obtaining 
1^  as  Imnied  lime,  to  distu^oish  it  from  the  hydraie 
of  lime,  or  stoiai  Vimt,  which  is  repreaented  by  the 
formula  CaOrHO.  On  pouring  water  on  quicklime, 
there  is  an  ao^mentatioii  of  bulk,  and  the  two 
enter  into  combmation ;  and  if  tha  proportion  of 
water  be  not  too  great,  a  light,  white,  dry  powder 
ia  formed,  and  a  great  heat  is  evolved.  On  Bzpoeini' 
the  hydrate  to  a  red  heat,  the  water  is  expelled,  and 
qnialUime  ia  left 

It  quicklime,  instead  of  being  treated  with  water, 
is  simply  n^kiaed  to  the  ur,  it  alonlv  attracts  both 
aqneon*  vapour  and  oarbonio  add,  andbecomM  what 
is  termed  okF-Anked,  the  resulting  compoond  in  this 
oaae  being  a  powder  which  is  a  mixture  (or  possibly 
a  oombinatini)  of  carbonate  and  hydrate  of  fime. 

Lime  is  abont  twice  as  soluble  in  oold  as  in  boiline 
water,  but  even  ccJd  water  onlytakea  up  about  r^t£ 
ot  ita  weight  of  lime.  This  solution  is  known  as 
Itne-tsoier,  and  is  much  emjiloyed  both  as  a  medi- 
cine and  as  a  test  tor  carbomo  acid,  which  instantly 
randera  it  turbid,  in  consequence  of  the  carbonate  of 
lime  that  is  formed  beins  more  insolnble  even  than 
lime  itaeU.  It  mvat,  m  cootm,  be  kept  carefully 
gnnrded  from  the  almc«idMt«,  the  carbomo  add  of 
which  wonld  r^ndljr  affect  it  If  iu  the  preparation 
of  alakad  lime  oontidersbly  more  watcnr  is  naed  than 
is  neoessaiy  to  form  the  hydiate^  a  white  semi-fluid 
matter  is  produced,  whioh  is  termed  miU  of  lime. 
On  allowing  it  to  stand,  there  is  a  deposition  of 
hydrate  of  hme,  above  wUch  ia  lime-water. 

The  OBS  of  time  iu  the  preparation  of  mortan  and 
cements  is  described  in  the  uticlee  on  these  subjects. 


preparation  of  hides  for  tanning,  for  vanona  labora- 


Theft 
<rf  lime.  Btdpiale  qf  Ume  (CaOJ  .. 
fron  water  in  the  miiMnl  aaJt^dritt,  but  is  mneh 
mora  abundant  in  combination  with  two  equivalenta 
<rf  water  in  t^aiUe,  and  in  the  different  vaiieliea  ol 
ffypmm  and  alabiuCer.    See  OTTsmt, 

Carbonate  of  lime  (CaO.OO,)  ia  abimdantly  pre- 
■ant  in  both  the  ino^anio  and  oiganio  kingdooUL 
IH 


In  the  inorganic  kingdom,  it  occurs  in  a  ciyitaHina 
form  in  Icuand  spar,  Angouite,  and  marble — ia 
ivhich  it  is  found  in  minute  granular  crystals — while 
in  tha  amorphoua  condition  it  forme  the  different 
varietiea  of  limestone,  chalk,  &a.  It  is  alwaya 
preaont  in  the  aahes  of  plants,  but  hare  it  is,  at 
all  eventa,  in  part  the  result  of  the  combnttion  of 
citrates,  aoetatea,  malatei,  &x,  of  lime.  It  ia  the 
main  oonititaent  of  the  shells  of  crustaoeana  and 
molloaca,  and  occurs  in  cxmaiderable  quantity  in 
the  bones  of  man  and  other  vertebrates.  Carbonate 
ot  lime,  hdd  in  aolntion  by  free  carbonio  acid,  is 
also  present  in  moat  spring  and  river  waters,  and 
in  sea-water.  Staloctitea,  ttala^piites,  tuta,  and 
travertin  are  all  composed  ot  this  salt,  depoaited 
from  calcareous  waters.  Certain  forma  of  can>onata 
ot  lime — the  Portland  and  other  oolitas,  acme  ot  tha 
magneeian  limestonea,  Ac — ara  ot  extreme  valua 
for  Duilding  pnrpoaes,  and  the  vaiions  uses  ot  the 
finer  MarbUe  (q.  v.]  are  too  wdl  known  to  raquira 


There  ia  a  ocmbination  of  lime  with  an  organio 
acid,  viz.,  oxalate  of  lime,  which  is  of  groat  impoit- 
ance  in  pathology  as  a  frequent  constituent  of 
urinary  odciUi  and  aedimenta ;  for  a  deacriptioa 
of  it  see  Oxauo  Aom. 

The  soluble  salts  of  lime  (or,  more  aeounttelr 
speakii^  of  calcium)  give  no  ]»«cipitate  witL 
ammonia,  but  yield  a  white  precipitate  (ot  car- 
bonate of  lime)  with  carbonate  OC  potash  or  of  aoda. 
These  reactiona  are,  however,  common  to  the  salt> 
of  barium,  strontiam,  and  calcium.  Solution  of 
snlphate  <a  lime  produces  no  marked  e^ct  whtm 
added  to  a  salt  of  calcium,  but  throws  down  a 
white  sulphate  with  the  other  salts.  The  most 
delicate  teat  for  lime  is  oxalate  of  ammonia,  whioh, 
even  ia  very  dilute  neutral  or  alkaline  solutions, 
throws  dovm  a  white  predpitete  ot  oxalate  of  lime. 

There  are  several  compounda  ot  phosphoric  add 

id  lime,  of  which  the  most  imporl^t  i*  the  bame 
pA<MpAaJe  of  Ume,  sometime*  termed  bone  phot- 
phtote,  from  ita  being  the  chief  ingredient  of  bones. 
The  basic  phcaphato  is  repnaented  I7  the  formula 
3CaO,PO,,  and  not  only  oooura  in  '  •   ■    • 

in  the  minerals         ''  •     ■ 

the  rounded  nodi 
found  in  the  Norfolk  crag.  It  form*  t^  f^  the 
of  welt-burned  bone,  the  remaining  }th  l>dn£ 
carbonate  of  lim&  This  ash  is  known  aa  boite-earlS, 
and  is  employed  as  a  manure  and  in  the  preparation 
cj  phosphorus,  Jto. 

The  substance  comnumly  dedenatad  aa  diioride 
of  Ume  lias  been  already  described  in  the  article 

BLBACmVG  POWSXR. 

Lime  a»  Maniire. — This  mineral  snbatauce  has 
been  used  for  many  oeuturies  as  a  means  at  increasing 
the  fertility  of  land.  All  crops  require  a  oertain 
[ut,  as  is  found  by  an^yaing  the  ash  which 
ins  after  combustion.  It  is  sometimes  sup- 
plied, without  previous  preparation,  in  ttie  form  of 
marl  and  chalk,  but  in  moat  cases  is  first  caldnal 
and  redncad  to  a  fine  powder  by  slakins  with 
water.  The  qnaatity  of  calcined  lime  an^ed  varies 
from  three  to  eight  tons  to  the  acre.  The  smaller 
i^uanti^  ua.j  he  suffident  for  tight  land  containing 
Lttle  vegetable  matter,  while  the  larger  may  be 
required  for  strong  land,  or  for  land  hdding  mnch 
orpmio  matter  in  an  inert  state.  The  laive  qtlan- 
ti^  of  lima  applied  shawa  that  ita  maoniiaf  e&et  ia 
due  mora  to  ite  producing  a  oertain  chemical  effMt 
on  the  land,  than  to  its  affoiding  oatriment  to  tlie 

-L     Lime  promotes  the  deoinapoution  of  all 

■  of  Testable  matter  ia  the  ic^  and,  farther, 
it  oorreota  any  addi^  in  the  organic  matter,  and 
thus  destrc^  those  weeds  which  are  favooiad  by 
inch  a  condition  of  the  aral.     It  aMsta  in  Uw 


LIKB— LDCKRIOK. 


decompcsitioD  irf  certun  Baits  whon  boMa 
the  food  of  pluti,  and  in  thii  way  it  may  be  nid 
to  digest  or  prepare  tbeir  food.  On  oertain  kindi 
of  laud,  the  finer  grawe*  do  not  thrive  until  the 
land  haa  been  limed,  and  in  tbeee  oaaee  iti 


tumipe,  and  its  nse  ia,  from  thia  oauae,  beooming 
more  generaL 

lAme-Compmaid*  in  Maltria  MecUea.--QiMM'mM, 
in  aaaociation  with  potash,  either  a«  the  Potatm 
turn  alee,  or  ••  Viama  Patlt,  ia  oocaaionally  n»ed 
aa  a  canirtic.  Lime-waler,  mixed  with  an  equal 
quantity  or  an  sxoeea  of  milk,  ia  one  of  onr  beat 
remediea  for  the  TomitinK  dependent  on  irritabiJity 
of  the  itomach.  From  haB  an  onnoe  to  two  or  tluee 
onneea  may  be  thus  taken  three  or  fonr  time*  a  day. 
Ita  use  aa  a  oonititnent  of  Carron  oil  in  borna  ie 
noticed  in  the  article  LramMim.  Ciatt,  or  ear- 
botuUe  of  lime,  when  freed  fimn  the  impmitiea  with 
which  it  is  often  aaaooiated,  ia  used  ai  a  dnating- 
ona,  nlcew,  &o, ;  and  '-  '* 


i^otelud 


ol  Aidi  ntixtun  and  eempound  poiDder  of  ehaii, 
it  a  popular  remedy  in  Tariotu  foniu  of  diarrhma. 
A.  mixture  of  an  oonoe  tt  preoipitated  oarbonate  of 
lime  and  a  quarter  of  an  onnoe  of  finely  powdered 
ctua^or,  ia  aold  aa  Can^Aomttd  CrOaeeotu  TooA- 

IirMB  {dlrtu  acida),  a  fruit  aimilar  to  the  Lemon 
(q.  v.),  bat  much  anuUei,  being  onl^  abmit  H  inch 
in  diameter,  and  almost  ^obnlar,  with  a  tliin  lind, 
and  an  extremely  acid  jutce.  It  ia  regarded  by  many 
botaoiata  as  a  variety  of  the  same  apeciea  with  the 
Citron  and  Lemon.  The  plant  doee  not  attain  the 
magnitude  of  a  tree,  but  ia  a  shrub  of  about  eight 
feet  in  height,  with  a  crooked  trunk,  and  many 
■preading  prickly  branches.  It  ia  a  native  of  ludm 
and  China,  but  liaa  long  been  cultivated  in  the  Weet 
Indies,  the  south  of  Europe,  Ao.  In  the  West  Indies, 
it  is  planted  both  for  the  sake  oC  its  fruit  and  for 
hedges.  The  Emit  is  nsed  for  the  same  purposes  as 
the  lemon ;  but  ita  acid  ia  by  many  reckoned  more 
agreeable.  Lime-juice  is  imported  into  Britain  like 
lemon-juice  for  the  manufacture  of  oitrio  acid,  and 
it  ia  itself  nw4  as  a  beveTaga.^The  Sweet  Lime  (C. 
LimeUa  of  Bissa),  cultivated  in  the  aouth  of  Europe, 
appeara  to  be  a  mere  variety,  probabljr  the  result  of 
oaltivation,  with  a  snb-aoid  palpt 

LIME,  or  LINDEN  (THto),  a  genua  of  trees  of 
the  natural  order  TUiaeta,  nativeB  of  Europe,  the 
north  of  Asia,  and  North  America.  The  apecies 
are  very  similar  ;  graceful,  nmbrageoua  treee  ;  with 
deddoouB,  heart-shaped,  serrated  feavea,  and  cymes 
OF  panicles  of  rather  small  yellowish  Sowers  ;  each 
cyme  or  panicle  accompanieid  with  a  large,  oblong, 
yellowish,  membranous  bractea,  with  netted  veins, 
the  lower  part  of  which  adheres  to  the  flowm'.stalk. 
The  wood  is  light  and  soft,  but  tough,  domble,  and 
partieularly  suitable  for  carved  work.  It  ia  much 
used  by  tumtw,  and  tor  making  pill-boiea.  The 
oharcool  made  of  it  is  often  used  lot  tooth-powder, 
for  medicinol  purposes,  for  crayona,  and  tor  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder.  The  nse  of  the  fibrous 
inner  bark  for  making  rox>ea,  mats,  and  other  plaited 
work,  is  noticed  in  the  aridcla  Bast.  It  is  also  used 
as  a  healing  application  to  wounds  and  sores,  being 
very  mucilaginous,  and  abotmding  in  a  bland  sap. 
The  leaves  are  in  some  oonntriea  used  as  food  for 
cattle,  but  cows  fed  on  them  produce  bad  batter. 
The  fiowns  have  on  agreeable  odoor,  and  abound  in 
honey,  much  aonght  tmr  by  bees.  The  celebiated 
Koumo  Hoiks,  much  valued  for  medicinal  use  and 
for  making  liqaenrs,  ia  the  prodnoe  of  ^reat  L. 
forMta  near  Kowno,  in  lithoania.  The  mfnaion 
and  diatdllad  wat«r  of  the  dried  flowets  an  gmtly 


Budoriflo  and  anttsmntodic.  The  fbnner  is  in  FlmtMa 
a  nnniiar  remedy  for  catarriia.  The  aeeds  abound  in 
a  fixed  sweet  oiL— The  Eokopum  L.,  or  LntDnr 
{T.  Europaa),  often  attaina  a  large  nze,  putumlarly 
m  nch  alluvial  soils.  Some  botuiiati  dutinguiah  a 
small-leaved  kind  ( T.  parvi/blit,  or  viieroi^a)  and 
-  large-leaved  (T.  jirandifolia)  im  different  ipeetea; 


lima-Tres  (3*.  Swnpaa). 

B  regard  them  aa  mere  varietiea.  The  HoODID 
-  ^PCCEiH'  L.  ia  an  interestiiu  mcostrons  variety. 
The  L.-tree  ia  often  planted  for  ahade  in  towns ; 
and  the  principal  atreet  of  Berlin  is  called  Unter  dai 
Lmdat,  from  the  rows  of  L.-treea  which  Una  it. 
The  L.  ia  a  very  doubtful  native  of  Britain,  although 
indigenouB  on  the  continent  from  Scandinavia  to  &a 
Meditenanean.  In  Britain,  the  L.-tree  is  seneralh' 
propagated  by  layers. — The  Ajiirioam  L  [T.Amen- 
aina,  or  T.  glabm),  commonly  called  B^aswoon  in 
America,  has  larger  leaves  than  the  European  species. 
It  abounds  on  the  shuree  of  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario. 
Other  species  take  its  place  in  more  western  «"d 
more  aouthem  regiona. 

LI'HESBIOK,  an  inland  oonnW  of  the  proviuM 
of  Mnniter,  in  Ireland,  separated  by  the  Shaiuion 
on  the  notih  from  C\axe,  and  bonnded  on  the 
east  by  Tipperaiy,  on  the  aouth  by  Cork,  and  on 
the  west  by  Kerry,  It*  extreme  length  is  3G 
mile^ils  breadth  64  miles ;  area,  1064  square' milea, 
or  680,842  aores.  Pop.  in  1871,  y/iVa  the  d?, 
191,036;  <1881)  180.632,  of  whom  168,000  were 
Roman  Catholics.  The  county  retnms  two  membais 
to  pariiament  The  sorface  of  L.  is  an  undulating 
plun,  which  forms  part  of  the  central  oarbon- 
iferoua  limestone  plain  of  Ireland.  A  moun- 
tainouB  district  on  the  weat  belongs  to  the  gnat 
ooal-traot  of  Muneter,  but  the  coal  ia  of  an  in< 
ferior  quality,  and  is  chiefly  used  for  the  burning 
of  Ume.  Within  a  abort  diataaoe  of  ths  dty  <» 
Limerick  ia  a  quarry  which  ptoducea  a  reddish- 
brown  marble  <tt  fine  quality,  as  well  as  a  blade 
marble  of  inferior  valaa.  More  than  one  of  the 
districts  contains  iron,  ooppw,  and  lead  orea ;  but 
at  present,  no  mining  oparationa  are  oanied  on. 
The  soil  in  general  ia  very  fertile  eapeoiaUy  the 
district  called  the  Qolden  Vide,  whion  oconprisea 
upwards  of  160,000  acres ;  as  alao  a  portion  at 
the  left  bank  of  the  Shannon  below  limerick.  Of 
the  entire  acreage  of  the  oonnty,  SS8,8T3  acrm 
are  arable,  and  121,101  nuauited  to  onltiration.  In 
general,  the  ami  is  equally  fitted  for  tiUag»  and  for 
pasture.  In  1880,  176,774  aerea  were  unler  crop* 
of  varioiu  kinds,  only  220  being  reported  f^low. 


,.Guu^[c 


LIMEBIGK — LEUESTOITK 


In  the 

of  Bheep,  49,^ ;  and  of  pigi,  41,319.  The  natioaai 
•ohooli  in  1880  were  Bttended  by  37,233  pupils,  of 
whom  36,496  were  Bonum  CathoUos. 
The  p 


it  import- 
ant.   The  great  highway  of  water-communicat ' 
howerer,  is  tiie  SEannon  itaelf,  the  navigatio: 
which  hu  been  mnch  improved,  and  in  which 
harbonr  of  Foynei  promlsei  to  form  the  nuclem  of 
an  extended  foreign  trade.   L.  oommunicatea  by  rail- 
way with  Dnblin,  Waterford,  Cork,  and  Bnnii.    The 
population  is  chiefly  occnpied  in  agricoltnre,  hardly 
any  manutacturea   exiatms  '    ' 
asdently  formed  part  oC  ui 

Uio  principality  of  the  O'Brii—..     

inradoD,  it  fell,  UiTongh  many  viciwitudaB,  in  ^^at 
part  to  tiie  Dennond  Fitzgendda— the  coofiBcated 
cstatea  of  the  last  earl  in  L  containing  no  fewer  than 
96,160  acre&  On  the  forfeiturea  after  1641  and  1G90, 
it  HTM  parcelled  out  to  new  proprietors.  L.  is  more 
than  usually  rich  in  antiquities,  both  eccledastlcal 
and  civil,  of  the  Celtic  as  w^  as  of  the  Ajoglo- 
Norman  period.  There  were  at  one  time  nearly  40 
religions  foundation*  of  the  O'Briens  alone,  and 
the  ruins  of  abont  100  castles  are  still  in  existence 
The  ecclesiMtical  remains  of  Adare  are  exoeediu^y 
interesting,  two  of  the  ancient  churches  having 
been  restored,  one  as  the  Prot«atant,  the  otiier  as  the 
CatfaoUo  pu-ish  ahandi.  Two  other  monastic  ruins, 
in  Tei7  good  preservation,  form  a  ^up  of  ecclesi- 
aatical  mntuns  hardly  surpassed,  m  number  and 
[Hctaresqneness,  even  m  the  most  favonred  districts 
of  England. 

LIMERICK,  dty,  capital  of  the  county  jnst 
described,  is  mtoated  on  the  river  Shannon,  130 
miles  west- south-west  from  Dnblin,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  the  DTeat  Sonthem  and  Western 
Railway.  Fop.  in  18S1,  63.448;  in  1861,  44,628; 
in  1871,  39,353,  of  whom  18,022  were  malea  ' 
1881,  38,600.  More  than  90  per  cent  v -_ 
Roman  Catholics.  L.  is  ft  parliamentary  and 
mnnicipal  borongh,  and  retoms  two  memben 
to  parluunenb  R  occupies  both  sides  of  the  Shan- 
non, togetjier  with  a  tract  called  Kiiig*!  Island, 
which  Ties  on  a  bifurcation  of  the  rivar;  and 
is  divided  into  the  English  Towi^  the  oldest 
part  of  the  dty  (and  connected  with  the  exten- 
sive aubtu-b  ouled  Thomond  Gate,  on  the  Glare 
side  of  the  Shannon),  and  the  Irish  Town,  which, 
within  tLhe  present  c,  has  extended  on  the  sooth 
bank  of  the  river  into  what  is  now  the  beat  port 
of  L.,  called  the  New  Town,  or  Newtown  Fer^, 
one  of  Uie  handsomest  towns  in  Irdand.  L.  u 
s  place  of  gre*t  antiquity.  From  its  positian  on 
the  Shannon,  it  was  long  an  object  of  desire  to  the 
Danes,  who  ooonpied  it  in  the  middle  of  the  9tfa 
a.,  and  held  poaseasion  till  rednoed  to  a  tribotaiy 
condition  by  Brian  Boroimhe^  in  the  end  of  ths 
10th  century.  It  was  early  occupied  by  the  En^ 
lish,  and  in  1210,  Eine  Jmid  vinted  and  fortiflM 
it.  It  was  ofttoworib  aasanlted  and  partially 
burned  in  1314  by  Edward  Brace.  Its  later 
history  is  stilt  more  interesting.  It  was  oceiwied 
by  the  Catholic  por^  in  1841,  bat  sturendered  to 
Ireton  in  1651.  At  the  Bevolution,  it  wu  the 
last  stronghdd  of  King  James.  Having  been 
nnaucceaafiSly  besieged  by  William  after  the  victory 
of  tlie  Boyne,  it  was  regularly  invested  in  1691  by 
General  Oinket,  and  after  a  vigorous  and  brilliant 
defence  of  several  weeks,  an  armistice  was  pro- 
nosed,  which  led  to  the  well-known  'Ti«at^  of 
Limerick,'  the  alleged  vi<datioii  of  which  has  been 
the  subject  of  bwnent  and  acrimonious  ccmtro- 
veny  between   pohtical  parties  in  Ireland.      The 


io-oalled  '"n^a^  Stone'  still  morka  the  spot,  amr 
Thomond  Bridge,  at  the  entrance  of  the  suburb  of 
Thomond  Qate,  where  this  tteaty  was  ai^jned.  Th« 
modem  oity  of  L.  is  more  tastefnl  in  its  general 
character,  and  poMeaaea  more  of  the  appliances  of 
conunereial  entenriae  and  social  culture  tlian  most 
towns  of  IrelantL  Ita  pubUe  buildings,  eapeciallv 
the  new  Roman  Catholio  cathedral,  and  church 
of  the  Redemptorist  order,  are  impoeing,  aikd  in 
excellent  taste.  Ita  charitable  and  reli^ons  eetab- 
liahments  are  truly  mnnifioent  for  a  provincial  town. 
It  possesses  several  national  schoola,  as  well  ss 
many  other  educational  institutions.  The  Shannon 
at  ll  ia  still  a  noble  river,  navigable  for  ahipa  of 
large  burdeiL  The  docks  and  quays  ore  on  ft 
very  extensive  and  commodious  scale ;  and  the 
export  trade  is  conducted  with  considerable  euter- 
pnae.  The  Wellesley  Bridge,  over  the  Iiarbour, 
cost  £85,000.  The  inland  navigation  is  by  means 
of  a  canal  to  Eillaloe,  where  it  eaten  Lough  Der^ 
and  Uieuce  by  &«  upper  Shannon  to  Athlone,  and 
by  the  Qrand  Canal,  which  issues  from  the  Shajmon 
at  Shannon  Harbonr,  to  Dublin.  The  manofactnrea 
of  L.  are  not  very  extensive,  but  eome  of  them  enjoy 
not  merely  an  Irish,  but  an  imperial  reputation 
—such  ore  the  manufactures  o!  lace,  of  gloves,  and 
of  fiah-hoolDt.  There  are  severol  iron-toundrie^ 
flour-miUa,  breweries,  distilleries,  and  tanneries,  and 
of  late  years,  the  ship-bnilding  trade  has  been 
extended.  In  1880,  068  VMaels,  of  171,886  tons, 
entered,  and  379,  of  80,162  tons,  cleared  the  port 

LIMESTONE,  the  ponulir  as  well  as  technical 
name  for  all  rocks  which  are  composed  in  whole, 
or  to  a  large  extent,  of  carbonate  of  lirae^  Few 
minerals  ore  ao  extensively  distribnted  in  nature  as 
this,  and  in  some  form  or  Other,  limestone  rocks 
occur  in  every  geological  epoch.  Carbonate  of  lime 
is  nearly  insolnble  in  pure  water,  but  it  is  rendered 
easily  soluble  by  the  presence  of  carbonic  add  gas, 
which  occurs  in  a  variable  quantity  in  all  natural 
waters,  for  it  is  absorbed  by  water  in  its  pasaaee 
throu^  the  air  as  well  as  through  the  eartSi. 
Carbonate  of  lime  in  solution  is  consequently  found 
in  all  riven,  lak^  and  seas.  In  evaporation,  water 
and  carbonic  acid  gas  are  given  o^  but  the  car- 
bonate of  Ume  remans  uninfluenced,  becoming 
eraduolly  concentrated,  until  it  hss  supersaturated 
tne  water,  when  a  predpitation  takes  place.  In  this 
way  are  formed  tlie  stalactites  which  hang  idcla- 
like  from  the  roofs  of  limestone  caverns,  and  ths 
stahigmites  which  rise  as  columns  from  their  fioora. 
Travertine  (Tiber-stone),  or  calcareous  tufa,  is 
similarly  farmed  in  running  streams,  lakes,  and 
sidings,  I^  the  depodtion  of  the  carbonate  of  lime 
on  the  beds  or  sides,  where  it  uiorusta  and  binds 
tt^ether  shells,  fragments  of  wood,  leaves,  stones, 
&0.  So  also  birds'  nests,  wigs,  and  other  objects 
become  coated  with  lime  in  the  so-called  petrifying 
wells,  a*  that  at  Knarcaborongh.  From  the  sama 
cause,  pipes  conveying  water  from  bailers  and 
mines  often  become  choked  up^  and  the  tea-kettis 
gtbl  lined  with  'fur.' 

While  water  is  thus  the  great  store-house  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  very  httle  of  it,  however,  is  fixed 
by  predpitation,  for  in  the  ocean,  evaporation  doe* 
not  take  place  to  such  an  extent  as  to  permit  it  to 
depodt,  besides,  there  is  five  times  the  quantity  of 
free  ooibonic  acid  gas  in  the  water  of  the  sea  that 

required  to  keep  the  carbonate  of  lime  in  it 

solution.  Immense  quantities  of  lime  are  never- 
thaleaa  being  abstracted  from  the  aeo,  to  form 
the  hard  portion*  of  the  numfflous  finiTnnN  which 
inhabit  it^  Cntstaoea,  mollusca,  loophytce,  and 
foraminifera  are  ever  busy  separating  the  little 
partides  of  carbonate  of  lime  from  the  water,  and 
solidifying  them,  and  ao  supplying  the  materials 


z ,Ge)Oglc 


J 


UHTIOBD— IIMK.XA. 


far  forminR  tdid  took.  It  lua  been  foond  tlut 
« la^  porbon  ot  ths  bed  of  the  AtUatio  betirseD 
Eniope  tad  North  Anwricft  is  covered  with  a  light- 
ad(nu«d  ooie,  oompoted  chiefly  of  ths  perfect  or 
broken  eketetont  m  fomminifera,  fonmDg  a  >nb- 
etance,  irhen  dried,  which,  in  appeanuice  and  atanc- 
ttm,  ctoaely  reiemhlea  chalk.  Id  tropical  repons, 
conll  are  bnildiDg  reeb  of  GDonuoiu  magnitude, 
eorreaponding  in  etrueture  to  many  rocks  in  the 
oarhoniferonB  and  other  formations.  Ths  rocks 
thna  organically  formed  do  not  always  occur  as 
they  vero  orinnaUy  deposited ;  denudation  has 
toiDetimes  bn^en  them  up  to  re-deposit  them 
as  a  calcareous  sedimeut.  Qroat  cban^,  too,  may 
have  taken  place  througli  metAmorphio  action  iu 
the  teztnre  of  the  rock,  some  limeatones  being 
hard,  othen  aoft,  some  compact,  coDcietionaiy,  or 
cmrtalline. 

The  cidef  varietiea  of  limestone  are :  CluM  (q.  v.) ; 
Oofif«  (q.  T.) ;  Compact  LimettoTie,  a  hard,  smooth, 
Gne-grained  rock,  generally  of  a  blmih-graj  colour ; 
Cryiiidliae  lAmetUmr,  a  rock  which,  from  meta- 
mocphic  action,  has  become  granular ;  flue-grained 
white  varieties,  resembling  lo^-sngar  in  texture,  are 
called  Sacduirine  or  SUMiary  Marble.  Magnaian 
Lmatone  or  LMomiite  (q.v.)  U  a  rock  in  which 
carbonate  of  magnesia  is  miied  with  carbonate  of 
lime.  Particular  namea  are  raven  to  some  lime- 
■tonea  from  the  kind  of  fosnls  that  abound  in  tiem, 
as  Nummuhte,  Hippurite,  Indusial,  and  Crinoidal 
limestones ;  and  to  othen  from  the  formatioa  to 
which  they  belong,  as  Devonian,  Carbooiferou*,  and 


LIMFIORD.    See  Ddouke. 

LIMITATION,  in  English  Law,  is  the  limited 
time  allowed  to  parties  to  commence  their  suits  or 
actions,  or  other  proceedings,  so  as  to  shorten 
litigation.  In  all  civilised  countries,  some  period 
i«  preacribfd  by  statute  (called  statutes  of  limita- 
tions, or  preacription)  with  this  view,  though  few 
countriea  adopt  the  some  limit,  and  Scotland  differ* 
much  from  England  and  Ireland  in  this  point  In 
England,  suits  to  recover  land  most  generally  be 
brought  within  twenty  years,  and  to  recover  debtB 
{including  bills  of  oicliange)  and  damages  within 
•ix  yean.  Actions  for  assault  or  batterv  must  be 
broiight  within  four  years,  and  for  slaoder  within 
two  years.  In  Soothuid,  Prescription  is  the  word 
senenlly  used  for  limitation,  and  actions  to  recover 
und  generally  most  be  brought  within  forty  yean, 
for  many  ordinary  debts  within  three  years,  but 
for  bills  of  exchange  within  six  years.  There  aro 
many  other  differenced  of  detaiL  See  Paterson'a 
Coatpadium  iff  EngUA  and  Swlch  Laic 

LIMITED  LIABILITY.  See  JourfSTOOE 
COHP&Hna. 

LIMITS,  Tbeokt  of.  Ihe  importance  of  the 
notion  of  a  liraU  in  Mathematics  cannot  be  over- 
etitimated,  as  many  branches  of  the  science,  inclnding 
the  differential  cotculua  and  its  adjuncts,  consist 
of  nothing  else  than  tracing  the  consecjuenccB 
which  flow  from  this  notion.  The  followmg  are 
simple  illiiEtratioDs  of  the  idea ;  The  sum  of  the  series 
I-l-}-f^-l-l-l-  &c.,  approaches  nearer  and  nearer 
to  2  as  the  number  ot  terms  is  increased  ;  thus,  the 
several  sums  are  1^,  1\,  1J-,  IfJ,  &c.,  each  sum 
always  differing  from  2  by  a  fraction  equal  to  the 
last  of  the  terms  which  have  been  added  ;  and  ance 
each  denominator  is  double  of  the  preceding  one, 
the  further  the  series  is  extended,  the  less  the  differ- 
ence between  its  snm  and  2  becomes ;  also  this 
difference  may  be  mode  ajnaUer  than  any  assign- 
able quantity— lay,  ttt^.itt'  ^7  merely  extend- 
ing the  series  till  the  last  denominator  becomes 
greater  than  100,000  (for  tlus,  we  need  only  take 


will  give  a  differanos  leas 
'^1*'^  t.ttV.ttv  1  and  so  on) ;  agun,  the  sum  of  the 
series  can  never  be  greater  tlun  2,  for  the  diOte^ 
enoe,  though  steadily  diminishing  still  subaJata ; 
under  these  ciroumstanoes,  2  is  said  to  be  tba 
limit  of  the  sum  of  the  series.  We  see,  then,  that 
the  criteria  of  a  limit  are,  that  the  aeries,  when 
extended,  shall  approach  nearer  and  nearer  to 
1^  in  value,  and  so  that  the  differenoe  can  be 
made  as  small  as  we  please.  Agmn,  the  area  of  a 
circle  is  greater  than  that  of  an  inscribed  bexagon, 
and  lees  than  that  of  a  circumscribed  hexagon; 
but  if  these  polygons  be  converted  into  figures  of 
twdve  aides,  the  area  of  ths  interior  one  will  be 
increased,  and  Uiat  of  the  exterior  diminished,  the 
area  of  the  drole  always  continuing  intermediate 
in  position  and  value ;  and  oa  the  number  ot 
sides  is  increased,  each  polygon  approaches  nearer 
and  nearer  to  the  circle  in  size ;  and  as,  when  the 
sides  ore  equal,  this  difference  can  be  made  as  small 
as  we  please,  the  circle  is  said  to  be  the  limit  of  on 
equilateral  polygon,  the  number  of  whose  sidea  » 
increaaed  indefinitely ;  or,  in  another  form  of  word* 
commonly  used,  '  the  polygtm  approaohee  the  oirola 
as  its  limit,  when  its  sides  increase  without  limit,' 
or  again,  'when  the  number  of  sidea  is  infinite, 
the  polygon  becomes  a  mrole.'  When  we  use  the 
terms  'infinite' and  'zero'  in  mathematics,  nothing 
more  is  meant  than  that  the  quantity  to  which 
the  term  is  applied  is  uurea^ng  vnUunit  Umit, 
or  dimini»!ung  md^niidy ;  and  if  this  were  kept 
in  mind,  tiiere  would  be  mnch  leas  confusion  in 
the  ideas  connected  with  theas  terms.    From  the 

poasibility  of  what  ara  callad  vanishing  fractions 
(L  e.,  fractiona  whose  nnmerator  and  denominator 
become  ueo  simultanaously)   having  rod  values; 

thus  — —:  =  -T,  when  a:  =  1 ;  but  by  division  we 
find  that  the  traction  is  equal  to  a:  -h  t,  which  ^  2, 
when  X  =\.  Now,  this  discnamon  could  never  have 
arisen  had  the  question  been  intctpreted  rightly, 

sa  follows  : — ,  sfiproachei  to  3  as  its  limits 

when  X  continually  approsches  I  as  its  limit,  a 
proposition  which  oan  im  proved  tme  by  snbsti- 
tutmg  anccesaively  3,  2,  1\,  \\,  1^  ly^  ^,  whra 
the  cort«sponding  values  of  the  fraction  are  4,  3, 
2(,  2J,  2X,  2ih,  kc  The  doctrine  of  limita  is 
employed  u  the  Differential  Calculus  (9.  v.).  The 
best  and  most  complete  illustrations  ot  it  ara  found 
in  Newton's  Prindpia,  and  in  the  chapters  on 
Maxima  and  Minima,  Corves,  Summation  of  Series, 
and  InteeratioQ  generally,  in  the  ordinary  works 
on  the  Calcnlus. 

LI'MHA,  an  interval  which,  on  account  of  its 
exceeding  smallnesa.  does  not  appear  in  the  practice 
of  modern  music,  bat  which,  in  the  mathematical 
calculation  of  the  proportions  of  different  intervals, 
is  of  the  greatest  importance.  The  linuna  makes 
its  appearance  in  thrae  different  magnitudes — vil, 
the  great  Umma,  which  is  the  diffarence  between 
the  &jge  whole  tone  and  the  small  semitone,  being 
in  the  proportion  of  27  to  25 ;  the  small  limma, 
which  is  tke  difference  between  the  great  whole 
tone  and  the  great  semitone,  being  in  the  proportion 
of  13a  to  13S ;  and  the  Pythagorean  limma,  which 
is  the  difference  between  the  great  third  of  the 
ancients  (which  connsted  of  two  whole  tones)  and 
the  perfect  fourth,  the  proportioD  of  whidi  is  as  2S6 
toS4a 

LIMN^A  (Or.  Ifmne,  a  swamp),  a  (Fsuns  ot 
gasteropodoua  mollasca  of  the  order  Pmmonatct, 
riving  tta  name  to  a  family,  lAimnteada,  allied  to 
Hdiadm  (Snails),  lAstatMta  (Slugs),  fto.  The  «pM*ea 

^ .^.oogli 


T.TVWnRT  A— T.TNfinT.N. 


of  t-tiiM  funily  luo  niuiiorouli,  ftiul  Abound  in  freoli 
iratan  in  all  pirtfl  of  Ibe  vorld.  They  feed  on 
Tsgcrtable  tababmces.  They  all  have  a  thin,  delicate, 
hom-oolonnd  Bhell,  capable  of  oontaining  the  -whole 
animal  when  retracted,  but  vatTing  very  mach  in 
form  in  the  different  eeom ;  being  produced  into 
a  Bomewhat  eloo^ted  spire  in  the  tme  Limnacc 
(POKD-SSAILS),  whUlt  in  Planorbit  the  ipire  i>  coiled 
in  the  ««ae  plane,  and  in  AneyUu  (Bivkb  Livpbts) 
it  ia  limpet-Uiaped,  with  a  tomewbat  prodnoed  uid 
reoorred  tip.  Many  of  the  Liwiaada  have  a  habit 
of  floating  and  gliding  (hell  downwardB  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  aa  may  readily  be  observed  in  a 
trtsh-water  aqoariom,  in  whioh  they  are  of  great 
me  in  preventiog  the  excesBive  growth  <A  confer- 
voida,  and  removing  all  daoayins  vegetable  matter. 
They  aerre  the  same  purpose  m  the  econoiny  of 
nature  in  lakaa,  panda,  and  rivers,  and  fnntiah  food 
for  fiihea.  They  are  herin^>hi«dit»  The;  depowt 
their  eggi  on  atones  or  aqnatio  '^anta,  enveloped  in 
maaaea  of  »  glairy  anbaUaoe.  The  developmeot  of 
the  young  mollnao  may  eadly  be  watched  in  the 
aqoarinm,  the  membrane  <A  the  egg  being  p^ectly 
ttanaparent. 

LIMirCSIA,  a  genoi  of  cnudacea  of  the  order 
Itopoda,  oontaining  only  one  known  Epeeies,  whioh, 
however,  ia  importaat  from  the  niacbief  it  does  to 
Toeis,  dock-gates,  and  other  wood-work  immeraed  in 
the  water  M  the  sea,  on  the  ooaats  of  Britun,  and 
of  some  parts  of  continental  Europe.  It  ia  only 
about  a  nxth  of  an  inch  in  length,  of  an  aah-gniy 
colour,  with  black  eyea,  which  are  composed  of 
nnmerona  oetOi,  pUoed  close  together.  The  head  ia 
broad.  The  1^  are  short.  The  general  appearance 
reaemhiea  that  of  a  small  wood-louse,  and  the  crea- 
ture rolls  itaelt  up  in  the  same  manner,  if  seized. 
The  contents  of  the  stomach  conaiat  of  comminuted 
wood,  and  food  ia  the  object  of  the  perforatiou  of 
wood  for  whioh  the  L.  is  notable.  Mr  Stevenson 
found  it  very  trouhlcsomo  dnring  the  operations 
oonneoted  with  the  building  of  the  Bell  Rock  Li(^t- 
house.  The  pera  at  Southampton  have  suffered 
greatly  from  it.  The  kyanieii 
expedients  have  been  reaorb 

LIMOGES,  caintal  of  the  department  of  Haute- 
Vienue,  in  France,  and  of  the  former  proviuca  of 
limonain,  pictureaqu^  situated  on  a  hill  in  the 
valley  of  the  Vienne,  G7  miles  south-east  of  Poitiers. 
It  is  an  ancient  city,  and  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  It 
has  a  oathedral,  begun  in  the  13th  c,  and  completed 
in  1851 ;  a  number  of  scieutific  and  benevolent  in- 
stitutions and  public  buildings ;  considerable  mann- 
facturee  of  porcelain  (empLoyine  5800  hands),  of 
druggets,  of  a  kind  of  packuiread  Knowa  as  Limoges, 
Ac  It  waa  the  Auguatoritom  of  the  Bomans,  and 
afterwBida  received  the  name  of  Lemovica,  whence 
the  present  Linuwea.  Before  the  French  Revolution, 
it  had  more  than  forty  conventa.   Fop.  {18S0]  63,120. 

LIHPBT  {PaleSa),  a  genus  of  gaaterapodoua 
mollnaaii  of  the  order  OydabraitcluiUa,  the  type 
(tf  tiia  family  PattiUda,  In  all  thia  fauuly, 
the  shell  ia  nearly  conical,  not  spiral,  and  ha«  a 
wide  mouth,  and  the  apex  turned  forwards.  The 
annual  haa  a  large  round  or  oval  mnacnlai'  foot,  by 
which  it  adherea  firmly  to  rocka,  the  power  of 
oreatiUR  a  vaonum  being  uded  by  a  viscous  secre- 
tion. Limpets  live  on  rocky  ooasti^  between  tide- 
marks,  and  remain  £rmly  fixed  to  one  spot  when 
the  tide  is  out,  aa  thcdr  gills  cannot  be«r  exposure 
to  the  air,  but  move  about  whm  the  water  ooven 
them ;  many  of  them,  however,  it  would  aeam, 
remaining  long  on  the  same  spot,  which  in  soft 
ealoareoua  to^  ia  found  hollowed  to  their  exact 
fom.    TbKj  feed  on  >lpe>  which  they  eat  by  meana 


oua  rows  of  hard  teeth ;  tha  Commok  L.  (PattHa 
vidgarii)  of  the  British  ooasta  having  no  fewer 
than  160  rows  of  teeth  on  its  toogae,  12  in  each 
row,  1920  teeth  in  all  The  tongue,  when  not  in 
use,  lies  folded  deep  in  the  interior  of  the  animaL 
The  sills  are  arranged  under  the  margin  of  the 
mant^  between  it  and  the  foot,  forming  a  circle  of 

leaflets.      The  sexes  are   distinct The  powo-  i^ 

adherence  of  limpeta  to  Uie  rock  is  veTf  great,  so 
that  nnleas  surprised  by  suddrai  seizure,  they  are  not 
easily  removea  without  violence  sufficient  to  break 
the  shelL  The  species  are  numerous,  and  exhibit 
many  varietiea  of  fonn  and  cofoor.  The  Common 
L.  is  most  abundant  on  the  rocky  ooaats  of  Britain, 
and  ia  much  used  for  bait  by  fiahermen ;  it  ia  also 
used  for  food.  Some  of  the  limpets  of  warmer 
climates  have  very  beautiful  shells.  A  speoiea  found 
on  the  western  craat  of  South  America  naa  a  shell 
a  foot  wide,  which  is  often  used  as  a  baain. 

LIMPOPO.    See  Ooai. 

LINA'CIL^    See  Flax. 

LINCOLN,  Abraham,  nxteenth  Prwidait  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  was  bom  in  Kentucky, 
February  12. 1809.  His  grandfather  waa  an  emi- 
grant from  Virginia ;  hla  father,  a  poor  farmer,  who, 
m  1S16,  removed  from  Kentucky  to  Indiana,  In 
the  rude  life  of  tha  backwooda,  L.  s  entire  schooling 
did  not  eioeed  one  year,  and  he  waa  employed  in 
the  severest  agricultural  labour.  He  hved  with 
his  family  in  bpencer  County,  Indiana,  till  1830, 
when  he  removed  to  niinais,  where,  with  another 
man,  he  performed  the  feat  of  splitting  3000  rails  in 
a  day,  which  gave  him  the  popular  tohriqatt  of 
■the  KaOsplitter.'  In  1834,  he  was  elected  to  the 
niinois  legislature.  At  thia  period,  he  lived  by 
surveying  land,  wore  patched  homespun  clothes, 
and  spent  his  leisure  hours  in  studying  law.  He 
was  three  times  re-elected  to  the  legislature ;  was 
admitted  to  practise  law  in  1S36 ;  and  removed  to 
Springfield,  the  state  capital.  In  1844,  he  canvassed 
the  state  for  Mr  Clay,  wien  nominated  tor  president 
Mr  Clay  was  defeated,  but  the  popularity  gained 
by  I*  in  the  canvass  secured  his  own  election  to 
coDgrem  in  1840,  where  he  voted  agaiust  the  exten- 
doB  of  slavery ;  and  in  1854  was  a  recognised  leader 
in  the  newlv-formed  Republican  party.  In  1855,  he 
canvassed  the  state  as  a  candidate  for  United  States' 
senator,  against  Mr  Donglaaa,  but  without  sucoess. 
In  1856,  he  was  an  active  supporter  of  Mr  Fremont 
in  the  presidential  canvass  which  resulted  in  the 
election  of  Mr  Buchanan.  In  1860,  he  was  nomi- 
nated for  the  presidency  by  the  Chicago  Convention 
over  Mr  Seward,  who  expected  the  nomination. 
The  Don-extension  of  slavery  to  the  territoiies,  or 
new  states  to  be  formed  from  them,  was  the  most 
important  principle  of  his  party.  There  were  three 
other  cancudates — Mr  Donalaa  of  BliDois,  Northern 
I>einocrat;  Mr  Breokeniidga  of  Kentucky,  than 
vioe-presideiit,  and  afterwards  a  general  of  tike  Con- 
federate army,  Southern  Democrat ;  and  Mr  Bell  of 
Tenneasec^  Native  American.  With  this  division,  Mr 
Linooln  received  a  majority  of  votes  over  any  of 
the  other  candidates,  thon^  a  million  short  of  an 
absolute  majority ;  every  SouUiem  and  one  Northern 
state  voted  agamat  him.  He  waa  installed  in  the 
pesident's  ohair  4th  March  1S81.  His  election  by 
a  sectional  vote  and  on  a  sectional  iasoe  hostile  to 
the  South,  was  followed  l^  tha  secession  of  II 
Southern  states,  snd  a  war  for  the  restoration  of 
the  union.  As  a  military  measure  he  proclaimed, 
Janoaty  1,  1863,  the  freedom  of  all  slaves  in  the 
rebel  states ;  and  waa  i»«Blected  to  the  presidenoy 
in  1864.  The  war  was  brought  to  a  dosk  AprQ  2, 
1865;  and  on  the  15th  of  the  same  mouth,  C  was 


wCoo^i^lc 


UKCOLN— IJKD3AY. 


LTNCOIiN  (called  by  the  RomaM  Uadxtm; 
bom  which,  with  CbJonia  cubjoined,  oomea  the 
modem  name],  &  city  of  Gsgluid,  capital  ot  the 
oooDt^  of  the  lame  name,  a  parliamentarf  and 
mnmcipol  boroosh  and  coun^  of  itself,  is  ntnated  oa 
the  Withanv,  I40mileB  north-iiorttt-wtat  of  London 
by  nulwsy.  Bnilt  on  tile  ilope  of  a  bill,  which  is 
oroWDod  by  the  cathedral,  the  oity  i«  impoBing  in 
effect,  Euid  can  be  seen  bom  a  very  considerable 
diatauco.    It  is  veiy  aadent,  ii  iiTegnlaily  lud  out, 

arohitectDTC.  The  cathedral,  one  ot  the  finest  in 
'B!"a'*"'^i  is  the  principal  bnildiog.  It  is  surmomiled 
by  three  towan,  two  of  which,  ISO  feet  in  hei^t, 
were  formerly  continued  by  Bpireii  of  101  feet.  The 
central  tower,  63  feet  aqnare,  la  300  feet  high.  The 
intericor  leoetii  of  the  cathedral  is  482,  the  widtli, 
80  feet  The  famous  bell  colled  Tom  of  Lincoln 
was  cast  in  1610,  and  was  hnng  in  one  of  the  west 
toweti  oE  this  edifice.  It  wasbrohen  up, however, 
in  1634,  Bitd,  together  with  six  other  bells,  waa 
moMt  to  form  the  ptcaeot  larRe  bell  aud  two  quarter 
bells.  The  present  bell,  which  hangs  in  the  central 
tower,  is  5  ton*  8  cwt  in  weight,  and  is  6  feet  10^ 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  mouth.  The  etyle  uf  the 
oathedral,  though  Tariooe,  is  chiefly  f^ly  T<!nglinh, 

edifice^  among  which  are  three  nhurcHee,  dating 
from  before  the  Befonnatioii,  Aa.,  unineroits  schools, 
and  benevolent  inatitationa.  Several  iron  f  oundiiea, 
and  manufactorias  of  portable  ateam-engiDeE  and 
agricultural  "■"■T''"*",  as  w^  ai  targe  steam  flour- 
mdla  are  in  operation  here,  and  th^  is  an  active 
trade  in  fionr.  Brewing  azid  mn/'Kinn.in  ab  i  ng,  with 
«  trade  in  com  and  wool,  are  also  carried  on.  One 
member  is  returned  to  the  Eouae  of  Commoos  for 
thedty.    Pop.  (1871)26,766;  (1881)37,3121 

L,  under  the  Boinans,  waa  a  place  of  some 
importance,  and  under  the  Saxons  and  the  Danes, 
it  pranrved  a  good  position.  It  was  the  seat  of  an 
eztenaiTe  and  unpottant  trade  at  the  time  of  the 
**  "  ' ;  but  its  advancement  since  that 


LIITCOLN  COLLEQB.  See  ScFF.,  Vol  X 
LINOOLNSHIREl  a  maritime  oounty  of  Bog- 
laad,  and,  after  Yorkshii«,  the  laiveet  in  toe  ooont^, 
is  botuded  N.  by  Yorkdiire,  and  £.  by  the  North 
Sea.  Are*,  1,787,982  acres;  pop.  (1871)  436,699; 
(1881)  469,994  The  coaat^  from  the  Humber 
— which  eepacatcfl  the  ooonty  from  Yorkshire  on 
the  north — to  the  Wash,  is  almoet  uniformly  low 
aod  marehy;  to  low,  indeed,  in  ooe  part— bt^een 
the  months  of  the  Welhuid  and  the  Ken— that  the 
ahore  here  teqniiea  the  defence  of  an  embank- 
ment from  the  inroad*  of  the  >e«.  L.  hM  long 
been  divided  into  three  district*,  or  'part*,'  as  they 
tav  colled — vis.,  the  Puis  of  Liodtey,  an  insular 
district,  forming  the  DOrth-eB*tem  portioi]  of  L., 
•nd  including  the  Wold*  <»  chalk  hill*,  which 
tav  about  47  milee  in  length  by  6  milea  in  average 
breadth;  the  Farts  of  Keateven,  in  the  sout£. 
west;  and  the  Parts  of  Holland,  in  the  lonth- 
esat,  including  the  greater  part  of  the  fena.  Chief 
riven,  the  Tnai,  -Uie  Ancholme,  the  Witham, 
and  Uie  Welland.  The  snrfaoe  is  comparatively 
larel,  with  the  exoaption  of  the  Wolds  in  the  north- 
east. The  soil,  thongh  vny  various,  is  on  the 
iriule  very  fertile    It  includes  tracts  of  grazing- 

f  the  Trait 


produce  splendid  crops  of  wheats  beans,  oats,  and 
rape,  irithout  tlie  aid  of  manure.  No  other  oounty 
in  England  has  finer  breeds  of  oxen,  horses,  and 
sheep.    Homcastle  and  Lincoln  horse-fairs  are  fre- 

Joented  by  French,  Qerman,  Russian,  and  London 
aalen  for  the  purpose  of  buying  saperior  hunteia 
and  earriage-horsco.  The  climate,  tdioogh  subject 
to  strong  westerly  irinds,  is  much  the  same  m  that 
of  the  other  central  countiea  of  England.  Seven 
membera  are  returned  to  parliament. 

LINCOLirS  INN,  one  of  the  four  English  Inns 
of  Court,  having  exclusive  power  to  ciS.  persona 
to  the  bar.  It  is  so  called  because  it  belonged  to 
the  Earl  of  Lincoln  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IL,  and 
became  an  Inn  of  Court  soon  after  his  death  in 
1310.    See  tsrra  or  Cocrt. 

LIND,  Jenht.  See  GOLDSCHiaDT,  Winiira, 
lASDlXY,  Jobs,  a  distingnished  botanist,  wis 
born,  Februaiy  1799,  at  Catton,  near  Norwich,  where 
his  father,  who  waa  the  author  of  A  OiuiU  to 
Orvhardand  KitAenOardetu,owaeAtia.rgeajaBeary 
garden.  Botany  aeema  to  have  early  attracted  his 
attention,  as,  in  1819,  he  published  a  translation 
of  Eichard's  AiudyK  d%  Fruit,  and  in  1820,  hia 
Monographia  Ronrvn  appeared.  Amongst  hia 
most  important  works  are  hi*  Introditctioa  to  tA« 
Natural  System  uf  Botany  (1S30) ;  Irtlrodaetitm  U> 
lAe  Stradim  and  Physiology  of  PUaUa  (2  vols. 
1832) ;  Fkrra  Medka  (1838) ;  and  Tht  FegttabU 
Kingdom  (1846),  which  is  a  standard  woA  on  the 
subject  of  classification,  and  is .  an  expansion  of 
lita  ItiJrodtution  to  the  N'atural  Syilem,  which  had 

S-eviously  (in  1836)  been  remodelled  nnder  the 
tie  of  .k  ifaiural  System  qf  Botang,     L.  did 


Botany'  in  the  Library  tjf  Ugffut  Enowitdge,  and 
the  botanical  articles  ss  far  aa  the  letter  E  in 
the  Peiatf  Cyrioptxdia.  In  his  Theory  qfSortieul- 
(ure,  which  has  passed  through  several  editions, 
and  in  the  well-known  periodioal.  The  Oardena't 
Chronicle  (the  hortioultural  department  of  which 
he  edited  from  its  commenoemcnt  in  1841),  he 
shewed  the  great  practical  value  of  a  knowledge  of 
T^etable  physiolor^  in  the  common  operations  of 
the  field  and  earaen.  In  conjunction  with  lir 
Hutton,  he  published  The  FoeM  Flora  <if  Oreai 
Britain,  which  consists  of  descriptioaB  and  figures 
of  all  the  fossil  plant*  found  in  tbis  oountiy  up  to 
the  time  of  the  commencement  of  this  publication  in 
1833.  Our  limited  space  prevents  ns  from  noticing 
his  other  works,  or  his  numerous  contributions  to 
scientific  transactions.  In  1829,  at  the  opening  of 
the  London  University,  he  was  appointed  Professor 
of  Botany,  and  he  continued  to  discharge  the  duties 
of  the  choir  tiU  1860,  when  he  restgoed.  From 
1822,  he  acted  as  assistant  secretary  to  the  Horti- 
cultural Society,  and  not  only  edited  their  Trans- 
actions and  Proceedings,  but  took  an  active  part  in 
the  management  of  their  garden*  ot  Tumhom  Qreen. 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  nnmerons  learned  societies  at 
home  and  abroad.  He  died  November  1865. 
LINDSAY,  Fault  of.  See  Sdpp.,  VoL  X 
LINDSAY,  or  LYNDSAY,  Sm  DiVID,  or  thb 
tiajnst,  one  of  the  beet,  and  long  the  most  popuUr 
of  the  older  Scottith  poets,  waa  the  son  M  David 
Lindsay  of  Oarmylton,  in  East  Lothian,  whose 
mndfatber  was  a  son  of  Sir  William  Lindsay  of  the 
Byrea.  The  poet  i*  said  by  Chalmers  to  have  been 
bom  at  the  Mount  abont  the  vear  1490,  but  Laing 
in  his  recent  edition  of  Lyodsay  (1871)  notes  the 
absence  of  evidence  on  this  poin^  Chalmers  having 
appanntly  assumed  it  ss  a  o(»iaeqnenca  of  his  sup- 
poaition  tnat  the  poet's  father  was  *  David  Lyndsay 


j.%kl 


LINE— LIKiar  AND  LmEN  MANUFAOTUBESL 


of  the  Monntht,*  while  Wna  h»»  ih»wii  thkt  this 
WMthepoet'i^BudEaUieF.  ^enstne'DALindeeAv' 
oocon  in  the  list  of  '  incorponrted '  itadente  in  St 
Salvator'i  Collie,  St  Andrews,  for  the  ^ear  150S  or 
1509.  It  msy  be  that  of  tbe  poeb  We  cuinot  teU 
-when  he  entered  the  ro;al  lervice,  but  ia  October 
ICU  he  ii  found  taking  part  in  »  play  acted  before 
thecoortof  King  JuneelV,  In  the  foUowing  spring, 
he  was  appoint^  '  keeper '  or  '  usher '  of  the  prince, 
who,  when  little  mora  Uian  a  twelvemonth  old,  be- 
came King  James  V. ;  and  hi*  rersea  preserve  soma 
£  leasing  traces  of  the  care  and  affection  with  which 
B  teD^d  the  king's  infant  yeara.  His  wife,  Janet 
Couglaa,  had  long  the  charge  o(  the  royal  apparel. 
In  lo24,  the  court  fell  under  the  power  of  the 
queen-mother  and  the  Douglases,  and  L.  lost  bis 
place ;  but  four  years  nf terwards,  when  the  Doug- 
Lues  were  overtlirown,  L.  was  made  Lion  King  at 
Arms,  and  at  the  same  time  received  the  honour  of 
knighthood.  Id  this  capacity  he  accompanied  em- 
bamies  to  the  courts  of  Enghuid,  France,  Spain,  and 
Denmarit.  He  appears  to  nave  represented  Cupar  in 
the  parliaments  of  1542  and  1643  j  and  be  was  present 
at  St  Andrews  in  1947,  when  the  fallowers  of  the 
reformed  faith  called  Knox  to  take  upon  himself 
the  offioe  of  a  public  preacher.  He  died  cliildless 
before  the  sammer  of  15S5. 

The  firet  collection  of  L.'8  poems  appeared  at 
Copenhagen  about  1551  They  were  republished 
at  Pahs  or  Rouen  in  165S ;  at  London  in  16G6, 
1575,  and  1681  ;  at  Beltaat  in  1714  ;  in  Scotland  in 
1568,  1671,  1574,  1588,  1692,  1597,  1604,  1610, 
1814, 1634,  IMS,  16%,  1709,  17-20,  and  177&  This 
mere  enumeration  of  editions  might  be  enough  to 
shew  the  great  popularity  which  L  long  enftyed. 
For  nearly  two  canturiea,  indeed,  he  was  what  Bums 
has  since  become — the  poet  of  the  Scottish  people. 
His  works  were  in  atmeet  eveiy  boute,  his  veracs  on 
almost  every  tongue.  Like  Bums,  be  owed  part  of 
hii  popularity,  no  doubt,  to  his  complete  mastery  of 
the  popular  speech.  But,  like  Bums,  L.  would  have 
been  read  in  whatever  language  he  chose  to  write. 
Hi*  verses  shew  few  nwrka  of  the  highest  poetical 

Cver,  but  their  merits  otherwise  are  peat.  Their 
cy  i*  scarcely  lees  geoiol  than  their  numour,  and 
they  ate  full  of  good  sense,  varied  learning,  and 
knowledge  of  the  world.  They  are  valuable  now, 
if  for  nothing  else  than  their  vivid  pictures  of 
manners  and  feelings.  In  the  poet's  own  day, 
they  served  a  nobler  purpose,  by  preparing  the 
w^  for  the  great  revolutiou  of  the  IfiUi  century. 
It  has  been  aaid  that  the  verses  of  L.  did  more  for 
the  Beformstion  in  Scotland  than  all  the  Bermona  of 
Knox.  Like  Bums,  L.  shot  some  of  hia  shameat 
shafts  at  the  clergy.  The  licentiousness  that  char- 
acterises his  verse  must  be  attributed  in  part  to 
the  age  in  which  he  liveid.  The  earliest  and  most 
poetical  of  his  writings  is  Tlie  Drant;  the  most 
ambition*.  The  MonarchU;  the  most  remarkable 
ID  bis  own  day,  perhaps,  was  The  Satyre  of  the 
Thrie  SttaUit;  but  that  which  is  now  read  with 
most  pleasure,  both  for  the  charm  of  its  Bubject 
and  for  it*  freedom  from  the  allegoncal  fashion  of 
the  time,  i*  Tht  HialorU  oj  Squ^er  iltldrum.  An 
admirable  edition  of  L.'s  works  is  that  of  Chalmers 
(Land.  1806, 3  voU) ;  but  in  points  of  detail  it  is  lesa 
accurate  than  that  of  David  Laing  (3  vols.  1879). 

LIKE,  au  expression  used  in  the  army  to  distin- 
guish ordinary  cavalry  and  infantiy  from  uie  Qnards, 
Artillery,  and  Engineen.  It  obvionsly  takes  its 
origin  from  the  fact,  that  the  troops  m  question 


constituted  the  usual '  line  of  battle.' 
LINE,    Hathduticu,    denotes    a   magnitude 


LINEAL  DESCENT,  the  dewxnt  in  a  right 
line,  as  from  father  to  son,  grandson,  ka. 

LINES    AKD    LINEN    MANUFACTtJKES, 

fabrics  manufactured  wholly  from  flax  or  lint  (Lat. 
tinum).  The  manufacture  of  linen  has  reached 
its  greatest  perfection  in  France  and  the  NeOier- 
landa.  where  the  itimulu*  to  produce  fine  yams 
(see  SpiHinNo)  for  the  Ucemokers  has  given  rise 
to  *uah  core  and  attention  in  the  cultivation  and 
preparation  of  flax,  that  in  point  of  fineness  of 
fibre  they  have  been  unequalled.  Consequently, 
the  linens  of  France,  Belgium,  and  Holland  have 
long  enjoyed  a  well-deserved  r^utation,  and  in  the 
article  of  lawn,  which  is  the  finest  kind  of  linen- 
cloth  made,  the  French  are  unrivalled.  In  the 
ordinary  kinds  of  linen,  our  own  manufactnres  are 
rapidly  improving,  and  will  soon  equal  in  quality 
the  productions  of  continental  competitors.  Those 
of  Ireland,  especially,  are  remarkable  for  their  excel- 
lence, and  this  trade  has  become  a  very  important 
one  in  that  country  ;  whilst  in  Scotluid  a  large 
trade  in  the  coarser  and  inferior  kinds  has  located 
itself.  The  export  of  linen  manufacturea  and  linen 
yams  from  the  United  Kingdom  had  in  1376  a 
value  of  £7,070,149,  thoDgh  m  1879  it  was  only 
£5,473,127 ;  and  the  amount  produced  for  home 
consumption  may  be  reckoned  at  £10,000,000; 

The  chief  Idn^  of  linen  goods  (for  yarn,  see 
Sraiiama)  are  :  Li.wn'  (Fr.  finon],  the  finest  of  flax 
manofacturee,  formerly  exclusively  a  French  pro- 
ductioo,  but  very  fine  lawns  are  now  made  in 
Belfast,  Armagh,  and  Warringstown ;  Cambric 
(q.v.);  Damask  (It.);  Diaper  (q.  v,}.  Of  the 
finer  jjoin  fabrics.  ShettinQa  are  the  mo^t  important 


Otaabargi,  Cnuh,  Mid  Tide  (corrupted  from  Uclxn 
and  ddcixn,  Dutch  for  cover),  are  veiv  coarse 
and  heavy  materials,  some  fully  bleocheO,  others 
nnbleachM,  or  nearly  sa  They  are  chiefty  made  in 
Scotland,  Uie  great  seat  of  the  manofsctare  being 
at  the  tJDwns  just  mentioned,  although  much  is 
mode  in  the  smaller  towns  and  villages,  also  Bt 
Leeds  and  Bamsley  in  England.  Some  few  varieties 
of  velvet  and  velveteen  arc  also  made  of  flax  at 
Manchester,  and  much  linen-yam  is  used  as  warp 
for  other  materials. 

Linen  is  one  of  the  most  anaioit  of  all  textile 
monnfactures,  at  least  it  ia  one  of  the  earliest  moi- 
tioned.  The  cerecloth,  in  which  the  moat  ancient 
mummies  are  wrapped,  proves  it*  early  and  very 
extensive  use  among  the  Egyptian*.  It  formed 
also  port*  of  the  garmenta  A  the  Hebrew  as 
well  as  th«  Egyptian  priests.  Panopoli*  wo*  the 
Belfast  ^  the  ancie□t^  as,  according  to  Sttabo,  it 
wa*  there  the  mannfoctnre  of  linen  was  chiefly 
couductfld.  The  wonderful  dutabihty  of  linen  la 
evidenoed  by  its  eiiitenoa  on  mummies,  and  by  the 
remarkable  fact  mentioned  by  the  German  writer, 
Seetien,  and  referred  to  by  Blumanbaoh,  that  he  had 
foond  several  napkins  vrithin  tbe  folds  of  the  cover- 
ing on  a  mummy  which  he  unwrapped,  and  that  he 
hM  them  washed  several  times  without  injury,  and 
□ted  with  great  veneration  '  this  venerable  linen, 
iriiicb  had  been  woven  more  than  17O0  years.' 
From  tbe  time  of  these  ancient  Egyptian*  up  to 
the  present  period,  the  ose  of  linen  for  clothing 
and  other  purposes  has  been  oontinuoni;  and 
although  the  introduction  and  vast  development 
of  the  ootton  manufacture  checked  it*  oonmimption 
for  a  time,  it  has  fuHy  regained,  and  has  indeed 
exceeded,  its  former  proportions  as  one  of  our  great 


i.Coo'jIc 


LXNO-UNKOPmO. 


LIKQ  {Lata  tnoiva),  a  fish  of  the  family  Oadida, 
•1ninil*iit  DD  moat  parti  of  the  Brituh  couti,  and 
eUewhers  throughout  the  northern  aeos,  and  in 
Tolue  olniMt  rivalling  the  eod.  In  form,  it  \m  mach 
more  elongated  than  the  ood,  and  even  more  than 
the  hake,  with  which  it  agrees  in  having  two  dorsal 
£nB  and  one  anal  fin,  t£B  anal  and  oecond  dorsal 
long ;  but  the  (ffinns  differs  in  the  preeenoe  of  harbeU, 
of  which  the  L,  baa  only  one  at  the  eitremitf  of 
the  lower  jaw.  The  L.  is  generally  three  or  four 
feet  lonf,  Botneldmea  more,  and  has  been  known 
to  weigh  seventy  pountU.  The  colour  is  gray, 
inclining  to  olive  ;  the  bell^,  silvery;  the  fiiu  edged 
with  white.  The  taJl-fln  is  rounded.  The  gape  is 
lotge^  and  the  mouth  well  furnished  with  teeth. 
The  Ii,  ii  a  veiy  voractoua  Ssh,  feeding  chiefly  on 
smaHer  fishes.  It  is  olio  very  prolific,  and  depiwits 
ita  spawn  in  June,  in.  soft  oozy  ground  near  the 
months  of  rivers.  It  is  found  chiefij  where  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  is  rocky.  Great  numbers  are 
caught  in  the  same  manner  as  ood,  by  hand-lines 
ima  long  lines,  on  the  coasts  of  Cornwall,  the 
Hebrides,  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  laliuids,  tc. ; 
and  ore  split  from  head  to  toil,  cleaned,  salted  in 
brine,  washed,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  sent  to  the 
tnuket  in  the  form  of  Btock-Jith.  Thej  are  loi^y 
exported  to  Spain  and  other  countries.  The  olr- 
bladdeiB  or  totinda  are  [uckled  like  those  of  cod. 
The  liver  also  yields  on  oil  "•'"'i"'  to  cod-liver  oil, 
which  is  osed  for  the  supply  of  lamps  in  Shetland 
and  elsewhere. — Other  ipecies  of  L.  ore  found  in  the 
southern  seas. — The  Burbot  (q.  v.)  is  a  fresh-water 
species  of  the  same  genus. 

LINGA  (a  Sanscrit  word  which  literally  means  a 
sign  or  symbol)  denotes,  in  the  sectarian  worship  of 
the  Hindus,  the  phaUut,  aa  emblem  of  the  male  or 
generative  power  of  nature.  The  Linza-worship 
^evails  with  the  S'aivos,  or  adorers  of  S'iva  (see 
Hindu  Religion  under  India).  Originally  of  an 
ideal  and  mystical  nature,  it  has  degenersled  into 
procticea  of  the  grossest  description ;  thus  taking 
the  same  course  as  the  similar  worship  of  the 
Chaldsans,  Greeks,  and  other  nations  of  the  east 
and  west.  The  manner  in  which  the  Linga  is 
represented  is  generally  inoffensive— the  pistil  of  " 


-lerative  power  of  S'lva.  Its  counterpart  is 
Yoni,  or  the  symbol  of  female  nature  as  fructified 
and  productive.  The  S'iva-PuT&na  names  twelve 
Lingas  which  seem  to  have  been  the  chief  objects 
oE  <£ia  worship  in  India. 

LINGABD,  Jomf,  D.D.,  a  member  of  a  humble 
Roman  Catholic  family,  was  bom  at  Winohester, 
February  5,  1771 ;  and  being  destined  foe  the  priest- 
hood oE  that  church,  was  sent  to  the  English  College 
of  Douoi^  in  France,  where  he  remained  till  that 
college,  in  common  with  moat  of  the  religions 
establlshiiients  of  France,  was  broken  np  bv  the 
troubles  of  the  Revolution.  The  act  called  the 
Catholic  Relief  Act  enabling  Catholics  to  open 
schools  in  England,  the  Douai  community  was  trans- 
ferred to  Crookhall,  and  ultimately  to  Ushaw,  m  the 
county  of  Durham.  L.  continned  attached  to  the 
college  in  its  several  migrations,  althoagh  not  always 
resident.  In  1793,  he  accepted  the  office  of  tutor  in 
the  family  ol  Lord  Stourton ;  but  in  the  follow- 
ing ^ear  he  returned  to  complete  his  theological 
studies  at  Crookhall,  when  he  entered  into  priest's 
orders,  and  in  which  he  continued  as  professor  of 
philosophy,  prefect  of  studies,  and  vice-president, 
until  1810,  when  he  was  named  president.  In  1811, 
however,  be  accepted  the  humble  cure  of  Hornby, 
near  Lancaster,  m  which  he  continued  to  reside 
till  his  death,  July  17,  1851.    L.'s  first  important 


wca-k  was  the  Antiqait}/  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church 
(Svo,  1806),  reprinted  in  1810,  and  afterwards,  in 
a  mnch  enlarged  edition  (2  vols.  IS4C).  This 
was  but  the  pioneer  of  what  became  eventually 
the  labour  of  his  life — a  Hittory  of  England  (8 
Tola.  4to),  published  at  intervals,  1819—1830;  and 
afterwards  in  14  vols.  8vo,  1823—1831.  This 
work,  before  the  death  of  the  anthor,  had  passed 
through  six  editions,  the  last  of  which  (10  vols. 
Svo)  appeared  in  1854— ISW.  From  its  first 
appearance,  it  attraet«d  much  attention,  ta  beins 
founded  on  original  aathoritie«  and  the  result  of 
much  new  research.  It  was  criticised  with  con- 
siderable asperity  in  its  polemical  bearings ;  but 
the  author,  m  bis  replies,  (Usplayed  so  much  erudi- 
tion, and  BO  careful  a  consideration  of  Qie  original 
authorities,  that  the  reantt  was  to  add  materially 
to  his  reputation  aa  a  scholar  and  a  critic  It  won 
for  itself  a  place  as  a  work  of  original  research, 
and  olthongh  it  bears  nnmistokable  evidence  of  the 
religioos  opiniana  of  tbs  author,  yet  there  is  also 
evicknce  of  a  dnoere  desini  to  investigate  and  to 
ascertain  the  truth  of  history.  In  recognition  of 
his  great  tervicea,  many  honours  were  offered  to 
him  ;  and  he  received  a  pension  of  £300  from  the 
crown  in  reward  of  his  literary  services.  Hie 
remains  were  interred  in  his  old  oollege  of  St 
Cnthbert,  st  Ushaw. 

LIHOAYG'N,  a  town  of  the  island  of  Lmon, 
Philippme  Islands  (q.  v.).     Pop.  2OO00. 

LINGULA.     See  Supp.,  VoL  X. 

LI'HIMENTS  (from  the  Latin  word  Ualre,  to 
besmear)  may  be  regarded,  in  so  far  as  their  ])hysical 
properties  are  concerned,  aa  eintmeota  having  th« 
consistence  of  oil,  while,  chemically,  most  of  them 
ore  toapt — that  is  to  say,  compoundH  of  oils  and 
alkahea.  In  consequence  of  their  slighter  consist' 
ence,  they  are  niblied  into  the  skin  mora  readily 
than  ointments.  Among  the  most  important  of 
them  are  :  Linimeni  <if  Ammoni<i,  popularly  known 
as  Hartthom  and  Oil,  which  is  prepared  by  Tniiring 
and  shaking  together  solution  of  ammonia  and  olive- 
oil,  and  is  em^oyed  as  an  external  stimulant  and 
rubefacient  to  relieve  neuralgic  and  rhemnatio 
pains,  sore  throat,  &c :  Soap  Linimeni,  or  Opodddoc, 
the  constituents  of  which  are  soap,  camphor,  and 
spirits  of  rosemary,  and  which  is  used  in  qirains, 
bruises,  rheiimatiBni,  &C. :  Liniiaent  t^f  L\TRt,  or 
Carron  OU,  which  is  prepared  by  mixing  and 
ahakini  together  equal  measures  of  olive  or  linseed 
oil  and  lime-wat«r ;  it  is  an  excellent  apphcation 
to  hnms  and  scalds,  and  from  its  general  employ- 
ment for  thia  purpose  st  the  Carron  iron-works, 
boa  derived  ita  popular  name  :  Camphor  Linimeni, 
conaietinR  of  camphor  diasolved  in  olive-oil,  which 
is  used  In  sprains,  bmiacs,  and  glandular  enlarge- 
ments, and  which  must  not  he  confounded  with 
Compoand  Camphor  LiniTnaU,  which  contains  a 
considerable  quantity  of  ammonia,  and  ia  a  powerful 
BtimulaDt  and  rubefacient :  Opium  Linimtnl,  which 
conriata  of  soap  liniment  and  tincture  of  opium, 
and  is  much  employed  aa  an  anodyne  in  nenraliga, 
rbeumatnsm,  ftc. ;  and  the  SijnpU  Linimoit  of  Uia 
Edinburgh  Pharmacopieia,  which  is  composed  of 
four  parts  of  olive-oil  and  one  part  of  white  wax, 
and  IS  used  to  soften  the  skin  and  promote  the 
healing  of  chaps. 

LIITKOpinq  (old  Norse  Lovgaiepv-ngaT,  later 
LioagaiaOping),  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Sweden, 
capital  of  the  ken  of  the  same  name,  is  mtuated  on 
the  St&nga.  which  here  flows  into  Lake  Eoien,  110 
miles  Boutji-weat  of  Stockholm.  It  la  tcgnlarly 
built,  with  fine  morket-plocea  and  public  squares, 
but  the  houses  are  mostly  of  wood.  L,  has  three 
chnrchea,  of  which  the  cathedral — ■  Qothic  edifice 


„.„,.Gd6glct 


LfflUTHGOW— LINN*. 


«f  the  I2th  c,  ofmtamhig  monnmeDta  of  nuuiy  ilhia- 
trioiu  pemnageo — ii  one  of  tiie  moat  bemtifal  ia 
Sweden.  It  ebo  poneoa  >  library  of  30,000  toU. 
Its  trade  ii  oonsiderable.  Pop.  (ISSO)  8702.  In  old 
heathen  tunes,  L.  tu  »  pikce  of  eacnfioa. 

LINLITHGOW,  or  WEST  LOTHIAN,  a  oonntj 
in  SooUand,  ie  boondsd  on  the  N.  by  the  Firth  of 
Forth,  having  the  coontiee  of  Mid-LothUn,  lAoark, 
and  Stirhng  on  the  B.,  S.,  aod  W.  Jta  length,  north 
to  lonth,  ij  20  milea,  and  east  to  we«t  IS  imleB.  Ita 
>  it  127  aqnare  mile^  or  81,114  acree.  The 
[aoe  of  die  groand  ii  iireguUr,  but  the  hiUa  are 
iuaooaiderable  with  the  exception  of  one  eminenoe 
1500  ft  high.  The  climate  ia  changoabla,  but  healthy. 
^ie«^  iavaiyTaried,  and,  except  along  the  bordara 
of  the  Filth,  there  ia  little  land  of  firet  qoality.  In 
Bome  of  tha  high  monnda  there  ia  good  paature, 
■1(0  a  oonsdeiule  DT^tdth  of  nimclaiioed  moBS. 
Excellent  farming  preraila  here  as  In  Edinbnrghahire 
and  Haddingtonshire.  There  are  few  atreama  of  any 
note,  the  Almond  and  Avon  being  the  prindpaL 
Ihe  miueraJa  are  of  conaiderable  value.  The  fre«- 
■tone  need  in  building  tlie  Boyal  Inatitntion,  Na- 
tional Gallery,  and  ottiar  ppblio  boildinga  in  Edin- 
borgh,  waa  got  at  Binny.  There  are  aevenil  coUieriea 
ia  full  and  profitable  operation. 

There  are  two  ro^  borgha — Linlithgow,  the 
ooun^  town,  and  Qoeenafeny.  The  other  principal 
towna  an  Bathgate  and  Borrowatooiineas.  Thia 
coonty  ia  interaected  with  railway*,  and  the  Fdin- 
bnrgh  and  Glasgow  Union  Canal  traveraee  it  for  ap- 
wnrda  of  ten  mUea.  In  1674,  the  valued  rent  was 
£6073.  In  1811,  the  real  rent  was  £88,746  ;  and  in 
18SI — 1SS2  it  waa,  excluding  nilways  and  canals, 
^6216,011. 

The  fbUowing  are  the  ajiricnltural  statistics  for 
1881  ;  acrea  nnder  a  rotation  of  crope  and  graaa, 
W,2T4,  of  whidi  there  -were  1450  aorea  of  wheat, 
4874  acrea  of  barley,  10,348  acres  of  oat»,  656  acres 
of  beam,  30S2  acres  of  potatoes,  and  3S61  acres  of 
tnmipe.  Of  live-stock,  the  nambere  were — horeea 
employed  in  agricnltare,  1644 ;  cattle,  10,078 ; 
iheep,  17,606;  swine,  1442.  Salt  ia  made  in  the 
cotin^ ;  and  in  the  towns  are  tanneries,  breweries, 
distilleries,  and  chemical  works.  This  connty  con- 
tains several  remuns  of  Roman  antiquities,  Fop. 
(1871)40,965;  (1881)  43,510.  Constituency  in  1881— 
18^  returning  one  member  to  parliament,  1304. 

LINLITHGOW,  a  market-town,  and  royal  and 
parliamentary  burgh  of  Scotland,  cMef  town  of  the 
connty  of  the  same  name^  is  situated  on  a  small 
lake,  16  miles  west  of  Edinbnrgh.  It  is  one  of  the 
oldest  towns  in  Scotland,  ani^  though  it  his  been 
mnch  modernised,  still  coutaina  many  antiqoated 
house*,  and  some  ruins  rioh  in  iustcric^  association. 
The  parish  church  of  St  Michael's  {built  partly  in 
the_  Idth  and  partly  in  the  I6th  c.),  a  portion  of 
which  is  still  in  ose,  is  a  beantifa]  specimen  of  tha 
lateet  Scottish  Gothic  The  palace,  tbikincly  sittt- 
ated  on  an  eminence  which  juts  into  the  lake  (of 
102  acres),  dividing  it  into  two  almost  eqnal  parts, 
ia  heavy,  but  impoaina  in  appearance;  waa  be- 
qoently  the  reddtmoe  <u  the  Scottish  monarchs,  and 
waa  the  birth^aoe  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  and 
of  her  father,  James  V.  The  earUett  recoid  of  its 
existence  ia  of  the  time  of  David  L  {1124—11631, 


unites   with    several  ether   bnrghs   ._ „ 

member  to  parliament.    Pop.  (1881)  3913: 

LINNS,  Kakl  voh,  often  called  LmnfiTa,  one 
of  the  greatest  of  Daturalista,  wm  bom  4th  May 
1707,  at  Bashult,  in  SmaUnd  (Sweden),  where  his 
father  waa  a  country  paraon  in  vtty  poor  drcnm- 


(dancea.  Hia  parents  intended  him  for  his  fathei'a 
profession,  but  he  made  little  proScienoy  in  the 
necessary  classical  atndiee,  manifesting,  however, 
from  hia  vary  boyhood,  the  greatest  love  for  botany. 
His  father,  disappointed,  proposed  to  apprantica 
him  to  a  ahoemaker;  but  Dr  John  Bothmann,  a 
pbysiciaa  at  Wexii},  a  friend  of  his  fsther,  under- 
took for  a  year  lie  expense  of  his  edooation, 
and  gnided  him  in  the  atndy  of  botany  and  of 
physiology.  In  1727,  the  young  natoralist  went  to 
study  medicine  at  Lnnd,  and  in  the  year  following 
he  went  to  ITpsala,  bat  doring  his  attendance  at  the 
univeraity  he  endored  great  poverty.  Olaf  Celsins 
received  him  at  last  into  his  bouse,  and  availed 
himself  of  his  assistance  in  preparing  a  work  on  the 
plants  of  the  Bible.  He  sJso  won  the  favourable 
le^rd  of  Olaf  Budbeck,  the  professor  of  botany 
at  Upsala,  by  a  paper  in  which  he  exhibited  the  first 
outlinea  of  the  sexual  system  of  botany,  with  which 
his  name  must  ever  remain  connected.  Rndbeck 
appointed  him  curator  of  the  botanic  garden  and 
botanical  demonstrator.  In  his  24th  year  he  wrote 
a  BortttM  Uplandicua,  From  May  to  November 
1731^  he  ttav^ed  in  Lapland,  at  the  expense  of  the 
nrvemment.  The  fruits  of  this  tour  speared  in  hia 
Flora  Lappottiea  {knai.  1737).  He  afterwards  apent 
some  time  at  Fahlun,  studying  mineralogy,  and 
there  he  became  acquainted  with  the  lady  \^om  he 
afterwards  married,  the  daughter  of  a  physician 
named  Morttus,  who  supplied  him  vrith  the  means 
of  going  to  Holland  to  take  his  degree,  which  he 
obtained  at  Harderwyck  in  1735.  In  Holland,  he 
became  the  associate  of  some  oi  the  most  eminent 
the  time,  and  won  for  himself 


views  which  attntaled  ...       .... 

eagerly  prosecuted  hia  roaearehea  in  all  departmenta 
of  natural  hiatory.  During  hia  residence  in  HaUtuid, 
L.  oompoaed  and  published,  is  r^iid  eucceasion, 
some  of^his  greatest  works,  particularly  1^  £y«fena 
2faiuTa  (Leyd.  1736),  bis  Piadamaita  Bottaiioa 
(L^d.l736),liis  GauraPiantonHn  (Leyd.  1737),  hia 
CoroUarium  Oaiemm  FlatUarum  (Leyd.  1737),  ko. 
He  visited  England  and  France,  ana  returned  to 
Sweden,  wher^  after  some  time,  he  was  a[^)ointed 
royal  botanist  and  president  of  the  Stookholm 
Academy.  In  1741,  he  wia  appointed  {nrofessor  of 
medicine  in  Upeala,  and  in  17^  professor  of  botany 
there.  The  remaindm  of  hia  life  vrss  mostly  spent 
at  Upaala  in  the  greatest  actlTi^  of  sdenlific  study 
and  aathonhlp.  He  produced  revised  editions  of 
hia  earlier  works,  and  numerous  new  woi^  a 
FU>m  SfLedca  (1746),  Fauna  Buedm  (1746),  Hortat 
UptaUentit  (1743).  Materia  Medita  (1749—1752), 
hia  famona  FhOoHaphia  Botanica  (1751),  and  the 
Speae*  Ptaniarum  (1753),  in  some  reepecta  the 
Rreateat  of  all  his  works.  He  died  on  10th  January 
1778,  the  last  four  yeate  of  his  life  having  bean 
spent  in  great  mental  and  bodily  infirmi^.  L. 
was  not  only  a  naturalist  of  most  accurate  obaerva. 
^  ~n,  bnt  of  most  philosophical  mind,  and  upon  this 
|>ended  in  a  great  degree  the  almost  unparalleled 
luence  whi^  he  exercised  upon  the  progress 
of  every  branch  of  natural  histery.  Among  the 
importwrt  services  which  be  rendered  to  science, 
not  the  least  vraa  the  introdnction  of  a  more  clear 
and  precise  nomenclature.  ITie  groups  which  he 
indicated  and  named  have,  in  the  great  majority  of 
instances,  beoi  rstained  amid  all  the  progreaa  of 
science,  and  are  too  natural  ever  to  be  broken  np ; 
while,  it  the  botanical  system  which  he  tntrodnced 
is  artificial,  L.  himself  was  perfectly  aware  of  tlu^ 
and  recMnmended  it  for  mere  temporary  use  till  tbn 
lowledge  of  plants  should  be  so  far  advanced  that 
could  give  place  to  a  natural  arrangemanb  See 
BOTA«T. 


UNVBT— LIN-ISEH-Sn. 


LINNET  {Liaola),  >  genm  of  inuUl  biida  of  iia 
(anuty  FringiUiilfB,  nearly  raaembling  ti>e  true  finiUiei, 
gold-iinclieB,  ftc.  The  bill  is  ahort,  itrught,  conical, 
and  pointed ;  the  iritiga  lou^  and  KHnewtiat  pciiitail ; 
the  toil  forked.    The  speciea  are  widely  diitribnted 

the  northam,  temperate,       '        ' '         '        '    ' 


Common  lionet  (L.  eaunabina). 

The  CoKMON  L.  [L.  cnnnnAina),  or  Gkeiteb  Bxd- 
POLS  (qn.  BedpoS),  ia  common  in  almost  eveiy  part 
of  the  Britiah  lalanda  and  of  Europe,  and  exteoda 
oTcS  Ajia  to  Japan.  Id  lize^  it  ii  about  eqnkl  t< 
the  chaffincb.  In  its  wintei^plnmaee,  its  prevailini 
colour  is  brown,  the  quill  and  tail  feAthera  bUoE 
with  white  edges ;  in  the  nuptial-plumage,  the  crown 
of  the  head  and  the  breast  are  bri^t  vermilion 
colour,  and  a  genera]  brightening  of  colour  takes 
place  over  the  rest  of  the  plumaf^  Thij  cbuige  of 
plumage  cauKs  it  to  be  d(«ignat«d  the  brown,  gray, 
or  TOBB  Li,  according  to  the  season  of  thsyear  and 
the  sex.  It  ia  the  LmtU  of  the  Scotch.  The  aweet- 
neaa  of  its  socj;  makes  it  everywhere  a  favourite. 
It  aings  well  in  a  cage,  and  readily  breeds  in 
oonfinement ;  but  the  M^htness  of  the  nuptial- 
plumage  never  appesn.  The  L.  abounds  chiefly 
m  somewhat  open  districts,  and  seems  to  prefer 
uncultivated  and  fnrze-covravd  grounda.  Its  nest 
is  very  often  in  a  for^e-busb  or  hawthom-hedge ; 
i«  formed  of  small  twi^  and  sterna  of  grass,  nicely 
lined  with  wool  or  haor ;  the  eggs  are  four  or  five 
in  number,  pale  bluish  white,  speckled  with  x>urple 
and  brown.  Linseta  congregate  in  large  flocks  in 
winter,  and  in  great  part  desert  the  nplanda,  and 
teaort  to  the  aea-coaat.— The  Mbaly  B^dfols  IL. 
atnesam)  ia  also  a  widely  distributed  apeoea,  and  ia 
found  in  North  America,  aa  well  sa  in  Europe  and 
Asia,  chiefly  in  very  northern  regions.  It  is  rare  in 
Britain.  In  size,  it  ia  nearly  equal  to  the  Common 
Linnet.  By  some,  it  is  regarded  as  a  larger  variety 
of  the  LisEH  Redpolk  or  Cohhon  Bsspolb  {L. 
iamria),  which  i«  common  in  Britain,  although  in  the 
uutb  al  England  it  is  chiefi;  known  as  a  winter 
visitant.  The  forehead,  throat,  and  lore  are  black  ; 
in  the  spring-plumage,  the  crown  of  tie  head  ia 
deep  crimson ;  the  general  colour  ie  brown  of  various 
shades.  This  epecies  is  common  in  all  the  northern 
parts  of  the  world,  enlivening  with  Its  pleasant 
twitter  and  sprightly  habits  even  the  desolate  wmiteB 
<A  Spitzbergen. — The  only  other  British  species  is 
the  MomiTAiK  11,  or  Twith  (L.  miMiian),  chiefly 
found  in  monntunous  or  very  northern  districts. 
It  il  smaller  than  the  preceding,  has  a  yellowish 
UD,  and  never  assumes  the  red  colour  which  marks 
the  nuptial-plumage  of  other  species. 

LINOLEUM.    See  Sopp.,  Vol  X. 

LINSEED,  the  seed  of  tiai,  lar^ly  imported  from 
the  continent  and  India,  for  making  United  ml  and 


oit-ctiie;  in  order  to  whicdi  the  aeedi  are  flrst  bruised 
or  cmthed,  then  ground,  and  afterwards  subjected 
to  preMom  in  a  hydraulic  or  screw  press,  sometimes 
wiukont  he*t,  ana  sometimes  with  tbs  aid  of  a  steam 
beat  of  about  200*  F.  Zinsesd  oil  ii  usually  amber- 
coloored,  bnt  when  perfaotiy  pure  it  is  colourless. 
It  has  a  peculiar  and  rather  disagreeable  odour 
and  taate.  It  ia  chiefly  uaed  for  muing  varniahes, 
nainta,  Su^     That  made  without  heat  {eold-drawit 


Ibueed  oil)  is  purer,  and  less  apt  to  b 


9  randd. 


expresaio  .  ,  ,  . 

and  with  heat  from  22  to  27  per  cent,  of  oiL  Lin- 
seed oil,  boiled  either  alone  or  with  lithai^  white 
lead,  or  white  vitriol,  dries  much  more  rapidly  on 
ezpome  to  the  air  than  the  unbailed  oil ;  and  boiled 
or  drfimg  oil  is  particularly  adapted  for  many  i 


cattle  and  for  poultry.  The  aeed  coats  abonnd  in 
mucilage,  which  forms  a  thick  jeUy  with  hot  water, 
and  is  very  useful  for  fftt^ning  cattle. — Lintted 
ratal,  much  ised  fo  poultices,  is  generally  made  by 
grinding  fresh  oil-cake,  but  it  is  better  if  made  by 
grinding  the  seed  itselt 

LI'NSTOCK,  an  iron-abod  wooden  staff  used  in 
gunnery,  for  holding  the  lighted  match  in  readiness 
to  be  applied  to  the  touch-hole  of  the  cannon.  In 
old  pictures,  the  linstock  is  seen  planted  in  the 
ground  to  the  right  rear  of  each  pieces  with  a  match 
smoking  in  each  of  the  ends  of  me  fork  in  which  it 
terminates. 

LINT.    See  Flat. 

LINTEL,  the  horizontal  bearer  over  doon, 
windows,  and  other  ox>eningB  in  walls,  usually  either 
'  stone  or  wood. 

LIN-TSEH-STT,  Chinese  Imperial  Commissioner, 

fta  bom  in  178S  at  Eing-hwa,  in  the  province  of 
Fuh-keen,  and  his  Chinese  biographers  have  not 
failed  to  find  that  hia  birth  was  attended  with 
BUperoaturoI  indications  of  future  eminence.  Tiil 
he  reached  bis  17tli  year,  he  assisted  hia  father 
hia  trade  of  making  artificial  fiowen,  and  spent 

..  evenings  in  ttud^Fing  to  qualify  himself  for 
the  village  competitive  nrami nations,  at  which 
be  aucce^ed  in  obtaining  successively  the  degrees 
analogous  to  Bachelor  of  Arts  and  Master  of 
Arts.  His  ambitious  miud,  not  satisfied  with 
these  triumphs,  pointed  to  Fekin  as  the  fitting 
sphere  of  his  talents,  but  povc^iiy  barred  the  way. 
Happily,  however,  a  wealthy  friend,  who  was  filled 
adioiralion  for  L.'s  merits  and  virtues,  invited 
_  to  become  his  son-in-law,  and  he  was  now  in 
a  position  to  push  hia  fortune  at  the  capital.     He 


became  a  doctor  of  laws  and  a  member  of  the 
Hanlin  College,  which  latter  honour  qualified  him 
for  the  highert  official  posts.  When  30  years  of  age, 
he  received  his  finit  omcdal  appointment  as  censor ; 
and  by  displaying  the  same  zeal  and  industry, 
combined  with  irreproachable  probity,  which  he 
had  shewn  in  private  life,  he  gradually  rose  into  the 
favour  of  the  emperor  and  hu  ministers.  Ue  was 
seat  to  siipenntend  the  repairing  of  the  banks  of  the 
Yellow  River ;  and  on  the  termination  of  his  mission, 
two  years  after,  was  highly  complimented  by  liis 
sovereign  for  his  diligence  and  energy,  and,  as  an  evi> 
dence  of  imperial  favour,  was  appomted  to  the  post 
of  financial  commissioner  for  Kiang-nan,  in  which 
province  a  famine  waa  at  that  time  decimating  the 
population.  L.  exhausted  all  hia  private  resourcea 
and  emotumente  in  providing  food  for  the  sufferers, 
and  by  careful  manvement  succeeded  in  restorinj| 
the   prosperity  of  the   province.      He   waa   neu 


uia.i.=a,.Ggogllc 


LINTZ-LION. 


appoint 


inted  Ticeroy  of  the  two  provincea  oC  Shen-»e 

KoD-an,  where,  as  in  Eliiuig-iuui,  he  noon  gained 

tha  aSeddona  of  thepeople  and  tbe  commendatioDa  of 
the  emperor.  On  hu  reception  b;  the  emperor  after 
hia  Tetam,  new  titles  were  showered  npon  him,  and 
ha  ohtained  the  aigoal  bonoiu  of  entering  the  impe- 

— -' '—--^ horseback.    But  now  his  brilhant 

be  checked.     He  bsd  long  utged 


towards  the  importora,  .._  , 

opinm,  the  bane  and  aoooTRe  of  his  native  land ;  and 
on  the  commencement  of  difficulties  with  Great 
Britain,  he  waa  appointed  to  deal  with  the  growing 
evil,  and,  if  poesible,  put  a  atop  to  the  obnozioaa 
traffic.  He  arrived  at  Canton,  invested  with 
limited  authority ;  but  hia  unwise  though  well-m 
meaaurea  excited  a  war  with  Britain,  and  brought 
down  upon  himself  the  vengeance  of  his  incenaed 
•overeign.  He  was  banished  to  the  resion  of 
Ele,  where  he  employed  himself  in  imprormg  the 

agricultore  of  the  oonntry,  by  introducing  ~ 

scientific  methods  of  cultivation.  Be  was 
lecalled,  and  restored  to  more  than  his  former 
hononri,  and  did  good  service  by  cnuhing  a  rebel- 
lion in  Yun-nan.  His  health  now  began  to  fiul,  and 
be  obtained  petmisrion  to  retire  to  Eis  native  pro- 
vince ;  hut  shortly  afterwards,  white  on  his  way  to 
attack  the  Toi-pinn,  he  died,  January  I8G0.  Hia 
death  waa  the  signal  for  general  moummg  throngh- 
ont  China,  and  the  emperor  ordered  a  Bocrificiol 

Syer  to  be  composed,  recording  the  illtutrious 
da  of  the  departed;  a  signal  favour,  only  conferred 


private  literary  study.  Ha  is  ranked 
of  the  chief  among  Chinese  poets ;  and  the  style, 
literary  merit,  and  logical  order  of  hig  publio  docu- 
ments form  a  strange  contrast  to  the  usual  diKiee, 
rambling,  and  incoherent  style  of  ChineM     '  ' 

LINTZ,  the  capital  of  the  orown-land  of  Upper 
Austria,  is  situated  in  a  pleasant  district  on  the 
light  baink  of  tha  Danube,  which  is  here  crossed  by 
a  wooden  bridge  638  feet  long,  100  mQea  west  of 
Vienna.  Pop,  (1880)  41,687.  It  is  »  strongly  forti- 
fied, quiet  town,  and  a  bishop's  kiA,  with  numerous 
churches,  benevolent  institutions,  and  government 
office*.  There  are  large  imperial  factories  for 
carpeU  and  other  woollen  goods  ;  and  cloths, 
cottons,  coeeimercB,  fustians,  leather,  and  cards  are 
also  mode.  The  navigation  of  the  Danube  occa- 
sions a  lively  trade.  Steam-boats  ply  daily  up  the 
river  to  Bat^bon,  and  down  the  nver  to  Vienna. 
The  women  of  L.  are  celebrated  for  their  beauty. 

LION  {FdU  Uo],  (he  largest  and  most  majestic 
of  the  Felida  and  of  carnivorous  quadrupeds. 
It  is,  when  mature,  of  ■  nearly  uniform  tawny  or 
yellowish  colour,  paler  on  the  under-parts ;  the 
young  alone  exhibiting  markings  like  those  com- 
mon in  tbe  Felidn ;  the  male  lus,  usually,  a  graat 
shaggy  and  flowing  mane ;  and  the  tail,  which  is 
pretty  long,  terminates  in  a  tuft  of  hair.  The 
whole  frttme  is  extremely  mnscolar,  and  the  fore- 
parts, in  partiauloT,  are  remarkably  powerful ; 
giving,  with  the  large  head,  bright-fiauing  eye.  and 
copious  mane,  a  noble  appearance  to  the  animal, 
which,  with  its  strength,  hoa  led  to  its  being  called 
the  'king  of  beasts,  and  to  fancies  of  itA  noble 
and  geuerons  disposition,  having  no  foundation  in 
reality.  A  Ia  of  the  largest  me  measures  about 
8  feet  from  the  non  to  the  tail,  and  the  toil 
aboat  4  feet  The  Hone**  is  imaller,  haa  no  mane, 
•nd  is  of  ■  lighter  eolonr  on  the  aDder-parts.  Tha 
141 


The  L.  is  chiefly  an  inhabitant  of  Africa,  although 
it  is  foond  also  m  some  of  tha  wilds  of  Asia,  par- 
ticularly in  certain  parts  of  Arabia,  Persia,  and 
India.  It  was  anciently  much  more  common  in 
Asia,  and  was  found  in   aome   parts   of   Europe, 

Eartieularly  in  Macedonia  and  Tluoce,  according  to 
[erodotus  and  other  antfaora.  It  hu  disappeared 
also  from  Egypt,  Palestine,  and  Syria,  in  which  it 
was  once  common.  The  L.  is  not.  in  general,  an 
inhabitant  of  deep  forests,  but  rather  of  open  plains, 
in  which  the  shelter  of  occasional  hushes  or  thickets 
may  be  found.  The  breeding-place  is  always  in 
some  much  secluded  retreat,  in  which  the  yoong — 
two,  throe,  or  four  in  a  litter — are  watched  over 
with  great  assiduity  by  both  parents,  and,  if  neces- 
sar7,  ore  defended  with  great  courage — although,  in 
other  circumstances,  the  L.  is  more  disposed  to 
retire  from  man  than  to  assail  him  or  contend  with 
him.  When  met  in  on  open  country,  the  L.  retires 
at  Grst  slowly,  as  if  ready  for  battle,  bnt  not  desirous 
of  it ;  then  more  swiftly ;  and,finally  by  rapid  bounds. 
If  compelled  to  defend  himself,  theL.  manifests  great 
courage.  The  I*,  often  spriDgs  upon  his  prev  by  a 
sudden  bound,  accompanied  with  a  roar ;  and  it  it 
said  that  if  he  fails  in  seizing  it,  he  does  not  nstiaUy 
pursue,  but  retires  as  if  ashamed ;  it  is  certain, 
however,  that  the  L,  also  often  take*  hit  prey  by 
pursoing  it,  and  with  great  perseverance.  The  animal 
singled  out  for  pnrsoit,  as  a.  zebra,  may  be  swifter 
of  foot  than  the  L,,  but  greater  power  of  endnnuioe 
enables  him  to  moke  it  hia  victim.  Deer  and  ante- 
lopes are  perhaps  the  most  common  food  of  Uoos. 
The  L,,  like  the  rest  of  the  Ftlida,  is  pretty  much 
a  nocturnal  animal ;  its  eyes  are  adapted  for  the 
night  or  twilight  rather  than  for  the  day.  It  lurks 
generally  in  its  lair  daring  the  day,  and  issues  as 
night  comes  on,  when  its  tremendons  roar  bcfdns  to 
be  heard  in  tbe  wilderaeaa.  It  haa  a  horror  S  fires 
and  torch-ligbta ;  of  which  travellers  in  Africa  avail 
themselves,  when  sunonnded  by  prowling  lions  in 
tbe  wilderness  by  night,  and  sleep  in  Butety,  Lion- 
bunting  is,  of  course,  attended  with  danger — a 
wounded  and  exasperated  L.  becoming  a  most  for- 
midable adverBary_-but  besides  the  necessity  of  it 
to  farmers  in  South  Africa  and  other  conntries 
where  tions  abound,  it  haa  been  fonnd  attractive  to 
mere  sportsmen  from  the  excitement  attending  it. 
The  ri£e  has  proved  too  mighty  for  the  L.  wherever 
it  hss  been  employed  against  him,  and  lions  rapidly 
disappear  before  the  advance  of  civilisation,  ui 
Indi^  they  are  now  confined  to  a  few  wild  districts ; 
and  in  Sonth  Africa,  their  nearest  haunts  are  tor 
from  Cape  Town  and  from  all  the  long  and  full/ 
settled  regions. 

The  L.  is  easily  tamed,  at  least  when  taken  young; 
and  when  abundantiy  supplied  with  food,  is  very 
docile,  learning  to  perform  feats  which  excite  the 
admiratnon  of^  the  crowds  that  visit  menageries 
Exhibitions  of  this  kind  are  not,  however,  unat- 
tended with  danger,  as  too  many  instances  hava 
{roved.  Uous  were  mode  to  contnhuta  to  the  bar- 
arons  sports  of  the  ancient  Bomans ;  a  combat  of 
lions  was  on  attractive  spectacle  ■  and  vast  numbers 
were  imported  into  Rome,  chiefly  &om  Africa,  for 
tbe  supply  of  tha  amphitheatre.  Fompey  exhibited 
600  at  once.— Lions  have  not  unfre^nently  bred  in 
the  menagerira  of  Europe,  and  a  hybrid  between  the 


the  existence  of  which  was  known  to  the  ancient 
and  which  wu  anwoaed  by  them  to  be  a  kind  of 
goad  to  tha  ■"■"*"  when  Iwbing  himself  with  kit 


LION— UPPB. 


homy  cona,  aboat  two  linea  in  length, 
tha  ^in  at  the  tip  of  tfaa  tail. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  L.,  slighllj 
diffaring  from  each  other  ia  form  and  ooloor,  bnt 
particn^ty  in  the  dovelopment  of  the  mane.  The 
largest  lions  of  the  south  oE  Africa  sre  remarluible 
for  Oie  targe  aixe  of  the  head  and  the  great  and 
black  mane.  The  Persian  and  other  Asiatio  lions 
are  general];  of  a  I^hter  colour,  and  inferior  in  size, 
atreneth,  and  ferocity  to  the  African  lion.  Ouzerat 
and  tan  sooth  of  Persia  produce  a  Bamewhat  smaller 
variety,  remarkable  as  being  almost  destitute  of 


attitude  of  the  heraldic  lion  is  rampant  (a),  erect 
OD  his  hind-legs,  and  looking  before  him,  the  head 
being  shewn  in  proEle,  as  ha  appears  in  the  arms 
of  Gotland,  and  originally  did  m  t^iose  of  Eng- 
land. This  was  the  normal  positdon  of  a  lion  ;  but 
as  the  royal  animal  came  to  be  nsed  by  all  who 
claimed  kindred  with  royalty,  and  to  be  granted 
to  favourite  foUowen  by  way  of  augmentation,  a 
diveraity  of  attitade  was  adopted  for  distinction's 
sake.  2.  Aair9>afl{i7anAinJ(&),  erect  on  the  hind-legs, 
and  aSront^  or  full-faced.   3.  £amp<uU  regardant  (c). 


the  Bohemian  lion,  with  two  tuls,  and  the  more 
celebrated  winged  lion  of  St  Mark,  adopted  by  the 
republic  of  Venice.  The  island  republio  Dore,  azure, 
a  lion  winged  or  sejant,  holding  between  his  fore- 
paws  a  book  open  argent,  in  which  are  the  words, 
Pax  Ubi  Mara  EiKmgelitta  nieiu;  Two  or  mora 
lions  borne  on  one  shield  are  sometimea  (though 
never  when  on  a  royal  coat)  blazoned  LionceU. 


ated  between  lat.  38^  20'  and  38°  55'  N.,  looe.  14° 
15'  and  15°  15'  K,  on  the  north  coast  of  Sicily, 
and  comprised  in  the  department  of  Meaains.  The 
infenso  volcanic  action  induced  the  ancient  classical 
poets  to  localise  in  these  ialaiidB  the  abode  of  the 
fiery  god  Vuloan — hence  their  ancient  name,  Vid- 
aatiiE  Inmda.  Their  collective  popuLition  ia  about 
12,600,  8000  of  whom  are  found  in  tha  island 
of  Lipari,  which,  for  exteiit  and  produce,  ia  much 
the  moat  important  of  the  group.  Lipari  is  abont 
IS  miles  in  arcuit.  Its  fin^  products  are  grapes, 
Sgt,  olives,  and  com.  It  haa  a  large  export  trade 
in  pumice-stone,  sulphur,  nitre,  sal-ammoniac,  soda, 
capers,  fish,  and  Malmsey  wine,  which  is  largely 
manuhuitured  both  for  home  and  foreign  ti«de. 
The  warm  springs  of  this  island  are  mnch  resoited 
to.  Tha  cmnate  is  deHghtfnl.  Lipari,  its  chief 
town,  is  a  bishop's  see,  paesesaes  two  harboun,  an 
episcopal  palace,  hospital  gymna^um,  and  a  castle 
bnUt  on  a  fine  rock.  Pop.  abont  600a  The  ialand 
is  almost  wholly  composed  of  pomice-st^me,  and 
ipplios  all  parts     '  "  "      '"    ^'    '       ''  ' 


erect  on  the  bind-legs,  and  lookiog  backwards.  4 
FoMOiit  (d),  in  a  walking  position,  with  the  head 
seen  in  profile.  5.  Paaiant  gardant  (e),  walking,  and 
with  the  head  ^front*.  6.  Patiani  regardant,  walk- 
ing, and  with  the  head  looking  behind.  7.  Staiant, 
with  all  the  four  legs  on  the  ground.  8.  S<^iant,  in 
the  act  of  springing  forward  on  hia  prey.  9.  S^ant 
(/),  rising  to  prepare  for  action.  10,  Sejant  agrontt, 
as  in  the  cmt  of  Scotland.  I).  Couchaal,  lying 
down,  bnt  with  his  head  erect,  and  his  tail  beneath 
bim  12.  Dormant,  asleep,  with  his  bead  resting  on 
his  fore-paws.  13.  Covanl  or  CotU,  with  his  tail 
tinnging  between  his  legs.  The  lion  passant  gardant 
is  oTten  blazoned  oa  the  lion  of  England ;  and  at  a 
tima  when  terms  of  blazonry  were  comparatively 
few,  it  was  confounded  with  the  Leopard  [q.  v.), 
and  benca  the  lion  passant  and  rampant  gaidast 


t  addoaat. 


leoparOioittU.    Two 

eombatanl — i.  e.,  face  to  face— or  rampant 
pUced  back  to  back.  Among  leonine  mon 
have  two-headed  Uons,  Incorporate  and  tricoi^rate 
Uons,  lion-dn^ms  uid  Uon-poiMons.  There  u  slso 
270 


the  world  with  tJiat  article. 
BMides  Lipari,  the  principal  ialanda  are  Vulcano, 
Stromboli,  Salini,  Pamuia,  Felicudi,  Alicudi,  and 
Uatica ;  Stromholi  and  Vulcano  are  actively 
volcanio. 

LI'PETZK,  a  town  in  the  sonth-weat  of  the 
government  of  Tambov,  European  Russia,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Voronetz,  a  tributary  of  the 
Don,  waa  fonnded  in  1700  by  Peter  the  Great,  but 
only  began  to  flourish  at  the  commencement  of  t^ 
present  century,  when  the  admirable  qualities  of 
its  chalybeate  aprio^  became  known.  At  present, 
it  has  a  large  annuu  influx  of  visitors  during  sum- 
mer, for  wboHe  acoommodation  a  bathing  establish- 
ment and  a  sjJendid  garden  have  been  ^rmed.  L. 
has  woollen  manufactures.    Pop.  (1880)  14,213. 

LI'POGBAM  (Or.  Uipo,  to  leave  out,  and 
nramiaa,  s.  letter)  is  a  species  of  verse  characterised 
by  the  exclusion  of  a  certain  letter,  either  vowel  or 
cocBOnant.  Tiie  earliest  author  of  lipogrammatic 
verso  waa  the  Greek  poet  Lasns  (bom  638  b.  c.)  ;  and 
it  ia  recorded  of  ona  Tryphiodorus,  a  Gneco-Egyp- 
tian  writer  of  the  same  period,  that  he  composed  an 
Odyssey  in  24  books,  from  each  of  which,  in  ancces- 
sion,  one  of  the  tetters  cf  the  Greek  al^iabet  waa 
excluded.  Faiuus  Claudius  Gordiuius  Folgentina, 
a  Christian  monk  of  the  6th  c,  performed  a  similar 
feat  in  Latin.  In  modem  times,  the  Spaniards 
have  been  moat  addicted  to  this  laborious  mvolity. 
Lope  do  Vega  has  written  five  novels,  from  each  of 
which  one  of  the  vowels  is  excluded ;  but  several 
French  jioets  have  also  proctiaed  iL  See  Henry  B. 
Wheatley's  book  on  Ana(p^7iu  (1862). 

LI'PFl!,  or,  as  it  is  gEneraUy  called,  LIFPE- 
DKTMOLD,  a  smalt  principality  of  Northern 
Germany,  surrounded  on  the  W.  and  S.  by  West- 
pbalia,  and  on  tlie  K  and  N.  by  Haaover,  Bruns- 
wick, Waldeck,  and  a  detached  portion  of  Hesse- 
Cassel  Area, 436BquaremJles;  pop.  (1880)  120,246. 
nearly  the  whole  of  whom  t>elong  to  tha  Befomed 
Church,  and  are  vay  well  educated.  Tha  present 
oonstitntion  of  L.  lutee  from  15th  Uarch  1853 ; 
copit^  Detmold  (q.  v.) ;  other  towns,  Itenuo  and 


LIPPI— UQUmAMBAB. 


Horn.  "Dxe  famous  Tentobm^Wald  (SaUiu  ThOo- 
burgtntis),  in  which  the  legioni  of  V&nu  wei« 
annihilated  bj  Arminitu  (lee  OERMAinoua  CsaiK), 
rans  through  the  aonthem  part  of  the  priacl- 
pality,  trhioh  is  on  tba  whole  rather  hiUf,  but 
hai  man;  fertile  Talleya.  The  largeet  river  is 
the  Werre,  a  tributary  of  the  Weaer.  The  prill' 
dpal  occupation  of  the  inhabitants  is  agricdltnre, 
and  the  rearing  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  ; 
mach  pains  ia  likewise  bestowed  on  the  onttiTation 
and  nmnagetnent  of  forests,  as  L.  is  perhaps  the 
most  riohly  wooded  diatriet  in  Germany.  Linen 
weaving  is  the  chief  mannfacturing  industry  of  the 
coQDtry.    Among  the  mineral  pmdncts  are  marble. 


n  a  Bourisbing  condition  as  ovly  as  the  I2th 
centnry.  The  tint  who  took  the  name  of  L.  was 
Bamhard  von  der  Lippe,  in  1129.  The  family  split 
into,  three  branches  m  1613 — Lippe,  Brake  and 
Schanmbnig. 

LIPPI,  Fra  Ptuppo,  a  Florentine  painter  of 
great  talent,  the  events  of  whose  life  were  of  a  very 
romantic  kind.  Bom  about  1412,  left  an  orphan 
at  an  earl;  age,  he  spent  his  yonth  as  a  novioB 
in  the  convent  of  Uie  Carmine  at  Florence,  where 
his  talent  for  ait  was  eaoonraged  and  developed. 
Sailing  for  pleasnre  one  day,  he  was  seized  by 
ooraaire,  and  carried  to  Barbiry;  after  some  yeaia' 
eaptiri^,  he  regained  his  liberty,  and  is  next  lonnd, 
in  1438,  painting  at  Florence.  FilijFpo  was  much 
employed  by  Cowno  drf  Medici,  and  executed  many 
important  works  for  him.  While  painting  in  the 
convent  of  Sta  Margarita  at  Prato,  a  joong  lady, 
Lncrezia  Buti,  a  boarder  or  novioe,  who  bad  been 
allowed  by  the  nuns  to  sit  for  one  of  the  fignna  in 
his  picture,  eloped  with  him  ;  and  though  Bb'ennoas 
eflbrta  were  made  by  her  rdations  to  recover  her, 
he  successfully  resisted  their  attempts,  supported,  it 
is  thonght,  by  Cosmo ;  and  she  remained  with  and 
had  a  sou  by  him,  who  became  an  artist  perhaps 
even  more  celebrated  than  Filippo  himseR     He 


Buti,  was  bora  at  Florence  in  1460.  It 
his  father  left  him  to  the  care  of  Fra  Diamante,  his 
pupil  He  afterwards  studied  onder  Sandro  Botti- 
celli, also  a  pnpil  of  his  father's,  and  one  of  the  most 
eelebrsted  of  his  school.  He  soon  acquired  a  high 
reputation,  and  ezeouted  various  works  in  Florence, 
Botogna,  Qenoa,  Lacca,  and  at  Borne,  where,  in 
1492.  he  painted  some  frescoes  for  the  Can^nal 
Cataf^  in  the  church  of  Sta  Maria  Sopra  Minerva. 
But  tJie  high  position  he  attained  is  rooved  prind- 
paily  by  his  works  in  the  Brancacci  Chapel  m  the 
ohiuch  of  the  Carmine  at  Florence.  The  treacoes  in 
this  chapel  have  always  been  held  in  the  highest 
tatimatioa;  they  have  been  studied  hy  the  most 
celebrated  painters,  among  others  by  Ksphad  and 
Michael  Angelo ;  and  though  long  believed  to  be 
entirely  the  work  i^  Massccio,  are  now  aacertidned 
to  have  been  commenced  by  Mssolino,  continued  by 
Masoccio,  and  finished  by  Filipptno ;  the  works  of 
the  last  being—'  The  restoring  tit  a  Yooth  to  Life,' 
part  of  which  was  painted  hj  Masaccio;  'The 
Crucifixion  of  5t  Peter;'  'St  Peter  and  St  Paul 
before  the  Prooonsnl,'  and  'St  Peter  liberated  from 
Prison;'  also,  according  to  some,  '8t  Paul  visHdng 
St  Peter  in  Prison,  in  which  the  figure  of  St  Paid 
was  adopted  by  Raphael  in  his  cartoon  of  'Paul 
preaching  at  Athou.*  FSippitio  died  at  noi«noe 
on  18th  April  ISOB. 


sweetaiwd  to  be  more  agreeable  to  the  taste ;  thsi« 
is  consequently  a  large  class  of  liqueurs,  of  whiclt 
the  following  sre  the  piinoipal :  Aniteed  Cordial, 
prepared  by  flavouring  weak  spirit  with  aniseed, 
oortander,  and  sweet  fennel  seed,  and  sweetening 
with  finely  clarified  syrup  of  refined  sogwr.  Abntttht 
is  a  strong  spirit  flavonnd  with  the  young  tops  of 
certain  species  of  Artemisia  (q.  v.).  Cloix  Cordyii, 
much  sold  in  the  London  gin-mops,  is  flavoured  with 
oloves,  bruised,  and  coloured  with  burned  sugar. 

KUtttmd,  or  Doppd-KOmmd,  is  the  principal 
liqueur  of  Russia ;  it  is  made  in  the  ordinary  way 
with  sweetened  spirit,  flavoured  with  cumin  and 
oaraway  seeds,  the  latter  usually  so  strong  as  to 
conce*]  any  other  flavour.  It  is  cliiefly  made  at 
Riga,  and  t^ere  are  two  qualities ;  that  made  in  Riga 
is  tiie  sort  in  common  use,  and  is  not  the  finest;  the 
better  sort  is  only  manufactured  in  smaller  quantities 
at  Weissenatein,  in  Estbunia ;  the  chief  difference  is 
in  the  greater  purity  of  the  spirit  used.  MamiMao 
a  distilled  from  cherries  bruised,  bat  instead  of 
Uie  wild  kind,  a  fine  delicately-flavonred  variety, 
called  JIaraBiMl,  grown  only  in  Dalmatic  is  used. 
This  oherry  is  largely  cultivated  around  Zara,  the 
capital,  where  tiie  liqueur  is  ciiiefly  made.  Qreat 
care  is  token  in  the  distillation  to  avoid  injury  to 
the  ddicate  flavour,  and  the  finest  sngar  it  used  to 

Noytai,  or  Crime  dt  Noyau,  is  a  »weet  cordial 
flavoored  with  bruised  bitter- almonds.  In  Turkey, 
the  fine-flavonred  kernels  of  the  Mahaleb  cherry  ore 
used,  and  in  some  places  the  kernels  of  the  peach  or 
the  apricot.  Pepperminl,  a  common  liqueur,  (speci- 
ally amongst  the  lower  olasses  of  London  where 
very  la^^e  quantities  are  sold ;  it  usually  oonsists 
of  the  ordinary  sweetened  gin,  flavoured  with  the 


oleoeaochanun,  which  enables  it 
ven-  weak  spirit 

Cvmtoa  and  KirtAtBtuMr  are  described  under 
their  own  names. 

LIQUID  AIUBAR,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  AlH/tgiaoea,  and  the  only  genos  of  the  ordtr, 
having  flowers  in  male  and  fenule  oaticins  on  the 
same  bee^  the  frnit  formed  of  !i-eelled,  many-seeded 


oapnles,  and  the  seeds  winged.  Theyare  tall  tract, 
rsmarkable  for  their  fra^ant  babaimo  prodUots. 
L.  tU/raafiuOfl^o  AMBooix  L.,  or  SwHR  Quh  toes, 
is  a  SeaQtiftil  ttM  with  palmate  lesTas,  a  native  of 

D,,i  ,„,,,,  Google 


UQUIDS— LISBON. 


grain,  and  makca  good  funiitiire.  From  cnuks  or 
mctsioni  in  the  bark,  a  traniparBnt,  yellowlBh  bal- 
lamio  Qnid  axadn,  called  Liquid  Ltqitidamtar,  OH 
of  Ltquidambar,  Amtriean  Storax,  C<n)alm  Baltant, 
and  lometiniea,  but  erroneoualy,  Whitt  Balaam  tff 
Pern.  It  nadually  becomea  conorete  and  darker 
oolonrad.  Ita  propertiea  are  Bicoilar  to  those  of 
■torax.  That  of  commerce  is  moctly  brought  from 
Hezico  and  New  Orleani.— X.  Orieaiait,  a  imaller 
tree  with  palmate  leavea,  is  a  native  of  the  Levant 
and  at  more  ea»tem  regions,  and  jieldi  abnudaDtly 
a  balaamio  fluid,  which  naa  been  lappoaed  to  be  the 
Liquid  Storax  imported  trow  the  Levant,  but  on 
thu  point  there  u  diversity  of  opinion. 

LIQUIDS.  See  Heat,  Etdrobtatics,  and 
FusniQ  AUD  Fbkxziho  Poitns. 

LI'QUORIOB  (G^fejffTftfea),  ■  genua  of  per«nni«] 
faerbaoeou  plants  of  the  natural  order  Ltffuminaaa, 
•ab-order  Papilionaeea;  having  long,  pliant,  sweet 
roots,  and  generaUy  creeping  root-atocks  ;  pinnate 
leavM  of  many  leaQete,  and  terminatiDD  in  an  odd 
one ;  flowers  in  ipikea,  racemes,  or  hea£  ;  a  $-cleft, 
2-lipped  calyi,  and  a  2-Ieayed  keeL  The  anoient 
Greek  name,  now  the  botanical  name,  nguiflfa  tVKtl 
root,  and  from  it,  bv  corruptiou,  liquorice  and  other 
modem  namee  are  derived.  The  roots  of  L.  depend 
for  their  valuable  propertiea  on  a  aubatance  called 
Otj/q/rrhiaine,  allied  to  sujrar,  ydlow,  tramparent, 
npcrystalliaable,  solnble  both  in  water  and  alcohol, 
and  forming  compounds  both  with  adds  and  bases. 
They  are  a  well-known  article  of  materia  medica,  and 
were  used  by  the  andents  as  in  modem  times,  being 
arooUient.  demnlceot,   very  naefol  in   catarrh  and 


Common  Liqcorice  (GliKj/rrhiMa  glabra). 
irritationB  of  the  mncona  membrane. — The  roots  of 
the  CoioaoH  L.  {0.  glala^)  are  chiefly  in  aae  in 
Enropa.  The  plant  has  items  3—4  feet  hirii,  and 
racemes  of  whitiah  violet-coloured  flowers.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  south  of  Europe  and  of  many  parts  of 
Asia,  as  far  as  China.  It  is  cultivated  in  many 
cotintriea  of  Europe,  chiefly  in  Spain,  and  to  some 
extent  in  the  south  of  England,  where  ita  cnltiva- 
tiOD  is  at  least  as  old  as  the  times  of  Elizabeth. 
The  roots  are  extensively  employed  by  porter' 
brewers.  They  are  not  imported  into  Britain  in 
connderable  quantity,  bnt  tlie  black  inspissated 
extract  of  them  (BUiei  Sugar  or  Stidt  Lijuorict) 


is  largely  imported  bmn  the  sooth  ol  ', 
rolls  or  itictt,  packed  in  bay-leavea,  oi 
of  about  two  cwta.,  into  which  it  ha* 
L.  is  propagated  by  alipa ;  and  after  a  plantatioai 
has  been  made,  aunoat  three  years  must  elapse 
before  the  roots  can  be  digged  ap  for  oul  The 
whole  roots  are  then  taken  up.  L.  reqoins  a  deef^ 
rich,  loose  soil,  well  trenched  and  manurad ;  Uie 
roots  penetrating  to  the  depth  of  more  than  a  yard, 
and  sbaigbt  tap-roots  being  most  esteemed.  The 
old  stems  are  cleared  ofl'  at  the  end  of  each  seasoii, 
and  the  root-stocks  so  out  away  as  to  prevent  over- 
growth above  ground  next  year.  The  plant  is  pro- 
panted  by  cuttings  of  the  root-stocka. — The  roots 
of  the  PRIOKLT  L.  10.  «ehi«ata)  are  used  in  the  same 
way,  chiefly  in  Italy  and  Sicily,  Russia,  and  the 
East. — The  only  American  speoiea  is  O.  Itpiiioto. 
which  gtuws  in  the  plains  of  the  MissourL 

LIRA  (Lat.  Hbra;  see  Litbe),  on  Italian  silver 
coin  of  jrreater  or  leea  valae  according  to  time  and 
fJace.  The  Tuscan  lira  was  eqnal  to  80  French  cen- 
timea}  the  Austrian  lira  or  aeaimger  was  about  the 
same  value.  The  preaent  Lin  Italiano,  or  Lin 
uuova,  of  the  Italian  kingdom  ia  e^ual  to  the  French 
franc,  and  is  divided  into  100  oentmiea. 
LIRIODB'SDRON.  See  Tdlip  TRra. 
LI'SBON  {Portag.  Liiboa;  called  by  the  ancient 
Loaitaniana,  Oluipo  or  Ulitippo,  and  by  the  Moon 
Liihinma),  the  capital  of  Portugal,  is  aituated  in 
the  province  of  Estremadura,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Tagus,  which  is  here  about  six  milee  wide,  and 
about  eighteen  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
Pop^  at  the  oensus  of  1873,  with  the  saburbs  of 
Befem  and  Olivaes,  233,389.  The  city  is  built  partly 
on  the  shor^  of  the  TaguB,  and  partly  on  three 
larger  and  four  smaller  hiHa.  Its  appearance  ia 
'onderf ully  pictaresqae  ;  and  it  reiemblea  Cooatan- 
inople  in  point  of  situation  and  magnificence  of 
roapect.  uidudins  its  suburbs,  it  extends  about 
five  mile*  along  t£e  river.  The  harbour,  which 
is  safe  and  spacious,  is  protected  by  strong  forts, 
but  the  city  itself  is  unwalled  and  withont  any 
fortiflcations.  The  eaitem  and  older  part,  which 
lies  round  the  Castle-hill^^n  eminence  crowned 
with  an  old  Moorish  castle,  destroyed  by  earth- 
qnakea — is  composed  of  steep,  narrow,  crooked, 
badly-paved  streets,  with  high,  gloomy,  wretched- 
tookmg  houses;  bnt  the  newer  portions  are  well 
and  regularly  bnilt  The  most  beautiful  part 
is  oallA  the  JVeta  Toim — it  stretches  along  the 
Tagus,  and  is  crowded  with  palaces.  Among  the 
places  or  squares,  the  prindpal  an  the  Pmfo  ilo 
CtmuTierdo,  on  the  Tagus,  5M  feet  long,  520 
broad,  surroimded  on  tnree  sides  with  splendid 
edifices ;  the  Prxiro  do  Jtocio,  in  tlie  New  Town, 
forming  the  market-place,  ISOO  feet  long,  and  1400 
broad ;  and  the  Paueio  PubliM.  The  whole  of  the 
New  Town,  and  the  district  round  the  rojft!  castle, 
is  lighted  with  gas.  I.  has  70  pariah  churches,  200 
chapels,  numerous  monasteries^  hotpices,  and  hos- 
pitiUs,  0  theatres,  and  2  amphitheatres.  The  most 
conspicuous  public  buildings  are  the  Church  of  the 
Patriarcb,  the  Monastery  of  the  Heart  of  Jeans 
(with  a  cupola  of  wliite  marble),  the  Chnrch  of  St 
Eoqne  (built  of  msrble),  the  Poiindlini!  H(ispital 
(receiving  annually  about  1600  children],  St  James's 
Hospital  (capable  of  receiving  16  000  sick  pecsoBfl), 
the  royal  palaces  of  Ajuda,  Notta  Senhora  da* 
Ntceamdadei,  and  Bempoato,  the  custom-houses,  the 
Biaenal,  and  the  National  Theatre,  on  the  site  of 
the  old  Inquisition.  The  city  has  nnmerous  educa- 
tional and  scientific  institutions,  and  a  National 
Library  containing  100,000  vols.  Among  notable 
objects,  the  most  importact  is  the  Alcintara  Aque- 
dnc^  O*  Artot,  or  Aywu  ikrtt,  flaished  in  17-13, 

t;iffloii 


r 


LISBCEN— LISZT. 


whioh  lappliea  sU  the  pnUio  foonltiiia  and  wellg  of 
the  city.  It  is  IS  miles  in  length,  and  in  one  place 
260  feet  high,  and  renuined  oainjured  at  the  ^eat 
earthquake.  It  u  the  greateHt  piece  of  bndge- 
architectnre  in  the  irorld.  L.  has  a  royal  areenal, 
ehip-building  docks  and  powder-mills,  besides  priTBte 
mamifactories  of  dlks,  porcelain,  paper,  and  soap ; 
also  irOD-fonndries,  and  jewellery  and  trinket  eriol}- 
lishmento.  Ita  chief  eiaoTte  are  oranges,  citrops, 
wool,  oil,  and  leather.  The  Bhip]nns  accommodation 
is  exteniiTa  and  oommodiooB,  ooa  the  trade  with 
Africa  is  an  important  ud  flonrishin);  one.  The 
imports  in  1876  were  valaed  at  £2,880,295 ;  aad  the 
exporte  at  £l,S39,fi07.  About  30,000  Galegos  (Oali- 
cians)  earn  ■  subsistence  here  aa  porteiB,  water- 
carriers,  and  labooren. 

L.  is  Baid  to  have  been  founded  b;  the  Fhceni- 
cians,  and  was  a  fiouriahing  city,  the  ca^tal  of  Luai- 
tania,  wheo  £iat  viaitad  by  the  Romans.  It  waa  taken 
by  tka  Moon  in  712,  from  whom  it  waa  recaptured 
by  Alfonso  I.  in  1147.  It  became  the  seat  of  an 
archbishopric  in  1390,  and  of  a  patriarchate  in  1716. 
L.  has  been  frequently  visited  by  earthquakes  ;  that 
of  17C5  destroyed  a  great  part  of  the  cit;  and 
60,000  iahabitautB.  It  waa  captured  by  the  French 
in  1607,  bat  given  up  to  the  BritiBh  in  1808,  after 
which  it  waa  protected  by  the  lines  of  Torres  TedroH. 

LI'SBURN,  a  market-town  (and,  till  1B86,  i 
parliamentary  boroogh^  on  the  river  Lagan,  parti] 
in  the  county  of  Antrim,  partly  in  t^t  of  Down, 
Ireland.  It  is  distant  from  Dublin  97  miles  north- 
north-east,  and  8^  south-south-west  from  Belfast^ 
with  both  whioh  places  it  is  comiected  by  the 
Dublin  and  Belfast  Junction  Rulway.  The  popu- 
lation in  1871  was  9326 ;  of  whom  4703  were  Pro- 
testant Episcopalians,  2146  Roman  Catholics,  1S41 
Presbytenans,  and  369  Methodists;  (1881)  I0,76& 
L.  originated  in  the  erection  of  a  castle,  in  IGIO, 
by  Sir  Fulk  Conway,  to  whom  the  manor  waa 
aasigned  in  the  settlement  of  Jamea  L ;  but  its 
importance  dat«e  from  the  settlement  of  a 
ber  of  Huguenot  families,  who,  after  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  Edict  of  Nant«i,  established  themselves 
at  L.,  where  they  introduced  the  manufacture  of 
linen  and  damask,  after  the  method  and  with  the 
machinery  then  in  use  in  the  Low  Conntriea.  It  is 
a  clean  and  weli-ordered  town,  with  a  convenient 
market,  and  coosiderahle  manufactures  of  linens  and 
damasks ;  besides  which,  bleaching,  dyeing,  flax- 
dressing,  flai-spinniog,  Ac.,  are  carried  on.  Its 
pariah  diurch  ia  the  oathednJ  of  Down  and  Connor, 
and  ia  intereattns  as  Uie  burial-place  of  Jeremy 
Taylor,  who  waa  bishop  of  that  see,  and  died  at  L- 
im  10S7-     L.  returned  one  member  to  parliament. 

LISIEUX  (ancient  Ncmo7na.gv4  Lrxomum), 
town  of  Northern  Fiance,  in  the  dep.  of  Calvados,  i 
the  Touques,  27  m.  E1S.E,  of  Caen,  at  the  entrance 
of  a  beautiful  valley.  The  prinotpal  building  ia  the 
church  of  St  Pierre  (formerly  a  cathedral),  belonging 
to  the  13th  c,  and  built  on  the  site  of  an  older  edmce, 
in  which  Henry  IL  of  England  married  Eleanor  of 
Gnienoe.  L.  ia  the  centre  of  on  extensive  manufac- 
ture of  coarae  linens,  wooUena,  flannels,  horseclotliB, 
ribbons,  Ac,  which  gives  emplovmeot  to  1 
3000  workjnen.     Pop.  (1B81}  16,039. 

LISEEA'ItD,  a  municipal  (and,  till  188^  (wlia- 
mentary)  borough  in  Cornwall,  in  a  well-coltLvated 
district,  on  the  Looe,  16  miles  weet-north-west  of 
Plymouth.  Two  miles  to  the  south  of  the  town  ii 
a  UmooB  spring,  said  to  have  been  preaented  to  thi 
inhabitants  by  St  Keyne,  and  the  virtue  of  whose 
wateiB  is  set  forth  in  Southey's  well-known  ballad. 
The  WtU  of  St  Ktj/ne.  There  are  manufactniea  ' 
serge  and  leather,  and  considerable  trafiEe  in  t 
pn^uce  of  the  tan,  copper,  and  lead  mines  of  the 
IIS 


nnghbonrhood.  h.  istnmed  one  member  to  patUa- 
ment    Pop.  (1871)  6575:  (1881)  I>S9L 

LISHO'BE,  an  isUnd  of  Algvleihir^  aix  miles 
from  Oban,  ia  situated  in  Loon  linnhe,  and  is 
10  miles  in  length,  with  an  average  breadth  of  l\ 
inJltB.  It  contama  the  remains  of  several  interesting 
buildings,  aa  Achinduin  Castle — formeriy  the  ren* 
dence  of  the  Biahope  of  Ax^le — an  old  cathedral, 
and  Castle  lUchal,  a  Scandmavian  fort,  now  very 
ruinous.  The  island  ia  for  the  most  part  under 
otUtivatioa.    Pop.  (1881)  62L 

LI'SSA  (PoL  Lemta),  »  town  id  Fmssia,  in  the 
province  of  Posen,  and  tbe  cirole  of  Fianstadt,  44 

_.„ th-Muth-wertofPoMn.  Pop. (1880)  11,758, 

nearly  one  half  are  Jews.     L^  luis  a  fine 

towuhouse,  a  nsde,  one  Bomau  Catholic  and  thi«« 
Protestant  churches,  with  manufactures  of  woollens, 
leather,  and  tobacco.  This  place  became  for  a  time 
the  chief  seat  of  the  Bohemian  Bnithera. 

LIST.    SeeFiuA. 

LISTOK,  BoBEBT,  a  celebrated  snreieon,  wm 
bom  at  Eccleamaohan,  in  the  oounty  of  Lmlithgo^, 
in  1794,  and  was  the  son  of  the  Bev.  Houy  liaton, 
tbe  minister  of  the  parish.  After  abidying  anatoB^ 
under  Baiclay  in  Ediobnr^  and  following  tM 
usual  course  of  medical  study  in  that  dty,  aa  pro- 
ceeded to  London  in  1816,  where  he  attended  tb* 
surgical  practice  of  the  Blizards  at  the  London 
Hoqutal,  and  of  Abemetby  at  St  Bartliolome«'& 
After  becoming  a  member  of  the  Royal  College  ol 
Surgeons  of  Lmidon,  he  returned  to  Edinbuidi,  and 
in  1818  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Boyal  Collegs 
of  Surgeons  of  that  city. 

L.  now  commenced  his  career  as  a  lecturer  on 
anatomv  and  aurge^,  and  soon  became  raDarkabls 
for  his  Doldneas  and  skill  as  an  operator.  In  conse- 
quence of  his  performing  many  snocessfol  operations 
on  patients  irao  had  iMen  discharged  aa  mcurable 
by  the  sn»eona  of  the  Edinburgh  uifirmaiy,  he 
requested  by  tbe  managers  to  refuse  his  ossisti 


any  person  who  had  been  a  latient  in  that  insti- 
tution, and  to  abetoin  from  visiting  the  wards.  Hs 
naturally  declined  to  accede  to  these  extraordinaiy 
propositions,  and  in  consequence  was  expelled,  and 
never  entered  again  its  wards,  nntil  in  1827  he  waa 
elected  one  of  its  suiveons.  His  surgical  skill,  and 
the  rapidity  with  which  his  operabons  were  pep 
formed,  soon  acquired  for  him  a  European  reputa- 
tion ;  and  in  1 835,  he  accepted  the  invitation  ot  the 
council  of  University  College  to  fill  the  chair  of 
Clinical  Surgery.  He  soon  acquired  a  large  London 
practice  i  in  1840,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
council  ot  the  College  of  Surseons ;  and  in  1S46,  he- 
became  one  of  the  Board  m  Examiners.  In  the 
very  climax  of  his  fame,  and  apparently  in  th* 
enjoyment  of  vigorous  health,  he  waa  sbn^  down 
by  ifiseaae,  and  died  7th  December  1847. 

Hia  moat  important  works  are  his  Sleniaiit  of 
Surgery,  whioh  appeared  in  1831,  and  his  Practieai 
Surgery,  which  appeared  in  1837,  and  has  gone 
through  four  editions.     His  onconttollable  temper. 


with  hia  professional  brethren ;  yet^  nntwithatanding 
these  defects,  he  always  succeeded  in  obtaining  tbe 
regard  and  esteem  of  his  pupils. 

LISZT,  Fkami,  pianist,  waa  bom  at  Raiding, 
in  Hungary,  22d  October  ISll.  His  father,  a 
functionary  employed  on  the  estates  c£  Prince 
Esterhazy,  was  nimself  possessed  of  some  musical 
skill,  and  carefully  cultivated  the  wonderful  talent 
which  L.  shewed  even  in  his  infancy.  In  his  ninth 
year,  the  child  played  publicly  at  Preabu^  and 
excited  universal  astoniihment.  By  the  assntance 
of  two  Hungarian  noblemen — Counts   ^""li  and 


,,  Google 


LiTAllY— UlfilO  ACtD  DUTHESia 


Salary — L.  was  lent  to  Vienna,  and  placed  under 
'Uie  instmction  of  Czemj  and  SalierL  He  itudieil 
smduoiuly  for  dahtcen   months,  after  wliich  he 


hii  father  to  France,  intending  U>  complete  his 
mnsical  education  at  the  Conservatoire ;  hnt  be  wiLS 
refused  admiasioD  on  account  of  bis  being  a  foreigner ; 
oevertheless,  hia  genius  made  a  way  for  itself.  He 
played  before  the  Bake  of  Orleans,  and  very  >oon 
the  clever,  daring  boy  became  the  favourite  oE  all 
Palis.  Artists,  scholars,  high  penonages,  ladies — 
all  pud  homage  to  his  marvellous  gift,  and  it  was 
only  owing  to  his  father's  strict  supervision  that 
yonng  L.  was  not  entirely  spoiled.  In  the  course  of 
the  next  three  y^is,  he  visited  England  thrice,  and 
waa  warmly  received.  In  1827,  hia  father  died  at 
Boulogne,  uid  L.  became  his  own  master  at  the  ^e 
of  Dzteen.  For  some  years  after  this,  his  life  suffi- 
ciently proved  that  he  had  become  indepeDdent 
too  soon.  Alternations  oE  dissipation  and  religious 
mysticiam  iodnced  his  odmireni  to  fear  that  his 
artistic  course  would  end  in  disastrous  failnre. 
Fortnnatelj,  he  beard  the  famous  violinist,  Faganini. 
in  1S31,  and  was  seized  with  a  sudden  ambition  to 
become  the  Faganini  of  the  piano ;  and  one  may  say 
"  it  on  the  whole  he  bos  succeeded.  Up  till  1347, 
career  was  a  perpetual  series  of  triumphs  in  til 
the  capitals  of  Europe.  He  then  grew  tired  oE  his 
itinerant  life,  and  became  leader  of  the  court 
concerts  and  operas  at  Weimar.  In  1865  he  took 
sacred  orders  and  beoame  a  monk,  in  the  ohapel  of 
the  Vatican,  Rome ;  and  in  1871  returned  to  his 
native  country,  which  granted  him  a  pension  of  £600 
a  year.  In  I87S  be  was  named  Director  of  the  Hun- 
garian Academy  oE  Music  L.  has  also  been  an  indua- 
trions  and  oriKinal  contributor  to  mnsical  literature. 
LITANY  (Gr.  lUaneia,  a  supplication) ,  a  word 
the  specific  meaning  of  which  hia  varied  consider- 
ably at  different  times,  but  which  means  in  general 
a  solemn  act  of  supplicatioQ  addressed  with  the 
object  of  averting  the  divine  anger,  and  especially 
on  occasions  oE  public  calamity.  Through  all  tbe 
varietiea  of  form  which  litanies  have  assumed,  one 
characteristic  has  always  been  mainb^ned — viz., 
that  the  payer  alternates  between  the  priest  or 
other  minister,  who  announces  the  object  oE  each 
petition,  and  the  congregation,  who  reply  in  a 
common  supplicatory  form,  the  most  usual  of 
whicb  Wat  the  well-known  '  Kyrie  oleison  ! '  (Lord, 
have  mercy !)  In  one  procession  which  Mabillon 
deacribes,  this  prayer,  alternating  with  'Christe 
eleison,'  was  repeated  300  times ;  and  in  the 
capitulnrica  of  Cbarlemaene,  it  is  ordered  that 
tba  '  Kyrie  eleison '  shall  be  sung  by  the  men,  the 
women  answering  '  Christe  eleison.  From  the 
4th  0.  downwonls,  the  use  oE  litanies  waa  genenU. 
The  At^^Aonary  of  8t  Greo^ty  the  Great  contains 
several  In  the  Roman  Cauiolic  Chiuvh,  three 
litaniea  are  especially  in  use — the  '  litany  of  the 
saints '  (which  is  the  moat  ODcient),  the  '  litany  of 
the  name  oE  Jesus,'  and  the  >  litany  of  Onr  Lady  oE 
Loretto.'  OE  these,  the  first  atone  baa  n  place  in 
the  public  service-books  of  the  church,  on  toe  rogo- 
tion-daya,  in  the  ordination  service,  the  service  for 
Uia  consecration  of  chntcbes,  the  consecration  of 
cemeteries,  and  many  other  offices.  Although  called 
by  the  name  of  litany  of  tbe  saints,  the  opening 
and  closing  petitions,  and  indeed  the  greater  part 
oE  the  litany,  consist  of  prayers  addressed  directly 
to  God ;  and  the  prayers  to  the  saints  are  not  Eor 
thdr  help,  but  for  their  intercession  on  behalf  of 
the  worabippers.  The  litouy  of  Jesus  consists  of  a 
number  of  addresses  to  onr  Lord  nnder  his  various 
relations  to  men,  in  connection  with  the  several 
details  ot  bis  passion,  and  of  adjurations  of  him 


through  the  memory  of  what  he  has  dona  and 
suffered  for  the  salvation  of  mankind.  The  data 
of  this  form  of  prayer  is  uncertain,  but  it  is 
referred,  with  much  probability,  to  the  time  oE 
St  Bernardino  oE  Siena,  in  the  15th  century.  The 
litany  of  Loretto  (see  LoRerro)  resembles  both  the 
above-named  litanies  in  its  opening  addresses  to 
the  Holy  Trinity,  and  in  its  closing  petitions  to 
the  '  LsJnb  of  God,  who  taketh  away  the  sins  of 
the  world ;'  but  the  main  body  oE  the  petitions  are 
addressed  to  the  Virgin  Mary  nnder  various  titles, 
some  token  from  the  Scriptures,  some  from  tbe 
language  of  the  Fathers,  some  from  tbe  mystio 
writen  of  the  medieval  church.  Neither  this 
htany  nor  that  of  Jesus  has  ever  formed  port  of 
any  of  the  ritual  or  liturgical  offices  of  tbe  Catholio 
Church,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  both 
have  in  various  ways  received  the  sanction  of  tba 
highest  authorities  of  the  Roman  Church. 

In  the  Prayer-book  of  tbe  English  Church,  tbe 
litany  is  retained,  but  although  it  partakes  of 
ancient  forms,  it  differs  from  uiat  of  tbe  Roman 
Church,  and  contaiins  no  invocation  of  the  Virgin 
or  the  saints.  It  is  divided  into  four  parts — 
invocations,  deprecations,  intercessions,  and  snppli- 
cations,  in  which  are  preserved  the  old  form  of 
alternate  prayer  and  reaponae.  It  is  no  longer  a 
distinct  service,  but,  when  used,  forms  part  OT  the 
morning  prayer. 

LITOHI,  or  LB&OHEE  (JVepWium  LitM),  one 
oE  the  most  delicions  fruits  of  China  and  of  the 
Malayan  Archipelago.  The  tree  which  produces  it 
belongs  to  the  natural  order  Lapindacea,  and  has 
pinnate  leaves-  It  is  extensively  cultivated  in  tha 
Boutbem  provinces  of  China,  and  in  the  northern 
provinces  of  Cochin-China,  but  is  said  to  be  im- 
patient of  a  climate  either  much  more  hot  or  much 
more  cnld.  Tbe  fruit  is  of  the  size  of  a  small  walnut, 
and  grows  in  racemes.  It  is  a  red  or  green  berry, 
with  a  thin,  tough,  leathery,  acaly  rind,  and  a  colour- 
less semi-transparent  pulp,  in  tbe  cen^  of  which  ia 
one  large  dark-brown  seed.  The  pulp  ia  slightly 
sweet,  subacid,  and  very  grateful  The  Chmcse 
preserve  tbe  friuC  by  drying,  and  in  the  dried  state 
it  ia  now  frequently  imported  into  Britain,  still  pra- 
serving  much  richness  of  flavour. — The  Lmtgan  and 
SambHUat  are  Emits  of  the  some  genus. 

LITHARGE.    See  Leij>. 

LITHIA    See  Lhhidu. 

HTHIO  ACID.    Sea  Uwo  Aom. 

LITHIO  ACID  DIATHESIS  ia  the  term 
employed  in  Medicine  to  designate  the  condition  in 
which  there  is  an  cicesa  of  lilhic  (or  mic)  add, 
cither  free  or  in  combination,  or  both,  in  the  nrine. 
The  urine  of  persoos  who  have  the  lithic  acid 
diadiesis  is  usually  oE  a  dark  aolden  colour,  like 
brown  sherry,  and  is  more  acia,  of  higher  siieeiflo 
gmvity,  and  less  abundant  than  the  nrine  in  health. 
When  the  urine  cools,  there  ia  usually  a  deposit  or 
sediment  of  lithatas.  The  sediment  is  usually 
spoken  of  as  one  of  lithate  (or  urate)  of  ammonia, 
but  in  reality  it  consists  mainly  of  litbate  of  soda 
mixed  with  lithates  of  ammonia,  potash,  and  lime. 
Its  colour  variee  according  to  the  amount  and 
nature  of  the  urine-pigment  which  tennciously 
adherea  to  it,  so  that  its  iinta  vary  from  a  wbitish 

fellow  to  a  brickdust  red,  or  even  a  deep  purple. 
ersons  seeing  these  deposits  in  their  nrine  when  it 
has  cooled,  afe  very  apt  to  believe  that  Uiey  may 
aggregate  and  harden  in  the  bladder,  and  form  a 
stone.  Such  fears  may,  however,  be  relieved  by 
■   ■  ■       ■ >  tha 


,.Gofl^^lc 


UTHIUU— LITB0OltAPB¥. 


The  colour  c^  the  deposit  ii  of  conmderable 
impottMioe  in  detemuiimg  its  value  ai  a  morbid 
Bymptom.  Tftwiiy  or  reddish  ledimanta  ot  Vhii 
iini  are  frequenUy  the  reault  of  mere  indieestion 
or  a  oommon  cold;  the  jellotnah-n-Ute  one*  deserve 
more  attention,  oa  they  are  believed  frequently  to 

Eicede  the  eicretion  of  gugar  through  tie  kidneys, 
e  pink  or  brickdust  (edimenta  are  almost  always 
associated  with  febrile  disturbance  or  acato  rheiuoa- 
Hvn  i  and  if  these  sediments  are  habitual,  without 
fever,  there  ia  most  [nvbably  disease  of  the  liver  or 
spleen.  If  the  urine  is  vety  acid,  a  portion  of  the 
hOuo  acid  is  separated  from  its  base,  and  shews 
itself,  as  the  fluid  cools,  in  a  free  crystallised  state, 
resembling,  to  the  naked  eye,  jTraius  of  Cayenne 
pepper,  bat  appearing  under  the  microscope  as 
riiombio  tablets.  This  free  lithio  acid  is  Sai  less 
common  than  the  lithatea,  sod  does  not  dissolve  on 
the  application  of  heat. 

The  peisoos  who  suFTer  from  this  diathesis  are 
chieBy  adults  beyond  the  middle  age,  and  of  indo- 
lent and  luxurious  or  intemperate  habits.  As  the 
formatioD  of  lithio  deposits  is  due  to  over-acidity  of 
the  urine,  alkalies  are  the  medicines  most  commonly 
prescribed,  and  Uie  preparatioiis  of  potash  are  far 
preferable  to  those  of  soda,  because  lithate  lA  potash 

salt. 


liquors.  The  skin  should  be  made  to  act  freely 
by  friction,  and  by  occasions!  warm  or  daily  tepid 
baths.  Warm  clothing  must  be  nsed  ;  plenty  of 
active  exercise  most  be  taken  in  the  open  air ; 
and  the  healthy  action  of  the  bowels  and  liver 
duly  attended  to.  It  must  be  recollected  that  the 
litbates  are  sometimra  dirown  down,  not  from 
undue  acidity  of  the  urine,  but  simply  from  that 
fluid  not  containing  the  due  quantity  of  water  to 
hold  them  in  solution.  In  such  cases,  a  tumbler  of 
cold  spring-water  taken  nigtit  and  morning  will  at 
once  cause  the  cessation  of  wis  morbid  symptom. 

LITHItrM  (aymh.  Ii;  equiv.  ^■^)■,  sp.  gr.  0-5936) 
is  the  metallic  base  of  the  alkali  lilhia,  ami  derives 
its  name  from  the  Greek  word  ItfAof,  a  stone.  The 
metal  is  of  a  white  silvery  appearance,  and  is  much 
harder  than  sodium  or  potaasiom,  bat  softer  than 
lead.  It  admite  of  being  welded  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratnres,  and  of  being  £awn  out  into  wire,  which, 
bowever,  is  inferior  in  tenacity  te  leaden  vrite.  It 
fuses  at  3G6°.  It  is  the  latest  of  all  known 
metals,  ite  specific  gravity  being  little  more  than 
half  that  of  water ;  it  decomposes  water  at  ordi- 
nary temperaturee.  It  hums  with  a  brilliant 
light  in  oxygen,  chlorine,  and  the  vapours  of  iodine 
and  bromine.  It  is  easily  reduced  from  its  chloride 
by  means  of  a  galvanic  battery.  Lithium  fonns  two 
compounds  wiSi  oi^gen,  vis.,  lithia  (known  aUo  as 
lithion  or  lithon),  which  is  tie  oxide  of  lithium,  and 
a  peroiidD  of  lithium  whose  foitnuU  haa  not  been 
determined, 

Li&ia,  iu  a  pure  and  isolated  state,  cannot  be 
obtained.  Hy<&ate  of  lithU  (LO.HO)  ocoun  h  a 
white  translacent  mass,  which  closely  resembles 
the  hydrates  of  potash  and  soda.  The  salts  of 
lithia  are  of  spaimg  occuixence  in  natore.  The 
minerals  petahte,  bipbazie,  lepidolite,  and  tour- 
maline contain  Lthia  in  combmation  with  silide 
acid,  while  triphyline  and  amblfgonite  contain  it 
u  m  phocpbate ;  it  is  also  present  m  small  qnantitief 
in  many  tuiDeral  waters. 

Carbonate  of  lithia  (I/},COJ  ia  precipitated 
when  carbonate  ot  ammonia  is  added  to  a  strong 


solution  of  chloride  of  Uthium,  and  occur*  as  a  white 
mass  widi  a  slight  alkaline  reaction.  At  a  dull  red 
heat,  it  melts  inte  a  white  enameL  It  lequins  100 
parts  of  water  for  its  solution,  but  is  mora  soluble  in 
water  charged  witii  carbonic  acid.  He  solution  of 
the  salt  has  been  strongly  recommended  in  cases  of 
gout  and  gravel,  in  conseqaenoe  of  the  solvent  power 
which  it  exerts  on  uric  acid.  The  sulphate,  ^os- 
phate,  and  nitrete  of  lithia  are  of  no  special  impint- 
anoe.  Chloride  of  lithium  (LC!+4Bq.)  is  readily 
prepared  by  dissolving  the  hydrate  of  liOiia  in 
hydrochloric  acid,  aod  evaporattng.  It  a^ftaUiies 
in  octohedra,  and  is  one  of  tJbe  most  d(ilii]n«Ment 
salts  known.  It  is  of  importance  as  being  the 
source  from  whence  lithium  and  carbonde  of  lithia 
are  obtained. 

litliia  was  discovered  in  ISI7  by  Arfvedaon. 
The  metal  litiiani  was  fint  obt^ed  in  1822  by 
Brande,  bnt  nothing  waa  known  regarding  ite  pro- 
pertiea  lutil  1S55,  when  Bunsen  and  Matthiesseo 
discovered  the  pment  method  of  obtaining  it,  and 
carefully  investigated  its  phy^cal  and  aiooiical 
characters. 

LITHO'ORAPHT  (Gt.  UlAof,  a  stone).  U>e  ait 
of  printing  from  stone,  was  invented  by  Aloys 
Senefelder,  at  Munich,  about  the  eod  of  the  1^ 
century.  It  oonsists,  first,  in  writing  sod  dnwing 
on  the  stene  with  tiie  pen  and  bnuh,  with  the 
graver,  and  with  the  crayon  or  dudk;  or  in 
uonsfetring  to  the  stene  writings  and  drawings 
made  with  the  pen  or  brush  on  transfer-paper,  or 
impressions  from  -copper,  steel,  and  pewter  platas, 
taken  on  a  coated  paper,  and  then  m  printmg  off 
from  the  stene  the  writings  oc  drawings  thus  made 
upon  it.  The  principles  of  the  art  are  these : 
an  onctuoas  composition  having  been  made  to 
adhere  to  a  calcareo-orgillaceoaa  stone,  those  parts 
covered  by  it — L  e.,  the  writing  or  drawing — acquire 
the  power  of  receiving  printing-ink,  whereas  those 
parte  not  containing  the  writmg  or  drawing  ore 
prevented  from  receiving  ink  from  the  iiiking- 
rollcr  by  the  interposition  of  water;  and  lastly, 
an  absorbent  paper  being  laid  on  the  stone,  and 
sabiected  to  strong  pressure,  copies  are  obtained. 

The  best  lilhograpHk  ifoTum  are  found  at  Kelheim 
and  Solenhofen,  near  Fapneuheiin,  on  the  Danube,  in 
Bavaria ;  but  they  have  been  found  also  in  Silesia, 
England,  France,  Canada,  and  the  West  Indies. 
Theeo  stones  are  composed  of  lisje,  clay,  and  siticious 
earth,  and  ore  of  various  hues,  from  a  pole  yellowiah- 
white  to  a  light  buff^  reddish,  pearl-gray,  Lght-gray, 
blue,  and  greeuiah  colour.  Those  of  uniform  colour 
ore  the  best.  The  yellow-buff  ones,  being  soft,  are 
adapted  for  lettering  and  transfer  ;  the  pearl-gray 
ones,  being  hardu-,  for  chalk-drawings  and  engrav- 
ing. They  are  found  in  beds,  commencing  with 
layers  of  the  thickness  of  paper,  till  they  reach  the 
dimensions  of  one,  and  several  iutdiea  in  thickness, 
when  they  ore  easily  cut,  being  yet  soft  in  the 
qoorrieA,  to  the  sizes  required  for  printing  pur- 
poses. The  stones  are  ground  plane  with  sand,  and, 
when  required  for  the  pen,  the  brash,  the  graver, 
or  transfer,  they  ore  polished  vrith  pumice  and 
water-of-Ayr  stone;  and  for  chalk-dnwings  and 
graduated  tints,  an  artificial  grain  is  given  by 
ground  glass  or  fine  sand. 

When  any  writing  or  drawing  has  been  finished 
on  stone,  it  then  requires  to, be  etehed,  thus:  a 
mixture  of  2  parte  of  nitric  acid,  and  from  40  te 
60  parte  ot  dissolved  gum-arabic,  is  poured  over 
the  stone  once  or  several  times,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  work.  The  etching  changes  the 
surface  of  the  stone,  raJaing  the  woric  on  it  te  a 
degree  sosicely  perceptible  to  the  naked  ^&  The 
writing  or  drawing,  which  has  been  ef^cted  by 
greai^  ink  or  ehau,  remoini  protected  from  tlw 


ttMOLOOY-LIMOMtlttPTtOS. 


the  natural  property  of  the  stoock  lAiioh 
ia  the  qualification  A  jreceivisg  priotiiig-iiik ;  aod, 
■whoa  the  printer  wets  the  atone  before  •pplying 


the  inking-rollet,  the  water  eaten  only  those  parte 
of  the  stooe  wbicb  have  been  affected  by  the  acid, 
while  the  ink  sdherei  only  to  those  parts,  how- 
ever fine,  on  which  the  acid  oould  not  operate,  owitu; 
to  t^  luictaoai  compositioa  of  the  ink  or  chaU  wit£ 
-which  the  drawing  or  writang  has  been  done,  and 
-whidh,  buu  greasy,  rejects  3m  watw.  Thus  it  ia 
called  dtamau  printing. 

TiM  <Aaracal  ink,  for  tmliagt  and  draidiigt  in  lite, 
ia  OMnposed  of  2  parts  of  white  wax,  2  uieU-lac,  1 
hard  soaii,  \  tallow,  {  carbonate  cf  soda,  and  1  ol 
powderealonp,  or  better,  Poiis  black.  Thechemical 
chalk  (cnyim)  ia  made  of  3  parta  of  white  wax,  2 
hard  soap,  1  shell-lao,  \  '  dro|is  of '  mastic,  1  tallow, 
4  old  lard,  i  VeaetJOQ  torpentuie,  |  Brunswick  black, 
j  carbonate  ol  soda,  and  H  of  Paris  bUck,  properly 
melted  and  bnmed  tt^eth^. 

When  Ike  drauring  or  urriUng  wiA  iitk  on  apolisbed 
stCHie  is  ooroplGted,  the  etching  is  proceeded  with, 
«nd  ■  portion  of  the  etching  compoeitioo  allowed  to 
dry  on  the  stone.  The  printer  tiien  adjusts  his  stone 
in  the  preae,  wash««  ofr  the  dried  gam,  removes  the 
whole  drawing  or  writing  with  turpentine,  wets 
the  stone  with  a  sponge  or  dampin^g  canvas,  then 
Ajmlies  his  roller  oontaiaing  the  pnntinB-ink,  and 
rolls  it  several  times  over  the  stone  lalT  the  lines 
Appear  Again.  When  sufficient  ink  has  been  applied 
to  the  lines,  the  paper  is  laid  on  the  stone,  drawn 
Umn^  the  press,  and  the  impression  effected. 
The  luimping  snd  inking  of  the  (tone  are  Koewed 
£or  every  impression. 

Chalk-draiBingt  are  done  on  the  gnuned  stone  with 
the  chemical  chalk,  with  the  stump  and  acrwer,  and 
shaip  lines  with  ink;  so  that,  if  boldly  and  «yste- 
matioally  treated,  by  giving  the  effect  first,  and 
detail  alterwords,  there  will  be  prodnced  richness 
and  Boftaeas  of  appeantnce  and  freedom  of  mani- 
pulation, and  a  great  many  impreamons  will  be ' 

TVnfsd  ifrouwijr^  diromo-liihofpaphy,  and  colmtnd 
map»  require  as  many  stones — grained  or  pcdiahed, 
oa  the  case  may  be-— as  there  are  various  tints  or 
colours,  one  stone  being  printed  after  the  other, 
Bod  BO  fitted  and  Idended  together  as  to  produce 
when  complete,  the  effect  desired. 

Great  BHtaui  ia  famed  for  wriUngs,  pJotu,  and 
dravanga,  done  with  transparent  quilla,  steel-pena, 
and  amall  camel-hair  bmahce,  on  ydlow  tnui^er 
paper,  prepsred  aa  follows  ;  I  part  boA  fiake-white, 
1  isingtoHS  or  gelatdne,  with  •  little  gamboge  to 
give  it  colour,  are  dissolrod  in  water  over  a  slow 
fire,  then  sifted  through  doable  mntlin,  and  apread 
onee,  tn  a  rer^r  warm  ilale,  with  a  large,  fiat  camel- 
hair  brush  on  one  aide  of  good-sued,  smooth, 
thin  paper,  whiidi,  when  dry,  requires  to  be  passed 
frequently  over  a  heated  stona,  through  the  presa. 
The  paper  being  drawn  or  written  upon  with  litho- 
gTaphic  inlt,  is,  when  finished,  pnt  for  a  few  minutea 
between  damp  blotting-paper;  a  wormed  stone  is 
put  in  the  press,  the  ebeet  ia  placed  with  the 
coated  sde  upon  it,  and  then  passed  «everal  times 
thrangb  the  presa;  the  back  of  the  paper,  now 
adhering  to  the  stone,  is  then  sponged  wiUi  water; 
tile  stone  is  turned,  and  passed  sevecal  time*  ag^ 
through  the  press  in  the  ofjxwite  direction,  uter 
irhidt  the  sheet  is  softened  with  water,  and  rubbed 
with  the  fingers  until  it  can  be  easily  removed  from 
the  Bt«ne.  aome  gum  is  then  put  upon  it,  and  a 
linen  rag,  dipped  in  printing-ink,  and,  with  the  aid 
of  a  litue  water,  passed  in  all  directions  over  the 
lines  till  they  appear  black  and  dean.  The  stone 
ii  then  aUoirod  bo  oool,  inked  up  with  the  rdler. 


then  vety  slightly  etched,  and,  after  bung  cleaned, 
is  ready  for  use. 

AtdAography  is  the  name  given  to  a  writing  or 
drawing  done  with  the  chemical  ink  on  one  aitu  of 
any  plam — not  coated — paper,  for  example,  banker^ 
oirculars ;  the  transfer  ts  done  in  the  same  manner 
as  already  described,  with  the  difference,  that  the 
sheet,  when  laid  on  the  stone,  ia  passed  oidy  once 
through  the  prea^ 

Tranfferring  qfaitf  ioHlingt,  mapi,  dnueingi  fn  Uite 
or  nnaie,  done  ott  copper,  »tcd,  attd  pader-plaiet,  laiA 
retna^fening  of  ai^r  line-work,  already  on  lie  $Uine, 
form  a  very  in^ortant  part  <^  lithography,  as  an 
unlimited  dumber  of  impreaaioDS  can  be  produced 
at  a  very  vioderatt  txpeaae  witAout  teearing  out  the 
ori^nal  platea  or  stones,  and  as  parta  of  various 
plates,  stones,  and  letterpress  can  be  transferred  to, 
and  printed  from,  the  taint  done.  The  beat  tran^er- 
paper/or  Ikit  purpose  is  the  following  :  mix  3  parta 
of  shoemakers  paste  (without  alum)  with  1  put  of 
best  gronnd  plasUr  of  Paris,  a  httle  dissolved  patent 
glue,  and  some  tepid  water ;  strain  the  mirtare  throngh 
double  muslin  m  a  common  jar,  and,  when  cooled, 
ipread  it  with  a  larger  flat  camel-hair  bnudi 

"^- '-'■.!oTlaiiagtr~~ 

oonfuls  of  p 


._.  ._ . ,  _  hUok  pitch,  and  8i     

of  powdtred  lampblack.  The  various  in^edienta 
are  melted  for  25  minutes,  and  fire  set  to  the  mass 
for  other  15  minntya — afterwards  formed  in  sticka. 
When  the  impresmons  have  been  made  on  this  coated 
paper  with  this  transfer-ink,  the  transfer  is  accom- 
phahed  on  the  stone  as  already  described. 

With  legaid  to  enprannj;  and  elehing  on  ilone, 
photo-liAographji,  the  appliaition  of  eUdrolypirtg  to 

.    ,       (team-pras^ 
&c,  we  most   refer  the  reader  to   iqiecial  woika 
L  Lithography  ;  oud  see  under  FnoTOCBAf  hy. 
It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  mention,  that !~  "-  ~ 


Britain  for  Iraa^erring,  tint-prinUTig,  and  chromo- 
priating. 

Strimer,  Eohe,  HanfsU[ngl,PiIoty,  Loehle,  LocOlot, 
Aucr,  Leon  Noel,  MoniUenm,  Engelmann,  Sabatier, 
Cilamo,  Lasalle,  Ewhe,  Gh&nar,  Holhnandal,  Day, 
Eanhart^  Brooks,  Cemerder,  may  be  mentioned, 
from  among  many  othen,  who  have  helped  to 
perfect  lithi^raphy, 

LITHO'LOGT  (tif&M,  a  atone)  ia  that  division 
of  geology  which  considers  iho  constdtntion  and 
structure  of  rocks,  apart  from  tiieir  relations  in  time 
M  positdon  to  eaiji  other.     See  Geoloot. 

LITHOMABGE,  an  earthy  mineral,  tometimea 
called  fountain  Marroai  (Ger.  Sieinmarh),  conaiat. 
ins  i^efly  of  ailioa  and  alumina,  with  oxide  of  iron 
^M  various  colourins  sabstauces.  It  ia  soft,  greaay 
to  the  tond^  and  adheres  atrongly  to  the  tongoa. 
It  is  genenlly  white,  yellow,  or  red,  often  exhibiting 
very  DMotdful  colours.  It  is  foond  in  Germany, 
Bnssia,  &&,  also  in  the  tin-mines  of  Bedmth  m 
Oomwoa 

LITHONTRFPTICS  (from  the  Greek  words 
UtJioa,  a  stone,  and  trttio,  I  wear  out)  is  the  term 
which  ia  applied  to  those  remediee  which,  whether 
token  by  the  mouth,  or  injected  into  tile  bladder, 
act  as  sdventa  for  the  stone. 

Various  medicines  hare  at  difftoont  tjmea  been 
recommended  and  employed  as  solventa  for  the 
stone.  Bather  more  tluui  a  centoty  i^,  limewater 
and  soap,  when  awoUoved  in  sufficient  quantities, 
had  a  hi^  repntstion  as  tolventa  for  urinary  oalcnlL 
These  were  tt»e  only  aof "' 


mCooqIc 


LITHOPHAOrD.a^-IJTHOTEnT. 


Stepheiw's  SeofiptfoT  Oit  Slone  and  Oravd,  -wliicli 
WM  reported  on  wo  Eivonrably  by  a  committee  o( 
proffmionft!  men,  that  pBrliament,  in  1739,  porohsBed 
the  secret  for  £5000.  The  treatment  doubtless 
•fforded  relief ;  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  aoy 
CalonluB  was  actually  digsolved,  for  in  the  bladder 
at  each  of  the  four  persona  whose  cure  was  certified 
in  the  report,  the  stone  was  found  after  death  I 
At  present,  do  lubstaDce,  which,  token  by  the 
mouth,  has  the  power  of  dissolving  calculi,  is 
known  ;  but  as  Dr  Prout  remarks  in  his  well-known 
treatise,  On  IM  Nature  and  Treatment  of  SlomacA 
and  Urmary  DUecuee,  remedies  of  this  class  are  t« 
be  sought  '  among  harmless  and  unirritating  com- 
pounds, the  elements  of  which  are  so  associated  as 
to  act  at  the  same  time,  with  respect  to  calculous 
ingredienU,  both  aa  alkalies  and  acids.'  Solutions 
of  the  super-carbonated  alkalies  containing  a  groat 
eicets  of  carbonic  acid — oa,  for  example,  the  natuial 
mineral  waters  of  Vichy — approach  most  nearly  to 
what  is  required.  The  relief  which,  in  maoy 
instances,  has  followed  the  administration  hy  the 
mouth  ol  substances  supposed  to  be  lithontnptics, 
has  been  derived  not  from  the  solution  of^  the 
calculi,  but  from  the  diminution  of  pain  and  irritation 
in  the  bladder. 

On  the  other  hand,  considerable  success  has  been 
obtained  by  the  direct  injection  of  solvents  into  the 
bladder,  especially  when  tho  nature  of  the  calculus 
is  suspected  ;  weak  alkaline  solutions  baviiis  appar- 
ently  caused  the  disappearance  of  uric  acid  calcoli, 
while  phosphatic  calculi  have  unqneetionably  been 
dissolved  by  the  injection  of  very  weak  odd  solu- 
tions. It  is  reported  that  a  weak  galvanic  current 
has  been  recently  found  successful  m  the  hands  of 
an  Italian  sui^eon. 

LITHOFHA'GID.^  (Qr.  stone-eaters),  a  term 
■ometinies  applied  to  the  molluscs  which  b«r«  holes 
for  their  own  residence  in  rocks.    See  Phola& 


LI'THOFHAVE  (Gr.  phanoe,  clear,  transparent), 
a,  peculiar  style  of  ornamental  porcelain  chiefly 
adapted  to  lamps  and  other  tmtiaparenciea  ;  it  con- 
sists of  pretty  pictures  produced  on  thin  sheets  of 
"  "jrcelain  by  stamping  tht 
i  with  raised  plaater-o£-! 
intended  to  be  produced.  By  this  means, 
an  ictnelio  impression  is  obtained;  and  when  the 
sheet  of  porcelain  has  been  hardened  by  fire,  the 
impresmon  gives  a  picture,  owing  to  the  trans- 
parency of  tae  porcdain,  which  haa  the  lights  and 
shadows  correctly  shewn,  if  viewed  by  transmitted 
l^t-  lithophana  pictures  are  common  in  (icr- 
mony,  where  the  art  has  been  more  favourably 
teceif  ed  than  in  France,  its  native  countty-  They 
I  aides  of  omo- 
lanterns,  and  ar«  sometimes 
inserted  in  Jecorative  windows. 

UTHO'TOMY  (Qr.  lit/iot,  a  stone;  Ona,  the  act 
of  ODtting),  the  technical  name  far  the  enrgical 
operation  popularly  called  cuUing/or  the  lUme. 

Ae  most  of  the  symptoma  of  stone  in  the  bladder 
{which  are  noticed  in  the  article  Calculus)  may  be 
simulated  by  other  diseases  of  the  bladder  and 
adjacent  p^ta,  it  is  necessary  to  have  additional 
evidence  regarding  the  true  nature  of  the  case 
before  resorting  to  so  serious  an  operation  as 
lithotomy.  This  evidence  is  afforded  by  eoundiag 
"""  --^~^— a  simple  preliminary  operation,  which 
introducing  into  the  bladder,  through 
the  natural  urinary  passage  (the  urethra),  a  metalSc 
instrument, 
plainly  felt  l 

Lithotomy  haa  been  performed  in  varions  ways  at 
different  times.  The  earliest  form  of  lithotomy  is 
known  as  culiing  <m  lit  ffrij>e,  or  Cdtttit  meQiod^   It 


received  the  former  name  frmn  the  stone,  after  bdng 
fixed  by  the  pressure  of  the  fingers  in  the  anna, 
being  directly  cat  upon  and  extracted ;  and  the 
latter,  from  its  havinz  been  first  described,  so  far 
as  is  now  known,  by  Celsut,  althongh  it  had  prob- 
ably been  practised  from  time  immemoriaL  At  a 
later  period,  this  operation  received  from  Marionua 
the  name  of  the  amarotiu  minor  (from  a  knife  and 
hook  being  the  only  instruments  used),  to  distin- 
guish it  from  his  own  method,  which  he  called  the 
apparatus  vwor,  from  the  numerous  instruments  ha 
employed.  The  Marian  method  was  founded  on  the 
erroneous  idea,  that  wounds  of  membranous  porta 
would  not  heal,  while  their  dilatation  was  compar- 
atirely  harmless.  The  object  was  to  do  as  little  aa 
possible  with  the  knife,  and  as  much  as  possible 
with  dilating  instruments ;  and  the  necessary  result 
was  laceration  and  such  other  severe  injury,  that  this 
became  one  of  the  most  fatal  operations  m  surgery. 
Nevertheless,  it  was  the  operation  mainly  in  vogue 
for  ncirly  200  year*,  till  Frtre  Jaques,  in  1697,  intro- 
duced what  is  essentially  the  method  now  in  use. 

The  lateral  operation,  bo  called  from  the  lateral 
direction  in  which  the  incision  is  made  into  the 
neck  of  the  bladder,  in  order  to  avoid  wonndine  the 
rectum,  is  that  which,  with  varions  minor  moiQfica- 
tions,  is  almost  nniverwdly  employed  at  the  present 
day.  Frire  Jaquea,  a  priest,  seems  to  have  learned 
the  method  from  a  provincial  surj^n  named  Pierre 
France,  ond  to  have  practised  it  with  much  success  ; 
and,  in  1697,  he  came  to  Pnria  in  order  to  make  it 

Eublicly  known.  The  advantafje  of  this  operation, 
y  which  a  free  opening,  sufficiently  loive  for  the 
extraction  of  a  stone,  can  be  made  into  t£e  bladder 
without  laceration  of  the  parte  or  injury  to  tho 
rectum,  was  immediately  recwniaed  by  the  leadins 
surgeons  of  the  time,  and  the  Marian  process  was  A 
once  universally  given  up. 

Wo  can  only  very  briefly  indicate  the  leading 
steps  of  the  operation.  The  patient  being  laid  on 
the  table,  and  chloroform  being  administered,  an 
instrument  termed  a  curved  steff,  with  a  deep 
groove,  is  passed  into  the  bladder.  An  incision  is 
Uicn  mode  on  the  left  side  of  the  mesial  line,  aboot 
an  inch  and  three-quarters  in  front  of  the  anus,  and 
extending  downwarda  te  midway  between  the  anus 
and  the  tuberosity  of  the  left  ischium.  The  incision 
should  be  sufficiently  deep  for  the  0]>erator,  on 
introducing  a  finger  of  the  left  hand,  to  feel  the 
groove  of  the  staff.  The  knife,  directed  by  this 
nnger.  is  now  fixed  in  the  groove,  and  slidine  along 
it  towards  the  bladder,  divides  the  membranons 
portion  of  the  urethra,  the  edge  of  the  prostate, 
and  the  neck  of  the  bladder.  The  knife  is  now 
'ithdrawn,  as  also  is  the  ataff,  and  the  aurgeon 
—itrodncea  the  forcens  over  '-'*"  ^-—  -'  '■'*--  '-'^ 

It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  any  of  the  details 
of  the  after-treatment  At  first,  the  urine  escapes 
Ihronsh  the  wound,  but  in  favonrable  cases  it  is 
voided  by  the  natural  passage  in  a  week,  and  the 
wound  heals  in  the  courae  of  a  month. 

From  the  shortness  of  the  female  urethra  and  the 
extent  to  which  it  can  be  dilated,  and,  additionally, 
from  the  comparative  rarity  of  colcoloos  affections 
in  women,  the  operation  of  lithotomy  is  exclosivcly 
restricted  to  the  mole  sex. 

The  danger  of  the  operation  seems  to  vaiy  with 
the  age  of  the  patient.  Out  of  186  cases  collected 
by  Mr  Hutehinson  of  the  London  Hospital,  137  wer* 
under  the  age  of  20,  and  of  Uiese,  123,  or  neaiiy  90 
per  cent,  recovered ;  while  of  the  49  who  were  over 
20  years  of  age,  26,  or  more  than  63  per  cent,  died. 

LITHO'TBITf  (Qr.  Btene-crushing),the  surreal 
operation  of  breoldng  up  a  stone  in  the  bladder  into 


.X\aa<5\c 


rr" 


LrtHUANIA— LllnitGt'. 


•uoh  snuU  fragmenta  that  the;  may  readil;  be 
expelled  by  the  urethra.  Although  the  importiuioa 
of  Bach  an  operation  has  been  recognised  from  the 
earliest  time,  a  French  surgeon,  Civiale,  who  com- 
menced his  Tcoeaichea  in  1817,  but  did  not  perform 
his  first  operation  till  the  beginning  of  1824,  is  entitled 
to  be  regarded  as  tlie  discoverer  of  lithotritj.  The 
mstinment  by  which  the  disiDtegratioii  of  the  stone 
il  effected,  is  introdaced  in  the  eoloe  maimer  as  a 
catheter  or  sound  into  the  bladder,  and,  after  catch- 
ing the  stone,  either  boiei,  hammers,  or  crushes  it  to 

Cruahiog  is  now  eenerally  prefaired,  the  done 
being  grasped  by  the  olades  M  tne  instrument  shewn 
in  the  SgiuK,  one  blade  acting  on  the 
^^k  other  by  means  of  a  screw. 

fl|^  The  process  seems,  at  first  sight,  so 

*^^a      safe,  aa  compared  with  the  oper^on  of 
^^      lithotomy,  that  it  is  necessary  to  distin- 
Tl      goish  those  cases  in  which  it  may  be 
I      resorted  to,  and  those  in  which  it  is 
n      contra- indicated.    It  may  be  resorted  to 
when  the  patient  is  ao  adult,  and  the 
urethra  fuU-sized    and  healthy,  so   as 
freely  to  admit  the  passage  of  the  instru- 
ment i  when  the  prostate  is  not  much 
VaI      enlarged,  which  is  very  often  the  case 
(tI      in  old  men,  and  when  the  bladder  ia 
not  thickened  or  Ten-  irritable  ;  while 
it   must    be   avoided   in    children,    in 
consequence  of    the    smallncss   of   the 
urethra ;  when  there  ia  crcat  irritation 
and  tHckening  of   the  bladder ;   when 
there  is  great  enlargement  of  the  pro- 
state, which  hicdera  the  manipulation  of 
the  iustrumeot,  and  the  escape   of  the 
broken  fragments  of  stone ;   when  the 
stone  is  of  large  size,  as,  for  eiample,  of 
a  greater  diameter  than  two  inches  ;  and  when  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that  the  concretion  is  a  mulberry 
calculus,  which,  from  its  extreme  hardness,  cannot 
readily  be  broken.     Great  care  must  be  taken  that 
DO  fragment  remains  in  the  bladder,  as  such  frag- 
ments are  almost  sure  to  torta  the  nndei  of  fresh 

LITHUA'NIA,  a  former  grand-duchy,  holding  of 
the  crown  of  Poland,  which,  before  the  partitions 
of  that  country,  was  composed  of  three  groups  of 
■- — '^ —  ■  L.  proper,  or  Litiva,  which  formed  the 
of  wfina  and  Troki ;  2.  The  duchy 
.;  3.  Bnsdan  L.,  comi>riBinz  Folede, 
Blaok  ifusna  or  Novcwrodek,  White  Kossia  or 
Minsk,  Meialav,  Witebsk,  Smolensk,  Polotsk,  and 
Polish  Livonia.  This  country  contained  about 
136,000  i^glish  square  miles,  and  waa  partitioned 
between  Bussia  and  Pruaaiii.  The  Lithuanians,  a 
race  to  whom  belong  the  Letts  of  Livonia,  the 
Cooni  of  Courland,  and  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
East  Prussia,  are  closely  allied  to  the  Slavic  ^ojiles, 
and  constitute  with  them  one  of  the  main  divisions 
of  the  Indo-European  stock.  The  Lithuanian 
language  is  stilt  spoken  by  about  3,000,000  of  people, 
but  is  dying  out  before  German  and  Russian ;  in 
some  respects  it  comes  nearer  Sanskrit  than  any 
other  Aryan  tongue. 

L.  was  at  first  subject  to  Bnssia,  but  shook  off  the 
^ke  about  the  end  of  the  12th  c.  and  became  an 
mdependent  power.  The  nation  was  not  con- 
verted to  Christianity  tUl  the  end  of  the  14th  c 
Their  rnlers,  who  bore  the  titie  of  Grand  Duke, 
conquered  the  neighbouring  Rus^aa  provinces,  and 
even  carried  their  ravages  to  the  very  gatea  of 
Moscow.  The  Grand  Duke  of  L.,  Jagellon,  was  in 
13SS  elected  king  of  Poland,  and  issued  an  edict  of 
onion  between  uie  two  countries,  and  in  1669  the 
two  were  declared  tg  be  one  coantry. 


territory: 


LITMT7S  is  a  well-known  coloniing  matter, 
which  is  obtained  from  several  Uchens,  but  chiefir 
from  Leeanara  tarlarea.  The  hchens  are  powd^^ 
and  digested  with  unmoniacal  fluids  [urine,  for 
example)  till  they  undergo  decompositioiu  .jUum, 
potash,  and  lime  are  then  added,  and  the  mixture  is 
allowed  to  stand  till  the  maximum  degree  of  colour 
ia  observed.  Sand  and  c)ialk  are  adde<^  to  give  a  duo 
degree  oF  solidity,  and  the  mass  is  then  dried  in  cubes, 
and  is  ready  for  the  market.  The  exact  nature  of 
the  changes  which  ensue  is  not  altogether  known ;  it 
is,  however,  certain  that  the  pigment  ia  orisinally 
red,  and  that  it  only  becomes  Uue  on  the  addition 
of  alkaLea  or  of  lime.  This  blue  colour  is  again 
changed  into  a  red,  on  the  addition  of  a  free  aci£ 

The  use  of  litmus-paper  and  tincture  of  litmus 
for  the  purpose  of  detecting  the  acidity  of  fluids, 
Ac,  is  known  to  every  student  of  chemisby.  See 
Test- PAPERS. 

IjITBE;,  the  unit  of  the  present  French  measni«B 
of  capacity,  both  dry  and  liquid.     It  is  the  volume 


.  British  imMTiBl  gallon.    It 

decimally  into  the  (kcUiire,  cenUUlTt,  and  laiiliiitre 
(respectively  T^th,  rfrith,  and  iA»th  of  a  litre). 
Ten  litreaarea  lUcaiilre;  100,  a  ItecloUlrt ;  1000,a 
tOoUtrt.  The  hectolitre  is  the  common  measure 
for  grain,  and  is  equal  to  03439009  British  imperial 
quarter,  or  nearly  2]  imperial  bushels. 

LITTLE  FALLS,  a  viUage  of  New  York.  United 
States  of  America,  on  the  Mohawk  River,  91  miles 
north-west  of  Albany,  on  the  line  of  the  Erie  Canal, 
and  New  York  Central  Bailway.    The  Mohawk  hero 

t asses  through  a  romantic  defile  of  two  miles  in 
:ngth,  with  falls  of  forty-two  feet,  giving  water- 
power  to  several  papBT-millB,  woolkn  fectories, 
Souring-miUs,  Ac  The  village  has  nnmerons 
churches,  a  bank,  newspapers,  SJid  manufactures  of 
starch,  shoes,  &c.    Pop.  (1880)  6910. 

LITTLE  ROCK,  the  cipital  of  Arkansas,  TTnitcd 
States  of  America,  ia  situated  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  Arkonsia  River,  300  miles  from  its  mouth,  on 
the  first  bed  of  rocks  Itiounding  the  alluvial  valley 
□f  the  Mississippi.  It  contains  the  state  capitol,  an 
arsenal,  penitentiary,  and  other  public  buildinus, 
Foundedin  1820.  Pop.  (1870)  12,3iJ0i  (18S0)  I3,li0. 
LITTLETON,  or  LYTTLETON,  Sm  Thomas,  a 
celebrated  English  juriat,  was  bom  early  in  t^o 
15th  0.  (the  exact  year  is  not  known),  studied 
—it  is  thought  probable— at  Cambridge,  tStei  which 
he  removed  to  the  Inner  Temple.  Heory  VI. 
appointed  him  steward  or  jndge  of  the  Court  of  the 
Palace,  and  in  1465  king's  Serjeant,  in  which  capa- 
city he  travelled  the  northern  circuit.  In  I4CG,  he 
was  made  one  of  the  judges  of  the  Court  of  Common 
Fleas;  and  in  147S,  ho  was  created  Enight  of  the 
Bath.  He  died  Auguat  23,  14S1.  L.'s  fame  rests 
onhifl  workon  Tenures,  which  was  originally  written 
in  Norman-French,  and  first  published  about  the 
time  of  his  death.  It  went  through  a  multitude  of 
editions.  The  first  translation  into  English  was 
made  in  1639,  and  in  the  course  of  the  nest  hundred 
years  it  went  through  no  less  than  24  editions.  The 
changes  in  the  laws  relative  to  property  have  greatiy 
dimimshed  its_  value,  and  it  is  now  li^e  studied  by 
lawyers  ;  yet  it  is  considered  a  model  from  the  clear 
and  logicu  manner  in  which  the  subject  is  handled. 
LITTRl!:,  MAxmuBN.  See  Sopp.,  Vol.  X. 
LITURGY  (Gr.  ktCouryin,  a  publio  service),  in 
general,  signifies  a  form  of  prayer  and  ceremonial 
eatablildiedby  eccleaiaaticat  authority,  to  be  used  in 
the  public  services  of  the  church,  but  is  especially 
apphed  to  that  used  in  the  celebration  and  adminis- 
ti^on  of  tlie  Eucharist.  The  very  earliest  historical 
recoids  i^  Christianity  iilainly  shew  that  such  forms 


.oBgl( 


WWB  in  tiM  in  the  ptiinitd'n  tirata,  bnt  it  Beams 
higjify  probaUe  that  for  »  conisidsrable  period  they 
wen  not  redooed  to  imting ;  and  liettce  eTen  those 
of  Qm  extant  lituligieB  which  represent  the  eBj-liest 
fomu  diffco'  coniideTsbly  from  each  other,  if  not  in 
the  Bubitanee  of  the  nte,  at  leait  in  the  arrange- 
tnent  evm  <rf  those  parts  which  are  commoD  to 
them  alL  A  theoloeical  disciuBion  of  the  snbject 
of  tiie  htnrgy,  thou^  of  conrae,  moat  important  in 
a  doctrin^  point  of  view,  and  most  interesting  for 
the  study  of  Christian  antiqnitiea,  wooM  be  out  of 
place  in  a  popolar  cyclopiedJA.  Ilie  liturgies  form 
the  great  Btronghold  of  the  Catholio  controver- 
maliati  on  the  mibject  ot  iie  real  presence  and  of 
the  enohariftia  sacrifice ;  but  we  must  confine  our- 
mItm  to  ■  brief  historical  account  of  the  Tarions 
litni^iea  now  ertant,  and  of  thmr  conneddon  with 
the  Tariooa  andent  Christian  oommnnities,  whd^er 
of  the  East  or  of  1^  West.  Liturgiea  may,  indeed, 
best  be  distributed  into  tw»  daves,  those  ot  ths 
East,  and  those  of  the  West 

1.  OrtaUai  Liturgiei. — The  (Mental  liturgies  are  six 
in  number,  four  of  which  an  derived  from  the  great 
ohnrches  in  which  they  were  used ;  the  SS&  from 
the  Anoenian  Church,  whii^  early  fanned  a  distinct 
liturgy ;  and  Ihe  sixth  from  Uie  great  Syrian  sect 
of  Neatorins,  by  which  the  littu^  was  modified  to 
suit  its  own  peculiar  tenets.  ^Seea  liturgies  are 
severally  known  as  Ihe  litot^ee  <rf  Jerusalem,  of 
Antiooh,  of  Alexandria,  and  of  ConstantiooplB,  the 
Armenian  liturgy,  and  the  Neatorian  liturgy.  The 
ditamtie*  of  these  litoisies,  although  very  great  in 
Bppeanuice,  ^t  can  haraly  be  said  to  be  subgbuiti&L 

are  fonnd  in  all  without  substantial  variation  ;  bnt 
thef  an  arranged  in  a  diff^vnt  order,  and,  except 
in  the  form  of  the  eucharistic  consecration,  the 
hymn  Trisagion,  and  a  few  other  details,  the  form 
of  words  is  often  entirely  dissimilar.  The  litur^ 
of  Jerusalem,  altiiough  ascribed  to  St  James,  is 
of  uncertain  origin  and  date ;  nor  is  it  well  ascer- 
tained whether  ita  orwnsl  language  was  Syriac  or 
Greek.  The  latter  is  tbe  language  in  which  it  is  now 
found,  and  the  present  liturgy  closely  correaponda 
in  the  main  with  tliat  which  formed  the  t^  of 
St  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  in  his  well-known  Mjstv 
eap(^  Lectures.  The  liturgy  of  Autioch  eidats 
in  Syriac,  but  it  is  evidently  omy  a  free  translation 
of  the  lit^ir^  of  Jerusalem.  The  Bucieot  liturgy  of 
Alexandria  is  sscribed  to  St  Mark ;  but  the  existing 
liturgy  has  received  numberless  additions  at  lat^ 
dates,  and  has  been  modified  by  both  the  great  sects 
of  this  patriarchate  to  suit  their  pecoUor  doctrines. 
Several  other  liturgies  are  in  use  among  the  Copts, 
nnder  the  name  of  St  Basil,  St  Gregory,  andT  St 
Cyril ;  and  the  Abyssinian  Christians  l^ve  no  fewer 
tlum  ten,  which  are  distinct,  at  least  in  name.  The 
church  ot  Constantinople  has  two  different  liturgies, 
both  of  great  antiquity,  that  of  St  Basil,  and  that  of 
St  Chryaostom.  These,  however,  are  not  indiscrim- 
inately nsed,  each  being  employed  on  special  occa- 
•ions  or  «i  oertain  demied  festivals.  The  hturgy 
ot  Constantinople  is  the  ori^nal  of  the  Slavomo 
litnigy,  whidi  is  used  in  the  Russian  and  Russo-Greek 
CQinmt,  and  in  its  various  branches.  The  Armenian 
liturgy  dates  from  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
into  Armenia  under  Gregory  the  Illuminator.  It  is 
in  most  reepeots  dtrived  frwn  that  of  St  Chrfsoetom. 
Ths  Nestonans  have  three  litnrgiea—the  hturgy  of 
the  Apoatlea,  the  Ltuigy  of  Theodore  of  Mopsueatia, 
and  the  litn^y  of  Nestorins.  These,  however,  are 
all  oomluned  into  one,  each  being  asai^ed  to  a 
■particular  aeaaon,  or  used  on  special  ooeasKm*.  The 
UngnMe  of  all  is  Syriaa 

a  Wetlem  £t(urpte»— The  liturgies  of  the  Weot 
IJHIIiiiil  liliinhltiiTniintj.  and  indeed  an  all  derived 


either  from  Ihe  esatem  litui^es  or  from  a  common 
source.  The  Cathoho  liturgies  may  be  reduced  to 
four — the  Roman,  the  Milanese  or  Ambroeian,  the 
Gothic  or  Mosarabic,  and  the  Gallic  litnrgieB.  The 
oldest  forms  of  the  Roman  hturgy  are  to  be  found 
in  throe  so-called  aacramentariea — that  ot  Leo,  that 
of  Qelaaius,  and  that  of  Gregory  the  GreaL  It  is 
the  last  that  has  left  its  impress  most  cleuly  on 
the  modem  Roman  missal,  which  was  bron^t  to 
its  present  shape  by  a  cornmission  ordered  by  the 
Coimdl  of  Trent,  after  a  careful  revision  and  colla- 
tion of  all  the  htu^ical  forms  in  use  in  the  West  in 
the  16([l  century.  The  first  revision  took  place  nnder 
Has  v.,  and  two  subsequent  revisions  were  made 
by  Urban  VIII.  and  Clement  VIIL  Hie  Ambrosian 
hturgy  is  used  only  in  the  diocese  of  Milan,  and  is 
popdarly  traced  to  St  Amhroee.  It  bears  a  close 
an^ogy  to  the  Roman  Uturgy,  but  it  has  many 
pecuLariiiee,  some  of  which  are  hig^y  interesting, 
as  illostrating  the  history  of  the  debiils  of  Christian 
worship.  Its  ceremonial,  which  is  oiwerved  with 
great  Boleronity  in  the  cathedral  of  Milan,  is  in  some 
ports  highly  striking  and  cbacaoteristie.  The  Gothic 
or  MozaraUo  is  of  still  more  limited  nae,  being  now 
confined  to  a  single  chapd  at  Toledo,  fonnded  and 
endowed  for  the  purpose  by  the  celebrated  Cardinal 
Ximenes.  It  Is  the  old  htni^  of  the  Gothic  Church 
of  Spun ;  and  after  the  infusion  of  the  Arabio 
element,  which  followed  the  Moorish  invasion,  it 
was  called  by  the  name  of  Mosarabic,  a  word  of 
dispoted  etymo!<«y.  This  liturgy  is  certainly  of 
Oriental  origin ;  but  its  faistoir,  and  the  time  and 
circumstances  of  its  intmducbon  into  Spain,  have 
furnished  matter  for  much  specnlatioo.  Some  parts 
of  the  rite  are  exceedingly  curious,  especially  those 
which  accompany  the  breaking  of  the  host.  The 
Oalhcan  htnrgy  has  no  precise  modem  representa- 
tive, and  is  only  known  from  ancient  forms, 


lata  ,  . 
and  recently  by  Mone.  The  older  Galhcan  forms 
bespeak  on  Oriental  origin,  and  are  probably  derived 
from  the  Greek  Christian  colony  which  settled  at 
Marsedlle,  Lyon,  and  the  other  diiirches  of  the 
south.  The  later  forma  approxiniate  more  to  the 
Roman.  Neither  of  these,  however,  is  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  more  modem  missals  in  nse  in 
several  of  the  Frenoh  dioceses,  which  do  not  differ 
from  the  Roman  exoept  in  minor  details,  and  moat 
of  which  have  now  been  displaced  by  the  Roman 
missal  Of  Protestant  oommunities,  tin  Andicao 
Church  alone  prafessee  to  fdlow  the  HidWBt  litnr. 
ncal  forms  (see  Cokmoh  Psayxb,  Book  of).  See 
Renaudot's  Onatlalmrtt  Liturgiartim  CoUaiU),  1740, 
2  vols. ;  Assemanni's  S3)iiolJieca  OriaUaiu;  Palmer's 
AnHqvitieg   trf   ti«    EngUA    Ltttirgv ;    Binterim's 

LITURGY,  Jewish,  in  the  narrower  sense  ot  a 
ritual  of  fixed  prayers,  chiefly  for  public  worship. 
The  Hosaic  records  contain  an  ordinance  respecting 
t^e  '  confession  of  sins '  (Lev.  v.  6;  xvi  21],  with- 
out, however,  prescribing  a  distinct  form  for  the 
purpose.  Three  formulas  only  are  fixed — tiie  bene- 
diotton  of  the  priests  (Num.  vi  24 — 26),  t^a  ^*yer 
of  thanksgiving  on  the  occasion  of  the  first  offering 
(Dent,  xxvi  fr-~10),  and  that  which  was  to  accom- 

Cav  the  offering  up  of  the  third  year's  tithe, 
ginning :  '  I  have  brooght  away  the  hallowed 
things  out  of  my  house '  (ib.  13—16).  Althon^ 
prayers  are  often  mentioned  before  t^  Exile,  yet 
they  do  not  seam,  except  in  the  cases  mentioned,  to 
have  been  introduced  as  yet  as  a  regular  element 
into  the  service  of  the  Temple.  The  songs  ot  the 
Levites  (1  Chr.  xvi  4;  cdii.  3),  and  occasional 
prayers,  snch  as  are  to  be  found  in  the  Psalms,  or 
like  tJiat  of  Solomon  at  the  inMfuration  ot  the 
Temple,  are  all  wa  Sitd  moMded.  Aintte  devotk 


^nyL.dO>^[C 


tltJTPRAND— LrVEft. 


(ci  1  Eingi,  viiL  30,  Jfco. ;  II  L  Ifi), 

bat  every  one  pntyed  when  hia  heart  prompted  him 
in  the  words  mspired  by  his  jot  or  lorrow.  Not 
before  the  time  ot  Daniel  ia  a  fixed  institution  of 
three  dailj  prayers  meotioned  (Dan.  vi.  11).  The 
task  of  compibng  a  liturgy  proper,  and  of  filing 
the  timea  and  aeasons  of  prayer,  waa  probably  Grit 
nndertaken  by  the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue. 
Two  chief  groups  aionnd  which,  aa  time  wore  on, 
an  enormooB  mass  of  liturgical  poetry  has  clnatered, 
are   distinctly   discernible — the   one,  the   Sli/matt, 

('  Hear,  Israd,  kc'),  being  a  ixiUection  of  the  three 
biblical  pieces  (Deut.  rt  4 — 9 ;  xL  13—21 ;  Num. 
XT.  37—^1)  exproesiTe  of  the  nnity  of  God  and 
the  memory  of  His  government  over  Israel,  strung 
together  withont  any  extraneous  addition ;  the 
Kecond,  the  T^Uah,  w  Prayer,  by  way  of  eminec 
(adopted  into  IhImd  aa  Saiavai,  Bur.  iL  40 ;  cf . 
IS),  coiiaistiiig  of  a  certain  number  of  supplications 
wiUi  t,  hymnal  iatrodnction  and  conclusion,  and 
fallowed  by  the  priestly  blessing.  The  single  por- 
tioDB  of  this  prayer  gradually  increased  to  eighteen, 
and  the  prayer  its^  received  the  name  ShemormA 
Bert  (I^^teen).  The  first  additions  to  the  Shemah 
fonoed  the  introductory  thaoksgiving  for  the 
renewed  day,  in  accordance  with  the  ordinance  th»i 
oveiT  snppKcatioa  must  be  preceded  by  a  prayer 
of  tbanlLB,  called  Jcaer  (Creator  o(  Id^t,  ftix), 
to  which  were  joined  the  lAree  Holiei  (0/an),  and 
the  nipplication  for  niiritiial  enlightening  in  " 
diTinelaw  (Aliaba,).  Between  the  Shemah  and 
Tc^Uali  waa  inserted  the  Qeidah  (Liberation), 
pBiae  for  liie  miiaculons  deliverance  from  i^pt 
and  the  constant  watcMnxi  of  providence.  A  £a^ 
diA  (Sanctification),  and  oettain  psalms,  seem  to 
have  concluded  the  service  of  that  period.  This 
vaa  the  order  of  ^  ShaiuirWi,  at  morning  prayer ; 
and  very  eimilai'  to  this  was  IJie  JUaairib,  or  evening 
prayer ;  while  in  the  Miaha,  or  afternoon  prayer. 
the  Shemah  waa  omitted.  On  oew  moons,  Sabbath 
and  feast  days,  the  general  order  was  the  same  aa 
on  week  days ;  bat  since  the  festive  joy  was  to 
overrule  all  mdividual  Borrow  and  auppUt^tioii,  the 
intermediate  portion  of  the  TeflUah  waa  changed 
■cccvdiBg  to  the  q)ecial  sigmficance  and  the 
memones  of  the  day  of  the  solemnity,  and  addi- 
tional pKyers  were  introdnced  for  these  eitraor- 
dinaiy  oocasions,  corresponding  to  the  additional 
Bailee  in  Uie  temple,  and  vaiying  according  to 
the  special  aolemnity  <rf  the  day  [Mvaaaf,  IfalaJi, 
fto.).  The  firvt  compilation  of  a  liturgy  is  recorded 
of  Amram  Gaon  (870—830  A.D.)!  the  first  that 
has  survived  is  that  of  Saadja  Oaon  (d.  942  A.  d.). 
Theae  early  collections  of  prayers  generally  con- 
tained also  oompoaitions  mim  the  nand  of  tiie 
compiler,  uid  minor  additions,  anch  aa  ethical 
tracts,  almanacs,  Ac,  and  were  called  Siddarim 
(Orders,  Rituals),  embracing  the  whole  calendar 
year,  week-days  and  new  moons,  fasts  and  festivals. 
Later,  the  tram  waa  reetjioted  to  the  week-day 
ritual,  that  for  the  festivals  being  called  Maclnor 
(Cycle).  Besides  ttese,  we  find  the  Stlklmlh,  or 
PenitantisJ  Prayers ;  Kstoih,  or  Elegies ;  HoihanaAf, 
or  Hoaannahs  (for  the  seventh  day  of  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles} ;  and  Bahadtolh,  or  Special  Supjdica* 


i^  the  puUio  reader  (Caoaon,  Shelta^  Zibbur), 
the  peofde  joining  in  ailent  reaponsea  and  amens. 
Theae  readers  by  dtgreea— obi^y  fronj  the  lOtti 
c — introduced  occasi<nial  prayera  (Pmlim)  of  their 
own,  over  and  above  those  used  of  yore.  The 
mateiiala  were  taken  from  Halacha  (q.  v.}  as  well 
as  from  Haggada  (q.  v.) ;  religioiu  doctnne,  history, 
nga,  MigBlnJogy,  and  myatloKm,  interspersed  wiUi 
UElioal  Terses,  aie  thus   found  put  together  like 


.  a  mosaic  of  the  moat  original  and 
'  grand  and  brilliant,  and  often  obMmre  and 
kind ;  and  the  pure  Hebrew  in  many  essM  made 
room  for  a  corrupt  Chaldoe.  We  can  only  point 
out  here  the  two  chief  gronpa  of  reUgions  poetary 
— viz.,  the  Arabic  on  tiie  one,  and  the  french^ 
German  school  on  the  otber  hand.  The  moat 
eminent  representative  of  the  Pajtanie  age  (ending 
c  1100)  LB  Eleazar  Biribi  Kriir.  Amonr  the 
most  celebrated  poets  in  his  manner  are  HediB- 
lam  b.  Kalonymos  of  Lucca,  Solomon  b.  Jehuda 
of  Babylon,  B.  Cterson,  Elia  b.  Henahem  of  Mans, 
Benjamin  b.  Serach,  Jacob  Zom  Elem,  Blieser  b. 
Samuel,  Ealonymos  b.  Moses,  Solomon  IsaahL 
Of  exclusively  Spanish  poets  of  this  period  the 
most  bniliint  are — Jehuda  Halevi,  Solomon  ben 
Gabirol,  Josef  iba  Abitur,  laaac  Ibn  Giat,  Abra- 
ham ibn  Ehtb,  Moae  b.  Nachman,  to.  When, 
however,  in  the  be^nnlng  of  the  13th  c,  secret 
doctrine  and  philosophy,  oasuistry  and  dialectics, 
became  t^e  paramount  stady,  the  cultivation  of  the 
Pint  became  neglected,  and  but  few,  and  for  the 
most  part  inngnificant,  are  the  writ«ra  of  littirgioal 
pieces  from  thia  time  downwards. 

AcGordinff  to  the  diffacont  ao«iitri«iL  the  order 
and  even  we  oontents  of  the  cyde  diaered,  since 
not  all  Utuivioal  fneoee  had  been  incorporated 
nnifonnlv.  We  have  thua — to  name  a  few  out  of 
many — the  rituals  of  Germany  (Poland),  of  France, 
Spain,  and  Fortogd  (Scfardim),  Italy  (Rome),  the 
Levant  (BomwnaX  and  even  of  some  special  tovms, 
like  Avigncm,  Ca^tentrM,  Mon^ellier.  The  rituals 
of  Barbary  (Algien,  Ttuk^  Oran,  Morocco,  Ac.) 
are  of  Spaiudi  origin.  "Ae  JndoO'Chineae  Utufgy, 
it  may  be  observed  by  tiie  wajr,  conaiati  only  of 
pieces  from  the  Bible.  The  Jewish  litorgy  haa,  in 
its  various  forms,  very  frequently  been  commented 
upon,  and  has  been  translated  into  nearly  every 


We  may  add,  in  conclnuon,  that  Liturgy  forms 
at  this  moment  the  centre  of  a  great  contest  within 
the  pale  of  Judaism.  The  '  re^rmeiB '  of  more  or 
leas  advanced  tendencies  are  intent  upon  ahortening 
the  prayers,  and  principally  upon  abrogating  the 
greater  part  of  the  Fiut,  as  an  artificial  excrescenoe 
Hurtful  to  true  devotion. 

LIUTPBAND,  or  LUTTPRAND,  an  author  to 
whom  we  owe  much  of  oar  knowledge  of  the  history 
oS  the  lOtii  c,  waa  bom  in  Italy  about  theyear 
932.  He  waa  educated  *t  the  court  of  King  Hogo, 
and  entered  into  the  service  of  his  auccesaor,  Beren- 


followed  the  Emperor  Otto  L  to  Italy  in  961,  and 
was  made  Bishop  of  Cremona,  and  afterwards  sent 
embassy  to  Constanldnople.     He  died  about 
lis  Aiiiapodoait  treats   of  the  period   from 
948.    He  wrote  also  De  Rdma  Gatii  OUonis 


MoiiumeiUa  Qemumvt  (1839,  aepsrately  piibliahed 

1877).     See  K6pke,  Dc  VUa  Uutprandi  (1842). 

IiIVADI'A  (ancient  Ltbadaa),  a  town  of  Qreeoe, 
about  60  mUes  N.W.  of  Athens.  Pop.  500a  From 
this  place  the  northern  part  of  the  present  kingdom 
vi  Greece  used  in  Turkish  tdmea  to  be  called  Livadia. 

LIVADI'A,  an  estate  and  ptdace-villa  o  tike  sovth 
coast  of  the  Crimea,  which  belongs  to  the  Ba^ress 
of  BuBsia,  and  is  the  favourite  summer  reaidmoe  of 
the  imperial  family.  L.,  which  stands  near  the  site 
of  an  old  town  so  call^  is  charming  by  reason  of 
its  climate,  its  ptcturesqne  aitnation,  and  the  mag- 
nificeiit  parks  and  gardens  which  surround  it. 

LITER,  The,  is  the  largest  gland  in  the  body ; 
it  weighs  from  three  to  four  pounds,  and  measmea 


It  is  situated  in  the  right  hjrpoehondriao  region,  and 
reaches  ovec  to  the  left ;  being  tiiick  and  indented 
behind,  where  it  croeaes  tile  convei  bodies  of  the 
vertebriB  ;  convei  on  itfl  upper  surface,  where  it  lies 
in  the  concaTitf  of  the  diaphragm  ;  and  concave 
below,  where  it  rests  against  the  stomach,  colon, 
Knd  nght  kidney.  This  lower  surface  presents  a 
fimnre  dividing  the  oi^aa  into  a  right  and  a  left 
lobe. 

The  liver  is  retained  in  its  position  by  five  liga- 
ment*.    Besides  the  right  and  left  lobe,  there  ^ure 


duct  from  the  neck  of  the  sdl-bUdder  (presentl;  to 
be  described)  entera,  and  the  two  combine  to  form 
the  common  duct  [Ductua  eommmii*  AoUdodau), 
which  opens  into  the  dnodeniun  (see  DiOEsnoH). 
This  common  excretory  duct  of  the  liver  and  gall- 
bladder is  about  three  inches  in  length,  and  of 
the  di&meter  of  a  goose-(jliilL 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  liver  has  been 
studied  by  Dr  Beale,  who  finds  that  the  o^;an  in 
health  contains  68'6  per  cent,  of  water,  acd  31  '4  per 
cent,  of  solid  conatitnents— of  which  38  ore  fat,  47 
nlbiunen,  while  the  rest  is  made  up  of  vessels,  salts, 
and  extractive  matter*.  (In  the  diseased  concbtion 
known  as  fatty  degeneration  of  the  liver— which,  by 
the  way,  is  artificially  induced  in  the  geese  which 
contribute  to  the  formation  of  Strasburg  Fie,  o 


de  foil  rjTot — the  fat  is  euormonsly  increased 
in  one  remarkable  case  analysed  by  Di  "    ' 
amounted  to  65*2  per  cent,  of  the  whi 


r  Beale,  1 


of 


r ;  //,  AHura  tor  giU-bloAder 


The  veia3s  of  the  liver  are  the  hepatic  artery, 
which  comes  off  from  tlie  Cceliac  Aiis  (q.  v.),  and 
supplies  the  organ  with  nutrient  blood  ;  tbe  Portal 
Vein,  which  conveys  to  the  liver  the  venous  blood 
of  the  intestines,  spleen,  and  stomach,  and  from 
which  (after  the  vessel  has  randfied  like  on  artery) 
the  bile  is  secreted  ;*  the  hepatic  veins,  which 
convey  the  blood  from  the  liver  into  the  inferior 
vena  cava  ;  tlie  hepatic  dnct,  which  carries  off  the 
bile  from  the  liver  ;  and  the  lymphatics. 

The  liver,  both  on  its  surface  and  internally,  is  of 
a  dark  reddish  tint,  which  is  so  well  known  that 
tie  terpi  Uver-colonral  is  Tiniversally  recognised. 
The  substance  of  the  organ  is  composed  of  tobules 
held  together  by  extremely  fine  areolar  tissoe,  and 
ramifications  of  the  minute  branches  of  the  various 
hepatic  vessels,  '^ch  lobule  is  composed  of  a  mass 
of  hepatic  cells,  of  a  plexus  of  bilioir  ducts,  of  a 
portof  [jexns  (from  the  contents  of  wbich  the  cells 
obtain  the  biliaJT  matters  that  are  found  in  their 
interior},  of  a  branch  of  the  hepatic  vein,  and 
of  minute  arteries.  The  exact  mode  in  which  the 
Inle  formed  in  the  cells  makes  its  way  into  the 
origin  of  the  duett,  is  not  known  with  certainty. 
The  nnmberless  minnte  ducts  gradually  run  into 
one  another,  nntil,  to  they  emerge  from  the  lower 
cor&ce  of  tiis  liver,  they  are  reduced  to  two  lorce 
tnuks,  which  soon  unite  (see  fig.)  to  form  the 
^patio  dncb      Into  the  hf^tic  duct,  the  cystic 

"  Ttecent  investigations  throw  donbt  on  this  view, 
■   '■  -  *—  believing  that  the  bile  is 


secreted   from  the  capillaries   of  the  hepmtia   artery, 

■  IB  portal  blood         "  "    '  "  i~!-i  t 

whieh  the  uver-onfu  or 


the  organ.)    Sugar,  varying  u 

2  per  cent.,  is  also  foocd;   and  inoeite,  uric  acid, 

sarcine,  xanthine,   aud   leucine   osually  ( 

The  gall-bladder   may  be  remrded  as  a  diirer- 
tkalum    or    offshoot    from   the  Tiepatic    duct 
has  somewhat  the  shape  of  a  pear,  and  liee  ii 
depression  on  the  under  snrfaco  of  the  liver, 
use  seems  to  be  to  serve  as  a  reservoir  for  the 
accumulation  of  the  bile,  when  its  flow  into  the 
intestine  is  interrupted,  as  it  is  always  found  full 
after  a  long  fast,  and   empty  when  digestion  is 
going  on.    Ttiat  ijie  gall-bladder  is  not  an  essential 
appendix  to  the  liver,  ia  shewn  by  the  fact  that 
it  IS  absent  in  many  genera  of  mammals.    Thus,  i'^ 
is  present  in  the  ox,  i£eep.  and  goat,  but  absent  ii 
the  horse  and  many  other  herbivora. 

It  was  formerly  believed  that  the  liver  served 
merely  for  the  separation  cf  tbe  bilisjy  secretion 
fromUie  blood;  but  there  is  now  abundant  evidence 
that  the  blood  itself  is  chan;^  by  its  means,  in 
such  a  way  as  to  shew  that  this  gland  possesses  an 
aeiimilaXing  as  well  as  a  depvraling  action.  Thus, 
the  albuminous  matter  contained  during  digestion 

the  blood  of  tiie  veins  wbich  pass  from  the  intcs- 

le  to  the  portal  vein  (the  mesenteric  veins),  is  very 
different  from  the  albuminous  matter  contained  in 
the  hepatic  veins  ;  the  blood,  before  reaching  the 
liver,  containing  a  crude  albuminous  product,  while 
the  hepatio  veins  contain  only  true  blood-albumen. 
That  the  liver  possemea  an  assimilating  power  on 
albuminous  snbstances  ia  also  shewn  by  the  experi- 
ments of  Claude  Bernard,  who  fonnd  that  If  a  soln- 
tion  o£  egg-albumen  be  inieoted  into  any  part  of 
the  systemic  circulation,  albumen  speedily  appeats 
(like  other  soluble  substances  wbich  are  foreign  to 
the  body)  in   the   urine,  and  is  eliminated   as  an 

— ' matter;   but  il  it  be  injected  into  the 

,  it  does  not  appear  in  the  urine,  but 

normal  constituent  of  the  blood  (blood- 

albumen),  through  the  agency  of  the  liver.    It  is 

'  also  known,  that  if  tiie  liver  does  not  secrete 

lie  sugar,  as  Bernard  supposed,  it  at  all  events 

etea  a  substance  closely  allied  to,  and  readily 

/ertihle  into  sugar— viz., Glycogen  (q.v.) — which 

roust  be  regarded  as  a  refipimtory  or  heat-forming 
food.  Further,  it  appears  from  Bernard's  researches 
that  fatty  matters  are  elaborated  in  the  liver — the 
blood  of  the  hepatic  veins  which  leave  the  liver 
containing  considerably  mora  fat  than  that  of  the 
portal  vem  which  enters  it.  Some  of  this  fat  is 
doubtless  burned  off  in  the  lungs  ;  but  if  a  deficient 
snpply  should  be  introduced  by  the  Incteals,  some 
of  it  would  doubtless  be  applied  to  the  formative 
processes.  Lastly,  during  Uie  last  three  days  nf 
incubation  of  the  chick,  uie  liver  is  made  bright- 
yellow  by  the  absorptioi)  of  the  yelk,  which  entera 


.  (lOoglr 


LIVER— LIVERPOOL. 


th«  bmuchea  of  the  portal  Tain,  ftml  U  then  eon- 
TOied  partly  into  blaid-eormudtt,  vhich  enter  tiie 
drooktioa,  uid  pu^  ioto  bile,  vhicli  a  diaohuged 
into  the  inteatine.  Henoe.  there  is  distinct  eTidemx, 
bom  Mverol  pointi  of  new,  th»t  the  liver  ii  so 
atiimilatinq  orma.  The  depuratiiig  autioQ  of  thii 
orgia  is  eiliibitBd  in  tile  tecretion  ol  Bile  (q.  v.),  by 
_^3:  *!._  i.„A 1 . 1;™  ^  ^0  j^Bte 


Our  limited  space  does  not  kUow  ol  onr  Dotidng 
~    „  ~  impantive  utfttmny  of  this  im- 

portant ^and,  which  erst  thewi  itaelf  in  the  form 


at  any  length 


yellowuh-brown  oella  in  the  polypee,  snd  gntdi 
ally  beoomes  more  oonceatrmtod  and  dereloped  in 
the  echinoderms,  annelideo,  nndobrsnchiste  gaotero- 
pods,  insects,  crustaceans,  air-breathiiw  nuillosos, 
oephalopods,  lishes,  reptiles,  birds,  tad  maoiinala. 
Till  WB  arrive  at  the  vertebnted  aUsses,  it  oonsisti 
of  tubes  or  follicles  containins  celts,  vhich  stand  to 
them  in  the  relation  of  an  epithelium,  and  its  struc- 
ture is  easily  made  out;  but  when,  as  in  the  verte- 
brata,  it  is  mainly  oomposed  of  a  solid  parenchjrma, 
made  up  of  lobules,  each  of  which  ia  ccanooeed  of 
aggrwations  ot  cells  Bairoiinded  by  the  alteiiiate 
ranil£cations  of  the  docts  and  ether  vessels,  it  pre- 
sents an  anatomical  complexity  which  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  onraveL 

IiITBB,  DiBUsas  ov  TBI.  Con^esJton  of  the  liver 
is  one  of  the  most  frequent  of  rts  morbid  condi- 
tions. It  is  most  commonly  caused  by  obstruction 
to  the  paauge  of  the  blood  from  the  hepatio  veins, 
arising  from  Utoracic  disease  impeding  the  dronlatiou 
through  the  ri(^t  nde  of  tiie  heart  The  couseetion 
may  be  telieved  at  this  stage,  ot  may,  by  its  obetrno- 
tive  action,  cause  oougeetion  of  tiie  portal  branches, 
in  whiclk  case  we  have  the  liver  ranch  enlarged,  the 
complexion  doaky,  the  urine  high  colonjed,  sedi- 
mentsry,  and  scanty,  and  often  more  or  lees  dropsy 
Of  the  abdomen  or  lower  eitremitiea.  The  treat- 
ment most  be  left  entirely  to  the  physician. 

InflamTnalion  of  the  hver  has  been  already  noticed 
in  the  article  HsPATlna. 

Another  important  affection  of  the  liver  ia  that 
which  is  known  by  the  name  of  CJrrAiMW  (Gr.  hirritoi, 
yellowish).  It  begins  as  an  inflammatta?  affection,  in 
which  lymph  (see  lNii.unu.TiOK)  is  ^used  in  the 
areidar  tissue  mrTDunding  the  branches  of  Hba  p<»tal 
vein.  The  smaUer  branches  beoomo  obhterated  by 
the  presnu^,  snd  as  the  lym;^  subsequently  oon- 
tracte,  larger  branches  of  the  veins  and  ducts  beeome 
strangulated,  and  the  surface  of  the  organ  assumes 
the  uneven  or  bossed  appearanoe  known  as  Aofr- 
naii&L  In  this  affection,  the  liver  ia  at  first  some- 
what enlai^ed,  but  as  the  contraction  of  t^e  eftnaifHi 
goes  on,  it  at  length  becomes  considerably  smaller 
than  the  natnral  size.  The  ordinary  caxise  of  this 
disease  is  spirit-drinking,  and  it  is  popularly  known  as 
Iht  gin-drtnixr't  Uoer.  The  obstniction  to  the  portal 
circulation  occasions  the  effusion  of  serum  into  the 
peritoikeal  cavity  ;  and  this  effusion  often  goes  on  so 
rajndN  as  soon  to  force  up  the  diaphragm  and 
impe<u  respiration.  The  lower  extremities  soon 
become  anasarooua,  but  the  arms  and  face  are  never 
•ffected.  The  porta!  obstruction  ofteu  also  gives 
nae  to  httmorrhage  '       "    ' 


!  In  a  fnll^  devdoped  case  of  dnbonM,  the  liver  is 
I  so  altered  in  structure  that  palliative  treabnoDt  is 
all  that  can  be  attempted.  This  must  be  direoted 
to  the  relief  of  the  dropsy,  and  if  medicines  fisil  to 
I  remove  or  HimiTii^h  it,  temporary  relief  may  be 
'  obtained  by  tapping.    The  disease  is  at  best  a  very 

Amongst  the  other  affections  of  this  organ  are  the 
'/aOy  lixer.  The  liver  in  tida  case  is  much  enlarged, 
I  of  a  white  colour,  and  rounded  at  the  edges ;  it 
is  most  conunonly  found  sssodated  with  phthisis. 
Closely  allied  to  this  is  the  lardtKeaui  or  taaxy  liver, 
in  vhieh  the  deposited  matter  is  not  fat  bat  some- 
thing between  fat  and  albumen  ;  it  chiefly  occurs  in 
Bcronilons  youog  persona.  Tubercle,  different  forma 
of  cancer,  and  Hydatids  {i\.  v.)  are  not  unfreqnently 
found  in  this  orgaiL  In  connection  with  tlie 
present  subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article 


LI'VBBPOOL,  situated  <»i  the  north  bank  of  the 
Mersey,  Lancashire,  is.  after  London,  the  largest 
town  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and,  taken  in  con- 
nection witli  Birkenhead,  on  the  oppcaite  side  of 
the  Mersey,  it  ranks  in  maritime  importanoe  before 
the  metropolis  itaalf—a  oirconistanoe  due  to  its 
position  on  the  west  ooast  of  England,  not  only 
as  a  port  for  the  adjacent  mannfa^urin^  districts, 
but  for  the  traffic  with  America.  It  is  situated 
at  one  hour'a  distance  by  railway  from  Man- 
cheetor,  five  hours  from  London,  six  hours  from 
Edinburgh,  and  eight  honn  by  steam  from  DubUn. 
The  rise  of  Livet^H>ol  ia  remarkablcL  In  the  middle 
ot  the  14tli  c.,  It  contained  onl^  840  inhabitants 
and  168  cottages  ;  whilst  in  1661  its  population  was 
only  690.  It  was  not  until  1647  that  it  was  made 
a  free  port  (having  been  subject  down  to  that  data 
to  the  Chester  officers) ;  whilst  its  distinct  individu- 
ality as  a  parish  was  not  declared  until  1697,  when 
ita  popnlation  numbered  about  5000  souls,  and 
its  ahipping  about  60  veasels.  Between  1710  and 
1760,  its  population  incresaed  from  S160  to  2E,7S0 ; 
and  ita  commercial  navy  from  84  vessels  to  1245 
vesaela.  In  1700,  its  first  regular  dock  was  built, 
on  the  site  where  the  Coatom-honse  stands  at  the 
present  day.  From  1760  to  1800,  the  population 
advanced  from  25,700  to  77,700  inhabitants;  the 
shipping  from  1300  vessels  to  6000  vessels;  and 
iL. ..  pf  jjjj^jj  ^^^  collected,  from  £2300  to 


>[nd  progress  of  the  cotton  trade  waa  the  chief 
cause  irf  uiis  almost  sudden  improvement.  Simul- 
taneously with  the  mechanical  revolutioa  brought 
about  by  Hargreaves,  Arkwricht,  Croropton,  and 
others,  Uiere  came  an  increased  foreign  trade,  and 
an  angmented  inland  buaineas,  owing  to  the  opening 
of  the  Bridgewater  Canal  in  1773.  About  the  same 
period,  too,   a  great  start  waa  given  to  the  ship- 


1782,  of  very  considerable  tonnage,  and  ranging 
between  16  and  60  |;uns.  By  this  time,  L.  had  far 
outstripped  Bristol  m  oommercial  imptntance ;  the 
ta^e  of  ^e  latter  port  being  in  process  of  rapid 
transferenoe  to  the  former.  The  following  state- 
ment will  shew  how  for  L.  was  benefited  by  tjie 


T— . 

Rsw  CoUdd. 

Cotton 

TmmIs. 

DockDuda 
Coltactsd. 

i 

S.lW.TTB 
31,447.6119 

se.788 

4.416,81 0 

I.p«»L 

M,OTO 
SIl.UOT 

nun 

«.00o 

( '.ifngl 


But  this  progresi,  importMit  m  it  wh,  ha*  been  far 
exceeded  by  tile  inbBequeDt  ioeraMa  of  buimess, 
and  at  the  present  time  as  regardi  exports  L.  itanda 
at  the  head  oC  firitiah  commercial  ports,  and  is 
excelled  by  London  alone  in  ita  Imports.  Its  rapid 
growth  will  be  seen  from  the  foUatring  table : 

M n,TCB  B.OflO  469,71l(  £28.306 

n t06,!Tt  lt,G87  l,NK.ua  1SS.4&S 

Bi ui.ess        UOM        t,97T,nt        M4,«i7 

71 iVMU       to.m        e.isi.Ttt        boz.ws 

SI CM.ia  K>,n»  7,8SS,M8  408,909 

L.  has  most  eiporta  and  most  tonnage;  while 
London  has  most  import^  mort  ehip^  and  most 
entered  and  cleared.  The  foUowiug  table  will  shew 
the  comparatiTe  importance  ol  the  export  and  im- 
port trade  of  L. : 

Tu.DE  or  siFoan  un>  nrpoBis  D>  ISSO 

■xpgrt*.  ImjurtA. 

LtTsrpool £S4.0£«,«SI  £IOT,4eo,lS7 

IdOdOD G2,«0a,BSS  111,412,907 

Hull iB,(7S,o<»  i7,eoo,iw 

oiimsby T,me,iTi  s,8oe,sn 

OlMgow 11,S!8,T!9  l!.Hl,e7S 

Aiiottitn a.'m.Ki       iM,a4.74« 

eSSS.OtO.Uft  £411,E!S,SW 
llliia  gigantio  trade  has  given  being  to  the  majcnili- 
oeot  system  of  docka,  extending  aJona  the  mar^  of 
the  river  for  a  distance  of  aboat  6  milea,  contauuDE 
S4  docks  and  ba^ns,  covering  an  are*  of  over  2S0 
iLcrea,  and  having  over  20  milea  of  quay  xpace. 
The  whole  of  these  docta  have,  with  the  excepdoa 
of  the  Salthouee,  King's,  part  of  the  Ckoree'Sjand 
part  of  the  Qneen's,  been  built  since  1812.  They 
were  erected  chie&v  under  the  inperintendence  of 
the  late  Jeeae  Hwtley,  Esq.,  and  are  congidered  by 
all  who  have  seen  them  to  be  one  of  the  greatest 
engineering  trinmphs  of  the  present  century.  Several 
of  the  docks  are  endoeed  with  Urav  warehousea  ; 
the  erection  of  those  round  the  Albert  Dock  cost 
£368,000,  and  the  dock  itself  £141,000.  In  addition 
to  the  osoal  pier  approaohes,  there  are  two  large 
floatiog  landiu^-stages,  one  of  which  i«  1002  feet  m 
length,  80  feet  tn  width,  and  4500  ton*  in  weight. 
""  new  north  docks  at  Bootle  were  opened  in  1S81. 
Btoamer  traffic  with  United  States,  Canadian, 
South  American,  Mediterranean,  Australian,  and 
other  ports,  draws  large  numbers  of  passengers  to 
the  town.  L.  has  direct  railway  conneotiaD  with 
several  great  English  railwavs,  and  with  a  nnmber 
of  minor  and  mmI  lines.  There  are  five  tunnels 
imder  the  town.  Several  of  the  passenger  stations 
Bi«  huidsome  buildings.  The  Uersey  Railway 
Tunnel,  1230  yards  long,  connecting  L.  and  Birken- 
head, was  begmi  in  1881,  and  opened  by  the  Prince 
of  Walta  on  sSth  Jan.  1886,  In  1881,  the  foundation- 
stone  of  new  waterworks  was  laid  at  Lake  Vymwy, 
abont  26  milea  from  Oswestry,  and  46  miles  in  a 
straight  line  from  L.  In  1S81,  the  population  was, 
as  above  mentioned,  602,625 ;  but  with  the  suburbs, 
it  is  above  680,000.  (For  history,  see  Sir  J.  A. 
Picton'a  Menwrial*  of  Liverpool) 

The  architecture  of  the  tewn  has  been  wonder^ 
fully  improved  within  the  past  thir^  or  forty  years, 
and  especially  during  the  latter  half  of  the  period, 
and  it  now  possesses  many  fine  thorongofare^ 
thronged  with  numeroos  splendid  edifices.  There 
*re  MveraL  large  and  elegant  squares  in  the  east  or 
fashionable  put  of  the  town,  and  a  nomber  of 
thoron^^arei,  lined  with  the  private  residences 
of  the  merdumta  and  tradesmen ;  whilst  the  ont- 
skirts  of  the  town  are  studded  with  the  manrions 
of  the  commercial  aristocracy.  Of  what  may  be 
termed  the  official  bnildings — the  Town  HaU,  St 
George's  Fall,  Public  Offices,  Custom-hoose,  Sulors' 
Home,  Polioe-offioe^  Workhouses,  Baths  and  Wash- 


hy; 

educational  edifices,  such  as  the  Free  LibiMV  am 
by  Sir  WiJlUn 


Museum,  presented  to  the  town   I 


praaented  by  A.  B.  Walker,  Esq.,  at  a  coat  of  £30,000 ; 
Botanic  Oanlens,  Observatory, the  Liverpool  College, 
livetpool  Institute,  Qneen's  College,  Medical  Insti- 
tnte,  ttoyal  Institution,  the  various  sobools  attached 
to  Uie  national  and  other  ohurchee.  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts,  the  Exchange,  Lyceum,  and  Athemenm,  news- 
rooms and  libraries,  and  numerous  associations 
devoted  to  commercial,  political,  and  religious  affairs, 
That  the  inhabitants  are  not  niggardly,  is  proved  by 
the  fact  that  there  are  abont  100  charitaUe  inatdtn- 
tions  in  the  borough  devoted  to  the  alleviation  of 
the  various  evils  that  ficeh  is  heir  to.  Amongst  the 
more  prominent  are  the  Royal  Infirmary,  Northern 
and  Sonthem  Hospitals,  Indostrial  Schools,  Blae 
Coat  Orphan  Schools ;  Male,  Female,  and  Infant 
Orphan  Aavlnms  and  Church ;  School,  Workshops, 
and  Chorch  for  the  Blind;  Deaf  and  Dumb,  and 
"  '    "         Institntions ;    Homteopathio   and 


with  suoh  immense  establishments  as  the  Nortii- 
Westem,  AdelphL  Washington,  Qneen's,  Alexandra, 
Boyal,  Angel,  and  a  score  or  two  of  minor  import- 
ance. The  bnildings  dedicated  to  amusements  an 
Suite  in  keepins  with  the  other  characteristiM  of 
le  town.  Under  this  head,  there  are  the  Fhilhar- 
monio  Hall,  capable  of  aooonmodating  3000  people ; 
the  Alexandra  Theatre;  the  Amphltneatre,  calcu- 
lated to  bold  6000;  the  two  concert-rooms  of  St 
Qeorae'a  Hall,  before  alluded  to,  the  larger  of  which 
ia  acknowledged  to  be  one  of  the  finest  rooms  in 
the  kingdom;  St  Jamea'a  Hail;  the  Queen'a  Hall; 
the  Theatre-Boyal ;  Prince  of  Wales'  Theatre; 
Rotunda  Theatre  ;  Adelphi  Theatre  ;  Circus,  Ac. 
Here  is  a  readinc-rooni  preeented  by  Sir  J.  A. 
Ficton ;  the  late  Eul  of  Derby's  zoological  colleo- 
tion;  and  Mr  Mayer's  collection  of  antiquities. 
University  College,  on  the  model  of  Owen*  College 
(q.  v.),  was  inaugurated  in  1SS2 ;  the  endowment 
at  that  date  amounting  to  more  than  £100,00a 
Sinoe  1880,  L.  is  the  see  of  a  biahop.  In  L.  are 
some  90  chnrche*  and  chapels  of  the  Cburoh  of 
England,  30  Catholic  chapels,  above  20  Presbyterian, 
SOWeeteyan,  20  Independent,  16  Baptist,  besides 
some  60  otheni.    There  are  11  oemetenes.      . 

The  building  devoted  to  eommeroial  pursmts  are 
also  very  fine  and  numerous,  and  not  tbe  least  inter- 
esting to  the  stranger.  Amongst  these  are  the 
Exchange,  the  Albany,  Apsley,  Brown's,  Riohmond, 
Hargreavea,  Liverpool  and  London  Insurance 
Chambers,  Royal  Insurance,  and  Qoeen  Insurance 
buUdinm  (all  local  companies),  Manchester,  Knows- 
ley  Walmer,  Dmry,  TTower,  India,  and  Brunswick 
buUding^  and  many  other*.  There  are  12  banks  in 
the  town,  and  seventl  of  them  are  poeaeeaed  of  very 
latre  and  handsome  business  premise*.  Amongst 
theee  may  be  named  the  branch  of  the  Bank  of 
England,  and  the  Liverpool,  Union^  District,  Com- 
mercial, National,  and  North  and  South  Wale* 
banks.  In  the  principal  streets  there  are  also 
several  very  extensive  trade  establishments,  de- 
voted to  eve^  department  of  buunesa,  wholesale 
and  retail  Of  monuments  the  chief  ara  those 
of  the  Queen,  Prince  Albert,  Nelson,  Wellington, 
Hnsfcisson,  and  William  IF.,  besides  several  in  the 
Town  H^  St  George's  HaU,  Free  Library,  and 
parks.  The  parks  are  four  in  number,  the  Stanley, 
the  Sefton,  the  Prince's,  and  the  Botanic 

The  stated  market  days  are  Wednesday  and 
Saturday,  for  general  apionltural  produce,  and 
,  Tuesday  and  Fi^y  tor  com.    The  faira  for  horses 


■iiniizoonv  Google 


UVERT— LIVINGSTONE, 


and  MtUe  tn  hdd  Jol^  2Sfh  and  Nonmber  lltL 
Hie  ocm  tntde  transiote  ita  btiiui«H  in  tiie  Crav 
Eiclunga,  Bivnswick  Sbeet,  and  there  ii  an  oxtwi- 
■ive  market  for  the  cattle-dealen  in  Keiudiiston. 
Tor  •grianHnnd  prodnoe  there  is  the  NOTthem  Hav 
Hwket.  For  edftja  of  aU  kind*  there  are  St  John'i 
Uiib^  ISS  r«rd«  ioag,  43  yardi  wide,  and  hghted 
1>j  138  irindowi;  St  James's,  Oill  Street,  and  St 
Martin's  marketB ;  there  u  abo  a  fish  market,  and 
••Teial  fancy  bazaars.  There  are  6  daily  and  7 
veekly  newapaperH,  beaidea  the  Daiijf  Teiepraph 
Htd  Bi3  ^  .ffi>^,  exolnaivelf  devoted  to  ahipping 
Matters,  and  three  weekly  literary  periodicala.  L. 
hM  seTsral  extensive  ship-hoildiDg  yards,  iron  and 
biasa  foiudries,  ohain-cable  and  anchor  smlthiea, 
ensiiie-worka,  tar  and  turpentine  distilleries,  rice 
udfionr  mUli,  tobacco,  ci^ar,  and  soap  manufac- 
tories, breweries,  sugar  retmeriea,  roperieo,  f^aas- 
works,  chronometer  and  watch  maaofactories.  Since 
1885,  L.  retnma  9  membeis  to  parliament. 

LITBRT.  in  English  Law.  denotes  the  act  of 
fpviug  or  taking  poasesaion.  It  is  most  frequently 
used  m  the  pbnse  '  Uvery  of  seisin,'  oorresponding 
to  the  Scotch  infeftment  or  sasiaB. 

LI'TBST  (from  Lat.  ISieratio),  a  word  applied 
IB  ita  <itifiu  to  the  custom  whioh  prevailed  under 
the  Merovingian  and  Carlovingian  kings,  of  deliver- 
inx  splendid  habits  to  the  mambers  ol  their  boose- 
hidds  on  great  festivals.  In  the  days  of  chivalry, 
f  livery  was  not,  as  now,  confined  to 
The  duke's  son,  as  page  to  the 
prinos,  wore  the  prince's  Uverv,  the  earVs  son  bore 
the  dice's  cokmrs  and  badge,  uie  aoo  of  the  eaquire 
lore  the  livery  of  the  knidit,  and  the  son  of^  the 
jrentleman  that  of  the  eaqoire.  Cavaliers  wore  the 
Bray  of  their  mistressee.  There  was  also  a  large 
olaas  of  amtei  retoinets  in  livery  attaohed  to  many 
of  tbe  more  powerful  nobles,  who  were  engaged 
•zptcasly  to  use  the  strong  hand  in  their  masters' 
qnairela.  By  the  colours  and  badge  of  tiie  retainer 
was  known  the  master  under  whom  he  served. 
Th*  Uvety  colours  of  a  family  are  taken  from  their 
armorial  hearings,  being  generally  the  tincture  of 
the  fl^d,  uid  that  of  l£e  princijuJ  charge,  or  the 
two  tinotnrea  of  the  field  are  4alcen  instead  where  it 
has  twa  They  are  token  from  the  first  quarter  in 
oaoe  of  a  quartered  shield.  These  tame  coloura  are 
alternated  in  the  Wreath  (q.  v.)  on  which  the  crest 
stands.  The  royal  family  of  England  bave  eome- 
ttmee  adopted  cdoun  varying  from  the  tinctures  of 
the  arms.  The  Flant^enets  bad  scarlet  and  white; 
the  House  of  York,  murrey  and  blue ;  white  and 
blue  were  adopted  by  the  House  of  Lancaster ; 
white  and  gi«eD  hy  the  Tudors  ;  yellow  and  red  by 
the  Stoarts,  and  oj  William  IlL ;  and  scarlet  and 
blue  by  the  Honse  of  Hanover.  An  indispensable 
part  of  the  livery  in  former  times  was  the  Badge 
(q.  v.).  Tbe  Cbiu<Ji  of  Kome  baa  its  liveries  for 
aposUM,  confessoiB,  martyrs,  virgins,  and  penitents. 

The  freemen  of  the  91  guilds  or  corporations 
irhich  embrace  the  different  trades  of  London,  are 
called  liverymen,  because  entitled  to  wear  the  Uveiy 
of  their  respective  onnpauies.  In  former  times  the 
wardens  of  the  companies  were  in  use  yearly  to 
deliver  to  the  Lord  Mayor  certain  sums,  twenty 
■hiUingi  of  which  waa  given  to  individuals  who 
petitioned  tor  the  moQ<7,  to  enable  them  to  procure 
anfi&cient  cloth  for  a  suit,  and  the  oompanies  prided 
thansdvea  on  tim  ^leodid  appearanoe  which  theu 
liveries  made   in  the  civic  bain.      The  oominon- 

superior  officers  of   the  city,  an)  elected  by 
liverymen  of  London ;  and  till  the  Reform  BJ 
1832,  they  had  the  exclnsive  privilege  of  voting  for 
'    «  of  padiament  for  the  City. 


LIVINGSTON,  Edwabd,  See  Strpp.,  VoL  X. 
IiIVINGSTON,  BOBEKT.  See  Stop.,  VoL  X 
LIVIITGSTONE,  David,  African  tnveller  and 
missionary,  was  a  native  of  Scotland,  and  waa  bom  at 
Blantvre,  in  Lanarkshire,  March  19,  1813.  At  the 
age  of  ten  he  became  a  *  piecer '  in  a  cotton.factory, 
and  for  many  years  was  engaged  in  hard  work  as 
an  operative.  An  evening  school  furnished  him 
with  the  opportunity  of  acquiring  some  knowledge 
of  Latin  and  Greek,  and,  finally,  after  attending 
a  oourse  of  medicine  at  Glasgow  University,  and 
tbe  theological  lectures  of  the  late  Dr  Wardlaw, 
professor  of  theology  to  the  Scutch  Independents, 
he  offered  himselT  to  the  London  Missiomuy 
Society,  by  whom  he  was  ordained  as  a  medical 
missionary  in  1340.  In  the  sonuner  of  that  year  he 
landed  at  Fort  Natal  in  South  Africa.  Circum- 
stances made  him  acijuainted  with  tbe  Bev.  Robert 
MoSat.  hJTnwplf  a  distinguiahcd  missionary,  and 
whose  danghter  be  subsequently  married.  For  16 
years  L,  proved  himself  a  faithful  and  zealous 
servant  of^  the  London  Missionary  Society.  The 
two  m<«it  important  results  achieved  by  him  in  this 

Piod  were  the  discovery  of  lake  Hgami  (August 
1S49),  and  his  crossing  tbe  continent  of  South 
Africa,  from  the  2^anibc3l  (or  Leeambye)  to  the 
Cojigp,  and  tbence  to  Loando,  the  capital  of  Angola, 
which  took  him  about  13  months  (from  Janoary 
1S53  to  June  1854).  In  September  of  the  sante 
year  he  left  Loando  on  his  return  across  the  conti- 
nent, reached  Linzanti  (in  lat.  IS*  17  3.,  and  loug. 
2r  SO"  E.),  the  capital  of  the  great  Makololo  trib^ 
and  from  thence  proceoded  along  the  banks  of  tbe 
Leeambye  to  Quilimane  on  tbe  Indian  Ocean,  which 
be  reached  May  20,  1S56.  He  then  took  ship  for 
England.  In  1357,  L.  published  hia  Jlfi«ionar; 
Travdl  and  Researiha  ia  South  Africa,  a  work  irf 
grtsi.  interest  and  value.  Betommg  in  1S5S  as 
British  consul  at  Qoilimone,  he  spent  several  years 
in  further  exploring  the  Zambesi,  in  ascending  tbe 
Sbirfi,  and  aisooverins  Lake  Snirwa  and  Lake 
Nyaaaa— the  Maisvi  oTthe  old  maps.  A  narrative 
of'^theee  discoveries  was  published  during  a  visit  he 
paid  to  England  in  1661^1365.  In  tbe  meantime. 
Lakes  Tanganyika,  Victoria  Nyani^  and  Albert 
Nyanza,  had  been  discovered  by  Burton,  Speke,  and 
Baker,  but  tbe  true  eonrce  of  the  Nile  was  still  a 
problem.  With  a  view  to  its  solution,  L.,  in  1366, 
entered  the  interior,  and  nothing  was  heard  of 
Wim  for  two  years.  The  commonications  received 
from  bim  aft^^ards  describe  bis  discovery  of  tbe 
great  water-system  of  the  Ohambese  in  the  elevated 
region  to  tbe  south  of  Tanganyika.  It  flaws  Snt 
west  and  then  turns  northward,  forming  a  suraiea- 
sion  of  lakes,  lying  to  the  west  of  tbe  Tanganyika. 
To  detomine  its  course  after  it  leaves  these, 
whettier  it  joins  tbe  Nile,  or  turns  westward  and 
forms  tbe  Conso,  was  the  grand  task  which  L. 
seemed  resolved  to  accompUw,  Or  perish.  He  was 
much  baffled  by  inundations,  the  hostility  of  the 
sLave-dealera,  and  by  the  want  of  supplies,  which 
were  habitually  delayed  and  plundered  by  those  who 
conveyed  them.  Wnen  nothing  cerbun  had  been 
beard  of  y^f  for  some  time,  Mr  Stanley,  of  tbe  Neti) 
York  Herald,  boldly  pushed  his  way  from  Zanzibar 
to  njiii,  where  in  1871  he  found  the  traveller  in 
great  destitution.  On  parting  with  Mr  Stanley,  L. 
started  on  a  fresh  exploration  of  the  river-system 
of  the  Cliambeze  or  Luolabo,  convinced  that  it  would 
turn  oat  to  be  the  head-waters  of  the  Nile.  In 
May  1373.  however,  he  died  atllolo,  beyond  Lake 
Bemba,  His  body  waa  brought  home  in  April  1374, 
and  interred  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Eis  La^ 
JottnidU  were  preserved,  and  published  in  1874 ;  hia 
Pertonal  LiTe.bj  W.  G.  Blaikit^  was  issued  in  ISKO. 


„Gooi;[lc 


LTVIUS— LIZABD. 


LITIUS,  TiTU^  the  mo»t  iUwrtrioaB  ot  Romaii 
hiitoiuDR,  waa  born  at  Pktavium  (Fsdas),  in  61 
B.G,  ftccordina  to  Cato,  but,  according  to  Varro, 
in  G9  B.C,  the  year  of  the  great  Ctesar'a  first 
oonsulahip.     We  know  notMng  ot  hie  early  life. 


bom  under  the  reiiubl   .  

fame  was  eo  thorouchlf  eatabliuhed  and  widely 
epreod,  even  diirine  his  lifetime,  that  a  Spaniard 
travelled  from  Gadee  to  Home  only  to  see  him. 
Quintilian,  in  nlaiming  for  the  Romane  eqiud  merit 


that  his  conntiTmen  regarded  liim  as  their  great«st 
hiitorical  writer.     The   story  that  Asinins  PoUio 

fretended  to  discover  a  certain  provincialisni  or 
'aiaviitily  in  bis  style,  is  probably  fsJse ;  but  even 
if  it  be  tnie,  modern  criticiBm  is  nnable  to  discover 
in  what  thJe  peculiarity  consisted;  far  L-'s  work 
il  one  of  the  greatest  masten>ieces  of  Latin,  or  of 
human  compoaition.  Originally,  the  Bomaa  history 
of  L.  was  comprised  in  142  books,  divided  into  tew 
or  decada  ;  but  only  30  books,  with  the  greater  part 
of  5  more,  now  exist.  Instead  of  a  complete  narrativa 
from  the  foundation  of  the  dty  to  the  historian's 
own  time,  we  have  detailed  portions,  the  most 
valuable  of  which  are  the  first  decade,  containing 
the  cariy  history,  and  the  third  containing  the  wan 
with  HannibaL  Among  the  surviving  fragments 
of  what  is  lost,  is  a  character  of  Cicero,  preserved 
in  the  Siuuoria  of  Seneca,  the  execution  of  which 
makes  us  deeply  regret  that  time  has  not  spared 
L-'s  account  of  the  transactions  of  his  own  pcnod. 

la  classinK  L.  in  his  proper  place  among  the  great 
historians  of  the  ancient  and  modem  world,  we  must 
not  think  of  him  as  a  critical  or  antiquarian  writer — 
a  writer  of  scrupulously  calm  jodgment  and  diligent 
research.  He  is  pre-eminently  a  man  of  beantiful 
genius,  with  an  unrivalled  talent  for  narration,  who 


handiest,  for  the  creation  of  a  work  full  of  grace, 
colour,  harmony,  and  a  dignified  ease.  Froteesor 
Ramsay  has  remarked,  that  ne  treats  ihe  old  tribnnes 
j  ust  as  if  they  were  on  a  level  with  the  demagogues 
of  the  worst  period ;  and  Kiebohr  censures  the  errors 
of  the  same  kind  into  which  bia  Pompeian  and 
aristocratic  prepossessiona  betrayed  him.  But  this 
tendency,  if  it  was  ever  harmful,  is  hannless  now, 
and  waa  closely  connected  with  that  love  of  ancient 
Boman  institutions  and  ancient  Roman  times  which 
at  once  inspired  his  genius,  and  woa  a  part  of  it. 
And  the  value  of  his  bistoiy  is  incalculable,  even 
in  the  mutilated  state  in  which  we  have  it,  as  a 
picture  of  what  the  great  Roman  traditions  were 
t«  the  Romans  in  their  most  cultivated  period.  The 
Ltcrary  talent  most  conspicuous  in  L.  is  that  of  a 
narrator,  and  the  English  reader  perhaps  derives 
the  best  idea— thounh  it  is  bat  a  faint  one— of  bis 
quality,  from  the  histories  of  (loldsmith,  or  the 
Taitt  of  a  Ora«4fallier  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  He 
does  not  rival  Tocitns  in  portraiture  or  in  tragic 
power,  but  no  writer  has  ever  surpassed  him  in 
the  art  of  telling  a  story ;  and  the  speeches  which, 
according  to  the  antique  fashion,  he  puts  into  the 
mouths  of  his  historic  characters,  are  singularly 
iugenious,  pointed,  and  dramatically  real.  There 
is  also  something  in  a  high  degree  winning  and 
engaging  about  what  we  may  call  the  moral 
atmosphere  of  L.'s  history,  which  nobody  can  read 
without  feeling  that  the  historian  had  a  kindly 
tender  disposition— a  large,  candid,  and  generous 


souL  ^Ilia  edilio  prineep*  Ot  L,  which  did  not 
contain  all  that  we  now  have  of  the  work,  WM 
published  at  Rome  about  1469,  and  MSS.  of  porta 
of  L.  were  eiialdng  in  that  century  which  have 
since  diaappearod.  The  most  celebrated  edition* 
ore  those  ot  Qrooovius,  Crevior,  Drakenborch,  and 
Raddiman ;  and,  in  recent  times,  esteemed  recen- 
sions of  tJie  text  have  been  issued  by  Modvig, 
Alschefski,  and  Weissenbom. 

LITTIUS  ANDRONI'ODS,  the  father  ot  Ronun 
dramatic  and  epio  poetry,  was  a  Greek  by  birth, 
probably  a  native  of  Tarentum,  and  flourished  about 
the  middle  of  the  3d  c.  B.C.  He  translated  the 
Odyssey  into  Latin  Satumian  verse,  and  wrot« 
tragedies,  comedies,  and  hymns  after  Greek  models. 
Mere  fragments  are  extant,  of  which  a  collecti<m 
may  be  found  in  Bothe's  PoeUs  eceaici  Latini  (voL  5, 
HiJberst,  1S23) ;  and  DUntzei's  Livii  Andronid 
FragmeMa  CoOeeta  et  lUiafrata  (Beriin,  1835). 

LITTNY,  an  ancient  district  town  of  Creat 
Russia,  in  the  government  of  Orel,  in  lab  S2*  2 
K.,long.  S7' 3T  E.  Pop.  (1860)  12,980,  who  carry 
on  an  eictensive  trade  in  corn,  cattle,  and  honey. 

LIVO-NUL  (Ger .  LUvtaad),  one  of  the  three  Baltic 
provinces  of  Russia,  to  which  belong  also  the  islands 
of  Oeeel,  Man,  and  Rnno,  contains  an  area  of  18,083 
sq.  m.,  with  a  pop.  of  (1880)  1,117,100.  The  country  is 
mostly  flat,  and  one-fourth  ot  it  is  covered  with  wood. 
The  Boll  is  only  of  moderate  fertility ;  but  never- 
theles*  aBricultore,  and  cattle  and  sheep  breeding, 
ore  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  L.  hal 
many  extensive  factories  and  distilleries  belonging 
to  the  government,  also  some  cloth  manufactories, 
one  ot  which,  situated  near  Femau,  is  very  exten- 
sive The  inhabitants  ot  the  country  ara  of  Finnish 
and  Lettish  descent )  those  in  the  towns  are  chiefly 
Germans,  with  a  sprinkling  ot  RtissiaDS,  Poles,  and 
Jews.  L.,  up  till  the  17tb  c,  included  the  three 
Baltic  provinces  of  Courland,  Livonia,  and  £ 

LIVORNO.     See  Liohorh. 

LIVKB,  the  name  of  on  ancient  IVeneh  coin, 
derived  from  the  Boman  Libra,  or  A«  (q.  v.).  There 
were  livrca  of  different  values,  the  meet  imporiiant 
being  the  Livre  Toumou  (of  Toms],  which  was 
considered  the  standAd,  and  the  JAvre  Pariiii  (of 
Paris),  which  was  equal  to  Jtha  of  a  livre  Tonr- 
nois.  In  1795,  the  livre  was  auporaeded  by  the 
franc  (80  francs  =  81  livres  TonmoiB).— Livre  was 
also  the  ancient  French  unit  of  weight,  and  waa 
eqnal  to  17*267  oz.  avoirdupois;  the  kilogramme 
(see  Qkamus)  has  token  its  place. 

LIXIVIA'TION  (lit  ii^,aahes),aterm employed 
in  chemistry  to  denote  the  process  ot  washing  or 
steeping  certain  substances  in  a  Huid,  tor  the  pur- 
pose of  dissolving  a  portion  of  their  ingredients, 
and  so  separating  them  from  the  insoluble  residue. 
Thus,  wood-ash  is  lixiviated  with  water  to  dissolve 


called  a  licivbim,  or  Uy. 

LI'ZARD  ILacaia),  a  genus  of  saurian  reptile*, 
the  type  of  a  numerous  group,  in  which  Mcnitois 
(q.  v.],  Sx.,  are  included,  and  to  which  the  Mtgaio- 
aaant  and  other  large  fossil  saurians  are  referred. 
The  name  L  is  indeed  often  extended  to  all  the 
saurian  reptiles ;  but  in  its  more  restricted  sense 
it  is  applied  only  to  a  family,  LacerlidcK,  none  o' 
which  att^n  a  large  size,  whilst  most  of  them  on 
small,  active,  brilliantly  coloured,  and  bright-^ed 
creatures,  loving  warmth  and  sunshine,  obounmng 
chiefly  ID  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Old  World.  The^ 
have  a  long,  extensile,  forked  tongue ;  Uie  body  u 
gcncnUly  long,  and  tenninat«s  in  a  ratber  long  tail ; 
the  feet  have  each  five  toes,  furnished  with  cUwb; 


„  CoQiillc 


LIZAItI>— LLOBENTE. 


the  upper  p&rta  are  covered  with  small  imbricmted 


of  teeth.     They  feed  chiefly  

produoeB  odI^  two  nell-uoerbuned.  apedei ;  the 
Sasd  L.  {L.  agiiit  oi  L.  tUrpium),  nbout  aeveo  inches 
Ions,  v&ruble  in  colonc  and  "'"•'ri"£,  bat  genenJly 


1,  VivlptuouE  lizard ;  2,  Sand  Lizud. 


rounded  epote,  each  of  which  has  a  Tellowish- 
white  dot  or  line  in  the  centre;  and  the  Comuon 
L.,  or  VlviFAROUS  L.  (Zootaca  vieipaTa),  smaller, 
More  slender,  very  vamble  in  colour,  a  dikrh-browa 
j^enernll;^  prevailing  on  the  upper  paila.  The  former 
species  ia  comparatively  rare ;  it  inhabita  anudy 
heaths :  the  latter  ia  abundant  in  dry  moors  and 
sand-banks.  They  dlBer  remarkably  in  the  former 
beins  oviparous,  the  latter,  viviparous,  or,  more 
strit^y  speaking,  ovoviviparous.  Both  are  harm- 
less creatures,  as  are  all  the  rest  of  this  family. 
L^ver  spetuea  are  found  in  the  more  southern  parts 
of  i^irope.  Some  of  the  lizards  are  quite  susceptible 
of  bein^  tamed.  They  are  remarkable  for  the  readi- 
neea  with  which  the  eud  of  the  tail  breaks  oS;  the 
flinging  of  a  glove  or  h.indkercluel  ou  oca  when  it 
is  trying  to  make  its  escape,  is  often  enough  to  caose 
the  separation  of  this  portioo,  which  lies  wriggling, 
whilst  the  animal  hastens  away.  The  loat  portion 
ia  afterwards  reproduced.  Lieards  become  torpid 
in  winter. 

LIZARD,  in  Heraldry,  means  eithei' — 1.  The 
reptile  nnially  so  called ;  or,  2.  A  beoat  somewhat 
rcsombling  the  wild-cat,  and  said  to  be  found  in 
(evei«l  oountries  of  Northern  Europe,  repreaanted 
with  brown  fur,  and  large  spots  of  a  du-ker  ahade. 

LIZABD  POINT.    See  Cobswali. 

LLAMA    See  Laiu. 

LLANDA'FF  (Lian  Taff,  the  place  ot  »  ohoroh 
on  the  Taff),  a  city  of  South  Wales,  in  the  eonnty 
of  OlamoTcan,  is  situated  on  the  rieht  bank  of  the 
Taff,  3  mUes  above  Cardiff,  in  a  district  remark- 
able for  its  beauty.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishoprio, 
the  revenue  of  which  is  £4200.    Fop.  about  TOO. 

LLANDU'DNO,  a  very  foahionable  watering- 
place  in  the  county  of  Caernarvon,  North  Wales,  u 
situated  between  the  Qreataod  Little Orme's Eetuk, 
40  milea  weat-soutb-weat  of  Liverpool  The  air  ii 
dmoribed  aa  'delicious,'  and  there  ia  every  facility 
for  sea-bathing,  and  extensive  healthy  rambW  Fop> 
(1871)2762;  (1881)4338. 


LLAKE'LLT,  a  paiiiatnentary  boroush,  mann- 
factnriDg  town,  and  seaport  of  South  Wdea,  in  the 
county  m  Coermarthen,  and  10  miles  south-east  of 
the  town  of  that  name.  The  mineral  wealth  of  the 
vicinity,  and  the  easy  accesa  to  Uie  sea,  have  raised 
the  town  to  considerable  commercial  importance. 
The  Cambrian  copper- worka  employ  a  great  num- 
ber of  the  inhahitanta  ;  but  there  are  alao  silver, 
lead,  iron,  and  tin  works,  and  a  pottery.  Coal  is 
largely  exported.     In  1877,  2935  veeeels,  of  207,251 


LLANGO'LLEN,  a  smaU  town  of  North  Wales, 
ia  the  county  of  Denbigh,  picturesquely  situated  on 
the  risht  biutk  of  the  river  Dee,  22  niiles  south- 
west of  Chester.  It  ia  visited  bytourists  on  account 
of  the  beauty  of  the  famous  Vale  of  L,  and  for 
its  antiquities,  among  which  is  the  fragment  of  the 
round  inscribed  Pillar  of  Ehsy.     Fop.  (1881)  3124. 

LLA'NIDLOBS,  a  municipal  and  parUaiDentary 
borough  ot  North  Wales,  in  the  connW  of  Mont- 
gomery, 19  miles  west-south-west  of  ue  town  of 
uiat  name.  Its  church  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
in  Wales.  Considerable  manufactures  of  flaiuiel  and 
other  woollen  fabrics  are  carried  oru  L.  unites  with 
several  other  boroughs  in  sending  a  member  to 
parUament.     Fop.  (1881)  3421. 

LLA'NOS  are  vast  steppea  or  plains  in  the 
northern  portion  of  South  AJnerica,  partly  covered 
with  tall  luxuriant  gross,  and  partlv  with  drifting 
sand,  and  stocked  with  innumerable  herds  of  cattle 
They  resemble  the  more  southem  Pampas  (q.  v.), 
aud  the  North  American  Savannahs  (q.  v.].  The 
inhabitants,  a  vigorous  race  of  shepherds,  are  called 
Llaneros. 

LLORBNTE,  Joan  Ahtokio,  a  Si)anish  hiafo- 
_  an,  wns  bom  at  Rincon  del  Soto,  near  Calahorri 
March  30,  1760.  He  was  educated  by  his  maternal 
uncle,  and  received  orders  in  1779-  Ue  took  his 
degree  in  canon  law,  and  waa  named  successively 
advocate  of  the  Council  of  Castile  in  1781,  vicar- 
general  of  Calaborra  (1782),  and  finally  secretary 
of  the  Inquisition  in  1780.  L.  was  from  on  early 
lieriod  attached  to  the  liberal  party.  On  the  ful 
of  Jovcllanoa,  he  was  deprived  of  his  employ- 
its,  anil  remained  in  diagraco  till  1805.  when 

recovered  favour  as  the  reword  of  a  literary 

service  of  a  veiT  questJonable  character  which  he 
rendered  to  Godoy,  bv  a  historical  essay  against 
the  liberties  of  the  Basque  Provinces.  On  the 
intrusion  of  the  Napoleon  dynasty,  L.  became  n 
lealouB  partizan  of  the  Fr^ch,  and  an  active 
instrument  of  the  French  ixilicy.  to  which  he  lent 
all  his  support  at  the  press,  as  well  as  in  office  j  and 
being  obli^  to  fly,  on  tJic  restoration  of  Ferdinan^ 
he  fixed  his  residence  in  Paris,  where  he  published 
the  work  to  which  his  celebrity  is  chiefly  due — 
his  Critical  HUtory  of  the  /nouwiiion.  This  work, 
which  professes  to  he  founded  on  authentjc  docu- 
ments, although  throwiug  much  light  on  a  subject 
previously  inaccessible,  has,  in  the  judgment  of 
impartial  historians,  iw  Presoott,  Bonke,  and 
others,  loet  moat  of  its  value  by  its  plainly 
partuEon  character,  ;vnd  by  the  exaggerations  id 
which  it  abounds.  Sec  InQinsiTio.i.  Written 
by  L.  in  Spanish,  it  w.na  translated  into  French, 
under  the  authors  eye,  by  Alexis  Pellier  (Far. 
1817^1818),  and  has  been  translated  into  most 
of  the  European  languages.  L.  published,  during 
his  residence  in  Paris,  savchd  other  works,  some 
literary,  aa  his  Criticai  Ohaatxilitma  on  Oil  Blot; 
some  polemical,  as  his  PartraUa  Politiqua  (Im  Papt*; 
and  others,  it  is  alleged,  of  a  more  queationable 
chonoter  in  a  moral  point  of  view,  ^s  work  on 
the  popes  led  to  his  being  compelled  to  quit  Ftrit 


lUOl, 


^ 


LLOTD'S-LOAHQO. 


in  1822,  aod  &  few  d&ys  after  he  leeched  Madrid 
he  died,  Febnuir  5,  182a  He  wu  also  the  aatboi 
ot  itanoirM  <if  Me  SpaniA  BtvoUuion,  3  Toh.  Svo, 
1B19,  and  an  Ettay  on  a  Stligioiu  Cotulitution, 
IS1&  Moat  of  hii  worka  were  published  both  ' 
Spaoiah  and  in  Franoh. 

LLOTD'S,  a  aet  of  roomi  on  the  first  floor  ot  the 
Royal  Exchange,  London,  freqaented  by  merchanti, 
■liip-ownere,  underwritera,  &c.,  for  the  piu-poee  of 
obtainina  shipping  mtellieenoe,  and  tranoactiiig 
marine  insurances.  One  urge  room,  with  gmiS 
rooms  attached  to  it,  is  set  ajMrt  for  the  nse  of  the 
underuiiilen,  and  there  two  enormous  ledgers  lie 
constantiy  open,  the  one  containing  a  list  of  vessels 
turieed,  the  other  recording  disaetets  at  sea.  In 
the  same  series  of  rooms  there  is  a  self-registoring 
anemometer  and  anemoscope  for  the  me  of  the 
onderwriteiv ;  also  a  valuable  coUectiou  ot  charts 
for  oonsoltation.  See  Insitranci,  KLLRnrm  The 
eit«nt  of  business  tranaaoted  here  may  be  imag- 
ined when  we  consider  that  the  valua  annually 
insured  amounte  to  above  £40,000,000.  Kone  but 
memben  of  L.  who  have  duly  paid  Hm  feea, 
are  allowed  to  transact  business  tner*  either  as 
insuranos-brokers  or  underwriters.  The  shipping 
intelligenoe  is  furnished  by  agents  appointed  foe  the 
purpose,  and  there  is  acaroely  a  pott  of  conaetinenae 
where  one  i*  not  stationed.  The  agent  receives  no 
salary,  his  labour  bmng  am^dy  compensated  by  the 
advantages  he  derives  from  the  connection.  The 
intellinnce  contained  in  the  ledgers  is  also  diETused 
over  us  oountiy  bvb^  afternoon  by  the  publica- 
tion of  UoyiTt  Li*L  There  are  two  other  rooms — 
the  Reading  Room,  which  is  merely  an  extensive 
newa-room ;  and  the  Caplaini  Soonx,  where  auctions 
of  ahi[a  are  carried  on,  and  where  captains 
merchants  con  meet  together  in  a  sociable  man 
The  society  of  L.  is  managed  by  a  committee  of 
twelve,  selected  from  among  the  membera,  who  also 
appoint  the  agonta  and  officials  of  the  establish- 
ment The  expenses  are  defrayt^I  by  feea  and 
annual  subscriptions. 

Lloj/tTt  Rtgxaier  of  Brit'uk  aiid  Fortiffn  Shlppir^ 
la  a  volume  published  annually,  and  contuning 
information  respecting  vessels,  their  age,  materials, 
repairs,  owners,  captains,  fto.  This  information  is 
supplied  by  salaried  agents  at  the  different  ports. 
The  offioe  of  tlie  RegiiUr  is  quit«  distinct  from  L.  of 
Um  Exchange. 

The  n  una  LloySt,  which  is  no  w  gencrically  applied, 
' '  e  circumstance  that  the  headqaarters 


ooffee-housa.-  See  Martiu's  Hittary  qfLlayii 
LLOYD'S,     AusTRUH,     an     association     for 

fIGOeiuI,  commercial,  azid  industrial  purpoaes,  was 
oqnded  in  Trieste  b^  Baron  Bmck  in  1S33,  to 
supply  the  want  axpenenced  by  the  maritime  insur- 
ance companies  of  that  port,  of  a  oentral  adminis- 
tration to  attend  to  their  common  intereate.  Ttaa 
association,  like  its  Londou  prototype,  has  agents 
in  all  the  principal  forragu  porta,  whose  duty  it 
is  to  coUect  all  infonnation  of  a  nature  to  ^ect 
the  oommeroe  and  navigation  of  Trieate,  and  to 
keep  a  list  of  all  entrances  and  clearanoes  of  ships 
at  their  respective  ports.  This  information  is 
publiabed  b  the  Oiormiief/Wiiomf  jiiMfaiooo.  This 
company  hss  established  regular  Dommunication 
between  Trieste  and  all  the  important  seaports 
In  the  Adriatio  and  ^vant,  by  means  of  a  large 
fleet  of  steamers,  which  also  cany  the  Austrian 
mails.  The  socie^  of  A.  L.  includes  three  seotions : 
the  first  is  composed  of  insurance  oompaniea,  the 
second  of  steam-boat  companies,  while  the  third 
or  sciMltiflc  depsrtment  (established  in  IMS],  has 
a  printing-press,  an  engraring-room,  and  an  artirtia 


establishineilt  for  the  perfeotiug  of  angraTing  a 

copper  and  st«eL  This  last  section  hu  issued  a 
great  number  of  literary  and  scientific  joumala. 
LLOYD'S  BONDS.  See  Supp.,  VoL  X 
LOAOH  Ifiobitit),  a  seDos  of  fishes  of  the  familr 
Oyprinidce,  having  an  dongated  body,  colored  witn 
small  scales,  and  inveslad  with  a  think  mucous 
seoretion)  a  small  head,  a  small  toothleH  month 
surrounded  with  4 — 10  barbules ;  small  gill<oi>eu- 
ings,  and  three  branchioategal  rays.  One  species, 
the  CoMVOV  L.  ((?.  barbaiula),  i^ed  in  Scotland 
the  Beardie,  is  common  in  rivers  and  brooks  in 
Britain.  It  seldom  exceeds  four  inches  [u  length  ; 
is  yellowish-white,  clouded,  and  spotted  \ritli 
brown ;  feeds  on  worms  and  aquatio  insecto  ;  and  li 
highly  esteemed  tor  the  table.  It  generally  keeps 
very  close  to  the  bottom  of  the  water. — The  Lakb 
L.   {O.  Jbniiie]    of   the   continent    of 


nant  waters,  »._ 
weather.  The  : 
flavour. 

LOADSTONE,  or  MAGNETIC  IRON  GEE,  a 
mineral  conristing  of  a  mixture  of  peroxide  of  iron 
and   protoxide   of   iron ;    sometimes    occurring    in 

■ainM,  as  Iron  Sand,  in  trap  rt>cks,  sometimes  in 

hIs  in  primitive  rocks,  ss  in  Scandinavia,  where  It 

a  valuable  ore  of  iron.     It  is  remarkable  for  its 

highly  magnetic  quality ;   and  indeed   magnetism 

was  nest  luiown  as  belonging  to  it.    It  is  of  a  bLick 

in  ooncretionB,  and  oryst^sud 

rhomboidal  dodeoahedrons. 

LOAM  (Ger.  X<Am,  aUied  to  Lab  UmuM,  mud,  and 
IhTie,  ilime),  a  term  much  employed  by  agricul- 
turists and  others,  to  designate  a  soil  oonsistins  of  a 
mixture  of  clay,  aand,  and  lime,  with  animal  and 
vegetable  matters  Ul  a  state  of  intimata  mixture. 
The  clay  variea  from  20  to  60  per  cent. ;  the  jHopor- 
tion  of  lime  is  geneially  not  more  than  5  per  cent. 
Loamy  soils  are  among  the  beat  and  most  fertile  of 
soils.  Iliey  are  not  stiff  and  tenacious  like  day 
soils,  and  they  are  much  more  fertile  than  sandy 
soils.    Even  in  mere  mediania^  properties,  they  are 

^  both.      The  '  clay '   used   for   making 

bncks  is  often  really  a  loam  in  whicii  Uie  pnipor- 
tion  of  true  olay  is  large.  In  Italy,  Vnaot,  and 
other  countries,  walls  ore  made  of  h.  boiten  down 
betwem  planks  placed  at  the  requirite  widtii; 
and  these  walls  become  very  solid,  and  last  for 
oentnriea. 

LOAN  OF  MOKET  is  an  imidied  cootntct,  by 
which  B,  the  borrower,  agrees  to  repay  L,  the 
lender.  There  are  various  modes  by  whicn  B  givea 
an  ooknowtedgment  for  a  loan,  as  by  giving  a 
bond  or  a  promissory-note,  or  I.  O.  U.  (q.  v.),  the 
lost  of  which  requires  no  stamp.  But  Do  writing 
is  neoessary  to  constitute  the  contract,  which  may 
be  proved  by  parole,  and  often  is  proved  by  the 
lender's  oath,  confirmed  by  circumstantial  evidence 
nr  letters  of  the  borrower.  The  debt  must  in 
general  be  sued  tor  in  ail  years  in  Eugland  and 
reland.  In  Scotland,  a  borrower  is  much  more 
fevoured,  for  there  are  only  two  ways  of  proving 
the  loan  if  it  exceeds  £8,  6*  8it,  via.,  by  soms 
writing  of  the  borrower,  or  by  stakinx  the  truth 
as  to  whether  the  money  is  really  Sue  on  the 
borrower's  oath.  Hence,  if  a  hundred  iritufmns 
aaw  the  loan  advanced,  but  there  was  no  writing, 
and  the  borrower,  when  put  to  it,  denied  it  on  oa^ 
^t  can  escape  liability  entirely. 

LOANDA.    See  »r  Paul  D>  L. 

LOA'NGO,  the  mo«t  powerful  of  tin  small 
Ahiean  StatM^  ihi  the  ooasl^  a  littb  to  the  north 
ot  tiie  mouth  of  the  Cor^a    The  ooast  distriot  is 


/  ^i"^<"^>ll'-- 


IX>ABACE  J!!— LOBSTER. 


tbinl^  vooded;  inland  the  lurface  rifee,  bnt  the 
interior  ia  iittls  known.  Falm-oll,  gum,  wkz,  oroLil, 
copper,  and  ivory  are  exported  ;  cottoii,  ooSee,  ban- 
uuu  Kre  abundantly  raued,  tillage  being  canfnily 
attended  to.  The  denie  population  are  of  smaU 
■ice,  but  ikilled  in  many  induatriee,  e«peci»llj  aa 
weavers  of  bait  and  (trav.  The  king  ia  a  tool  of 
the  fetiih  miaistera ;  the  religiouB  obaenrancel  are 
peculiarly  rigorous  and  opprenive.  Loango,  the 
chief  town,  ii  near  the  ooaat,  130  uiilea  oorlh  of  the 
Congo. 

LOASA'CB.^  a  natural  order  of  calyoifloral 
exogeoB,  OKtivea  of  Amerioa,  and  ohiefly  from  the 
temperate  and  warmer  porta  of  it.  There  *re  about 
WTenty  known  apeciei,  herbaoeoui  planta,  hiapid 
with  Btinging  haira.  They  have  oppoaite  or  alter* 
nate  leaves,  without  rtipvilee.  The  ealyi  ia  4—6. 
parted ;  the  petals  S,  or,  by  an  additional  inner  row, 
10.  The  stamena  are  numerous,  in  several  rows, 
aometimei  in  bundles.  The  ovary  is  inferior, 
l-celled;  the  fruit  capiuUr  or  socculeot.  The 
genos  Loata  sometimes  reoeivee  the  popular  name 
of  Chili  NettU.  . 

LOBBTjIA,  a  geutti  of  ooroUifloral  exogeni  of  the 
natural  order  Lootliaeta.  This  order  is  nearly  allied 
to  Camjiamtlaeta,  one  of  the  most  conspicuous 
differences  being  the  irregular  corolla.  It  oontaina 
almost  400  known  species,  native*  of  tropical  and 
temperate  climates,  abounding  cliiefly  in  damp 
woods  in  America  and  the  north  of  India.  They 
are  generally  herbaceous  or  half-shrubby,  and  have 
a  milky  jnice,  which  is  often  very  acrid,  and  often 
coutaiaa  mnob  caoutchouc.  A  poiBonoua  character 
belongs  to  the  order,  and  some  are  eicesaively  acrid, 
aa  Tttpa  FuUlei,  a  Chilian  and  FeniTian  plant, 
of  which  the  very  smell  excites  vomiting ;  yet  the 
•ttociilent  fruit  of  one  apeoiea,  Centropogon  Suri- 
tiamatt,  li  eatable.— The  genns  Lobelia  is  the  only 
one  of  thla  order  of  which  any  speoies  ore  British. 
Hie  Water  L.  [L.  Dortmanna)  is  frequent  in  lakes 
with  gravelly  bottom,  often  forming  a  green  carpet 
underneath  the  water  with  il«  densely  mutted 
sub-cylindricat  leaves.  The  Sowers  are  blue,  the 
flowering  sterna  rising  above  the  water. — To  Uiis 
genus  beloDH  many  favourite  garden-flowers,  as  the 
beautiful  CIkdujal  Flowbks  (L.  eardinalis,  L. 
fulgena,  and  L.  iplaidens)  and  the  Blue  Cakdinal 
(£.  tjfphilUiea],  nativea  of  the  warmer  parts  of  North 
Amenco,  pereoaiale,  which  it  is  usual  to  protect 
during  winter  in  Biitaio.  To  this  geniu  belongs  also 
Uie  Ikviah  Tobacco  of  North  America  (£.  it^ala), 
an  annual,  with  an  erect  stem,  a  foot  high  or  more. 
withUue  flowers,  which  has  been  need  as  a  medicine 
from  time  immemorial  by  the  aborigines  of  North 
America ;  both  the  flowering-herb  and  the  seeds 
are  imported.  It  is  the  former,  compressed  in 
oblong  cukes,  which  ia  chiefly  employed.  A  liquid 
alknloiil,  Lobelina,  and  a  peculiar  acid,  Lobelic  acid, 
have  been  obtained  from  it. 

In  small  doses,  it  acts  as  diaphoretic  and  expect- 
orant ;  in  full  doses,  as  a  powerful  nauseating 
emetic ;  while  in  excessive  doses,  or  in  full  doses, 
too  often  repeated,  it  is  a  ]iow^nl  ooro-narcotio 
poison.  lb  I*  the  fivonrite  remedy  of  a  special 
class  of  empirics,  and  ooneequently  deaths  from  it< 
adminisbation  ore  by  no  means  rare.  Physicians 
Mldom  prescribe  it  now,  except  in  coses  of  asthma. 

LOBIPB'DID^,  a  fomily  of  birds  of  the  order 
OrailiE,  nearly  oUied  to  Jtallida  (Rails,  Craika,  Oalli- 
nules,  fte.],  bnt  differing  in  having  the  toes  separately 
margined  on  both  sides  with  a  scalloped  membrane, 
thus  forming  on  interesting  oonnecting  link  with  the 
web-footed  birds,  or  order  PalTmpedes.  The  general 
appearance  of  many  of  the  L.  also  approaches  to  that 
M  th«  Anatida.    Coots  oud  pholoropes  ore  examples 


of  this  family.  They  are  all  aqnatio,  some  of  them 
frequenting  fresh,  ana  ethers  salt  water ;  some  often 
found  far  out  at  sea  on  banks  of  sea-weed. 

LOBLOLLY -BOr,  the  name  applied  on  board 
ship  to  the  man  who  aasiats  tiia  medical  officers  in 
the  '  aick-bay,'  or  hoapitoL 

LOBSTBIt  {Homartu),  a  genus  of  Cnistaoeans, 
at  the  order  Decapoda,  sub-order  Maerura  (see 
Cratfish),  differiog  from  CrayftjUi  [Attacus),  to 
which,  in  general  form  and  characters,  thoy  are  very 
similar,  in  having  the  rostrum  in  front  of  the  cara- 
pace not  depressed,  but  straight,  and  armed  with 
many  teeth  ou  each  side,  and  the  last  ring  of  the 
thorax  not  movable,  but  soldered  to  the  precediiig 
one,  The  Common  L.  (H.  vulgarU),  found  in  great 
plenty  on  rocky  coasts  of  Britain,  and  most  parts  of 
Europe,  is  too  well  known  to  require  description.  It 
attains  such  ■  .   .      . 


Fourteen  pounds,  when  loaded  with  spawn,  although 
a  lobster  of  one  pound  weight,  or  even  less,  is  deemed 
very  lit  for  the  market.  It  is  needless  to  soy  how 
highly  the  L.  Is  esteemed  for  the  table.  It  ia  in 
best  seoion  from  October  to  the  begiomug  of  May. 
Its  beautifully  clouded  and  varied  bluish- black 
colour  chaogES  to  a  nearly  uniform  red  in  boUiog. 
It  ia  found  in  greatest  abundance  in  clear  water 
of  no  great  depth,  and  displays  great  activity  in 
retreating  from  danger,  using  its  powerful  tsjl-fin 
forswimming,  or  almost  springinfrthroagh  the  water, 
and  thrusting  itself  into  holesoftne  rocks  which  seem 
almost  too  small  to  admit  ita  body.  The  claws  are 
powerful  weapona  of  defence ;  one  is  olwoya  larger 
than  the  other,  and  the  pincers  of  one  claw  ar« 
knobbed  on  the  inner  edge,  those  of  the  other  are 
serrated.  It  is  more  dangerous  to  be  seized  by  the 
serrated  than  by  the  knobbed  claw.  Lobsters  are 
sometimes  caught  by  the  hand,  which  requires  dex- 
terity 1  but  they  are  more  frequentiy  taken  in  trap* 
of  various  kinds,  sometimes  made  of  oeier  twigs, 
okindof  nets,  sometimes  pots,  but  i ' 


Norway  Lobster  {Jffephropt  nomgieua). 


frequent  combats  among  themselves,  in  which  limM 
ore  often  lost ;  but  the  loss  la  soon  repaired  by  the 
growth   of  a  new  limb,  rather  smaUw  than  th« 

Lijii^.x,,  Google 


LOCAL  GOVEEKMEHT  BOARD— LOCK. 


old  one.  Like  crabe,  they  frequently  diaoge  their 
■helly  oovering,  and,  for  a  abort  tiniE  before  their 
moultioc,  are  rerj  languid  and  ioert  Their  ^vth 
tukea  place  during  the  time  when  the  shell  la  soft, 
and  with  extroordiDary  rapidity. — The  Aubbiou* 
L.  (ff.  amervxmua)  haa  clnwa  much  larger  in  pro- 

Ettion  than  the  oommon  lobater. — The  Norway 
[Nt^ropa  noTvegicvs)  is  frequently  taken  on 
the  British  coaats,  and  appears  in  the  markets. 
The  eyes  are  kidney-shaped,  and  not  round,  as 
in  the  common  lobster.  The  claws  have  also  n 
more  alender  and  prismatic  form,  and  the  colout 
ia  a  pale  flesh  colour.  It  is  said  by  some  to  be  the 
most  delicate  of  all  the  crustac^mB;  by  otbera, 
to  be  inferior  to  the  common  lobster.— The  Spiny 
L.,  or  Sba  CBAVPiair  IPaliauTut  imlgarii),  is  not 
uncommon  on  the  rocky  coasts  of  Britain,  particU' 
larly  in  tiie  south.  It  is  believed  to  be  the  karaboa 
of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Loauta  of  the  Romaoi. 
It  attains  a  length  of  about  eighteen  inches.  The 
shdl  is  very  hard,  and  the  whole  body  ia  roagh 
with  short  spines.  The  antennce  are  very  long,  much 
longer  than  those  of  the  common  lobster.  There 
ore  no  daws  or  pincers,  die  flrvt  pair  of  feet  being 
Tory  similar  to  the  others.  The  Spbv  I^  is  brou^t 
to  market  in  London  and  elsewhere,  bnt  is  infenor 
to  the  common  lobster. — Other  species  of  these  genera 
are  found  in  otherparts  of  the  world.  For  anatomy, 
&c,  see  Uuiley,  TAe  CragRtA  (1880). 

LOCAL  GOVERNMENT  BOABD,  a  depart- 
ment of  the  central  government  which  suporviaes 
the  administration  of  the  laws  relating  to  public 
health,  the  relief  of  the  poor,  and  many_  of  the 
innumerable  functions  which  in  the  first  instance 
fall  to  be  performed  by  the  various  local  authoritiea 
throndiout  the  United  Kingdom.  The  chief  of 
these  local  authorities,  subordinate  to  this  depart- 
ment, are,  in  England,  the  Board  of  Guardiona 
(supMseding  the  rfd  parochial  system  of  govern- 
ment), the  Quarter  Sessions  in  counties,  and  the 
town  councils  or  other  inatitudoas  in  biirgba.  In 
Scotland,  the  parish  is  still  the  unit  of  area  for 
poor-law  purposes.  In  Ireland,  the  principal  local 
institution  is  the  Grand  Jury  of  the  county.  Over 
the  action  of  these  the  Lo2al  Government  Board 
watches  by  means  of  its  inspectors.  If  the  local 
body  fails  to  perform  its  duty,  the  contra]  authority 
may  initiate  action — as  by  ordering  the  removal  of 
nuisances ;  or  it  m^y  make  good  the  faulty  pro- 
ceedings of  the  inferior  inHtitiition.  At  ils  creation, 
the  Local  Government  Board  superseded  the  Poor- 
law  Board;  itasaumedtlie  functions  of  the  Secretary 
of  State  nnder  the  Eegiatration  Acta,  the  Sanitary 
Acts,  the  Local  Taxation  Returns  Act ;  and  under- 
took the  duties  of  the  Privy  Council  under  the 
Prevention  of  Diseases  aud  Vaccination  Acts. 

President  appointed  by  the  sovereign. 


elected  for  the  purpose  by  the  ratepayer*.    Thii 

new  form  of  local  EOTeniinent  would  confer  wider 

poweiB   than  the  teuner*  of  the   PtTmisaive  Bill 

— templated.    That 'permissive  prohibitory  mea- 

I,'    as   it  was   called,  would,  if   passed,   hare 

nitted   the   ratepayers    from   time  to  time  to 

ide  either  entirely  to  prohibit  or  to  leave  atone 

the  liquor  traffic   within   their   district,   whether 

parish,  burgh,  oc  other  local  area. 

LOCHABER  AXE,  a  Battle-axe  (q.  v.)  with  a 
curved  handl^  and  very  broad  blade, 

LOCHEB,  a  picturesque  town  of  France,  L 
Indre-et-Loire,  on  the  Indre,  26  miles  south-east  of 
Toun.  Fopulation,  4000.  The  castle  of  L.  (now 
a  ruin)  acquired  a  fearful  reputation  for  horrible 
deeds  of  cruelly  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XL 

LOOK  of  a  gun  is  that  apparatus  by  which  the 
powder  it  flrei  Muskets,  in  their  earliest  nse^ 
were  fired  by  the  hand  applying  a  slow  match  to 
the  toDch-hoIe.  Towards  the  end  of  the  I4th  <l, 
the  first  improvement  appeared  in  the  malMod- 


and  haa  as  ex  officio  members,  the  Lord  President  of 
the  Council,  aU  the  principal  Secretaries  of  State, 
the  Lord  Privv  Seal,  and  the  Chancellor  of  ttie 
Eiohequer.  The  work  is,  however,  all  done  by 
the  president  and  bis  staff  of  secretaries  and  clerks. 
The  president  and  one  secretary  are  eligible  to  par- 
liiment,  and  the  president  has  sometimes  sat  in  the 
Cabinet.  See  Locu.  Qotzbhmbht,  in  Scfpf.,  Vol  X. 
LOCAL  OPTION  ia  a  term  for  the  jiower 
which  temperance  reformers  have  of  late  sought  to 
secnre  for  the  ratepaying  inhabitants  of  any  com- 
munity, enabling  tbein  to  regulate  the  liquor  trallic 
within  their  bounds  ag  to  a  certain  majonty  of  them 
shall  seem  bestj  either  by  maintaining  unchanged, 
increasing,  dimmishine,  or  wholly  suppressing  the 
sale  of  intoxicating  liquors.  These  powers  miaht 
be  exercised  periodically,  either  by  way  of  a 
p^biscite  or  through  a  boud   of  representativea 


This  consisted  of  a  crooked  iron  lever,  a,  in  the  end 
of  which  the  match  was  fixed.  By  a  pin-gear  o(  a 
simple  nature,  pressure  on  the  trigger,  b,  brongUt 
the  match  accurately  down  on  the  powder-pan,  of 


carrying  of  several  yards  of  slow  match,  usually 
wound  round  the  body  and  the  piece;  rain  extin- 
guished the  match,  and  wind  dispersed  the  powder 
m  the  pin,  so  that  the  matchlock,  olamsyw'"""' 
was  but  an  uncertain  apparatus. 

Superior  to  the  matcblock  was  the  te/iedJoek, 
introduced  at  NUmberg  in  1617,  in  which  fire  was 
produced  by  friction  between  a  piece  of  flint  o 
iron  pyrites  and  a  toothed  wheeL  The  mechaniar 
which  generated  the  sparks  simultaneously  un 
covered  the  pan,  so  that  the  danners  from  wind 
and  rain  were  averted;  but  before  firing,  the 
apparatus  required  to  bo  woimd-up  like  a  dock, 
and  therefore  the  discharges  could  not  be  frequent. 
The  wheel-lock  continued  for  a  long  period  to  be 
nacd  in  Germany,  and  partially  in  EWice.  In  the 
Spanish  dominions,  however,  its  place  was  supplied 
1^  the  simpler  conttivonco  called  the  Snaphauncs^ 
Suapphahn,  or  Asnaphan  lock,  of  nearly  or-* — 
poraneous  invention,  which  acting  by  mean.  __  _ 
spring  outaide  the  lock-plate,  produced  fire  through 
the  concussion  of  a  flint  against  the  ribbed  top  of 
the  powder-pan.  Its  positions  of  halt  and  full  cock 
were  obtiuned  by  the  insertion  of  a  pin  to  stay  the 
operation  of  the  main-spring.  In  the  middle  <a  the 
ITth  c,  the  jlinl-Ioat  was  mvented,  combining  ths 
action  of  the  wheel-lock  and  the  snaphaauoa,  while 
it  was  inconteatably  snperior  to  cither.  After 
combating  much  prejnmce,  it  was  universally 
adopted  in  the  armies  of  Western  Europe  by  tha 
commencement  of  the  IStb  century.  Musketa 
embracing  it  obtained  the  name  it  'fusils,'  i 
French  ^ptation  of  the  Italian  word  facile,  i 
flint.  With  successive  improvements,  the  Qint-lock 
continued  in  general  use  until  the  introduction  of 
the  peretuition-todc  almost  in  our  own  day ;  and 
among  eastern  and  barbaric  nations  the  flint-lock 
is  stSl  extant  Its  great  superiority  over  the 
tnaphaonoe  consisted  in  the  'tumbler'  (of  whioh 


ivCiOogIc 


pr«aently)  uid  the  *io«^'  applumcea  Btni  rotaiaed 
m  the  peiciuaion-Iock,  nhkh  anabled  the  poHitions 
of  hftif  and  fnU  oock  to  be  tahen  ap  wiuiont  the 
btterrentioa  of   pinii  alwaya   nncertaia    in   their 

The  phndplo  of  the  percmaion-Iock  ii  the  pn>- 
duotton  of  fire  hj  the  &lliiig  of  a  hammer  upon 
deUinatiiiff  powdu',  the  ezploaioD  of  irhich  pene- 
trates to  Hie  chuKe  in  the  barrel  of  the  gon.  The 
fint  practioal  apuication  of  tiat  principle  to  fire- 
armi  is  due  to  the  Rev.  Mr  Forsyth  of  Belhelvie, 
in  Aberdeenshire.      Varioua   forma   in    which    to 


r  falling  npon 

—     — le  peroouion-Iock  ii  ihewn  in  "      ' 

Sgm.     A  is  the  look-plate;   B,  the 
oommimiiMtiDg,   tlirongh  the  awivel  C, 


PeroDBion'look. 

tnmbler  D,  which  ooocentrically  with  the  hammer 
B,  moves  on  the  tnmbler-nail  F.  In  the  flgnre,  the 
hammer  has  delivered  its  stroke,  and  its  further 
progresa  in  the  direction  required  by  the  spring  B, 
IB  barred  by  the  nipple  M.  On  pullios  back  the 
hammer,  E,  to  the  position  of  half-cock  N,  the 
tDmblec  turns  with  it,  and  the  pointed  end  of  the 
scear  I  (which  moves  on  the  scear-nail  L  as  centre), 
influenced  _  by  the  scear-spring  K,  falls  into  the 
notch  Or,  in  the  tombler.  On  forcing  back  the 
hammer  to  full-cock  O,  however,  the  scear  will 
move  down  to  the  shaltower  notch  H  ;  and  on  the 
lever  end  of  the  sneor  being  raised  by  the  trigger,  it 
brings  down  the  hammer  with  a  heavy  blow  on  the 
oap.  To  keep  the  works  Grmlv  in  their  several 
places,  a  ■  bridle '  is  aorewed  over  tJiem  by  the  screws 
at  L  and  F,  and  inoludee  the  pin,  F,  in  its  width. 

Since  the  adoption  of  breech-loading  arms,  the 
Action  of  the  loi^  is  so  for  varied  that  uie  hammer 
dsoally  falls  at  M  on  a  movable  pin,  which  i* 
impelled  against  a  detonating  cha^e  placed  io  ""  ~ 
body  of  the  cartridge  itself.  A  spinil  spring  ap 
the  pin  brin^  it  back  to  the  position  necessary  for 
another  blow.  For  the  advantages  of  this  airaoge- 
ment  and  the  mechanism  of  tiin  lock  in  breech- 
loaders, SCO  BREICH-LOAIIINa  Abus  in  SUFP.,  Vol.  X. 

LOCK,  on  a  river  or  canal,  is  ao  arrangement  of 
two  parallel  floodgates,  by  which  commnnication 
is  secnred  between  two  reaches  of  different  levels. 
When  locks  were  first  introdnced,  is  not  known 
within  a  hundred  years,  nor  is  it  clear  whether 
Holland  or  Italy  can  claim  the  distinction  of  having 
fint  employed  tiism.  This  maclt,  however,  can  be 
affirmed  with  certainty,  that  at  the  beginning  of 
the  17th  0.,  locks  existed  in  both  coontnes,  ai^  it 
it  probable  that  they  wa«  arrived  at  gradually  by 
■aooeasive  improrementa  in  the  mode  of  render- 
ing ihallov  nvera  iwTigable.    Obviously,  the  fint 


step  wonld  have  been  to  dam  the  stream  across  at 
intervals,  leaving  gates  in  the  dams  for  the  pawwe 
of  vessels.  This  measure  would  have  divided  l£e 
river  into  reaches  or  steps,  each,  as  the  source  naa 
approached,  being  higher  above  the  sea  than  the 
one  last  passed.  But  the  passage  up  or  down — and 
especially  up — such  a  stream  most  be  extremely 
slow,  as  at  each  dam  a  vessel  must  wait  until  the 
site  has  been  opened,  and  the  level  equalised  in 
the  reach  it  is  in,  and  that  on  which  it  is  proposed 
to  enter.  Where  the  reaches  were  far  spiu^,  a 
large  body  of  water  would  require  to  be  raised  or 
lowered,  and  the  process  could  not  but  be  tedious. 
The  medieval  engmeers  next  tried  to  place  the 
dama  as  near  together  as  possible,  but  en)enw 
limited  this.  The  course  then  was  to  boild  two 
dams,  with  floodgates,  just  far  enough  apart  to 
allow  a  vessel  to  float  within.  Under  this  arrange- 
ment, only  the  section  between  the  dams  had  to 
be  raised  or  lowered.  The  cost  of  thus  doubly 
damming  a  wide  river,  however,  was  very  greatj 
and  it  was  an  easy  tranaitian  of  idea  to  remove  tbe 
passage  from  the  nuun  stream  altogethe 


Canal-lock — seen  from 


this  principle  all  locks  are  now  made,  wbenvsr 
there  is  traffic  of  any  impori;ance.  The  arrange- 
ment consista  of  two  pairs  of  gates,  opening  up  the 
stream,  and  offering,  when  shut,  a  solieut  angle  to 
the  stream  or  apper  pressure.  The  eOect  is  tliat 
the  weight  above  only  tends  to  close  the  gates  still 
tighter.  Wlen  a  vessel  is  to  bo  brought  from  one 
level  to  the  oUier,  it  is  floated  into  the  '  ponnd,'  as 
the  apace  between  the  upper  and  lower  gates  is 
called.  The  gates  are  then  shut,  and  a  sluice  in  the 
lower  part  of  Uie  upper  gate  raises  (he  surface  of 
the  pound,  or  the  sluice  in  the  lower  gate  depresses 
it,  in  a  few  minutes  to  the  level  of  the  upper  or 


Vertical  Seotion  of  a  Thames  Lock. 


cnse  may  he.    These  aluicea  are 
1  the  gates,  and  the  ponderoiu 


lower  reach,  as  Ou 

worked  by  racks  ^       .    ...      .... 

gates  themselves  are  moved  with  the  aid  of  .  „ 
and  heavy  levera.  Of  course,  one  pair  of  gates 
must  always  be  shnt,  or  the  two  reaches  wonld 
speedily  assimilate  theiz  levels.  In  the  engraving, 
the  boat  has  iost  entered  &om  the  lower  port  of 
the  river. 

On   canals  where  water  is  scaree,  a  reservoir, 

oal  in  size  to   the  lock,  is  formed  at  its  side. 

io  the  pound  is  to  be  emptied,  the  water  ia 

into  the  reservoir  nntil  it  and  the  lock  are  at 

same  level,  which  will  be  half  height.     Hie 


^ 


.Google 


I'MBTToir  is  then  oloBed,  and  the  remaining  water 
in  tha  look  ran  off  through  ths  lower  Blnioea  in 
the  nEoal  way.  On  refilling  the  lock,  before  open- 
ing the  npper  aluioee,  one  quarter  the  qnantity 
required  can  be  obtained  from  the  reaerroir,  thus 
efiecting  a  laving  of  many  torn  of  water  at  each 

On  Tivera,  advantage  ia  taken  of  udand*  for  the 
formation  of  Weirs  (q.v.)  and  locks.  On  the 
Thames,  the  locks  are  from  two  to  three  miles 
apart,  and  the  river  is  locked  br  upwards  of  GO 
locks  from  Teddington  to  Lechlade.  On  canals,  to 
eeonomiee  superintendence,  the  locks  are  usually 
constructed  in  *  ladders '  of  several  cloee  together, 
like  a  Sight  of  steps.    As  the  pressure  on  locE-gatei 


LOCK,  a  contrivance  for  secorely  fastening  the 
door  of  a  bailding,  tbe  lid  of  a  box,  ix.  Aiaonat 
the  early  EWptuuu,  Greeks,  and  Bomaos,  locks 
were  used.  But  then-  construction  evinced  little 
skill,  and  they  were  usually  made  of  hard-wood ; 
in  fact,  they  were  little  more  than  wooden  bolta, 
requiring  only  the  hand  to  nnfasten  them.  The 
fliet  advance  upon  this  was  a  remarkable  one, 
invented  by  the  ancient  Rg^tiaus;  it  contained 
the  principles  of  the 
mod^n  tuinbler-lock ; 
although  still 
□*e    omoDj^    the 

[   Tnrka,  it   baa   never, 

any  advance.  This 
lode  consists  of  a  case, 
fig.  1,  A,  whioh  is 
Duled  to  the  door ; 
through  the  case 
DiMseti  a  large  wooden' bolt,  fig.  I,  B,  the  end  of 


holes,  as  seen 
fig.  2,  /,  which 
gives  itie  open  view 
of  the  lock.  When 
^  the  bolt  is  poshed 
'  home  into  the 
staple,  these  boles 
come  exacUy  under 
correspocding  little 
cavities  in  the  case 

with  a 


Kg.L 


Vig.% 


e,  fig.  2, 
which  is  placed  an  npngbt  wooden  pi 
knob,  which  prevents  its  falling  too  I< 
little  pin*  consequently  tall  into  the  holes  m  tue 
bolt  when  it  is  poihed  far  enongb,  and  the  door  is 
locked.  Tn  order  to  unlock  it,  tJio  bar  of  wood, 
fig.  3,  is  passed  into  the 
I  groove  0,  in  the  bolt, 
and  on  the  bar  there  ara 
Fig.  3.  the  eame  cumber  ot  pins 

of  wood  placed  upright 
a  the  bolt,  and  loose  pius  ui  the 


is  Uicre  are  holes  ij 


obainberB  of  the  case ;  and  Uiese  upright 
placed  so  as  to  oorrespond  exactly  m  size  and 
position  to  the  holes ;  therefore,  when  the  pins 
reach  tha  holeo,  they  slip  into  them,  and  push  up 
the  loose  pins  into  their  respective  cavities,  azid 
tlio  bolt  is  then  easily  pulled  back  by  means  of  the 
bar  or  key.  This  is  simple  and  ingenious,  but  it 
ie  ve^  clumsy,  ood,  as  usually  toade  in  Turkey,  is 


there  was  skill  i 


mechamsm.     Suoh 


locks,  however,  were  not  adapted  to  general  nsa, 
and  they  were  only  found  on  the  caMetl  of  the 
wealthy.  The  ormnary  ward  and  spring  locks 
were  the  only  ones  oommonly  employed  up  to  the 
beginning  of  tiie  present  oentniy,  even  for  important 
purposes,  and  this  kind  of  lock  is  still  in  veiy 
common  ose.  It  consists  of  a  bolt  of  metal,  to 
-----  ^  ^^^^_ 

a  key,  which,  by 
ng  in  t'  -'  ■ 
it  MB.  on  until 
out  of  the  range  of  the  key's  action,  which,  turning 
on  a  pivot,  is  regulated  by  the  length  of  its  wards, 
and  the  depth  of  »  curve  cut  in  l£e  under  side  of 
the  bolt     Li  order  to  prevent  any  key  of  the  same 


the  keys,  so  as  to  correspond  with  them ; 
hence,  only  the  key  which  has  openings  or  wards 
which  will  allow  the  ridges  to  pass  throng  them, 
can  be  used.  This  will  be  better  seen  by  the 
skeb^  fig.  4,    A,  is  the  bolt,  having  at  the  Mid 


Hg.4. 


oppodte  to  that  which  anteni  the  staple  a  small 
piece  slit,  bent  outwards,  and  tempered  hatd ;  this 
forms  the  spring  a  ;  below,  ore  two  notches  b,  b, 
divided  by  a  curved  piece  of  the  bolt  e;  there  is 
another  notch  d,  which,  if  the  key  enters,  and  is 
turned  round.  It  draws  the  bolt  forward  or  back- 
word  in  looking  or  unlocking,  and  the  spring  makes 
the  end  of  the  bolt  either  drop  into  one  of  the 
notches  b,  b,  or  rise  up  the  curve  e,  according  to 
the  distance  to  which  it  is  pulled.  Tha  ridgea  B,  B 
are  so  placed  as  to  allow  the  wards  of  the  key,  0, 
to  move  freely,  and  to  prevent  the  entrance  of 
another  key  of  different  arrangement. 
The  tumbier-lock  is  the  type  of  ODothcr  olui,  and 


the  tombler-lock  will  be  readily 


s.  S,    In  tills,  a  lock  nearly  alike  tha  former 
been  chosen,  and  the  simplest  form  of  tnrnbla- 
added.    It  will  he  seen  that  the  bolt,  A,  haa  neitiwr 


,t,iOOglc 


lOOS-tOOKft 


the  spring-piece  nor  the  notohea  and  onrrea  on  the 
nnder  dde,  u  in  S^.  4;  bnt  it  hu  tiro  notohea  on 
the  upper  side,  irhich  are  exactly  as  far  apart  as  the 
diitance  moved  by  the  bolt  in  locking  or  unlocking. 
Behind  the  bolt,  partly  aeen  only — the  covered  parta 
being  indicated  by  dotted  lines — is  the  lumbter  B, 
a  small  plate  moving  on  the  pivot  d,  and  having 
proji^cttng  from  ita  face  a  small  square  pin  «,  wlu<ib, 
when  tha  bolt  ia  locked  or  unlocked,  falls  enuitl^ 
into  one  or  tha  other  of  the  amall  notchsa/i/  It 
will  also  be  seen  that  there  is  b  the  key  a  notab 
g,  which  coirospondB  to  the  outline  of  the  tmnbler, 
aa  indicated  bv  the  dotted  lines.  Thia  acts  upon 
the  tumbler  when  the  k^  is  turned,  and  raises  it 
to  as  to  lift  the  pin  out  of  the  notch  in  the  bolt,  and 
allow  the  latter  to  be  moved  freely  forward  until 
the  other  notch  comea  under  tbe  pin,  when  the 
Iatt«r  falls  into  and  immediately  stops  ita  further 
pro^reas,  and  the  action  of  the  key  must  be  reversed 
in  order  to  relieve  it  again.  Tb.a  very  simple  appli- 
cation of  the  tumbler  ia  sufficient  to  expitun  the 
principlo  wluch  ms^  be,  and  is  varied  to  an  almost 
endlesB  extent.  Chiibb'a  justly  celebrated  lock 
carries  it  out  most  Cully,  the  bolt  itself  being  only 
A  aeries  of  tiunblera,  with  a  notch  on  the  key  for 
each.  Bramoh's  lock,  patented  in  1788,  has  enjoyed 
immenae  reputation,  chiedy  for  cabinets,  deaka,  and 
other  mmilar  applications ;  it  ia  very  difhient  in 
prindi^e  from  those  before  mentioned,  conmating 
«f  a  nnmber  of  movable  slides  or  intarior  bolti 
working  in  an  internal  cylinder  ol  the  look,  and 
regulated  by  the  pressure  upward  or  downward  of 
tiie  key  acting  on  a  spiral  spring.  For  ordinary 
purjiosea,  it  i*  very  secure ;  but  when  the  most 
perfect  security  ia  required,  the  beautiful  lock 
invented  by  Cotterill  of  Birmingham,  and  Uie  still 
mors  ingenious  ones  of  Hobba  and  Yale  (both 
Americans),  must  be  preferred.  These  beautiful 
and  complicated  pieces  o(  mechanism  cannot  be 
described  within  the  limits  of  this  article ;  but 
ample  information  upon  them  and  others  can  be 
found  in  Deniaon'a  Trealiae  on  Locks,  and  in  Th« 
Eadimaaary  TncUUe  on  the  Conibntction  qf  Locks, 
by  Charles  Tomlinaon. 

LOCTE,  or  GOWPEK,  in  Scotch  Law,  is  tha 
porquirite  paid  by  custom  t<)  the  miUer'a  man  for 
grinding  com.    See  Tiiirlaoe. 

LOCK-UP  HOUSES,  the  name  dven  to  the 
bonaea  of  bsilifi  of  the  sheriB;  to  which  debton 
arrested  for  debt  were  tirst  taken,  until  it  was  teen 
whether  they  will  settle  their  daot  without  being 
tekea    to    the   ordioary    jaiL      See    Exkidtioh  ; 

iMPRDOXHEirr. 

LOOKB,  Joira,  waa  bom  at  Wringtoo,  near 
Bristol,  on  the  29th  of  Augnet  1032.  Hishtherwas 
slewW  to  Colonel  Popharo,  and  served  under  him 
as  captain  in  the  Parliamentary  armj^  during  the 
Civil  War.  L.  was  sent  for  his  edneation  to  West- 
minster School,  where  ha  continued  till  16S1,  when 
he  was  elected  a  student  of  Christ-Church,  Oxford. 
There  he  went  through  ti>e  nsnal  studies,  bnt 
teemed  to  prefer  Bacon  and  DeKartes  to  Aristotle. 
TH«  tendency  was  towards  experimental  philosophy, 
and  he  chose  medidne  for  his  profession.  Ia  1664, 
be  went  to  Berlin,  as  secretary  (o  the  Britiah  envoy, 
bnt  soon  returned  to  his  studiea  at  Oxford.  In  1666, 
be  made  the  aqguaintanoe  of  LonJ  Ashley,  tlUr- 
wards  Earl  of  Sbaftesbni7,  and  on  his  invitation 
went  to  live  ot  hia  house.  In  1672,  when  Shaftee- 
buiy  became  Lord  Chanoellor,  L.  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  Preaentations,  a  post  which  he  after. 
watds  exohauged  for  that  ot  Secrcttuy  to  the  Board 
of  Trade.  He  waa  employed  to  draw  np  a  eonsti- 
tution  for  tha  American  prorioce  ot  Carolina,  but 
111,  articles  oo  reli^ou  were  deemed  too  liberal,  and 


the  derffy  got  a  olanse  inserted,  giving  the  favour 
of  the  atata  exclusively  to  the  established  chundb 
In  1676,  he  look  np  his  residanoe  at  Montpellier  for 
the  benefit  of  his  health.  He  bad  all  his  life  an 
asthmatic  tendency,  which  at  that  time  threatened 
to  paaa  into  oonsumptiou.  At  MontMllier,  he 
formed  the  acqusintance  of  the  Earl  of  Pembroke 
to  whom  bis  il»say  is  dedicated.  In  1679,  he 
rejoiued  the  Earl  of  Shafteabuiy  in  England;  but 
in  1682  the  earl  fled  to  Holland,  to  avoid  a  prote- 
cutiOQ  for  hiah  treason.  L.  bore  him  company,  and 
so  far  shared  with  him  the  hostility  of  the  govsm- 
ment  of  James,  as  to  have  hi*  name  erased,  by 
royal  mandate,  from  the  liat  of  stadents  of  Christ- 
Church.  Even  in  Holland,  he  was  demanded  ol 
the  States-general  by  the  English  envoy ;  but  b« 
contrived  to  conceal  himself  t^  the  English  court 
oeaaed  to  trouble  itself  on  his  aooount.  In  1687, 
his  Bmav  on  the  UndfrsUmding,  begun  seventeen 
years  b«£ire,  was  finished;  and  an  abridgment  of 
it  was  jiublished  in  French  (1638],  by  hia  friend  La 
Clero,  m  his  S161ioeA^u«,  in  which  ll  had  publishad 
two  yeani  before  his  Sltlhod  of  a  CommonpUu* 
Book.  In  I63!>  appeared  (alto  in  Holland)  hia  firat 
letter  on  Toleration.  But  In  1689.  the  ^aar  (rf  the 
Revolution,  he  came  back  to  England  m  the  flset 
that  conveyed  the  Prinoeas  ot  Orange.  He  soon 
obtained  from  tha  new  goTemment  ibe  aitoation  of 
Commissioner  of  Appeab,  worth  £200  a  year.  He 
took  a  lively  interest  in  ttie  cause  of  toleration,  and 
in  maintaiiung  the  principles  of  the  fievolntion. 
In  1690,  his  Enag  on  the  Undtnlanding  waa 
published,  and  mot  with  a  rapid  and  eztemnro 
celebrity;  and  aLK>  a  second  letter  on  Toteraiion, 
and  hia  well-known  Treaiita  on  Qoeerameni,  In 
1691,  he  waa  engaged  upon  the  momentous  queation 
of  the  restoration  of  the  coinage,  and  published 
various  tracts  on  the  tubiect.  In  189^  he  brought 
out  a  third  letter  on  Toleralion,  which,  as  well 
as  the  second,  waa  a  reply  to  the  attacks  made 
on  the  first.  In  1693  was  published  his  work  on 
Edacation.  In  1693,  King  Wiltiom  appointed 
him  a  Commissioner  of  Trade  and  Plantations. 
In  the  same  year  he  published  hia  trcatiee  on  Ttc 
EeoKmabhnen  oT  Chriitianity,  which  waa  written 
to  promoto  William's  favourito  scheme  of  a  oom- 
prehenaioD  of  all  the  Christian  sects  in  one 
national  church.  He  maintained  a  Controreny  in 
defence  of  this  book ;  he  had  another  controveny  in 
defence  of  the  Estajj  on  Oie  Underttanding,  agamit 
Stillingfiect,  the  Bishop  of  Worcester.  His  feeble 
health  now  compelled  him  to  resign  his  office  of 
Comminioner  of  Plantations,  and  to  quit  London; 
and  he  spent  the  remainder  of  bis  life  at  Oatas,  in 
Essex,  at  the  seat  of  Sir  Francis  Mosham.  His  hut 
years  were  very  much  occupied  with  the  study  of 
the  Scriptures,  on  which  he  wroto  several  disserta- 
I,  which,  with  hU  little  work,  entitled  On  lAe 
Conduct  of  ihe  Underitanding,  were  published  after 
his  death.  He  died  28th  October  17(M- 
Oreat  as  were  L.'a  services  to  hta  conntry,  and  to 
IS  cause  of  civil  and  religious  Uberty,  his  fame 
ats  on  the  Euay  on  (kt  UndtrsUmdmg,  which 
marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  philosophy.  Hia 
irpose  waa  to  inquire  into  the  powers  of  the 
iman  nnderatandiiig,  vrith  a  view  to  Snd  out  what 
things  it  waa  fitted  to  grapple  with,  and  whero  it 

'  fail,  so  oa  to  make  tie  mind  of  man  'more 

niB   in   meddling  with  things   exceeding   ita 

oomprdienaion,  and  ^poaed  to  atop  when  it  ia  at 
the  utmost  extent  of  its  tether.'  This  purpose  led 
bun  to  that  thorough  investigation  of  tha  oonsti- 
tution  of  the  human  mind,  resulting  in  the  moat 
unmorons  and  Important  contributions  ever  made 
by  one  man  to  our  knowledge  on  this  mbjed  He 
institutes  a  preliminary  inquiry,  in  the  subject  of 


,  Google 


LOCKED  JAW— LOCUST. 


the  Fint  Book,  at  to  the  exiateace  of  innate  ideas, 
thsoretical  and  practical,  on  which  the  philosophical 
world  liM  been  so  much  divided.  See  Couuon 
Skhbb.  L.  argnM  against  the  existence  of  these 
mppowd  iimate  conceptions,  or  intuitions,  of  the 
mind  with  a  force  and  cogency  that  appear  irre- 
Mstdble.  Having  thus  repudiated  the  instinctive 
BOiuDea  of  our  knowledge  or  ideas,  he  is  bound  to 
■hew  bow  we  come  by  them  in  the  course  of  out 
experience.  Our  aiperience  being  twofold,  external 
and  internal,  we  hare  two  classea  of  ideas — -those  of 
Sensation,  and  those  of  Be&ection.  He  haa  there- 
tam  to  trace  all  the  recognised  conceptions  of  the 
mind  to  one  or  other  of  these  sources.  Many  of 
our  notions  are  obviously  derived  from  Gxperience, 
as  colmuB,  saunds,  kc ;   but  some  have  been  dis- 

Kted,  more  especially  such  as  Space,  Time,  Infinity, 
war,  Sabstauce,  Cause,  mer«  Good  and  Evil ;  anil 
L,  Aimmtmm  these  at  length,  by  way  of  tracing  them 
to  the  same  oru^  Tma  is  tiie  subject  of  Book 
Saoond,  entitled  *  Of  Ideas.'  Book  Third  is  on 
idered  a»  an  inetrmient  of  truth,  and 
Ls  much  volnable  material  The  Fourth  Book 
is  on  the  nature,  limits,  and  reality  of  our  know- 
ledge, including  the  nature  of  demonstrative  tmth, 
the  existence  of  a  God,  the  provinces  of  fajth  and 
reason,  and  the  nature  of  error, 

LOOKED  JAW.     See  TsTAiros. 

LOOKHART,  John  Oebsoit,  waa  bom  at  Cam- 
boBDethan,  in  Scotland,  in  1794.  His  father  was 
a  minister  of  the  Eetablished  Church  of  Scotland. 
L  rsceiTed  the  liist  stages  of  bia  eduoation  at 
Glasgow,  and  afterwords  proceeded  to  Oxford, 
where,  in  1S13,  he  took  first-dass  honours.  In 
1816,  he  became  an  advocsi«  at  the  Scotch  bar. 
He  appeals,  however,  to  have  wanted  the  quali- 
floations  necessaiy  for  Buccesa  iu  this  profession, 
and  besides,  the  bent  of  hie  mind  was  more  toward 
literature  than  law.  He  and  Wilson  were  Ions  the 
chief  supporters  of  BlackinooiTi  Magazine.  Here 
he  began  to  exhibit  that  sharp  and  bitter  wit  that 
WM  £is  moat  salient  characteristic,  and  made  him 
the  terror  of  his  enemies.  It  was  this  connection 
vhicb  led  to  his  acquaintance  with  Sir  Walter 
Soott  In  1S19,  appeared  Peler'a  LeUera  to  Ma 
Kin^foti.  In  1820,  he  married  Mias  Scott,  eldest 
daaditer  of  Sir  Walter.  In  1S21,  he  published 
Ka£rius,  and  in  1822,  Adam  Blair.  Both  of  those 
works,  especially  the  latter,  shew  him  to  have 
possessed,  at  least,  a  thorough  acqaaintanco  with 
the  mles  of  art  in  fiction-writmg.  Iu  1623  appeared 
his  StgirmJd  Palton,  a,  tale  of  English  university 
life,  and  in  1824  his  Ancient  SvaniaA  BaUada— 
perhaps  the  most  popular  of  all  bia  writings.  In 
the  same  year  he  pnbliahed  hia  last  novel,  HUtory 
of  Matlhevi  Wold.  Prom  1826  to  1853,  he  edited 
the  Qiiarlerly  Rinnea.  From  1837  to  1839,  appeared 
his  Life  qf  ScoU,  a  work  of  undoubted  merit,  but 
which  has  given  rise  to  much  bitter  controversy. 
In  1837,  his  wife  died,  having  been  predeceased  by 
their  eldest  son  Hugh.  His  second  son  died  at  a 
later  period.  In  1843,  L.  was  ^pointed  Auditor 
of  the  Duchy  of  Cornwall,  with  a  salary  of  £600 
»  year.  In  1347,  his  only  remaining  child,  a 
daiu;hter,  the  solo  Burviving  descendant  of  Sir 
W^ter  Scott,  married  J.  R.  Hope,  ¥t^.  She  died 
in  I8SS  leaving  an  only  daughter,  who  inherited  the 
estate  of  Abbotaford.    L.  died  25th  November  1854. 

LO'OKPORT,  a  city  of  New  York.  U.  a,  on 
the  Erie  Canal,  and  the  Rochester  and  Nio^^ 
Falls  Railway,  65  miles  west  of  Rochester.  Tllie 
canal  here  fuls  CO  feet,  with  5  combined  doable- 
looks,  and  its  surplus  water  gives  power  to  S 
flonring-mills,  7  «>w-mills,  6  stave  and  ahingle 
factories,  machine-shape,  and  foundries.    There  are 


papers,  and  tanneries,  manufactories  of  agncultoral 
implements,  glass,  Jtc    Pop.  in  1880,  13,622. 

LO'CLE,  a  frontier  town  of  Switzerland,  canton 
of  NeuchStel,  and  ten  miles  north.west  of  the  town 
of  that  name.  Pop.  {1380)  10,464,  who  are  engaged 
chiefly  in  watch-nuking.  Upwards  of  W,000 
watches  are  annually  manufactured. 

LOCO,  in  Mnsio,  indicates  that  the  notes  Me  to 
be  played  exactly  as  they  are  written. 

IiOOUS,  in  Qeometry,  denotes  the  line  or  surfaoe 
traversed  by  a  jwint  which  is  constnuned  to  move 
iu  accotdaoce  with  certain  determinate  conditions. 
Thus,  the  locus  of  a  point  which  mnst  always  pre- 
serve the  some  uniform  distance  from  a  fixed  pomt, 
is  the  soriace  of  a  sphere ;  but  if  the  motion  be 
at  the  same  time  connned  to  a  plane,  the  locus  in 
this  case  will  be  a  circle :  this  is  an  illustration  of 
the  division  into  aolid  and  plane  loci  which  pre- 
vailed among  the  anciente.  The  Greek  geometers 
made  their  geometrical  analysis  depeud  much  upon 
the  invesldgatjon  of  loci,  but  no  specifio  records  o^ 
their  progress  in  this  branch  of  geometry  now  exist. 
What  would  appear  to  have  been  their  method  waa 
restored  by  I>r  Simson  of  Glasgow,  whose  work, 
De  Loot  PZonia  (1749),  is  a  model  of  elegance. 
In  modem  Oeom^ry,  juane  lod  ore  treated  under 
the  name  of  Cvktes  (q.  v.). 


LOCtrS  POSNITBNTIj^:,  the  time  to  withdraw 
from  a  bargain^a  phrase  often  used  in  Scotch  law. 
The  generS  rule  is,  that  until  the  contract  is  finally 
settl^  either  party  may  retract ;  but  if  tvi  inter, 
ventua  has  intervened,  lb.,  if  some  act  has  been 
done  by  the  other  party  on  tbe  faith  of  the  agree- 
ment, oud  by  which  nia  poaitioQ  has  been  altered  the 
loan  panttenttce  ia  barred.  Much  depends  ou  the 
circumatancea  of  each  case  as  to  the  application  of 
the  rule. 

LOCUST  {Loeutla  of  some  entomologJBts,  and 
Aerydium  of  others),  tbe  type  of  a  family  {LocuatidiE 
or  Acrydida)  of  the  order  OrlAt^lera,  and  section 
Sallaloria  (see  Qrtilub).  Locusts  difier  from 
grasshoppers  and  crii±ets  in  their  abort  anteniua, 
and  in  the  greater  robustness  of  their  bodies  and 
limbs.  The  head  ia  large,  with  two  jnwjeoting 
oval  compound  eyes,  and  three  atemmatic  eya  on 
its  siunmit  The  vringa,  when  folded,  meet  at  an 
angle  above  the  book ;  the  abdomen  is  conical,  and 
compressed.  Their  hind-legs  are  laree,  and  they 
poBeaa  a  great  power  of  leaping.  They  make  * 
stridutont  noiae  by  the  friction  (3  the  rough  hind- 
legs  against  the  wing-Covers.  The  wing-coveis  are 
leathety,  noRower  thau  the  wings,  but  equal  to 
them  in  leogtb ;  the  wiu^  are  large,  reticulated, 
fold  like  a  fan,  and  are  Men  beautifully  oolomed 
—red,  pink,  brown,  green,  or  blue.  The  power  of 
fiigfat  <d  locusts  has  been  tbe  subject  of  much 
dispute,  some  asserting  that  they  can  fij  to  great 
distanoes,  others  that  they  have  little  power  of 
flight,  and  ore  merely  carried  before  a  gale  of 
wmd.  The  truth  seems  to  be  between  these  extreme 
opinions ;  locusts  fly  well,  but  they  are  sometimes 
wafted  by  winds  where  their  power  of  flight  would 
never  have  carried  them.  Their  food  consists  of  tbe 
leaves  ood  green  stalks  of  plants ;  the  mandibles 
and  mftlillie  are  streng,  sharp,  and  toothed,  and  in 
eating,  they  use  their  lore-feet  to  bring  their  food 
to  thur  month.  They  generally  quite  consume 
any  atalk  of  grass  or  other  green  thing  which  they 
have  selectea  and  out.  The  terrible  ravages  of 
locusts  are  owin^  to  the  vast  nmnbets  in  whioh 
the;  appear,  filling  the  ur  like  flokca  of  snow— 


Uin  11...  nv  Google 


LOCUST  TREE— ijODGma9. 


like  the  noiM  of  a  fidme  of  fire  that  deroureth  the 
■bibble;'  whibf^  m  he  tito  t&ys,  'the  land  is  as 
the  garden  ol  Eden  before  them,  and  behind  them 
a  dMolata  wilcUmeas.'  They  eat  ap  eTerj  green 
tiUng,  and  after  Uke  gmst  and  leavea,  they  deronr 


Loonsi  (ZoMubi  migraloria). 

in  their  linnger  Qie  bark  of  treea  and  thrnha.  Ripe 
gnuQ,  however,  may  escape,  ai  being  too  head 
and  dry.  These  moltitiidmoiu  iwarma  of  lo 
do  not  appear  annually ;  it  ia  only  after  the 
cf  a  nninber  of  yean  tlut  tlicy  ore  again  so  great 
and  so  deitrnctive ;  and  psrtJci^yeon  an  narked 
in  the  hiitoiy  of  some  oountries  aa  yeari  ot  tbeii 
eitraordinary  abtmdance,  and  of  coneeqaent  famini 
and  peatilenee.  When  driven  by  a  Btronif  wind  into 
Uie  sea,  they  have  sometimea  been  fiang  back  on  thi 
beach  in  nich  quantities  as  to  produoe  a  stench 
intolerable  to  a  great  dietaoce. 

Locusts  are  found  in  almost  all  ports  of  the  world 
except  the  coldest  regions,  but  tbey  abound  cbiefly 
in  tropical  and  subtropical  countries,  and  most  of 
all,  in  Arabia  and  Africa.   The  e.tstcra  and  souChcm 


rewords  are  paid  for  the  collection  of  locusts  and  of 
tiieir  eaga.  The  eggs  are  found  cemented  together 
in  little  masses  In  the  ground.  The  insects  them- 
•elres  are  taken  by  means  ot  a  stout  cloth,  tbo 
edge  of  which  is  mode  to  sweep  over  the  sorface 
of  the  ^und,  and  the  locoats  thus  thrown  together 
are  qmckly  gathered  into  sacks,  A  similar  mode 
ol  diminishing  the  nuisance  Is  adopted  iu  !N^orth 
America ;  but  before  an  invasion  such  as  districta 
of  Asia  and  Africa  ore  occasionBlly  subjected  to, 
all  human  effort  fails. 

Locusts  are  eaten  in  many  eonntriea,  roasted,  or 
tried  in  butter.  They  are  also  [reserved  in  brine, 
or  dried  in  the  son.  Thej  thus  atipear  in  tbo 
markets  of  Arabia,  Syria,  %ypt,  Modagaacor,  &c., 
and  are  even  exported  as  an  article  of  commerce. 

The  moat  noted  spocies  is  Loeiuia  migraloria 
(or  Aerydiam  miffraioritim] ;  about  2^  inches  in 
length,  ereenish,  with  brown  wing-covers,  marked 
Viw  buck.  It  is  this  spocies  which  is  most 
freonently  seen  in  Europe.  It  is  a  rare  visitant 
of  Britain.     Other  specieo  belong  to   oQior  ports 

of  the  world.    Some  of   them,  forming  the    

7Vu»)Ju,  and  inbabiting   the  warmeat   coi 
are  remarkable  for  their  Songatad  conical  head. 


•hort  anteonn,  bSong  to  Uie  genus   Tetrkc, 
family  LooiiUdie. 

IjOOIIST  TREE,  a  name  given  in  different  parts 
of  the  world  to  different  trees  of  tJie  natural  order 
Laffammote. — The  Carob  Tree  (Cnutonia  tiliqua)  is 
often  BO  called  in  the  countries  bordering  on  the 


Mediterranean,  and  its  pods  are  the  locust  beam 
of  our  shc^.  See  Cabob.  A  kind  of  effervescing 
beer,  made  from  locust  or  carob  podI^  has  been 
sold  in  London. — The  Ixicusr  Trbz  of  America 
{Sobmia  pteadataeia),  also  colled  the  Falsb  Acacu, 
or  Tbokn  Aoacia,  and  on  the  contineat  of  Europe 


.nd  especiolty  toughness,  is 
required;  this  latter  giujity, 
which  it  posscasca  pro-enunently, 
makea  it  very  valuable  for 
trenails  used  in   sbip-bnilding. 


also   valuable   for  raakioa  the 

cogs  of   wheels.— The   HOXXT 

LoauBT  (q.  V.)  TiiEB  of  Amerioa 

is   a   QUduickia. — The  LocosT 

Tbxe  of   the  West   Indies  ii 

Hymavxa  courbarU,  a  gigantio 

tree,   whose   pods  also  supply 

a  nutritious   matter,  a   m^y 

sabetoQce  in  which  tbe  pods  are  imbedded.     It  is 

sweet  and   pleasant,  but  apt  to   induce  diarrh<ea 

when  recently  gathered,  which  property,  however, 

it  loses  when  kept  for  a  short  time.    A  decoction 

of  it,  ollowed  to  ferment,  makes  a  kind  Qf  beor. 

The  bark  of  the  tree  is  anthelmintic ;    it   yields 

a  kind  ol    reain  called  Ajomb    (q,  v.),   and  it  is 

valuable  as  a  timber-tree,  the  timber  (olao  known 

as  LocuM    Wood\   being  close-grainrd  and    tough, 

and  in  nxjueet  in  England  for  trenoils.     It  ia  very 

generally  imported  in  the  form  of  trenails. 

LODE,  a  miner's  term  for  Veins  (q.  v.)  in  which 
minerals  occur.  They  ore  crevioes,  more  or  leas 
vertical,  produced  by  contraction,  or  the  mechanical 
disturbance  of  the  rock,  which  have  subsequently 
been  filled  with  metolUo  ores. 

LODBVE  (oncient  Ijalroa  in  QalUtt  NarbonemU), 
a  town  of  Southern  Prance,  in  the  depiirtment  of 
Hirault,  situated  on  the  Ergue,  ia  a  beautiful  valley, 
32  miles  noriib-west  of  Moatpellier.  It  is  enoLoscil 
by  walls,  has  a  cathedral,  with  manufactures  of 
woollen  cloths.  Popniat ion,  10,000.  L.  ia  the  birth- 
place of  Cardinal  Flenry. 

LODGED,  in  Heraldry.  A  beast  of  chase,  as  a 
stjig,  ia  aaid  to  bo  lodged  when  lying  down  with 
ita  hood  erect ;  a  beast  of  prey  in  the  samo  position 
is  said  to  be  couch  ant 

LODGING-MONEY  is  an  oUowanco,  in  the 
British  army,  granted  to  officers  and  others,  for 
whom  suitable  quarters  connot  bo  provided  in 
barracks.  Married  acrgeauta  and  private  soldiers 
who  are  married  'with  |icrmisaioa,  ait!  entitled  to 
lodging-mcney  at  various  rates  up  to  8<<.  a  week, 
when  separate  rooma  in  barracks  cannot  be  spared 
for  the  Bccommcdntion  of  each  couple.  Tbe  t«tal 
charge  for  lodging-money  in  the  army  estimates 
amounts  to  about  £100,00a 

LODGINGS,  or  tbe  uae  of  port  of  onother  [icr- 
Bon's  house,  wbeo  occupied,  conatitute  tbe  relation 
of  landlord  and  tenant  between  the  parties.  Lodg- 
gs  being  generally  taken  by  the  week,  or  month, 
'  quarter,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  contract 
should  be  by  writing,  though  it  ia  expedieut,  espe- 
cially where  any  particular  atipulationa  are  al>4e. 
But  where  a  fnmiBhed  house  is  let,  and  a  written 
agreement  or  lease  is  used,  it  ia  absolutely  necessaiy  I 
that  there  should  be  a  stamp  on  such  writing,  wUtJ^ 
moat  be  cancelled  by  the  parties  under  a  pcuuUty  of 
£5  besides  stamp-duty ;  and  house-agents  who  let 
famished  booses  above  £25  for  hire,  must  now  take 


(  ^noiilf 


^ 


out  an  anniuil  licence,  »nd  paj  dnt^.  In  EneUnd, 
the  chief  pointa  of  law  which  uue  are  u  follow : 
One  of  the  riiki  wUch  the  lodger  rtms  is,  tlut  if  hii 
l&ndlord,  h,  a  hinueli  >  tecuit  to  A,  somebody  else, 
then,  if  L'a  rent  is  in  arTear,  the  lodt^er's  ^pxxu  may 
be  taken  by  A  to  pay  this,  for  the  rule  is,  Uiat  all 
goods  foand  on  tite  premises,  to  whomsoerer  belong- 
ing, may  be  seized  to  pay  sirears  of  lent,  and  it  ib 
immaterial  whether  the  landlord  A,  yrho  distrains, 
knowa  they  ore  not  L's,  but  the  lodger's  goods.  The 
only  rem^y  in  such  a  case  for  the  lodger  is  to 
deduct  the  amonnt  of  loss  from  the  next  rent  he 
pays  to  L  for  lodgings.  Hence,  in  order  to  learn 
whether  the  aboye  riak  is  impending,  a  lodger 
frequently  inqnirea  beforehand  at  the  landlord  of 
the  house,  A,  and  the  tai- collectors,  whether  rent, 
Ac,  is  in  amar.  A  lodging-bouse  keeper,  even 
where  be  keeps  a  boarding^ouse,  which  nearly 
resembles  an  mn,  is  not  liable  for  the  safe  costod^ 
of  the  lodger's  goods.  He  is  merely  liable  for  ordi- 
nary care ;  but  ne  does  not  warrant  at  all  hazards 
that  the  goods  will  not  be  stolen,  as  an  Innkeeper 
(q.  V.)  doM.  Even  if  the  lodger's  ^ooils  are  stolen 
by  a  servant  of  the  house,  the  lodging-hoiise  keeper 
is  not  liable.  The  notice  to  quit  depends  on  how 
the  lodgings  were  taken.  IF  they  were  taken  by 
the  week,  a  week's  notice  is  sufficient ;  if  by  the 
month,  a  month's ;  and  if  by  the  quarter,  a  quarter's 
notice,  unless  some  other  agreement  was  made. 
Hence,  if  the  lodger  quit  wiilioat  notice,  he  is  liable 
for  one  week's,  or  month's,  &c,  rent,  even  though  the 
landlord  put  a  notice  in  the  window.  The  lodging- 
home  keeper  may  distrain  the  lodger's  goods  for 
nnpaid  rent.  When  a  lodger  refuses  to  quit  Uie 
lo^n^  nfter  a  notice  hat  expired,  he  cannot  be  put 
out  by  force,  but  in  many  cases  a  summary  remedy 
is  given  for  recovering  possession.  Since  ISSS,  a 
lodeer  is  entitled  to  vote  for  members  of  parliament 
in  boroughs,  if  he  pays  rent  of  the  clear  annoal 
value  of  £10,  provided  also  that  be  has  resided 
twelve  moQt)ia  in  the  district,  and  put  in  his  claim 
to  be  registered.  In  Scotland,  the  lodger's  goods 
cannot  be  taken  by  the  landlord  of  the  lodging-houae 
keeper  for  rent.  Common  lodging- hovKi,  where  poor 
people  lodge  by  the  night,  have  recently  been  sub- 
jected to  state  interference  ;  and  by  statutes  14  and 
15  VIcL  c  26,  and  16  and  17  Vict.  c.  41,  the  keepere 
of  such  lodgiQg-honses  must  register  them.  They 
are  liable  to  lie  inspected  by  an  officer  of  the  Board 
of  Health  for  sanitary  pnrpoaes,  aod  the  keepers  nto 
bound,  oa  notice,  to  report  to  the  local  authority 
every  nerson  who  resorted  to  their  houses  during  the 
prccedlne  d.iy  or  nifilit.  The  keepers  are  bonnd  to 
thorongluy  cleanse  tw  the  rooms,  stairs,  Ac,  aa  often 
OS  by-laws  shall  <^rect,  and  to  keep  a  proper  snpply 
of  water.  If  fever  break  out,  notice  must  be  given 
to  the  local  authority.  These  duties  are  enforecd  by 
means  of  penalties.  These  statutes  were  extended 
to  Ireland  tiy  the  statutes  23  and  24  Vict.  c.  26. 

I<OT>I,  a  Sonrishing  town  of  North  Italy,  in  the 
provinoe  of  Milan,  stands  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Adda,  10  miles  south  of  Milan,  on  a  gentle 
slope  in  the  midst  of  a  highly  fertile  district  and 
.  contains  (1881)  18,630  inhabitants.  It  is  protected  by 
walls  and  a  strong  oostlo,  erected  by  the  Viscnnli, 
but  lately  appropnated  as  a  military  homitaL    L, 


abont  five  miles  west  of  the  modem  town ;  it  wa* 
colonised  by  the  father  of  Pompey  the  Great,  hence 
its  name.  Lata  Pompaa,  corrupted  into  Lodi.  L. 
is  celebrated  for  the  victory  of  the  French,  under 
Bonaparte,  over  the  Anstriaas,  on  10th  May  1796, 
when  the  lone  and  narrow  bridge  was  carried  by 
the  Frenoh  columns,  notwitbstaiuling  a  tremendona 
fire  from  the  Anstrian  batteries. 

LO'ESS,  a  loamy  deposit  of  Pleistocene  a«^ 
occurring  in  the  valleys  of  the  Rhine  and  the 
Danube.  It  is  a  pulverulent  yellowtsh-gray  loam, 
homogeneous  and  non-plastic,  and  consists  of  a  mix- 
ture of  clay  and  carbonate  of  lime.  It  nsoally  tends  to 
cleave  in  vertical  planes,  and  thns  forms  cliffs  where 


\  bishops 


1  the  seat  of  a  colf^e,  and 


factures  _   .  ...         .,   J , 

Majolica  porcelain,  for  which  it  is  famous.  Its 
great  trade  is  in  cheese,  especially  the  famonji 
species  known  as  Parmesan,  which,  instead  of  belilg 
manufactnred  at  Parma,  ss  one  might  infer  from 
the  name,  is  exclusively  made  in  ttie  vicinity  of 
L.,  where  80,000  oows  are  kept  for  the  pnrpose. 
— IjOSI  TaooHnx  or  Old  Lodi,  is  a  mined  villue 
IID 


intersect  it.  In  the  Rhine,  it  apparently 
once  covered  (see  J.  Oeikie,  PrehUtorie  Europe,  1881) 
the  whole  valley  and  its  tributaries,  reaching  tt 


considerable  height  up  the  bounding  monatiins.  It 
hos  subsequently  been  greatly  abraded,  a  fringe  only 
of  the  deposit  being  left  on  the  mountainsides,  and 
Oocasionally  some  outliers  in  the  widest  parts  of 
the  valley;  the  matetiahi  have  been  carried  down 
by  the  nver,  and  realranEed,  as  a  newer  loeBS  or 
alhivium.in  Belgium  and  Holland.  This  continuous 
deposit  of  fine  sediment  su^eated  the  notion  to 
the  original  observers  of  an  enormons  lake,  whose 
barrier  was  at  the  murow  virge  of  the  Rhine  at 
Bingcn.  But  the  loess  occurs  further  down  ;  beside*, 
the  contained  fossils  are  not  lacustrine,  but  those  of 
lond-ommals  {ElepJua  and  RkinOKenu),  and  land- 
shells  {Hdia,  Pum,  and  Bnceinea).  It  is  now 
believed  to  be  the  moraine  mud  of  the  Alpine 
glaciers,  which  was  spread  out  gently  in  the  valleyi 
of  the  Bkine  and  Danube,  as  the  land  gradually 
emei^ed  from  the  sea.  The  loess  is  generally  from 
30  to  50  feet  in  thicknev^  though  sometimes  as 
much  as  200  feet.  Fossils  are  not  generally  distri- 
buted in  the  strata,  bnt  they  are  sometimes  locally 
abundant  They  consist  chiefly  of  land-shells  of 
species  now  inhabiting  the  same  region. 

LOFOTDEN,  LOFFOT)EN,  or  LOFOTEN,  a 
chaio  of  islands  on  the  north-west  coast  of  Norway, 
between  lat  67°  and  69°  15'  N.,  and  stretching  south- 
west and  north-east  for  175  miles.  The  largest  of 
the  islands  are  Hindtie,  Andoe,  and  Lang^  Ost 
Vaagen,  West  Yaagen,  and  Fla^tadiie.  All  of  them 
are  rugged  and  mountainous,  indeed,  soma  of  the 
eminences  in  Vaagen  attain  an  altitude  of  4000 
feet,  and  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  The 
glens  near  the  coast  poesesa  a  temperatnro  mild 
enough  to  allow  of  the  cultivation  of  oats,  barley, 
and  potatoes.  The  permanent  popnlation  is  esti- 
mntcd  at  4000.  The  islanders  oniefly  depend  upon 
the  fishery  which  was  established  some  time  pre- 
vious to  the  nth  c.,  and  has  always  attracted  a 
large  nnmber  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  mainland. 
The  average  number  of  boats  is  4000,  manned  by 
20,000  Ushermen;  and  the  produce  of  the  ood- 
fisheiy  ii  estimated  at  9000  tons  of  dried  fish, 
22,000  barrels  of  oil,  and  COOO  barrehi  of  rae. 
After  the  ood-fishery  has  terminated  (in  April), 
the  herring-fishing  season  oomes  tm,  and  oantmuas 
throughout  the  summer,  forming  also  an  important 
branch  of  national  indnstry.  Several  oQier  kinds 
of  fish  are  canght,  and  lobstcra  and  oysters  in 
abundance.  The  fishing  is  attended  with  consider- 
able danger,  on  aooonnt  of  the  sadden  and  violent 
storms  from  tiw  west,  and  of  the  strong  cnirents 
which  set  in  between  the  islands.  See  Uau,- 
amou.  The  inhabitants  are  a  mixed  raa«^  partly 
of  Scandinavian,  partly  of  Lappish  deecenb 

LOO  it  the  instmment  by  which  a  ship's  rate  of 
motion  through  the  water  is  meeuured.     lbs  simplest 


tOdAKEAOKA-LOGARlTUUs. 


log-Une  w  tiut  ita  fljtt  mrfftoe  U  at  ri|^t  knsle*  to 
the  Bhip'i  oonno.  When  throim  out— fttbuhed  to 
the  log-line  (m*  Kmo^ — the  log  meeta  with  moh 
reaiitanoe  that  it  theoretiOBlly  renuini  rtatiotury  in 
the  v&ter,  uid  the  log-linepuBiiig  freeljr  out  ahewB 
tha  apeed  of  the  TcaaaL  lliere  are,  htnrerer,  numy 
improved  logi,  which  have  oomplicated  appantoa, 
{or  m^i-Viiip  the  way  mad^  ohangea  of  directioD, 
Ac  Tht  Mg  and  une  are  known  to  have  been 
nsed  aa  early  a*  1570  A.D.,  and  were  allnded  to 


Bourne  in  1(^7.  Compati:^;  by  Ui« 
uncertain  operation,  olloirance  having  to  'Ee  made 
for  numberleaa  contingent  circnmstaooes.  In  ihipi 
of  war,  it  ia  lunol  to  heiva  the  log  every  hour ; 
in  merchantmen,  every  two  houra.  The  &g-board 
Ib  a  board  on  which  the  hourly  rnott*  of  toe  log- 
heaving  are  reoordod  in  chalk,  with  the  winds 
direction,  and  other  partieolar*,  for  the  guidance  of 
tiia  officer  in  charge.  The  conUats  of  the  log-board 
are  entered  daily  in  the  tog-book,  with  all  particD- 
lara  eascDtial  to  the  history  of  the  voyage,  aa 
■hipa  ipoken,  icebergs  leen,  land  sighted,  in.  The 
hg-boot  thus  becomea  a  rough  journal;  and  it  ia 
compulsory  upon  every  master  of  a  veaael  to  keep  it 
properly,  and  to  have  it  ready  for  inspaotion  by  any 
ship  of  war  of  hii  own  nation  whoae  captain  may 
require  its  production. 

LOOANIA'CE^,  a  natural  otdei  of  corolliflonU 
eiogeoi,  conaiating  of  treea,  shrubip,  and  herbaceona 
plants,  with  oppoaite  entire  leavea,  and  usually 
with  atipolei^  whidi  adhere  to  the  footatalka, 
or  form  aheath*.  The  calyx  ia  4— 5-partito  ;  the 
oorolla  bypogynous,  r^nlar  or  irregular,  4—5  or 
10-cleft  The  atameus  arise  from  the  corolla.  The 
ovary  ia  ^eraUy  S-celled;  there  ia  one  style. 
The  fruit  la  a  oapaole,  a  dmpe,  or  a  benr.  A  few 
apadea  of  this  order  oecnr  in  Aoitraha  and  in 
the  temperate  parte  of  North  Amerioa;  the  reat 
are  all  tropical  or  aub-tropioal.  There  are  about 
162  known  apeciee.  No  natural  order  of  plants  ia 
more  stronsly  characterised  by  poiaonous  properties 
especially  by  Strychnine  (q.  v.}.  It  includes  the 
genua  Strychnoa  (q.  v. ;  and  aee  Nuz  Touica)  and 
tho  Woorali  Poison  (q.  v.).     See  also  Spioeua. 

LOGANSPORT,  a  city  of  Indiana,  XJ&.,  in  a 
rich  agricultural  region,  haa  h  large  lumber  trade, 
with  important  faotoriea.  Pop.  (1870)  8960 ;  (1880) 
11,198. 

liOGARITHMIO  or  LOGISTIC  CURVE8 
are  cnrvea  whose  abscisaB  are  proportional  to  the 
logarithms  of  the  corresponding  ordinatea  ;  cooae- 
quently,  if  the  abaciaan  increase  in  aiithmetical 
progression,  the  otdinatea  will  increase  in  geometrical 
progresaion.  Th«  equatioD  to  tbeae  curvea  being 
K  =  a  log.  y  (a  being  constant],  y  -r-  =  a,  shewing 
that  the  subtangeot  baa  tlie  same  value  for  ail 
pointi  of  the  onrre,  and  ia  the  Hodnlna  (q.  v.)  of  the 
ayatem  of  logarithms  teprCMOted  by  the  particular 
onrvft  This  curre  ha*  another  remarkable  property 
— ij£,  that  the  area  eontamed  between  any  two 
ordinatea  is  equal  to  the  difierttice  <d  the  onSnatea 
multiplied  by  the  constant  anbtangent. 

LOGARITHMIC  or  LOGISTIC  BPIBAL  ia  a 
eutve  described  by  a  point  which  movea  uniformly 
along  a   uniformly  revolving   atraight  Hue.    This 


cnrre  has  i«T«nd  ramarkaUa  properties,  aom*  of 
-wbioh  are  analogooa  to  those  poaaessed  by  Ilia 
logarithmio  oarve.  Ita  involute  and  evolote  are  the 
same  with  itMlf.  Newton  aheirad  that  if  the  tone 
o(  gravi^  had  Taiiad  invaraaly  aa  the  euU  cf  Um 
diatuioe,  the  planeta  would  hare  ahot  off  tmn  tba 


n  logarith 


a  apirals.     The  equation  to  the 


LOGABITHUS,  a  series  of  nnmban  having 
a  certain  relation  to  the  aeriea  of  natural  numbera, 
by  means  of  which  many  arithmetical  opcrationa 
•re  made  oomparatively  easy.  The  nature  of  the 
relation  will  De  ondentood  by  ooniddaring  two 
simple  aeriea  sach  as  the  following,  one  proaeedlng 
from  unity  in  geometrioal  progression,  the  other 


Here  the  r*tio  of  the  geomebical  aeries  ia  S,  and 
any  term  in  the  arithmetical  series  expTeaaes  bow 
often  2  has  been  multiplied  into  1  to  prodnoe  the 
ooneaponding  tann  of  the  geometrical  aeries ;  thus, 
in  proceeding  from  1  to  32,  there  have  bean  6  steM 
or  multiplioatioQs  by  the  ratio  2 ;  in  other  wonb, 
the  ratio  of  32  to  1  is  compounded  five  times  of  the 
ratio  of  2  to  I.  It  waa  thia  oonc«ition  of  the 
relation  that  led  to  giving  the  name  of  LogariOmu 
to  the  aritfamatical  seriea,  the  word  loganAm  (Or. 
logo*  arithmot)  meaning  '  the  number  of  the  ratios.' 
Aa  to  the  use  that  may  be  made  of  such  aeriea,  it 
will  be  observed  that  the  sum  of  any  two  logarittuM 
(aa  we  ahaU  now  call  the  lower  serial)  is  the 
logarithm  of  their  product ;  &  g.,  9  (—  3  +  0)  >■ 
the  logarithm  of  613  (-  6  x  «).  Similarly,  the 
diflmnoe  of  any  two  logarithms  is  the  logarithm 
of  the  quotient  of  the  numbera ;  a  multiple  of  any 
logarithm  is  the  logarithm  of  the  corresponding 
nnmber  laised  to  the  power  of  the  multiple,  e.  g., 
8  (=  4  X  2)  is  the  logarithm  of  250  (=>  16*),  and 
a  snbmnltiple  of  a  logarithm  is  the  logaritluu  of 
the  corresponding  root  of  ita  number.  In  this  way, 
with  oon^ete  tables  of  numbera,  and  their  ooma- 
ponding  logarithma,  addition  ia  made  to  take  the 
place  of  multiplication,  subtraction  of  diviaion, 
multipUcation  of^in volution,  and  diviaion  oC  evolutioB. 

In  order  to  make  the  aenea  above  given  of  prac- 
tical use,  it  would  be  neceasatv  to  complete  thsm 
by  interpolating  a  set  of  means  between  the  several 
terms,  as  will  be  explained  below.  We  have  choaeu 
2  aa  the  fundamental  ratio,  or  basc^  aa  being  moat 
convenient  for  illustration ;  but  any  other  number 
grai  or  fractional)  might  be  taken ;  and  every 
different  baas,  or  radio,  givea  a  differont  natam 
of  logarithma.  The  ayatem  now  in  nae  haa  10  for 
ita  haae ;  in  other  worda,  10  ia  the  number  whoae 
lonrithm  ia  1. 

The  idea  of  making  uaa  of  aeriea  in  thia  way 
would  seem  to  have  beui  known  to  Archimedea  and 
Euclid,  without,  however,  resulting,  in  any  practical 
scheme ;  but  by  tlie  end  ot  the  lOth  c,  trigo- 
nometrical operations  bad  become  so  complicated 
that  the  wits  of  several  mathematioiana  were  at 
work  to  devise  means  of  ahorteuiug  them.  Tha  nal 
inventton  of  logarithma  is  now  universally  ascribed 


omm.  Bis  tablea  only  give  logarithms  of  _. 
ooeioes,  and  the  other  functions  of  angles ;  they 
also  labour  under  the  threa  defect*  of  being 
aometimee  -I-  and  soroetimea  — ,  ot  decmaaing  as  the 
correspondinc  natural  numbers  increase,  and  of 
having  for  tSeir  radfa:  (the  number  o(  which  the 
logarithm  is  1)  the  nnmber  wbich  ia  the  sum  of 

^^^'''r^^ri^S'''''*^     These  defects  wer^ 


■.c;offgici 


IXMABTIHMS. 


hotrever,  toon  ramedied  :  Jolm  Speidell,  in  lfll9, 
uneoded  the  tables  in  nich  a  maimer  tliat  tha 
logaritlmiB  b«camo  all  positive,  and  increased  aloog 
with  thdr  correapon£[ig  natural  nombera.  Ha 
ftlao,  in  the  sixth  edition  of  his  work  (1624),  oou- 
■tracted  a  table  of  Napier's  logarithms  for  the 
int^er  numbers,  1,  2,  !!,  &c.,  ap  to  1000,  with  their 
diSerenoee  and  arithmetical  complements,  besides 
other  improvements.  Speidell's  tables  are  now 
known  as  hyperMic  logarUkma.  But  the  greatest 
improvemeDt  was  made  in  1616,  by  Professor 
Henry  BHsga  (q.  v,),  of  London,  who  substituted 
lor  NapierV  inconvenient  '  radix,'  tlie  number  10, 
and  succeeded  before  liia  ieu&i  in  calculating  the 
lorauitbnis  of  30,000  natural  numbers  to  the  new 
Tsdix.  Briggs's  exertions  were  ably  seconded ;  and 
before  1G28,  the  logarithms  of  all  Qie  natural  nnm- 
bers  up  to  100,000  liad  been  computed.  CoDmntera 
have  since  chiefly  occupied  themselves  ratner  in 
repeatedly  revising  the  tables  already  calculated, 
than  in  extending  them. 

Conttruction  m  TcAta. — The  following  is  the  sim- 
plest method  of  constmcting  a  table  of  logarithms 
on  Srign's  BTstem.  The  log.  of  10=  1*;  die  log. 
of  100  (which  is  twice  componnded  of  10)  =  2* ; 
the  log.  of  1000  =  3',  £c.  ;  and  the  logarithms  of  all 
powen  of  10  can  be  found  iu  the  same  manaer.  Tbe 
mtennediate  logarithms  are  found  by  continually 
computing  geometric  means  between  two  numbers, 
one  neater  and  the  other  less  than  tbe  number 
reqmred.  Thus,  to  find  the  log.  of  5,  take  tha 
geometrio  mean  between  1  and  10,  or  3102...,  the 
oon«spoodiag  arithmetic  moan  (the  log.  of  1  being 
0,  ana  that  of  10  being  I')  being  '5 ;  the  geometric 
mean  between  3'162...  and  10,  or  6-623...,  corre- 
•poads  to  the  arithmetic  mean  between  '6  and  T 
or  15  ;  die  geometric  mean  between  ^162...  and 
5-623...,  or  4^18...,  has  its  logarithm  =  i(-75  +  6) 
or  -628;  this  operation  is  continued  till  the  rcanlt 
is  obtained  to  the  neeessaiy  degroe  of  accuracy. 
In  this  eiomple,  the  twenty-firat  roaiilt  gives  the 
geometric  mean  =  6000,003,  and  the  corresponding 
BTithmetic  mean  =  -G9S,9T0,  which  is  in  ordinary 
calculations  nsed  as  tha  logarithm  of  5,  Since 
division  of  numbers  corresponds  to  subtraction  of 
lorarithms,  and  since  2  =  1/,  the  log.  of  2  =  log.  10 
-log.  5=1--  -098970  =  -301030.  The  logarithms 
of  sJI  prime  numbert  are  found  in  the  same  way  as 
tliat  of  6  ;  those  of  compoeite  numbers  are  ohtauied 
by  the  addition  of  the  logarithms  of  their  facUira  ; 
thus,  the  log.  of  0  =  log.  2  +  1(^  3  =  -301030  + 
•477121  =  -778161.  This  method,  though  simple  in 
principle,  involves  an  enormous  amount  of  calcula- 
tion ;  and  the  Collowing  method,  which  depends  on 
the  modem  algebraic  anslysis,  is  much  to  be  pre- 
ferred. According  to  this  method,  logarithms  are 
considered  as  indices  or  powers  of  the  radix  ;  thus, 
10"  =  1,  10-*"™  =  2,  lO-"''"  =  3,  10»  =  100,  ftc. ; 
and  the  laws  of  logarithms  then  become  the  tame 
as  those  of  indices.  Let  r  represent  the  radix,  y  the 
natural  number,  x  its  lognrithm ;  then  j/  =  r' ,  or, 

Catting  1  +  a  for  r,  y  =  (1  -(-  a)^ ;  and  it  is  shewn 
y  the  binomial  and  exponential  theorems  (see  the 
ordinary  works  on  Algebr»)  that  y  =  1  +  An;  + 


■■  1.2,3 


-I-  i(r  —  1)'—,  *c.,  the  former  eqnation  expressing  a 
number  as  the  siim  at  different  multiples  of  its  loga- 
rithm and  the  radix.    Tf -J  besu1i!ititutedforx,then 

j,  =  r^  =.  I  •^  »  -<-i^+i4~3+.*o-  =  2-71828182... 
which,  as  before  mentioned,  is  Napier'a  radix,  and 
!i  generally  called  e ;   then  r^  =  «iorr  =  e  ,orji 


Then,   re^rring   to    the    above-mentioned    value 
of   A,   we  have,  log.   r   {L  e.,   log   of   r   to   this 


■a  a  —  -^  -I-  -^  —  Ac. ;  a  serisa  from  which  log. 
{I  +  a]  cannot  be  found,  unless  a  be  fractionaL 
However,  if  we  put   -  a  for  a,  log.    (I  —  o)  •= 

—  a  —  ^ —  ~9  ~  ^'^ '  ""^  ■ohtracting  this  axpras- 
Mon  from  the  foimer,  log.  (1  +  o)  —  log.   (1  —  a)  ot 

log.  ^(|4-i)-2{a-fy-l-  f+  Ic),  and,  for  the 

sake  of  convenience,   putting   for  -         .  in 


which  case,  a 


log.  («  +  1) 


e  finally  obtain  log.    


^  3(2u  +  l)''^  6(2u  +  l)' 


■'  i  STTT  "^  3(2»  +  1? 
If  1  be  pat  for  u  in  Qum 


formula,  the  Napierian  logantnm  ot  2  is  at  once 
obtained  to  any  degree  of  accuracy  required ;  if  2 
be  put  for  u,  the  I^pierian  logarithm  of  3  can  be 
calculated,  &c.  Now,  as  loganthms  of  any  system 
have  always  the  same  ratio  to  one  another  as  the 
corresponding  logarithms  of  any  other  system,  no 
matter  what  ila  base,  if  a  number  can  be  found, 
which,  when  multiplied  into  the  logarithm  of  a 
certain  number  to  one  base,  gives  the  logsrithtn 
of  the  same  number  to  another  base,  this  multi- 
phoT  will,  when  multiplied  into  any  logarithm  to 
the  iiist  base,  produce  the  corresponding  logarithm 
to  the  other  base.  The  multiplier  ia  colled  the 
Modulus  (q.  v.),  and  for  tbe  conversion  of  Napierian 
into  common  or  Briggs's  logarithms,  is  equal  to 
-4342044... ;  BO  that,  U>  Jind  the  common  logarithm 
qf  any  number  ;  _firal,  Jind  Oie  Napierian  logarilAm, 
and  vmltiply  it  by  -4342944... 

As  in  Brio's  system,  the  logarithm  of  10  is  1-, 
and  that  of  TOO  is  2-,  it  followB  that  all  numbers 
between  10  and  100  have,  for  their  logarithms, 
unity  -I-  a  proper  fraction  ;  in  other  words,  the 
integer  portiou  of  the  logarithms  of  all  numbers  of 
two  figures  is  unity ;  similarly,  the  integer  portion 
of  the loearithma  of  numbers  betivecn  1(K)  and  1000 
is  2,  and,  io  general,  the  integer  portion  of  the 
logarithm  of  any  number  enreases  a  number  less 
W  unity  than  the  number  of  figuree  in  that  number. 
Tois  integer  is  called  the  diaraelerialie,  tha  decimal 
portion  being  designated  as  tbe  maiiHtKi. 

As  the  logarithm  of  1  =  0,  the  logarithms  of 
quantities  less  than  unity  would  naturally  be  nega- 
tive; thus,  the  logarithm  of  i  would  bo  —  ■30103, 
but,  for  convenience  in  working,  the  tnautiasa  is 
kept  always  positive,  and  the  negative  sign  only 
aftecta  the  characteristic ,-  the  logarithm  of  i  or  -5 
would  thns  he  1-60807,  tha  characteristio  in  this 
and  similar  caaea,  expressing,  when  the  fraction  ia 
reduced  to  a  decimal,  the  number  of  places  the  first 
figure  is  removed  from  the  decimal  point ;  thns,  the 
logarithm  ot  -0005  is  4-69897. 

Directions  for  tbe  uae  of  Logarithms  in  oalciilation 
will  be  found  prefixed  to  any  set  of  Tables.  The 
hiatory  ot  tbe  discovery  is  given  in  tlio  preface  to 
Dr  Huttou's  Tables. 

The  tables  meet  distinguished  for  accuracy  are 


.Gol>;;Ic 


LOGGIA— LOOia 


the  Fiendi  ones  of  Callet,  lAknde,  Bagayi;  Hnt- 
too'i,  uid  those  which  Mr  Babbkge  prmlaoed  with 
the  aid  of  his  ingeniotui  cslculating  nutehine ;  and 
the  Gemun  ones  of  GaoBS,  SchM^  Bruhns,  Voa 
Vegs,  Bremiker. 

LO'GGIA,  an  Italian  word  sigaifying  an  open 
arcade,  encloains  s  poHsage  or  open  apartmant.  J'^ 
is  ft  favourite  cmw  of  boildina  in  Italy  and  otht. 
warm  coantries.  The  Loggia  de'  Laazi  at  Florence 
is  one  of  the  finest  examples  extant ;  and  the  Loggie 
of  the  Vatican,  which  ore  arcaded  passages  round 
the  interior  of  the  cortile  of  the  palace,  ornamented 
with  beantifal  paintinra  and  arabes^nes  by  Sapboel 


ifulation.    Rev 
—  ' — '  merely 


and  his  pupils,  e 


U-known  specimens. 


LOGIO  maj  be  most  brieSy  defined,  in  accord' 
snCB  with  the  etymology  of  the  word,  as  the 
science  of  reasoning  or  '  the  art  of  thinking.'  II 
is  a  scientific  accomit  of  the  laws  whioh  regulate 
the  passage  in  thought  from  one  statement  to 
another,  and  which  most  be  observed  if  the  thinking 
process  is  to  be  valid.  The  theory  of  every  opera- 
tion is  later  than  its  performance,  and  men  were 
aocDstomed  to  think  correctly  long  before  they 
began  to  reflect  upon  their  thinking  faoiiICies  and 
the  processes  by  wliich  their  results  were  reached. 
The  attention  which  Socrates  devoted  to  the  mean- 
ing and  justification  of  general  names,  is  signalised 
by  Aristotle  as  the  bcwiming  of  logical  theory.  It 
was  Aristotle  himself,  however,  who  first  elaborated 
the  idea  of  the  sdenoe,  and  cfefined  it*  sphere  by 
seiNvating  it  from  the  metaphysical  questions  with 
which  logical  discussions  are  always  associated  in 
his  [iredecessors-  The  six  treatises  ofterwaids  col- 
lected nnder  the  name  of  the  Organon  contain  the 
gist  of  what  is  sbill.taught  as  formal  logic ;  bat  the 
tenn  logio  was  probably  first  used  by  the  Stoics 
in  the  wide  sense  with  which  we  are  familiar. 
Aristotle  himself  possessed  no  single  name  for  the 
science  of  which  be  was  the  founder, 

The  independence  which  Aristotle  conferred 
upon  the  new  science  has  enabled  it  to  survive  to 
the  present  day  almost  without  change,  and  with 
very  few  additions  of  importance.  But  while  the 
edifice  of  Aristotle  remains  architectonically  com- 
plete upon  its  own  basis,  it  hoa  become  customary 


bracing  an  account  of  the  methods  of 

the  conditions  of  soientiGe  jiroof.  The  modem 
version  of  the  Aiistotelian  Logio  is  then  called,  by 
way  of  distinction.  Pure  or  Formij  Logic.  The 
meaning  of  this  designation  is  that  logic,  as  such, 
takes  no  acconnt  of  we  vtalier  of  our  reasonings — 
i.e.,  of  the  things  reasoned  about;  it  deals  edely 
with  the  fonn  or  skeleton  at  the  reasoning  process 
itself.  Thni,  if  we  say,  'Englishmen  are  white- 
skinned,'  logio  lias  no  occasion  to  consider  the 
truth  of  this  statement  as  a  matter  of  fact  or 
science ;  it  deals  only  with  the  form  of  the  pro- 
position_  or  jodgmeut  as  a  general  logical  mould 
into  which  any  pair  oE  notions  may  be  fitted.  It 
treata  the  proposition,  in  ebort,  only  so  for  as  it  is 
enpressible  m  the  form,  'X  is  Y.'  To  Uiis  abstrac- 
tion from  all  questions  regarding  the  adequai^  of 
oar  notions  and  the  material  tmth  of  our  assertions, 
formal  logio  owes  its  completeness  as  a  science. 
It  looks  upon  thought  not  oa  the  expression  of  the 
truth  of  things,  but  as  a  series  of  mechanical 
operations,  and  its  aim  is  to  lay  down  the  general 
r  symbolic  forma  which  tbeso  operations  must 
BBume  in   order  to  insure  that  the  end  shall  be 


accordingly  been  osUed  the  logic  of  oonsistency,  m 
opposed  to  induction,  which  seeks  to  be  a  logic  of 
truth  Pure  logic  takes  its  material,  -  "^  - 
ready-made  from  the  hands  c'  ' 
merdy  watches  over  its  correct  l 
soning  in  the  strict  logical  sens 
analytic;  the  conclosion  only  brings  to  ejpljoft 
consciousness  what  was  implied  or  involved  in  the 
premises.  Formal  logic  is  thus,  in  its  most  genial 
aspect,  an  application,  by  means  of  many  subordi- 
nate roles,  of  the  laws  of  identity  and  non-conlra- 
diction.  Practically,  however,  it  is  of  great  serrice 
in  clarifying  the  thought  of  the  individual,  though, 
in  a  sense,  iqerely  teaching  him  what  he  knows 

Formal  logic  is  usually  treated  nnder  the  three 
heads  of  Nobons,  Judgments,  and  Reasonings  %  or, 
if  regard  be  had  to  the  verbal  expression  of 
thought,  the  >Notion,  Judgment,  and  Reasoning 
appear  respectively  as  Term,  Proposition,  and 
Syllogism.  Though  pure  logic  has  strictly  nothing 
to  say  abont  the  formation  of  ^neral  names  or 
the  adequacy  of  our  notions,  it  is  customary  for 
logical  writers  to  expound  under  the  first  bea^  the 
nature  of  generalisation  and  definition — the  pro- 
cesses bv  which  our  actions  are  formed  and  tested. 
The  Judnnent,  however,  may  be  taken  as  the  unit 
in  logic,  for  it  is  only  in  their  relation  as  suhjeot 
and  predicate  of  a  judgment  that  notions  beoome 
siisceptibte  of  logical  treatmeot.  The  combinatian 
of  two  jiidgmanto  (involving  three  notions),  in  sneh 

form  that  a  third  judgment  is  deduced   from 

em,  constitates  a  Syllogism.  Pure  logio  demon- 
strates the  raducibiiity  of  the  most  complsx 
reasonings  to  a  succession  of  variations  on  Uiis 
fundamental  type.  As  an  appendix  to  this  ex- 
positiDn  of  the  normal  forms  of  inference,  then 
follows  a  discussion  of  the  didbrcnt  classes  of 
fallacies  to  whjch  any  deviation  ^m  tiiem  may 
^ve  rise.  It  is  iu  this  aspect  that  logic  vindioateii 
its  olaim  to  be  'a  cathartio  of  the  human  mind.' 
For,  like  ethics,  logio  is  a  normative  science; 
"  t  is  to  say,  it  does  not^  like  the  physical  sciences, 
like  psychology,  simply  generalise  facts.  Its 
laws  ore  not  statements  of  miat  always  happens^ 
but  rules  of  what  ought  to  be  done.  This  disUnc- 
tion  contains  the  answer  to  the  question,  once 
much  debated,  whether  logio  is  a  science  or  an  art. 
Tlie  question  is  essentially  a  dispute  about  woids. 

The  perception  that  pore  logic  treats  thought 
simply  as  a  process  of  comparison  and  claasification, 
has  induced  a  number  of  recent  logicians  (chiefly 
Bnglish)  to  attempt  an  exteneion  of  Aristotle  a 
scheme  by  a  thorough-goins  apphcation  of  the 
notion  of  logical  quantity.  Thus  Sir  W.  Hamilton 
maintained  that  the  relation  between  subjeot  and 
predicate  in  a  propoeition  is  that  of  logical  equation. 
The  proposition,  'All  men  are  mortaV  means,  when 
fully  en>reseed,  'All  men  are  some  mortals.'  If 
the  predicate  be  thus  explicitly  quantified,  it  is 
evident  that  we  may  substitute  for  the  oopula  the 
algebraical  symbol  of  equation.  For  the  conse- 
quences of  this  view  in  the  multiplication  of 
prepositional  and  sylloKixtic  forms,  see  QcANTinCA- 
TioN  01  Prbdioatk.  This  line  of  thought  has  tweii 
further  worked  out  by  Mr  Jevons,  who  define* 
iference  as  '  the  substitution  of  similars.'  He 
Duld  make  the  proposition  run — 'All  men  are 
mortal  men'  (All  a  is  ai).  De  Morgan's  formula 
for  the  proposition  is  similar ;  but  his  innovations, 
ns  well  as  Boole's  development  of  logic  into  a 
branch  of  mathematics,  are  rather  specimens  of  the 
ingenuity  of  their  authors  than  transcripts  of  actoal 
thought-processes.  They  shew  no  signs  of  taring 
tbeii  place  as  a  permanent  addition  to  logioM 
doctriue.    The  same  may  be  said  of  Mr  Jevon'a 


LOOOGEAM— LOGOa 


;s; 


Meljiod  of  Indii«at  Inference,  by  which  lie  olaima 

to  have  reached  the  wune  reiulte  u  Boole  without 
Qm  use  of  mathenuttioa.  The  Method  consiBtB  in 
'developing'  all  the  pouible  combln&tioni  of  the 
temu  mantioaed  in  the  premiiNe,  and  tiien  pro- 
OBedioB,  bj  elimination  of  those  whioh  violate  the 
condiboni  there  lud  down,  to  reach  those  com- 
blnationc  which  are  consiitent  with  our  data.  Mr 
JevonB  hu  applied  hii  priDcipIe  in  tbe  inventioD  of 
I  logical  machine  which  eiTecti  this  proceu  of 
coantioj^  out  with  unerring  accuracy ;  but  where 
the  terms  are  multiplied  to  any  eit«nt,  the  opera- 
tion ia,  of  courae,  cumbront  in  the  extreme. 

fiaooa  il  commonly  regarded  aa  the  founder  of 
Indnctive  Logic  He  pnt  himoelf  at  the  head  of 
the  revolt  againit  the  acoolMtia  logio  which  marked 
D  of  the  BenaiBaanoe,  and,  though  hia  own 

_j.  jneion    of   aoientiGc    method   wax    gravely 

delectiTe,  bis  eloqaenoe  and  his  nosition  made  him 
the  moat  infiuentiol  prophet  of  the  scientillo  move- 
ment which  Oalilei  and  others  had  initiated.  In 
point  of  fact,  he  came  to  sapplement  the  old,  not 
to  supersede  it ;  but  he  allowed  his  dislike  of  the 
abuses  of  the  Aristotelian  logio  to  carry  bim  away 
into  indiscriminate  dennucistiou.  Bacon's  animus 
is  perhaps  ezcuaable  as  tbe  aeal  of  the  reformer ; 
■od  it  may  be  granted  that  in  the  Aristotelian  logio, 
as  in  Greek  philoaopbj  generally,  there  is  a  tend- 
ency to  let  the  study  of  words  usurp  the  place  of 
the  inveatwation  of  facts.  The  middle  ages  had 
exagverated  this  tendency  by  habitually  oesaming 
the  aistinctions  existing  among  tbin^^  to  be  cor- 
rectly aod  adequately  rend^ed  by  traditional 
names.  Beyond  tbii^  Bacon's  diatribee  against 
'ayllogiam'  betray  a  misapprehension  of  tbe  real 
fuDction  of  formal  logic,  which,  oa  b  ' 
makes  no  pretensiona  to  be  an  instrnment  of 
scientific  discovery.  Inductive  theory  has  received 
many  developments  since  the  time  of  Bacon, 
notably  at  the  hands  of  J.  B.  Mill  The  pro- 
^reaa  of  acience  has  made  it  easier  to  formiuate 
it*  metboda  and  to  determine  the  conditions  of 
valid  scientifio  proof.  It  is  sufficient  here  to  point 
oat  that,  whereas  in  formal  or  deduotive  logio, 
reasoning  proceeds  from  a  whole  to  the  porticu&rs 
inolnded  under  that  whole,  we  seem  in  indnctive 
logio  to  rise.  In  reliance  on  the  uniformity  of  nature, 
frran  observation  of  particulars  to  the  enunciaiion 
of  a  oniversal  proposition.  See  Ihdhctioh.  The 
profouod  interest  and  value  of  these  inveatigo- 
tions,  when  compared  with  tbe  rigid  fnunework  of 


expense  of  the  latter.    But  the  two  disciplines 

essentially  dlstiiict ;  and  the  exactness  and  sc: 

tiSc  oompletenees  of  pure  or  forma!  logic  will  always 
ooDstitato  it  a  valuable  educational  iostrnment. 

IX^'GOORAM  [Gr.  logoi,  a  word,  and  gnmma,  a 
letter)  ia  simply  a  complicated  or  multiplied  form 
(rf  the  Anagram  [q.  v.),  where  the  pome-monger, 
instead  of  contenting  himself  with  the  formation  of 
a  single  new  word  or  sentence  out  of  the  old,  by 
the  transposition  of  the  letters,  racks  bis  brain  to 
discover  all  the  words  that  may  be  extracted  from 
the  whole  or  from  any  portion  of  the  letten,  and 
throws  the  whole  into  a  series  of  verses  in  which 
synonymic  eipreaaCons  for  Uiese  words  must  be  nsed. 
'Die  pnzzle  lies  in  ascert^ning  what  the  concealed 
WOT^  are,  and,  throngb  them,  what  is  the  prima^ 
word  out  of  which  tEey  have  all  been  extracted. 
A  apecimsD  ia  mven  in  Henry  B,  Wheatleys  book 
1  Anagrtims  fl862),  in  which,  out  of  tho  word 
— •-'--'  -to  less  than  S3  noaller  ones  are  framed. 


been  treated  of  by  Uie  epic  poets,  supplementing 

them  by  traditions  derived  from  oUier  qnartera,  so 

to  form,  at  least  in  appearanoe,  a  oonuected 

histoiy ;    their   works,    however,   seeming    to   be 

tended  rather  to  amnse  their  readers,  than  to 

ipart  accurate  historical  knowledge.     The  term 

u  also  applied  to  those  orators  who  composed 

judicial  speeches   or  pleadings,  and  sold  them  to 

those  who  required  them. 

LCGOB  {Gr.  from  Ugo.  •!  speak')  denotes  the 
act  of  speakmg ;  that  wMch  is  spoken;  the  natural 
process  gone  through  for  the  purpose  of  the  foima- 
tion  of  speech ;  the  reasoning  power*  themsdves : 
— all  the  attribntea  and  operations  of  the  soul, 
in  fact,  as  manifested  by  the  spoken  word.  It 
thus  occurs  iu  the  classical  writers  under  the 
manifold  signiQcations  of  word  or  words,  conver- 
sation, oration,  exposition,  command,  history,  prose, 
eloquence,  philosophical  proposition,  system,  reason, 
thonght,  wisdom,  and  the  Uke.  Theolo^oally,  tbe 
word  logos,  as  ooourring  at  tbe  beginning  at  the 
gospel  al  St  John,  was  early  taken  to  refer  to 
uie  'second  x>erson  of  the  Trinity,  L  e.,  Christ^' 
Yet  what  waa  the  precise  meaning  of  the  apostle, 
who  alone  makes  use  of  the  term  in  a  manner 
which  allows  of  a  like  inter];aetation,  and  only  in 
the  introductory  part  of  his  gospel ;  whether  he 
adopted  the  symbolising  usage  in  which  it  was 
employed  by  the  various  schoma  of  his  day ;  which 
of  their  widely  differing  significations  he  had  in 
view,  or  whether  he  intended  to  oonvey  a  meaning 
quite  peculiar  to  himself  .'—these  are  some  of  the 
numerable  qaestions  to  which  the  word  has  given 
divinity,  and  which,  though  most  fiercely 
id  ever  sinoe  the  6nit  dayt  of  Chiistianity, 
far  from  having  found  a  satisfactory  soluLioo 
up  to  this  moment.  The  fact,  however,  ia,  that 
the  notion  of  a  certain  manifestation  or  revdation 
out  of  the  centre  of  the  Godhead,  as  it  were — 
which  manifestation,  as  a  more  or  loss  peraonilicd 
part  of  the  Deity,  etands  between  the  realiiia  of  the 
infinite  and  the  finite,  of  spirit  and  matter— has  from 
times  immemorial  been  the  common  property  of  tho 
whole  East,  and  is  found  eipreesed  m  the  religious 
of  the  primitive  Egyptians,  as  well  as  in  those  of 
the  Hindus  and  Parsees.  litis  notion  of  an  embodi- 
ment of  divinity,  aa  '  Word '  or  '  Wisdom,'  found 
its  way,  chiefly  from  the  time  of  the  Babylonian 
exile,  into  the  heart  of  Judaism,  whioh  in  vain  endea- 
voured to  reconcile  it  with  the  fundamental  idea 
of  the  Divine  Unity.  Tho  apoci^hal  writets  chielly 
pointed  to  the  'Wisdom' — of  which  Solomon  (Prov. 
viiL  22)  says  that  it  had  dwelt  with  God  fnim 
the  bwinmng,  and  Job  (xiviii.  20),  that  it  had 
assisted  iu  the  creatioo-~-aa  iJie  emanation  of  God, 
which  emanation  was  supposed  to  be  bodily  to  a 
certain,  however  minute,  degree.  Thus,  Siroch  (xiiv. 
1,  23)  anderstands  the  'Sjiirit  of  God'  (Oen.  i  2) 
to  be  a  kind  of  veil  or  mist,  and  speaks  (i.  1,  6]  of 
the  '  wisdom  that  is  of  the  Lord  and  is  witji  the 
Lord,  everlsatisg,'  aoi.  that '  it  waa  ertaied  before  all 
things,  and  known  unto  Him'  (ib). 

TUs  WMom,  or  Word  of  creation,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Sirach's  view,  formed  and  developed  Uie 
chaos,  further  manifested  itself — visibly — by  a  direct 
and  immediate  influence  upon  one  select  people, 
Israel,  through  which  it  wished  further  to  influence 
oU  mankincL  A  nearer  acquaintance  with  this 
doctrine  in  all  its  bearings  at  onoe  solvce  tbe  old 
riddles  of  certain  Tar^umio  interpretations,  which 
have  puzzled  a  host  of  mvestigators.  Thus  veraiona 
Uke  that  of  Targum  Jerusholmi  to  Gen.  L  1, '  With 
WUdora,  God  created  heaven  and  earth,'  Mkd  the 
Jfanra  (Wgfd)  insted  of 

QSk- 


,.e,oogic 


LOOEOKO— LOtBS. 


Ood  or  JAoveA,  b«aome  clear  at  oac«  [we  Tabouk, 
VXBBION^.  No  1m*  moat  muijt  pMDMgaa  in  the 
Tnlnmd  acd  Midntfh  mmtirn  aji  eotirelj  diflereut 
upeot,  if  that  prenlent  mods  of  thought  and  apeech 
u  laken  into  oonndention. 

In  the  earlier  Ptatonio  tchooli,  mia,  l/tgM,  (oil., 
of  God,  WM  the  common  term  ftr  'Plan  irf  the 
Co»nio« '  or  '  Dirine  KeMon,'  inheraot  ia  the  Deity, 
The  later  Bchooli,  however,  more  prone  to  ijTnbol 
and  allegory  in  philoaofJiiual  matters,  called  I<o^ 
a  '  Eypoetau  of  BiTiiiity,'  a  anbaitaiioe,  a  divine 
corporeal  easenM^  as  it  were,  which  became  out- 
wardly viaible — a  feparate  Bein^  in  fact,  which, 
ereatod  out  of  the  Creator,  became '  the  Son  of  the 
Creator.' 

But  above  all,  we  have,  for  the  pTO]>er  ooniidara- 
tioo  of  the  uau^  in  the  da^  ol  the  apoitl^  to 
examine  the  JiuOBO-Alexandrme  Tiews  on  thia  point. 
Fhilo,  who  ia  their  beet  repreoentative,  makes  the 
Logos  the  all-oompriain^  essence  of  spiritual  powen 
(Daimona,  Angela),  wluch  alone  acta  upon  the  nni- 
vvM>  In  this  sense,  the  Logos  stands  as  the  Dnrint 
Staton,  the  Poteo-  ^all  Poaa-t,  the  Spiril  of  Ood, 
Mid  ^a  S^iraenlaUot,  between  Him  and  aU  elao. 
Nay,  be  goes  so  far  as  to  call  it  the  Arciangtl, 
who  eiacutes  the  behests  of  God  to  man  ;  the  High- 
vritd,  who  prays  for  man,  and  interferes  on  bis 
behalf,  before  the  throne  of  the  Almighty ;  and  he 
finally  speaka  of  Logos  as  '  the  second  God '  {Dt 


•epsraU  nations  {Quod  Dan,  I  298).  These  con- 
ceptiona,  which,  he  says,  came  to  biJn  in  a  tmnce, 
he  does  not  allow,  however,  to  be  in  the  least 
dm^tmry  to  the  atrioteet  beliel  in  tiie  oneness, 
inTiBiUli^,  and  pure  apiritualneei  of  Ood,  saoh  as 
■.  t_  --^t  in  the  Jewish  ereed. — lliis  eharaoterisea 


the 


saneral  vu^enesi 
id  theological  pai 


s  of 


philoaophical  and  theological  parlance  and  qMCO' 
lation  m  the  Alaxandiii         '      '       •  ■  '     '    ■ 
le  palj 

xed  Dp  pure  thooght  and  visions. 


uneonsoious  of  the  palpable  omtavdiotions  uttei 

in  one  breath,  mixed  Dp  pure  thooght  and  viaio    , 

Scripture  with  eastern  and  western  philosophy  and 

thscMopby,  monotheism   and   polytheism,    heaping 

systems  upon  systems,  and  dreams  upon  dreams. 

If  the  apoetle  did  not  himself,  to  a  certtuD  degree, 
stand  onder  the  inBoence  of  some  of  the  ^palar 
ideas  oonnected  with  the  term  nnder  eonsideiBtion, 
it  would,  at  anyrate,  seem  most  natural  that  he 
made  nse  of  it,  ss  of  one  oonveying  a  eertain  vagne, 
yet  oommonly  recognised  tvansoendental  notion  of 
a  difine  emanation  to  the  minds  of  his  contem- 
poraries. This  opinion,  however,  is  far  from  being 
luuuiiiDOnBty  adojited.  Thns,  some  investigators 
hold  that  John,  irreepeotire  of  the  parlanoe  of  his 
day,  nsed  the  word  Logos  for  Legomenot,  L  e..  He  of 
whom  it  has  heen  spoken,  the  Promised  one ;  others 
identify  it  with  '  doctrine ; '  while  a  third  notion 
(held  among  others  hr  CsJvin  and  Lntlier)  would 
make  it  equal  to  monologue,  convenstion. 

For  the  person  of  the  Logos  as  tii«  mediator 
ISan,  Deminrgos,  ta),  and  the  respeotivB  relation 
between  him  and  the  other  penons  of  the  divine 
triaa,  we  most  refer  to  the  artiolea  CHum,  QHOsnts, 
TuHirr. 

LOGBOi^O  (Ui.  Julia  Br^, » town  of  Spain, 
capital  of  the  provinoe  of  Logrofio,  is  situated  on  the 
Ebro,  60  miles  eaat  of  Burgos.  It  is  surrounded  by 
walls,  has  several  churehes,  convents,  a  theatre, 
ootlwe,  some  mannCaotures,  and  a  good  trade  in 
rmia  produce.    Pop.  11,257. 

1K>OWOOD,  the  dark  red  soUd  heart-wood  of 
Httmatoxslim  CampaMoMim,  a  tree  of  the  natural 
nder  Ltgmtmmme,  auh-order  CcuaJpmaa.  Thia  tree 
pows  in   l(«Ddoa   and   Central   Amerioa,  and  is 


perbapaa  native  of  aomeof  the  Weatlndislalaudaj 

but  ia  stud  to  have  been  introduced  into  Jamaica 
in  the  beginning  of  the  ISth  c,  although  it  is  now 
naturalised  there.  It  ia  the  only  known  species 
of  its  genus.  It  grows  to  a  height  of  20 — 60  feet; 
the  learea  are  pori-ninnate;  the  racemes  many- 
flowered,  and  longer  than  the  leaves.  The  sapwood 
ia  yellowish,  and  being  woiililees,  ia  hewed  off  with 
the  bark.  The  heart-wood  ia  heavier  than  wotcr, 
doee-grained,  bat  rather  caarae.  It  has  a  slight 
smell  resemhling  that  of  violets,  a  sweetish  taste, 
is  astringent,  and  oontoins  a  dlEtioguishing  ciTstal- 
line  principle,  called  HitmaUa^lint  (q.  v.}. 

No  dye-wood  is  imported  in  snch  lar^  quan- 
tities as  L. ;  nearly  70,000  tons  are  annually  sent 
to  Great  Britain.  It  was  iirst  introduced  in  the 
reign  of  Queen  Stiiabath,  but  the  colour  was 
found  to  wash  out,  and  the  dyers  not  knowing 
how  to  fix  it,  much  dissatisfaction  was  oooamoned 
by  the  sale  ol  cloths  dyed  with  it,  and  an  act  of 
parliament  was  passed  prohibiting  its  use.  This 
act  was  repealed  in  1681,  since  which  tiiDe  it 
has  been  oonatantly  in  use,  science  having  shewn 
means  for  Sxing.  L.  is  imported  in  laise  billcU 
or  logs,  usually  about  4  feet  in  length,  IS  inches 
diameter,  and  of  very  irregular  ahape ;  the  larger 
~  are,  the  greater  their  value;   the  colour  '~  ~ 


they 

dark  bloiad-red,  becoming  almost  black  after  long 
exposure.  The  infusion  of  the  wood  is  also  blood- 
red,  which  colour  it  yields  readily  to  boiling  water ; 
it  ia  changed  to  light  red  by  acids,  and  to  dark 
porpla  by  alkalies.  In  dyeing  with  L.,  an  alum 
mordant  gives  varions  shades  of  purple  and  violi^t 
-~with  the  solution  of  tin,  it  gives  violet,  red,  and 
lilac;  with  the  aolphatc  or  acetate  ot  iroo,  it  gives 
a  black;  but  this  is  greatly  improved  in  ^ipth 
and  softnesa,  it  gall-nuts  ore  alao  need,  which  is 
generally  the  cas&  It  is  also  one  of  the  ingredients 
in  both  black  and  red  ink ;  but  Braiil-wood  is 
usually  preferred  for  the  latter. 

LOIR- ET.  CHER,  a  department  of  France,  lying 
on  both  sides  of  the  river  Xoire,  and  formed  of  pan 
of  the  old  province  d  Orleannois,  comprises  the 
arrondiasements  of  Blois,  TendAme^  and  Bomorantiii. 
Area,  1,668,677  sqnare  acres  ipcv-  (ISSl)  276,713. 
The  deportment  is  almost  a  nniform  PJ^nii  broken 
onlyby  vine-hilts  of  trifling  elevation.  The  northern 
part  is  more  fertile  than  the  south,  three-fourths  lA 
which  is  occupied  by  marshes,  heaths,  and  forests — 
the  last  of  whioh,  indeed,  oover  one-nxth  of  the 
entiro  surface.  The  chief  producta  aro  com,  fmits, 
hemp,  wine,  and  vegetables  of  all  sorts.  The  rearing 
of  sheep,  poultry,  and  bees,  ia  carefully  attendL'J 
to,  and  thero  are  also  manufootoies  of  woollens, 
cottons,  leather,  glass,  ka.  Principal  towns,  Blois, 
Romorantin,  and  VendQmB. 

LOIRE  (ancient  Ligtr),  the  longest  river  in 
France,  has  its  source  in  the  Cevennes  Mountains, 
near  Gerbier-dea- Jones,  in  the  department  ol 
Ardich^  at  an  elevation  of  4560  feet,  flows  in  a 
north-north-western  direction  tlirough  the  centre  of 
France  as  for  as  Orleans,  whero  it  bends  round  to 
the  aouth-west  as  far  as  Tours,  and  thence  follovrs, 
in  general,  a  western  course  to  its  embouchure  in 
the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Eittire  length,  613  miles.  It 
becocoes  navizable  a  little  above  Roanne,  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  aea  of  4fi0  miles.  At  one  time, 
the  depth  of  the  vnler  at  its  mouth  was  18  feet 
at  ebb-tide ;  now,  it  ia  only  from  6  to  9  feet.  The 
lower  course  of  the  L.  is  adomed  by  wooded  islets. 
In  the  lower  port  of  its  course,  large  dikes  or  Uvitt 
have  been  bnill,  to  protoot  the  surroundiDg  country 
from  inundationa,  from  which,  howew.  thqr  s<»ne> 
times  suffer  terribly.  It  reoeives  about  40  dSueota, 
of  whioh  the  principal  wn,  the  L<nr,  on  the  right  j 


.iogk 


LOIEBU-LOKMAN. 


tmd  the  Allier,  the  Cher,  the  Indre,  and  tiie  Vieane, 
ou  the  left. 

LOIUE,  a  department  in  the  soath-eftst  of  France, 
formerly  part  o£  the  proTinca  of  Ljonnaia,  com- 
prisea  tho  airondiaaeineiita  of  Montbriaon,  Roanne, 
and  St  Etienoe.  Area,  1,I7S,234  Bngliah  acres ; 
pop.  (1881)  699,838.  The  basin  of  the  Lou^  which 
fiows  tbrougb  this  department,  is  a  rather  unfruit- 
ful valley,  bat  the  mauntaina  are  rich  in  iron  and  i 
lead,  and  the  coal-fields  of  the  department  ore  the  | 
richest  i«  France.  L.  is  also  noted  for  the  rearing 
of  nlkworms,  and  for  the  eiocllence  of  it«  silk 
mannfactnrea.  The  weaving  of  hemp  and  linen  U 
also  lai^y  carried  on.  Its  mineral  epriogs  are  in 
— rt  repute,  especially  those  o£  St  Alban,  Sail-soai- 
„..jian,  and  St  Qalmier.  The  chief  towns  are  St 
Etienne,  Ronime,  Kive-de-Gier,  and  Montbriaon. 

LOIRE,  HiDTB,  a  central  department  of  Fraoeo, 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  departments  of 
Lozere  aud  Ardbchc  Area,  1,212,160  square  acres  ; 
po|i.  (IS81)  316,461.  The  surface  ia  mountainous; 
covered  by  the  Covennae,  the  Cantal  Mountains, 
and  the  Margaride  chain,  iA[hose  slopee  are  clothed 
witb  forests,  and  nhose  peaks  are  during  about  half 
the  year  covered  with  snow.  Chief  rivers  the 
Loire  and  tho  Allier.  The  soil  of  the  plains  is 
fertile,  sad  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  soil  con- 
sistiiiB  of  the  usual  crops  with  fruits  is  abuudaut. 
Tho  climate  is  very  various,  owing  to  the  irregu- 
larity of  iiie  surface.  The  arroadiasements  are 
Lo-Puy,  Ysseogeaux,  and  Brioude;  the  capital, 
Lu-I'uy. 

LOmPMNFERIBURE,  n  maritime  department 
in  the  west  of  France,  formed  out  of  the  southern 
portion  of  the  old  province  of  Brittany,  and  oom- 
prising  the  arrondissements  of  Nantes,  Ancenis, 
PaimlXEuf,  ChWeanbriant,  and  Savenay,  lies  on  both 
sides  of  the  river  Loire.  Area.  1,097,979  English 
acres  ;  pop.  (1881)  626,623.  In  the  south  of  the 
department  lies  Granil-Lieo,  tho  largest  lake  in 
France.  The  interior  is,  on  the  whole,  fiat,  but  the 
north-east  and  south-cast  are  sUghtly  hilly.  Tho 
soil  is  fertile,  producing  wheat,  rye,  and  barley, 
and  forming  in  some  inuts  rich  pasturage.  Therci 
are  also  some  fiuo  forests.  Salt  marshes  are 
numerous  in  the  west.  The  vineyards  yield 
annually  about  32  million  gidlons  of  wine.  ^hip. 
building  is  carried  on  extensively  at  Nantea  The 
coaet-fiaheries  and  general  export  trade  of 
department  are  extensive.  Capital,  Kantes ; 
of  the  other  towns  are  large. 

LOIRET,  a  central  department  of  France,  formed 
out  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  old  province  of 
Orlcannois.  and  comprisiog  the  arrondiascmenta  of 
Orleans,  Montargis,  Gien,  and  Pithiviors,  lies  - 
both  aides  of  tiio  river  Loire.  Area,  1,070, 
English  acres;  poji.  (1881)  368,526.  The  conn  , 
is,  tor  the  most  part,  on  elevated  aud  fruitful  plain, 
abounding  in  corn  and  wine — known  as  the  plateau 
of  Orleans  ;  but  tbe  district  along  both  banks  of  the 
Loire,  called  the  Sologne,  is  a  ^rren,  sandy  ttact. 
L.  coDtaina  several  large  forests.  Cattle,  ehoep,  and 
bees  ore  extensively  reared,  aud  mineral  springs  - 


LO'KERBH,  a  town  of  Belgium,  province  of 
East  Flanders,  on  the  Durme,  12  miles  east-north- 
east  of  Qhent  It  is  a  station  on  tbe  Ghent  and 
Antwerp  Railway.  Pop.  in  1876,  17,400.  L.  is  a 
well-built  town,  with  numerous  achoola,  benevolent 
institationa,  important  manuf  actores  of  linen,  cotton, 
and  woollen  goods,  and  large  bleach-fields. 

LOKI,  a  demi-god  in  the  Scandinavian  mythology. 


LO' 


JA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 

Granada,  ia  aitoatad  on  the  alope  of  a  hill  near  the 
left  bank  of  the  Xenil,  31  milee  west  of  Granada, 
and  41  north-uorth-cast  of  Malaga.  Pop.  16,500. 
L.  is  a  thriving  place,  with  21  woollen  factories, 
3  paper-mills,  and  two  hospitals,  and  was  onoe 
of  great  military  importance,  being   the   key  to 


He  did 

AfiEs),  but  to 
from  the 


dynasty.    Still,  we  find  him 
ren  first  on  terms  of  intimaoy  with  Odin, 

...  red  among  the  Aesir.    His  appcsranoe  is 

beauttfol,  and  he  ia  poaseased  of  great  knowledge 
and  cunning.  He  ofton  brings  the  new  gods  into 
difficulties,  from  which,  however,  he  axain  extricates 
them.  Hence  he  ia  to  be  regarded  as  the  prin- 
ciple of  strife  and  disturbaaee  m  the  Scandinavian 
mythology  i  the  '  Spirit  of  EvU,'  aa  it  wore,  mingling 
freely  with,  yet  essentially  opposed  to,  the  other 
inhabitants  of  the  Norse  heaven,  very  much  like  the 
Satan  of  the  Book  of  Job.  By  bis  artful  malice, 
be  caused  the  death  of  Balder  (q.  v.),  and  was  in 
consequence  visited  by  the  Aesir  with  most  terrible 
punishments.  He  is  sometimes  called  Asa-Loki, 
to  distinguish  Him  from  Utjarda-Lohi,  a  king  of 
the  nanta,  whose  kingdom  ues  on  the  uttermost 
bounds  of  tlie  eari^  ;  but  these  two  are  occasionally 
confoimded.  It  is  quite  natural,  considering  the 
character  of  L.,  that  at  a  later  period  he  should 
have  become  identifled  with  the  Devil  of  Christi- 
anity, who  is  called  in  Norway,  to  the  present 
day,  Laaix. 

LOKMAn  (Abd  Auah  T),  a  fabulous  personage ; 
the  supposed  author  of  a  certain  number  of  Aruuo 
fables.  He  is  by  some  Arabia  writers  called  a 
nephew  of  Job  or  Abraham ;  by  others,  a  conndllor 
of  David  or  Solomon ;  others,  again,  identify  liim 
with  Balaam,  whose  name  signifies,  1^  that  of  L., 
tho  Daiourer.  Equal  uncertain'^  reigns  respecting 
his  native  place  and  occupation,  'niuB.ne  is  variously 
held  to  have  boen  bji  Etliiopian  slave,  conspiouout 
for  his  ugllaeaa  ;  a  king  of  Yemen  ;  on  Arabic  tailor; 


living  at  different  periods  have  been  fathered  upon 
L.,  of  whom  Mohammed  (Surah  31)  says  that  to 
him  *  has  been  given  Uie  Wiidoin.'  There  is  also  a 
Kreat  likeness  to  bo  recognised  between  himself  and 
hia  fables  and  JEaop  and  those  current  under  the 
latter's  name,  Accordino  to  tbe  Arabic  writera,  to 
L.,  as  the  Ideal  of  Wisdom,  the  kingdom  of  the 
world  was  offered,  but  was  by  him  declined — pro- 
vided this  was  no  offence  against  piety^ — because  he 
felt  much  happier  as  he  was ;  aud  that  when  asked 
what  was  the  secret  of  the  goodness  and  wisdom 
of  all  his  deeds,  he  replied :  '  It  is  thia  :  I  always 
adhere  to  tbe  truth  ;  I  ^ways  keep  my  word ;  and 
I  never  mix  myself  up  with  other  people's  aflaira' 

Tbe  fables  that  go  t>y  L.'s  name  ore  for  tho  moat 
part  Indian  apologues,  which  were  first  rendered 
mto  Greek,  thence  into  Syrioc,  and  finally  into 
Arabic  They  are,  in  this  last  form,  of  a  compara- 
tivoly  recent  dato,  and  thus  unknown  to  all  the 
classtcal  writers.  The  language  is  very  corrupt, 
and  it  ia  highly  to  be  regretted  that  tiie  book,  tbr 
want  of  anythmg  bettor,  atill  holds  its  nuik  as  an 
elementary  book  for  Arabia  stndents.  Its  first 
redaction  is,  according  to  a  noto  to  a  manuscript  in 
the  Iroperial  Library  in  Paris  (SuppL  No,  68},  due 
to  an  Egyptian  Christian,  Baisuma,  who  probably 
lived  towards  the  end  of  the  13th  century.  The 
first  edition,  with  a  lAtin  traxiaktion,  by  Eq)emius, 
appeared  at  L^den  (1616).     The  book  has  boon 


LOXJUM— LOUBABD  ABCHTTEOTDBE. 


IGgnd  Gaid*  Asoenmo,  Ao. ;  into  Danidi,  bjBask; 
into  Qernuui,  by  Olekriut,  Sohaller,  ki,  Beoetvt 
edtttODs  ftre  by  Benutein  (OML  1817),  Chmh  de 
Perceval  (Puis,  1818),  Freytag  (Bonn,  13S3),  BOdker 
(Leip.  1S30,  Aa.],  Sohier  {DreB.  1831),  B«ach 
(CopenlL  1832),  Derenbore  {BerL  ISCO),  Ao. 

A  book,  JmMiU  (Farablea),  Mcribed  to  L.,  and 
lappoBod  to  oontain  more  than  a,  thoiuand  apo- 
logiieo,  muTiTTn,  parables,  sentenoea,  &c,  has  nerar 
been  discovered.      L.'a  mppoaed  grave  ii  aliewn  at 


LOLITJM.    See  Dabkkl  and  Rtx-osabs. 

LO-LLARDS,  or  LffLLHARDS,  a  i 
■ociety,  the  members  of  wliich  devoted  themselves 
to  the  care  of  the  dck  and  of  the  dead.  It  was  fint 
formed  about  the  year  1300  in  Antwerp,  where  some 
IS  persons  associated  themselves  for  the  bnriol 
he  dead.  They  were  called  from  their  frugal  life, 
and  the  poverty  of  their  appearance,  MaieTnaTU  ; 
alio,  from  Oifoi  patroa  nint,  Brediren  of  Saint 
Aladvi;  and,  on  oocoont  of  their  dwelling  in  cells, 
FnUra  C^Uia ;  whilst  thej[  aomiired  the  name 
L.  from  their  practice  of  singing  mrges  at  funerals 

'he  Low-OoTnon  word  loUen,  or  luUw,  aignifyine 
sing  softly  or  slowly.  They  soon  spread  through 
the  I^therlands  and  Grermany,  and  in  the  freqoent 
pestileDcea  of  thatperiod,  were  useful,  and  every- 
where welcome.  The  clergy  and  the  begging-friars, 
however,  disliked  and  persecuted  them,  classing 
them  with  the  heretical  Beghardi  (tee  Bbocins), 
till  Gregory  XL  took  them  under  ha  protectioii  in 
1374.  Female  Lollard  societies  were  farmed  in 
le  places.  The  L.  having  been  reproached  with 
heresy,  their  name  was  afterwards  very  commonly 
~*ven  to  different  cloffies  of  religionists,  somelameB  to 
le  truly  pious,  sometimes  to  the  worst  pretenders ; 
id  in  ^^land,  it  became  a  designation  of  the 
followers  of  Wiclifie  (q,  v.),  and  tlins  extended  into 
Scotland,  where  the  L.  of  KyU  (in  Ayisbire) 
attracted  attention,  oad  became  the  objects  of 
persecntion  in  the  end  of  the  15th  century. 

LOMBABD,  Petxr  (rather,  Peter  the  Lombard), 
me  of  the  most  famous  of  the  Schoolmen,  wo*  born 
at  a  vUlase  near  Novars,  in  Lombardy.  He  wu  a 
pupil  of  Abelard,  afterwards  became  a  teacher  of 
theolo^  in  Paris,  and  in  1159  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Pans.  Bayle  says  that  he  was  the  first  who 
obtained  the  title  i^  Doctor  of  Theology  in  the 
imiversitj  of  Paris.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1164.  He 
was  very  generally  styled  ifagMer  Sententiamm,  or 
the  MaM^  o/Smieneef,  from  his  work  Soilaitiaru,m 
Lti/ri  IV.,  an  arranged  oollectbn  of  sentences  from 
Augustine  and  other  FaUiers,  on  points  of  Christian 
dot^rine,  with  objections  and  replies,  aUo  collected 
from  anthers  of  repnte.  It  was  intended  as  a 
manual  for  the  scholiuitio  disputants  of  his  age,  and 
as  may  be  inferred  from  what  has  just  been  said,  is 
a  compilation  rather  than  an  original  work.  It  was 
the  lubject  of  many  commentaries  down  to  the 
time  of  the  Beformation.  The  woib  of  Peter 
It,  were  edited  by  Aleanme  (Loavain,  1546). 

LOMBARD  ARCHITECTURE  is  the  rtvle 
nhich  was  invented  and  used  by  the  0«thic 
invadera  and  colonists  of  the  north  of  Italy, 
from  about  the  age  of  Charlemagne  till  it  was 
"uperveded  by  the  importation  of  the  pointed 
tyle  from  France  in  the  b^inning  of  the  13th 
-Butury.  The  architecture  M  the  Lombards  was 
derived  from  the  Itomonesque  (q.  v.),  or  debased 
Roman  atjle  whidi  they  found  in  the  coantry— the 
general  plan  of  the  churches,  and  the  genend  form 
of  the  pillars,  arches,  to.,  being  almost  identical 
with  that  of  the  Boman  Baailicaa  (q.  v.).  But  in 
detail,  there  i*  no  such  resemblance ;  the  Roman 
traditloiu  ore  entinlv  abandoned,  and  instead  of 
373 


the  debased  acsntiiai  leaves  and  fragments  of 
entablatore^  to  charaoteristia  of  the  Romanesque 
rt;fle,  the  Lombards  adopted  a  freer  imitation  of 
natural  forms  in  their  foliage,  and  covered  their 
buildings  with  representations  of  the  fights  and 
hnnting-ezpeditionB  in  which  they  delighted.  On 
their  &it  arrival  in  Italy,  they  used  Italian  work- 
men ;  but  when  their  own  people  became  more 
nnmerons,  they  also  laid  asitu  the  swcrd  for  tbs 
troweh  Accordingly,  wherever  in  North  Italy  ths 
Lombards  were  numerous,  their  style  prevailed ; 
and  where  the  Romans  predominated,  the  Roman- 
esque prevailed.  The  north  of  Italy  belonged 
naturally,  at  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  to  the  greri 
German  empire,  and  thus  we  And  nearly  the  sane 
style  of  architecture  in  Lombardy  and  in  Oeimauy 
as  for  north  as  the  Baltic    See  Rhehisb  Arosi- 


_ _  whan  the  styli 

originated,  the  buildings  were  no  doubt  frequently 

destroyed  by  fire;  this  seema  to  have  led  to  the 

desire  to  erect  fireproof  structares,  and  thus  tba 

earlier  as  well   aa   almost  all  the  later  example* 

vaulted  with  stone,  whereas  the   Eomaneeque 

ticaa  are  generally  roofed  with  wood.    This  stone 

seems  to  nave  been  the  great  desideratum  in  the 

style.    The  earliest  example  is  a  small  chapel 

at  Friuli,  built  probably  during  the  8th  c,  and  it  is 

covered  with  on  intersecting  vault    Examples  of 

this  datoaro  rare  in  Italy;  but  in  Switzerland,  whera 

the  style  is  almost  identical,   several  interesting 

of  early  architeotore  remain,  such  a*  the 

. f  Romoin-Motier,  Granson,  Payeme,  fto, 

which  the   transition 


find  the  pecu- 
liar arch-ornament  so 
characteristio  of  Xiovx- 
bardy  and  the  Rhine  (tig. 
1),  and  we  can  trace  the  Fig.  I. 

timid  steps  by  which  the 
Ooths  advanced  in  the  art  of  vaulting. 

The  vaulting  is  the  leading  featiue  of  Lombard 
architecture,  and  from  it  spring  the  other  distin* 
guisbing  forms  of  the  style.  Thus,  the  plain,  ronnd 
pillars,  with  a  simple  base  and  capital,  which  served 
to  support  the  aide-walla  and  roof  of  a  basilica,  are 
ohanged  for  a  compound  pier,  made  up  of  several 
shafts,  each  resting  on  ite  own  base,  and  each  pro- 
vided with  a  capital  to  carry  the  particular  part  of 
the  vaulting  assigned  to  it.  This  change  is  deserv- 
ing of  particular  notice  as  the  first  germ  of  that 
principle  which  wss  afterwards  developed  into  the 
Qothic  Style  (q.  v.).  Buttresses  are  also  introduced 
for  the  firat  time,  although  with  small  projeatioii. 

The  CaiAfdral  of  Novara  is  one  of  the  most 
striking  examples  of  Lombard  arohitecture.  It 
belongs  to  the  11th  century.  The  jdan  (fig.  31 
thews  the  arrangement  common  at  this  Nioch  all 
over  the  German  empire.     It  is  derived  mim  the 


£urch  is  entered  by  a  central  door.  The  interior 
B  divided  into  central  and  side  aisle*,  with  vaulted 
roof,  and  terminated  with  an  apeidol  choir.  At  the 
end  of  the  atrium  opposite  the  church,  is  situated 
the  baptistery.  At  Asti,  there  is  an  interceting 
example  of  the  early  Lombard  Baptistery.  He 
same  general  arrangement  of  plan  aftmwarda  became 
common  in  the  German  churches,  the  abium 
being  roofed  over  and  included  in  the  nave,  and 
the  baptistery  forming  the  western  ap«e  of  the 
donble-apeed  churches.  The  elevation  of  Novara 
oraamented  with   Uicoe   sigade*   and   ambed 


^ 


u^^^eBg.1). 


LOMBASD  ABCFHITBCrUltB— LOUBABSS. 

a  in  LomlNid  and  B.tiimith 


Su  Michele  at  Pavu,  and  Saa  Ambiogio  at 
UDiui,  an  alio  good  sarly  examplet  of  this  ityle. 
Id  bwi,  the  grouping  of  the  pien  ioto  vaulting 
abafti,  wall-arai  diafts,  Ac   (fig.   3),  ia  complete, 


a^nm  aod  wart  front  of  San  Ambrogio  fonn  oub 
qI  tha  finest  groapa  af  Lombard  architeotuxe, 
Iiombard  aniutecture  ia   important  ai   fonning 


.of  Italy  and  the 

Gothlo  of   tiia  Ciaalpins  countrist.      On  tha  one 
)riaut  can  be  traced  back  to  the  Roman 

,  vUla  on  the  other  it  embodied  thoM 

priociplei  from  the  development  of  whioh  Epraog 
the  great  Oothia  ityla  of  the  middle  agea. 

LOMBARDS,  a  Oennao  people  of  the  Suerio 
family,  not  very  nnmeroui,  but  of  diatinguiihad 
valonr,  who  played  an  impOTtont  part  in  the  early 
history  of  Europe.  The  name  ia  derived  trt^ 
Longobardi,  or  Langobardi,  a  Latiniaed  form  in  uae 
since  tha  Ittth  a.,  and  vaa  formerly  auppoaed  to 
havo  been  given  with  refirence  to  the  long  beards 
of  tilil  people ;  but  ia  new  derived  rather  from  a 
word  porta,  or  barie,  which  aignifiee  a  battle-axe. 
About  the  4th  c,  tiuy  aeem  to  have  begun  to 
leave  their  original  asata  (on  the  Lower  Blbe, 
where  the  Romana  seam  to  have  come  lint  ja 
oonlact  with  them  about  the  beginning  of  the 
Chriatian  era],  and  to  have  fought  tiieir  way  aouth- 
ward  and  eastward,  till  they  cams  into  close 
contact  with  the  eastern  Boman  empire  on  the 
Danube,  adopted  an  Aiian  form  of  Chriatianity, 
and  after  having  becu  for  soma  time  tributa^ 
to  the  Heruli,  raised  thcmselvea  upoo  the  ruins  of 
their  power,  and  of  that  of  the  Qepids,  shortly 
after  the  middle  of  the  6th  o.,  to  the  jiositioa  oi 
masters  of  poonoqia,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
wealthy  and  powerful  nations  in  tliat  part  of 
the  world.  Under  their  king  Alboin  (q.  vO,  they 
invaded  and  oonqnered  the  north  and  centre  « 
Italy  (66S— SG9).  The  more  complete  triumph  of 
the  It.  waa  promoted  by  the  acceaaiun  of  itren^ 
which  they  received  from  other  tribe*  following 
them  over  the  Alpa— Bulgariam,  Sarmatiaos,  Fan- 
nonians,  Horici,  Alemanni,  Suevi,  Gepidte,  and 
Saxons — for   the   nnmbars   of   the   L.   ihemiatvel 

Bomana  them- 
selves in  the  conqueeta  of  former  times,  were  tor 
tha  moat  part  oonMoted  with  a  third  of  the  land 
or  of  its  fruits.  One  of  their  hinga,  Authari  (584 
—HW),  assumed  the  title  of  Flaviua,  whioh  had 
beeu  boroe  by  some  of  the  later  Roman  empens^ 
and  aaaerted  the  usual  claims  of  a  Boman  ralei ; 
whilst  the  administration  of  the  Lombard  king- 
dom was  soon  so  euperior  to  that  wh)ch  then 
prevailed  in  other  parts  of  Italy,  that  to  many 
the  change  of  maatera  was  a  pnaitive  relief  from 
tminst  and  aavere  exactioca.  Whilst  tha  higher 
nobility,  however,  in  general  retained  some  portion 
of  their  former  wealth  and  greatness,  the  possesaora 
oE  email  properties  beoome  fewer  in  number,  and 
sunk  into  the  otasa  ol  mere  oultlvatOTS,  to  whom 
it  waa  comparativety  indifferent  whether  they 
acknowledged  a  Roman  or  a  Lombard  superior. 
The  rights  of  the  municipal  corjKirationi  also, 
although  acknowledged,  were  gradually  abridged, 
partly  through  the  eDOrooohments  of  tlw  Lombard 
dukes,  and  partly  throng  Uioae  of  the  higher 
clergy,  till  few  relica  of  Uidr  ancient  aalf-govem- 
ment  remuned.  These  few,  however,  were  the  eerma 
from  which,  at  a  snbeequent  period,  the  liberties  of 
the  independent  Italian  citiee  were  developed. 

The  oonvenioD  of  the  Arian  U  to  the  orthodox 
futh  waa  bnnuht  about  by  tha  policy  of  Oregory 
the  Great  and  the  seal  of  Theodolmda,  wife  of 
Authari,  and  sabseqaently  of  his  aucoessor,  AgiluU 
(690— CIS). 

Theodolinda  persuaded  Agilolf  to  rastore  a  por- 
tion of  their  property  and  dignitiea  to  the  CathoUo 
olerKy,  and  to  have  hi*  own  son  baptized  aooording 
to  uie  Cathohc  ritea.  She  also  built  the  mAgniliceiS 
Banlica  uf  St  John  the  Baptist  at  Monia,  near  Milan, 
in  vhich  in  aubseqnent  timea  waa  kept  tite  Lombard 
crown,  Mllad  the  /ran  Onnm  (4-  t.}.    Tha  L,  were 


■  C.oo^ijlc 


LOMBARDY— LOMOND. 


wtliing  taUj  anited  to  tba  Bonun  CaUwlia  Qumk. 
^le  contasU  of  the  duke*  prereiited  the  firm 
ooiualidAtioa  of  the  kin^om,  or  tuy  v^  ooiuider- 
■ble  eiteotioa  of  its  bound&rieK.  The  Edict  of  the 
Lombud  kiiw,  Bothui  (ftSS— 6M),  deoUring  the 
lawi  of  the  L,  promulgated  22d  Noyember  613, 
la  memorabla,  w  DaTiag  Leooma  the  fouudatLon  of 
oonititutioDBl  law  in  the  Qemuuiio  kiagdoms  of  the 
middle  we*.  It  tu  revisad  mod  extended  hy  mh- 
leqnent  Lombard  kiogt,  but  tubsUted  in  force  ita 
nehal  oenturies  »fter  tiie  Lombard  kuuidom  h&d 
pM*ed  away.  Tha  L.,  howevsr,  gradutU^  bec&mt 
mora  and  more  aMunOated  to  t&  funner  intiabi- 
taati  of  the  land  of  which  they  had  made  them- 
telraa  lordi ;  their  rudenew  wh  exehanged  for 
refinaiaeat,  and  the  littia  kagnage  prevukd  orer 
the  German,  vhich  they  bad  brou^t  with  them 
from  the  othBr  side  of  the  Alpa.  But  of  the  original 
Loabaid  language  bttle  i«  known,  nothing  renuuQ- 
ing  to  atteet  ite  oeitaioly  Oerman  character  axoept 
a  lew  mm]*  and  Darner  tha  very  balladi  in  which 
the  itoriea  of  Lombard  heroei  wan  r— arded  having 
onh^  coma  down  to  oi  in  Latin  venioni. 

Liutprand  (713—744),  raised  tha  Lpwbard  kinz- 
dom  to  iti  hieheat  prosperity.  He  quelled  with 
wtmag  hud  uia  turbulanoe  of  Uw  noblea,  gare 
Uie  nnhhing  Idow  to  the  aiarchate  of  Eavenn*, 
and  aooght  to  extend  hi«  dominion  over  all  Italy. 
But  tha  popai  now  entered  upon  that  Msochia- 
Tellian  poUcy  which  they  loaf  inceDaaotly  panned, 
of  labouring  to  prevBot  a  ouioa  of  oil  Italy  nndar 
one  goTenunmi,  in  order  io  secoro  for  themselves 
the  gr«aUt  power  in  Uie  midst  of  contsodingpartiM. 
This,  with  the  dinmtea  which  arose  concerm. —  *''" 
•Dcceuion  to  the  Lombaid  throne,  led  to  the 
fall  oC  the  Lombard  kingdom  within  no  lop; 
after  it  had  reached  its   ntnuwt  gteatneas.      — 

S)paB  aUiad  themaalve*  with  the  Frukiah  kings,  aod 
epin,  who  had  been  anobted  b^  Stephen  it  to  tha 
'patriaate,'  i.  a,,  the  govemonbip  of  Eome,  invaded 
Italy  nmi,  and  oomtielled  the  Lraibord  king  Aistulf 
1749— 7M),  who  cheriahed  the  tame  unbitioiu 
detigni  as  lintpraad^  to  refrain  from  further  coa- 
que^  and  eren  to  give  up  some  of  the  citie*  which 
had  «li*«dy  yielded  to  bis  arms,  which  Pepin  (763) 
beatowed  upoa  the  Bomao  Church  and  common- 
wealth. New  CBUBss  of  hostility  between  the  Frank 
and  Lombard  mosarchi  arose  when  Charlemague 
■ant  back  to  her  father  his  wife,  the  daughter  of  Uie 
Lombard  king  Desiderius  [794 — 774),  wd  Desideiiui 
Ripported  the  olainu  of  the  children  of  Carloman, 
Charlainagne'B  brother.  In  the  antumn  of  773, 
Charlemagne  invaded  Italy;  and  io  May  of  the 
foUowing  year.  Pa  via  was  conquered,  and  the 
Lmnbard  kingdom,  after  an  existence  of  £t)S  years, 
was  ovarthrovn.  Id  77S,  an  insurrection  of  some 
of  the  Lombard  dukes  brought  Charlemagne  again 
into  Italy,  aai  the  dukedoms  were  broken  down 
into  oountiea,  and  the  Lombard  ■vstem,  as  far  u 
possible,  supplanted  by  that  of  the  Franks.  In 
803,  a  trea^  between  Charlemagne,  tbe  weeteni, 
and  Nicaphorus,  the  eastern  emperor,  confirmed  the 
right  of  the  former  to  the  Lombard  territ'liy,  with 
Borne,  tha  Bxarcbat«,  Ravenna,  Istria,  and  nut 
of  Dahnatia ;  whilst  the  eastern  empire  retained 
the  i^nda  of  Venice  and  the 


in  the  Carloringiaa  empira.    In  843,  it  was  created 

a  separate  kingdom,  but  waa  not  entirely  serered 
from  the  Prankish  monarchy  till  8SS.  From  this 
time  it  waa  ruled  by  its  own  kings  till  901,  when 
it  waa  annexed  to  the  German  empink  Out  of 
the  wrecks  of  the  old  independent  kingdom  now 
arose  a  number  of  independent  duchies,  aa  Friuli, 
Mantua,  Suiav  Piedmont,  &c.,  and  soon  afterwards 
the  republic*  of  Venice,  Oeno^  Milan,  and  Favia. 
These  republics  eonusted  of  one  sovereign  towa, 
surroundal  by,  in  many  cwat.  a  Urge  extent  (4 
dependent  temtory.  The  Lombard  citie*  declared 
themsalvea  independent  towards  ths  commence- 
ment of  the  12Ui  c,  and  in  1IG7  were  joined  hv 
their  lea  powerful  neighbouri  in  the  '  first  Lombud 
Ica^e,'  ^r  tha  mamtepanoa  of  their  Uberties, 
agauut  Frederin  fiubarossa,  whom  they  severely 
defeated  in  ]176.  Id  122S,  they  were  compeUsd  to 
form  the  '  second  Lombard  kagoe '  agaioat  Frederig 
IL,  and  with  eimilar  sucoeos.  Abont  this  tim^ 
petty  tTranta  arose  in  moat  of  tbe  cities,  and  tb? 
ooontry  was  distraoted  by  intmial  disaendon*, 
which  were  carefully  foaterad  by  France  and  Qer- 
many.  Theaa  two  great  powei*  and  Spain  atnive 
for  the  poi*«esion  of  LomfaMdy.  The  last  snoaoBdad 
In  obtaining  it  in  IMO,  Mid  held  possssrioa  till 
about  1TD6,  whan  after  another  dispute  the  doohie* 
of  UiUo  and  Mantua  (tha  aooniry  bonnded  i^  tiw 
TiciuD,  Po,  Hiaoia,  and  Switaerland),  wUoh  bIom 
now  retained  the  nam*  of  L,,  oamA  into  *h*  ^yii^f 
of  Aostria,  and  were  deaignated  'Austrian  Lom- 
bardy.'  In  1796,  it  became  part  of  the  Cisalpine 
lepublio,  but  in  181A  was  restored  to  Austria,  and 
annexed  politically  to  the  newly-acquired  Venetian 
territory  under  the  name  of  the  Lombardo- Venetian 
Kinedam,  This  union  was  dissolved  in  1859  by  the 
Italian  war;  L.  was  given  np  to  the  new  kingdom 
of  Italy,  Austria,  however,  retaining,  for  a  time,  hw 
Venetian  territoiy.  L,  is  now  a  '  compartimento '  of 
the  kingdom  of  Italy,  oompriaing  the  admjniatntive 

Sovincee  of  Bergamo,  Brescia,  Come,  Cremona, 
ilan,  Pavia,  and  Sondrio.  Total  area,  about  9060 
«q.  miles ;  pop.  {18Sl)3,680,eiS.  L.  auflbred  terribly 
■-[(m  floods  in  1881 

The  northern  districts  of  L.  are  alpine  in 
ebaraoter,  bat  the  rest  of  the  oountiy  is  of  extra- 
OTdinary  fertility,  induced  chiefly  by  the  universal 
iraetioe  of  irrigation.  The  oountry  is  celebrated 
or  the  prodncte  of  it*  paetnre-lan<C  and  as  much 
m  60,000,000  lbs.  of  cheese  is  annaally  produeed  in 
the  dairie*  <A  L.  Agriculture  is  here  in  a  more 
advanced  state  than  in  any  other  part  ot  Italy, 
whea^  rice,  uid  maise  being  the  prucipal  crops  ; 
melons,  gourds,  <ffange*,  flgB,  citrons,  pomegranate*, 
peaches,  plain*,  and  other  fruit*  ot  excellent 
qnalily,  are  lugely  produced.  The  nomerone  mul- 
berry plantatinis  form  anoUier  prominent  feature, 
._j  „._.-.   .^  o'tanaively  cultivated,  though  the 


work*  by 

negler(1851);  Bluhme(i874);  andMartenB(1880J; 
and  on  the  language,  by  Meyer  (1877). 

LO'MBABDY.  the  name  given  to  that  port  of 
TTpper  Italy  which  formed  Uie  'nnclens'  of  Hie 
kmgdom  of  tiie  Lombards  (q.  v.).  It  consisted  of 
the  whole  of  Italy  north  of  the  peninsula,  with  the 
exceptions  of  Savoy  and  Venice,  and  after  tbe  fall 
of  ihe  I^mibard  kingdom,  In,  774,  waa  incorporated 


produced  frMD  them  is   of  inferior  quality, 
ua  kinds  of  marble,  some  of  th^  of  great 


great 
beauty,  are  worked;  a  few  iron  mine*  exist.     Ilia 
chief  mannfactnrea   are  silk,  nottos,  and  woollen 
goods,  flax,  pap«x,  glass,  and 
value  of  the  silk  exceeds  £3;00 


. ___,  _n  ArchipclMO  known  ai . „. 

It  lies  betweeo  Ball  and  Snmbaws,  Area  estimated 
14S0  square  mile* ;  pop.  200,000,  all  Mohamme- 
dans. The  north  and  aouUi  coast*  are  each  traversed 
by  a  chain  of  mountains,  some  of  which  are  volcanii^ 
but  the  interior  is  a  fertile  valley.  Biceandcotton 
are  largely  cultivated.  The  capital  is  Mataram;  tha 
principal  seaport,  Ampanam. 

LOME'NTUU.    SeslMDO. 

LO'UOND,  Look,  Uw  lam*t  id  tbe  Seot&b 


ivGoogl' 


lOMZA-LONDON. 


hkea.  Ilea  betmen  Dnmbartonilura  od  tha  mat, 
and  tiie  conutiea  of  Stirliiig  and  Perth  on  the  eaat 
It  ia  24  miles  long,  ii  7  milei  broad  at  the  HnillierT] 
extremity,  though  tho  northera  half  is  only  abont 
a  tnile  in  iridth,  and  haa  an  area  oi  45  aqnare  milea. 
It«  depth  voriei  bom  60  to  600  feet,  and  its  snrface 
is  only  about  22  feet  above  the  level  of  tha  lea. 
The  vatera  of  the  loch  are  ivelled  by  the  eoDtri- 
butiona  of  many  Btreama,  t^e  chief  of  vhich  la  the 
Endriclc,  from  the  eouth-eaat ;  the  enrplnB  iratera 
are  oairied  off  by  tha  Levea,  an  afflnent  of  the 
Clyde.  The  lower  portion  of  the  loch  is  sorrooDdcd 
by  a  hilly  bnt  woll-oultiTated  and  finely  wooded 
conntty,  and  the  chander  of  the  scenery  is  in  the 
higheat  d(^;ree  rich  and  beatltiful.  Aroond  the 
nortiiern  portion  ot  the  loch  are  piled  high,  irild, 
and  pictanaqaa  masses  of  moontiuiii — Ben  Lomond 
on  tbe  east,  and  the  Arrochar  hills  on  the  weet. 
The  surface  is  dotted  over  with  niuneroua  islands, 
Thich  are  finely  diversified  in  their  general  appear- 
ance, and  contnbate  greatly  to  the  eiquisita  beaaty 
of  the  scene.    Sever^  steamers  ply  on  the  lake. 

IXyVLZA,  a  district  town  in  the  govemment  ot 
the  same  name,  in  Poland,  S6  miles  north-east  of 
Warsaw,  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  history  of 
Poland,  but  has  never  recovered  from  its  snffermgs 
dnring  Uie  Swedish  wars.  L.  has  some  manniiw:- 
tnree.  Pop.  (ISSO)  10,000.— The  province  haa  an 
area  ot  4400  aq.  ra.,  and  a  pop.  (1880)  of  S37.074. 

LO'NDON,  the  capital  of  the  British  empire, 
stands  on  both  banks  of  the  Thames,  about  60  miles 
from  the  wo.  The  dome  of  St  Paul's  is  in  lat  01° 
30"  48"  N.,  and  in  long.  6'  48"  W.  The  river  here 
varies  from  000  to  1300  feet  in  width. 

L.  seems  to  have  been  the  capital  of  an  old  British 
tribe.  Under  the  namea  Londmmm,  Londiataji, 
and  Augaita,  it  was  one  of  the  chief  stations 
of  the  Romans  in  Britain.  They  endreled  a  portion 
of  what  is  now  the  dly  with  a  wall,  which  was 
rebuilt  and  extended  in  later  ages.  In  Stow's  time, 
the  remains  of  the  Norman  or  Anglo-Nonoaa  wall 
were  abont  two  miles  in  extent,  from  tiie  Thames  at 
the  Tower  to  tbe  Thames  at  Btackfriais.  It  was  an 
important  place  in  Anglo-Saxon  times,  was  plundered 
and  burnt  by  tho  Danes  in  the  9th  a,  and  took  a 

Prominent  part  in  the  submission  by  the  kingdom  to 
7'illiam  the  Conqueror.  Since  that  time  it  has  bean 
practically  the  metropolis  of  England,  and  its  history 
IS  interwoven  with  Ukat  of  the  nation.  Important 
dates  are :  foundation  of  the  bishopric  in  604,  build- 
ing of  the  Tower  in  1078,  great  plague  ot  1665,  and 
great  fire  next  year.  In  the  civil  wan  the  Londoners 
took  the  side  of  parliament.  In  1360,  L.  had  a  pop. 
ot  60,000 ;  in  IWO,  180,000  ;  in  1650,  350,000 ;  in 
1700.  600,000;  in  1801,  864.035;  in  1841,  1,87^365. 
It  is  almost  impossible  to  say  what  is  the  »ke  of 
L.,  beoansa  there  is  do  bonnoaiy  volt,  nor  any 
d^ite  nnmbai  of  mirounding  villages  and  pariahaa 
inolad«d  within  it.  '  London  within  the  walls,'  the 
oriffloal  City,  oomprisea  only  370  acre*  ;  '  London 
without  the  walla'  cooKptitm  230  aona ;  then  there 
are  the  city  of  Weatminster  and  the  borough  of 
Sonthwark ;     Hie    '  Tower    Hamlets,'    oompriains 


Marylebone,  Portland  Town,  Camden  and  Kentish 
Towns,  St  Fancras,  Hompstead,  Islington,  Dalston, 
Clapton,  Haokney,  &a ;  the  western  sabnrbe  of 
Eensingtan,  Chelaea,  Pimlico,  Tvbnrnia,  Netting 
Hill,  Bayswater.  Weatbourne,  Fulham,  Paddington, 
&c  ;  many  pariahea  in  the  centre,  but  weatward  of 
the  City  ;  Bermondsey.  I^mbeth,  Newington, 
Wandsworth,  Kenninrton,  Stockwell,  Brixton, 
Clapham,  Camberwell,  Feckham,  Botberhithe,  Ac, 
in    Surrey  ;    and    Deptford,     Greenwioh,    Penge, 


Hatcham,  BUokhsath,  Lewiaham,  Lee,  Ac,  in  Eenb 
The  Poat-ojkt  L.  is  larger  than  the  ParUainailary 

L.  I  and  the  Po2ie«  Ia  is  larger  than  either.  It  ia 
usual,  however,  now  to  take,  as  the  limit  of  L,  the 
area  under  the  operation  of  the  '  Metropolis  Local 
Government  Act,  which  ia  also  adopted  by  the 
Be^abar-general  for  the  census,  and  for  the  table* 
of  mortahty ;  it  is  nearly  identical  with  the  area 
under  the  control  of  the  Metropolitan  Board  of 
Works,  and  with  that  under  the  control  of  tha 
London  School  Board  (estaibUBhed  by  the  Education 
Act  of  1870).  The  area  of  the  metropolis,  as  thus 
defined,  is  about  78,200  acres,  equal  to  122  so.  miles. 
Tliia  area  contained,  in  186),  359,421  iAabited 
hooses  and  2,803,044  inhabitants  ;  in  1871,  417,767 
houses  and  3,266.087  inhabitants ;  in  1881,  486,286 
bonsM  and  3,816.483  inhabitants.  On  census  nigb^ 
April  1881,  various  oreM  and  popolationa  were : 

Cltr  or  London KfiX 

B«gfitiar.g«nen]'s  London l,Bl<>,«eS 

Local  ICaiunmont  landmi ■,SU,3U 

Bcbool-butS  London ISM.IM 

FoUet  London 4.Tia,«ae 

'Onatei  London' 4,7M,M>1 

Id  Tonnd  numbers,  the  dimensions  may  be  esti- 
mated at  abont  13  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  9J 
from  nortii  to  south.  For  parOanurttaTy  purposes, 
under  the  Distribution  of  Seats  Act  (1885),  L.  ia 
divided  into  twenty-eight  borough  returning  front 
to  seven  merabere  (Tower  Hamlets)  apiece— 

J,  silly  membera.    For  poor-/aio  purposes,  L.  is 

divided  into  40  unions,  in  some  cases  single  parishes, 
in  othent  groups  of  pariahea.  The  '  Metropolitan 
Buildings  Act'  of  1865— which  gives  soma  kind  of 
official  control  over  the  ranging  of  honses  in  streets, 
the  removal  of  projections  and  sheds,  the  manage- 
ment of  rebuilding  and  repairs,  the  compulsory 
repair  of  houses  in  a  dongeroos  condition,  ftc — 
divide*  the  metropolis  into  06  districts,  of  which  4 
the  City  of  L,  0  in  the  City  of  Westminster, 

other  parts  of  the  metropolis  north  of  the 

Thames,  and  17  south  of  the  'Uiames.  The  City 
of  L.  is  rapidly  decreasing  in  population,  owing  to 
the  substitution  of  large  commercial  establiabments 
for  dwelling-houses.    On  census  night  1881, 50,026 

persons  lUpl  in  tie  City ;   but  by  a  day 

taken  later  in  the  same  year, 
261,061  persons  were  residing 
Ci^  during  the  day. 

The  Thunee  at  L.  is  crossed  by  the  following 
bridget ,-  London  Bridge,  Sonth-eastem  Bailway 
Ci^  Bridge.  Southw^  Bridge.  Chatham  and 
Dover  Bi^Iway  Bridge,  Blackfriars  Bridge,  Waterloo 
Bridge,  Charing  Ooes  Railway  and  Foot  Bridge 
Westminster  Bridge,  Lambeth  Bridge,  Vauihall 
Bridge,  Pimlioo  Rulway  Bridge,  Chdeea  Suspen- 
sion Bridge,  Cadogan  or  Albert  Bridge,  Battersea 
Bridge,  West  London  Bailway  Bridge,  Pntney 
Bridge,  and  Hammersmith  Bridge.  (The  bridges  at 
Barnes,  Kew,  and  Bichmond  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
be  within  metropolitan  limits.)  Near  and  between 
these  bridges  are  atmnt  20  tttam-boal  ^en,  for  t^ 
accommodation  of  river  paaaeneers.  The  Thamt* 
Turulti,  formerly  a  footway  nnder  tbe  river,  1900 
feet  long,  abont  two  miles  below  London  Bridge, 
now  constitutes  part  of  the  Eaei  London  Saiivia]/, 
A  littie  way  below  London  Bridge  is  the  Toaer 
"  '  -- 1,  a  small  tunnel  for  foot  passengers.     For 


s  found  that 


oonvenientiy   load    and   unload __  — ,    _. 

Eaiharitt^t  Dodo,  London  Poekt,  Limdtoaae  Dod^ 
Wttl  and  Ea»t  India  Docke.  Vtcloria  Dodtt,  and  TU- 
bmy  I>oct*  (in  progress),  are  on  the  northern  shore ; 
and  the  ComnterdoJ  and  Grand  .Surrey  Dodst  on 
the  sonthem.    The  part  of  the  Thoras*  just  below 


LMtdon  Bridge^  etJled  the  Pool,  U  the  great 
rendeivoua  Im  ooal-(hipa ;  bebw  that,  u  fM  m 
BlaokwkU,  IB  the  Port,  oooupi«d  by  ■hip*  of  SM»ter 
burden.  Of  conolf,  the  Pmddington,  Bcgent^  tod 
Gnnd  Snirej'  k«  the  chief. 

In  BUttten  of  gOTernmeot,  L.  ie  ncder  very  Tiried 
JnhMliatiDa.  The  lord  major  and  oorporation  exer- 
cue  peculiar  poireta  in  the  OUg,  in  reference  to  toUe, 
duM,  marketa,  the  adminiakation  of  jiutice,  poUoe, 
drainage,  Hghtin^,  paving  and  a  variety  of  other 
matten.  Tne  City  i«  divided  into  2S  wardt,  each 
repreaentad  by  an  alderman ;  the  aldermen  are 
chosen  for  life,  and  are  magiEtzatei  by  virtae  of  their 
office.  The  Common  Cotmeil  ooniiati  of  206  nem- 
ben,  who,  with  the  lord  mayor  and  aldennen,  form 
a  kiiid  <d  parliament  tor  the  maaagement  of  Ci^ 
aflain.  The  Mcauion  Souk  and  OwUJbti  are  the 
ebief  buDdinsB  for  the  banaaotion  f4  ooraorate  bnri- 
nM&  ThtJtiiropolitanComtnunonen^PoBee.iaiA 
tim  MelTopoliUM  Board  of  Wort*,  have  oontrol  over 
the  whole  metropdit  extfpl  the  City.  Wectminster 
and  Soathwa^  are  each  under  local  anthoritiee,  bat 
only  in  minor  matters.  The  drainage  i»  managed 
by  two  Boardi  of  Worka,  ona  for  the  City,  and  one 
for  the  reet  of  the  metropolia,  and  baa  been  improved 
by  a  Yart  and  oostly  ayatem  of  sewerage,  paid  for  by 
the  hoDiebolderB.  Nearly  all  the  drainage  and  «gw- 
age  enter  the  Thames  at  points  12  milea  below  Lon- 
don Bridge,  instead  of  in  London  itaelf ;  the  expense  of 
these  great  works  has  reached  nearly  £5,000,000. 
The  gat  npply  is  in  the  hands  of  joint-etock  com- 
panies ;  and  so  ia  the  leaier  supply  :  the  water 
being  obtained  from  the  Thames,  and  from  the  New 
Biver,  one  of  its  affluents.  Both  irgtems  are  in 
aome  degree  controlled  by  the  Boards,  ko.,  above 
named.  In  poliee  juriadictiou,  the  City  of  L.  is  en- 
tLrely  diatlnct  from  the  rest  of  the  mekopolia.  In 
1863,  an  attempt  was  made  by  the  government  to 
bring  all  nnder  one  jorisdictioa ;  but  the  oppoaition 
of  the  oitiiena  was  so  strong,  that  the  attempt  failed. 
The  Cit;  police,  about  850  in  nnmber,  are  in  6 
divisions,  and  have  7  stations  ;  there  are  two  police- 
officea  or  justdce-rooma.  one  at  the  Maniioa  House, 
and  one  at  Guildhall  All  the  rest  of  the  metropolis 
ia  under  the  Commiaaioners  of  Metropolitan  Police, 
wiUi  headquarters  at  Whitehall  There  are  21 
diviaions,  Ml  but  one  (the  Thames  FoUcey  denoted 
t^  letters  of  the  alphabet ;  the  full  force,  officers  and 
men,  is  about  11,000.  There  are  14  police  courts, 
attended  b^  23  police  inagiatntei^  for  taking  cog- 
uizanoe  of  offences  vrithm  the  metropolis,  but 
outside  the  City. 

The  ttreeli  of  Lq  extending,  with  lanea  andconrta, 
nearlv  30,000  miles  in  aggregate  length,  depend 
mainly  for  their  direction  on  the  conrse  of  lite 
Thamea  ;  the  principal  of  them  being  nearly  east  and 
west.  One  lino  of  route  extends  from  Hammersmith 
to  Mile  End  and  Bow,  Uirough  Piccadilly,  Strand, 
and  Cheapeide ;  another,  begimiing  in  the  TJxbridge 
Boad,  jtasaea  throngh  Oxfo^  Street  and  Holbom, 
and  ioma  tiie  former  at  Cheapside.  There  is  still  a 
defimency  of  wide  thoroughfares  for  the  City  traffic ; 
but  a  new  street  has  lat^  been  made  from  Black- 
(riam  Bridge  to  the  Mansion  House — in  connection 
with  the  Northern  or  Vietoria  Thama  EnJiankmcni 
— the  two  together  forming  a  wide  and  handsome 
avenue  from  Westminster  Abbey  to  the  beart  of  the 
City.  The  new  thoroughfare,  Northuinh^land 
Av«nut,  runs  from  the  Strand  towards  the  Thames 
Embankment  In  its  conatmotion  Northumberland 
House  was  pulled  down,  at  an  expense  of  aboat 
£650,000.    L.  is  very  defiment  in  wide 


thflTe,niost  of  which  iraflnabnildiiigB.  OftkeSfty 
or  aixfy  principal  dab-houses  in  L.,  the  Arnm  a»d 
Savji,  Ovard/,  Unietr^,  CetrUon,  Seform,  TravO- 
ten',  AlKaumm,  United  Stniiee,and  United  Univer- 
tits,  '■^  u  this  MM  atreet  A  continnoua  range  of 
fine  shops  extends  from  Pall  Mall  to  ComhilL 

Among  the  buildings  in  L,  belonging  to  the  crown 
or  to  the  nation,  the  following  are  the  prinoipal : 
St  Jamee'i  Palace,  an  irregular  and  inelegaut  oloster 
of  buildings,  uaed  for  court  purpoaea,  bat  not  as  the 
Queen's  r^idenoe.  BtuJAitgham  Palace,  the  Queen's 
London  residency  a  large  but  low  quadrangnlar 
man,  with  va^  inadequate  court  accommodaoon. 
MarOx/Tough  Sotue,  residence  of  the  Prince  and 
Princesa  of  Walea.  Kmuington  Paiaott  oconpied 
partly  by  royalty,  partlv  by  recipienta  of  court 
tavoor.  HoMa  t^  Parliament,  a  vast  structure, 
which  has  coat  £3,000,000 ;  perhaiM  the  finest,  and 
oertainly  the  largest,  Gothic  building  in  the  world 
applied  to  dvil  purpoaea ;  the  rirer-fiont  i*  900  feet 
long.  Watnintta-  HaU,  a  noble  old  struotoro,  of 
which  the  main  hall  is  290  feet  by  68,  and  110  high. 
Somrrtei  Hovse,  a  quadrangular  structure  with  a 
river-frontage  of  600  feet ;  it  is  mostly  occupied  by 
Oovemmont  offices.  The  AdmiraMy,  noticeable 
chiefly  for  the  screen  in  front  of  the  coiuty ard.  The 
Horte  Quardt,  the  official  residence  of  the  com- 
mander-in-chief, with  an  arched  entrance  to  St 
•Tamee'B  Park.     The  3Veo»uty,  the  Homt  Office,  the 


and  India  Offoa  form  a  noble  new  group  near  White. 
hall ;  and  the  Colonial  and  other  offices  have  been 
built  immediatdy  adjacent  The  War  (Met,  in  Pall 
Mall,  a  Urge  but^am  brick  bmlding.  The  Briti»!t 
Uvtenm  (q.v.).  The  National  Oall^,  devoted  to  a 
portion  of  the  national  picturte,  ia  Trafalgar  Square. 
™"--  MuMtim  qf  Economic  Geofcro,  in  Jermyn Street, 


small   but    weil-planced    building.      Burlinglon 

r --'Td  by  the  nation  to  the  Royi ' 

leveral  sdentiSc  societies.      Tk 


Hook,  approt 


^otitt  Kentington  MvMwa,  a  remarkable  medley  of 
buildings;  and  the  new  if(dUTal  History  iiusaan 
adjoining.  The  Palace  of  Jiutice,  Strand.  The 
Quardt'  Barrati»,  Chelsea.  The  Cuilom-houie, 
with  a  long  room  190  feet  by  06,  ia  finely  situ- 
ated on  the  river-aide.  The  General  Pott-office, 
a  noble  maBS  in  St  Hartin's-le-Qrand,  has  a  central 
hall  80  feet  by  60,  and  63  hij;h,  with  a  vast  number 
of  offices  all  around  it ;  and  a  lar^  new  block  of 
buildings  j^t  opposite,  finished  in  \S]Z.  The  Mint, 
on  Tower  Hill,  is  a  duster  of  bnildings  in  which  the 
gold  and  diver  coinage  is  managed  (a  new  structure 
near  the  3%ames  Embankment  is  in  oontemplation). 
Hu  Toaer  Iff  Loiadonia  aconrased  mass  of  houses^ 
towetSiforti,  batteries,  ramparts,  barracks,  armonriea, 
storehouses,  and  oUier  buildings,  included  within  a 
boundary  ol  about  900  feet  by  601^  at  tha  extreme 
eastern  verge  of  the  City. 

L.  ia  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  which  comprises 
about  320  benefices.  The  income  of  the  bishop  is 
£10,000  a  year.  St  Paul's  is  the  cathedral  for  the 
diocese ;  it  is  mtuated  at  the  east  end  of  Ludgate 


286  wide ;  the  cross,  which  auimounts  tiie  ball 

the  dome,  ia  366  feet  abovs  the  marble  pavement 
below.    St  Paul's  contains   many  monnmenta  to 


Weetmintter  AUxs,  also  cradfonn,  is  530  feet  in 
treme  outer  teiuth,  by  203  in  width ;    the   west 
towera  are  226  feet  high.     Henry  VII.'s  chapel,  at 
the  east  end,  is  a  beantifol  example  of  enriched 
Qothi&    The  abbey  has  no  special  oonnectbn  with 


It  w  ._  . 

to  hare  ..         .  .,    .._„ 

SaiouB  {drai  616);  enlarged  by  King  Sdgar  oad 
£dward  the  CoDfeeaor  )  and  rebuilt,  nearly  as  we 
now  BM  it,  by  Henry  IIL  and  Edward  L  Here  the 
kings  and  oae«n«  of  England  have  been  crowned, 
from  Edward  the  ConfeaBor  to  Qneen  Viotoria  ;  anif 
bere  numy  of  them  have  been  buried.  The  Poe^i 
Comer,  with  iti  tombi  and  monnmeaUl  of  eminent 
nian,l«awelI-knowaBpotof thoAbbey.  StSanUna't, 
ih  Sonthwark,  is  tbe  third  in  importunce  of  the  L. 
ohoTobei.  The  ^i^^^^  Roman  Catholic  Church  ia  in 
St  Qeorge'l  fields.  The  largest  Dissenting  Chapel  ia 
Mr  Spnrgeon's  Baptitt  Tahemaclt,  Newingtoa  Butta. 
There  ate  in  L.  orer  one  tboaaand  places  of  wor- 
ahip,  Ot  which  those  belongbg  to  the  Chnrch  of 
Englanl  are  rather  leas  than  one  half ;  the  religious 
denomJnatloDa  are  about  30. 

Of  achooU  of  all  kinds,  there  are  in  L.  about  2000, 
inoIndiDZ  Private,  Parochial,  Ragged,  Church  and 
Chapel,  Sational,  Sritish,  Free,  Grammar,  and  Rate- 
payors'  Board  sciools.  Many  small  and  inefficient 
private  schools  have  lately  been  closed 


vtraily,  King''*  ColUqe,  Unitxrnly  CoUfgt,  C/ardon 
ColUge,  Segtnf*  Pea*  Colkge,  Neis  College,  Weileyan 
(htU{i»,  Hadaieg  College,  TVaiRHia  CoUegea  belonginfl; 
to  the  National,  British  and  Foreign,  and  Home  and 
Colonial  School  Sodeties,  Wealmineter  SiAool,  St 
Pallet  School,  ChrUt'i  Hotpot  or  tbe  Blue-ooat 
School,  th«  Orau  and  Oreen  Coat  School*,  Merchant 
Taylor^  School,  Mercer^  Grammar  School,  dig  of 
London  SAool,  Queen'*  College,  and  other  ooUeges 
for  WomeiL  The  new  schools  which  have  b^n 
bnilt  by  the  London  School  Board,  are  large  and 
bandsomei 

Here  are  abont  70  ahns-Honses  in  London.  The 
■ooietiea,  associations,  and  institutions  of  a  more 
or  lex  permanent  charactei,  maintained  for  other 
than  money-making  objects,  are  not  leu  than  600 
in  number.  Of  the  hoepilaU,  the  chief  are  Ouy'a, 
St  Thofoat's,  the  London,  ths  Poplar,  the  Wat- 
mhuler,  the  Charing  Orott,  St  Qeorgii,  St  Marjft, 
lliddUttx,  King't  OoOtge,  Dnii>ertily  College,  Great 
Horlhent,  the  SmaQ-pox,  the  Fever^  the  CoammpUon, 
ibvLoct,aiidiiMSoi/atPruSotpilaU.  StTkomat'a 
Botpiiai,  a  magnificent  pile^  bat  lately  been  rebuilt 
on  the  AHiert  or  Soulhem  Thamet  Smbankmaii, 
opposite  the  Houms  of  Parliament  Bt  LuM*,  and 
Bethlehem  (for  insana  pei*on>4,  and  the  FoundUTig 
Eoipital,  are  spedal  in  their  objects.  Of  the  600 
Institutions  above  allnded  to,  abont  200  are  hospitals, 
disputsariea^  infinnariea,  and  asylnins;  while  the 
remaining  400  ore  religions,  viiitanft  oi  buwrolent 
instdtutjons. 

There  are  law-oonrts,  dvil  and  criminal,  of  all 
degreM  of  dignitv,  and  with  various  extent  of  juris- 
diction, toatUired  over  L.  For  some  of  the  more 
important  of  them,  more  worthy  buildings  havebMn 
eimtad  neorthe  Strand.  There  are  7  seasioiw-hoiiBes 
(Old  Sailey,  Guildhall,  Tower  Hamlet^  Sonthwark, 
Kensington,  Clerkenwell,  and  WeatmiDster).  The 
prisons  nave  nndeigooe  many  changes  within  the  bat 
few  yeanL  partly  owing  to  the  decay  of  old  baildingi, 
and  paruy  to  cnaugea  in  tha  law  of  imprisonmentC 
AtpreMntthabui]£ius  aotnallj^  used  as  prisons  ara 
abont  a  dozen  in  number,  the  chief  being  Holloway, 
tentonville.  Gold  Batib  Fields,  Uilbank,  Cleikenwell, 
Brixton,  Fi^luun,  and  Wandawortii ;  Kewgate  is  now 
only  used  (or  the  reception  of  prisoners  for  trial  at  the 
Central  Criminal  CourL  The  chief  Uw  buildinga  are 
the  maraiificent  new  law  courts  or  Palace  of  Juelice 
in  the  attand  [opened  io  1S82,  and  auperaeding  the 


Westmlntter  Hall  Courts  of  Law  and  Equity ;  tli4 
Lincoln'*  Inn  Coorts  of  Equihr,  Ac),  and  with 
Chancery,  Queen's  Bench,  and  otber  divisions  of  the 
H(gh  Court  of  Justice;  OuUdhall  Court*  ;  iiie  Central 
Criminal  Covrt  in  the  Old  Bailey ;  eccleeiaitical  and 
other  Bpecial  courts  at  Doctors'  CommoDB,  tc.  The 
tnns  of  Court  (n.v.)  are  in  some  sense  colleges  for 

?ractitioners  in  the  law ;  they  comprise  the  Inner 
'emple,  the  Middle  Temple,  Lincoln'*  Inn,  and 
Orai^e  Inn;  the  dependent  nine  tnni  of  Chancery 
have  been  sold,  or  are  simply  chambers  to  let. 
Connected  incidentally  with  leoal  matters  ia  the 
Stcord  O^ee,  a  large  depository  hr  official  papers  in 
Fetter  Lone.  The  legal  practitioners  in  L.,  besides 
judges,  &e.,  comprise  abont  4000  solicitors  and 
attorneys,  and  SOOO  barristers. 

In  connection  with  the  shipping  of  L,  and  the 
import  and  export  trade,  the  i)oct*  above  named 
contain  more  tnan  400  acres  of  water  space,  and  a 
larn  amount  of  warehouse,  shed,  and  vault  accom- 
miMBtion—beaidea  warehouses  in  various  parts  of 
the  city,  away  from  the  docks.  From  6000  to  7000 
ships  enter  these  docks  annoally.  Nearlj^  all  the 
Boimig-veSsels  which  come  to  L.  laden  with  coal, 
instead  of  entering  doclis  to  unload  their  catgoei, 
lie  In  the  stream  of  the  river,  and  transfer  their  coBi 
to  lighten,  which  convey  it  to  the  yards  of  coill- 
mert^ants,  situated  either  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
itself,  or  of  the  caoals  which  run  into  it  One-fourth 
of  the  whole  ship  tonnage  of  England,  and  one-half 
of  the  targe  steamers,  belong  to  London.  Of  the 
ships  that  enter  the  port  of  L..  abont  00  per  ceni 
are  engaged  in  the  foreign  and  colonial  trade,  40 
per  cent,  in  the  coaaling  trade.  About  100  vessels 
enter  the  port  every  day,  four-fifths  British,  the 
reat  toteigo.  The  value  of  all  the  mer- 
chandise ejtported  from  the  port  of  L.  is  nearly 
one-fourth  of  that  of  the  exports  for  the  whole 
United  Kingdom.  The  imptnts  of  wheat,  floor, 
cotton,  dye-stuffs,  pahn-oil,  and  some  other  articles, 
greater  into   Ijveijiool  than  into  L.  ;  but  L. 


I,  and  spirits. 


'^•', 


.e  of  the  kingdom,  owing  to 
ng  oonuuodtties  canatitnte 


■e  the  CaUle  Market 


ss 


Hx<f)  Maxiet.  The  Co^um&ia  Market,  Bethnal 
presented  to  the  corporation  of  the  City  by 
as  Burdett  Coutta,  has  not  met  the  anti- 
cipated want.  In  Bermoniisey  is  a  commercial 
Hide  and  SHn  MarkeL  The  establishments  for 
wholesale  dealings  are,  of  course,  stupendous  hi 
character ;  of  coal  alone,  L.  now  req  aires  more  than 
6,0()0,000  tons  annually.  The  whole  number  of 
distinct  trades  or  occupations  in  L.  is  abont  2000. 
There  are  about  80  Trade  OuUd*  or  City  Companies 


of  trade  and  manufactures ;  tbe  chief  among 

them,  colled  the  T'welve  Great  Companiea,  are  the 
Mercer*',  Grocers',  Draper/,  Fiihnumgerf,  Gold- 
tmithf/,  Skinnert',  Merchant  Taylori,  Habenlaeher/, 
Salter^,  Iromnongera'.  VuUnere',  and  Cloihworkerr 
Companies,  all  oil  which  have  HaUe.  in  which 
banquets  are  held.  The  Qoldtmilh^,  Apothecaries, 
and  Stationers  Companies  still  exercise  some  active 
control  over  those  &ades.  The  bant*  in  L,  either 
private  or  joint-stock,  are  more  than  100  in  number, 
many  of  which  have  two  or  more  banki  ng-bouseB. 
There  are  about  as  many  inturanee  offcee 


I  life  only,  some  for  fi 


. _Jy,  some  fo. 

The  buildings  for  these  banlu  and — 

offices  are  among  the  best  in  London,    tha  Sani 


toin)o»-4^Kt)Ot  cu*. 


r/  Bngtand,  one  of  Sir  John  Scxuie'i  mo«t 
oeasfnl  worka,  dna  emplm'ment  to  about  1000 
cl«rka,  fto.  Tav  Bovcu  Bxchangt  U  notic  ' ' 
oliiefly  for  Sir  B.  Wcstmacott  ■  iculptDri 
the  peditncDt.  The  Com  Biduutgt,  tha  Coal 
Exchange,  and  the  Bop  and  Mall  Bcchange  are  con- 
Tenient  for  thoir  parposes.  Tho  Slock  Bxcharmt, 
□«ar  tba  BAok,  ii  nearly  hidden  frem  view.  Tba 
great  warehimsefl  for  foreign  and  colonial  prodnce 
Ce  chiefly  eostirard  of  the  city  |  irhlla  the  wholauile 
eatabUaluneotB  for  tei±ile  goods  occupy  eoormoaa 
bnildinm  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cheapdde  and  8t 
Paul'a  Chnrchyard.  Matt  of  the  large  nianufac' 
turing  eatabliahmentl  lie  either  eastward  or  south- 
ward, the  centre  and  the  west  of  the  metropolii 
being  engaged  in  aeljing  rather  than  in  making. 
Laree  clutten  of  excellently  arraofred  dwellings  aua 
lod^ng-housea  for  the  working  claaMS  bare  been 
erected  in  Tarioos  parts  of  L. 
The  patiatger  and  goodi  traffic  in  L.   requires 


limita  of  the  metropolis.  There  is  one  rulway 
north  and  sonth  tbnmeh  the  heart  of  L.,  and 
foor  extending  nearly  tbrangb  it  east  and  weat 
The  vaatnen  of  the  local  trafflo  may  be  illustrated 
by  the  fact  that  the  MetropoUUm  and  Hetro- 
pol^n  J>ulrld  RaO,u>ayt,  working  in  ooncert, 
despatch  about  BOO  traint  per  day,  and  aocommo- 
date  about  30  stations,  all  within  tiie  limits  of  the 
metropolis,  aud  all  north  of  the  Thamea.  There 
are  in  L.  about  140  boohbig-offleo  conneoted  with 
inns,  having  relation  to  passenger  and  carrier  traffic 
For  water-traffic,  thrae  are  abont  SO  vfiarfi  and 
quayt  on  the  Thames,  beaidce  a  ocnsiderable  number 
on  the  Kegent'e  and  other  canala,  There  are  about 
1700  omnibnses  and  6000  cabs.  It  has  been  ascer- 
tained that,  on  an  average  day,  1000  vehicles  per 
Aour  pass  throngh  Cfaeapside ;  and  on  bq  average 
day  of  24  hours,  170,000  persons  and  20,000  vehicles 


the  mbnrhfl. 
Of  the  open  pUc«a  In  the  metropotis,  the  Parka 

are  the  moat  important,  ffyde  Park,  SI  Jame^a 
Pari,  the  Orem  Park,  Hegtuta  Park,  Yldoria  Park, 
Kenaington  Park,  Fitubary  Park,  Southwark  Park, 
Kenningtoa  Park,  and  BaOrFsat  Park,  all  balone  to 
the  n&hon,  and  are  porpoaely  kept  oat  of  the  bnilders' 
hands ;  th^  are  most  valoable  as  '  longs'  to  London. 
Primroat  Sill  and  Hampatead  Beath  may  be  included 
in  the  numbCT.  The  Zoological  Gardent,  Horticul- 
tvrid  Qardena,  and  Bolamc  Qardent  are  beautilul 
places,  belonging  to  private  locietiea.  The  CemeterUa, 
snbstitutee  for  the  old  churchyards,  are  at  Ei^gste, 
Finchley,  Stoke  Scwineton,  Mile  End,  Kcnaal  Gtwn, 
Bethnal  Green,  Bromi^n,  Nunbead,  Coloe?  Hatch, 
Camberwell,  Norwood,  to.  Of  places  of  amuse- 
ment, there  are  3  opera-bonnes,  about  40  theatres, 
12  oinsic-hallB  and  concert  rooms  of  large  dimen- 
sions (including  Albert  HaJt),  a  raoeh  larger  numbet 
of  smaller  size,  and  very  numerous  eihibition- rooms 
of  various  kinds  ;  of  wluch  the  Anmtal  Inttmatvmal 
ExhUAtiona  bnilding  at  South  Kensington  was  opened 
in  1871.  0£  publio  calumnt  and  atatuta  in  open 
places,  L.  contains  about  SO,  many  of  them  not 
remarkable  for  beauty.  The  chief  are  ;  The  Albert 
Memorial,  Hyde  Park ;  the  Monvnunti,  Fish  Street 
Hill ;  Nelton  Column,  Trafalgar  Square  ( Wellington 
Slatue,  Hyde  Park,  was  removed) ;  AchUlea  Statue, 
Hyde  Park ;  Quard^  Memorial,  Pall  Mall ;  Crimean 
Momiment,  Westminster ;  York  Column,  Waterloo 
Steps;  Bavthcli*  and  Napitr'a  stataos,  Trafalgar 


which  are  nomerons,  the  finest  was  presented  to 
Victoria  Park  by  Baroness  Bardetl  Coutta  Then 
are  many  ohaap  nuUIe  haHa  and  wuh-hatau  in  U 

L.  is  not  snpplied  with  hotels  In  a  manner  >d»> 
qnate  to  ita  aise  and  importance.  The  best  of  thosb 
belonging  to  the  railway  oompaniea  are  tiie  Qrtat 
NortKera.  the  Midland,  the  Yietoria  amd  Bvatoit, 
the  Qreal  WeHtrn,  the  Groswnor,  the  Oharing  Onm, 
and  the  Cannon  Street  Of  the  othen,  the  I^nglitm 
and  the  new  Grand  Hotel  are  imposing  ediHcee. 

See  further  the  articles  Wbstkinstkb,  Towbr  of 
LownoK,  Lohhoh  Usitbrsitt,  British  Mmaci^ 
'K-Kvasotov  [S-.]  MtrsKmi  [in  flopF.,  VoL  X.),  Paul's 
(St)  CatbidbIi,  Mint,  Excbakoi^  Bilunos- 
GATB,  Cofnrr  Gardik,  Clcb,  Cmiiars  Hospitai, 
Ckastzbhodsb,  Guilds,  Oitildhall,  TntrLi^ 
LrvsBT,  Wosis  (BoABD  or),  BninaaiL 

LONDON,  chief  city  of  the  county  of  Middlesex, 
Ontario,  Canada,  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the 
two  branches  of  the  Thames  abont  114  miles  W.S.W. 
from  Toronto.  The  site  was  first  laid  out  in  1825. 
Pop.  (18631  7124;  (1861)  11,636;  (1881)  19,7*6.  and 
witbsnbnrbs, about 36,000.  Whenthecitywacoalled 
Ik,  the  river,  which  had  formerly  been  known  by  an 
Indian  name,  reoalved  that  whioh  it  now  beats ;  a 
Weatminster  snd  a  Blaokfriara  Bridge  wma  thrown 
over  it  j  and  the  names  givon  to  the  principal  straeta 
shew  Qie  same  tendency,  Itiere  are  sevsral  fina 
buildingiB  in  the  city.  Medicinal  aulphnr  ipringa 
attraot  many  visitois.  By  the  Thames  (on  which  a 
steamer  sau  with  between  iiOO  and  300  passengers 
in  1881),  L.  has  oommnnication  by  water  (a*  yet 
not  perfect)  with  the  lakes,  and  it  hu  already  an 
outlet  by  railway  to  every  part  of  the  Americas 
continent.  The  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural  district, 
L.  carries  on  a  large  trade  in  the  prodnce  of  the 
itry,  while  there  are  also  many  foondries, 
leries.  breweries ;  nrinting-offloes  Issuing  (hrea 
daily  and  several  weekly  newspapers ;  and,  ontside 
the  citry,  large  petroleum  refineries.  Huron  Collage, 
Hellmuth  Collage,  and  Hellmuth  Ladies'  College, 
are  educational  mstitations  recently  established. 

LONDON,  Cnaroa  of,  in  Rnjliah  Law,  is  peculiar 

several  respects,  and  the  uws  there  differ  in 

those  respects  from  the  rest  of  the  country.    Thu% 

■'"  the  City  (and  by  the  City  is  meant  only  th«  Clt; 


proper,  or  a  small  portion  of  the  metropotis),  a  law 
of  foreign  att  '  *  -'  '  -■-■  '  -  ''  "  ■'" 
Sootch  law  of 


1  attachment  emts,  which  resemblea  ths 
w  of  arrestment,  by  which  a  creditor  may. 
attach  or  seize  the  goods  or  debts  ot  his  debtor.  In 
the  hands  of  third  parties,  to  abide  the  result  of  an 
action  to  be  brought.  The  City  of  London  also  had 
a  custom  until  recently  which  resembled  the  Scotch 
law  of  Legitim  (q.  v.)  and  Ju*  Jieliclit  (^.  v.),  by 
which  a  person  at  death  oonld  not  1^  will  diain. 
herit  his  children,  or  leave  hi*  wife  dsatltnla. 
This  custom  was  abolished  by  the  stat  19  and  SO 
Vict  c  94  There  is  also  apeculiareoatombywhieh 
mmon  council  eleot  their  own  tariffs,  inataad 

crown  electinff  them.    There  are  also  MVtfal 

other  cnitoDis  relating  to  local  offenoei  of  nunor 


LONDON     CLAT,     or     LOWES     BOCBKE 

STRATA  (q.  v.),  are  a  series  of  beds  oeonpyine  tha 
lower  basb  of  the  Thames  from  HongerFora  to 
Harwich  and  Heme  Bay;  and  also  an  eztanslTe 
triangular  region  In  Hampshire  and  the  neighbonr' 
ing  counties,  whose  base  extends  along  tha  ooast 
from  Dorchester  nearly  to  Brighton,  white  its  apaft 
reaches  to  Salisbury.  The  tK<ia  are  arranged  i» 
three  sections:  London  Clay  Proper  and  Bognor 
Beds,  nTMTJTniini  thickness,  480  feet;  Plastic  and 
Klottled  Clays  and  Sands,  maximum  thioknesa,  160 


II c-<%id 


LONDON  COKTEREKOBS— LONDONDERBT. 


feet ;  Thuot  Skndi,  Bi».^tni.tn  thicknew,  90  feet : 
total,  730  feet. 

The  London  Clay  Proper  conauti  of  tenociotu 
dark^gray  Mid  .brown  claj,  vith  Uyeis  of  icptaria, 
vhiob  oooor  in  ntfflcient  quuiti^  In  the  beds  near 
Hanrich  «iid  along  the  coast  of  Harwich  to  be  need 
tot  the  manniactot^  of  Komao  eement.  Id  Hamp- 
■hire,  the  days  are  bluish,  and  have  miming  throuAh 
them  bands  of  tand,  aometimea  compacted  mto  hard 
atone,  caUed  Bosnor  Book.  In  both  baaini,  the  clay 
Tsvts  on  a  thin  bed  of  Torion^  coloured  sand  and 
flint  pebblee.  The  London  Cuy  is  rich  in  fosaila. 
Hony  palm  and  other  fruits  have  been  described 
by  Bowerbank  from  the  island  of  Sheppey 
01  wood,  often  bored  by  the  t««ao, 
Dnfre^nent.  The  moltneca  belong  to  genera  which 
now  mhabit  warmer  Eaaa  than  tliose  of  Britain, 
such  as  cones,  Tolutes,  nautilus,  &c.  About  fifty 
species  of  fish  hare  been  deacribed  by  AgamT  from 
Sheppey,  among  which  ore  a  sword-fish  and  a  saw- 
fish. The  remains  of  several  birds  and  pachyder- 
matous BT|i'"''U  tell  of  the  neighbourhood  of  Ltnd 
and  the  muDerons  turtlca,  with  the  crocodiles  ani 
gavials,  whose  remains  are  associated  with  them, 
no  doubt  infested  the  banks  of  tbe  great  - — 
which  floated  down  tbe  Sheppey  fntite. 

The   Plastic  Clays,  or  Woolwich  and  Reading 
series  of  Prestwich,  are  Tery  variable  in  character, 


manufacture  of  pottery.  They  contain  a  mixture 
ot  marine  and  fresh-water  shells,  shewing  that 
thejr  have  been  deposited  in  eetnaries.  They  attain 
theiz  maximnm  thickness  of  90  feet  in  the  Isle  of 
l^unet,  and  thin  out  westward,  till  at  Windsor 
the^  ore  only  four  feet  thick — beyond  this,  they 


LONDON  CONFEBENCB3.  The  firat  diplo- 
matio  meeting  so  deeigaated  was  held  in  1826  and  the 
fcdlowing  yearu,  for  toe  regulation  of  tbe  affairs  of 
Greece;  l^e  next  one  wae  held  in  1830,  to  arrange 
terms  of  agreement  or  of  separation  between 
Belgium  and  Holland.  Tbe  terms  of  agreement 
proposed  not  being  accepted  by  the  dii^utants, 
Holland  made  an  appeal  to  arms ;  but  the  capture 
of  Antwerp  bythe  French,  and  the  blockade  of  their 
'  by  tbe  English  and  French  fieeta,  brought  tht 


Dutch  to  agree 

81st  May  1833 

1840,  on  the  Torko-Egypti 

Bnssia  and     '       ■  ■  ■^    j^- 

Bbck  Sea 

mgned  in  London  by  the  retnvaent 

Great  Powers,  on  Danish  u&in,  i 


treaij7  of  definitive  eeparation, 

third  conference  was  held  in 

,Q^ian  question  ;  and  one  on 

;ht    to   have  war-Aips  in  the 

Id    1851,   a   protocol  was 

~  ~   ~         itativM  of  all  tbe 

and  one  in  1677 


on  Turkish  affairs. 

LONDON  nNIVEBSITT.  When  University 
College,  London,  was  first  established  (in  1S26),  it 
was  known  as  L.  C,  although  a  mere  joint-stock 
nndertoking.  A  change  took  plaoe  in  1S36,  when 
it  received  a  dharter  as  UniverMiig  Caiiegt.  At  tbe 
same  time,  by  another  charter,  L  D.  was  estab- 
lished— not  a  boildiDg  for  teaching,  nor  a  body  of 
teacbeiB  and  scholan,  but  a  body  of  persons  em-, 
powered  to  examine  candidat«s  and  confer  degrees. 
As  this  second  charter  was  only  valid  during  '  royal 
will  and  pleasure,'  it  required  to  be  renewed  at  the 
death  of  William  IV.,  and  the  accession  of  Vic- 
toria )  and  a  new  charter  was  accordingly  grouted, 
December  5,  1837.  Additional  powers  were  given, 
Jnly  7,  18C0;  and  a  wholly  new  charter  was 
■igned  April  9,  185S,  instituting  many  changes  io 
the  functions  and  arrangements  of  London  Uai- 
Teraity ;  again  a  wholly  now  charter,  January  6, 
1863,  with  Bupplement  (August  ST,  1S67),  admitting 
women  to  certain  i^eciol  ezaminaUons.     VnivertUy 


CoUege,  London,  is  still  carried  on  in  Gower  Street, 
tiie  original  spot;  but  the  Univeriity  of  London,  or 
L.  v.,  after  occupying  different  apartments  granted 
by  government,  u  now  established  in  a  special 
building  in  Bnrlington  Gardens  (since  1870).  The 
body  consists  virtually  of  a  Chancellor,  Vice-chan- 
cellor, 36  Fellows,  and  an  indefinite  number  of 
Graduates.  The  ChanceUor  is  appointed  for  life,  or 
dnring  royal  pleasure,  by  tbe  crown.  Tbe  Vice- 
dvmaUoT  is  annually  elected  by  tiie  FeUowa  from 
among  their  own  body.  The  36  FeUowt  were  named 
by  the  crown  in  the  charter  of  1858,  for  life;  but  as 
vacancies  occur,  the  crown  and  the  university  fill 
them  up  in  a  mode  that  gives  some  control  to  each. 
Tbe  Oradvatti  are  those  who,  at  any  time  since 
1836,  have  bad  degrees  {Bachelor,  MaOer,  or  Doctor 
of  certain  faculties]  conferred  upon  them  by  this 
nnivermt;^.  Tbe  Senate  n  comn»ed  of  the  Chan- 
oellor,  vice-chancellor,  and  Fellows,  and  has  the 
power  ot  making  the  whole  of  tbe  by-laws  for  the 
government  of  uie  universily— -within  oertun  limits 
prescribed  by  the  ohartet,  and  with  the  approval  of 
the  Secretaiy  of  State.  The  Convocation  is  com- 
posed of  all  the  graduates,  except  those  who  have 
taken  the  lower  degrees  within  less  than  two  yean ; 
''  meets  oocssionalfy,  to  vote  and  decide  upon  several 
inor  matters ;  bat  tbe  charter  seems  to  confine  all 
al  power  to  the  Senate^ 

Wlien  the  new  charter  was  given,  in  1S68,  there 
are  47  collegea  and  collegiate  schools  in  connec- 
tion with  L.  D.^two  in  the  c«loniea,  and  the  rest 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  The  nnmber  was  later 
inai«aaed ;  the  Secrets^  of  State  and  tbe  Senate 
having  the  power  of  deciding  what  additionid  estab- 
lishments shall  be  included.  But  since  1863,  it  is 
no  loiuer  required  that  candidates  for  examination 
ahould  be  oertificated  scholars  of  any  of  these  insti- 
tntiona;  evetrthing  is  thrown  open,  subject  to 
pleasure  of  senate.  Examiner$  are  appointed  by 
bte,  which  also  defines  the  extent  and  mode 
ination.  By  the  charter  of  the  univeisity, 
theologv  is  entirely  excluded.  Yet  there  is  an 
optional  Scriptural  e]aunination  under  by-taws. 
The  d^reea  obtainable  are  those  of  Saehehr  and 
Utatier  of  Arte,  Badielor  and  Doctor  qf  Medldne, 
Baehdor  and  Doctor  of  Lawt,  BacAelor  and  Doctor 
of  Sdence,  Bachelor  and  Maeler  of  Surgery,  Baehdor 
and  Doctor  of  Mntk,  and  Doctor  of  Literaiurt. 
""  examinations  for  women,  diatinct  from 

Literature  and  Science  combined ;   and 
these  may  be  followed  up  by  special  examinations 
ertincates  of  higher  proHcieDcy.     Women  are 
admitted  to  regular  degrees;  and,  since  1882, 
vote  in  convocation. 

The  number  of  candidates  for  matrioolation  id 
1880wa«  1400, 680  of  whom  passed:  for  B.A.  (^EnoJ), 
170;  94 passed:  forM.A,21;  14 passed:  forB.Sc. 
nSnaO,SS;  27  passed:  forD.Sc.,11;  1  passed:  for 
iL.B.  (final),  30 ;  19  passed:  for  M.B.  (jfna^),  60  ; 
39paaaed:  forM.D.,22;  18paased.  General  matri- 
culation examination  mnat  be  Dndergone  a  certain 
time  previously  by  candidates  for  any  degree.— 
L.  U.  stands  in  uo  special  relation  to  King's  College 
(q.v.)  in  Loudon. 

LONDONDERRT,  Robert  Stewadt,  lecond 
MAHQuia  or,  bom  at  Mount  Stewart,  Down  County, 
Ireland,  June  18,  1769,  eldest  son  of  Robert,  lirat 
marquis,  who  represented  the  oonnty  of  Down 
many  years  in  the  Irish  parliament.  Edncated  at 
the  Grammar-school,  Armagh,  and  at  St  jirfin's 
College,  Cambridge,  he  entered  the  Iri^  parlia- 
ment in  I7S9,  alUion^  then  under  age.  In  1796 
he  became  Tisconnt  Castlereacb;  and  in  1798  he 
was  made  Chief  Secretary  for  belaud.  It  was  the 
year  of  the  insurrection  and  the  French  invasion, 
and  some  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  tembla 


<  ^nnjli' 


toMwNDaitEir. 


_. employed  b;  tiie  Irish  govemment    Yet 

the  crud  pwit  be  Mted  or  tolerated  in  Ireland,  in 
ttie  Bapprenion  of  the  rebellion,  and  effectdng  the 
union,  alwafi  weighed  upon  his  reputation.  In 
1802,  he  waa  appointed  Frendent  of  the  Board  of 
Control,  in  the  AddiogtoD  adnuDiatration.  In  1605, 
he  iraa  promoted  to  the  eenla  of  the  War  and 
Ckilonitkl  deportotent,  bnt  resigned,  vitb  the  whole 
of  the  cabinet^  on  Pitt's  deatb  in  1806.  In  the 
following  year,  he  resumed  the  office  of  War  Min- 
iflter,  when  he  ornmsed  the  disastrous  Walcheren 
ozpedition.  Mr  Canning,  then  Foreign  Secretai;, 
attacked  Lord  Caatlereogh  on  this  account  wiUi 
mnoh  acrimonj^  and  petaonality.  The  result  was 
that  both  rengned,  and  a  hostOe  meeting  took 
plam  between  them  (2Ist  September  1809).  in 
which  Camiing  was  wounded.      In  1812,^  after  the 


becanie  Foreign  Secretary, 
during  the  period  illntrtrateil  by  the  military 
aohiereiDents  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  By 
this  time  the  general  direction  of  British  policy 
wu  unalterably  fixed  by  circtmist«iicee,  and  Lotd 


ohatinacj,  which  nothing  could  abate.  He 
was  the  soul  of  the  coalition  against  Bonaparte,  and 
it  WH  only  by  his  untiring  exertions,  and  through 
hia  per«oaal  inflaence,  that  it  was  kept  tosetber. 
Ha  Tfipreeented  England  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
in  1814,  at  the  b«aty  of  Paris  in  1815,  and  at  the 
CongresB  of  Aix-ta-Chapella  in  18ia  While  his 
foreign  policy  was  favourable  to  the  principlea  and 
policy  ol  the  '  Holy  Alliance '  abroad,  he  coDstantly 
reoommended  arbitrary  and  despotic  maaanres  at 
home.  Aa  the  leader  of  the  Liverpool  government 
in  Uie  Lower  House,  he  carried  the  suBpennon  of 
tite  Habeu  Corpus  Act  in  1817.  and  the  'Six  Acts,' 
mr  'the  Oaggiog  Bills,'  as  they  were  called,  of  1819 
— meaanres  which  will  for  ever  stamp  bis  name 
with  infamy.  The  retirement  of  Canning  from  tjie 
ministry,  rather  than  be  a  party  to  the  prosecution  of 
Queen  Caroline  (1820),  threw  the  whole  weight  of 
busineas  on  Lord  Castlereasb.  By  the  death  oE  his 
father  in  1821,  he  became  Marquis  of  Londonderry ; 
bnt  his  miitd  became  deranged,  and  he  died,  by  his 
own  hand,  at  hia  seat  at  Foot's  Cray,  Kent,  August 
1%  1822:  The  populace  witneHsed  the  funeral 
mooeiBioii  in  silence;  but  when  the  coffin  entered 
Oa  wiQs  of  WestminsteT,  a  loud  and  exulting  thcnit 
rent  the  air,  which  penetrated  into  the  abbey,  and 
bnko  npon  tiu  itilmeM  of  the  fonenJ  oeismony. 
niii  BtAtesman,  looked  upon  by  one  party  as  a 
pmgtm  of  perfection,  has  been  characterised  by 
the  other  piuty  as  '  tiie  most  intolerable  misohiS 
^t  ever  was  east  by  an  angry  Providence  on  a 
hdpleBB  people.' 

LOTIDONDERRT,  a  maritime  connty  of  the 
province  of  Ulster,  in  Ireland,  40  miles  in  length  by 
34  in  breadUi,  bounded  N.  by  the  AtUntie,  E.  by 
the  conniy  Antrim,  and  in  i»rt  by  Lough  Nea«h, 
a.  by  Tyrone,  and  W.  by  Donegal  Its  area  is  816 
Kioare  miles,  or  522,316  acres,  of  which  91,769  are 
mountain,  bc^,  waste,  water,  towns,  Ac.  The  popn- 
Utioo  in  1871  waa  173,906,  of  whom  77,358  were 
Catholics,  58,779  Prsibytarians,  32,079  Episoo- 
paliana;  in  1881,  164,991.  Tho  surfaoe  of  L. 
IS  irregolat.  From  the  eastern  bouodatT,  it  rises 
CTadD^y  towards  the  west,  for  a  distance  of  about 
10  miles,  where  oommences  an  elevated  district, 
linne  in  several  points  to  a  considerable  height ; 
Sawdl,  on  the  southern  border,  being  2236  feet 
high.  On  tiie  western  dde,  the  surface  falls  gradu- 
ally towards  Lough  Foyle^  The  coast-line  along 
tlu  AUantio  is  generally  bold  and  precipitous.  The 
■hare  at  Lough  fqyle  is  in  most  pbvMa  an  unvarying 


plain.  The  county  may  he  divided  longitndinallf 
into  two  great  gecdogical  districts,  separated  from 
each  other  by  the  river  Roe.  In  the  western,  which 
is  mountainous,  the  mica-slate  prevails,  acoompaoied 
in  some  plaoee  by  primitive  limestone.  In  the 
eastern,  the  mioa-slabe  is  overlaid  by  a  succeasian 
of  varying  beds,  capped,  as  in  the  adjacent  Antrim 
district  beyond  the  Bann,  by  a  vast  area  of  bssal^ 
the  dip  of  which,  however,  is  the  revet«e  (rf  that  on 
the  opposite  vde  of  the  river,  and  increasing  in 
thioknou  towards  the  north,  where  in  one  pla^  it 
reaches  a  depth  of  900  feet  Moot  of  the  strata 
contain  iron,  and  the  ironstone  of  the  mountain 
called  Slieve  Oalhon  was  formerly  worked,  hut  the 
— "-- —  operations  have  been  abuidoned,  from  the 
■'  '  ■'     '^'-        ■■  ■    ^[  J  very  mixed  char- 


failure  of  foeL    The  aoU  ii 


considerable  open  district  which  stretches 
southward  to  Tyrone,  being  ill  suited  for  wheat, 
or  indeed  for  any  cereal  orop.  In  the  year  1881, 
186,918  acres  were  under  crops  of  all  kinds.  The 
nnmber  of  catUe  waa  96,693;   of  sheep,  30,161 1  of 


the  London  society  upon  the  large  estates  which 
it  holds  in  the  count^.  The  principal  rirers  are 
the  Foyle,  the  Fangbon,  the  Eoe,  and  the  Bann. 
The  first  is  navira^le  as  for  as  L.  for  ships  of 
tons  bordeo.  The  Bann,  besides  being  a  great 
;ce  of  motive-power  for  Uie  staple  mmcaCao- 
tore  of  Ulster,  that  of  limwj  is  also  celebrated 
for  its  salmon-fisheries,  which  are  of  great  value. 
Tiie  chief  towns  'are  Londonderry  City  (q.v.),  Cole- 
roine,  Newtou-Limavady,  and  M^ierafelt,  Ik 
ks  in  ancient  timea  tho  seat  of  the  great  septa 
.  O'Londilin  and  O'Nfill,  and  of  their  tributary 
sept  of  u^CtJian,  or  O'KaJie.  At  the  immediate 
"  nod  of  the  invasion,  the  English,  under  John 
_,  CouTCT,  attempted  a  settlement,  but  were  forced 
by  tiie  O'Neills  to  withdraw.  A  small  garrison 
within  their  colony  was  established  near  the  Antrim 
border,  at  Coleraine,  upoa  the  river  Bonn ;  but 
£rom  the  14th  till  the  IGth  c,  tbetr  tenure  was 
litUe  more  than  nominal  j  and  although  a  nnmber 
if  forts,  with  a  oonaidenble  garriton,  were  erected 
LDon  the  river  Foyls  io  1600,  it  was  not  tiU  the 

gj^t   -'  "       --•-■—--  "' -■   ™'^-— "  -I--'- 


„„ _onpat_ .... 

uated,  their  forfeited  lands  being  granted  bv 
the  crown  to  the  corporation  of  London,  who  still 
retain  them,  the  management  being  vested  in  a 
body,  26  in  number,  who  are  elected  by  the  oommon 
oonndi,  one  half  retiring  each  year.  The  incorpora* 
tion,  by  charter,  of  this  body,  id  1619,  led  to  tha 
formation  d  the  county,  called,  from  this  circum* 
Loiuionderry.  Portions  of  the  county  ware 
assigned  to  the  several  city  companies,  the  unaa- 
signed  portion*  being  held  by  the  society.  Tha 
memory  of  the  confiscation  long  ronhled,  and  partu^ta 
still  lingers,  in  the  minds  of  the  dispossessed  Irish 
and  their  deecendanta ;  hut  in  material  proaperity 
the  district  underwent  a  rapid  and  marked  improve- 
ment. The  agriculture  is  in  a  conditioa  consider- 
ably in  advonoe  of  the  majority  of  Irish  coimtiea, 
and  the  domestic  mannfacture  of  linen,  io  former 
times,  added  materially  to  the  comfort  of  the 
popnlation.  Of  late  vearB.  however,  this  manu- 
facture, in  all  its  brancbes,  has  been  transferred  for 
the  moat  part  to  large  ^tablishjuenti.  There  is 
oonoderable  export  and  import  trade  at  the  ports 
of  Derry  and  Fortrush,  which  is  tiie  seaport  of 
Coleraine.  The  former  has  become  a  port  of  call 
for  the  Canadian  steamers,  which  touch  on  their 
outward  and  homeward  passage  at  the  entrance  ol 
Iiough  Foyle.    Tha  number  M  national  aobools  in 


tOSl)Oid)J!Eltt-LOKfi  tAOATIOW. 


nr. 


L.,  in  the  ye&r  1861,  was  3SS,  attended  b^  20^606 
pnpilB.  In  1880,  there  were  31,882  pupil*.  L. 
returns  two  memben  to  the  imperial  puliunent. 

LO'NDONDEBRY,  Cnr  or,  a  naport,  and  a 
corporate  and  parliMoentary  boTDQ^h,  capital  of  the 
above  oounty,  litaated  <ni  the  nver  7o*le,  and 
distant  from  Dublin  144  milM.  Pop  in  1871, 
S0,!H3 ;  in  1881,  29,163.  It  retomi  one  member  to 
parlianMnl  L.  mom  onder  the  Bhadow  of  a  moa- 
tatery  founded  here  in  the  6th  a  by  8t  Colomb*. 
It  WBB  [nllaged  more  than  oDoe  bj  we  Danes,  and 
waa  oooapiwl,  bnt  with  many  Tlduitadea,  b^  Um 
Engliah  a*  the  tnTMioD.  The  town  formed  part  of 
the  eaoheated  temtar;;r  granted  to  the  London  com- 
panies, and  under  their  management  the  city  arose 
to  some  impoTtanoe,  and  was  itronglj  fortiHed.  In 
the  Irish  war  of  the  BerolutioD,  L,  threw  ibwlf 
eameatly  into  the  canw  of  William  of  Onuge,  and 
doted  it*  gates  agatolt  James  IL  The  aiege  of 
L.  is  one  of  the  most  eelebrat«d  events  in  modem 
Irish  history,  and  its  memories  are  among  the  most 
stirring  of  the  oocasions  of  party  animosity.  Since 
that  date,  the  city  ha<  steadily  grown  in  extent  and 

MiperitT.    It  is  bMutifallr  sttuated  on  the  left 

ik  of  the  Foyle,  upon  a  hill  which  orerlooka  the 
river.  The  Walla  are  still  preoerred,  and  form  an 
agreeable  promenade;  they  sDrroand  a  part  of  the 
town  one  mile  in  cdrvum^enoe,  bnt  the  buildings 
have  extended  beyond  them.  A  square  from  which 
the  foor  main  streets  diverge.  Is  called  the  Diamond. 
The  left  bank  of  the  river  is  oonnected  by  an  iron 
bridge,  1200  feet  in  lencth,  with  an  extsnsiTS 
sobtub  called  Waterside.  The  cathedral  dates  from 
1033.  A.  handsome  Bomon  Cathollo  cathedral  has 
been  erected.  The  ounrt-honse  also  is  a  building  of 
some  preteaaions,  and  the  historical  events  above 
alluded  to  are  commemorated  by  a  triumphal  arch 
erected  in  1780,  and  a  column  in  honour  of  the  Rev. 
Qeorge  Walker,  who  was  governor  of  the  ci^  during 
the  memorable  defence,  of  which  he  waa  himsdf  the 
^reat  organiser  and  innrfrvr.  There  are  serersl 
important  educational  fonndaliouB,  one  d  which, 
Qin'n'B  School,  has  an  income  of  £1870;  Muee 
Collegf^  founded  in  1860,  is  an  important  imitihition. 
The  arrangements  and  appliances  of  the  port  are 
on  a  good  soale.  Tesseb  of  COO  tons  can  dischai^ 
at  the  quays,  and  there  is  a  patent  slip  capable  of 
receiving  ressels  ol  800  tons.  Steamers  ply  to 
Liverpool,  Glasgow,  and  Belfast :  there  is  railway 
communication  with  Dublin  and  Belfast,  as  well  as 
a  considerable  advance  towards  direct  oommntiic*- 
tion  with  the  weotem  coast,  and  the  Lough  SwiUy 
line  is  carried  north  to  Bunciana.  In  1880,  1060 
vessels  of  335,544  tons  enterod,  and  1408  of  326,170 
tons  cleared,  iha  port.  The  chief  mannfaotnrea  are 
flax-Bpinnine,  distilling,  brewing,  rope-making,  and 
tanning.     There  is  also  an  extensive  salmoa-fishery. 

liONG,  Obobge,  M.A.,  a  dJsldagnished  daasical 
scholar,  was  bom  at  Poulton,  In  Lancashire,  in  ISOO, 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  be 
obtained  the  Craven  scholarship  In  IS21.  L.  became 
Chanoellw's  Uedollist  in  18^,  and  siibeeqnently 
fellow  of  his  college.  In  1824,  he  accepted  the 
FrofeBSonhip  of  Ancient  Ijingufiges  in  the  uni- 
Tersify  of  Virgitiia,  United  States ;  but  returned 
to  England  in  1826,  to  become  Professor  of  the 
Greek  Longuiue  and  Literature  in  the  London 
Univenity.  TQs  office  he  resigned  in  1831,  when 
he  commenced  to  edit  the  Journal  of  Eduealion, 

K'lUshed  by  the  Sooie^  for  the  Diffusion  of  Usefol 
owledge;  but  probably  the  greatest  labour— the 
majrnmn  opit»~<il  his  life  was  Eis  editing  for  eleven 
years  (from  1832  to  1843)  the  Penny  Cydopadia,  to 
which  he  was  also  one  of  the  most  valuable  coq. 
tribntors.    At  the  conolosion  d  the  27th  volume, 


learning  unwearied  diligence,  and  watchfulness, 
amty  n  plan  baa  been  muntained  durina  etevea 
years,  and  error,  as  far  as  possible,  avoided.'  In 
the  midst  of  these  arduous  dutiea,  Ik  joined  the 
Inner  Temple,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1837. 
In  1846,  he  waa  ohoeen  by  the  Benchen  of  the 
Middle  Temple  to  deliver  a  three  years'  course  o[ 
lectures  on  jarisprudenoe  and  civil  law.  Id  1S49, 
he  became  Professor  of  Classical  Literature  in  the 
Proprietary  College  «t  Brighton,  which  appointment 
he  held  tiU  _1871.  L.  was  one  of  the  bat  dasaical 
iroduoed; 
Roman  Ii 


editorsthat  England  has  produoed;  he  waa  alio 
of  the  first  authorities  on  Roman  law.  His  merits 
as  a  translator  were  no  less  great,  as  evinced  in  his 
StleetioniJrom  PliUatth'$  Ltmu,  Ac,  L.  contributed 
eztensiTelf  to  Smith's  Classical  Dictionaries  ;  and 
besides  editing  Cicero's  Oralioni  and  Cosar's  Qaliie 

'or,  has  published  Egmtian  AntiquUia,  Frane« 

<d  ilt  Rmihiliont,  ka.    In  1873  he  was  granted  w, 

nsion  of  £loa    He  died  lOtii  August  1879. 

LONG,  Loch,  a  well-known  loch  in  the  west  of 
Scotland,  extendi  northward  from  the  Firth  of 
Clyde  for  about  24  milei,  between  the  countiM  of 
A^yle  and  Dumbarton.  It  has  an  average  breadth 
of  about  a  mils ;  and  its  baoki,  oonaisting,  for  the 
most  part,  of  steep  acclivities,  abound  in  strilcing 
and  picturesque  scenery.    At  its  head  Is  Arrochar. 

LONG-BOAT,  a  strong  and  seaworthy   boat, 
formerly  the  latgest  carried  by  a  ship,  but  now 
merslly  superaeded  by  the  launch  (q.  v.). 

LORO  ISLAND,  an  Island  which  forms  three 
mnties  of  the  state  of  New  York,  United  States 
„  America,  between  Ut  40°  33'— «I*  S'  N.,  and 
long,  72*— 74°  »■  W.,  bounded  N.  by  Long  Island 
Sound,  E  and  3.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  W.  by 
the  bay  and  harbour  of  New  York.  It  is  110  mi^es 
lonir.  and  12  miles  in  average  width,  with  an  area 
of  r6S2  square  miles.  On  Its  south  shore  is  a  bay 
100  miles  long,  and  from  2  to  9  miles  wide,  separ- 
ated from  the  ocean  by  a  narrow  beach  of  sand, 
with  sevml  inlets.  On  thii  shore  are  several  lisht- 
houses,  and  30  life-boat  stations.  A  tine  of  hills 
runs  along  the  northern  portion  of  the  island,  but 
the  centre  is  a  plain,  alojiine  to  the  sea,  Villages, 
watering-places,  and  fertile  farmi  line  the  ooasts, 
but  the  interior  is  mostly  waata  land  and  forest. 
The  principal  towns  are  Brooklyn  (q.  v.)  and  Long 
Island  CitT  (pop.  in  1880,  17,129)— both  at  the  west 
end  of  the  island,  opposite  New  York.  The 
shores  are  lined  with  watering.ploces.  In  177^ 
Sir  Henry  CUnton  landed  on  L.  I.  with  9000 
British  trooiH,  defeated  General  Putnam,  and  com- 
pelled Wasbingten  to  evacuate  the  island.  Pop, 
(1870)  640,648 ;  (1880)  744,022. 

LOMO  ISLAND  SOUND,  a  body  of  water 
between  Long  Island  and  New  York  and  Conneo- 
tient.  United  Stetes  of  America,  110  miles  long,  and 
from  2  to  20  miles  wide,  oommencing  narrow  at 
New  York  City,  which  it  separates  from  BrooU^ 
and  where  it  is  called  East  Kiver,  and  opemng 
at  its  eastern  extremi^  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
by  a  passage  called  '  the  Race.'  It  is  navigated 
by  an  immense  number  of  coastiQE-vesaels  and 
steamera,  and  is  strongly  fortified  at  TUrogs  Poin^ 
near  New  York.  It  receives  the  Connecticut, 
Housatonio,   Thames,   and    Hystio   rivers   on   its 

LONG  VACATION,  a  period  of  the  year  tm 
England  when  suits  cannot  oe  carried  on,  but  are 
for  some  parpoaes  luspended — TiE.,  from  lOth 
Angiist  to  24tn  October  at  ootnmon  law,  and  te 
2Sth  October  In  Chancerr  in  eveij  ymr.  Henoe  it 
is  oalled  the  lawyer's  hohday. 


ijgk 


toW)A*-Lolmtlnjs. 


, ai  far  weat  M  tliD  monntuuoua 

ngioni  on  the  eurtem  frontier  of  BeogaL  It  it 
tant^  GUltirated  in  China.  Tbs  leave*  are  pinnate, 
with  few  lea&ete,  Uie  leaSeta  oblong,  the  flowen  itl 
lax  panicles.  The  fmit  is  aloboae,  or  nearlf  bo.  It 
ia  imported  into  Britain  m  a  dned  state.  It  hu 
been  produced  in  Britain  by  the  aid  of  artificial 
heat. 

LONaFELLOW,  HamtT  Wadvwdbth,  an 
AmeriMm  poet,  wu  bom  at  Portland,  Maiae,  on 
Febnuuy  ST,  1807.  At  the  afie  of  14,  he  entered 
Bowdoin  CiJlege,  BraTWWiok,  and  grodnated  th«r* 
with  high  hononn  in  ISSC  For  a  short  time  h« 
■tndied Iftw  in  hi*  fkthet'i  office;  bat  a  pFofenOT- 
•hip  oif  madam  langnagM  hsving  been  fannded  in 
the  Bowdoin  Oolite,  and  offend  htm,  he  accepted 
it,  and  prooeeded  £>  Bnrope  to  qnalifj  binuell  for 
the  dlsoham  of  bis  new  datiea.  He  returned  to 
Amerioa  in  1839.    Hit  ftnt  tabatantlTe  worl^  Ovtrr 

appointed 

Litsratnre  at  Harrard  UniTBnitr.  He  again  spent 
•  Jfr  in  iinrope,  and  made  himself  acqaaintc* 
with  the  Danish  and  other  northern  literatnra- 
an  aoqiiBintance  whish  hs  hiia  tamed  to  noble 
He  rarisltad  Europe  in  1813,  and  a^un  ia 


BaUaiU  ami  other  Poena,  in  1841  ;  Potmt 
Slavtry,  1842;  Tht  Spanish  StudfiU,  1843;  his 
Poets  and  Poebyt^  Europe,  IS45;  Beifry  of  Brvota, 
1816;  EfxatgeCint,  19*7;  Kavajtagh,  1849;  The 
Sauide  and  &e  Firaide.  1860 ;  The  Qoiden  Legend, 
JS51 ;  HiawaUM,  1896 ;  Miles  Standish,  185S ; 
Tales  of  a  Wayside  Imt,  1863  ;  IlolBer-de-Lvce,  and 
trans,  of  DarM,  1867 1  Ifan  England  Tragedies 
1868;  The  Divin*  Tragedy,  1872;  Three  Sookt  qf 
Song,  1872 ;  Aftermath,  18T3  ;  The  Hanging  qf  the 
Crane,  1874;  Pandora,  1876;  hil  oompilatioii 
Poans  of  Plaeet,  two  volnmea  of  which,  England 
and  Waits,  1877,  hara  been  reprodacel  in  this 
oonntry ;  Keramos,  1878 ;  Ultima  Thule,  1880  ;  Ac. 
He  waa  a  D.CL.  of  Oxford,  and  LL.D.  of  Cam- 
bridge. EediedMaroh24, 1882.  Of  the  American 
poets,  L,  is  the  mntt  popnlar  in  England,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  he  is  the  most  nationai.  If  his 
oonntrjmien  hare  not  a  national  epic,  Evang^in 
or  Hiauiatha  is  as  yet  the  nearest  approach  to  it 
Some  of  his  shorter  lyrica  are  almnrt  perfect  in 
idea  and  ezpienion.  His  poetry  is  deficient 
force,  but  fuU  of  piotoreeqneneaa-     The  sale  of 


works  has  I>een  greater  than  that   of  any  other 
contemporsTy  poet.    See  biographies  by  Unaern 
(1882),  Stoddard  (1882|,  and  L's  brother  (1885). 


LO'NOFORD,  an  inland  eonoty  ot  Leinstcr; 
2S  miles  long  by  22  miles  broad.  Its  area  is  269,409 
acrea,  of  whidi  191,823  an  arable)  pop.  (1S71) 
64,601 ;  (1S81J  60,7dO.  The  soriace  is  for  the  moat 
part  moist  and  flab  Many  small  lakes  pervade 
the  oounty,  and  tlie  river  Shannon,  or  its  norsing 
lakes,  connect  L.  with  the  county  and  city  ot 
Limsriok.  Its  navigation  is  also  connected  with 
Dublin  by  the  Royal  Canal ;  and  there  an  two 
branches  of  the  Midland  Great  Western  Bailway 
which  pass  through  the  ooantyi  The  south  of  the 
couuty  forms  part  of  the  central  limestaoe  district 
of  Ireland.  The  north  is  a  oontinnatioa  of  the 
clay-llate  which  prevails  in  Cavan,  the  two  dis- 
tricts being  separated  by  a  belt  of  y^ow  sandstone 
and  oonglomerate.  Deep  beds  of  marl  are  found  in 
many  of  the  boggy  districts.    Marble  of  good  quality 


la  also  bond,  and  ironstolie,  tnOi  ooal,  shale,  Snd 
lead,  U  good  quality,  but  not  in  remnneratiTe 
quantity.  The  Uoieatone  district  of  the  south  Is 
suited  to  tillaf 
The  north  is  „ 
number  of  acres  under  crop  in  ISSl  was  7^88& 
In  the  sam?  year,  there  were  61,547  cattie,  24,140 
sheep,  and  17,900  pigs.  The  chief  towns  are 
Longford  (q.v.),  Qranard,  and  Ballymahon.  L. 
returns  two  member*  to  parUameot.  The  ntunber 
of  national  schools,  in  1871,  was  132,  attended  l^ 
7305papils;  in  1880  there  were  100  schools  attended 
by  1£D9S  pupils.  L.  anciently  formed  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Heath,  and  as  such  was  lodtided  in 
Henry  IL's  grant  to  Hugh  de  Lacy.  It  was  erected 
into  a  county  in  1004^  b^  in  the  rebellion  of  1641  it 
Waa  recovered  for  a  brief  period  by  the  OTarrells, 
and,  on  the  suppreaeinn  of  this  rising,  almost  the 
entire  county  wu  distributed,  as  con£cated  landa, 
to  a  new  race  of  colonists.  The  antiquities  an  of 
much  Interest.  The  islands  of  Lough  fise  are 
especially  rich  in  monsstlD  remaina, 

LO'l^QFORD,  capital  of  the  above  oontity,  TS 
itillea  weat-north-we«t  from  Dablin  by  the  Mid- 
land Waatera  Bailway,  on  a  small  river  oUled  the 
Camiiu.  It  is  a  well-built  town.  The  Homaa 
Oatholio  oathedral,  recently  erected,  la  a  very 
spaeion^  and  indeed  a  nuaiiiGoent  bnilding^  of  the 
Ionia  order.  Pop.  |1S71)  4376,  of  whori  ai.Tr  «ara 
Boman  Catholios,  and  640  Protattant-Ei 


, t-Episoopaliana ; 

(IMl)  4880.  The  chief  eoBunen:e  of  xTulntb* 
agncnltnral  prodno*  of  the  district  No  mannfaa- 
tun  ot  any  importanoa  exists  in  the  town.  It  is 
connected  with  Dublin  and  with  Sligo  by  the  Mid- 
land Western  Bailway,  aa  also  with  the  former  by 
the  Ro3ral  CanaL 

IiONGIOO'BirEB,  a  family  of  tetramennu 
coleoptera,  contaiDing  a  vast  number  of  speofea^ 
ag  which  are  many  of  the  largest  and  most 
,_  idid  beetlea.  They  an  nmarluble  for  the 
length  of  their  ilendsr  antennte,  which  an  often 
longer  tiian  the  body.  They  all  feed  on  vegetable 
.._  „i  an  roots,  and  an  mostly 

femalea  deponting  then' 


the  larvie  feed  The  h.  abound  obieQy  in  warm 
oountries,  and  particnlarly  in  Sonth  America ;  the 
number  of  British  species,  however,  is  oonsiderable, 
but  some  of  those  so  reckoned  have  probably  been 
imported  from  foreign  countries  in  the  larva  stats^ 
in  timber,  to  which  they  often  do  great  injury. 

LONGITTUS,  DiOBTBtDS  Ciasiim,  a  Platonic 
philosopher  and  famons  rhetorician,  was  bom, 
aocotdlng  to  some,  at  Emeaa,  in  Byria,  and  aooord- 
ing  to  others,  at  Athens,  about  213  a.  P.  In  his 
earlier  years,  he   travaUad  a  graat  daal   tat  tl» 


LONOIPHNHES-LOOM. 


and  Origen,  and  niboeqnantlj  aettied  u  >  teacher 
of  thotoria  in  Athem,  where  he  ooou  acquired  s 
BMftt  repnUtion.  Hii  knowledse  vm  immanH: 
ne  WM  oklled  *>  living  blinuy  mud  s  'walking 
mtueam,'  bnt  hia  tute  and  oritioal  acuteneai  were 
aa  Um  wondBrfoL  Be  was  probably  the  best  critic 
of  all  antiqni^.  In  an  age  when  PUtoniam  was 
dnng  place  to  the  semi-oiieatal  ciyaticiBm  and 
oreami  of  Neo-HatODism,  L.  standi  oat  oonipioaouB 
u  a  genuine  duciple  of  tlie  sreat  nuut«r.  CQear, 
calm,  rational,  yat  lofty,  he  &spiaed  the  fantastic 
ipeonlationB  of  Plotinna,  who  coDseqaently  would 
not  admit  that  L.  was  a  philosopher,  but  aince  he 
stooped  to  criticise  the  diction  and  style  of  Plato 
— pro&oonoed  bim  a  mere  philologist.  In  the 
laner  ^eais  of  his  life,  he  accepted  the  inTitation  of 
Zenobia  to  nndertake  the  education  of  her  childrrai 
at  Pahnvra;  but  becoming  also  her  prime  political 
adviser,  n«  was  beheaded  as  ■  traitor,  by  coBunand 
of  the  Emperer  Aurelian,  273  jl-v.  L.  wbs  a 
beathesL  bnt  a  generous  and  tolerant  heathen.  Of  his 
works,  uiere  remain  for  the  moat  part  only  fragments 
of  letters  and  criticisniB ;  for  the  very  important 
treatiae  Peri  ffyptoui  (On  tiie  Sublime),  formerly 
nnhentatinsly  ascribed  to  hinL  is  of  somewhat  doubt- 
ful anthorahip.  See  Egger,  Xumgiid  qam  taptrtwat 
nS37)  i  Vancher's  £lt«^  (MftfUMonL.  (1364)  1  and 
Jahn'a  edition  of  the  J7e  B^wutate  beatise  (1867). 
There  are  several  English'temlations. 

LOKGIPf»fITE8,  in  Cnner's  omitholo^oal 
■jstem,  that  seotdon  of  the  order  Palmiptda  chuac- 
terised  by  long  winga  and  great  power  of  flight. 
The  wings  are  often  very  narrow.  They  are  all  sea- 
biids,  ai^  mai^  of  them  venture  to  a  great  distance 
from  tHasxn.  Their  hind-toe  is  small  and  free,  or 
wanting.  Thqr  cannot  dive  and  punne  their 
prey  nnder  water,  bnt  they  awim  well,  and  their 
movements  in  the  air  are  very  gracefid.  Patrela, 
■hearwateiB,  gulls,  terns,  noddies,  skimmers,  and 
albatrosses,  are  examples. 

LOITGIR<ySTRBS,  a  tribe  of  birds  of  the  order 
QraUa,  having  genenlly  a  long,  slender,  feeble  bill, 
and  inhalnting  sea-shores  and  msrsliy  places,  where 
they  seek  worms  and  other  food  in  the  mud  or  ooze. 
To  this  tribe  belong  snipes,  woodoockg^  curlews, 
godwits,  sandpipers,  io. 

LONGirUDE.    See  LA^rmruK 

LOlflGO,  a  town  of  the  Italian  states,  in  the 
provinoe  of  Vicenzo,  situated  in  a  valley  12  miles 
sonth-west  of  the  cit^  of  that  naioe.  It  is  protected 
by  three  strong  towere,  the  antiquity  of  which  is 
attested  W  the  inscription  they  bear.  The  inha- 
bitanta,  6786  in  nnmber,  are  chiefly  devoted  to 
•griciUtnral  and  commercial  industry. 

LONS-LE-S  AUNIEB,  a  town  of  Eastern  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  Jnra,  at  the  oonflaence 
of  the  SemEk  Valliir^  and  Solman,  about  69  miles 
south-east  of  Dijon.  It  is  situated  in  a  beatttifol 
valley,  suirounded  by  vine-clod  hills,  and  was 
founded  as  long  ago  as  the  4tli  c,  when  its  aalt- 
springs  were  discovered,  from  which  20,000  quintals 
(^  salt  ore  ffxAj  extracted.  Pop.  (1881)  12,101. 
Bouget  de  Lisle,  the  campoeer  of  the  Maraeiliaiet, 

LOO-CHOO,  or  LXTT-TCHIU,  the  native  n 


of  a  gronp  of  islands  called  by  the  Chinese  Lidn- 
kiiu,  and  by  the  Jananese  BJn-kin.  These  islands, 
about    90   in   namber,  lie   in  the    Pacific  Ocean, 


■outfaem,  oalled  Great  Ln-tchn,  or  Okinawn,  is  about 
es  milea  long  and   13  broad.    Its  shoMS  have  a 

beantifol  appearance  ;  fields  and  forests  are  clothed 
with  a  Uving  green,  pine-woods  crown  the  summita 
of  the  hills,  and  gsraens  and  cornfields  adorn  their 
slopes.    In  loveliness  and 


like  one  vast  enchanting  garden,  few  places  aujr- 
idiere  coold  snrpaM  these  islattds.  Tbe  principal 
products  of  the  gronp  are  rice^  millet,  sugar,  cotton, 
tobacco,  iodigo,  and  tea ;  of  leM  importance,  bananas, 
pine-apples,  oranges,  peaches,  and  plums.  Domestic 
animalg  are  very  nnmerous— duoks,  geese,  swine, 
goata,  cattle,  and  horses.  The  chief  minerals  are  iron, 
coal,  and  sulphw,  probably  also  copper  and  tin. 
Sugar,  and  a  limior  coUed  toH,  distilled  front  rice, 
are  exported  to  Japan.  The  monufiKituring  industrv 
of  the  inhabitants  is  as  great  as  the  agricultnraL 
They  make  paper,  cloths,  coarse  linens,  earthen  and 
lackered  wares,  biii^s,  tobacco-pipes,  and  baskets. 
"^)  people  sra  partly  Japanese  and  partly  an 
jinal  tribe  dosely  aUied  to  Qie  Japanese  stock ; 
is  an  independent  dialect  of  Japanese, 


abcmginal  tritM  dosely  afiied  tc 
thMT  langnue  is  an  independeo 

both  Chinese  and  Japanese  s 


these  of  Buddha.  The  government,  as  in  China, 
mainly  in  the  hands  <S  an  aristocracy  of  learned 
men.  The  islands,  which  till  lately  were  claimed 
as  tiibatary  both  by  China  and  Japan,  were  foraully 
annexed  by  the  latter  power  in  1879.  China  pro- 
tested, and  for  a  time  war  seemed  inevitable.  The 
area  of  the  islands  is  given  at  a  httle  over  SW 
square  miles ;  the  population  was  167,073  in  1874. 

LOODIA'N  A,  a  district  of  British  India,  one  of  the 
three  districts  into  which  the  division  of  Ambala,  or 
Umballa,  in  the  Pnnjab,  is  divided  j  batter  spelling, 
Ltidhidna.  The  district  lies  immediately  to  Uie  sonu 
of  the  Sutlej,  and  oonsirtB  for  the  most  part  of  a 
great  plain^  partly  ve^  fertile,  partly  aandy.  There 
IS  little  irrigation,  and  almost  no  trees.    Area,  137G 


It  stands  on  a  navigable  nnllah  or  stream,  which 
joins  the  Sntlej  from  the  east,  aboat  S  miles  below 
the  town.  Pop.  (18S1)  44,163,  mostly  weavers. 
The  principal  maontaoturea  are  ootton-cloth  and 
Cashmere  ahawls,  the  latter,  however,  beimr  inferior 
in  qoality  to  those  made  in  Cashmere  itseu.    L,  is 


TjOOF,  the  after-part  of  a  ship's  bow,  or  that 
portion  where  the  planks  incorvate  towards  the 
cnt-water.     The  guns  mounted  in  this  portion  of 
the  vessel  are  s^ed  '  loof-pieces.' 
LOOKrNG-GIiASa    SeeMiKBOS. 
LOOM,  the  machine  by  which  weaving  is  eEFected. 
The  art  of  weaving  ia  coeval  with  edvilisatfon,  there- 
fore the  loom  may  be  reckoned  amongst  the  earliest 
'  [nan's  inventions ;  yet,  notwithstanding  its  vast 
,  very  little  improvement  was  effected  m  it  until 
invention  of  Dr  Cartwright  in  1787,  ^lo,  with- 
ever  having  seen   a  loom  in  his  lifs  before, 


work  by  machine-power. 
iplest  form,  the  loom  is  worked  by  hand ;  and 
notwithstanding  the  wonderful  improvements  which 
have  been  effected  in  the  power-loom-  since  its 
invention,  there  are  still  many  fabrics  manofactored 
by  hand-looms  in  this  and  other  countries. 

In   India,  which  most  probably   is   the  native 
cotuiti7  d  lh«  loom,  and  where  silks  of  almost 


Aioogk' 


snrivaUed  beaoty  ue  mftde,  tb«  natiTM  oonttnuB  to 
DM  ttuB  iTuj-Timii  in  its  nuMt  primitiTe  form ;  two 
trees  growing  De»r  together  lorm  tiiatr  Btutdir^ 
frame,  and  a  few  pieoea  of  bun1»o, 


rthtir  iriS 


the  article  WK&Tma,  the  oooatmction  ou^  will  be 
sivcD  here ;  bat  it  il  neoawary,  in  order  to  make 
Uii*  clear,  to  ezplun  the  principle  of  weaviog.  In 
order  to  shew  the  work  the  loom  haa  to  do.  u  its 
4imple«t  aena^  weaving  cooiiste  in  passing  one  set 
of  thrtodi  transvereety  through  another  set,  divided 
into  two  saiiea,  working  altenuttelj'  up  and  down, 
BO  u  to  receive  the  traniverse  threads  in  passing, 
and  interlock  them,  forming  thereby  a  miit^ 
iQT&oe  ont  of  the  tiireads.  The  loom  is  made 
to  asaiat  th«  weaver  in  this  opentioD  after  the 
manner  shewn  in  fig.  1 :  AAAA  is  the  frame  of 
the  loom,  and  i*  of  no  other 


two  eqoal  sela  by  rising  np  evoiy  aUemate  nat, 
and  tnserting  between  tliem  a  mootli  rod  of  vrood. 


Vff'  t 

At  each  end  of  tiie  &ame,  two  lollen  are  placed, 
B,  C,  so  that  they  will  readily  tun  on  tiieir  azee ; 
and  from  one  to  the  other,  the  threads  of  the  warp 
areatta^Mdiandkeptti^t  by  the  weights  i,&  The 
waip-tiireads  are  wound  round  tha  roller  B,  which 


nt.  2. 


is  called  the  beam  or  yant-roU,  only  as  much  of 
Mch  thread  bong  l«ft  unwound  as  will  reach  to 
the  otiier  roller,  C,  which  ia  the  dolA-beam,  to  which 
the  «nds  are  fastaned,  and  upon  which  the  cloth 
il  wonnd  as  it  is  woven.  The  warp  so  sbetched 
U  seen  in  fig.  2. 
Tbo  next  step 


prevent  them  entangling  or  returning  to  thur 
rmer  potation.  This  tepariition  takes  pUoe  before 
e  final  fixing  of  the  ends  of  Hit  thMada  to  the 
doth-beam,  because,  pravions  to  Oiat,  each 
thread  must  be  passed  thjangh  a  small  loop  in 
a  perpendicular  thread  eaDed  the  heald,  whioh 
hiogf  down  from  the  rod  A  in  fig.  3  (In  which 
only  six  heald-threada  and  six  worp-threada 
areshewn,for  the  sake  of  rendering  the  action 
clearer).  There  ore  olwaya  two  sets  of  healda 
in  the  simpleBt  form  of  loom,  often  many 
more ;  and  m  the  case  of  plain  weaving  the 
tbroads  of  the  vrarp  are  mvided  alternately 
by  the  loops  of  each  heald,  so  tiiat  if  one 
he«ld  ia  rawed,  it  lifts  every  alternate  thread 
(rf  the  warp,  and  if  the  other  ia  depreosed, 
it  pal^  down  the  oppoaite  set  of  threads; 
thos,  in  fig.  3,  the  threo  threads  of  the 
warp  are  seen  to  pass  throudt  the  three 
npraisad  threads  of  one  heald  Dy  the  bopa 
a,  a,  a,  and  the  three  remaining  threads  of 
the  warp  pass  through  the  deprassed  healda 
I^  their  loops  fi,fr,i;  thennited  action  of  tile 
two  healds  opens  a  apace  between  the  two 
sets  of  worp-threads  siniilar  to  that  shewn  in 
fig.  4.  This  apaoe  ia  called  the  shed,  and 
through  it  is  thrown  the  shnttle  which  carries 
the  thread  of  the  weft;  when  the  weft  has 
passed  ilirough,  the  healds  are  reveraed,  and 
the  lower  warp-threads  now  become  the  upper 
onea.  The  threads,  after  each  interteotion, 
arc  driven  np  tight  by  the  reed,  which  ia  a 
narrow  frame  witii  tranavene  wires  set  sufficiently 
far  aput  for  a  single  thread  of  warp  to  posa  throui^ 
each )  it  hanga  to  the  frame  called  tho  batten,  ng. 
■   "     ""  ■  of  the  batten  is  produoed  1^ 


Kg.4. 


f  the  bedds 


the  hand  of  Qie  weaver,  whilst  that 
is  readily  effected  by  the  treadles  E. 

Many  improvements  have  been  made  in  this 
the  simplest  form  of  loom,  bat  the  ohief  has  been 
in  replacdns  the  weaver's  hsjid  in  the  necasaory 
operatitm  of  throwing  the  ahnttle  by  a  mechanicil 
amng«menL  Without  this,  the  poatr-loom  would 
not  have  sooceeded.  Tim  shnttle  {fig.  6)  ia  usaoUy 
made  of  box  or  some  other  bard  wood ;  and  the 
blunt  points  an  covered  with  iron.  Formerly,  when 
naed  cmtirely  by  the  hand,  it  was  mode  much  lighter 
to  dirido  the  warp-thread  into  ;  and  smaller  tbu  at  preasat     Those  now  in  use  ora 

i..~..,..n.C^ooQlr 


LOON-^LOBD. 


about  4  tMt  m  length,  tmd  nHuc  mora  ttun  ai 
inoli  iqiuM  in  th«  miildle.  TIm  middle  part  ii 
boUowod  oat  into  a  imall  box,  open  on  the  nppa 


Tig.  5. 

■id*.  In  thii  box  the  bobbiiL  on  wbiali  Uia  yam 
M  Uuwd  i*  wound,  ij  pU««^  witb  it«  two  enda 
OB  jUToti,  admittiiia  of  its  fa«Iag  turned  by  the 
■lifjhteet  atiaia  on  the  jKta ;  the  end  of  the  yam 
paaiee  tbrongh  a  bole  m  the  aide  of  the  ahnttle, 
■a  «een  in  Gg.  G ;  and  aa  it  ii  thrown  haokwarda 
and  forward!,  the  thread  nnwinds  trom  the  eooloeed 
bobbin,  and  easily  nmii  throng  the  bole. 

In  the  improTed  loomi  fta  power,  and  eren  in 
tkoae  atiU  worked  by  hand,  is   special  case*  tho 


of^ement  for  projectina  Uie  ahnttle  backwards 

forwirds  ii  very  tinipleL    On  each  aids  of  the 

■-  -  line  witi 

-  a  very  simple  arraojiament  by 
whiob  a  piece  of  leather  and  a  itmp  are  mnde  ia 
act  like  a  sling  on  each  side ;  and  the  grooves  or 
tImUU-race;  as  they  are  called,  gnide  the  movement 
with  such  precision  that  the  shuttle  ia  saut  ftyioE 
through  the  shed  from  side  to  aide  with  unerring 
eiactneaa  This  arrangement  will  be  seen  by  refer- 
enoe  to  fig.  6,  F,  which  is  given  to  shew  the  great 
"mplidty  and  "■— — ' -»»-:_-j   ;_  .l_ 


power-loom,  three  of  which  can  stand  in  the  apace 
oocnpied  by  one  of  the  cnmbrous  machinea  formerly 
in  Qse.  There  are  few  machines  in  um  which  have 
had  more  mechanical  ingenolty  displayed  in  their 
improreaent  tbsD  the  loom ;  but  as  it  ia  not  the 
object  of  this  artiole  to  do  mors  than  jpve  the 
Reneral  pfinciples  upon  which  the  machine  works, 
the  reader  is  referred  for  fuller  infonoatioD  to  the 
thiok  volnme  of  the  jl6i«rod  q/Potoiti  for  Wearing, 
pabliahed  by  the  Patent  Commissianer*. 
LOON.    See  DiVBB. 

L00FH0LB8,  in  Fortifioation,  are  i^^ii  sper- 

I  tursa   in   the    iralls,  through 

^^^H  I  ^^W     which  (harp-shooters  may  tire. 

■HriN.fk^P      The    loophola   should    widen 

.^F I  R^^     towards  tha  outside,  that  the 

A  r*  shooter   may   have   a    sweep 

Tnnpbnla    bnrimntil  7^^  '^  "^'i   *°^  i'    "  "^ 

leatiog,  importance  on  that  acoonatt 

so  to  fashion  the  aides  that 

a  bnllet  may  not  panetrate,  ooleaa  fited  straight 

into  the  centre.     For  thia  purpose,  the  stones  are 


in  tiut  diagram  are  intended  to  shew  how  lann  a 
propration  of  the  hostile  shots  would  prove  bnitW 
against  the  aharp-ahooten  within. 
LOPB  DB  TBOA.     See  Tku. 
Irf)PHIAD.£.    Bee  AxoLD. 
LOFHOBRAITCHII,  an  order  of  oaseons  fiahaa, 
having  the  ultimate  divisions  of  the  fpS*  not  pecti- 
nated, but  airanfed  in  souUl  tofte  m  puis  along 
the  bnmchial  u^eSr    Alters  is  nothing  like  this  in 
soy  otjier  Mies.    The  fishes  oE  this  older  are  faiw, 
mostly  of  small  size,  angular  form,  and   peculiar 
aspect.    Bee  Hirpoomus  and  FirB-rmH.   The  ^- 
oover  ia  large,  and  the  gill-opemng  ia  a  small  hole. 
The  anont  is  elongated  and  tuDuUr. 

LOQUAT  (EriBbobya  Japoniaa),  an  eetemiad 
ChineM  and  Japanese  fmit,  of  the  natural  order 
RoiaeaM,  aubnjrder  Sotea,  and  of  a  jenna 
doMljF  allied  to  Jfs^Mliu  (Uedlar).  It  baa 
be«i  introdooed  into  Anatrali^  and  is 
BOW  abondant  tharey  aad  ia  sold  in  large 
qnantitiea,  and  at  a  cheap  rate,  in  the 
marketa  of  Sydney  and  other  towns.  Tha 
tree  or  shrub  which  produces  it  attsins  a 
)  height  of  20  or  30  feet,  but  in  culUvation 
ia  seldom  allowed  to  exceed  12  feel.  It 
ia  a  beautifnl  evergreen,  with  large  oblong 
wrinkled  leavee,  and  white  flowen  in 
terminal  woolly  panicles,  having  a  fragrance 
^  like  that  at  hawthorn-blossom;  the  fruit 
ia  downy,  oval,  or  pear-ehaped,  yellow, 
and  about  tie  size  of  a  large  gooeebeiry. 
The  seeds  have  an  agreeable  navoor,  which 
tiiay  impart  to  tarte.  The  L.  lives  in  the 
open  Mr  in  the  south  of  England,  and 
prodncM  frnit;  but  a  warmer  climate  is 

a  aired  tot  fruit  of  flne  quality.  It  is 
nn&sqnent  in  hothouses.  It  may  be 
grafted  on  any  necies  of  MapU,iit. — Tii»  apeoiea  of 
frtoAofrya  are  all  evergreen.  TheCuiiA  (£.  eUijMiDa) 
ia  a  nativs  cf  Nepaul,  and  producea  an  eatable  fruit 

LOILAirC£U.'CB.«.    SeeMnrunoi. 

LOEOA  (andent  Elioeroea),  a  town  of  Spun, 
province  of  Murcia,  40  miles  south-west  of  the  cit^ 
of  that  name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Sangonera,  la 
|iictunHi|iii:ly  aituated  oq  an  eminence  crowned  by 
a  fortitied  castle  commanding  a  magnificent  view. 
Next  to  Murcia,  L.  is  the  most  fiouriahing  town 
in  the  province,  pomeasing  snlntantJal  houses,  8 
churchea,  9  monasteries,  many  oil  and  flour  mills, 
saltpetre  and  powder  works,  lead-mines,  and  mauu- 
facturee  of  cotton,  &C.   Pop.  (IS70J  B2,U34. 

LORD  [  An^o-Sazon  hl[^ford  ;  from  Idc^,  loaf  and, 
piabably,  vmvtJ^  keeper,  tnaster_i.  e.,  raaeter  of 
the  house),  a  title  given  in  Qreat  Britain  to  penoBS 
noble  by  Urtb  or  by  creation.  Peers  ol  tha  realm 
are  so  styled,  ioduiUng  auch  arohbishopa  or  bishop* 
as  are  members  of  the  House  of  Lords,  who  are 
Lords  3pirituaL  By  courtesy,  the  title  Lord  ia  ^ven 
to  the  eldest  aons  of  dukes,  marquises,  and  ea^l^ 
prefixed  to  an  inferior  titJe  of  the  peerage,  and  to 
the  younger  sons  of  dukea  and  marquises,  prefixed  to 
their  Christian  name  and  surname.  The  following 
persons  bear  the  title  lord  in  virtue  of  their  employ- 
ments— the  Lord -lieutenant  of  Ireland  and  Lords- 
lieutenant  of  counties  (see  Lietttenint,  Lord),  the 
Lord  Chancellor  [see  Chinckllob),  Lord  Privy 
Sejil  (see  Pktvt  Sul),  Lorda  of  the  Trewnry  (aee 
Tkiasory)  and  of  the  Admiralty  (see  Admiral),  the 
Lotd  High  Admiral,  Lord  Great  Chamberiain,  and 


,,  Google^ 


LORD  ADVOCATE  OF  SOOTLAMD— LORD'S  SUPPER. 


Lad  8tmn«d  of  ike  Hoiuehold,  Lord*  in  Wiitin^ 
Lordi  ot  the  Bedohmmbai  («ae  Bukmuibbb,  Lokm 
nv  thrI.  Lonii  Jiutia«a  (m«  Svwnam,  Lobdb),  tbe 
Lotd  OhM  Banm  of  Siduquw  (q.  v.),  the  Lord 
Ohief-JnatiM  (■••  Jnna^  Lobd  OHm],  tlw  Lord 
Lvon  (w*  Ltox  Kara  at  Abmb),  Uu  Lord  Uayor 
of  Londtai,  Ym^  and  DnUin  (u«  Matobb),  and  the 
Lorda  pMTort  of  Edinbord  and  OlM^ptw  (we  Pbo> 
TO«r).  The  eonuniUee  <u  Ua  Soottiah  parUunest 
\if  whom  tJw  law*  to  be  propoaed  wen 

wn*  oalled  Lorda  of  the  Artiolea.    Tha 

beaeAotaiiea,  vriio,  after  the  Scottiah  EafonDatioii, 
ofatafaied  in  tempoial  lordahip  the  beneficea  formerly 
held  \ij  biahopt  and  abbota,  ware  oallad  Lend*  of 
ErectdcHL  Fwaooa  to  whom  righta  of  reality  were 
anted  in  Sootland  (tee  Raoiurr),  ware  termed 
>rdB  d.  Begaliby.  The  lepreaentatiTe  of  the  aore- 
mign  in  the  General  A  nanmhly  of  the  Ohnmh  of 
Sootland  |aee  AamoLT,  GnKKAi.),  ia  oaUad  the 
Lord  HJgb  CmmiMioiier.  The  jodgea  of  tb«  Ooorta 
of  Seariim  and  JortkiaiT  in  Sootland  have  the  title 
'  L(»d  *  prefixed  to  Uieir  aomame  or  aoms  temtorial 
dtaignaaim  aaaumad  by  them  ;  and  timojitoilt  the 
thrae  kinfjdcona,  jndgea  are  addraaaed  'My  Lord' 
when  preaiding  in  court. 
LORD  ADVOCATE  OV  SCOTLAND.     See 

ASTOOATK 

LOBD  OF  THE  MANOB,   the   ownv   of   a 
manor  baring  aop^iold  tanonta.    See  MiJfox. 

LOBD  OBDIHABT.    Sea  Gonsr  or  Sihioh. 

LOBDS,  HoDD  01.    Sea  Pi 


the  (nblecl  of  aerrasl  atatutel.  Th.6  chief  atatnte  _ 
En^ond  ii  the  Loritt-day  Act,  29  Ch.  IL  o.  T,  which 
enacted  that  no  badeaman,  artifioer,  workman,  or 
laboorer  aboold  ezerciie  the  worldly  labour,  tmaineM, 
or  work  of  hii  ordinary  oalliua  upon  the  Loid'a-day 
(worlu  of  neceamtf  and  charify  only  excepted),  nor 
any  penon  ahould  publicly  cry,  or  expose  to  aale, 
wiirea,  fniit,  berba,  £0. ;  but  notbins  in  tbe  act  waa 
to  extend  to  prohibiting  tbe  dressing  ol  meat  in 
familiea  or  iuuj),  cook-ibop«  or  victuslliug  honsea,  nor 
tbe  selling  ol  milk  within  certaio  boor*.  To  tbe«a 
exoeptioni,  aelling  mackerel  and  baking  bread  were 
ftdded  Bubaequeutly.  Iliese  atatutei  have  baan  con- 
•Uued  itrictly  by  the  oonrta  on  the  groimd  that  they 
reatrain  the  liberty  of  the  lubject,  for,  without  a 
atatute,  ordinary  wort  would  be  as  competent  on  the 
Sonday  aa  on  any  other  day.  Ecitce,  unless  a  case 
comes  within  tbe  strict  letter  of  the  itatuta,  there 


il  not  part  of  tbe  ■eller'a  ordinary  calling.  So  a 
&rmer  may  hire  a  aerrant  on  tbut  day ;  indeed,  tbe 
ttatute  doe*  not  apply  to  farmers,  attorney*,  mx- 
eeons,  and  those  not  included  in  the  above  statutoi^ 
description,  and  therefore  those  parties  cao  do  their 


other  day*.  Irrespective  of 
any  statute,  it  baa  been  the  immemorial  coutM  of 
practice  tn  courta  of  law  not  to  do  legal  business  on 
Sunday,  said  not  to  recognise  the  service  of  writs, 
warranU,  kc,  of  a  dvil  nature,  it  made  on  Sunday. 
Thna,  no  debtor  can  be  arrested  for  dubt  on  Sonday, 


committed,  tbe  party  can  be  arrested  on  Sunday  as 
wall  a*  otbee  dava.  There  ia  a  special  provision  by 
■tatate  a*  to  ale-houaes,  beer-bouses,  and  refresh- 
ment'houses  being  open. on  Sundays,  the  general 
effect  ol  which  is  ooly  to  dose  these  places  during 
church  hours.  If  any  game  is  pursued  on  Sunday, 
whether  by  poacher*  or  no\^a  peo&lty  is  incurred. 
There  ia  also  a  statute  of  1  Cb.  L  prolubitiiig  sport* 
or  pastimes  of  certain  dcacriptions.  Except  as  above 
mentioned,  there  is  no  difference  made  as  to  the 


validity  lA  aofa  done  on  Sunday,  tboodi  it  U  an 
erroneona  p<^al«r  im^reeaiDn  that  deeds  or  will*. 


In  Sootland,  the  law  varie*  in  soma  reapeota  from 
that  of  Ewland  on  this  matter.  There  alao  oonb«at« 
made  00  ^nday  are  not  nnll  at  oommon  law,  bnt 
numeroQi  statute*  have  paiaed  prohibiting  oontraota^ 
what^r  made  in  the  conna  ol  one**  ordinary 
business  or  not,  and  wbetbar  mode  by  workmen, 
arti&oo*,  &0.,  or  not.  But  there  is  an  exception 
of  work*  of  nacoesify  and  mercy.  It  is,  however, 
donbtful  how  far  these  old  statutes  are  in  desue- 
tode  or  not,  and  judges  have  said  they  only  apply  to 
publio  not  private  acts  done  on  Suodav.  In  Swb- 
land,  tba  ro]*  is  acted  on,  that  the  euforcamant  of 
dearoM  and  warrants,  poindings  and  other  pHwan  or 
diUgenoe  in  oivil  mattari,  are  Toid ;  bnt  it  ii  otiier* 
wiae  in  oriminal  nwtten.  It  ia  aingnUr  that  tbwe 
is  no  distinct  pemd^  impoaed  in  Scotland,  aa  there 
it  in  England  and  Ireland,  by  tbe  Oun*  Aot*,  on 
PMwna  cporting  on  Snnday.  But  ScoUand  outatrtM 
SnsUnd  and  Inland  in  tne  itringeiicy  wiUi  whi^ 
publio-luinse*  are  piohilrited  from  Ming  open  on  that 
day.    See  Pubuo-bodsb. 

LOBDV  StFPFEB,  Tsn,  i*  one  of  tbe  sacnunAita 
of  tiie  Ohriatian  raligion  (see  SlOitAMXMT).  It  ia 
BO  oalled  from  lis  bein^  instituted  at  supper  by 
Jeau*  Qiritt,  whom  hia  dumplae  t^ed  the  Lord  ur 


Quakers,  all 

their  view*  aa  to  its  nature,  ^ree  in  celebrating  it 
aa  one  of  tlta  meat  aacred  nt«s  of  teiigion.  The 
present  article  is  written  from  the  point  of  view 
of  tiioee  who  admit  more  or  less  the  idea  of  a 
historical  development  of  the  doctrine*  connected 
with  the  Lord'*  Supper;  the  views  <A  Roman 
Oathollcs,  who  hold  that  tba  doctrinea  of  their 
cbnrch  on  tba  subject  were  delivered  by  onr  Lord 
and  hi*  ap<«tles,  and  have  from  tha  first  centnriea 
been  tan^t  in  substaooe  in  the  chnrob,  will  be 
found  under  other  heads.     See  Miui;   Triksdv- 


The  circumstances  of  sorrow  amid  which  it  waa 
instituted,  and  its  intimat«  relation  to  tbe  crown- 
ing work  of  Jeans,  hi*  death,  had,  at  the  very 
outset,  made  a  deep  impression  upon  tha  early 
cburcb.  Not  only  was  the  stdemnity,  in  oonformity 
with  its  original  institution,  repcAtsd  daily  in 
conjunotion  with  the  so-called  Agapo  (q.  v.)  flova- 
feaats),  and  retained  as  a  separate  rite  when  these 
feasts  wOTe  set  aside ;  bnt  from  the  very  first  it 
was  believed  to  possess  a  peculiar  eMcaoy,  and  soon 
ideas  of  the  wonderful  and  mystical  berame  asso- 
ciated with  it.  Hie  Lord's  Supp^  was  odebrated 
on  every  important  occasion  of  life — when  enter- 
ing on  momaga,  when  commemorating  departed 
fnends  and  martyn,  ka. ;  to  those  tbat  oould 
not  be  present  at  the  meeting  of  tiie  conaTsga- 
tion,  sncn  as  prisonerB,  sick  persons,  and  chudten, 
the  indiapcDsable  food  of  heaven  was  carried 
by  tha  deacons,  and  in  some  churcbee — those  of 
Africa,  for  instance — tbe  commnnicanta  took  port 
of  the  materials  of  tbe  feast  home  witb  them,  that 
they  might  welcome  the  gift  of  a  new  day  with 
consecrated  food.  Heatbeos  also  and  nnworthy 
persons  were  excluded  from  this  holy  mystery.  ^ 
early  as  the  2d  c,  Ignatins,  Justin  Martyr,  and 
Irensens  advance  the  opinion,  that  the  me>e  bread 
and  wine  became,  in  the  Bacharist,  something  higher 
— the  earthly,  something  heavenly — without,  biW' 
ever,  ceasing  to  be  bread  and  wine.  Though  these 
view*  were  opposed  by  soma  eminent  indindiial 
ChristiBn  teachers,  nitdi  as  Orijjen  (died  2IH),  who 
took  a  figurative  oonoei^Uon  of  the  1 


O-o^ 


LOBD^  HUPPEtL 


dapreoisted  iti  efflcM? ;  yet  botb  unoog  the  people 
ana  in  the  ritaitl  of  tlie  chorali,  moie  puiioidAilj 
BftaFthe4tho.,th«mimeii]oiuor  lopwiutiiral  view 
of  the  Lord'a  Supper  gaiiKd  groniuL  After  the  3d 
c,  the  ofBoe  of  praenbng  the  breed  and  wine  came 
to  be  confined  to  the  miniaten  or  prieats.  Tbia 
p[«ctioe  aroee  from,  and  in  turn  abengtLened  the 
notioD  which  waa  gaining  ground,  that  ia  thta  act  of 
preaentalJon  by  the  prJeet,  a  aacrilicc  nmilar  to  that 
once  offered  up  in  the  detith  of  Christ,  though  blood- 
leaa,  waa  ever  anew  preeeuted  to  God.  This  still 
deepened  the  feeling  of  myateriouB  aigniScance  and 
imporbuioe  with  which  the  rite  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
waa  Tiewed,  and  led  to  that  gradually  increaaing 
eplendour  of  celebratiou  which  under  On^ry  the 
Great  (090)  took  the  form  of  the  ma«a.  See  Mass. 
As  in  Chnat  two  distinct  natiir«a,  the  divine  and 
the  human,  were  wouderfotly  combined,  so  in  the 
Euchariat  there  waa  a  coneaponding  union  of  the 
earthly  and  the  heavenly. 

For  a  long  time  there  waa  no  formal  declaration 
of  the  mind  of  the  church  on  the  presence  of  Chriat 
in  the  Bnoharijit.  At  length,  in  the  first  halt  of 
Uie  9th  c,  a  dlacuaaiou  on  the  point  wm  nu«ed  by 
the  Abbot  of  Correi,  Paschaaiua  Radbertoa,  and 
Rabamnus,  a  learned  monk  of  the  tame  convent ; 
they  exchanged  several  violent  controversial  writing 
De  Sanf/uint  «C  Corport  Domini,  and  tbe  most 
diatinguiahed  men  of  the  time  took  part  in  the 
diionaaion.  Faachaaios  mai&tvned  that  the  bread 
and  vrine  are,  in  the  act  of  oonseeratton,  tranaformed 
by  the  omnipot«nce  of  God  into  that  very  body  cnC 
Chri«t  which  was  onoe  bom  of  Mary,  nailed  to  the 
cross,  and  raised  from  the  dead.  According  to  thi< 
conception,  nothing  remains  of  the  bread  utd  wine 
bnt  Uie  outward  form,  the  taate  and  the  smell ; 
while  RatramnuB  would  only  allow  that  there  is 
some  change  in  the  bread  and  wine  themselvca,  but 
granted  that  an  aotno]  traiuformation  of  their  power 
and  efficacy  take*  place.  The  greater  accordance  of 
the  fitat  view  with  the  credulity  of  the  age,  its  love 
lA  the  woaderful  and  magical,  as  well  as  with  the 
natural  desire  for  the  utmost  posaible  neamesa  to 
Christ,  in  order  to  be  unfailingly  saved  by  him,  the 
interest  of  the  prieathood  to  add  luatie  to  a  rite 
which  enhanced  their  own  office,  and  the  mpaMntly 
logical  character  of  the  inference,  that  wh«e  the 
power,  according  to  nnivenal  admisaion,  waa  changed, 
then  roiwt  be  a  change  also  of  the  anbetanoe ;  the 
reanlt  of  all  these  ooncurring  influence*  was,  that 
when  the  views  of  Ratranmns  wer«  in  substance 
revived  by  Betennjiua,  Canon  of  Toura,  in  opposition 
to  Lanfranc,  Biahop  of  Canterbury,  and  Cardinal 
Hnmbert,  the  doctrine  of  Trajiaubetantiation,  as  it 
came  to  be  called,  triumphed,  and  was  officially 
appTored  by  the  Council  of  Rome  in  1079.  ik 
the  fourth  Lateran  Council  at  Borne,  1215,  under 
Innocent  IIL,  Transubstoatiation  was  declared  to 
be  an  article  of  bith ;  and  it  haa  continued  to  be  so 
held  by  the  Koman  Catholic  Church  to  the  present 
day.  The  Greek  Catholic  Church  sanctioned  the 
same  view  of  Traoanbatantiation  at  the  Synod  of 
Jerusalem  in  1672. 

of  the  ISth  0.  again  raiaed  the 
-    '■'    "  charist,  TheLutberan 

. the  Catholic  doctrine 

of  Tranaulistantiation,  as  well  as  of  the  mast,  i  e., 
the  constant  renewal  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  and 
merely  taught  that,  through  the  power  of  Ood,  and 
m  a  way  not  to  be  explained,  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ  are  preaent  in,  with,  and  under  the  unchanged 
bread  and  wine.  In  oppoaition  to  this  doctrine,  it 
was  laid  down  by  Zwii^Ii,  Uiat  the  Lord's  Supper  is 
a  mere  commemoration  of  the  death  of  Christ,  and 
a  profesdon  of  belonging  to  his  church,  the  bread 
and  wine  beinB  tmly  lymbolB :  »  view  whiolt  ia , 

IB 


by  the 
and  German  Catholics.   Lather  bitterly  oppoeed 
the  latter  r 


towarda  tl 


prt 


symbolical  view,  especially  towari 
of  his  career  ;'  Zwingli's  doctrine  , 

nant  to  him  than  the  deeper   and   more  myatic 
Catholic  doctrine.    See  IiOANAnoir. 

Calvin  sought  to  strike  a  middle  oourae,  which 
has  been  substantially  fallowed  by  the  Refoimed 
churchea.  According  to  him,  the  body  of  Christ  is 
not  actually  present  in  the  bread  and  nine,  which 
he  also  holds  to  be  mere  qrmbols.  But  the 'faithful' 
receiver  is,  at  the  moment  of  partaking,  brought 
into  union  with  Christ,  through  the  medium  of  Uie 
Holy  Spirit,  and  receives  of  that  heavenly  power 
{efficacy]  which  is  alwayl  emanating  from  hia 
glorified  body  in  heaven.  Melanchthoik,  in  this 
controversy,  waa  inclined  to  the  views  of  Calvin ; 
but  he  thou!dit  a  union  rmght  be  effected  by  adopt- 
ing the  decuraUon  that  (£ri*t  in  the  Eucharist  is 
'tnily  and  really'  present  (not  merely  in  futh). 
The  endeavoura  of  MelanchlioQ  and  hia  party,  by 
arbitrary  alterations  of  the  Augsbuig  Conf  essioa 
and  other  means,  to  effect  a  public  reoonciliation, 
only  served  to  rouse  among  the  partisans  of  Luther 

furious  theological  storm,  and  the  result  was  the 


the  final  separation  of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
churches. 

The  whole  controversy  relates  to  the  raodt  in 
which  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  preaent  in 
the  Lrad's  Supper;  for  it  was  agreed  on  aU  hands 
that  they  are  preaent  in  tome  wa^.  The  Befonned 
theologiaiis  argued  that  prtaaux  u  a  relative  term, 
opposed  not  to  distacice,  but  to  aboence;  and  that 
pretence,  in  this  case,  does  not  mean  local  nearness, 
but  presence  in  efficacy.     Here  they  parted  com- 


S 


both  with  the  Itoman  Catholic  Church  a 
the  Lutherans.    They  were  willing  to  call  this 
<ncA   *r«Al'  i*\(  thpv  want  wnrdiL'  lu  ^winoli 


Gm  Beformea  churches  were  at  one  in  holding,  that 
by  receivinK  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  is  meant, 
receiving  their  virtue  and  efficacy,  there  ia  some 
difference  iu  their  way  of  expreesing  what   "    ' 


addition  to  Uiis,  speak  of  a  m^'stenous  supernatural 
efficacy  flowing  from  the  clonfled  body  of^Ghrist. 

With  rwaid  to  the  Rcmrmed  chunmes,  it  may  be 
remarked  uiat  tiieir  ConfeaaiouB  on  this  point  were 
mostly  formed  for  the  express  purpose  of  compro- 
miae,  to  avoid  a  breach  with  the  Lutherans.  Hence 
the  language  of  these  Confeaaioos  coutains  mora  of 
the  mystical  element,  than  the  framers  of  them 
seem,  in  other  parts  of  their  writings  to  favour. 
And  it  is  renmrb^ble  that  the  Anglican  Confessions, 
which  were  framed  under  different  drcunutancet, 
lean  mora  to  the  symbolical  view  of  Zwingli  than 
thoee  of  any  other  of  the  BeConoed  churches.  The 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  after  laying  down  that  'to 
such  as  with  faith  receive  the  same,  it  is  a  partaking 
of  the  body  of  Christ,'  repudiate  the  notion  at 
Tranaubstantiation ;  and  add ;  '  The  body  of  Christ 
is  givon,  taken,  and  eaten  in  the  Supper  only  after 
an  Deavenly  and  spiritual  manner.  And  the  mean 
wheraby  the  body  of  Christ  ia  received  and  eaten  in 
the  Supper  is  faiUi.' 

The  Presbyterian  Chnrch  of  Scotland  adopted 
sabetautially  the  views  of  Calvin.  The  words  of 
the  Westminster  Confession  ara;  'That  doctrine 
which  maintains  a  chann  of  the  aubetanoe  of 
bread  and  wine  into  the  substance  of  Christ's  body 
and  blood  (commonly  called  Transnbstantiation) 
by  consecration  of  a  priest,  or  by  any  other  way, 
is  repugnant  not  to  icriptara  olcmei  Dot  even  to 


LI,  L,,  J.  do  Ogle 


MRETTO— L'OEIENT, 


Worthy 

ontwardlj  partaking  of  the  viable  elements  in  this 
■acmnent,  do  then  aUo  inwanUy  by  faith,  really 
and  indeed,  yet  not  carnally  and  coiporally,  bat 
Bpiritually,  receive  and  feed  upon  Chrut  crucified, 
and  all  benefit!  of  hia  death  :  the  body  and  blood  of 
Chrirt  beinff  then  not  corporally  or  carnally  in, 
■wiSi,  or  under  the  bread  and  wine ;  yet  as  really, 
tint  spiritiially,  present  to  the  faith  of  believers  in 
that  ordinance,  as  the  dements  themselves  are  to 
their  outward  senses.' 

This  variety  of  dogmatical  opinioD  as  to  the 
Eucharist  naturally  gave  riae  to  vaiiety  in  tbe  cere- 
moDiaU  of  ltd  obsm-vance.  The  Cathouo  notion  of  a 
mvaterioua  ttwiafomiBtion,  produced  tie  dread  of 
allowing  any  of  the  bread  and  wine  to  drop,  and  ted 
to  the  sabititiition  of  wafers  (AortiiB,  oblake)  for  He 
breaking  of  bread.  The  doctrine  of  the  'real  union,' 
which  declare*  that  in  the  bread  as  well  as  in  tliQ 
wine,  in  each  aingly  and  by  itself,  Cbriat  entire  ia 

Jrewnt  and  tasted — a  doctrine  whiiji  was  attested 
y  wafers  viaibly  bleeding — caused  the  cup  to  be 
graduaUy  withdrawn  from  the  laity  and  non-ofGcIat- 
log  priesta ;  this  practice  was  first  authoritatively 
Mnctioned  at  the  Council  of  Constance,  141&  A^ 
the  Reformed  chnrchea  restored  the  cup :  in  the 
Gi«e][  Church  it  bod  never  been  pven.  From  the 
same  feeling  of  deep  reverenoe  for  the  Eucharist, 
the  communion  of  childrea  gradually  came,  after  the 
IStli  c,  to  be  disqontinaed.  The  Greek  Church 
alone  admits  the  practice.  Grounded  on  the  doc- 
trine of  Tronsabsbuitiation,  the  Greek  and  lioman 
Catholic  Chorohea  hold  the  *  elevation  of  the  host ' 
i/iottia,  victim  or  sacrifice)  to  be  a  symbol  of  the 
exaltation  of  Christ  from  the  state  of  humiliation  ; 
connected  with  this  is  the  '  adoration  of  the  host,' 


unleavened  in  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Lutheran, 
of  water  mixed  with  wine  in  the  Eoman  Catholic 
and  Qreek  Charch«a,  and  of  unmixed  wine  in  the 
IProteatant  Churches,  are  trifling  differences,  mostly 
owing  their  origin  to  accidental  circumstances ; 
yet,  once  magnified  into  importance  bj^  symbolical 
exfjonations,  they  have  given  occasion  to  the 
hottest  controversies.  The  greater  port  of  the 
Keformed  churches  agree  in  breaking  the  bread  and 
letting  the  oommiuucants  take  it  with  the  hand 
(not  wiUk  the  mouth);  and  thia  practice  is  owing 
to  the  original  tendency  of  those  churches  to  the 

rbolicaf  conception  of  the  Eachorist,  in  which 
breaking  of  the  bread  and  the  pouring  out  of 
the  wine  are  essential  elements. 

Although  the  great  divisions  of  the  Chiistian 
world  have  continued  as  churches  to  adhere  to  those 
doctrines  about  the  Lord's  Supper  which  were  fixed 
and  stereotyped  in  Acta  of  Council  and  Articlea  and 
Confeasioni  about  the  time  of  the  Beformation,  we 
are  not  to  suppose  that  the  opiniona  of  individuala 
within  those  churches  continue  equally  uniform 
and  fixed.  EvBQ  IU)man  Catholic  theolt^ians,  like 
BoSBuet,  have  sometimes  endeavoured  to  understand 
the  doctrine  of  the  church  in  a  pMloeophical  sense  ; 
and  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  the  greatest  variety  of 
opioioQ prevails.  Someupholdmunodifiedthedagmoa 
of  Luther ;  others  accept  them  with  explanation ; 
Hegel  even  undertook  U>  zroond  them  on  specula- 
tive reason.  Others,  as  Scoleiermacher,  would  have 
recourse  to  the  viewB  of  Calvin  as  a  means  of  recon- 
ciliation with  the  Reformed  churches.  Even  all 
'  supernatural '  theologians  do  not  adhere  strictly  to 
the  formotos  of  the  church ;  while  ntionolism  in  all 
itaphases  tends  to  the  pure  symbolism  of  Zwingli 

The  Anglican  Church  is  divided  on  this,  as  oi 


otiier  party  reprobate  thia  view  aa  '  low,'  and  main- 
tain an  OOTostiM  '  mystical  presence '  of  the  thing 
signified,  along  with  the  sign.  Notwithstanding  the 
'  xugher '  doctnne  of  the  Scotch  Confesuon,  the  ten- 
dency in  Scotland  seems  to  be  more  the  otlier  way ; 
from  the  pulpit,  the  rite  is  oftener  spoken  of  in  its 
eommemorative  character,  and  the  signs  ar • 


operating  grace. 

LORBTTO  (properly,  Lokeio),  a  city  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Anoona,  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  although 
of  some  architectural  preteasioDS,  and  containing 
5300  inhabitants,  is  chiefly  noticeable  as  the  uta 
of  the  celebrated  sanctuary  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary,  called  tie  Santa  Com,  or  Holy  HodMl 
The  Santa  Caea  is  rented  to  be  the  house,  or  » 
portion  of  the  house,  in  which  the  Virgin  hved  in 
Xozareth,  which  was  the  scene  of  the  Annunciation, 
of  the  Nativity,  and  of  the  residence  of  our  Lord 
with  his  mother  and  Joseph ;  and  which,  aft«r 
the  Holy  lAud  had  been  finally  abandoned  to  the 
infidel  on  Uio  failure  of  the  Cruudes,  ia  behaved  to 
have  been  miraculously  translated,  first,  in  1201,  to 
Fiume  in  Balmatia,  and  thence,  December  10, 1294, 
to  Beeanati,  whence  it  was  finally  transferred  to  its 

S resent  site.  Its  name  {I^t  Pomiui  LaureUma)  is 
erived  trom  Laureta,  the  lady  to  whom  the  site 
belonged.  It  would  be  out  of  place  in  a  work  like 
this  to  enter  into  any  polemical  diacussion  of  this 
legend.  Although  numberless  pilgrima  resort  to 
the  sanctuary,  and  althougih  indulgenoes  have  been 
attached  by  Julius  IL,  Siitus  V.,  and  Innocent  XIL 
to  the  pilgrimages,  and  to  the  prayers  offered  aC 
the  shrine  ;  ^ et  the  truth  of  the  lecend  is  no  part  of 
CathoUo  behef,  and  Catholics  hold  thenualvea  free 
to  examine  critically  its  truth,  and  to  admit  or  to 
reject  it  aocording  to  the  rules  of  historical  evidence. 
The  church  of  the  SantaCasa  stands  near  the  centre 
of  the  town,  in  a  piazia  which  poesessM  othv 
architectural  attractions,  the  chief  of  which  are  the 
governor's  palace,  built  from  the  designs  of  Bramonte, 
and  a  fine  bronze  statue  of  Pope  Sixtua  V.  The 
great  central  door  of  the  church  is  Bunnounted  by 
a  splendid  bronze  statue  of  the  Madonna ;  and  ia 
the  interior  are  three  magnificent  bronze  doors 
filled  with  bas-reliefs,  representing  the  prindpal 
events  of  scriptiu^  and  ecclesiastical  history.  The 
celebrated  Holy  House  stands  within.  It  is  a 
small  biick-house,  with  one  door  and  one  window, 
originally  of  rude  material  and  conatmction,  but 
now,  from  the  devotion  of  aucceosive  generations,  a 
marvel  of  art  and  of  costliiiess.  It  is  entirely  cased 
with  white  marble,  exquisitely  sculptured,  after  Bra- 
mante's  designs,  by  Sansovino,  Bandinelli,  Giovanni 
Bologneee,  and  other  eminent  artists.  The  subjects 
of  the  baa-reliefa  are  all  taken  from  the  history  of 
the  Virgin  Mary  in  relation  to  the  mystery  of  the 
Incarnation,  aa  the  Annunciation,  the  Visitation, 
the  Nativity,  with  the  exception  of  three  on  the 
eastern  side,  which  are  mainly  devoted  to  the 
legend  of  t^e  Holy  House  itself  and  of  its  transla- 
tion. The  rest  of  the  interior  of  the  church  ia  rich 
with  baa-rohefs,  mosaics,  frescoes,  paintings,  and 
carvings  in  bronze.  Of  this  material,  the  finest 
work  IS  the  font,  which  is  a  master-™""  "*  "-'■ 
The  Holy  House  having  been  at  a 
object  of  devout  v ' —   ■"■-  ' 


t  ^  t 


of  the  richeat  in  the  western  world. 
It  snfiered  severely  in  the  French  occupation  of 
1796,  but  it  has  since  received  numerous  and  most 
costiy  accesaiona.  The  frescoes  of  the  Treaaniy 
Chapel  are  among  the  finest  to  be  found  outsid* 
of  Borne. 
L'ORIENT,  a  seaport  of  France,  department  of 


X^oogTc 


LOIUMBE— LOST  PROPERTy. 


Pop.(18Sl)37,09&  ItiaaweU.b(ulttowii,batnther 
dnD-lookiiia.  The  harbour,  do«kvacd,  and  tuveaalkn 
ftTWTM;  tha  Mtt  Aod  lATseft  in  nuioe,  mud  the  ptaoe 
A  foitrcM  of  uie  third  oImi;  but  its  oom- 


B  MtiUery.     The  inhAbitaati  are  __„_„__ 

chieflj  in  ihip-bimding  and  the  allied  oocapatioii&. 
The  only  important  manufactara  is  that  of  hata. 

L,  owe*  iti  origin  to  tha  French  East  India 
Cmpaiiy,  which  Dnilt  an  eatabHahmeot  hare  in 
IH6,  for  the  porpoaa  of  trading  to  tha  Eaat  (whence 
the  name  ot  uie  town). 

LO'BIMEB  (Tr.  lorwer,  from  I^t.  jonim,  a 
Uiong),  a  makar  of  bits,  Bpurs,  stirrap-irona,  metal 
monntiDg*  far  aaddlea  and  bridl«e,  and  genaralljr  of  all 
artiolei  of  hoite-fumitiire.  In  London,  tha  lorimera, 
who  bad  preTiontlT  formed  part  of  anothar  ^uild, 
were  inoorporsled  b;  letten-pateat  in  1712 ;  m  tha 
Soottilh  bnrgha,  the;  have  been  comprehended  as  a 
branch  of  Uw  corporation  of  EanimanDeD:.  Cutlara, 
locksmiths,  and  bnus-founden  have  been  considered 
■s  in  the  axaioise  of  braoohea  of  the  lorimar  art, 
and  therafore  bound  to  enter  witb  the  corporation. 
The  Court  of  Seoaion,  in  1830,  held  it  to  be  a 
yjolation  of  the  ezoluaiTe  privilege*  of  the  lolimer 
saft  to  mannfactura  biU,  atiirup-iroos,  and  other 
ntetaUic  articles  of  hane-fnmiture,  with  a  view  to 
ailTe]>plating  tham  before  galling 

LCVBIS,  a  ^enna  of  Lemurida,  differing  from  the 
tme  lemon  m  having  a  round  head  and  short 
moide,  very  large  ayes,  and  no  taiL  The  two 
apecies  known  are  both  natives  of  the  Batt  Indiee. 
The  largeat  apeoiei,  L.  lariSgrad'us,  ia  not  ao  large 
as  a  cat ;  the  other,  L.  graeUia,  is  mnch  amaller. 


id  tiie  Eastern  Aniiipelaga  They  have  a 
t  phunaoa,  exhibiting  the  moat  rich  and 
}1onrs ;  uia  taii  ia  nxmded  or  graduated, 


Lorif  {L.  gracilit). 

They  an  noctmnal  atnmala,  and  apend  the  day 
geoerally  ileepJiig  attached  to  a  branch,  which  they 
grasp  fiiroly  with  all  their  four  hands,  tha  body 
rollM  np  into  a  boll,  and  the  bead  hidden  among 
the  Ic^  Their  fur  is  rich  and  soft.  Their  motiopj 
ai«  alow,  and  they  advance  ateolthily  and  noiae- 
leasly  on  tha  insecta  and  birds  on  which  they  prey. 
They  faad,  however,  partly  on  froits  and  otiier 
vegetable  food;  in  oonilnement,  they  readily  eat 
rica  and  milk,  and  are  very  fond  of  eggs. 

LOBRAI'ITB,  oridnally  a  portion  of  the  German 
empire.  Its  history  dates  from  865,  when  Lotharius 
11  obtained  (sec  Carlovthoums)  tha  bods  between 


tha  Scheldt,  Bbine,  Meoaei  and  SaAne,  called  the 
Kingdom  of  Lotliariua  (Loliarii  Jt«0nu(ii),  or  Lothar- 
ingia,  or  Lorraine.  The  diatriot  now  known  as 
Rheiiish  Prnaaia  waa  aepaiated  from  L.  in  the  10th 
c,  and  the  remainder  was  divided  in  1044  into  two 
dnchiea.  Upper  tuA  Loiaer  Lorraine.  Tha  latter, 
after  many  vidasitndea,  came  into  the  poaseaDon 
of  Austria,  and  now  forms  one  half  of  the  kingdom 
of  Belgium,  and  the  proTincea  of  Brabant  and 
GelderUod,  in  HoUan£  Upper  L.  continnad  to 
be  governed  bf  ita  own  dnkea  till  1736,  when  it 
waa  nven  to  Staniilaa,  ei-king  of  Poland,  and  on 
his  death  ia  1766  waa  united  to  France.  It  wm 
afterwards  subdivided  into  the  dapartmeuta  of  tha 
Meuse,  Moselles  Meurthe,  and  Voages.  The  inbabit- 
anta  are  of  OermoD  origin,  but  »peak  the  French 
language,  with  the  exception  of  the  diatrict  lyina 
between  Metz  and  the  Tosges,  which  is  called 
Qerman  Lorraine.  This  tract  was  oaded  to  Ger- 
many at  the  peace  of  1S71. 

LOBRAIKE,  CuuDK    Bee  Ouima  Lokeainil 

LOBT  [Lorait),  a  genna  of  bi>da  of  tha  parrot 
family  IPnUadda),  nabvea  chiefly  of  the  sow-east 

of  Aaa  and  "•- *^- ""      ' 

dense  aoft 
mellow  colours; 

generally  not  long ;  the  biU  ia  feebler  than  in  many 
of  the  parrots,  and  the  njqwr  mandible  mnoh  arched. 
They  ore  very  active  uid  lively,  even  in  oonfino- 
ment,  and  are  also  of  veiy  seatle  and  affectionate 
diipositian.  Bed,  aoarlet,  onmaon,  and  yellow  are 
(Lb  prevailing  oolonta  of  their  plnmage ;  but  tha 
name  L.  ia  often  extended  to  aome  Australian  birda 
of  tbe  same  ianiily,  ia  which  nmch  more  of  a  ] 
colour  appears,  and  which  have  a 
a  mnch  leaa  gentle  diapeeition.  Tbe  tme  loriea 
feed  mndi  on  the  softest  and  meet  Juicy  fraita ;  the 
Australian  birds  plunder  maize-fields. 

LOS  ANGELES,  a  town  of  California,  on  a  fertile 
11  lain  I  3S0  miles  S.S.E.  of  San  Franciaco.  It  has  a 
large  trade.    Pop.  (1870)  fi721 ;  (1880)  11,311. 

LOSSI'NI  (Ger._  Luaain),  ao  island  in  the  Gulf 
of  Quamero,  Adriatic  Sea.  Length,  21  miles ; 
breadth,  fnnn  1  to  3  miles.  Hie  prmcipal  place  on 
tbe  island  ia  L.  Piocolo,  or  Little  L,  with  7700 
iuhabitanta,  a  fine  harbaur,  and  on  active  trade. 

LOST  PBOPBBTT.  In  point  of  law,  the 
finder  of  lo«t  property  ia  entitled  to  keep  it  until 
the  owner  is  found ;  but  there  are  certain  cinnim- 
atoncea  in  which  the  keeping  of  it  will  be  conatmed 
by  a  jury  to  amount  to  laroeny.  The  rule  which 
aeemB  to  be  laid  down  in  recent  caaea  in  England 
which  have  been  fully  disousaad,  is,  that  if  the 
finder  find  tbe  property  in  snch  ciroumatancee  that 
he  eiUter  know*  the  owner,  or  has  ready  meana  of 
diaoovering  him,  then  tha  taking  of  the  property 
with  intent  to  keep  it  will  be  laroeny.  11,  tor 
example,  a  aarvant  nod  a  iovareign  in  her  maater'a 
houae,  and  keep  it,  that  would  M  larceny.  So  it 
was  held  to  be  laraenv  whax  the  prompter  on  the 
stace  of  a  theatre  Dicked  ap  a  £C0  note  which  had 
e  of  the  actor*.    On  tha  other 


of  a  gtsen 
I  bill  and 


bem  dropped  by ' 

discovering  the  tme  owner,  then 
The  all  important  point  of  time  for  tha  jury  to 
inmiire  into  is,  when  the  findm  picked  up  the 
article ;  for  if,  on  exvnination,  he  did  not  then 
know  who  tbe  owner  was,  nor  had  tbe  means  (^ 
aacertoining,   he    will   not   become   gnilty  merely 


article  in  hopes  of 
reward  for  giving  it  np,  and  though  the 
owner  be  known,  does  nm   anunmt    to   laroeny. 


1  the  finder  of  lost 


„COL)glt 


LOST  TEIBBB— LOTTERY. 


proper^  to  inonr   ezpcoue  in  advartiiiiia  fi 
owner;  iiid«ed,  tha  ownec  would  not  be  ddi 


RpgUnd  to  repay  incli  expeasa,  though  it  might  be 
dinei«ilt  OF  dbabtfuJ  in  ScotWd  |  and  it  ii  to  be 
borne  in  mind  HuA  the  real  owner  ii  not  diverted  of 
bia  property  b^  the  lou,  but  can  demand  it  from 


wbUBoerer  u 


loat^  ye^  if  trMufetrod  vithoab  notice, 
propat^  of  th«  tnuuterae.  UoreoTar,  the  lour 
of  a  bill  ot  Bote  pnsble  to  bearer  cannot  me  the 
potf  liable,  at  lean  without  giving  an  indemnit]'. 
Then  ii  an  atoeption  to  the  rou,  that  the  findw  oE 
Idtt  ^property  is  entitled  to  i^  where  the  propertj 
consute  of  gold,  ailTer,  bx,  hidden  in  the  earui,  in 
which  case  the  toewore-tvove  bebogi  not  to  the 
finds', hot  to  the  otowd:  and  the  ^der  is  bonnd 
to  give  notice  thereof  to  tae  arowa,  under  a  panalty. 

LOST  TBIBES.    Sea  Bjuhavhb  Oattititt. 

LOT  (andent  OMs),  a  river  ol  Sonthem  France, 
one  of  the  largeEt  tribntariea  of  the  Goronae,  rises 
at  MoDnt  Lo^re,  in  the  Cevenneo.  It  flows  in  a 
ganerally  weatern  direction  throng  the  depart- 
ments M  LoiSre,  Aveyron,  Lot,  and  Lot-et-Qaronne, 
joioiiig  the  Qaronne  from  the  right  at  Aintillon, 
after  a  conne  of  270  miles.  It  is  navig^le  for 
•boat  170  miles. 

liOT,  a  department  in  the  aonUi  of  Trance, 
foimed  out  of  Hhe  province  of  Gnianne,  and  00m- 
pristog  the  arrondiBsemanta  of  Oahon,  Qourdoo, 
and  cigeac,  in  watered  by  the  Dordogne,  and  the 
Loti  with  ita  tributary,  the  Sdli  Area,  2006 
tq.  mUee ;  pop.  (1S81)  280,269.  A  range  of  biUi, 
broad,  but  not  very  high,  and  coataioing  some  iron, 
run*  throogh  the  oea&e  of  the  department  from 
east  to  wait,  in  the  form  of  a  csmicircle.  The 
valleyi  yield  com,  hemp,  tobacco,  and  froite,  (md 
the  l^iTl^i^^  f^Q  olothed  ^th  vin^a.  FJta-miJli  are 
nuneKnu.    Capital,  Cahon  (q.  v.). 

LOT-BT-GABONNE,  a  depBrtment  in  the  tottth- 
west  of   SVonoe,  formed  out  of   the  '  ' 


pnncJpaUy  by  the  Giuonue  and  the  Lot.  Area, 
SOW  »q.  mUes;  pop.  (1S81)  312,081,  among  whom 
are  a  conHiderable  nnmber  of  I^Dcb  Proteetantx. 
The  department  ia  level,  except  in  the  aoitth,  where 
•pnn  of  the  Pyrenees  make  tbeir  appearance,  and 
extremely  fertile  in  the  basins  of  the  large  rivera ; 
but  the  east  is  chiefly  oomposed  of  barren  wastes, 
uid  the  sonth-west  of  siuidy  and  marshy  traots 
temwd  Lmtda.  TTae  priiioi|»l  prodootfl  are  com, 
wine,  excellent  hemp,  fnula  (of  which  tite  prunes 


are  reared  in  great  nnmbett  for  exportatii^ 
chief  metal  is  iron,  and  the  i        ^        .  •    - 
iroDWorka,  bendes  variooi  i 
lesi  imporbanL 

LOTHIANB.    SesSooTUXD. 

LOTIONS,  or  WASHES,  are  remedies  of  a 
Hqnid,  but  not  of  an  oily  nature,  which  are  applied 
to  oircnmHribed  portiona  of  the  snif  aoe  of  the  body. 
AmoDgit  the  lotiom  moat  commonly  employed  are 
the  nSaiale  <tf  ammonia  utuA,  which  oonsiBbi  of  a 
•olntion  of  sal  ammoniac  in  water  or  in  vin^ai  with 
or  without  the  addition  of  spirit ;  it  is  much  used 
in  contusions,  where  there  is  no  wound  of  the  skin, 
in  chronic  tumours,  in  enlaced  jdnts,  An.  OUoride  Qf 
toda  teath,  ocoisiiting  of  scJntioa  of  ohlorinated  soda 
diluted  with  from  t^  to  twenty  time*  ita  Tolmne  of 


water,  useful  as  a  gargle  in  nloention  of  the  rnouOt 
and  throat,  and  m  a  wash  for  foul  oloen  genanlly. 
"Rie  dtloridt  tfUvu  wcuih,  oonslsting  of  one  or  two 
drachms  (or  more)  of  chloride  of  lima  In  a  pnt  of 
watw,  wed  for  the  same  parpoMa  as  the  preceding 


to  linu-water  (genenlfy  a  diaohm 
a  pint  of  the  latter),  moat  extensively  used  m 
venereal  sores,  and  i^  servioe  in  many  form*  of 
intractable  uloars. 

LOTOPHAOI  (Or.  Lofau-eaten),  ft  name  applied 
by  the  anoienti  to  a  peaceful  and  hospitable  pac^ 
inhaUting  A  district  of  CvrenaJoa,  on  t^  north 
ooatt  of  Africa,  and  mncdt  dspendiag  for  thiir  sob- 
■islMDae  on  tlie  fruit  of  the  Iot^*-bee^  from  whioh 
they  also  made  wine.  Aooording  to  Homer,  they 
received  Ulyasas  hosiutably,  when,  in  the  course 
of  his  wancwrinKB,  h>  visited  them  along  with  Hi* 
oompaiiioas,onwbom,  however,  the  sweetnea*  of  ths 
lotos'fnut  exercised  anch  an  indaeooe,  that  t^luy 
forgot  all  about  their  native  country,  and  had 
no  desire  to  tetnm  boms,  llii*  feeling  of  happy 
laognor  hat  bean  expressed  with  marrelloni  felicity 
by  Tennyaon  In  his  poem  on  the  Lotna^atan. 

LO'TTEBIT,  a  game  of  bazatd,  in  yAlch,  prizes 
ore  drawn  by  lot  nsoally,  a  lottery  oompruea  a 
apeoified  quantity  of  tickeu,  each  nnmbered,  eveiy 
ticket-holder  having  ■  right  to  draw  from  a  box  a 
blank,  aa  the  case  may  happen  to  be,  and 


propriotora;   for  the     

prizes  alwaya  falls  abort  of  Qis  aggregate  ;. 

money  for  tickets.  Whatever  be  the  aotnat  form 
oF  the  lottery,  it  ia  indiapntably  a  gambling  trana- 
action,  the  risks  and  losses  of  which  are  now 
acknowledged  to  be  demondisinK.  Lotteries  an 
Boid  to  have  been  fliat  employed  by  the  Oenoeae 
government  sa  a  means  of  siddmg  to  the  nvenne  of 
Xha  country,  and  the  bad  example  was  soon  followed 
by  the  ^vemments  of  other  nations.  Tho  fiiat 
lottery  m  Enaland  appears  to  have  been  in  the 
year  1SG9,  and  the  pn^ts  went  to  the  repair  of 
harbours  and  other  pnblio  works.  The  same  meana 
was  frequently  afterwards  resorted  to  for  additions 
to  the  revenne,  ta  for  particular  objects,  under 
control  or  by  ssnction  of  the  sovemmantj  the  mode 
of  conducting  the  lotteiy,  and  the  oonditions,  being 
from  time  to  time  varied.  In  the  eariy  years  of  the 
pieaent  century,  the  state  lattery,  as  it  was  usually 
called,  was  one  of  the  regular  institutionB  of  the 
country.  Uaually,  the  number  of  ticketa  in  a 
lottery  was  30,000,  at  a  *aln«  of  £10  each  in  prizes. 
At  tma  valuation  they  were  offered  to  the  com- 
petition of  contractors,  and  ordinarily  assigned  at 
an  advaooe  of  iCS  or  £6  per  tioket.  The  oontcading 
party  add  them  to  the  public  at  a  further  advance 
of  ;£4  to  £5  per  ticket ;  and  tJins  the  'nine  was 
about  doubled  The  oantaaotor  devised  the  a^eme 
of  priiea  and  blanks— thsra  being  always  a  few 
~  of  latge  amonnt,  to  tsmpt  pnrahasaiB.    To 


sixteenth  was  £1,  lU  M.    In  tba  vrent  of 
nnmber  whioh  it  bore  baiag  diawn  a  priw  of 
£20,000,  s  aixtaenth  part  of  tbac  aom  was  paid,  aod 
with  othsr  priiss.    T!b»  dexterity  of  tbe  oon- 


C^.^i 


=^ 


LOTDS— LOUGHBOROUGH. 


for  the  nmnbeiB,  and  the  other  for  the  prizes  and 
bUuiki.  On  a  number  beine  draim,  its  &te  was 
detennined  br  the  billet  which  next  afterwards 
oame  out.  Iwo  boyB  were  the  operatora,  one  at 
each  wheeL  On  the  Eronnde  of  injmy  to  pnbhc 
morala,  lotteiieB  were  iQtogether  abofiahed  b<^  act  o' 
pariiament  in  1826.  Persona  advertiaing  or  cireu 
latinK  ticket!  for  foreign  lotteries  may  be  tued  for  i 
penaUj  by  the  Attorney-general,  or  Lord-adTocate,oi 


r  BDpposed  good  effects  in  eDConragiog  art, 

'ere  exempted,  from '**—  ' —  "--  -'-'--- 

I   10   Tict.   c   48,  t 


took,  place  in  1836,  and  in  HeBae-Dannstadt  in  1352. 
The  other  German  states,  however,  coatiaaed  the 
use  of  them  ;  and  in  1841,  Fruuia  derived  from 
them  a  revenne  of  more  than  900,000  thalers. 
Anttria,  of  3,600,000  fiorini.  In  the  kingdom  of 
Italy  latteries  etill  ejdrt.  Few  worse  ways  of 
■Dpplyii^;  the  eioheqner  of  a  conntiy  have  tumost 
erer  been  imagined  ;  and  the  only  excuse  ui^eed 
is,  that  the  gambling  spirit  exists,  and  will  find 
some  means  of  gratification,  even  if  lotteries 
abolished.  It  was  found,  however,  in  Fiance 
that  the  abolition  of  lotteriea  whb  immediately 
followed  by  an  increase  of  savinga-bank  depoeite ; 
'     '    '       been  evenrwhere  observed,  that   the 


ety,  but  to  those  in  which  economy 

and  prudence  are  moat  necessary  to  the  comfort  oif 
families  and  the  general  welfare  of  the  state. 

LOTUS.  The  name  Lotoi  (Lat  Lotiu)  was  given 
by  the  Greeks  to  a  number  of  different  plants  whose 
fruit  was  nsed  for  food.  One  of  the  meet  notable  of 
these  is  the  Zixj/phut  LoUu,  a  native  of  the  north 
<i  Airica  and  the  south  of  Europe,  belonging  to  the 


Xymphna  Lotus. 

nahirs]  order  Shamn»».  See  Jujttbk.  It  is  a 
shrub  of  two  or  three  feet  high,  and  its  fmit,  which 
it  prodnced  in  great  abundance,  is  a  drupe  of  the 
size  <A  a  wild  plnm,  with  an  almost  globose  kemeL 
This  fruit  is  sonieirtutt  forin«c«oi>>L  and  has  a 
-■-■-  — -■■     ■  ■    ■       "i  is  oaU 

, .  from  the 

article  of  food  to  the 
inhabitaata  of  the  north  of  Africa,  where  it  is  still 
a  principal  part  of  the  food  of  IJie  poor.  Probably 
it  was  on  this  fruit  that  Homer'i  LotnphfOgi  (q.  v.) 
lived. — The  froit  of  the  Diorpymt  Lottu,  or  Date 
Tlnm,  waa  somatimts  called  the  lotos.    Sea  Dais 


Fum. — The  name  L.  was  also  given  to  several 
beantifol  speejea  of  Water-lily  (q.  v.),  especially  to 
the  Blue  Witeb-ult  [Jfymph/ai  ixeruiw)  and 
the  EoiFixur  Wates-lilt  {N.  loUa),  and  to  the 
Neloubo  (q.  v.)  {Nd-umbCum  tpedomm),  which  grow 
in  stagnant  and  slowly  runningwater  in  the  sooth 
of  Ama  and  north  of  A&ica.  The  Jfj/mpiixi  lottu 
was  called  by  the  Egyptians  S/aiin  or  Stthia,  and  is 
called  by  the  Arabs  fioAnin,  the  Coptic  name  with 
the  masculine  article.  It  grows  in  the  Nile  and 
adjacent  rivulets,  and  has  a  large  white  flower. 
The  root  is  eaten  by  the  people  who  live  near 
the  lake  Menialeh.  The  nvuleta  near  Damietta 
abound  with  this  flower,  which  rises  two  feet  above 
the  water.  It  waa  the  rose  of  ancient  Egypt,  the 
favourite  flower  of  the  country,  and  is  often  seen 
made  into  wreaths  or  g&rtands,  placed  on  the  fore- 
heads of  females,  or  held  in  their  hands,  and  smelled 
fragrance.      It  frequently  appears 


of  art — the  capitals  of  columns,  prows  of  boats, 
beads  of  atsves,  and  other  objects  being  fashioned 
in  its  shape.  In  the  mythology,  it  was  the  special 
emblem  of  ir{/er.Jlii)n,  the  son  of  Ptah  and  Bast; 
the  god  Harpocrates  ia  seated  noon  it ;  and  there 
was  a  ^stical  L.  of  the  son.  In  the  mytholc^ 
of  the  Iffindos  and  Chinese,  the  L.  plays  a  distm- 
guiAhed  part.  It  is  the  Nelnmbo.  The  Eundn  deities 
of  the  different  sects  ore  often  represented  seated  on 
a  throne  of  its  shape,  or  on  the  expanded  flower. 
The  colour  in  Southern  India  is  white  or  red,  the 
last  Golonr  fabled  to  be  derived  from  the  blood  of 
Siva,  when  Kamadeva,  or  Cupid,  wounded  him 
with  the  love-arrow.  Lakshmt,  also,  was  called  tha 
'  lotus-bom,'  from  having  ascended  from  the  ocean  on 
its  flower.    It  symboliwd  the  world;  the  Jtftru,  m 


residence  of  the  gods ;  and  female  beauty.  Among 
the  Chinese,  the  Ii.  had  a  similar  reputation  and 
poetic  meaning,   being  especially  connected  with 


the  small  feet  of  their  woman  being  called  jHh  lein, 
or  "golden  lilies.' 

Wilkinson,  Matm.  and  CutL,  iii  187,  200,  iv.  44, 
63,  V.  264, 269 ;  Jomard,  Deter,  dt  {Eg.,  t  1,  a.  6; 
Homer,  /:.  zii.  238,  iv.  171,  0d.ix.9i;  Herodotiu, 
ii  96,  iv.  ITT ;  Diod.  8ici.M;  Coleman,  JUyt/ujiogy 
t^  Om  Hitidut. 

LOUDON,  Joajf  ClUtdicb,  a  distingniahed 
botanist  and  horticnlturist,  born  April  S,  1783,  at 
Cambuslang,  in  Lanarkshire.  He  became  a  gardener, 
and  in  1803  published  Obtemalions  on  Laying  otii 
PtMie  Squarti,  and  in  1805,  a  TreaUte  on  Hot- 
houaea;  and  afterwords  became  the  author  of  a 
number  of  works  on  botany,  mostly  of  a  somewhat 
pbpular  character,  which  have  contributed  much  to 
extend  a  knowledge  of  that  science  and  a  taste  for 
horticulture.  Amongst  these  are  the  Encudopcedia 
<ifOardtniiui  (1822) ;  and  of  AgneuUart  (1826) ;  the 
Qreea-bouie  Companion  (1^) ;  the  Eneydopccdia  ^ 
PhaiU  (1829) ;  and  the  Arhortbim  ti  IVaiieeium 
Briiannkum  (8  vols.  1838),  containing  a  very  full 
account  of  the  trees  and  shrohs,  indigenous  or  intro- 
duced, growing  in  the  open  air  in  Britain.  This  last 
--  his  great  work ;  but  the  expanse  attenif'      ''^  ~ 


B^swater,  Deoember  14,  1843.  L.  utablished  four 
different  magadnes,  which  he  edited  simultaneously 
with  his  Arboret<im.^HiB  widow  is  the  authoress 
of  a  number  of  pleasing  popular  works,  chiefly  on 
subjects  connected  with  botany  and  gardening. 

I.OU'GHBOBOUGH,  a  manufaoturiu  and 
market'town  of  ICngland,  in  the  county  of  unoes- 
ter,   12   miles   nortn-north-west   of   iM   town   of 


vCiOoqIc 


LouoHEEA— Lotrrs  xm. 


that  name.  The  chisl  tdaoational  iiutitiLtioii  in 
the  tovn  U  the  Burton  FoundatiaD  (datiag  from 
1499),  with  an  annoal  income  from  endowment  of 
£17^  16j.  With  this  Foimdation,  flte  dUtinct 
BchooU  ore  connected,  e&ch  pupil  bavins  to  pay  a 
unall  lam.  L  cairiet  on  eztanBive  maniSactures  of 
patent  Angc^  hodery,  of  other  woollen  and  cotton 
goods,  elastia  weba,  net-lace,  and  ahoea.  Fop. 
0871)  11.588  ;  (1881)  14.733. 

LOUOHREA',  a  market-town  of  Ireland,  in  th« 
conntjr  of  Galway,  about  20  milel  eaat-eouth-eiut 
of  the  town  of  that  name.  It  stands  on  the  north 
bank  of  Lough  Se^i  a  beautiful  little  lake  foui 
milas  in  circomfeieDoe.  It  contains  a  Homan 
Catholio  chapel,  with  a  Carmehte  friary  and 
BDimerT,  and  the  Mmaios  of  a  Carmehte  abbey 
founded  in  1300.  Manufactures  of  narrow  linen 
and  coane  diapen ;  brewing  and  tanning  are  carried 
on.    Pop.  (1881)  3169. 

LOUIS  (properly  LUDWIG)  THE  GERUAK, 
the  third  eon  of  Lonis  le  DShonnaire,  was  bom  about 
803,  and  by  the  treaty  at  Verdun,  in  843,  L.  obtained 
Germany,  and  became  the  foonder  of  a  distinct 
Qennan  monarchy.  He  died  at  Frankfurt,  2Sth 
August  876.  His  kingdom  was  divided  amongst 
his  three  kode  :  Carlmann  obtaining  Bavaria,  Car- 
inthia,  and  the  tributaiy  Slavonic  coontries ;  Louis 
obtaininff  Fraoieoiiia.  ThariDsia,  Saxony,  and  Friei- 
Uud ;  Cbarlea  the  Fat  obtaining  Swabia,  from  the 
Maine  to  the  Alps.    See  CABLOvnrauna. 

LOUIS  I.    See  djaovmoiAVa. 

LOUIS  IX.,  or  SAINT  LOUIS,  kine  of  Franca, 
bom  in  Poiaay,  April  2B,  1215,  ancceeded  hia  father, 
Lonis  VIIL,  in  1228.  Hia  mother,  Blanche  of 
Castile,  a  woman  of  great  talent  and  sincere  piety, 
was  regent  during  Iub  minority,  and  bestowed  on 
him  a  atrictly  rellgioua  education,  which  mate- 
rially infiuecced  hia  character  and  pcjicy.  When  L. 
attained  hia  majority,  he  became  involved  in  a 
war  with  Henrv  ILL  ot  England,  and  defeated  the 
English  at  TaiUebonrg,  at  Saint«a,  and  at  Blaye 
in  1242,  During  a  dangerous  illness,  he  suule  a 
TOW  that,  if  he  recovers,  he  would  go  in  person 
as  a  Crusader,  and  accordingly,  having  appointed 
his  mother  r^ent,  he  sailed,  in  August  12m,  with 
40,000  men  to  Cypms,  whence,  in  the  following 
spring,  he  proceeded  to  Egypt,  thinking,  by  the 
conqnest  of  that  country,  to  open  the  way  to 
Palestine.  He  took  Danuetta,  but  was  afterwards 
defeated  and  taken  priaoner  by  the  Mohammedans. 
A  ransom  of  100,000  marks  of  silver  procured  hia 
release  on  May  7,  1250,  with  the  relics  (6000  men) 
of  hia  anny.  He  proceeded  by  sea  to  Acre,  and 
remained  in  Paleatme  till  the  death  of  his  mother 
(November  1252)  compelled  his  return  to  France. 
He  now  applied  himself  earnestly  to  the  aSaiis  of 
his  kingdom,  united  certain  provmces  to  the  crown 
tiie  bpse  of  feudal  rights  or  by  treaty,  and  made 


laws  was  brought  into  use,  known  as  the  Slailitie- 
mentt  it  St  Louis.  L.  embarked  on  a  new  Cmsade, 
July  1, 1270,  and  proceeded  to  Tunis ;  but  a  peati- 
lence  breaking  ont  in  the  French  camp,  carried  off 
the  Kreater  part  of  the  army  and  the  king  himself. 
He  died  August  25,  1270 ;  and  his  son,  Philip  UL, 
waa  dad  to  make  peace  and  return  to  Erance. 
Pope  Boniface  VUL  cuioniaed  him  in  1297.  For 
an  interesting  picture  of  the  reltgioaa  side  ot  L.'a 
character,  consult  Neander'a£t'rcAfnjreKAicA'&  Bohn, 
Toi  vil  pp.  416 — 418. 

LOUIS  XL,  king  of  France,  the  eldeit  son  of 
Charles  VIL,  bom  at  Bourges,  July  3,  1423,  waa 
from  his  boyhood  eminently  craet,  trraiinical,  and 
perfidious.    He  made  uosucceaafnl  aUempta  against 


his  father's  throne,  waa  compelled  to  flee  to  Brabant, 
and  sought  the  protection  ol  Philip  the  Good,  Dnke 
of  Burgundy,  with  whom  he  remained  tOl  hia  father's 
death  in  1461,  when  he  succeeded  to  th*  eiown. 
The  severe  measures  which  he  immediately  adopted 
against  the  great  vassals,  led  to  a  coalition  against 
lum,  at  the  head  of  which  were  the  gi«at  Houset  of 
Buraindy  and  Bretagne.  L.  owed  hia  success  more 
to  his  artM  polky  than  to  arms ;  and  the  war 
threatemngto  break  out  anew,  he  invited  Chariei 
the  Bold,  Duke  of  fiun(undy,  to  a  friendly  con- 
ference at  P6ronne,  in  October  1463.  Hia  agents, 
meanwhile,  had  atirred  up  the  people  of  IJege  to 
revolt  against  the  duke,  upon  the  news  of  whi<Ji 
occurrence.  Charles  made  the  king  a  prisoner,  and 
treated  him  rouvhly.  On  the  death  of^the  Duke  of 
Burgundy  in  1477,  who  left  an  only  daughter,  L. 
claimed  great  part  of  his  territories  as  male  fieh 
lapsed  to  the  superior,  and  wished  to  marry  Uie 
young  dnchesa  to  his  eldest  son,  a  boy  of  seven 
years.  On  her  marriage  with  the  Archduke  Maxi- 
milian, he  flew  to  arms  ;  bat  a  peace  was  concluded 


Buccesaful — after  the  use  of  means  far  &nm  hononr- 
able — in  annexing  Provence  to  the  crown  M  a 
lapsed  fieL  He  greatly  inereosed  the  power  of  the 
French  monarehy.  The  latter  years  of  his  reign 
were  spent  in  great  misery,  in  excessive  hotror  of 
death,  which  superstitiouB  and  ascetic  practicea 
failed  to  allay.  He  died  August  30,  1483.  It  ww 
calculated  that  he  put  about  4000  petaons  to  death 
in  the  conrse  of  his  reign,  mostly  without  form  of 
trial  Yet  he  wsa  a  patron  of  Icamins,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  the  author  of  Lu  ixntNoavelU» 
nouveUa,  a  sort  of  imitation  of  the  Decameron,  and 
of  the  Eorier  da  Overra,  a  book  of  instruction  for 
hia  son.  He  also  materially  advanced  the  oivilisa- 
tion  of  France  by  encouraging  mannfactnree.  com- 
merce, and  mining.  He  improved  the  public  roada 
and  canals,  establiahed  several  printing-premes,  and 
founded  three  universities. 

LOUIS  XIIL,  king  of  France,  son  of  Henri  IV. 
and  Marie  de'  Medici,  bom  at  Fostaineblean  27th 
September  1601,  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the 
death  of  his  father,  14th  May  1610,  his  mother 
becoming  regent.  She  entered  into  close  alliance 
with  Spain,  and  betrothed  the  kins  to  Anne  of 
Auatria,  daughter  of  Philip  IIL  of  Spain,  npon 
which  the  Huguenots,  becoming  apprehensive  o( 
daiiEer,  took  up  arms ;  but  peace  was  concluded  at 
St  Menehould,  on  fith  May  1614;  and  the  king, 
who  was  now  declared  of  age,  Confirmed  the  Edict 
of  Nantes,  and  called  an  Assembly  of  the  Statea, 
which  was  soon  dismissed,  because  it  began  to 
look  too  closely  into  flnani^Bl  affairs.  See  MAlta 
Dtf  Medicl  The  suppression  of  Protestantinn 
and  liberty  in  Beam  led  to  the  religious  war,  in 
which  the  Protestants  lost  almost  all  their  places 
of  securit?,  and  which  ended  in  1622.  After  the 
death  of  I>e  Luynes,  in  1624,  Kiohelieu,  afterwards 
Cardinal  and  Duke,  became  the  chief  miniater 
of  Looia.  His  powerful  mind  obtained  complete 
control  over  that  of  the  weak  kins,  and  bis  policy 
effected  that  increase  of  monarchical  power,  at 
the  expense  of  Protestants,  nobles,  and  parliamenta, 
which  reached  ita  conaummatioa  to  the  reign  of 
Louis  XTV.  The  overthrow  of  the  Hnguenota 
was  completed  by  the  capture  of  Bochelte,  20tfa 
October  1628,  at  Uie  siege  of  whjoh  the  king  took 
part  in  person.  In  1631,  his  brother,  the  Dnke  ot 
Orleans,  having  left  the  court,  assembled  a  troop  at 
Spaniards  in  the  Netherlands,  and  entered  France  to 
compel  the  dismissal  of  Kicbelieu,  whom  he  hated, 


Loms  xm— LOUK  xiv. 


]  kine  u* 

pleteK-def , 

at  CaatebuudaiT.  Sicbelien  sow  led  L.  to  take  part 
in  the  Tbirt^  Yean'  War,  opeoly  mpporting  Ons- 
bTiu  Adolphm  and  the  Dntch  agaliut  Uie  SfKUtiordB 
and  Auitmna.  The  latter  years  ot  L.'b  reij^  were 
dgnaiieed  by  the  getting  poBseseion  of  Alsace  and  of 
lUniBsiilon,  acquintionH  iniich  ircre  confirmed  in  the 
following  reign,  L.  died  I4thlfay  1643.  Hii  queen, 
after  23  yeara  of  married  life,  bore  a  son  in  1633, 
who  nicoeeded  to  the  throne  u  Lonia  XIV,;  and 
in  164(^  a  aecond  (on,  Philip,  Dnhe  of  Orleans,  the 
anoeator  of  the  present  Eoiue  of  Orleans. 

LOUIS  XIV.,  king  of  rranee,  bom  at  St 
QBnnain-en-Laya  16th  September  1638,  succeeded 
hii  father,  Loni«  XIU,  in  164a  Eis  motber, 
Anne  of  Antttia,  became  r^nt,  and  Mazarin  (C|.t.) 
her  minister.  Daring  the  sing's  minoiitj,  the  dis- 
contented nobles,  anconru^  by  Spain,  sought  to 
shake  off  the  anthority  of  the  crown,  and  the  civil 
wan  of  the  Fronde  (q.  v.)  arose.  Peace  was  con- 
cluded in  1660 ;  and  in  the  following  year  L.  i^jairied 
the  Infanta  Maria  Theresa,  a  pnnceas  possessing 
neith^  beauty  nor  other  attractive  qualities.  Little 
was  expeoted  from  tha  vonng  king ;  his  education 
had  beoi  ne^eoted,  andbis  condnot  waa  dissidate; 
bnt  on  Maann't  death,  in  1061 ,  he  anddenl;  aasnmed 
tlu  rmna  of  aaTcnuneiit,  and  from  that  time  forth 
carried  intoaffeot  with  nu«  energy  a  political  theoiy 
d  pnifl  despotism.  His  famous  saying, '  L'Hat  e'ot 
nKn'  (I  am  the  state),  expreased  the  principle  to 
which  eTerything  waa  accommodated.  He  had  a 
cool  and  clear  head,  with  much  digni^  and  amenity 
of  mumen,  great  activity,  and  indomitable  perse- 
verance. The  dlatrats  cmsed  by  the  religious  wan 
had  oreated  thron^cut  France  a  longing  lor  tepoae, 
which  WB«  f  avonrBDle  to  bis  aMunptiou  of  absolute 

Swer.  He  waa  ably  supported  by  his  ministers. 
uinfaatarM  h«nn  to  fionrish  under  the  royal 
protection.  The  fine  cloths  of  Louviers,  AbbovillB, 
and  Sedan,  the  tapestries  of  the  QobeltnB,  the 
caipeta  of  La  Savonnraie,  uid  the  silks  of  Tours 
and  Lyon  acquired  a  wide  oalebrity.  The  wonder- 
ful talents  of  Colbert  (q.  t.)  restonid  prosperity  to 
the  ruined  fioancea  of  the  country,  and  provided  the 
means  for  war ;  whilst  Lonvoia  (q.  v.)  applied  the«e 
means  in  laismg  and  sending  ^  the  ncld  armies 
more  thonn^ily  eqni^ied  and  disciplined  than  any 
other  ot  that  age. 

On  the  death  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  L.,  as  his 
•Mi-in-law,  aat  np  a  alum  to  part  of  ^e  Spanish 
NcUia^anda  j  and  in  1667,  accompanied  by  Turenae 
(q.  V.},  he  crossed  the  frontier  with  a  powerful 
anay,  took  many  pUceti,  and  mode  himself  master 
of  that  part  of  Fluiden  sinoe  known  as  French 
Handera,  and  of  the  whole  of  Pracche  Comt&  The 
triple  oUianes— between  England,  the  States  ■general, 
and  Sweden — arretted  bis  career  of  conqneet  The 
treaty  of  Aix-U-Chapelle  (1668)  forced  him  to 
Burreodsr  Pranche  ComtS.  He  vowed  revenge 
against  the  States-general,  etrengUiened  himself  bj 
<Mnnan  alliances,  and  purchased  with  money  the 
friendship  of  Charles  IL  of  En^and,  He  seized 
Lmraina  in  1670;  and  in  May  167^  aeain  entered 
Hie  NeUurlands  with  Cond£  and  Tdrenne,  t^nquared 
half  the  country  in  lii  weeks,  an^efb  the  Duke  of 
Lnxembcnrg  to  lay  it  waste.  The  States-general 
formed  an  sSiance  with  Spain  and  with  the  Emperor, 
bat  Ik  made  himself  master  of  ma  cities  of  the 
empire  in  Alsace ;  and  in  the  spruig  of  1674,  took 
tiie  field  with  three  great  armita,  of  which  he 
oommanded  <ma  in  person,  Coime  another,  and 
Tnrenne  a  third.  Victory  attended  his  arms :  and 
notwithstanding  the  death  of  Tflrenne,  and  the 
retirement  of  tlie  Prince  of  CondS.from  aptive  aer- 
Ticcs  ha  oontinned  in  nibseqaent  feats,  along  with 


his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  to  extend  hia 

conquests  in  the  Netherlands,  where,  by  his  otders, 
and  according  to  the  ratblen  policy  of  Louvois, 
the  country  was  fearfully  deaolated.  The  Peace  of 
Nimegnen,  in  1878,  left  him  possession  of  many  of 
his  conqnests.  He  now  cstAblished  Ohambra  de 
Bfunion  in  Metz,  Breisoch,  and  Besan^cn,  pretended 


a  will  wot 


supreme. 


coorts  ot  law,  in  which  his  c 
and  which  confiscated  to  him,  as  feudal  superior  in 
right  of  his  conquests,  territories  which  be  wished 
to  acquire,  seignories  belonging  to  the  Elector  Pala- 
tine, the  Elector  of  Treves,  acd  others.  He  also,  on 
30th  September  1681,  made  a  sudden  and  successful 
attack  on  Strasburg,  a  free  German  city,  the  posse«- 
non  and  fortification  of  which  added  greatly  to  his 
power  on  the  Bhiue.  The  acqnisitdon  thus  made,  a 
treaty  in  1684  confirmed  to  hmi. 

L.  had  now  reached  the  zenith  of  his  Ci 

Europe  feared  him ;  bis  own  nation  had  been  brought 
by  tyranny,  skilful  management,  and  military  glory, 
to  regard  him  with  Asiuic  homility,  "iTninng  uii 
obeymg;  all  remnants  of  political  indc^iendenoe  had 
been  swept  away ;  no  Assemblies  of  the  States  or  of 
the  Notables  were  held ;  the  nobles  had  1o«t  both 
the  desire  and  the  ability  to  assert  political  power  j 
-hhs  mnnioipal  corporations  no  loDger  ezwoised  any 
t  of   election,  bat   received   appointanenta    ra 


[mmble  to 


miiustets,  and  titey  to  the  king,  who  was  bis 
own  prime  minister.  Even  the  courts  of  jnstice 
yielded  to  the  absotnto  sway  of  the  monarch,  who 
mterfered  at  pleasure  with  the  ordinary  coone  of 
law,  I^  'Uie  appointment  of  commissious,  or  witb- 
6i«w  offenders  fiom  tlie  ituisdictian  of  the  courts  by 
r.],  of  which  he  issued  about  9000 
reign.  Ho  asserted  a  right  to 
dispoee  at  his  pleasure  of  all  properties  witbm  the 
boundaries  of  his  realm,  and  took  credit  to  himself 
for  giaciouB  moderation  in  exercising  it  sparingly. 
The  court  was  the  very  heart  of  the  political  and 
nationa]  life  of  France,  aod  there  the  utmost  splm- 
doiat  WHS  maintained ;  and  a  system  of  etiquette  was 
established,  which  was  a  sort  of  perpetual  wordiip 
of  the  king. 

It  was  a  serious  thing  for  France  and  tbe  world 
when  L.  fell  under  the  control  of  his  mistress,  the 
Marquise  de  Maintenon  (q.  v.),  whom  he  married  in 
a  hall-private  manner  in  1685,  and  who  was  hendf 
governed  by  the  Jeeuita.  One  of  tbe  first  effects  of 
Uiis  change  was  the  adoption  of  severe  measures 
against  the  Protestanta.  When  it  was  reported  to 
L.  that  hia  troops  bad  converted  all  the  heretics,  he 
revoked  the  Ediot  of  Nautea  b  lQ85t  and  Uien  ensued 


^  skill  and  industry  to 

other  lands.  Yet  L.  was  by  no  means  willii^  to 
yield  too  much  power  to  the  pope ;  and  quarrying 
with  him  oonceming  the  revennea  of  vacoirf 
bishoprics,  ha  convened  a  council  of  Freneh  clerE^, 
which  declared  the  papal  power  to  extend  onlv  to 
matters  of  faith,  and  even  m  these  to  be  dependent 
npcu  the  decreee  of  councils. 
The  Elector  of  the  Palatinate  having  died  in  May 
185,  and  left  his  sieter,  the  Duchess  of  Orleans, 
liresa  oE  his  movable  property,  L  claimed  for  her 
also  all  the  allodial  lands ;  aod  from  this  and  other 
caoaee  arose  a  new  European  war.  A  French 
army  invaded  the  Palatinate,  Baden,  TVIbiemberg, 
and  Treves  in  1688.  In  1689,  the  Lower  Palatinate 
and  neighbouring  regions  were  laid  waste  by  fire 
and  BworA.  This  atrocious  proceeding  led  to  a  new 
coalition  against  Franca.  Sncceaaforatimeattended 
the  Frencfi  arms,  narticolorly  in  Savoy  and  at  the 
battle  of  Steiokeik.     Bevcises,  howorer,  cnnedi 

XiOoqTc 


_iOOj^lC 


tours  XIT.— LOUIS  XV. 


the  war  was  vaged  for  yean  on  a  g^^  scale, 
And  with  Tarions  mcoen ;  and  after  Qie  Prencli, 
under  Lnzemboorg,  had  pined,  in  1693,  the  battle 
of  Neerwinden,  it  waa  nmnd  that  tlie  meaiia  of 
wagins  war  were  tbit  much  ezhanEted,  and  L.  con- 
claded  the  peace  of  Ryswick  oa  20th  September 
J697.  The  navy  deatroyed,  the  finances  gnevoualy 
embarraaaed,  tlie  people  Buffering  from  want  of 
food,  and  diacontentmeztt  deep  and  general,  L. 
placed  the  Count  D'Argenaon  at  the  head  of  Oie 
police^  and  eetabliahed  an  unparalleled  aystem  of 
eapionage  for  the  maintenanoe  oC  hil  own  despotiun. 
The  power  of  Madame  de  Maintonon  and  her  clerical 
advisera  became  more  and  more  abaotute  at  the 
conrC,  where  scandala  of  every  kind  increased. 

When  the  death  of  Charles  IL  of  Spain  took  place 
on  l*t  Korember  1700,  it  was  foond  that  L.  had 
obtained  hii  aignataire  to  a  will  by  which  he  left 
.11  !.-_  ^QQUQ^Qog  ^  oQQ  of  ^B  grandaoni  of  his 
queen.    L.  supported  to 

.__   ._  his  grandson  (Philip  V.), 

whilst  the  Emperor  Leopold  sapported  that  of  his 
■on,  ofterwarda  the  Emperor  Charles  VL  But  the 
iiowec  of  France  waa  now  weakened,  and  the  war 
bad  to  he  maintained  both  on  the  aide  of  the  Nether- 
lands and  of  Italy.  One  bloody  defeat  followed 
another ;  Marlborough  waa  Tiotoriona  in  the  Low 
Countries,  and  Prince  Eomne  in  Italy ;  whilst  the 
fones  of  L.  were  diridM  and  weakEmed  by  the 
empleyment  of  large  bodiei  of  troops  against  the 
Camiwi^  in  the  OBrenQca,  for  the  eninotion  of  the 
lart  nliea  d  Protestanbam.  On  the  11th  April 
1713,  pe*M  waa  oondnded  at  Utreoh^  the  IVemch 
prince  obtaining  the  Spanish  tbrone,  but  France 
•acrifioing  Taloable  colonies.  A  terrible  fermenta- 
tion now  prerailed  in  France,  and  the  oonntry  waa 
almoat  completely  mined  ;  bat  the  monarch  ntun- 
tained  to  the  last  an  nnbending  despotism.  He 
died,  after  a  short  illnen,  lit  September  1715.  He 
waa  Buoceeded  by  his  great-grandson,  Louis  XV. 
His  BOO,  the  Danphin,  and  hit  eldest  grandsoa,  the 
Duke  of  Bretagoa,  had  both  died  in  1711.  Louia 
had  a  number  of  natural  children,  and  be  had 
legitimised  those  oE  whom  Madame  de  Montespan 
wns  the  mother ;  but  the  parliament,  which  made 
no  objection  to  recording  the  edict  when  required 
by  him,  made  ai  little  objection  to  animllmg  it 
when  required  by  the  oeit  goTernment.  The 
'workfl'  of  LouiflXIV.  (6  vols.  Paris,  1806),  contain- 
ing hia  Instmctiona  for  his  sons,  and  many  letters, 
afiord  important  information  aa  to  hia  character  and 
the  history  of  hia  reign.  The  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
is  regiuded  oi  the  Augustan  age  oi  French  literature 
and  art,  and  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  France 
has  never  aiace  produced  poets  like  Oomeille  and 
Badne  in  tragedy,  or  Moliire  in  comedy ;  satiriata 
like  Boileau,  or  divines  like  Boasnet,  Fenelon, 
Bourdaloue,  and  Masaillon. 


1710,  BDCceeded  to  the  throne  Ist  September  ITlO. 
The  l><ike  of  Orleans,  as  first  prince  of  the  blood, 
was  regsnt  dujjig  the  minority  of  the  king, 
whoee  ^ncatdon  was  intrnsted  to  Marshal  Villeroi 
and  Cardinal  Flenry.  The  coontrj  was  brought 
to  the  verge  of  ruin  during  the  regency,  by  the 
folly  of  the  regent  and  the  financial  echemes  of 
the  celebrated  Scotchman,  Law  (q.  v.).  When 
L.  was  fifteen  yeBm  of  age,  he  mamed  Maria 
LesciTnski,  danghter  of  Stanislas,  the  dethroned 
king  of  Poland.  Flenry  was  for  a  long  time  at 
the  head  of  offaira,  and  fay  parsimony  snooeeded 
in  improving  the  condition  of  the  finances.  It  waa 
his  policy  alao  to  avoid  war,  in  which,  however, 
III  was  involved  in  1733,  in  Enpport  of  his  father- 
in-law's  claim  to  the  tkrone  of  Poland ;  the  result , 


being  that  L.  obtained  Lorrune  for  his  father-in- 
law,  and  ultimately  for  France.  Notwithstanding 
the  vigour  with  which  this  war  was  conducted,  tho 
character  of  L.  now  became  completely  develt^ied 
oa  one  of  the  utmost  sensuality,  aelfishnesi,  and 
baseness.  He  suiroonded  himself  with  the  vileet 
society,  utterly  forsook  hia  qneen,  and  lived,  as  he 
continued  to  do  to  the  end  of  his  life,  in  extreme 
debaucherv,  such  as  has  rendered  his  name  a  proverb. 
In  1740,  the  war  of  the  Austrian  Sncoeaslon  broke 
out,  in  which  the  French  arms  were  by  no  means 
very  sncceaafnl,  and  during  which  Fleury  died.  The 
king  was  present,  in  1745,  at  the  great  victory  of 
Fontenoy,  and  shewed  plenty  of  oouraga.  In  the 
preoeding  year,  during  a  dan^rons  illnea^  he  had 
mode  vows  of  reforming  his  Ufe,  and  dlsmined  his 
mistresses  ;  bnt  on  recovering  health,  he  presently 
relapsed  into  vice.  The  peace  of  Aaz-la-Obapelle, 
in  174S,  was  very  much  due  to  the  entreaties 
of  Madame  da  Fom^ulour,  whose  infinence  the 
Empress  Elizabe&  of  Bussi*  seoored  bjr  bribe*  and 
flatteries.  Fruice  gained  nothing  by  tua  var ;  but 
her  people  were  mined,  and  her  navy  destroyed. 

The  king  now  sank  completely  under  the  oontrol 
of  Madame  de  Pompadour,  who  was  both  oonenbins 
and  pcocurest,  and  to  whom  he  gave  uotea  on  the 
treasory  for  enormons  sums,  amounting  in  all  to 
hundreds  of  millions  of  livres.  War  broke  oat 
again  with  Britain  oonoeming  the  bonndariea  of 
Acadia  (Nova  SootU),  and  was  tor  some  time  prose- 


through  the  infinenoe  of  idadame  de  Pompadc  .   , 

'-~^  -  -  she  disposed  of  the  command  of  the  French 
at  her  pleasure,  success  did  not  attend  their 
of  the  finances,  the  dispirited 
condltdOQ  of  the  army,  and  the  outcry  of  the  dis- 
tressed people,  were  not  sufficient  to  induce  th« 
Idng  to  msJie  peace  ;  bnt  governed  by  his  mistress, 
he  obstinately  peraevered  in  war,  even  after  the 
terrible  defeat  of  Minden  in  1759;  whilst  the 
British  conquered  almost  all  the  Frenoh  colonies  both 
in  the  East  and  West  Indiea,  with  Cape  Breton  and 
Canada.  A  peace,  most  humiliating  to  France^  was 
at  last  concluded  in  1763. 

L,  although  indifTerent  to  the  ruin  of  hia  people, 
and  tfl  everything  bnt  his  own  vile  plessurcs, 
was  relnctantly  compelled  to  take  part  in  the 
contest  between  Madame  de  Pompadour  and  the 
Jesuits,  the  result  of  which  waa  the  snppresMon 
of  the  order  in  1764  See  Jxutts.  The  pariia- 
ments,  emboldened  by  their  success  in  this  con- 
test, now  attempted  to  limit  the  power  of  the 
crown,  by  refusing  to  register  ediota  of  taxation ; 
but  the  king  acted  with  unusual  vigour,  maintain- 
ing his  own  absolute  and  supreme  authority,  and 
treating  the  attempt  of  the  parliaments  to  nnite 
for  one  object  as  rebellious.  The  Duke  of  Choisenl 
was  now  displaced  from  office ;  a  new  mistress, 
Madame  Du  fcury,  having  now  come  into  the  place 
of  Madame  de  Pompadour ;  ind  ■  minirtry  was 
formed  under  the  Duke  d'Alguillon,  every  mnnbet 
of  which  was  an  enemy  of  theparliamraitB,  and  an 
object  of  pqpolor  detestation.  The  cooneillors  of  the 
parliament  of  Paris  were  removed  from  their  offices, 
and  banished  with  gnat  indiniity  ;  and  an  interim 
parliament  was  appointed  (January  1771)>  which 
duly  obeyed  the  court.    The  princes  <^  the  blood 


told  of  the  ruin  of  the  oountry,  and  the  misery  and 
discontent  of  the  people,  only  remarked  that  the 
monarchy  would  last  as  long  as  his  life ;  and  con- 
tinued iniffleised  in  sensnal  pleasures  and  trifling 
amusements.     He  boasted  of  being  the  best  oook  in 


,„,Gdat^lc 


LOUIS  XVL— LOUIS  XVHL 


France  and  vm  mach  gratifled  whea  the 

ats  euerlj  of  the  dubsa  whicli  he  had  prepared. 
Hit  gifti  to  Madame  Dn  Bury,  notwithituiding 
the  embanaaBinent  of  the  finances,  in  five  years 
anoimted  to  180  miUione  of  livrea.  At  last,  L., 
who  had  for  some  time  aoffered  from  a  disease 
ODDtractad  thnnigli  vice,  was  seized  witii  smallpox, 
the  infection  of  whioh  was  commmiicated  by  a 
yonng  girl  who  had  been  brought  to  him,  and  on 
lOth  Auy  J7T4  he  died,  so  far  ^m  being  regretted 
that  his  funeral  waa  a  sort  of  popular  feetiTal.  and 
WM  celebrated  with  pasquils  and  merry  ballads. 
Eii  death-b«d  waa  one  of  extreme  miserj.  "  — 
tnooeeded  hy  bit  grandson,  Louia  XVL 

LOUIS  XVI.,  AvavsTs,  king  of  Prance,  bom 
23d  Aagost  1764,  wu  the  third  ton  of  the  Daaphin, 
Looia,  only  ion  of  Louis  XV.  He  was  styled  Dakt 
de  Berry,  nntil,  by  tlia  death  of  bis  uther  and 
hii  elder  brothers,  he  became  Bauphin.  He  had 
a  vigoroua  frame,  was  fond  of  hunting  and  manly 
eseroisea,  took  great  pleaaon  in  mechanical  laboon, 
aitd  shewed  an  aptitod*  for  geometzy,  but  none 
for  political  science.  In  the  midst  of  the  most 
oorropt  of  courts,  he  grew  np  temperate,  honest, 
and  moral  He  was  married  on  10th  May  1770,  to 
Uarie  Antoinette,  the  yonngeat  daughter  of  the 
Smmeas  Maria  Theresa. 

When  L.  ascended  the  throne,  misery  and  discoa- 
tentment  prevailed  throughout  France.  He  had 
Dot  the  viffonr  and  jodgment  necessary  for  circum- 
Btanoes  full  of  difficulty,  and  was  conscious  of  his 
own  weakness.  He  made  Maorepas,  an  old  courtier, 
his  prime  minister ;  but  among  his  ministera  were 
Malesherbea,  Turgot,  and  other  men  of  known 
patriotism!  and  his  accession  wsa  signalised  by 
the  remission  of  some  of  the  most  odious  taxes, 
the  abolition  of  tlie  last  relics  of  serfdom,  the 
abolition  of  the  torture  in  judicial  investigations, 
a  redaction  of  the  expenditnre  of  the  court,  and 
the  fonndation  of  institutions  for  the  benefit  of 
the  working-clasaea.  He  was,  for  a  time,  extremely 
popular  ;  but  deeper  reforms  were  rendered  impoa- 
siUe  by  the  oppomtion  of  the  privileged  cUaaea.  In 
Jane  1777,  when  the  state  o!  the  naancea  seemed 
nearly  de«i>erata,  Neoker  (q.  v.)  waa  called  to  the 
office  of  Qraiend  Director  of  them,  and  sncceeded  in 
brining  them  to  a  more  tolerable  condition,  with- 
out any  very  radical  change ;  but  from  the  interfer- 
enoa  of  franoe  in  the  American  war  of  independence. 


,  bat  the  general  discontentment 
indaoed  the  Idn^  in  17S3,  to  appovot  Calonne  (q.  v.) 
oranptroller-general,  who  found  money  for  a  time 
by  harrowing,  much  to  the  BatiafactioD  of  the  cour- 
tiers. Bat  uie  indignation  of  the  people  increasing, 
Calonne  fonnd  it  necessair  to  recommend  the  con- 
vening of  an  Assembly  of  the  ^Notables.  On  1st  May 
1787,  the  Archbishop  Lomtinie  de  Brienne  became 
Finance  Minister.  He  obtained  from  the  Notables 
some  concessions  end  some  new  taieo.  But  the 
parliament  of  Paris  refused  to  register  the  edict 
of  taxation,  as  oppressive  to  the  people;  and  the 
extravagance  of  the  court  and  the  queen  began  to 
be  free^  spoken  oL  The  conveuinK  of  the  States- 
general  now  began  to  be  demanifed  from  every 
comer  of  France.  The  king  registered  the  edicts  in 
m  lU  iU  jiuHa,  and  baniahea  the  connoillors  of 
pailiamait  to  Troyea ;  but  erelons  found  it  neces- 
sary to  reoall  them,  and  experienced  from 


r  opposition  thaji  before.  On  8Ul  May 
iVMi,  ne  diaaolved  all  the  parliamenta,  and  eatab- 
liahed  a  new  kind  of  court  {C<mr  PUmtrij  instead ; 


16th  Augnst  appeared  the  famous  edict,  that  tlia 
Treasury  ahould  cease  from  all  cash  payments  except 
to  the  troops.  Brienne  was  compelled  to  reaiffn,  and 
Necker  again  became  minister.  An  Assenibly  of 
the  State*  of  the  kingdom  was  resolved  upon ;  and 
by  t}ie  advice  of  Neoker,  who  wished  a  counterpoise 
to  the  influence  of  the  nobility,  clergy,  and  court, 
the  Third  Estate  was  called  in  double  number. 

The  sabaequent  history  of  L.  ia  given  at  length 
under  the  head  Fbance.  All  readers  of  history 
are  familiar  with  the  melancholy  incidentfl  of  his 
life,  from  the  openiog  of  the  Assembly  of  the  States 
(Sth  May  17S9)  down  to  his  tragic  oxecntion.  At 
ten  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  21at  of  Jannary 
1793,  ha  died  by  the  guillotine,  in  the  Place  da  la 
B^volution.  Great  precautioaa  were  taken  to  pre- 
vent any  rescue.  As  the  oiecationer  bound  him, 
Louis  tore  himself  free,  and  exclaimed:  'Frenchmen, 
1  die  innocent ;  I  way  that  my  blood  come  not  npon 
Francfc'  The  roUiiw  of  druina  drowned  hia  voice. 
Ere  the  guillotine  ^U,  the  Abbi  Ec^worth,  hit 
confessor,  cheered  bim  with  the  words :  '  Sou  of 
St  Louis,  ssoend  to  heaven  '. ', 

LOtJIS  ZYII,  Chablis.  second  son  of  Louis 
XVL  of  France,  bom  at  Veraaillea,  27th  March 
I7S5,  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Normandy,  till, 
on  the  death  of  his  brother  in  17S9,  he  became 
Dauphin.  He  was  a  promising  boy.  In  the  earlier 
days  of  the  Sevolntion,  ha  waa  sometimes  dressed 
in  the  uniform  of  the  National  Qnanl,  and  decorated 
with  the  tricolor,  to  gratify  the  pc^ulace.  After  the 
death  of  Mb  father,  he  oontiDuod  m  prison — at  first 
with  his  mother,  but  afterwards  apart  from  her — in 
the  Temple,  under  the  charge  of  a  coarse  Jacobin 
shoemaker,  named  Simon,  who  treated  him  with 
great  cruelty,  and  led  him  into  vicious  aiceases,  so 
that  he  became  a  mere  wreck  bodi  in  mind  and 
body.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  Terrorists,  he 
waa— perhaps  intentionally — forgotten,  and  died  Sth 
June  1796.  A  report  spread  that  he  was  poisoned, 
but  a  commission  of  physioianB  examined  the  body, 
and  declared  the  report  uofonnded. 

LOUI8  XVIII.,  SrANisLAa  Xatier,  the  next 
younger  brother  of  Louis  XVL,  bom  at  Versailles, 
I7th  November  1755,  recdved  the  title  of  Count  de 
Provence.  In  1771,  he  married  Maria  Josephine 
Louisa,  daughter  of  Victor  Amadeus  HI.  of  Sardinia. 
Aft«r  the  aoceeaion  of  Louis  XVI.  to  the  throne,  he 
assumed  the  designation  of  MomiruT,  and  became 
an  opponent  of  every  salutary  measure  of  the 
government.  Ee  fled  from  Paris  on  the  same 
night  with  the  king,  and  was  more  fortunate,  for, 
taking  the  road  by  Lille,  he  reached  the  Belgian 
frontier  in  safety.  With  his  brother,  the  Count 
d'Artois,  he  now  issued  declarations  against  fhe 
revolutionary  cause  in  France,  which  had  a  veiy 
□nEavourable  effect  on  the  situation  of  the  king. 
The  two  brothers  for  some  time  held  a  sort  of  court 
at  Coblenz.    L.  joined  the  body  of  6000  emigrants 


a  the  Rhme  in 


who  accompanied  the  Prusdana 
July  1792,  and  issued  a  manifesto  even  more  foolish 
and  extravagant  than  that  of  the  Duke  of  Bmna- 
wick.  After  the  death  of  his  brother,  Louis  XVL, 
he  proclaimed  hia  nephew  King  of  France,  as  Lonia 
XVIL,  and  in  1795  himself  assumed  the  tiUe  of 
king.  The  ev^ta  of  subsequent  yean  Compelled 
him  frequentiy  to  change  his  place  of  abode,  remov- 
ing from  one  country  of  Europe  to  another,  till  at 
last,  in  1807,  he  found  a  refuge  in  England,  and 
purchased  a  residence,  Hartwell,  in  Bnckin^iam- 
shire,  where  his  wife  died  in  1810,  and  where  ho 
remained  till  the  fall  of  Napoleon  opened  the  way 
for  him  to  the  French  throne.  He  luided  at  Calais 
26th  April  1814,  and  entered  Paris,  after  twenty. 
four  years'^ exile,  on  3d  Mt^:  and  Uie  nation  received 


■X\ooq\c 


LOUIS  xvnL— Loms  napolSon. 


the  conatibitiiHMl  diartar  from  hii  faaiid*  on  4Ut 
June.    SMFRUtCX. 

Tha  condnet  of  tlie  goTenuneot,  however,  waa 
fir  b<an  being  o<»stttiitioiu>l  or  libertl.  The  Qoblw 
Kod  pileato  «xer«iMd  mi  inflooioe  over  the  weak 
Unf;,  f^uoh  led  to  eevere  treabnent  of  the  Imps- 
Tialute,  the  Bepablicuu,  and  tha  Frobealuite.  Then 
followed  Napoleon'*  retorn  from  Elba,  when  the 
king  and  hi*  iamilj'  fled  from  PariB,  rentained  at 
Ghent  till  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  and  retorned 
to  Pnwce  under  protection  of  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton. He  ioned  from  Cambrai  a  prooUmation  ui 
vrbicli  he  acknowledged  hil  former  errors,  and 
pronused  a  general  anmeaty  to  all  eioept  traiton. 
Again,  however,  he  follow^  in  many  things  tha 
ooonsela  of  the  party  which  detested  all  the  fmiti 
of  the  Eevolntion.  Bat  the  Chamber  of  Dspntiea, 
elected  with  many  irregnlaritiea,  was  fanatical^ 
royalist,  and  the  king,  by  advioe  of  the  Soke  <le 


the  charter.     Bands   of   nnirnnHmrr   were   oollected 


LOUIS    NAPOL^N,  whoee  fnU    name       ._ 

CBUtLB    LoUia    IfAPOLfiOH    BOKAPASTB,    and    his 

titnlar  dasigDatioD,  NapoUon  III.,  Emperor  oftlu 
FrtneK,  was  bom  at  Paris,  in  the  p^aoe  of  the 
Taileries,  20th  April  1808.  He  was  the  third  ton  of 
Lonis  Bonaparte,  brother  of  the  first  Emperor. 
See  BoHAPABTl  Fakilt.  His  birth  was  celebrated 
with  great  rejoicines  throa|^out  France,  as  that 
of  an  neir  to  tha  imperial  Uurone,  for  by  the  law 
of  sdccesrion  (dated  28th  Floreal,  year  12,  and  6th 
EViroaire,  ysw  13),  the  crown,  in  default  of  direct 
degcenduita  of  the  Emperor  himself — and  he  at 
that  time  had  none — coold  be  inherited  only  by 
the  children  of  two  of  hJN  brothers,  Joseph  and 
Lonis.  Bat  Joseph  was  also  childlesg,  and  the  eons 
of  Lonis,  in  couseqnenoe,  became  heirs-apparent. 
After  the  restoration  of  the  BonrbonB,  the  ex-qaeen 
Hortenae,  mother  of  L.  N.,  went  into  exile,  curying 
with  her  her  two  sons,  Napol^n  Louia  and  Iiuaia 
Napolton.  Since  ISIO,  she  had  been  separated 
&om  her  hnsband.  L.  received  bis  early  education 
in  the  castle  of  Arenenbeig,  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Constance,  where  hia  mother  resided.  He  was 
famished  with  the  beet  tutors  that  conid  be  got, 
and  was  far  from  proving  a  elothfol  pupih  At 
the  gymnasinm  of  AugsbiSg,  be  lUaplayed  quite  a 
paseioD  for  history  and  the  exact  scieacea.  Bjs  love 
of  athletic  sports  was  e^oally  coospicuoos  :  he  was 
one  of  the  best  fencers,  nden,  and  awinunerB  in  the 
whole  school    In  Switzerland,  his  inclination  and 


develc^ 
as  a  volnnteer  in  the  federal 
camp  at  Thnn.  and  at  a  later  period  in  his  life  wrote 
a  Mamid  ceArHOerit  (Zurich,  1336).  Li  18.W,  when 
an  insurrection  broke  out  in  the  pontifical  states, 
L.  N.  and  his  brother  took  part  in  it.  The  latter 
died  at  Forli,  and  L.  N.  hunself  fell  dangerously 
ill  at  Anoona,  and  was  only  saved  by  the  tender 
devotednees  of  his  mother.  The  Anstrian  occnpa. 
tion  of  AjiDaaa  forced  them  to  quit  the  city  secretly ; 
they  proceeded  to  France,  but  their  incognito  being 
betrayed,  they  were  expelled  by  Louis  Phflippe,  after 
a  few  days,  and  crossed  over  to  England,  whence 
they  soon  returned  to  Switzerland.  Such,  however, 
was  the  charm  of  N.'s  name,  that  the  chiefs  of  the 
Polish  insorrection  offered  him,  in  1831,  the  com- 
mand of  their  legions, '  as  the  nephew  of  the  greatest 
captain  of  all  ages,'  and  also  the  crown  of  Poland. 


Th»  capture  of  Warsaw  by  Qie  AoawanB,  however, 
put  a  stop  to  farther  prooaediugs  in  this  matter,  and 
L,  N.  ouce  more  turned  to  his  sileiA  and  sombre 
studies.  The  death  (22d  July  1832)  of  the  Duke  of 
Keichstadt,  aometimee  called  IfapoUon  II.,  only  son 
of  the  flnt  Emperor,  opened  the  future  to  his  ambi- 
tious hopes ;  and  even  hia  supporters  admit  that^ 
from  this  date  forward,  hia  whole  life,  speoulatdve 
and  practical,  was  devoted  to  the  reahsatiou  ot 
what  now  bet^une  his  'fixed  idea;'  viz.,  that  he  wm 
destined  to  be  the  sovereign  of  France.  Between 
1832  and  1836,  he  pubbshed  several  works,  which 
not  only  kept  him  prominently  before  the  French 
public,  but  evoked  a  considerable  amount  of  poli- 
tical and  intellectual  sympathy.  We  may  mention 
his  ^^neria  PolU^ua,  Projd  de  Conitittttion,  I>eia 
Mutt  &  M.  de  Chataaibriaad  tur  la  DueieiM  de 
Berri  (m  verse),  and  Conndlra^on*  PotUiyiiti  tt 
MUHaira  sur  la  Saitte.  In  1836,  believing  in  the 
instability  of  the  throne  of  Louis  Philippe,  and  in 
the  Bsnenl  disaffection  of  the  bourgeoisie,  encouraged 
also  Dy  the  proofs  of  vivid  attachment  to  his  person 
disjdayed  by  nearly  the  whole  of  the  democratic 
party,  but,  above  all,  confiding  in  the  grandeur  of 
those  memories  whifji  his  name  recalled,  he,  witlt 
a  few  associates,  among  whom  was  the  Comte  da 
Persigny,  since  better  known,  made  hia  famous 
attempt  at  a  coup  d'Uai  at  Stiasb<)ur(^  It  was,  aa 
all  the  world  knows,  a  ludicrous  failure.  L.  N,  was 
taken  prisoner  under  humiliating  oircumatancea,  and 
after  some  days  conveyed  to  Paris ;  but  Hie  govern- 
ment of  Louia  Philippe  was  afraid  to  bring  a  Bona- 
parte to  trial— -as  in  such  a  case  it  could  not  rely 
upon  the  impartiaUl^  of  a  French  jury — and  in  con- 
sequence shipped  liirn  off  to  America  Tba  illneas  ot 
his  mother  soon  caused  him  to  rotnrn  to  Europe. 
He  found  her  dying ;  two  months  later,  he  received 
her  lasC  sighs  (3d  October  1837)-  Although  the 
affair  of  Strasbourg  had  naturally  enough  caused 
roany  people  to  doabt  the  talent  and  particulariy 
the  judgment  of  L.  N.,  still  Loois  Philippe,  who  was, 
politically  Bpeaking,  an  extremely  timid  monarch, 
dreaded  some  new  conapiracy,  and,  in  consequence, 
the  French  government  demanded  of  Switzerland 
the  eipalsian  of  the  obnoxious  prince  from  its 
territones,  M.  Mol6  actually  enjoiiung  the  French 
ambassador  to  request  his  pasaportH,  in  cose  of  a 
refusaL  Switzerland  was  violently  agitated,  and  was 
almost  on  the  point  of  going  to  war  for  Uie  distin- 
guished refugee  (who  was,  in  fact,  a  Swiss  citizen), 
when  the  latter  resolved  to  prevent  a  rupture  by 
leaving  hia  adopted  country.  He  now  proceeded 
to  England,  and  settled  in  London.  With  certain 
members  of  the  British  aristocracy,  he  came  to 
live  on  a  footing  of  considerable  intimacy,  and 
there  can  be  no  doabt  that  he  was  also  an  object  of 
langaid  wonder  and  interest  to  the  oommnnity 
eerieraUy,  but  he  impressed  nobody  with  a  belief  in 
bis  future  and  his  geniaa ;  nay,  Englishmen  erred 
so  far  as  to  suppoee  that  the  '  silent  man '  was  merely 
'  dull'  In  1838,  he  published  in  London  his  IdSet 
NapoUonieaaa,  which,  read  in  the  Ugbt  of  subse- 
qaent  events,  are  venr  significant.  Europe  generally 
regarded  thran  as  idle  dreams  ;  but  in  Fnnce  the 
b^k  went  through  numerona  editions.  In  1839, 
L.  N.  was  in  ScoEUnd,  and  took  part  in  the  oele- 
brated  Minton  tournament  Next  year  (1840), 
taking  advantage  of  the  sentiment  aroused  by  the 
brirkging  home  of  the  ashes  of  his  uncle  from  St 
Helena,  he  mode  another  attempt  on  the  throne  of 
France  at  Boulogne.  It  was  as  Erotesque  a  ^ilure 
SB  the  one  at  Strasbourg,  and  nn(Uiubtedly  provoked 
a  certain  feeling  of  oontempt  for  its  author  in  the 
mind  of  the  g^eral  public  Captured  on  the  shore, 
whOe  endeavouring  to  make  hia  escape  to  the  vessel 
that  hod  brought  him  from  Engluid,  L.  N.      " 


iiz,»»Goi3glc 


toms  NAPoLftON— LOtrtS  IWUPPE. 


BvUit;  Stpontt  d  M.  deLamartine, 

da  PtmplriKme,  irrote  political  artdoleB  for  the  demo- 

cratio  jonrti&^  uid  actually  took  part  in  editing  the 
DictionfUtirt  de  la  Convertation,  a  valnable  French 
enoydopsdi*.  After  on  imprisonment  of  more  than 
five  years,  ha  niade  hia  esoape  (2Sth  May  1846),  by 
the  help  of  a  Bt  Cminean,  in  the  diagoige  of  a  work- 
man, and  gained  Uie  Belgian  frontier,  whence  he 
returned  to  England,  The  revolntion  of  Febmary 
(1848)  caused  him  to  hnrry  hack  to  France,  where 


Tofened   hinuelt    deroted   I 


I    of 


reqaeited  him  to  lears  the  conntry.  This  he  pro- 
miied  to  do ;  bqt  being  deoted  deputy  for  Paris  and 
three  other  departments,  he  took  his  seat  in  the 
Oonstitnent  Aaaembly,  I8th  Jnne  134S.  A  stormy 
debate  folloirod,  and  on  the  16th  he  resigned  his  seat, 
and,  either  from  policy  or  patriotism,  left  Franoe. 
Reined  to  France  in  the  following  September 
Iw  a  qmntaple  election,  he  once  more  appeared  in 
the  ABsembly,  and  at  onoe,  thronch  the  agency  of 
his  zealous  associates,  eommencea  his  oindidatara 
for  the  preaidraicy.  The  masaea  were— rightiy  or 
wrongly— thoroughly  in  his  favour.  Out  of  seTen 
and  a  half  million  ot  votes,  Q,S6S,S34  were  recorded 
tor  Prince  L,  N. ;  Oonetil  CftTaignao,  who  was 
nearest  to  him,  obtaining  only  1,469,100.  This  fact 
is  declared  by  the  partdsans  tJ  the  emperor  to  be  an 
absolute  [irDot  ol  nis  popularity,  for  at  this  period 
he  hod  neither  power  nor  money  to  force  or  bribe 
opinion.  On  the  20th  December,  he  took  the  oath 
o!  alleciance  to  the  repnblia  _  For  a  few  dayi, 
concoriT  seemed  to  be  re-eatebliihed  between  the 
different  political  parties  in  the  Assembly ;  but  the 
beginning  ot  the  year  1840  witnessed  the  com- 
mencement of  a  series  of  itnigglea  between  the 
president  and  hia  friends  on  the  one  aide,  and  the 
majority  of  the  Assembly  on  the  othei^-the  latter 
being  profoondly  penetrated  with  the  convictioD 
that  L.  N.  was  not  devoted  to  the  interestl  of  the 
rejinhlio,  bnt  to  liis  own.  The  French  expedition 
te  Italy  and  tiie  ii^  of  Rome  were,  above  all, 
the  causes  of  violent  discussion  in  the  chambers. 
This  anarchic  condition  of  things,  in  which,  how- 
ever, the  president  tenadously  held  his  ground, 
was  summarily  put  a  stop  to  by  the  famous 
or  infamous  (for  odious  mffar)  coup  d'flat,  2d 
December  18S1.  The  principal  actors  in  this 
midnight  deed  were  the  president  himael^  M.  de 
Momy,  M.  de  Maupas,  and  General  St  Amaud. 
The  circumstance*  that  marked  it  were  of  necessity 
odious,  and  even  atrocioul ;  and  there  cannot  be 
the  shadow  of  a  donbt  that  it  engendered  in  the  mind 
of  Europe  a  distrust  of  the  honesty  of  L.  N.,  which, 

arhaps,  was  never  during  hi*  life  wholly  removed. 
B  success    was   certainly  magnifioent,  bttt   the 
cost  was  also  enormous.    The  feeble  attempts  at 


and  nnder  the  oommand  of  bis  e 
rigoroni  system  of  repression  vraa  put  in  loroe  Doin 
iu  Paris  and  in  the  departmente,  and  the  deport- 
ation to  Cayenne  and  Algeria  became  painfully 
familiar  to  the  European  public  Franco,  as  a  whole, 
however,  whether  wearied  of  the  incompetent 
democrats  or  fas  KingWte  supposes)  'cowed'  by 
the  terrible  audacitj  01  tiie  president  appeared  to 
acquiesce  in.  his  act ;  for  when  the  vote  was  taken 
upon  it  on  the  20th  and  Slst  of  the  same  month, 
he  was  re-elected  president  for  ten  years,  with  all 
the  poweis  he  demanded,  by  more  than  7,000,000 
inffraBes,    Hia  enemies  affirm  they 


valne  oannot 

the  prerioos  eipreaaion 

N.  was  now  emperor  in 

fkotj  uothiuK  wu  wanting  bat  the  name.  This 
wu  aumn«d  exuUy  a  year  after  the  eoap  d'flat, 
in  accordance,  as  it  apprared,  with  the  acttial  wiah 
of  the  people.  Amon^  the  evente  of  hia  sabaequent 
reign  were  the  conspuaoies  against  Tiini  (185^,  the 
attempts'  at  assassination  (by  Piuiori,  1855,  and 
Oraini,  18C8),  tiie  Anglo-Frenoh  alliance  and  the 
Crimean  wu  (1854—1866),  the  f^vnoo-Italian  war 
(ISSO),  and  the  Mexican  oami>a^  (1863).  In  1870, 
L.  N.  declared  war  against  Pruasia ;  and,  after  several 
terrible  defeats,  he  anrrendered  himself  a  prisoner 
at  Sedan,  in  September.  Till  the  eondnsion  of  peace 
he  was  confined  at  "Wilhelmshflhe.  In  March  1871. 
he  joined  the  empress  at  Chiselhnrst,  Kent ;  and 
i^eided  there  till  his  death,  on  9th  January  1873. — 
In  1863  the  emperor  married  Eug^e  Marie,  CounleM 
of  Montijo.  Their  son,  Eugene  Lonig  Jean  Joseph, 
Prince  Imperial  of  Fiance,  was  bom  16th  March 
18G6.  He  WM  in  the  field  with  his  father  in  1S70, 
but  after  the  fall  of  Sedan  escaped  to  Eneland, 
where  he  entered  the  Woolwich  Tiulitaiy  Academy, 
and  in  18TS  completed  irith  di8tincti<»  a  regular 
course  ol  stndy.  Volunteering  to  aerve  with  the 
English  artillery  in  the  Zaia  campugn  of  1879,  he 
was  killed  in  June,  when  reconooitenng,  by  a  parly 
of  ZuIds  in  ambush. 

LOUIS  PHILIPPE,  King  of  the  French,  bmn 
at  Puis,  6th  October  1773,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Louis  Philippe  Joseph,  Duke  of  Orleans.  He 
receivod  at  his  oirth  the  title  ot  Duke  of  Valoia, 
and  afterwaitb  that  of  Duke  of  Chartrea.  Hia 
education  was  intmeted  to  the  com  of  the  cele- 
brated Madame  de(jenlis.  Ho  entered  the  Nalaoaal 
Qnard,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Club  ot  Eiiends 
of  the  Constitiition,  afterwards  that  of  the  Jaoctiinai 
Along  with  his  father,  he  renounced  his  titieB,  and 
assumed  the  eamame  of  Egaht&  He  shewed  both 
oonrage  and  capacity  in  the  war ;  but  his  dtnation 
became  veiy  dangenns  after  the  tuumcceasful  battle 
of  Neerwinden,  in  which  he  oommanded  the  centre. 
He  was  included  in  the  order  tor  arrest  isaned 
against  Dumonriez,  and  on  the  4th  April  1793 
escaped  along  with  him  into  the  Austrian  territory. 
He  sou^t  in  Switcerland  a  place  of  security  tor  bu 
sister  Adelaide,  wandered  about  amongst  the  monn- 
tains  for  four  months,  and  aooepled  a  situation  a* 
teacher  of  geography  and  mathematics  in  a  school 
at  Reichenan,  near  Chur,  assuming  the  name  of 
Chabaud-lAtour.  He  afterwards  wandered  for  som« 
time  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and  then  went  to 
North  Ajuerica.  In  1800,  he  took  up  his  abode  at 
Twickenham,  near  London,  with  his  i;wo  yoaager 
brothen,  both  of  whom  soon  after  died.  In  lEw9, 
he  married  Marie  Amelie,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  L 
of  the  Two  Sicilies.  On  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  he 
hastened  to  Paris,  where  he  was  rectdved  with  dift. 
tnist  by  Louis  XTtll.  After  the  second  Reatoration, 
ho  recovered  his  great  eatetes,  which  the  imperial 
government  hod  sequestrated.  Disliked  by  Qie  court, 
he  was  very  popular  in  Paris.  He  kept  aloo^  how- 
ever, from  political  intriiruea ;  and  the  three  bloody 
days  oE  the  revolution  <n  1S30  were  nearly  over  ere 
he  was  brought  forward,  the  banker,  L^tte,  pro- 
posing in  the  provisional  committee  his  appointment 
OS  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom,  &om  which 
he  proceeded  to  the  acceptance  of  a  oonstitntional 
throne,  9th  Augnst  1830.  He  defended  his  oondact 
towoids  the  elder  Bonrbona  by  proteating  that  he 
acted  for  the  welfare  of  France.  He  cultivated 
peacefol  relations  with  foreign  powers,  sought  to 
strengthen  his  throne  by  gaimng  the  sapport  of  the 
middle  classes,  and  repressed  all  the  extreme  parties 
by  what  becMue  known  at  the  JtaltMiileit  (q.v ' 


LOtnS-D'OR—LOtJSft. 


-crati  listed  I 


ialifs,  bywi/iwiml 
fflitcAinM  and  otiieFwise.  The  oottntrj  prospccsd 
under  hii  govemaeat,  bat  %  demtuid  for  reform  in 
ttis  aleoloral  ajatem  beMma  load  And  general,  and 
WM  tmwiaely  opposed  by  tlie  king  and  the  Goizot 
(q.  y.)  ndnistiy ;  irhillt  the  oondoct  of  the  fonner 
in  the  matter  of  the  marriages  of  the  qneen  of 
Spun  and  her  niter,  momfesting  a  dinegud  of 

ay  coniidenition  bat  the  mt^esta  of  hu  own 

luly,  ezoited  a  itrong  feeling  of  indiKoation 
thmi^UHit  Enrope.  T&  FreniSi  nation  became 
mnch  exdted;  'lafbrm  banquet*'  began  to  be 
held;-  tha  goreniment  attempted  to  prevent  them 
by  foroe  t  ininmetionaiy  morement*  ensned  in  the 
■treeta  of  Paria  on  22d  Febrnaiy  1S4S )  and  the 
*  Citizen  King '  saw  with  alarm  that  the  NatioTiBi 
Ooard  ooold  not  be  eipaoted  to  aupport  him.  Oa 
24th  February,  be  abdicated  in  faTonr  of  hia  grand- 
■on,  the  Coimt  d«  Pari«;  bat  the  Clumber  of 
Demiiiea  refntsd  to  acknondedge  the  boy  aa  king. 
L.  P.,  deserted  by  hia  conrtien,  fled  to  the  coait  of 
Normandy  along  with  hia  qtteeo,  oonoealed  himaelf 
for  aome  daya,  and  at  length  fonnd  o^mortniiity  of 
eacapiDg  in  a  Britiah  ateam-boat  to  New  Wen  onder 

" le  of  Mr  Snulh.    The  brief  reminder  of  hia 

■pent  in  England.  He  died  at  Claremonl^ 
S«th  Angnat  ISSO. 

LOUIS-B'OE  (i-e.,  Golden  Louii),  a  gold  coin 
which  was  introduced  into  France  in  1&41,  and  con- 
tinned  to  be  coined  till  1796.  It  wa*  inbY>duced  in 
coDsequence  of  the  prevalent  coetoni  of  clipping  and 
otherwise  defacing  the  them  coina  of  the  realm,  from 
which  malpractioea  it  waa  thon^t  to  be  in  aome 
measure  aecnred  by  ita  border.  The  old  ooina  were 
c^ed  in.  lie  lonu-d'or  ranged  in  valae  from  about 
16«;  7d.  to  18t  9JA  aterling.  Some  lonia-d'ora 
bear  apccial  names,  chiefly  derived  from  the  figure 
exhiUted  on  the  obverse  side. — In  aome  parta  of 
Qermany,  in  the  old  coinage  were  Eold  piecea  of 
Sve  thnlers,  often  popularly  called  Itniig-d'or,  and 
the  noma  is  also  occasionally  applied  to  the  French 
napofcon  or  20-/Tanc  piax. 

LOUISIA'NA,  one  of  the  United  States  of 
Amerioi,  bannded  on  the  eoutli  by  the  Gulf  of 
Mejdco,  and  on  the  west  by  the  stato  of  Texas.  It 
is  200  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  200  from  north 
to  aonth,  having  an  area  of  4S,720  aqnare  miles, 
or  31,180,800  acres.  The  princiral  rivers  are  the 
MiBsisaippi — which  has  a  course  of  800  mileo  in  this 
state,  and  whose  delta  travaraes  its  sonthem  half- 
Bed  River  and  the  Waahita,  and  their  branches. 
The  principal  towns  are  New  Orleans  and  Baton 
Bonge  (the  capital)  on  the  Misdammi.  The  coast- 
line, a  portion  of  tiie  ahore  of  the  Golf  of  Mezioo, 
ia  1266  milea  in  length.  The  surface  is  flai^  rising 
nowhere  mora  than  200  feet,  and  of  alluvial  forma- 
tion. A  large  portion  of  tiie  state  ia  below  the 
high-water  level  of  the  riven,  and  is  protected  by 
dSea,  called  Imfa,  from  inmidatlonB.  The  land 
ia  generally  of  great  richnesB,  prodacing  «ngar-oane, 
cnUon,  nee,  maixe,  tobacco,  oranges,  bananas, 
figs,  peaches,  &«.  In  the  forests  are  several  kinds 
of  oak,  hickory,  locust,  sasaafra*,  nralberry,  &c 
L.  prodaoea  almost  all  the  tane-cogar  fp)wn 
in  the  United  States.  The  sugar  produce  of  L.  bo- 
fore  the  dvil  war  vmied  from  220,000  to  460,000 
hogsheads  a  year.  It  then  fell  from  20,000  to 
60,000 ;  in  ISTO  it  was  near  150,000 ;  dbd  from  1876 
to  1982,  from  130,000  to  240,000  hogsheads.  L. 
ranked  in  1880  seventh  among  the  cotton-raising 
■tates,  and  third  amongst  the  rice-producing 
atates.  L.  was  settled  by  the  French  in  1699; 
in  1716,  it  waa  granted  to  John  Law,  who  btaed 
upon  his    grant    the  famona    Misnasippi  Com- 


rny  ;  ceded  to  Spiun  in  1762  ;  re-ceded  to  Napoleon 
in  18nO ;  pnmhased  in  1803  by  the  United  Btatea 
for  15,000,000  dollara,  and  admitted  aa  a  state  in 
1812.  Invaded  by  the  British  troopa  in  IB14,nnder 
General  Fackenham,  New  Orleans  was  succoafolty 
defended  by  Qeneral  Jackson.  The  population,  mostly 
Croolee,  was,  in  1870,  710,394;  in  1880,  939,Ha 

LOTTiaVILLE,  a  city  of  Kentucky, '  United 
States  of  America,  on  the  Falls  of  the  Ohio,  130 
miles  below  CiacinnatL  It  is  handsomely  boilt^  with 
broad  streetaon  a  level  plain.  Main  Street  ia  three 
milea  long.  The  city  is  anpplied  with  water  from 
the  Ohio,  and  by  arl«eian  wella,  one  of  which  haa  a 
depth  of  2086  feet,  and  sappUes  300,000  gaUons  of 
water  in  twenty-fonr  hoars.  The  coart-houie, 
oostom-honie,  jail,  oaylams,  and  hotpitdls  are  note- 
worthy. L.,  which  is  one  of  the  greatest  morketa 
for  leaf  tobacoo  in  the  world,  tua  pork-packing 
establishments,  diatilleries,  leather  factories,  places 
for  the  engar-cnring  of  hams  ;  and  many  cigar  fac- 
tories, ko.  Steamers  pass  over  the  rapids  of  tue  Ohio 
at  high  water,  but  at  other  times  poa*  through  the 
L.  and  Portland  Canal,  which  ia  two  milea  long. 
Pop.  (18701  100,753 ;  (1880)  123,758.  It  waa  named 
L.  (1780)  in  honour  of  Lonis  XVL  of  France,  whose 
troops  were  then  assisting  the  Americans  in  the 
war  of  indepeadanoe, 

IjOORBNZO  MARQUEZ,  or  LOUHENOO 
MASXJUES,  is  the  soathemmost  of  the  Portagune 
stations  on  the  east  eosatof  Africa,  imd  is  situated  at 
the  head  of  Delagoa  Bay.  The  place  is  but  a  mass 
of  hats,  with  a'population'of  about  3000,  and  its  site 
ia  VCTy  onhealthy  ;  but  ita  position  and  its  harbour 
render  it  the  natural  seaward  outlet  of  the  whole 
Transvaal  region.  A  railway  connecting  it  with  the 
head  of  the  Transvaal  has  been  projected  ;  a  conces- 
sion was  obtained  from  the  Portuguese  government 
in  ISSO,  but  was  very  unpopular  with  thePortagueso 
people  J  and  progress  has  been  hindered  by  the 
political  circamstances  of  the  Transvaal. 


PariuUa  or  Anoplura.  The  body  ia  flattened, 
almost  transparent ;  the  segments  both  of  the  thorax 
and  abdomen  very  distinct ;  the  mouth  is  small  and 
tabnUr,  enclosing  a  sucker ;  there  are  no  wings ; 
the  lera  are  shOTt,  and  are  terminated  by  a  claw 
adapted  for  taking  hold  of  baits  or  feathers.  The 
eyea  are  simple,  one  or  two  on  each  side  of  the 
head.  All  the  species  are  small,  and  live  parasitic- 
ally,  on  human  beings,  terrestrial  mammalia,  and 
birds.  They  deposit  their  e^s  on  hairs  or  feathers,  to 


'4 


A,  loaK,  tnunified ;  B,  looR,  nitnral  alie;  C.  cma  of  Iha  1c^ 
inagnUl«l ;  D,  tggt,  mtgaOiA ;  £,  emi,  Datard  Blie. 

which  they  attach  them  by  a  gJnidnouB  snbstanee ; 
and  they  mnlti^ty  with  astonishing  rapidity.  The 
young  cast  their  shin  several  times  oefore  they 


III.  iX^opok^ 


tOOTH— LOtrTAIN. 


tbejr  are  hatched,  bot,  fiom  the  fint,  tbey  sre  verf 
«lmiT*r  to  their  parentB.  AninuJa  of  different  kind) 
■re  infeited  by  different  species  of  L.  pecnlior  t< 
them ;  titow  which  are  found  on  birds  eihibitinff 
cbaractera  oondderably  different  from  those  of 
man  and  manmiaU.  The  uune  tpecies  is  rarely 
loaod  on  different  species  of  aaimals,  unless  very 
nearly  allied ;  bnt  some  animals  have  more  than 
ooe  of  these  paramtes.  Three  infest  the  hnman 
race:  one  confined  to  the  head,  the  Cohmov  L. 
{P.  mpUii] ;  another,  llie  Bohy  L.  {P,  valimeiUt  s. 
carj>ori»),  Tery  similar  to  it,  but  of  a  larger  size  ;  a 
third,  the  Cb.*b  L.  (Phthiriu*  pubit),  aometinea 
fonnd  in  the  eyebrows,  bnt  more  freguentlj;  in 
the  pubic  re^on,  and  chiefiy  in  persona  of  licentions 
habits ;  having  the  body  broader,  and  other  char- 
actei*  conaiderably  different  from  the  other  two. 
The  common  or  head  L.  is  a  vciy  common  paraaite. 

The  symptoms  which  the  bites  of  these  ' ^ 

a —   ___   ^  tronblesome   itcliing,  and 


less  apparent  emptian  upon  the  scalp,  tiie  e 
being  niuaUy  accompanied  by  small  incruatatioDS  of 
blood j>roduced  by  scratching  off  the  epidermis.  On 
.._i_^  the  head,  in  addition  to  the  insects, 
eggs  called  nitt  are  found,  which  are  of  ■ 
jmiform  ahape,  and  adhere  Ermty  to  the  hairs.  In 
nx  day%  the  yonng  escape  from  the  egg ;  at  the  age 
of   eighteen  days,  these  are  again   ready  to   lay 

r;  and  ths  female  lays  fifty  ^g/i  in  all ;  so  that 
rapid  angmentation  of  these  insects  is  eaaUy 
accounted  for.  Wlian  only  a  few  lice  are  present, 
they  may  be  remoTed  1^  cai«fiil  combing,  or  may  be 
killed  by  the  free  applicatioa  of  oil  or  pomatom  to 
the  head ;  but  when  they  are  abondant,  the  scalp 


kills  them,  or  mbbed  with  white 
precipitate  ointment,  which  is  the  most  common 
remedy  in  this  country. 

The  body  Ii.  causes  most  irritation  on  those  parts 
of  the  skin  which  correspond  wit^  the  folds  and 
seams  of  the  clothine  about  the  neck  and  ronnd  the 
waist  where  the  cloUiea  are  fastened  to  the  body. 
The  irritation  is  of  the  aame  character  as  that 
caused  by  the  preceding  species,  and  the  treatment 
is  similar.  It  is  saia  that  tbo  clothes  may  be 
purified  by  burying  them  in  hay  for  teveial  weeks, 
but  the  auer  plan  is  to  destroy  them.  The  initation 
caused  by  the  crab  L.  is  greater  than  Uiat  caused  by 
the  other  species.  It  may  be  destroyed  by  one  or 
two  applications  of  an  essential  oil  (ou  of  rosemary, 
for  example),  or  of  white  precipitate  ointment. 

Wbether  the  Pedicuhu  labacmtiam,  or  L.  occur- 
ring in  the  Linuy  dUeoK,  is  or  ia  not  a  distinct 
species,  is  still  an  open  question.  The  fabulous 
element  enters  largely  iuto  most  of  the  recorded 
cases  of  this  disease — as,  for  example,  when  Amatus 
Luaitanus  relates  that  two  slaves  were  incessantly 
emploved  in  conveying  to  the  sea  in  baaketa  Uie 
lice  which  appeared  on  the  body  of  their  master. 

It  has  been  alleged  by  those  who  desire  to  establish 
the  essential  diversity  of  certain  races,  that  the  lioe 
fonnd  on  different  races  of  men  are  specifically 
different ;  bnt  this  has  not  been  proved. 

LOUTH,  a  maritime  coonty  of  the  province  of 
Ldnster,  in  Ireland,  bounded  N.  by  Armach  and 
W  the  Loush  of  Carlingford,  E.  by  tie  English 
Qiannel,  S.  by  the  Boyne  and  the  count?  of  Meath, 
and  W.  by  Meath  and  Monaghan.  fop^  (1S71) 
64,021 ;  (leSl)  77,684  Ite  area  is  315  sq.  mUes,  or 
2(K2,fi23  acres  t  106,070  acres  being  under  tillage, 
69,320  pasture,  4880  in  plantations,  21,E95  waste, 
bog,  towns,  Ac.,  and  653  under  water.  There  ia  an 
extensive  tillage  of  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  green 
cropl.  Linen  also  ia  largely  manufactured.  The 
surface  is  flat,  with  the  exception  of  the  iofty  range 


on  the  north,  which  stretches  east  and  west,  and 
terminates,  at  a  height  of  1935  feet,  in  Carliagford 
Mountain,  overlooking  the  bay  of  that  name.  This 
range  oonaiats  of  a  granite  nnoteos,  snpportins 
lunestone  and  clay-slate  on  its  flanks.  The  aoU 
of  the  level  distriets  is  extremely  fertile,  and  emi- 
nentlv  suited  for  wheat-crops.  The  chief  riven 
are  the  Boyne  (its  boundair  on  the  tonth},  Uia 
Fane,  the  Glyde,  and  the  Bundalk  Hirer.  The 
chief  towns  are  Drogheda,  Dundalk,  and  Arise. 
sneiently  formed  portion  of  the  territory  of  Oriel 
Or-gial,  but  was  occupied  by  De  Courcy,  and 
formed  into  a  county  by  King  John  in  1210.  It  was 
early  apportioued  among  the  military  adventurer* 
who  accompaoied  Da  (>>urey  and  Da  Laoy ;  but 
most  of  these  original  settlers  have  been  displaced 
by  later  conflscabons  and  apportionments  of  terri- 
tory, especially;  after  1641  and  1690.  It  abounds 
with  Celtic  antiquities,  some  of  which,  in  the  neish- 
bonrhood  of  Dundalk,  are  of  great  interest.  The 
ecclesiastical  antiquities  are  very  atriking.  There 
are  two  round  towers,  at  Monaster-boyce  aud  at 
Dromiskin.  At  Mellifout  arc  the  remains  of  a 
beautiful  abbey.  In  Drogbedo,  several  ruined 
abbeys  are  still  viaible,  as  also  at  Louth  and  Car- 
lingford. But  the  most  interesting  of  all  the  relics 
of  antiquity  in  L.  are  the  celebrated  sculptured 
crosses  of  Mouaster-boyce,  of  which  the  la^er  is 
18  feet  in  height.  The  county  of  L.  returns  two 
members  to  the  imperial  parliament.  It  is  in  the 
Belfast  military  district,  except  Drogheda,  which  is 
in  tha  Dubhn  district. 

LOCTH,,  a  larse  market-town  and  mumcipal 
borough  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Lincoln,  25 
miles  east-north-east  of  the  city  of  that  name,  ou 
the  Lndd.  It  contuns  a  recently  erected  mansion 
honse,  with  a  eourt-houae  and  assembly-room  ;  a 
beautiful  parish  church  of  the  latter  part  of  tie 
I4Ui  c,  with  a  rich  octangular  spire  300  feet  m 
height ;  and  a  grammar-B<£ool,  with  an  endowed 
aoDuol  income  of  £620  a  year.  Iron  foundries 
tanneries,  oil-cake  mills,  and  carpet  factories  are 
iu  operation.  By  means  of  the  canal,  extending 
between  L.  ond  Tetney  Haven  on  the  estuary  of 
the  Eumber,  ooostderable  traffic  in  corn  and  coal 
'  earned  on.  Fop.  (1371)  10,S00;  (1881)  10,69a 
LOXJVAIN  {Gor.  LSvien,  Flemish,  Leueen),  a 
Ly  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of  Brabant,  on  the 
Dyle,  IS  miles  east-north-east  of  Brussels.  It  is  of 
considerable  extent,  but  great  port  of  the  ground 
ia  occupied  with  fields  and  gardens.  Pop.  (ISSl) 
33,367.  It  wss  at  one  time  much  larger.  During 
the  14th  c..  when  it  was  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of 
Brabant,  it  contained  200,000  inhabitants,  and 
4000  cloth  mannfactoriea.  The  citizena,  however, 
endeavouring,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  14th  c,  to 
assert  their  independence,  along  with  those  of  other 
towns  of  Ruiders,  were  defeatol ;  and  many  of  the 
weavers  from  whose  industry  the  city  had  in  a  great 
measure  derived  ite  wealth  and  importance,  took 
refuge  in  England,  and  thus  contributed  not  a  little 
to  ^a  prosperity  of  that  country.  L.  has  nev 
recovered  from  the  blow  which  it  then  received. 
is  not  now  a  place  of  much  industry,  bnt  haa  very 
large  breweries,  some  tobacco  and  lace  manufac- 
tories, kc,  and  a  European  fame  for  bell-founding. 
The  university,  founded  in  1426  by  Duke  John  of 
Brabant,  was,  in  the  16th  c,  regarded  as  the  great- 
est in  Europe,  particularly  excellina  in  the  depart 
ment  of  Soman  Catholic  theology.  It  had  more  thai 
6000  students.  It  was  suppressed  for  some  time,  ii 
consequence  of  the  French  Bevolntioo,  but  restored 
by  the  Dutch  government  in  1817.  Tbt  state 
relinqnifhed  it  again  in  1834,  but  tha  BomanCatbAlio 
clergy  restored  it  at  their  own  «^en*e  in  183S. 


.  (  illOglr 


LOl 


-LOVAT. 


Ithaa  aUrge  library  and  a  botanio  garden,  and  iaths 
most  nnmerouslf  attended  of  Belgian  nnivertitiea. 

LOUVIEKS,  a  town  of  France,  dsp.  o(  Enre,  on 
the  navifable  river  Eui«,  60  miles  north-wett  oi 
Pari*.  It  has  a  cathedra],  and  celebrated  cloth- 
maniif»ctni«i,  the  annual  valae  of  which  it  between 
thi«e  and  fonr  million  fcsnco.    Fop.  11,000: 

XiOUTOIS,  FRAH^ia  Miobkl  LEixLLmt, 
Habquib  SB,  the  war-miniiter  of  Louis  XTV., 
wu  bom  in  PartB,  ISth  January  1611.    His  father 

waa  Chanoellor  and  Secretair  of  State  in  the 

department,  and  purchased  for  hiin  tiie  raver 
of  thia  office.  L.  displayed  great  adminiatrat 
ability ;  bnt  his  desire  of  power  was  insatiable, 
and  he  waa  willing  to  involve  the  whole  world 
in  the  horrors  of  war,  that  he  hiEoself  might  be 
indiipensable  to  the  king.  His  war-poUoy  was 
also  mthleaai  Ha  caused  the  Palatinate  to  be 
wasted  by  fire  and  sword  in  1674  For  eome  time, 
he  was,  after  the  king  himself,  the  moet  power- 
ful man  in  France.  After  the  death  of  Colbert, 
fin*^i<^iYl  ftfCsirs  came  m^pr  bis  control,  uid  the 
system  of  eztortion  and  bomiwing  which  he  pursued 
was  amongst  the  Qaoses  of  the  Eevolntion.  He 
partially  lost  favour  with  the  king  by  counselling 
him  against  the  moniAge  with  Ma/liLma  de  Main, 
tenon ;  but  afterwards  instigated  the  persecution  of 
the  Protestants,  and  involved  France  in  the  long 
war  with  the  German  empire,  1688—1697.  In  1689, 
with  the  alleged  view  of  securing  the  canfinea  of 
the  kingdom,  he  again  caused  the  Palatinate  to  be 
desolated.  Madame  de  Maintenon  directed  the 
attention  of  the  king  to  these  atrocities,  who  there- 
opon  forbade  the  burning  of  Treves ;  but  L.  declared 
that,  to  save  trouble  to  the  king's  conscieuce,  he  bad 
already  issued  orders  for  reducmg  that  city  to  ashes. 
The  king,  upon  hearing  this  reply,  seized  the  tongs 
from  the  chimney,  and  would  have  struck  his 
minister  with  that  ready  weapon,  if  Madame  de 
Maintenon  had  not  stepped  between.  Such  scenes 
were  repeated  from  time  to  tame,  and  the  health  of 
the  vain  and  ambitions  minister  rave  way.  He  died 
suddenly,  16th  July  1691.  Loms  is  said  to  have 
rejoiced  at  his  death. — An  elaborate  history 

administration,  from   oriranal   documents    :_    

archives    of   the  D^pdt  de  ia  Guerre,  by  CamiUe 
Bousset,  appeared  m  1861—1663  (4  vols.,  Paris). 

LOXTVltE  (Fr.  Fotaert,  the  opening),  an  01 . .. 
mental  opening  of  a  turret  diape,  placed  on  the 
roof,  to  allow  the  smoke 
or  foul  air  to  escape 
from  la^  apartments, 
such  as  h^ls,  kitchens, 
Ac  These  were  ] 
tioularly  required  _  _ 
ancient  times,  when  the 
file  was  placed  in  the 
centre  of  the  roran,  and 
there  waa  no  chimney 
to  carry  off  the  smoke. 
They    are     frequently 


where  not  required  for 
nse,  and  are  then  glazed 
and  made  into  Lanterns 

a,  v.).      The   sides  of 
e  louvre  were  lined 
with    horixontal    over- 
lapped  boarding,   with 
a    space   between    the 
iMKm.  boards,  which  let  out 

the  smoke  without 
•dmittixig  the  rain.  Hence,  this  sort  of  boarding, 
frequent^  used  for  the  windows  of  bell-towm,  &&, 
acquired  Hm  nam*  (^  huvrt^oardmff- 


LC/VAGE  [Liguttieum),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Umbdl\feni,  allied  to  Ang^iea,  the 
fruit  ellipticBl,  each  carpel  wtth  live  sharp  somemiat 
winged  ribs,  and  many  vitta  in  the  inteistices. — 
CouuoN  L.  {L.  officinale,  or  L.  LaiitlKum)  is  ft 
native  of  the  aoath  of  Europe,  with  temate  deaom< 
pound  leaves,  and  obovata-wedge-shaped  leaflets. 
It  is  sometimes  cultivated  in  gardens,  and  notwith- 
standing its  strong  and  pecohot  odom-,  is  used  as  a 
salad  punt^  Its  roots  and  seeds  are  aromatic,  acrid, 
and  stimulant,  and  are  used  to  cure  flatulency  and 
to  excite  perspiration.  A  liqneur  called  Lmage  is 
made  from  them. — Very  similaT  in  appearance  and 

?,aahties  is  the  only  &itish  species,  Scothbh  L 
L,  Scoliciint),  a  native  of  the  selMxiasts  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Britain.  It  is  eaten,  both  raw 
and  boiled,  by  the  Shetlanders.  The  flavour  is 
aromatic,  but  acrid,  and  very  nauseous  to  many 
wbo'are  unaccustomJsd  to  it. 

LOVA'T,  a  river  o£  Russia,  rises  in  the  Witebsk 
marshes,  and  flows  through  the  governments  of 
Pskov  and  Novgorod  into  Lake  Qmeu.  Its  total 
length  is  267  miles,  and  it  is  navigable  for  bargee  of 
fifty  tons  aa  far  up  as  Kholm,  more  than  eighty 
miles  from  its  mouth. 

LOVAT,  SmoH  Fkaskb,  Lord,  was  bom  about 
the  year  1676,  and  was  the  seoond  son  of  Thomas 
Fnaea,  fonrOi  son  of  Hn^  ninth  Lord  Lovab  His 
mother  vraa  Sybilla,  daughter  of  the  diief  of  the 
Maclaods.  The  Frasers,  a  family  of  Nonnan  origin, 
bad  obtained  Highland  territories,  in  the  county 
of  Inverness,  in  the  13th  o.,  and  had  eetablishra 
themselves  as  the  patriarchal  chiefs  of  the  Celtic 
inhabitants  within  these  territories,  rather  than 
as  landlords,  in  the  feudal  acceptation  of  the  term. 
The  first  settler — or,  more  probably,  the  first  who 

Sained  renown— was  named  Simon,  and  hence  his 
escendants  were  called  sons  of  Simon,  or  M'Shime. 
The  descendant  here  commemorated  had  little  hope 
of  succeeding  to  the  estates  and  honours,  autil  the 
prospect  opened  to  him  under  a  settlement  by  his 
cousin.  Lord  Lovat.  The  successioa  was  not  indis- 
putable, but  until  a  much  later  period  in  the 
Highlands,  influence  with  the  clan  often  superseded 
direct  hereditary  descent.  Simon  at  an  early  period 
gained  their  hearts.  His  first  adventure  was  an 
effort  to  get  forcible  poesesaion  of  the  young  sister 
of  the  late  lord,  who  had  more  legai  claims,  as 
heiress  to  the  Fraser  estates.  Bsified  in  this,  he, 
for  a  reason  which  has  defied  all  attempts  to 
discover,  seized  on  the  widow  of  the  late  lord,  a 
lady  of  the  Athole  fsmily,  and  compelled  her  to 
many  him.  As  this  waa  not  only  a  crime,  but  an 
offence  to  a  powerful  family,  Simon    could   only 

Ctect  himself  from  punishment  by  force,  and  thus 
kept  up  a  petty  rebellion  for  soii\e  years.  On 
the  accession  of  Queen  Anne,  when  his  opponents 
became  all-powerfiil,  he  fled  to  the  continent.  He 
was  at  the  bottom  of  the  affair  colled  the  Queens- 
berry  Hot  in  1703,  in  which  he  professed  to  reveal 
the  polioy  of  the  exiled  court,  and  a  plan  for  a  rising 
in  their  favour  among  the  Highlanders.  On  the 
discovery  that  he  h^  hoaxed  Queensbony  and 
other  statesmen,  and  was  playing  a  deep  game  of 
his  own,  he  escaped  with  difficulty  to  France.  Of 
the  method  of  his  existence  there  during  twelve 
yetwB,  there  ore  only  mysterious  rumours,  by  one  of 
which  he  was  reputed  to  have  taken  orders  as  a 
Komish  priest.  He  had  been  ontlawed  foe  his 
outrages,  and  another  enjoyed  his  estates  by  the 
letter  of  the  law ;  but  he  was  still  the  darling  of 
his  clan,  and  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  insurrec- 
"  >n  of  171S,  they  sent  a  sort  ot  ambassador  to  bring 
n  over.  What  followed  is  remarkable,  as  shewins 
that  the  Highhmden  were  led  by  the  politioa  of 


..CiOOglO 


LOVB-APPLB-LOWTH. 


Uta  auafa,  not  tnr  their  own  prapoHNuon*.  Tee 
boldtr  of  the  Mtaua  having  Joined  the  inmireotion, 
Simon  fonnd  it  hii  intveat  to  take  the  goTenunBDt 

thie  good  lerTioe  he  wu  inToeted  wiui  Uu  eititea, 
not  only  iy  the  Totea  of  hia  oUn,  bat  hj  the  law. 

■ti«ngthen  hia 

□f  1745,  he  tried  to 

forth  hia  cIah,  tujder 

ight  tor  the  Pretender, 


■nflnwnrtH.     Tn  the 
idsy  a  donhle  gamt 


feMod 

object  of  the  Tongeanoe  ol  the  goverumeat,  aad 
after  a  trial  by  his  pseis,  waa  beheaded  on  the  dth 
April  1747.  H«  waa  remarkable  aa  a  type  oE  that 
oUaa  of  Highland  chiefa  who  profeeied  to  be  led  by 
policy  aa  Borereigna,  rather  tluui  bv  tbe  lawa  of  the 
oottntiy  or  ita  aocial  ^atem,  and  wiio  were  aahomed 
of  DO  tnrpitnde,  frand,  or  vlolenct^  it  it  tended  to 
the  aggrftodieement  of  themaelvea  and  their  j^ian^ 

LOVE-APPIjE.    See  Tomato. 

LOVE-BIBD  [Piiltaeala.),  a  genna  of  birda  of  the 


America,  of  Africa,  and  Australia.  They 
their  name  from  the  affeotioa  whioh  tiiey  manifest 
towarda  on*  another,  whether  in  a  wild  state  or  in 
a  cage.  An  AuitnJian  «paciea,  about  the  uza  of  a 
sparrow,  i«  now  common  aa  a  cage-bird  in  Britain. 
They  are  lively  biidi,  and  fond  of  being  careeaed. 
They  feed  on  tbe  leeda,  ftc,  on  which  canaries  are 
fed,  and  are  vaiy  fond  of  chickwoed  and  other 
pluita,  with  seeda  ripe  or  nearly  kl — ADatomioall;, 
this  genua  is  remarkable  in  Uie  parrot  tribe  for 
having  Do^reala  {menytbonght  bone). 

LOVB-PBASTS.    See  Aoapje. 

LOTEB,  BiXUMU    Bee  Sirrp.,  Vol  X 

LOnOZ,  as  andent  town  of  Poland,  oo  the 
Baatt,  a  tributary  of  the  Tiatula,  in  the  govcrmneDt, 
and  45  miles  weat-aonth-weat,  of  Waraaw,  la  mr- 
tioned  in  history  aa  early  aa  1136.  About  ISSC, 
became  a  favourite  reudenoe  of  the  primates  of 
Poland.  It  baa  taken  a  prominent  part  in  the 
political  reToIutioas  of  the  country.  Pop.  <1680) 
8723.    Six  fun  are  held  here  annually. 

LOWE,  Sib  Humok,  was  bom  at  Galway, 
2Sth  July  17G9.  His  ohildhood  waa  spent  in  the 
West  Indies,  where  his  father  held  a  militaiy 
^ipointment.  L.  retomed  to  EngUnd  when  in  his 
tnvlfth  year.  Having  entered  the  army,  he  served 
for  some  time  in  Corsica,  sahaequeatly  at  Lisbon 
and  in  Minorca.  On  tiie  renewal  of  the  French 
war,  after  the  Peace  of  *"»■'>" »,  he  waa  appointed 
to  the  chief  military  command  in  the  labnd  of 
Capri.  He  waa  here  imsuocesaful,  being  obliged  to 
snnender  to  the  fWcb,  16th  October  I80S.  He 
MTved  (or  some  time  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and  in 
Cknoaoy  under  BlUoher.  On  the  23d  August  1815, 
he  waa  appointed  governor  of  St  Helena,  with  the 
tank  of  liettteoant-^eneraL  Previous  to  leaving 
England,  he  tnained,  in  January  1816,  Sumo, 
widow  of  Colonel  William  Johnson.  He  arrived 
in  St  Helena  on  14th  April  1816,  Napoleon  having 
been  loaded  there  ou  the  17th  October  of  the 
previous  year.  It  ia  impoasible  to  conodve  a  situa- 
tion in  which  the  adequate  diachorgo  of  a  public 
duty  more  aurely   involved  a  heavy   amount   of 

— .■__!_ J  — Lj^  obloquy  than  that  which 

Had  he  for  a  ain^  hour 
„  mipeach- 

ment  and  another  European  war  might  have  been 
tha  conaequonoe.  On  the  other  hand,  Uie  due 
eseroiae  of  thia  vijplanoe  entailed  upon  hint  every 
kind  of  annoyanoe  which  the  peevish  and  initablie 


ing  Napoleon,  thia  might  readily  be  ezcoaed  what 
we  coniider  bow  often  it  must  have  been  utterly 


how  little  eomeqncotoo 

waa  the  convenience  of  one  man,  who  had  already 
broken  hia  parole,  oomparad  wiUi  the  aeourity  <Nt 
the  whole  world.  On  tbe  death  of  Bonaparte^  L. 
returned  te  Inland,  where  hia  eminent  aervicea 
met  with  a  very  ungrateful  return.  In  1825,  he 
was  appointed  mihta^  commander  in  Ceylon,  iiom 
whence  he  returned  to  England,  in  order  to  refute 
the  ebargea  brought  againat  hiiT  by  O'Mean  and 
other*.  Be  died  at  London  in  very  poor  oiroum- 
stanoes,  in  the  65th  year  of  his  age,  10th  Jan.  1343. 
LOWE,  RiQHT  Hon.  Bobxbt.  See  Surr.,  ToL  X. 
LOWELL,  jAXtB  Rdbbeli,  an  American  poet, 
was  bom  in  Boston  in  181ft  He  was  eduoated  at 
Harvard  Univemty.  Hia  Legend  qf  BrUtattg 
appeared  in  1844  In  1845,  he  pnbliahed  a  proae 
workentiUed  Convertaiioni  on  tomt  o/ the  Old  Poeti, 
Eii  /'able/or  CrUk»,  and  The  Bigiow  Papen,  are 
rnoy  with  humour.  In  1854,  he  auooeeded  Long- 
fellow, as  Professor  of  Modem  lAnguagea,  at  Har- 
vard ;  from  1857  to  1862,  was  editor  of  the  Atlanlie 
MontMy.  and  from  1863  to  1872  of  the  North 
American  Seitiein.  He  received  tbe  degree  of  LLD. 
from  the  English  Universi^  of  Cambridge  in  1874. 
In  1369,  he  published  Under  the  WiBovu,  and  other 
Poem*:  and  The  Cathedral  an  epio ;  in  1870,  a  col- 
lection of  eaaavs;  and,  in  1871,  My  Study  Windovit. 
He  became  173.  minuter  at  Ma&d  in  1877,  and 
held  the  same  x>ofit  in  Loudon  from  1860  to  188SL 

LO'WELL,  a  city  of  Maasachnsetta,  U.S.,  on  Uie 
Merrimao  Kiver,  25  miles  N.W.  of  Boston.  Here 
the  Pawtuoket  Palls,  of  30  feet,  afford  water-power 
nerous  factories.  The  canal  ia  owned  by  a 
ly,  which  erected  ertenalve  machine-shop^ 
I  built  the  facteriea  for  eleven  '  corporations,' 

infacturing  cotton  goods,  printa,  woollens,  corpeta, 

&0,,  oaoauming  40,000^000  Its.  ot  cotton  p«r  annum, 
L.  was  inoorporated  in  1826.  The  operativea  were 
for  years  gathered  from  the  rural  diatricts  fifty  or  a 
hundred  miles  round,  and  lived  in  boarding-houses 
built   and   owned  by  the   corporations^  and  kept 

broogbt  a  large  resident  manufacturing  populatton. 
L  has  aeveral  banka,  daily  and  weekly  newspapere, 
literary  inatitatious,  about  thirty  dmrchea,  and 
extensive  edncatioDal  eatabliahmenta.  Fop.  in  18G0, 
Se,8S7 ;  in  WO,  40,938;  in  1680;  59,485. 

LO'WESTOn',  a  seaport  and  bathing-place,  in 
the  county  ot  Suffolk,  ia  situated  on  a  hei^it  aloping 
^aduaUyto  the  sea,  25  milea  aonth-eaat  3  Norwich. 
There  ore  here  two  light-housee,  one  on  the  hdght 
or  oliff,  the  other  te  the  south  of  tbe  tewn,  in  a 
lower  locality,  A  profitable  fishery  is  carried  on ; 
aaloL  mackerel,  and  herringa  being  eaof^t  in  great 
numbers.  The  harbour  of  L.  Is  spaolons.  Bopes  and 
twine  are  manutactuied.  Pop.  (1871)  16,246 ;  (1881) 
19,597-    L.  ia  the  most  easterly  town  of  En^md. 

LOWTH,  BoBERT,  D.D.,  an  English  melate,  son 
of  the  Rev.  William  Lowth,  reotor  of  Barit<ni,  in 
Hampshire,  was  bom  November  27, 1710;    He 


idnasbi 


educated  at  Winchester  School,  whence^  with  a  repu- 
tation both  aa  a  scholar  and  ^letj  he  passed  to  New 
College,  Oxford,  in  1730.     Here  he  continued  to 


i,  he  passed  to  New 

e  he  continued  to 

ttinguiah  himself,  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  in  1737, 

d  only  four  yeara  after,  was  appoiated  profeaaor  of 

y.    In  1750,  Bishop  Hoadley  confeiied  on  him 

archdeaconry  of  Winoheater,  and  in  1753,  the 


rectory  of  East  Woodhsy,  in  Hampahire.  Dnnng 
the  same  year,  he  pubuahed  in  Latin  hia  esod- 
lent  LKture*  on  Sebrea  Poetry  {De  Stum  Poeti 


LOXODROMJO  LINB&-LOYOLA. 


HAraormaPTideMMtMAeadapica).   It  vu  greatly 


notca  tai  emandatioiu.    Then  i 


by  L.  Umielf  in  a  aeoond  aditioii,  1763.  A  new 
edition  -ma  pnbliahed  by  Boaenmllllar  (Leip.  181S). 
In  175^  L.  reoaiTad  front  the  nnivenity  of  Oxford 


Eoyal  Sooiatiei  olXondait  andOattiiigeii  in  ITAfi. 
Sidiop  of  St  Davids  in  1766,  of  Oxford  a  fev  moDtba 
after,  of  Ijindon  in  1777,  and  died  November  3, 
17S7.  Bcaidea  hia  leoturea,  his  two  principal  works 
are  I^t  q/  WHUam  of  Wykdiam  (1758)  and  Itaiah, 
a  nem  TraiuieMan,  tetih  a  Prdifmmary  Diaaaiatioa, 
and  JTote^  CViticoJ.  PhStJfogKtd,  awi  Explanatory 
(1778;  German  edition,  by  Koppe,  Giitt.  J779; 
third  edition  in  English,  1842) ;  a  work  rather  too 
el^aot  and  omata  aa  a  venion,  but  of  mat  Taloa 
aa  a  meana  of  oorreoting  the  numerous  blonden  of 
the  'Anthcoiaad  Vsnion,'  and  of  exhibiting  how 
thoroughly  literary  and  artiatio  is  that  aeotion  of 
Hebrew  poetry  whioh  we  call  prophecy. 

LOXODBO'MIO  LINES  (Or.  loxot,  oblique, 
and  dromoi,  coorie)  are  curve*  of  doable  curvature 
on  the  surface  of  a  aphere  or  spheroid,  nbich  have 
the  propOTty  of  ontt^ng  oU  meridians  atthe 


iuujla. 


Btraiaht  lines  on  Marca- 
lor'4  PrmuMon  (lee'^tLLF).  A  ehip  sailing  obliquely 
to  the  mrection  of  the  north  pole  (say,  two  poi""- 
OST)  would  wind  round  it  in  iofinite  circuits,  ajw  , 
approaching  nearer,  but  never  reaching  it.  Id  this 
property,  aa  well  as  in  otlierB,  the  loxodromio  line 
IS  aiialogoDs  to  tiie  oonunon  logaiithmjo  spii«l 

LOYO'LA,   lONATiDB  aa   (I»ao    Lopbc  as 
Ra>ui.DK|,  the  youngef '  -  "    ■ 

uid  Marma  Safes  de  L-__,   — _   -      ,  -  - 

1491  at  his  ancestral  castle  of  Loyola,  in  the 
Basque  Froviuoos.  After  the  scant  training  of 
that  ags  in  lettwa,  ha  -was  received  as  a  jiage  in 
tiie  oonrt  of  Ferdinand  ;  but  the  reatnunt  and 
inaatiTity  of  ooort-life  ware  diataateful  to  his 
enthmdaBtio  mind,  and,  under  the  auspices  of  his 
relative,  Don  Antonio  Manriquez,  Duke  of  Najura, 
he  embiaoed  the  profeaaian  of  arms.  The  deta''- 
ot  hia  caieer  aa  a  soldier  are  of  little  importanoa 
hia  histray,  altiiough  they  display  io  a  veiy  mark 
way  both  the  excellenoy  and  Uie  irragularities 
his  ardent  temperament,  thrown  undirected  among 
the  temptationa  as  well  m  the  dntiea  of  a  militaiy 
lifch  0(  hi*  bravny  and  chivalrous  apirit,  many 
remarkaUe  inatannw  aie  recorded,  and  one  of  these 
proved  the  turning-point  <A  his  career.  In  the 
oefenoe  of  Fampeluna,  he  was  severely  wounded  in 
both  legs,  one  oeing  fractured  by  a  oaonon-lMiJl, 
and  the  other  injured  by  a  splinter,  and  having 
been  token  prisoner  by  lite  French,  was  by  them 
oonveyed  to  his  patenud  caatle  of  Loyola,  where 
he  was  doomed  to  a  long  and  painful  confinement 
After  a  vei;  painful  (Mention,  Uie  rotults  of  which 
had  well-uish  proved  &tal,  ha  eventually  recovered; 
and  witli  bis  retumiog  strength  he  aj^ear*  to 
have  reamned  his  old  thoughta  and  his  lutbitual 
levity,  for,  in  order  to  remove  a  deformity  which 
had  remlted  from  Aa  &i>[t  setting  of  hia  wounded 
limb,  he  oonsanted  to  the  paiofnl  remedy  of  havui^ 
It  re-broken  in  older  to  be  re-set.  After  this 
operaiioD,  his  ooavalesoenoe  waa  even  more  slow ; 
and  the  stock  of  romance*,  by  which  he  was  wont 
to  relievs  the  t^'Tinn  of  comnnement,  having  been 
eihauated,  he  was  thrown  upon  the  only  other 
avaikble  reading,  that  of  the  IAbm  ^f  At  SainiM, 


The  rendt  waa  what  might  be  expected  in  so  ardent 
a  temperament — the  creation  of  a  ndritnal  enthu- 
naam  equally  intense  in  d^jree,  although  in  kind 
very  different  from  that  by  which  he  bad  hitherto 
been  drawn  to  feats  of  chivalry.  The  spiritual 
gloriea  of  St  Fronoi*  or  St  Domimo  now  took,  in  hi* 
aspirations,  the  plaoe  which  had  been  before  held  by 
the  knights  of  medieval  romance.  With  aouhi  lihw 
his  there  is  no  middle  oonrse  i  he  threw  himself, 
with  all  the  fire  of  hia  temperament^  npon  the 
new  aspirationB  which  these  thoughts  engendared. 
BenouDcing  the  purauit  of  arms,  and  with  it  all 
other  worldly  plana,  he  tore  himsalf  from  home  and 
friends,  and  resolved  to  prepare  himself  for  the  new 
course  which  be  contemplated  by  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem.  With  a,  view  to  his  immediate  prepara- 
tion for  tbi*  holy  task,  he  retired  in  the  garb  of  a 
beggar  to  the  calehnted  monaster  of  Mraitaerrat, 
where,  on  the  vigil  of  the  Feast  of  the  Annunciation, 
in  IG22,  be  hung  up  his  arms,  as  at  once  a  votive 
offering  (dgoifioaSre  of  his  renunciation  of  the  works 
of  the  nesh,  and  an  emblem  of  his  entire  devotion  to 
the  spiritoal  warfare  to  which  he  was  from  that 
moment  vowed.  From  Montserrat  he  set  out  bare- 
footed en  his  pilgrimage,  the  first  step  of  which 
was  a  volnnta^  engagement  which  he  undertook 
to  serve  the  poor  ana  sick  in  the  hospital  of  the 
ne^bonring  town  of  Uanreea.  There  his  seal 
and  devotion  attracted  anch  notice  that  he  with- 
drew to  a  solitary  cavern  in  the  vicinity,  where  ha 
puisned  alone  hi*  eourte  of  *eU-prMoribed  aasteiity, 
imtil  he  was  carried  book,  nnerhr  uthansted,  to 
the  hospital  in  which  he  had  htlon  aarved.  To 
thia  physical  exhaustion  auooesdad  a  state  of 
mental  depression,  amounting  almost  to  deapair, 
from  which,  however,  ha  arose  with  spiritual  power* 
renewed  and  invigorated  by  the  very  struggle- 
From  Manresa  he  tepMred  by  Barcelona  to  Borne, 
whence,  after  receiving  the  papal  benediction  from 
Adrian  VL,  ha  proceeded  on  foot,  and  aa  a  men- 
dicant^ to  Venice,  and  there  embarked  for  Cjqinil 
and  tiie  Holy  Land.  Ha  would  gladly  have 
remained  at  Jerusalem,  and  devotea  himself  to 
the  propuption  of  the  gospel  amoug  the  i"fi'^fli ; 
but  not  being  encouraged  in  this  deaign  by  tlie 
local  authorities,  he  returned  to  Venice  and  Bar- 
celona in  1524.  Taught  bf  kia  fint  failnre,  he  now 
resolved  to  prepare  himsdi  by  study  for  the  vrork 
of  religious  teachiog,  and  with  this  view,  was  not 
M*"\"l'^  to  return,  at  the  age  of  33,  to  the  study  of 
the  very  rudiments  of  grammar.  He  followea  up 
these  elementaiy  studies  dv  a  further  course,  first  at 
the  new  university  of  Alcala,  and  afterwards  at  Salo- 
monoa,  in  both  which  places,  however,  he  incurred 
the  ccmsore  of  the  authorities  bf  gome  utututhorised 
attempts  at  religious  teaehiu^  lo  public,  oud  even- 
tually ha  was  induced  to  repair  to  Forui  for  the  oom- 
rJetion  of  the  studies  thus  repeatedly  interrupted. 
Here,  again,  ha  continued  persistent^  to  struggle 
—  without  ai^  lesources  but  those  mtioh  he  drew 
m  the  charity  of  the  faithful;  and  here,  Ualn,  he 
umed  to  the  same  hnmble  elementary  stn£<a.   It 


while  ensaeed  in  these  stndica,  and  among 
panious  of  Uiem,  that  he  first  formed  the  pious 
fraternity  which  resulted  in  that  great  organiution 
which  boa  exercised  such  infiuence  npoa  the  nJi- 
gious,  monii,  and  aocial  condition  of  the  modem 
world.  From  the  dose  of  his  residence  in  Paris, 
L's  history  has  been  told  in  the  history  of  his 
order.  See  Jsi7ii&  From  the  date  of  his  election 
0*  the  first  general  of  bis  society,  be  continued  to 
reside  in  Home.  To  him  ore  due  not  alone  in  the 
general  spirit,  but  even  in  moat  of  their  detuls,  all 
its  rules  and  constitutions ;  from  him  also  originated 
several  works  of  general  charity  and  benevolence, 
the  germs  of  graat  itutitutiona  still  maintained  in 


Aioogl 


LOZEITGE-LUBLIH. 


Bome ;  bat  the  grekt  wiiree  of  Ub  influence  upon 
the  tpiiitu*!  interestB  of  the  world  is  hie  -well- 
knoim  Seavitia  SpirUaaiia,  of  which  on  account 
hM  been  itready  given.  He  died  at  Rome,  it  m&y 
well  be  believed,  prematujely,  being  worn  oat  by 
hia  long-continaed  austeritiea,  July  31,  1556.  Hia 
n&me  was  admitted  to  what  ia  known  in  the  Church 
oi  Rome  as  the  preliminary  step  of  bettification,  in 
the  year  1CD9,  and  he  was  aolemnly  canomBed  as  a 
wint  by  QrOTory  XV.  in  1622.  His  life  hal  been 
written  in  afiioat  every  European  langniwe.  The 
bitw^phiea  of  Eibndaneira,  of  MaSei,  ot  Bartoli, 
and  Sounonrs  are  the  beat  known  and  the  moit 
popoUr  among  Romau  CathoUca. 

LOZENGE,  in  Heraldry,  a  char^  geaenlly  enu- 
merated among  the  sub- ordinaries,  m  the  liiape  of  a 
rhombas  placed  with 
the  acute  angles  at 
top  and  bottom.  The 
horizontal  diameter 
must  be  at  least  equal 
to  the  sides,  otherwise, 
it  is  not  a  lozenge,  but 
a  Fusil  (q.  v.)  The 
term  iozeng]/  ia  applied 
to  a  field  divided  by  diagonal  lines  crossing  one 
■nothei  at  regular  intervals,  ao  aa  to  form  a  diunond 
pattern,    the    comportmenta    being    of    alternate 


hOZESOEB 
those  caaea  in  which 
ahonld 


pass  graduallyinto  the  ttomach,  in  order  to  ad 

ih  and  aa  long  aa  poeaible  npon  the  pharyni 

ie  laryiu;eal  opening ;    as,  for  example,   in 

OBaM  ot  relaxeo  OF  indamed  atatee  of  the  tonula  and 

nTDla,inehi«nicconglia,&&    Accofdiog  to  Dr  Paris 

iPhamaeokttia,  Mh  ed.  p.  £55),  lozenges  should  be 

anpoaad  id  aeveral  dennilcent  anbetancee,  such  as 


Iter,  rogar,  „^, „ — 

_    ...  e  retails  aa  long  aa  possible  their 

•olntion.  Lozenges  are  flat  and  circular  or  oval 
in  form,  and  the  chief  difference  between  lozenges 
and  the  closely  aUied  aubstancet  known  as  drops, 
is,  that  in  the  latter  the  sugar  ia  rendered  fluid 
by  means  of  beat,  while  in  the  former  the  ingredients 
are  combined  without  the  aid  of  heat. 

LOZERE,  a  department  in  the  aonth  of  France, 
derives  ita  name  from  Mount  Loztee,  one  of  the 
summits  of  the  Cevennea  (q,  v.],  and  ia  formed  out 
of  ihe  province  of  Languedoc  It  comjnisea  the 
arrondissementa  of  Mende,  Florae,  and  Marvejols. 
Area,  1990  aq.  mUea ;  pop.  (1881)  143,665,  among 
whom  are  many  Proteetanto.  lie  department  is 
Mountainous,  the  oeutral  mass  of  the  Cevennea,  here 
called  the  Mugeride  Mounbuns,  occnpyim;  the 
whole  of  the  east  and  aouth-east  portiona.  Ci  the 
mountains,  the  climate  is  severe  and  variable,  and 
little  grain  ia  produced ;  but  the  slopes  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  Cevennes,  looking  towarda  the 
valley  of  the  Rhone,  are  clothed  with  the  mnl- 
berry,  tiie  olive,  and  the  vine.  Wolves  aboand  in 
the  forsatE,  which  are  extensive.  Cattle,  sheep. 
and  moles  are  reared.  The  minea  yield  iron,  anti. 
mony,  lead,  capper,  alver,  and  some  gold.  Capitol, 
Mende. 

LUBBOOE,  Sib  Jomf.    See  Scpp.,  VoL  X. 

IjU'BECK,  one  of  the  three  remuning  free  cities 
of  Oetmany,  ia  situated  on  the  river  ^Inve,  about 
40  milea  north-east  ut  Hambai|^  and  14  from  the 
Baltic  It  is  built  on  a  rising  ground,  and  its  appear- 
ance with  ita  mJla  and  ramparts  still  partly  stand- 
ing, its  great  gates,  its  proud  towera,  its  CMhic 
churches,  and  ila  antiq^ae  gabled  houses  is  atill  almost 
medieval  Ita  prinapaf  boildin™  i 
Churah  [ZHe  JforwniircAe),  one  of  the 


specimens  of  Gothic  arohitectore  in  tlia  north  ot 
Eorope,  finished  in  1304,  with  three  naves,  the 
ccntaal  one  119  feet  in  length,  and  two  towers,  382 
feet  high ;  the  town-honae,  containing  the  Hanseatio 
archives  and  a  public  library  of  60,000  volumea,  built 
of  red  and  block  glazed  tiles  ;  the  cathedral,  bnilt 
1170—1341 ;  the  monastery  church,  also  o  master- 
piece of  Gothic ;  tbe  exchange,  and  the  banks.  L. 
IB  rich  in  educational  estabbaWeDts  of  all  kinds, 
religious  and  seculor — the  number  within  the  city 
amounting  to  64,  while  in  the  suburbs  there  are 
no  leas  than  37,  in  oU  91.  The  provisicn  for  tbe 
poor  ia  excellent;  on  account  of  the  large  beqaests 
that  citizens  have  made  at  different  periods  (ot  thil 
porpose,  tbe  largest  benevolent  institution  being 
the  Hospital  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  The  indnstriJ 
activity  of  L.  is  considerable.  Ship-building  and 
engineering  are  carried  on ;  there  are  also  many 
breweries  and  important  cigar-manofaotories ;  yet 
in  the  old  days  when  tbe  Hauaeatic  League  was 
flourishing,  the  Merchant  Company  or  College  could 
reckon  5000  members,  while  in  1SS9  it  had  only 
471,  Tbe  flsheries  of  L.  are  importont  and  pros- 
perous The  chief  imports  are  wine,  silks,  cottons, 
earthenware,  pigments,  colonial  products,  and  timber 
from  Sweden  and  Finland ;  the  chief  exports  are 
grain,  cattle,  iron,  and  wool  The  harbonr  lies  16 
or  17  miles  down  the  river,  at  Travemltnde,  a 
bathing-place,  although  the  river  has  of  late  yean 
been  so  much  deepened,  that  tbe  largest  ships  can 
come  up  to  Lubeck.  The  income  of  the  city  and 
territory  in  1873  was  £129,980;  the  pubHo  debt, 
£1,190,200.  In  1878,  2302  vessels,  of  301,910  tons, 
entered  the  port  of  L„  and  2332,  of  307,557  tons, 
cleared.  Fop.  of  town  and  suburbs,  in  1880,  61,055  ; 
of  the  territory,  63,671. 

L.  bss  existed  since  the  11th  c.,  and  received 
important  privileges  from  the  German  emperois  in 
the  13th  c,  whii3k  were  confirmed  by  the  Danes, 
into  whose  power  it  fell  in  1201.     It  was  declared 


independence  against  the  Danes, 
and  joined  the  ether  commercial  towns  in  the  great 
Hanseatio  League  (q.  v.).  With  the  decline  of  tiie 
Hanseatic  Lei^e,  L.  lost  its  historic  importance, 
but  continued  a  flourishing  and  independent  com- 
mercial city,  till  it  was  taken  and  plundered  by  the 
French,  November  6,  1806.  Its  trade  aDfleredalso 
grievously  from  the  French  Continental  System.  In 
1810  it  was  incorporated  with  the  French  empire. 
It  recovered  its  independence  in  1613,  and  is  now  a 
member  of  the  German  empit«.  Its  trade  has  slao 
revived;  and  the  railway  connection  with  Hamburg, 
and  tines  of  steamers  to  ports  of  tbe  Baltic,  have 
contribated  much  to  the  increase  of  its  prosperity. 

■^ a  territory  109  sq.  m.  in  extent. 

an. — The  constitution,  which  wa>  an- 
deetly  aristocratic,  baa  been  democratic  since  1669. 
The  government  is  intrusted  to  a  senate,  which  con- 
sisted, till  1861,  of  twenty  members  ;  bat  since  that 
year,  of  only  fourteen,  who,  in  legislative  and  also  in 
certain  administrative  functiona,  require  tbe  con- 
currence of  the  muuicipolit;  or  council  of  citizens,  a 
body  comprising  120  members.  The  supreme  court 
of  appeal  lor  the  free  cities  was  in  L  till  187^,  when 
••■e  imperial  courts  ' 

kw  {LsMtdia  Btc. 
many  questions. 

LTT'BLIN,  th«  cajntal  of  the  Polish  sovemment 
of  the  Botse  name,  on  the  left  bonk  of  Uie  Bistritt, 
a  feeder  ot  tbe  THeprz,  o  branch  of  the  Vistola, 
ia  96  miles  Muth-eost  of  Warsaw.  L.  dates  from 
the    10th   c,  and  among  the  obje 


.Goo'ilc 


LUCAKUS-LDCOA. 


The  cbisf  bnildingB  are  the  towD-luU, 
the  Sobieeki  pklsoe,  oktliedral,  Jews'  ■ynagogue, 
Piaiist  collie,  and  MveiBl  schooU  and  hoapilBli. 
It  hsB  sereral  nuumfactoriea  of  woollen  and  linen 
gooda,  in  which,  aa  well  a>  in  com  and  Hnnsarian 
wine,  it  carrieB  cm  an  ezteOBlve  trade.  Fo[i.  (ISSO) 
SSiOtMh  Three  large  fain,  each  lasting  one  month, 
an  held  here  annuuly. 

LUOA'NTJS,  M.  Amxas,  the  chief  Roman  poet 
of  the  SUver  Age,  was  bom  at  Corduba  (the  modem 
OordoBa),  in  Spain,  3S  i,  D.,  and  hroaght  to  Borne 
in  hii  infancy  by  his  father,  who  woe  a  Tounger 
brother  of  the  philosopher  Seneca.  Be  received  an 
•dnoation  of  the  beat  kind,  was  a  tcbool -fellow  of 
PeiainB,  and  a  friend  of  the  Emperor  Nero,  and 
entered  on  lite  with  the  moot  bniliant  prospeota. 
He  became  quaestor  and  augur,  and  declaimed  and 
recited  in  public  with  the  highest  appUnse.  But 
hia  proipenty  and  himHelf  were  eqoally  short-lived. 
He  lost  the  favonr  of  Nero,  who  was  jealons  of  his 
poetry  and  bis  fsme,  and  who  desired  to  keep  down 
both.  Under  tbe  sting  of  this  annoyance,  he  joined 
the  oonspiiscy  against  Nero's  life  in  66  A.  s.  It  is 
painful  to  read  in  Tacitus,  that  when  arrested  with 
others  after  the  betrajral  of  the  plot,  he  tried  to  save 
his  life  by  accusng  lus  mother  of  complicity.  But 
the  empetor  did  not  spare  him  for  tiie  sake  of  this 
additioaal   ciime ;   he  wu   compelled  to    destroy 

this  way,  and  with  a  certaiu  ambitious  composure, 
at  27  years  of  age.  Whatever  the  faults  of  L.'s 
character — and  in  the  brief  notices  we  have  of  him, 
both  his  vani^  and  levity  are  apparent — he  holds  a 
oonspicaoos  plaoe  among  the  poets  of  Rome.  The 
only  work  of  his  that  hu  come  down  is  the  Pkar- 
tcdta,  an  epic,  in  10  books,  on  the  dvil  war  betwtien 
Cieaar  and  Pompey.  As  an  epic,  it  is,  as  Niebuhr 
somewhat  qnaintly  says,  an  'imfortonate'  perform- 
ance, for  it  proceeds  in  the  manner  of  annals,  and 
wants  tiie  comprehensiveness,  onity,  and  learning 
of  the  greatest  works  of  its  olasa.  Nor  is  its  style, 
geiMn^y  speaking,  good,  for  it  is  often  turgid  and 
obscure,  and  maAed  with  those  defects  of  taste 
which  belong  to  poems  inspired  by  a  rhetorical  age 
and  school  of  writing.  But  when  every  deduction 
has  been  node,  the  Fltartalia  affords  ample  proof 
that  L.  WM  a  man  of  real  and  powerful  genius. 
There  is  an  eye  for  the  sulilime  both  in  the  moral 
and  phymcal  worlds,  constantly  present  in  it ;  there 
is  all  uie  vigour  of  poetic  oratory  in  its  declama- 
tions ;  and  there  are  felicities  of  epigram  which 
have  secured  to  many  a  line  a  constant  freshness 
of  life,  aa  port  of  the  familiarly  remembered  litera- 
ture of  the  world.  L.  was  very  popular  in  the 
middle  ages ;  and  in  modem  times,  liia  poem  bos 
been  a  particular  favourite  among  the  lovers  of 
politioal  freedom — especially  among  that  school  of 
classical  republicans  now  nearly  extinct  in  Europe, 
after  having  played  a  most  important  part  in  it. 
There  is  a  well-known  English  translation  oC  L.  by 
Bowe,  which  Dr  Johnson  thought  one  of  the  best 

LUOANUB   AKS    LUOANIDAE.      See   Suo 

BlBTUL 

LUOARIS,  CtWI,  a  Greek  theologian,  was  bom 
in  the  island  of  Candia  in  1572,  studied  first  at 
Tenice,  and  afterwards  at  Padna,  and  subsequently 
visited  Oemtany,  whore  be  formed  intimate  rela- 
tions with  the  Protestant  doctore,  and  carried  back 
into  Oraoce  their  spirit  and  their  dogmas.  Ordained 
a  priest,  he  rose,  in  the  ooune  of  years,  to  the 
highest  dignity  in  the  Greek  Church,  being  elected 
Patriarch  of  Conat^tinopla  in  1621.  He  still 
(dierisbad  his  Protestant  opinions,  and  endeavoured 
even  to  promulgate  them  in  the  church  over  which 


he  ruled ;  but  his  conduct  exoited  violent  opposi- 
tion among  the  clergy,  and  L.  was  ia  consequence 
banished  to  Bhodes.  Through  the  inflnence  of  the 
English  ambassador,  however,  he  was  toon  reiu- 
stated  in  his  office.  Unluckily,  a  confession  of  faith 
he  had  got  printed,  quite  heretical — i  e.,  Protestant 
—in  its  character,  ftdl  into  the  hands  of  bis  adver- 
saries, and  he  was  once  more  involved  in  difficulties. 
In  1636,  be  wu  banished  to  the  isle  of  Tenedoa,  and 
though  recalled  after  a  few  months,  in  June  1637  he 
was  eeized  in  Constantinople,  hurried  on  board  a 
vessel,  and  it  was  never  properly  ascertained  what 
became  of  him.  According  to  some,  he  was  strangled 
in  the  ship  which  bore  him  off ;  according  to  others, 
he  suffered  this  fate  in  a  castle  on  the  shores  of  the 
Black  Sea,  His .  doctrines  have  been  repeatedly 
oondemned  by  Greek  synods. 

LU'CARNE,  a  Dormer  Window  (q.  v.).  The 
name  lacame  is  generally  apphed  to  the  naaU 
dormers  in  church  spires. 

IiU'COA,  DucBY  or,  formerly  a  small  independ- 
ent state,  now  a  province  o(  Central  Italy,  woa 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Modena,  on  the  E.  and  3^ 
by  Tuscany,  and  on  the  W.  by  tjie  Gulfs  of  Genoa 
and  Massa.  Area,  SI2  aq.  m. ;  pop.  (1881)  SSi,2B7- 
The  surface  of  the  oountry  is  very  diversiffed  ;  the 
largest  stream  is  tlie  Serchio.  L.  is  famed  for  ths 
ezta^me  tertihty  of  its  soil,  and  the  superiority 
of  its  agriculture,  which  serves  as  a  model  to  the 
whole  Italian  peninsula.  The  principal  products 
are  grapes,  olives,  grain,  mulbemea,  chesnuts,  and 
vegetables.  The  marshy  flats  on  the  coast  afford 
excellent  pastures  for  cattle.      The  mannfactutea 


u  oil  The  Lucchesi  are  a  fmgai  shrewd  nwe: 
numbers  leave  home  in  search  of  employment,  and 
they  form  a  krge  proportioD  of  the  itmerant  figure- 
venders,  organ-gnnders,  and  stucco-vrorkers  of 
Europe. 

L.  (anciently  called  Lvea)  was  made  a  Soman 
colony  in  1 77  B.  c.  It  was  erected  into  a  duchy  by 
tbe  Lombards,  and  recovered  its  liberty  in  1055,  when 
the  chief  town,  Lucca,  became  a  free  city.  In  1327 
it  was  a  dncby,  and  was  ruled  by  the  celebrated 
Castnicdo  CastiBcani  In  1370  it  became  an  inde- 
pendent republic,  was  erected  inte  a  principality  in 
130S  by  Napoleon,  for  his  sister  Elisa  Baociochi,  and 
mssed  to  Maria  Louisa  of  Spain  in  131B.  Her  son, 
Iluke  Carlo  Loigi,  ceded  it  to  Tuscany  in  184T,  on 
obtaining  possession  of  Panna  and  Piacenza ;  and 
in  1860  it  was  annexed  to  Sardinia.  It  now  forms 
one  of  the  Tuscan  provinces  in  Ule  new  kingdom 
of  Italy. 

IjTTCCA,  chief  town  of  the  Italian  prorincA  of 
Lucca,  ia  situated  in  a  flue  plain,  bounded  by  juctur- 
eaque  hills,  and  irrinted  by  the  Serchio,  12  milea 
north-east  of  Pisa.  Ton.  (1881120,421.  The  com- 
mercial activity  of  its  iiitiabitants  obtained  for  it  the 
name  of  '  Lucca  I'Industriosa.'  Its  great  trade  is  in 
otive-oil  and  silk,  and  it  was  the  first  place  in  Italy  | 
where  tbe  prodnction  and  manufacture  of  silk  w«« 
■ncceasfuUy  introduoed.  Tbe  town  is  surrounded 
l^  ramparts,  which  form  a  delightful  promenade, 
and  commaud  a  line  view  of  the  whole  valley  of  the 
Serchio ;  the  streets  are  mostly  narrow  and  crooked, 
but  well  paved ;  the  private  dwellings  are  oommo- 
diouB,  and  the  public  edidcea  numerous  and  interest- 
ing. Tbe  cathedral  contains  several  fine  pointings. 
A  splendid  aqueduct,  planned  during  the  reign  of 
the  Princess  Elisa  Bonaparte,  and  executed  Later, 
snppbes  the  town  with  water,  and  is  highly  deserving 
of  inspection.    The  environs  of  L>  abound  in  delight- 


11.==:,,  Google 


LTTCENA— LUCIAK 


Loeoa,  whooe  tempenitnra  Ttriet  trora  96*  to  136^  F. 
The  water*  are  exported  to  aO  parti  of  Italy. 

LUCE'NA,  ft  town  of  SpMn,  province  of  Cor- 
dova.  and  40  milHg  south  of  the  city  of  that  name, 
la  picturesquely  situated  between  two  hills.  Pop. 
17>W0.  The  Deighbourins  territory  is  famous  for  its 
Bpdcota  and  ita  oreed  of  horses.  L.  is  historically 
btereating,  aa  the  scene  of  the  capture  (April  21, 
14S3)  of  Boabdil,  king  of  Granads. 

LnCB'RA  (ancient  Ltuxria),  a  town  of  Southern 
Ualy,  in  the  province  of  Foggia,  is  sitnsited  on  an 
aninenoe  10  miles  weat-nom-weat  of  Foggia.  It 
contains  a  college,  a  good  museum,  a  catbednl,  and 
a  splendid  episcopal  palace.  A  large  trade  in 
cheeaa  and  cattle  is  earned  on  by  the  inhabitants. 
Fop.  about  13,500.  Nnmeroos  inscriptions  aud 
(r^jQietits  of  ancient  sculpture  have  been    foond 

LUCB'RNE,  a  canton  in  the  oentre  of  Switzer- 
land, with  on  area  of  about  £77  square  miles,  and 
«  population,  in  ISSO,  of  134,S0S,  shewing  a  slight 
increase  since  1870.  The  soil  is  geoeriUy  fruitful, 
and  much  grain  and  fruit  are  pn>duced.  In  the 
more  moontaJnons  parts,  the  rearing  of  cattle  is 
carried  on  to  a  greater  extent  than  anywhere  else 
in  Switzerland.  The  highest  elevation  attained  by 
the  Alps  in  this  canton  is  6900  feet.  The  principaJ 
stream  is  the  Reuss.  'Uie  principal  lake  that  of 
Lucerne.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  of  Qenoas 
race  and  language,  and  all  belong  to  the  Koman 
Catholic  Chorch,  except  about  4000  Prottttants, 
to  whom  the  tree  exercise  of  their  religion  was 
Gist  accorded  in  1828.  The  constitution  of  L.  is  a 
representative  democracy;  100  depnties  form  the 
Oreat  Council,  whoae  preeideiit  b«us  the  title  of 
8ehuia«Ut  (Jad^). 

LUCERNE,  capital  of  the  oantoo  of  the  same 
name,  is  situated  on  the  Reuss,  where  it  issues 
from  the  north-west  eitremi^  of  the  Lake  of 
Loceme.  Near  the  lake,  riains  from  the  middle  of 
the  Benss,  is  an  old  tower,  which  is  said  to  have 
been  once  a  li^^t-honse  [hixeraa),  whence  the  name 
of  the  town.  The  arsenal  is  one  of  the  most 
importaqt  in  Switzerland,  contajning  many  old 
weapons  used  at  the  battie  of  Bempach.  L.  has  a 
theatre,  a  public  libnuy,  with  a  collection  of  natural 
history,  nuuiufnctiires  of  silks,  oottons,  flax,  hemp, 

gloves,  *c    Pop.  (1880)  17,8Ba 

LUCERNE,  Lui  or,  called  also  the  LaJx  of 
Ote  Four  Forttl  Canton*  (Uri,  Cnterwalden,  Schwys, 
and  Lncetne),  beoaose  its  shores  are  formed  by  these, 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  sheets  of  fresh-water  in 
Switzerland  or  Europe.  Length  from  Lucerne  to 
FlUelen,  about  22  miTea ;  average  breadth,  about  1 1 
mile.  The  chief  places  on  its  banks  are  Lucerne 
KUssnaoht,  and  Alpnach,  at  the  north-west,  and 
FlUelen  near  its  south-west  extremity.  It  is 
navigated  by  several  steam-boats. 

LUCERNE  {Medicago  ioiiva),  t,  apedes  of  Medick 
(q.  v.),  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  legominoua 
plaata  cultivated  for  tbe  supply  of  green  food  to 
catti&  It  is  a  native  of  the  south  oi  Europe,  and 
has  been  cultivated  there  from  an  unknown  anti- 
quity. It  is  partially  naturalised  in  some  parts  of 
Britain.  It  is  uot  very  largely  cultivated  in  Britain, 
although  in  some  places  very  successfully,  chiefly  in 
the  south  of  England  ;  but  the  climate  of  Scotland 
is  not  too  cold  for  it,  and  the  different  results 
obtained  by  farmers  who  have  tried  it  seem  to 
depend  chiefly  on  differences  of  soil  and  manage- 
ment. It  is  largely  cultivated  in  some  parts  of 
North  and  South  Ajnerica,  and  in  Peru  with  great 
sncceM  both  on  the  coast,  in  all  the  heat  of  a 
tropical  climate,  and  on  the  mountains  to  a  hmght 


m  tbe  former  situation.  It  endures  great  drottghta, 
its  roots  peuetrating  very  deep  into  the  ground ; 
^-'  loves  a  rich  and   calcareous  soil. 


years.  It  is  sown  in  rows,  at  12  or  14  inches  apart, 
and  may  be  mown  several  times  in  a  year,  growing 
very  quickly  after  being  mown.  The  quantity  (M 
pnrfuee  is  very  great,  and  no  other  fotago-plont  is 
ready  for  use  so  early  in  spring.  L.  has  a  ratiier 
erect  stem,  leaves  with  three  obovate-oblong  toothed 
leaflets ;  purplish  bine  or  sometimes  yellow  flowers 
in  many-flowered  raoemea,  and  pods  twisted  two  or 
three  timea  round.  It  ought  to  be  mown  before  it 
cornea  into  flower,  ss  it  then  becomes  more  fibrous, 
and  less  succulent  and  nutritions. 

IiTTCIA,  St,  one  of  the  windward  division  of  the 
Caribbeea  (see  ArniLLm),  lies  about  30  milea  to  the 
south  of  Martinique,  having  ita  southern  extremity 
inlat  I3°41'N,  endlong.  61°  W,  The  island  is  of 
volcanic  origin,  and  the  crater  of  the  SoMfriert,  ot 
Sulp/uir  Mtmnlam,  ia  still  in  energetic  operation. 
St  L.  is  remarkable  for  its  pictureaque  andromantio 
scenery.  Much  of  the  sur&;e  is  covered  with  hilt^ 
generally  well  wooded,  and  occasionally  rising  to  tiie 
height  of  nearly  3000  feet.  Area,  24S  square  mile^ 
or  168,720  acres,  o(  which,  in  1S60,  9026  acres  were 
under  crops.  Pop.  (18S1)  38,651,  of  whom  about  800 
were  whites.  Aa  the  coast  abound*  in  aeoure,  com- 
modions,  and  defensible  harbours — all  the  more 
valuable  from  their  comnorativa  scarcity  in  the 
neighbonrhood— the  island  hoa  been,  perhaps  to  an 
nnaxampled  extent,  on  object  of  oontention  between 
France  and  England.  In  the  hands  of  the  latter, 
however,  it  has  remained  since  1803.  In  18GD,  L. 
contained  18  schools,  with  1470  scholars.  In  1378; 
its  reveone  was  £2S,000 ;  its  expenditure,  £33,000 ; 
public  debt,  £47,00a  The  chief  article  exported  is 
sugar,  the  amount  in  1879  being  11,273  ho^eads. 
In  1S81,  the  revenue  was  £32,291 ;  the  expenditure, 
£32,652;  the  imports  were  valued  at  £120,134,  and 
the  exports  at  £183,478.  The  public  debt  for  tbe 
same  year  was  £33;600 ;  the  total  tonnage  of  vessels 
which  entered  and  cleared  the  port  m  1879  was 
323,667. 

LU'CIAN,  a  classic  satirist  and  humorist  of  ths 
first  merit,  was  born  at  Samosata,  in  Syria,  in 
tbe  earlier  port  of  the  2d  o.,  though  the  eniot  yeaz 
is  matter  of  conjecture.  He  himself  tells  us,  in 
a  piece  called  TiK  Dream,  that  his  parents  were 
poor,  and  could  not  afford  him  a  learned  educa- 
tion. He  was,  ia  consequence,  apprenticed  to  an 
uncle  who  was  a  statuary,  in  order  that  he  might 
learn  that  trade;  but  be  soon  abandoned  it, 
and  betook  himself  to  the  study  of  letters.  For 
a  long  time  he  led  a  somemiat  vagrant  and 
unsettled  life,  visiting  the  most  of  Greece,  Italy, 
and  Qaul,  in  the  last  <$  which  countries  he  practised 
with  great  success  aa  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  He  is 
tiiou^t  to  have  returned  to  his  native  country 
when  about  forty  years  of  age,  after  which  time 
all  hia  master-pieces  were  composed.  The  last  thing 
we  know  about  him  is,  that  he  was  made  a 
^ocurator  of  part  of  Egypt  by  the  Emperor 
Commodus.  He  died  promwly  about  the  end  of 
the  2d  century.  The  statement  of  Suidaa,  that  L. 
was  torn  to  pieces  by  mad  dogs  on  account  of  his 
impisiy,  finds  no  credence  wifli  modem  soholora; 
neither  does  that  of  Volaterranus,  that  he  was  on 
apostate  from  Christianity.  The  dialogue  entitled 
PhUopatrit,  long  attributed  to  L.,  certainly  Aewi 
be  knowled^  of  Christianity;  bat  do 
'   believes    it    to    be   a    production    of 


ivGuu^Il 


LUCID  INTERVAL— LUCRETroa 


that  writer.  The  fact  ia,  L.  wu  ons  of  th»t  clou 
of  men  who  do  not  readily  embrace  any  form  of 
feligion— men  whoae  aharp  critioal  eyee  aee  too  many 


religion,  be  called  no  man  maater.  PbQoeopheiB  are 
Indeed  the  constant  iabjecta  of  hia  hnmoroiu  ridi- 
onle  and  pongent  wit,  aided  by  all  the  reaonixea  of 
a  richly  inventive  fancy.  TTin  writings  have  been 
clawrified  under  seven  heads.  1.  The  RhetoriraJ; 
2.  The  Critical ;  a  The  Biographical ;  i.  Romanco ; 
B.  Dialognea ;  6.  MiECellaneong ;  7.  Poema.  Of 
these,  the  most  celebrated  are  his  DialogneB, 
the  principal  of  which  are — The  Salt  qf  Lxota ; 
DitUcguet  ttf  Ote  Oodt ;  The  FiAerman,  or  A» 
Jtevii^fied;  The  Banquet,  or  tJtt  Lapitha;  Timon 
Vie  Mittmtltropt ;  Dialoijua  ^  Qie  Bead ;  and 
learo-ifenipput,  or  Above  the  Clmtda.  The  beet  of 
hia  romances,  and  a  work  of  Rabelairian  hmnoar, 
is  hia  True  Uiatoriet.  The  rdHio  princepe  of  L. 
appeared  at  Florence  in  1496 ;  an  eioeHeat  one  byj 
HBmaterhnia  and  Reiti  (1730);  Lehmann  (1831); 
and  Bekkor  (1363).  L.  haa  ajwaya  been  a  great 
favoorite  wiUi  Bcholara,  and  has  been  tranalated 
into  most  of  the  Europeaa  langnages.  There  are 
English  versiona,  whole  or  pi^tiaX  by  Franklin' 
(17SI  ;  in  4  toIb.,  bnt  incomplete),  Tooke,  Abbott, 
and  Lncag  Collins  (1873). 

LtroID  IHTEBVAIi.  What  intermission  ia  to 
certain  fevers,  a  lucid  interval  ia  to  certain  forms  of 
mental  diaeaaa.  Those  forms  in  which  it  occnra  are 
oharactorieed  by  exaltation  or  perversion,  and  not 
by  impoirmeDt  of  the  faculties  or  feelinsa.  There 
may  t&ua  be  a  cessation  or  anapenaion  i^  the  fury 
in  mania  ;  there  cannot  be  repair  or  enlightonment  I 
of  the  obscurity  in  idiocy  or  senile  dementia.  It ' 
mav  consist  in  the  mere  sabatitation  of  clearness  I 
and  calumets  for  violence  and  confusion ;  in  the  | 
oocaaioDal  recognition  of  his  actoal  condition  and 
external  relations  by  the  Innstio ;  or  in  tlie  re-estab- 
liahment  of  intelligeoce  and  natural  feeling  so  per- ; 
feet  and  complete  sa  to  diflec  from  sanity  solely 
in  the  want  of  permanence.  The  dnration  is  like- ' 
wise  aometdmes  so  considerable  and  regular  as  to ' 
divide  the  mental  and  moral  life  of  the  individual 
into  two  halves.  It  has  been  believed  tliat  even 
in  aneh  cases  the  interval  is  a  part  or  link  of 
the  disease,  and  that  there  invariably  extsta  an 
nnder-cnrrent  of  nnsonndneas.  It  is  foond  to  be 
Hitremdy  difficult  to  distingnish  this  atato  from 
real  and  tnistworthy  reotoration  to  reaaon,  except 
by  reference  to  doiation,  Practioally  and  legalty, 
these  oonditiona  hsye  been  held  to  be  identicw. 
A  will  executed  during  a  lucid  interral,  although 
that  was  ertremely  transitory,  and  although  the 
testatrix  imlooaed  the  strapa  by  which  her  liandf 
had  been  confined,  in  <nder  to  exeonte  the 
doonmant,  ha*  been  held  to  be  valid  ;  all  ttiat 
appears  to  be  required,  nnder  iuoh  droumatanoes, 
ia  to  prove  that  the  conduct  of  the  individual  bore 
the  aspect  of  rationality  and  health.  It  has  been 
observed  ttiat,  immediately  before  death,  a  small 
proportion  of  the  insane  regain  lucidity,  and,  after 
yeara  of  extravagance  and  absurdity,  die  in  poa- 
aeasion  of  comparative  sense  and  serenity.  This 
change  is  snppoeed  to  depend  upon  the  failing 
powera  of  the  droutation. — Burrows,  On  latmiiiy; 
Shelford,  On  Lam  nf  Lunaliet,  ^  2S9. 

LUCIFEB  HATCHES.    Sea  UaTOna. 

LTTCI'NA,  a  genus,  and  Luccnns,  a  tamQy  of 
LameUibronchiato  molluacs,  allied  to  Yenerida  (see 
Vknfs).  The  shell  is  orbicular,  or  nearly  so,  and 
bears  a  very  loDg  impression  of  the  anterior  ransalsa 
The  animal  has  a  long,  generally  cylindrical  foot. 
The  spedei  an  Dnmeroas,  are  found  in  almoat  all 


seas,  and  at  all  deptlis  in  which  life  is  knoim  to 
exist,  burrawing  ia  the  aand  or  mud.  Thera  are  also 
many  fonil  species  in  the  more  recent  formations. 

liU'CKBNWA'LDE,  a  town  of  Prussia,  govern- 
ment of  Potsdam,  and  capital  of  a  circle  of  the  aam* 
name,  is  situated  on  the  river  Nuthe,  30  milea 
sonth-south-weet  of  Berlin.  Pop.  (1880)  14,706. 
It  has  cloth  manufactures. 

LUCKNOW,  the  capital  of  Oude,  in  British  India, 
stands  on  the  right  or  south-west  bank  of  the 
Qnmti,  by  which  it  has  a  navigable  communica- 
tion upwards  for  many  miles,  and  downwards  all 
the  way  to  the  Ganges.  (The  area  of  the  divilUm 
of  L.  in  I8S1  vss  4504  sqnare  mitea,  pop.  £.622,681  ; 
area  of  the  diitrict,  989  square  miles,  and  pop.  at 
same  census,  696,824)  The  town  iainlat  26*52'N., 
and  long.  81°  £.,  ia  360  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
is  610  miles  from  Oaloutta.  The  place  is  con- 
nected with  the  apposite  side  of  the  nver  by  three 
bridges,  one  of  stone,  another  of  boats,  and  a  third 
of  iron.  Though  L.  does  not  appear  to  contain  any 
very  ancient  buildings,  it  is  yet  understood  to  be 
older  than  any  one  of  the  other  great  citiea  of  India, 
claiming  to  have  been  founded  by  Lakshmana, 
brother  of  Rama.  The  middle  portioo,  whiah  may 
be  said  to  represent  the  original  town,  containa, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  brick-iiouses,  little  but 
mud  walls  and  straw  roofs.  On  either  side  of  these 
central  hovels  are  the  hnndiomer  sections  of  L., 
generally  dating,  however,  no  further  back  than 
1775.  The  population  in  1881  was  261,303.  As  an 
illustration  at  once  of  manners  and  of  government, 
all  classes,  down  to  the  annexation  of  Oude  in 
1856,  were  wont  to  go  fully  armed,  the  very  shop- 
keepers being  equipped  with  swords  and  shieliu. 
,  In  connection  with  the  mutiny  of  1857,  Ii.  stood 
I  foremost  in  point  of  interest,  surpassing  every  spot 
I  in  the  energy  and  obstinacy  of  its  defence  against 
I  the  insurgents,  and  almoat  equalling  Delhi  itself  ia 
!  the  grandeur  and  brilliancy  of  the  operations,  which 


iwoveted  it,  after  a  temporary  abuidon 
the  rebels. 

LUCRETIUS,  Tmrs  Carits.  Of  the  life  of  L. 
we  know  almost  nothing  witli  certainty,  as  be  ia 
mentioned  merely  in  a  cursory  manner  in  contem- 
porary literature.  Hieronymns  (340 — 420  A.D.),  in 
hia  translation  of  the  Chronicle  of  Bosebius  (264 — 
340  A.i>.),  gives  the  date  of  bis  birth  as  06  b.  a 
(according  to  others,  99) ;  bnt  he  does  not  specify 
the  source  from  wblch  his  statement  is  derived. 
It  is  allwed,  further,  that  he  died  b^  hia  own  hand, 
in  the  44tb  year  of  his  age,  havmg  been  driven 
frantic  by  a  love-potion  whi(£  bad  been  admiidstered 
to  him ;  that  he  composed  his  works  in  the  inter- 
vals of  his  madness;  and  that  theea  works  were 
revised  by  Cicero,  Donatus  (Life  of  Virgil),  on 
the  oontntry,  afBrma  that  his  death  occurred  in 
65  n.o>,  ou  tiie  very  day  on  which  Virgil  assumed 
the  toga  virHU.  The  stories  of  the  philtre,  the  mad- 
ness, tiie  ioicide,  and  the  revision  of  the  works  by 
Cicero,  rest  on  very  insufficient  authority,  and  must 
be  received  with  extreme  caution,  "Hie  peculiar 
omnions  advanced  by  L.  would  render  him  specially 
obuoxiona  to  the  early  Christians,  and  it  is  possible 
that  the  latter  may  have  been  too  easily  led  to 
attaribute  to  him  a  fate  which,  in  ita  mystoriona 
nature  and  melancholy  termination,  vras  deemed 
bnt  a  due  reward  for  the  bold  and  impions  char- 
acter of  his  teachings.  The  great  work  on  which 
the  fame  of  L  rests  is  that  entiUed  Be  Itervm 
NcOurtL,  a  philosophical  didactic  poem  in  six  books. 
It  is  dedicated  to  G.  Memmius  Oemellna,  and 
was  published  about  66  b.  a  L.  was  a  reverent 
follower  of  the  doctrines  of  Epicurus  (^.v.),  and 
his  poem  ia  in  large  meaanre  an  eipocitMn  of  the 


,v  Google 


LXJC0LLU3— LUDWIO  i. 


plijrtiol,  moral,  and  religiooB  teneta  oE  that  phil- 
osopher. Th«  great  aim  of  the  poet  wu  to  free  his 
fellow-conntrymeii  from  the  tiuniueli  of  tapenrti- 
tion,  and  to  raise  them  above  the  pusiona  and  the 
weaknestea  of  onr  natural  oonditioo.  With  hie 
maater,  Gpicnrofl,  L.  adopted  the  atomic  theoiy  of 
Lencippiu,  which  taught  that  certain  elementary 
particleB,  exiating  from  all  eternity,  and  governed, 
by  filed  laws,  combined  to  form  tilt  nmverse  of 
matter ;  that  the  eiiateiice  and  active  interference 
of  a  anpreme  overmliog  deity  waa  not  neceosary 
to  be  Boppoaed  in  order  to  account  for  tLhe  marvel- 
ana  abnormal  in  Dature ;  and  tlul  whaterer 
.,.^-irad  to  be  miracnloua,  waa  in  reality  not  ao, 
but  was  merely  the  result  of  certain  fixed  lawa, 
which  operated  with  unerring  precisioa,  and  in  a 
natural  prooeaa.  Regarded  moely  as  a  literary 
oompoaitiOD,  the  work  of  L.  atanda  unrivalled  among 
didactic  poems.  The  cleamesa  and  fulness  wil£ 
which  the  moat  minute  facts  oE  physical  sdenoe, 
and  the  moat  aubtle  pbilosophioal  speculations,  are 
mifolded  and  eiplaiaed  ;  the  life  and  interest  which 
tre  thrown  into  discuaaiana  in  themselves  repulsive 
■jt  the  bulk  of  mankind  ;  the  beauty,  richness,  and 
rariety  of  the  episodes  which  are  interwoTen  with 
the  lubject-mattcT  of  the  poem,  combined  with  the 
majestie  verse  in  which  the  whole  is  clothed,  render 
the  D*  Jtentm  ifatura,  aa  a  work  of  art,  one  of  the 
most  perfect  which  antiquity  baa  beqaeathed  to 
OS.    For  a  fuller  estimat      '  '  '  ' 

Professor  SeUars'a  essay 

Stpt^Ue  (Edin.  1863).  i.ne  eamo  prtncepa  oi  l. 
was  published  at  Brescia  about  1473 ;  only  three 
copies  are  known  to  exist.  The  beat  editions  of  L. 
are  by  Wakefield  (Lond.  IT96,  3  vols.  4to,  and  Ghu. 
1813,  4  vols.  8vo)  i  by  Forbiger  (Leip.  1828,  12mo) ; 
by  Ltuihmaim  (BerUo,  1860.  2  vols.);  and  by 
Professor  Munro  (3d  edition,  1870).  The  i>a  Ittram 
Natura  has  been  tranaUted  into  English  verse  by 
Thomas  Creech  {Lond.  1714,  2  vols.  Svo);  and  by 
John  Muoa  Good  (Lond.  180S— 1807,  2  vols.  4to)  ; 
into  English  prose  by  the  Rev.  J.  S.  Watson,  M.A. 
(Lond.  Bobn's  Classical  Library,  1851,  jMst  8to)  ; 
and  by  Professor  Mimro,  at  the  end  of  his  edition. 

LUCV'LLCS,  L.  LICIHIUS,  a  very  distiDguished 
Roman  general,  bom,  it  is  conjectured,  about  110 
B.0:.  In  the  first  Mithridatio  war,  he  commanded 
s  legate  of  Sulla.  In  77  B.  a,  he  filled 
the  office  of  prtetor,  and  immediately  after,  held  the 
administration  of  the  provinoe  of  AMca.  In  74  b.  a, 
he  was  chosen  consul  along  with  Marcus  Aurehus 
Cotta,  and  got  Cilida  for  hia  pro\'ince,  whilst 
Cotta  had  Bithynia.  Both  consuls  arrived  in  Asia 
about  the  close  of  74  b.  o.  Cotta  woa  soon  after 
utterly  defeated  by  Mithridatea,  who  hod  burst 
'nto  Bithynia  at  the  head  of  150,000  troops,  forced 
o  take  refuge  in  Chalcedon,  and  there  was  besieged 
>y  the  victor,  L,  however,  advanced  to  hio  relief 
it  the  head  of  35,000  men,  compelled  Mitliridates 
10  raise  the  siege,  and  almost  annihilated  his  army 
>n  its  retreat.  In  71  n-O-,  Pontna  became  aabject 
lO  the  Romans.  The  measures  which  L.  now  intro- 
ducwl  in  the  government  of  the  province  of  Asia,  to 
re  the  provinciola  against  the  fearful  oppres- 
I  and  extortions  of  farmers  of  the  taxes  and 
oaurere,  especially  hia  firing  a  uniform  and  moder- 
ate rate  of  int^est  for  all  arrears,  shew  that  he 
m  a  juat^  wiae,  and  hnmane  admiaiatrator ;  but 
though  the  cities  of  Asia  were  grateful  lor  hia 
olemency,  the  equestrian  order  in  liome  (who  bad 
the  farming  of  the  taxes)  became  implacably  hostile 
to  hit" I  and  hia  own  troops  grew  disaffected  on 
soooont  of  the  strictness  of  his  discipline.  For 
L  however,  tiiiaffi  seemed  to  go  on  well 
_  In  the  spring  of  69  b.  a,  he  marched  into 

Annenia  with  ■  small  force  of  1£,000  foot  and  3000 


hone,  and  nined  a  eompleto  victca?  over  Tigranes, 
at  the  head  of  an  army  of  220,000  men.  In  the 
following  year,  he  gained  another  ra«at  victory  at 
the  river  Araanisa  over  a  new  army  led  against  him 
by  Tigranea  and  Mithridatea ;  but  the  matioons 
apirit  of  the  legions — in  spite  of  these  splendid 
triumphs — daily  increased.  L.  now  wanted  to 
besiege  Artaiata,  the  capital  of  Armenia,  but  the 
soldiers  refused  to  advance  further.  After  this,  he 
could  do  nothing ;  not  a  soldier  woold  serve  under 
him.  At  last,  he  was  superseded  by  Pianpey,  and 
left  Asia  66  b.  a  The  cabala  of  his  enemies  so  much 
prevailed  against  him,  that  he  was  three  years  in 
Rome  before  he  obtained  his  triumph.  In  conjunc- 
tion with  the  aristocratical  party,  he  attempted  to 
check  the  increasing  power  of  Pompey,  and  the 
attempt  caused  the  coalition  known  aa  the  first 
triumvirate.  But  he  was  ill  fitted  to  act  ss  leader 
against  such  unscrupulous  men,  and  soon  with- 
draw altogether  from  political  affairs.  During  hia 
public  career,  ho  had  acquired  (but  not  unfairly} 
pFodigiona  wealth;  and  he  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life  sncTounded  by  artists,  poets,  and  pbilo- 
Bophers,  and  exhibiting  in  his  villas  at  Tuaculum 
and  Neapolis,  and  in  hia  houae  and  gardens  at 
Rome,  a  luxury  and  splendour  which  became  pro- 
verbiaL  A  single  supper — on  particularly  gnnd 
occasions—would  coat  him  60,000  denarii  (£1770). 
Towards  the  cloae  of  hia  life,  his  faculties  began  to 
decay,  and  his  property  was  placed  under  the 
management  of  his  brother.  He  died  about  57  b.o. 
L.  was  a  man  of  great  military  talent,  humanity, 
liberality,  and  love  of  justice;  his  great  fault  was 
his  love  oi  pleasure  ;  not  exactly  viiaons  pleasiue, 
for  he  WHS  an  epicure  rather  than  a  profligato  ;  yet 
so  purely  aensool,  that  it  seems  to  have  mode 
people — certainly  his  soldiers — believe  him  to  be 
grossly  selfish  and  unsympathetio. 

LUDLOW,  a  market  town  and  municipal 
borough  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Salop,  at  the 
confiuence  of  'uie  Corve  and  Tcme,  25  miles  south- 
south-east  of  Shrewsbury.  It  is  an  old  and  veiy 
interesting  town  ;  it«  pju-ith  church  dates  from  the 
reign  of  Edward  IIL  ;  its  free  school,  foimded  by 
Edward  IV.,  has  an  annual  income  of  £350.  The 
castle,  now  a  magnificent  ruin,  was  at  one  time  one  of 
the  most  important  strongholds  against  the  Welsh. 
Here  Arthur,  eldest  son  of  Henry  VII.,  celebrated 
hia  marriage  with  Catharine  of  Arogon,  afterwards 
tie  wife  of  Henry  VIIL  ;  and  here,  in  1634,  Milton's 
masque  of  Comut  was  performed  for  the  first  time. 
The  oldest  charter  of  L.  is  from  Edward  iV.  L. 
seat  two  members  to  parliament  till  16G7,  and  one 
till  1SS6,  when  ita  separate  representation  ceased. 
Pop.  (1881)  of  municipal  borough,  6036. 

LUDLOW  FORl«ATION,  the  uppermost  divi- 
sion of  the  Silurian  Strata  (q.  v.),  consiata  of  an 
eitensiTe  series  of  indurated  argillaceous  beds,  with 
bands  of  dark-gray  argillaceous  limestone.  The 
town  of  Ludlow  stands  upon  the  hi^er  strata  <rf 
this  formation. 

LUDWIG  I.,  Kafl  Auodst,  King  of  Bavaria, 
the  eldest  aon  of  King  Maximilian  Joacph,  bom 
26th  Auguat  176&  In  1810,  he  married  the  Princess 
Theresa  of  Saxe-HildburjiihauBen.  As  crown-prince, 
he  took  little  port  in  pohtics.but  devoted  himself  to 
science  and  the  fine  arts,  and  lived  very  economic- 
ally, in  order  that  he  might  be  able  to  spend  large 
sums  in  forming  a  magnificent  collection  of  master- 
pieces of  Bculptore,  known  as  the  Qlyntothek.  He 
succeeded  to  the  throne  on  13th  October  1625,  and 
commenced  his  reign  by  granting  some  reforms. 
Hia  reign  was  distmniidied  by  the  encouiagement 
of  the  fine  arts,  ana  the  erection  of  magnificent 
public  building;  he  aim  iuanguratedthefint  railway 


..Google 


LUDWIGSBTIEO— LUa-WORBt 


tliat  Germanv  poaaeaed— that  from  Kuretnbera 
to  Fnrth — and  executed  the  fine  canal,  called  Lv£- 
teigdxmal,  which  niiitea  the  Danobe  and  the  Maine. 
But  it  was  no  lem  choracteriaad  by  the  prevalence  of 
ultramontane  inflaeace,  intolerance  towards  all  who 
did  not  belong  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  contempt 
of  oonstltntionsl  rights  and  forms,  whUet  the  kino's 
conduct  gave  great  ocoaeion  of  acandal,  partioulariy 
in'  hi*  connection  with  the  dnncer  Lola  Mont^ 
(created  Countess  of  Landafeld).  On  account  of  the 
revolutiouar?  diitarbanceB  in  February  and  March 
IS4S,  L.  [«siKned  the  crown  in  favour  of  hia  eldest 
■on,  Maxiniiliaii.    He  died  in  186S. 

LUDWIGSBURO,  a  town  of  WOrtemberc, 
abont  8  miles  north  of  Stuttgart.  It  was  foundS 
io  1706  by  Duke  Eberbard  Ludwig,  in  conaequence 
of  a  quarrel  with  the  Btutt^atters,  and  is  the  Kcond 
royal  reoidenoe.  L.  was  laid  out  with  painful  regu- 
larity, and  has  an  artificial  and  lifeless  look.  It  is 
the  principal  dfipAt  for  aoldierv  in  Wllrtemberg,  not 
less  than  4000  being  Btationed  here,  whence  it  has 
got  the  name  of  the  Swabian  Potsdam,  and  has  an 
■reenoJ,  a  cannon- foundry,  a  military  academy,  and 
a  royal  castle,  with  aplendid  picture-gallery  and 
gardens.    Pop.  (1880),  including  niiUtary,  16,087. 

LUFF,  in  Nautical  parlance,  is  to  bring  a  ship's 
head  to  the  wind,  prepnnitoiy  to  tacldng,  or  other- 
wise.   The  Ivf  of  a  vessel  is  the  rounds 
her  bow. 


t  part  of 


LTTOA'NO,  a  town  in  the  canton  of  Ticino, 
Switzerland,  stands  on  the  north-west  shore  of  the 
lake  of  the  same  name.  It  is  entirely  Italian  in 
character,  with  dingy  and  dirty  arcaded  streets ; 
but  its  environs  display  all  the  richness  of  Italian 
scenery.  L.  contains  sevetsl  factories  for  throwing 
silk,  and  is  the  scat  of  a  flourishing  transit  trade 
between  Switzerland  and  Italy.  From  Afonle  Saiva- 
dorr,  in  the  vicinity,  a  magnificent  view  may  be 
obtained.    Pop-  (1880)  6129. 

LUGAKO,  Lj.sk  or,  b  situated  in  the  south  of 
the  canton  of  Ticino,  Switzerland,  three  of  its  arms 
reaching  into  the  Italian  territory.  Its  greatest 
length  IS  about  20  miles  ;  but  from  its  exceedingly 
irregular  shape,  it  is  nowhere  more  ttuu  1|  imle 
broad.  The  character  of  its  scenery,  though  perhaps 
■s  beautiful,  is  more  rugged  than  that  of  Lakes 
Gomo  and  Maggiore. 

LUGA'NSK,  a  market-town  in  the  government 
of  Ekaterinoslav,  Enropean  Russia,  situated  on  the 
Lngan,  a  branch  of  the  Donetz,  100  milee  north- 
oorth-we«t  of  Taganrog,  is  the  seat  of  the  only 
ironworks  in  the  south  of  Russia.  The  ore  was 
formerly  brought  from  the  Ural  Mountains,  but  is 
DOW  found  in  sufficient  quantity  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. L.  has  also  a  cannon- foundry  and  coaj-mjnes, 
and,  during  the  Crimean  war,  supplied  the  Russian 
fleet  with  coal  and  anmiumtion.    Pop.  (1880)  10,000. 

LUGOAGB  of  tnvellers,  though,  in  a  certain 
•ense,  attached  to  the  penon,  and  under  one's  imme- 
diate oare,  and  not  paid  for  separately,  is  neverthe- 
leM  protected  by  the  contract ;  and  carriers  of  all 
kinds  are  bound  to  carry  luggage  safely,  and  if  it  is 
lost,  must  pay  damages  for  it.  Owing  to  the  estab- 
lished rule,  Uat  luggage  is  not  paid  for  separately, 
it  boa  often  been  attempted  by  travellers  to  abuse 
this  privilege,  and  carry  merchandise  as  part  of  and 
mixed  up  with  their  luggage,  in  order  to  escape 
any  separate  and  extra  payment.  Most  nulwa^ 
companies,  accordingly,  by  their  by-laws  fix  a  limit 
as  to  weight  for  tfns  lu^age,  and  it  is  presnmed 
that  lufgage  consista  o^  of  wearing-apparel  or 
things  for  personal  use,  and  not  articles  of  trade 
intsoded  for  sale.    Thoudi  carrien  or  railway  oom- 

ries  ooanot  get  rid  of  liability  for  this  luggage 
giving  any  notico  or  making  a  by-law  to  that 


effect,  yet  it  is  competent  for  all  carriers  to  spsdfy 
certain  articles  of  merchandise,  which,  whether  theu 
are  mixed  up  with  luggage  or  not,  must  be  separately 
paid  for,  otherwise  Uiey  will  not  be  responsible. 
Such  are  gold  or  silver  in  a  manufactured  state, 
jewellery,  watchea,  clocks,  trinkets,  stamps,  map^ 
writings,  title-deeds,  paintings,  pictures,  gl^s,  china, 
silks,  furs,  and  lace,  provided  these  exceed  in  value 
iClO.  Unless  notice  of  auch  articles  being  included 
in  the  luggage  is  given  to  the  carriers  or  com- 
pany, and  an  increased  rate  paid,  they  will  not  be 
responsible  for  the  loas.  Eicepi^  therefore,  theae 
excepted  orttcles,  the  carrier  ia  bound  to  reoeiv& 
carry  securely,  and  deliver  the  luggage  of  travelleta, 
notwithstanding  the  traveller  has  it  in  his  perseoal 
oharee.  Thus,  a  railwav  porter,  on  the  arrival  of 
the  train,  harinf^  carried  a  traveller's  luggage  to  a 
oab  and  lost  it  in  the  way,  the  railway  company 
was  held  responsible.  A  carrier  has  a  lien  on  the 
luggage  for  the  fore,  if  not  paid,  and  can  keep  it  till 
such  fore  is  paid ;  but  as  prepayment  is  now  the 
universal  practioe,  this  remedy  is  seldom  resorted  to. 
LUGGER,  a  small  vessel  carrying  two  or  three 
masts,  with  a  lugsail  (see  below)  on  each,  and  occa- 
sionally  a  topsaiL  The  rigging  is  light  and  simple, 
and  the  form  of  (he  sails  enables  a  lugger  to  b^t 
dose  up  to  the  wind.     Among  English  boats,  the 


lugger-yachts  in  the  different  olubo.  In  the  Frendh 
service,  however,  it  is  a  favourite  rig,  and  is  used 
for  vessels  of  sizes  as  large  sa  British  schooners. 

LuosuL,  a  quadrilateral  sail  nsed  in  luggers  and 
open  boats.  It  is  bent,  bv  tlie  upper  side,  upon  a 
straight  yard,  which  is  funng  on  the  mast  m  an 

onX 

LU'GO  {the  Lvcut  Aagueti  of  the  Romans),  a 
town  in  the  north-west  of  Spain,  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Mine,  GO  miles  east-north-east  of 
Santiago.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  has  a  catbe- 
dml  of  the  12th  c,  and  several  other  churches, 
and  manufactures  of  silk  and  leather.  It  was 
celebrated  in  the  time  of  the  Romans  for  its  warm 
sulphur- baths.    Pop.  9000L 

LUG-WORM,  or  LOB-WORM  {ArauoAa 
piteaiorum),  one  of  the  Dorabrtaidiiaia  Anndid^ 
extremely  abundant  on  the  British  shores,  and  very 
valuable  as  bait  to  fishermen.  It  inhabits  the  sand, 
on  the  surface  of  which,  after  the  tide  has  retired, 
innumerable  coils  ate  alwajrs  to  be  seen,  the  catU 
at  this  worm.      It  is  larger  than  the  earthworm, 


jgh 


LUINI— LULLY. 


foot  loDg,  ill  deetitato  of  ejr««,  bM  do 
distinct  head,  but  u  mnch  thicker  *t  the  extremity 
whore  tbe  mouth  is  situated  tlian  ftt  the  other.  The 
mouth  has  no  jaws,  nor  teeth,  nor  teotBclei.  There 
are  two  rows  of  bristles  along  the  aides,  organs  of 
locomotiaii,  hy  means  of  which  the  L.  works  ita  way 
through  the  sand.  About  the  middle,  it  has  on  each 
side  SIX  tufts  of  gills.  (For  &g.,  aee  AvmLHiA.) 
When  touched,  it  exudes  a  yellowiah  Suid ;  and  an 
exadatioa  Crom  ita  body  slightly  agglutinate*  the 
particlea of  Bond,  to  as  to  fomi  a  tubeuiraugh  which 
it  pasBGs  and  repassea.  It  is  one  of  the  annelids 
most  remarkable  for  the  red  ooloor  of  the  blood, 
which  imparts  a  fine  crimson  to  the  gill-tufts. 

LUINI,  or  LOVTKO  DA  LUINI,  BnuiAaDtHO, 
bom  about  1460  at  Luioi,  near  the  I^go  Maggioi^  a 
oelebnted  painter  of  the  Lombard  aChooL  He  is 
ganerallr  stated  to  have  been  the  principal  pupil  of 
Leonardo  da  Yinci,  bnt  it  rather  appean  that  he 
iras  edocated  under  Stefano  Scotto ;  aod  thoogh, 
from  having  attended  the  Academy  of  the  Iliie 
Arts  founded  at  Milan  by  LudovicoilMoro,  of  which 
Leonardo  was  director,  he  may  be  styled  a  papil 
of  that  great  artist,  yet  it  is  not  proved  that  he 
received  any  direct  instruction  from  him.  Though 
L.  occasionally  imitated  the  style  and  execution  so 
oloeely  as  to  deceive  experience  j  udges,  his  general 
momier  had  a  delicacy  and  grace  sufficiently  original 
and  distinct  from  that  of  L^nardo.  Still  the  works 
of  the  fonner  are  often  attributed  to  the  latter,  in 
order  to  increase  their  value.  Ho  executed  numerous 
works  at  Milan  in  oil  and  fresco,  Hia  frescoes  Bt 
Lagfuo,  Saronno.  and  Pavia,  are  justly  admired. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  not  exactly  known,  but  he 
was  alive  in  1530.— He  had  a  brother,  AXBROOIO, 
who  imitated  his  style,  and  aeveral  aons  who  also 
were  painters. 

LUISE,  AvavsTB  Wilhblmini  Amalik,  queen 
of  Progda,  was  bom,  10th  March  1776,  at  Hanover, 
where  her  father,  the  Duke  Karl  of  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz,  was  then  eommandaQt,  She  was  married 
to  the  Crown-prince  of  Prussia,  afterwards  Frederick 
William  Itt,  on  24th  December  17S1  After  his 
acoesaion  to  the  throne,  she  became  exceedingly 
popular,  her  great  beauty  being  united  with  dignity 
and  grace  of  manners,  and  with  much  gentleness  of 
character  and  active  benevolence.  This  popularity 
incToased  in  consequence  of  her  conduct  dunns  the 
period  of  national  calamity  which  followed  the  battle 
of  Jena,  when  she  displayed  not  only  a  patriotic 
■inrit,  but  no  little  energy  and  resolution.  She  was 
nnexpoctedly  taken  ill,  and  died  when  on  a  visit  to 
her  father  in  Stretitx,  19th  July  1810.  Her  memory 
is  oherished  in  Prussia,  and  the  Order  of  Luise  in 
that  kingdom  was  founded  in  honour  of  her. 

LUKE  {Lticat),  the  author  of  one  of  the  gospels, 
and  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  waa  bom,  acconliog 
to  the  accounts  o[  the  church  Fathers,  at  Antioch  in 
Syria,  and  is  s«d  to  have  been  a  physician.  He  was 
probably  by  descent  a  Hellenistic  Jew.  We  leam 
from  S^ptnre  that  he  was  the  associate  of  Paul  in 
hia  second  evangelistic  expedition  (52  l.  n.)  ;  but 
that  is  all  we  know  ;  whatever  else  is  asserted  con. 
ceming  him  ia  doubtfuL  That  he  was  a  painter,  is 
one  of  the  things  for  which  tradition  vouches ;  and 
in  the  church  of  St  John  Lateran  at  Rome  a  picture 
of  our  Saviour  is  shewn,  which  is  ascriiied  to  L.,  but 
is  believed  to  be  a  work  of  the  13th  century.  The 
ohnrcbe*  of  Padua,  Venice,  and  Bome  also  pouess 
many  [veteoded  rdics  of  this  evangelist.  His 
feetival  is  commemoiated  by  the  Koman  Catholic 
Church  oa  the  18th  of  October.—The  Ooqwl  of 
St  Lnkt^  addressed  to  ■  certain  Theophilus,  is 
noeiallf  beUered  to  have  been  written  befote  the 
deetrnction  of  Jerusalem;  but  many  of  the  beat 
tit 


anthoritiet,  ugoing  from  the  pecnliarittes  of  the 
coapel  as  aom]«red  with  the  other  synoplical  gospels, 
hold  that  80  A.D.  is  tbe  earliest  possible  date. 
Some  hold  that  it  was  written  by  another  than  the 
Pauline  Luke.  See  CkiSFELa ;  and  the  wotIu  of  De 
Wette,  Meyer,  Lange,  and  Godet. 

LULLY,  Bathoni),  'the  enlightened  doctor,' 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  the  ISOi  □., 
wai  bom  at  Falma,  in  M^orca,  in  1234.  In  his 
youth,  he  led  a  dissolute  lira,  and  aerved  for  some 
time  aa  a  common  soldier  ;  but  a  oomplete  revulsion 
of  feeling  taking  plaoe,  he  withdrew  to  solitude, 
and  gave  himsm  up  to  extatio  meditations  and 
the  study  of  the  difficult  sdencea.  Thia  suddso 
change  of  life  produced  in  L,  a  fervid  and  enthusi- 
astio  state  of  mind,  under  the  in£uenoe  of  which 
he  formed  the  project  of  a  spiritual  cmsade  for  the 
conversion  of  the  Mimsulmaos,  an  idea  he  never 
afterwards  abandoned.  In  pursuance  of  this  pro- 
ject, he  commenced  an  earnest  study  of  theology, 
philosophy,  and  the  Arabic  language;  and,  after 
soma  years,  published  his  great  work.  Art  Oentr- 
alii  nve  Magna,  which  has  so  severely  tested  the 
sagacity  of  commentatora.  This  work  ia  the  develop- 
ment of  the  method  of  teaching  known  subse- 
quently as  the  '  Lullian  method,'  and  afforded  a 
kind  of  mechmiical  aid  to  the  mind  in  the  acquisi- 
tion and  retention  of  kuowledge,  by  a  systematio 
arrangement  of  subjects  and  ideas.  Ijke  all  such 
methcda,  however,  it  gave  bttle  more  than  a  super- 
ficial kuowledge  of  any  subject,  though  it  was  ol 
use  in  leading  men  to  perceive  the  necessity  for  an 
investigation  of  truth,  tbe  means  for  which  were 
not  to  be  found  in  tiie  scholastic  dialectics.  L. 
subsequently  published  another  remarkable  work, 
LStri  XII.  FrtTicipioruia  Philoaoph.  coiUra  Aver- 
roiitaM,  and,  full  of  the  principles  which  he  had 
developed  in  this  book,  he  went  to  Tunis,  at  the 
end  of  1291,  or  the  beginning  of  1292,  to  argue  with 
his  opponents,  face  to  face-  He  drew  Urge  orowd* 
of  attentive  hearers,  and  held  disputations  with 
learned  Mohammedans,  who,  however,  net^  aa 
anxious  to  convert  him  as  he  to  convert  them,  and 
the  result,  as  might  have  been  expected,  was  that 
little  impression  was  made  by  either  of  the  parties. 
Finally,  however,  L.  was  t!m>wn  into  prison,  and 
condemned  to  banishment.  After  lecturing  at 
Naples  for  several  years,  ho  proceeded  to  Romet 
thence  to  his  native  island  of  Majorca,  where  he 
laboured  for  the  oonversion  of  the  Saracens  ani$ 
Jews;  thence  to  Cyprus  and  Armenia,  zealously 
exsrtiug  himself  to  bring  baok  the  diS'erent  schis- 
matic partiea  of  the  oriental  church  to  orthodoxy. 
In  1306—1307,  he  asain  suled  for  Africa,  entered 
the  city  of  Bn^  (Qien  the  capital  of  a  Moham- 
medan empire),  and  undertook  to  prove  the  trutii 
of  Christianity.  A  tnmnlt  arose,  in  which  L.  nearly 
lost  his  life.  He  was  again  thrown  into  prison,  and 
treated  with  groat  sevarity  ;  yet  ao  high  an  opinion 
was  entertained  at  hia  abilities,  that  uie  ohira  mea 
of  the  place  were  anxious  that  he  should  embnoe 
Mohammedanism,  and  promised  bim  if  he  did  ao 
the  higbeflt  honours.  But  to  L.,  whose  intellect  and 
feelings  were  both  enlisted  in  the  cause  of  Chris- 
tianity, this  was  impossible.  After  some  time  he  waa 
again  banished  from  tbe  country,  and  landed  (after 
being  shipwrecked)  near  Pisa.  He  snbeeqnently 
went  to  Faria,  and  lectured  against  the  pnnciplea 
of  Averroea ;  he  also  induoed  the  pope  to  establish 
chairs  for  tJie  Arabia,  Chaldee,  and  Hebrew  lan- 
guages in  all  oitiea  where  the  papal  court  resided, 
and  also  at  the  nniveisitiea  of^  Paris,  Oxford,  and 
Salamanca.  Bnt  his  misaionary  leal  could  only 
be  satiated  by  martmdom.  In  1314,  he  sailed  ODO* 
more  for  Afnea,  and  proceeded  to  Bugia,  where  be 
threatened  the  people  with  divine  judgments  if  they 


v;  Google 


LUMBAGO— LUMmOSTTY  OF  ORGAjnC  BEIN08. 


■toned  hii"  to  death,  30th  Jane  131S.  The  Muf  ence 
(10  ToU.  ITSl— 1742)  edition  of  hie  works  iacludes 
several  books  on  ■Johemj',  of  which  there  ie  not 
the  slightest  reason  to  suppose  L.  was  the  author. 
See  Pntntl's  OetcL,  dtr  L^fii  and  Erdmaan's  Qae/t. 
itr  PKUoiophie. 

LUMBA'GO  is  &  rhenmatia  affection  of  the 
moseles  in  the  lumbar  region,  or  in  the  onall  of  the 
bMk.    It  ii  often  firat  recoenissd  by  the  occorrence 


jevere  as  to  ctinfloe  thepati.-.  .. 

bed  and  in  one  position,  from  which  be  cannot  more 
withont  intense  suffering  ;  but  in  milder  cases  be  can 
walk,  although  stiffly  and  with  pain,  and  usually 
with  tiie  bo<^  bent  more  or  less  forward.  It  may 
be  distinTuisbed  from  inOammation  of  the  kidneys 
by  the  absence  of  the  peculiar  direction  of  the  pain 
toward*  the  groin,  as  also  by  the  obsenoe  of  the 
nausea  and  vomiting  which  osnally  accompany  the 
diseaae  of  the  kidney. 

The  causes  of  lumbago  are  the  same  as  those  ol 
tab-acute  Thenmatism  generally.  The  complaint 
niay  arise  from  partial  exposure  to  cold,  especially 
when  the  body  is  heated,  and  violent  stroinmg  wiU 
■ometitnes  induce  it.  In  persons  with  a  strong 
constitnlJOniLl  tendency  to  rhenmatisni,  the  slightest 
eiciting  cause  will  bring  on  an  attack  of  lumbago. 

The  treatment  must  vary  with  tha  intenaitv  of 
the  affection.  In  moat  cases,  a  worm  bath  at  bed- 
time, followed  by  ten  ^ains  of  Dover's  powder,  will 
speedily  remove  it ;  and  as  local  remedies,  a  miitore 
m  ehloroform  and  soap-liniment,  or  the  applieation 
of  the  heated  hammer  mads  for  the  purpose,  will  be 
found  serviceable.  (See  also  tlie  treatment  for 
RHEiTUATiau.)  The  writer  of  this  article  has 
freqaently  seen  the  disorder  completely  disappear 
aftw  one  application  of  the  hammer,  which  sboiild 
be  heated  in  a  spirit'Ianip  to  somewhat  about  200°, 
and  then  be  rapidly  brought  In  contact  with  ]>ointa 
of  the  skin  over  the  pamful  parts  at  intervals  of 
about  half  on  inch.  &ch  application  leaves  a  red 
•pot,  bnt  blisters  seldom  oocnr,  if  the  operation  is 
properly  performed. 

LUMINO'SITY  OF  ORGAITIC  BEINGS. 
Manj  organio  beings,  both  vegetables  and  animals, 
pa«eM  the  property  of  emitting  liffht. 

In  oryptogamic  plants,  it  has  been  observed  on 
tbe  filamenbp  of  SchatoiUga  osmuadaaa,  one  of 
tbe  order  of  Hepaticte ;  in  Rhixomorvha  nAttrranea, 
belonging  to  tbe  order  of  Fungi  (which  is  not 
nnoommon  on  tbe  walls  of  dark,  damp  mines, 
caverns,  ftc,  and  occasionally  emits  a  light  suffi- 
ciently dear  to  admit  of  reading  ordinary  print) ; 
in  eeiioin  Bpetdee  of  Agariau  {belonging  to  the  same 
Older);  and  in  7'hdaphora  earulea  (atoo  a  fungus], 
to  which  decayed  wood  owes  its  phosphoric  light. 

Aji  emiaaion  of  Ught,  cbieny  io  flashes,  has 
been  observed  in  the  case  of  a  few  pbanerogamio 
plants,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  tbe  garden 
nasturidnm  and  marigold,  the  orange  lily,  and  the 
poppy.  In  these  instances,  tbe  light  has  been 
emitted  by  the  flowers ;  but  cases  are  also  recorded 
in  which  the  leaves,  juice,  ftc,  of  oertain  plants 
have  evolved  light,  llie  emission  of  light  from  tbe 
common  potato,  when  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  is 
sometimes  very  striking.  Dr  Phipaon,  in  his  work 
On  Photphoreixneef  mentioui  a  case  in  which  the 
Udit  UiUB  emitted  from  a  oellarful  of  these  v^e- 
tables  was  so  strong  as  to  lead  on  of&cei  on  guud 
at  Staaabnrg  to  b^ve  that  the  barracks  were  on 
fire.  The  ptioq)Iu>r«scence  In  this  case  is  probably 
dne  to  the  same  cause  as  that  of  decayed  wood. 


Before  proceeding  to  notice  the  principal  case 
which  living  animals  have  been  observed  to  emit 
tight,  we  shall  briefly  refer  to  the  emiaaion  of  light 
1^  dead  animal  matter.  The  bodies  of  many  marms 
ani"'!*!''  shine  after  death,  but  in  none  is  the  pheno- 
menon so  vivid  or  continuouB  as  in  the  weil-kno 


known  to  Pliny,  who  said 
that  it  shone  in  the  mouths  of  persons  who  ate  it ; 
and  has  been  mode  the  subject  of  special  investi- 
gation by  BEaumur,  Beccaria,  and  others.  Among 
ither  reaolta,  they  found  that  a  single  Pliota*  ren- 


a  of  milk  BO  lummons  that  t 


faces  of  persons  might  be  distinguished  by  it ;  ai 
that,  by  phiolng  the  dead  onimsl  in  honey,  its  pi 
perty  of  imitting  light,  when  plunged  into  wai 
water,  lasted  more  tl^  a  year. 

It  is  universally  known  that  certain  kinds  of  dead 
fish,  especially  mackerels  and  herrincs,  shine  in 
dark.  From  a  careful  study  of  the  liody  of  a  dead 
stock-fish  in  a  luminous  condition,  Dr  Fhipson 
Gads  that  the  phenomenon  Ii  due  to  a  grease  which 
shines  upon  Uie  fish,  and  vrhich  (as  it  neither 
contains  pbospbonu  nor  minute  fungi,  b^  which 
tbe  light  might  have  been  caused)  contains  some 
peculiar  organic  matter,  which  shines  in  the  dark 
like  phoepborus  itself. 

Several  cases  are  on  record  in  which  ordinary 
butcher's  meat  has  presented  the  pbenomeoon  now 
under  consideration,  but  their  occurrence  is  so  rare 
that  we  need  not  specially  notice  them.  It  may  be 
observed  that  phosphorescent  light  is  not  unfre- 
qaently  obeervod  on  the  dead  binnan  body  by 
persons  who  visit  dissecting-rooms  by  night.  The 
occaaional  evolation  of  light  by  living  noman  bei 
will  bo  presently  referred  to. 

The  livina  animals  which  posieas  the  ]iroperty 
of  emitting  light  ore  extremely  numerous,  decided 
cases  of  pho^ihoreacence  having  been  frequently 
observed,  according  to  Dr  Fhipson,  '  in  iiiiuaoria, 
rhizopoda,  polypes,  ecbinoderms,  annelides,  medium, 
tnnicata,  moUuscs,  crustaceans,  myriapodes,  and 
insects.'  Following  the  arranoement  here  laid  down, 
we  shall  mention  s  few  of  the  organisms  in  which 
the  phenomenon  in  qneation  is  most  remarkable. 
Among  the  rhizopoda,  the  JfoctSuca  miliarU,  a 
minate  animal  very  common  in  the  English  Channel, 
stands  pre-eminent.  Dr  Phipson  routes  that  he 
has  found  it  '  in  snch  prodigious  numbers  la  the 
damp  sand  at  Ostend,  that  on  raising  a  handful  of 
it,  it  appeared  like  so  much  molten  lava.'  It 
tbe  chief  cause  of  the  phasphorescence  of  the  K 
which  is  so  often  observed.  Among  the  onnelidt 
earthwomiB  occasionally  evolve  a  shining  light  lil 
that  of  iron  heated  to  a  white  heat.  Among  tl 
tunicata,  a  minute  animal  common  in  some  of  tL. 
tropical  seas,  the  Fyrotama  AUantiea,  resembles  a 
minute  cylinder  of  glowing  phosphorus,  and  some- 
times  occurs  in  snch  numbers,  that  the  ocean  aii]>ear« 
like  an  enonnoua  layer  of  molten  lava  or  snining 
phosphorus.  Among  the  myriapodes,  certain  oenti 
pedes— vii.,  Scolopaulra  dectrica  and  S.  p/tosphorfo- 
prescnt  a  briliiant  pbosphorio  appearance.  Thero 
IS  reason  to  believe  tliat  the  former  will  not  riilne 
ia  the  dork,  unless  it  has  been  previously  exposed 
to  the  solar  rays.  Luminosity  in  insects  occurs  in 
certain  genera  of  the  Coleoptera  and  Semiptera, 
and  posubly  in  certain  Lepidoptera  and  Orthoptera. 
Among  tbe  Cioleoptera,  must  be  especially  mentioned 
the  genus  Lampyrit,  to  which  the  various  speoies  of 
Glowworms  (q.  v.)  belonc,  and  the  genus  Elaler,  t( 
wbichtbeFir^ieB(a.v.)  belong.  Id  the  Hemiptera, 
there  ia  Uie  genus  pKlgom,  or  Ijuitem-flies  (q.v' 
some  ipeciea  of  which  are  highly  luminous. 

'The  evolution  of  light  from  animal b  belonging 
to  the  vertebrates  is  extremely  rare.    Bartholin,  J- 


,,  Google 


LUMPSUCKER-LUHACr. 


hJB  trefttiie  De  Lua  Honinum  et  Brvtomm  (1S4T), 
Riyea  on  account  of  an  Italian  lady,  whom  he 
deoignatea  ai '  molier  iplendena,'  whose  body  ahoae 
with  phoaphoric  radiations  when  gently  rubbed  with 


diy  linen  ;  aod  Dr  Kane,  in  hie  uat  voyage  to  the 
polar  region*,  witneesed  almost  as  remarkahle  a 
case  of  Eomaii  phoaphorcacence.  A  tew  cases  are 
recorded  by  Sir  H.  Manh,  Professor  DonoTsn,  and 
other  undoubted  authorities,  in  which  the  bnmtui 
body,  shortly  before  death,  has  presented  a  pale 
Immnous  appearance. 

It  is  Teiy  difficult  to  give  a  satisfactory  explati- 
■tion  of  the  above  facts.  The  light  evolved  trom 
fungi  is  most  probably  connected  with  chemical 
action,  while  that  emitted  in  sparkB  and  flashes 
from  flowers  i»  probably  electiioiLC  In  some  lumin- 
ous animals,  a  pbogpboivBoent  OT^a,  specially 
adapted  for  the  production  of  light,  hHk  been  already 
detected,  and  as  anatomical  science  progresses, 
the  same  will  probably  be  found  in  all  organisms 
endowed  with  luminous  or  phosphorescent  pro- 
perties. For  fuU  details,  see  Dt  Phipson  On  PAos- 
pkoracence  (1862),  and  the  BtporU  and  Narrative  of 
the  Challauger  £^>edition. 

LU'MPBUCKER,  or  LDMPFISH  {CydopUrut). 
a  genua  of  fisbea  of  the  family  Diteoboli  (q.  v.), 
banug  the  bead  and  body  deep,  tliick,  and  diort, 
the  Mok  with  an  elevated  rid^  the  fins  rather 
small,  and  the  ventrals  united  by  a  membrane  so  as 
to  foim  a  sucking  diBc — One  species  (C.  lumput) 
is  common  on  the  coasts  of  Britain,  particularly  in 
the  northern  parts,  and  is  still  more  plentiful  in  the 
seM  of  more  northern  regions.     It  has  a  grotesque 


Lnmpnicker  ((?.  lumpm). 


"51-1 


__  ,        .   .       he  I*  preya . ^_ 

Gahes.  Its  sucker  is  so  powerful  that  a  pail  con- 
taining sonie  gallons  of  water  has  been  lifted  when 
a  L.  oontained  in  it  was  taken  by  the  tail,  lie 
flesh  is  insipid  at  some  seasons,  bat  very  Gne  at 
others,  and  is  much  OMd  for  food  in  northern 
n^poos.  It  is  often  brought  to  the  Edinburgh 
market  It  is  known  in  Scotland  as  the  CoA 
Paidle. 

LUITAC7T.  By  the  law  of  England,  as  well  as  of 
all  other  countries,  the  presumption  is  in  favour  of 
a  man's  sanity,  even  Uiough  he  be  born  deaf,  dumb, 
and  blind ;  aiid  if  the  fact  is  disputed,  it  always  lies 
on  the  party  alleging  it  to  prove  it.  Sometimes  a 
pawon  m  a  state  supposed  to  be  that  of  a  lunatic 
makes  a  contnot,  and  is  sued  npon  it ;  in  such  a 
«Me,  he  may  set  up  as  a  defence  that  ha  was  a 
lunatic,  and  the  proof  will  consist  of  his  conduct 
and  actions  at  and  previous  to  the  time  in  question. 
I(  however,  tbs  other  party  did  not  know  of  the 


_" 


lunacy,  and  took  no  advantage,  the  lunatic  will  not 
be  allowed  to  recover  back  moneys  which  have  been 
paid  by  him  in  pu  nuance  of  his  contract.  Thoogh 
the  presumption  is  in  favour  of  the  sanity  of  a  pci^ 
son,  yet,  when  once  insanity  has  existed,  the  preaomp- 
tion  is  reversed,  and  then  the  law  preeumea  no  Inoid 
interval  or  mtoration  to  sanity  until  it  is  proved ; 
and  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  prove  a  Incid  interval, 
for  the  hiw  reqniroi  very  clear  and  conclusive  proof 
of  that  fact,  and  all  the  circumatances  must  be 
carefully  scanned.  It  is  difficult  or  impossible  to 
deBne  in  words  what  is  insanity  or  lunacy,  it  being 
a  negative  state,  and  merely  an  inference  from  the 
acta,  conduct,  and  bodily  condition  of  the  person. 
An  idiot  is  said  to  be  a  person  who  was  bom  with  a 
radical  infirmity  of  mind,  and  whose  state  is  one  ot 
perpetual  inSrmity,  incapable  of  cure  or  restoration ; 
whereas  a  lunatic  is  one  who  is  sometimes  of  good 
and  sound  mind,  aad  sometimes  not ;  ha  has  moid 
intervals,  and  is  assumed  to  be  more  or  less  capable 
of  restoration  to  sanity.  A  person  is  said  to  be,  in 
legal  phrsaeology,  of  unsound  mind,  who  is  not  an 
idiot,  nor  a  lunatic,  nor  yet  of  a  merely  weak  mindf 
but,  by  reason  of  a  morbid  condition  of  intellect,  is 
as  incapable  uf  managing  his  affairs  as  if  he  were  a 
lunatic  Though  it  la  difGcult  to  define  lunacy  or 
insanity,  there  are  various  tests  which  are  mom 
or  leas  accepted  in  everyday  life  as  strong  evidence. 
Idiocy  is  accompanied  by  a  vacant  look,  &c,  while 
insanity  is  accompanied  by  some  frenzy  or  extrava- 
gant delusion.  The  pbysiology  of  idiocy  and  lunacy 
is  a  separate  subject  of  inveatixatioo,  and  is  part  of 
medical  iurispnidence,  to  which  a  few  medical  man 
conhne  their  attention,  and  their  assistance  is  often 
required  by  courts  of  law  when  inquiring  into  thia 
state  of  mind,  though  their  theories  are  jealously 
scrutinised.  As  a  general  rule,  an  idiot  or  a  lunatio 
is  subject  to  civil  incapacity.  He  cannot  enter  into 
contracts  or  transact  general  business,  and  what  he 
does  is  a  nullity.  Thus  he  cannot  moke  or  revoke 
a  will,  or  enter  into  marriage,  or  act  as  an  executor 
or  Bdministrator,  or  become  a  bankrupt,  or  be  a 
witness  in  a  court  of  justice,  or  vote  at  elections, 
and  such  like.  But,  as  a  general  rule,  a  lunatto 
is  liable  in  damages  for  committing  a  wrong, 
such  as  a  trespass,  and  he  is  liable  for  necessaries 
supplied  to  him,  and  lie  may  be  arrested  for  debt, 
and  his  projierty  may  be  taken  in  such  cases,  as  in 
the  case  of  sane  persona.  With  regard  to  criminal 
responsibili^,  the  law  was  futiy  considered  in  the 
case  of  M'Naughton,  who,  in  1843.  shot  Mr  Dram- 
mond  at  Charing  Cross  by  mistake  for  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  and  the  English  judges  were  called  on  by  tjie 
House  of  Lords  to  state  their  opinion  as  te  the  right 
mode  of  putting  the  questions  to  a  jury  when  the 
defence  of  insanity  is  raised,  lie  judges  said  that 
a  person  labourine  under  an  insane  delusion  aa  te 
one  subject  is  liaMe  to  punishment,  if  at  the  time 
ot  committing  the  crime  ha  knew  he  was  acting  con- 
trary te  law.  In  general  casee,  to  eateblish  want  of 
reaponaibility.  it  must  be  proved  that  the  party 
accused  was  labouring  under  such  a  defect  of  reason, 
from  disease  of  mind,  as  not  to  know  the  nature  and 
quolitf  of  the  act  he  was  doing,  or,  if  he  did  know 
it,  that  he  did  not  know  he  was  doing  what  was 
wrong.  Where  the  party  is  labouring  under  an 
insane  delusion  as  te  existing  facts,  and  coaunits  a 
crime  in  consequence  thereof,  it  depends  on  the 
nature  of  the  delusion  whether  ha  is  excused.  Thus, 
if  he  insanely  believes  that  A  intended  te  kill  him, 
and  he  kills  A,  as  he  supposes.  In  self-defence,  he 
would  be  exempt  from  punishment.  But  if  his 
delusion  was  that  A  had  inflicted  a  serious  injury  to 
his  character  and  fortune,  and  ha  killed  A  in  revenga 
for  such  supposed  injury,  then  he  would  ba  liable  to 
punishment.  .  When  a  person  is  acquitted  of  <zinM 


v;  Google 


LTJSACT— LBHAlt  CAtJSTia 


on  tha  gioimil  of  insuiity,  be  is  lisblA  to  be  confined 
in  piuon  dnring  ber  MajeEty'E  pleamre. 

So  Ions  ai  a  penon  a  not  actuaU^  declared  insMie 
or  an  imot,  be  baa  a  right  to  manage  bia  own 
«Siun;  and  tbe  only  way,  in  England,  in  wbicb 
he  can  be  deprired  of  sncb  ricbt  need  to  be  bj  a 
writ  dt  lunatieo  tnquirtndo,  issmng  out  of  Chancery, 
which  avthoriaed  the  empannelliag  of  a  jury  to 
decide  whether  be  wa»  a  lunatic  or  not  The 
curtody  nnd  care  of  lunatics  wore  vested  iu  the 
crown ;  and  the  Lord  Choacellar,  as  the  depodWy 
of  tbis  Jonsdiction,  issued  tbe  writ  on  petitioo. 
The  practice  has  now  been  considerably  altered  by 
Torions  statutes,  but,  as  a  general  nue,  it  is  1111] 
the  law,  that,  onlesB  a  person  baa  been  officially 
deolarad  a  lonatio,  either  by  tba  verdict  of  a 
jury,  or  by  a  certificate  of  a  master  in  lunacy,  be 
Is  still  entitled  to  manage  hia  own  affaira.  In 
Enfbmd  and  Ireland,  there  is  no  intermediate 
atate  oalled  imbecility  or  weakness  of  mind,  with 
which  tbe  law  interferes,  as  there  is  in  Scotland 
ipee  iHTXRDKTnoH,  Imbbciutv),  and  hence,  if 
weak  person  is  imposed  on,  it  is  treated  merely  ai 
«B8e  of  fraud,  tbe  weakness  forming  an  element 
such  fntld  ;  but  there  is  no  machinei^  for  restrai 
ing  tbe  natural  right,  even  of  weak-minded  peraoos, 
to  do  what  they  like  with  their  property.  Aa 
regards  idiots  and  lunatics,  tba  mode  m  which  they 
«re  judicially  declared  to  be  so,  is  sa  follows  :  There 
Me  certain  peraona  called  maeters  in  Innacy,  whose 
btudneaa  it  is  to  conduct  the  inquiries  which  are 
necessary,  and  preaide  over  tbe  jju?!  and  they  alao 
visit  lonatica  in  certain  caeea.  The  commiaaiODeiB 
<i  lonaoy  form  a  Board,  which  laperviaea  Eenerally 
the  luni^c  asylums  and  licensed  nouBea  mr  recep- 
tion of  lunatics.  Tbe  incapacity  of  a  lunatic  •: 
idiot  is  conclunirely  eatabliabed  by  the  verdict  of  .. 
jury  under  an  inquisition  de  lunattco  inquirendo, 
held  before  a  niaat«^  in  lunacy;  or,  if  tbe  case  is  too 
dear  for  a  jury,  and  where  the  party  has  not  mental 
capacity  to  declare  bis  wish  on  toe  subject,  by  a 
«ertificate  of  a  master  in  lunacy.  Tba  I^rd  Chan. 
Cellor  may  direct  tbe  trial  to  take  place  before  one 
of  tbe  common-law  judges,  and  the  evidence  is  to 
be  confined  to  tbe  lunatic's  conduct  during  the 
previous  two  years  only.  Tbe  costs  of  tbe  trial  are 
in  tbe  Lord  Chancellor's  discretion-  If  the  party 
has  property,  tbe  Lord  Chancellor  then  appoints,  on 
petition,  a  committee  of  tba  estate  or  of  the  person 
of  the  lunatic,  and  the  visitors  in  lunacy  mnat  visit 
audi  lunatic  at  least  once  a  year,  nnlees  the  lunatic 
is  in  a  private  house  onlicensed,  in  which  cose  he 
must  be  visited  font  times  each  year.  Tbe  lunatic 
is  thus  kept  under  the  immediate  control  of  the 
Court  of  Chanoety,  which  manages  hia  property 
through  the  agency  of  the  committee  and  of  the 
visitors  in  lunacy.  But  as  mouj^  lunatics  have  no 
property,  or  property  of  a  trifling  nature,  it  has 
long  been  found  necessary  to  provide  osyloms  and 
rwutered  houses  for  tbe  reception  of  lunatics,  all 
which  are  more  or  less  under  control  of  tbe  com- 
nuMioaeTs  in  lunacy.  Houses  kept  for  the  reception 
of  InnaUcs  are  either  provided  by  the  counties, 
and  called  county  asylums,  or  they  ore  hospitals 
founded  by  charitable  donois,  or  they  ore  mere 
|irivate  houseB,  kept  for  purposes  of  profit  by  indi- 
viduals. County  asylmns  were  first  established  in 
1808  (see  Ldmatio  Asvium).  The  justices  of  every 
county  are  bound  to  provide  snch  an  asylum,  or 
to  join  with  some  other  parties  in  keeping  one,  the 
expense  being  defrayed  out  of  the  county  rates, 
and  a  committee  of  justices  being  appointed  as 
visitors,  to  see  that  the  statute  is  complied  with. 
Tbe  object  of  tbe  oounty  asylnia  i»  to  receive 
the  tnnatio  paupers  of  the  oonn^.  As  a  general 
role,  it  is  incumbent  on  the  pariah  offioen  of  each 


parish  to  report  to  Um  neighbouring  justices  any 
case  of  a  lunatic  pauper  bemg  in  th^  parish.  In 
some  casea  of  a  harmless  description,  such  paupan 
may  be  kept  in  the  workhousa ;  but  in  other  caare, 
on  tbe  matter  being  reported  to  tbe  justices,  tbe 
latter  order  tbe  paupers  to  be  brought  before  them 
for  examination,  and  then  tend  them  to  the  county 
asylum  ;  tbe  parish  to  which  tbe  pauper  belonsa — 
ie.,  in  which  he  is  legally  settled—being  liable  to 
defray  the  maintaoaoce ;  but  if  tbe  parish  which  is 
legally  bound  to  support  the  pauper  cannot  be  dis- 
covered, then  the  expense  is  to  be  charged  to  the 
county.  If  tbe  pauper  cannot  be  examined  by  the 
justices,  the  medical  officer  and  a  clergyman  may 
sign  a  certificate,  which  is  taken  to  be  evidence  ot 
the  lunacy.  Aa  to  private  bouses,  no  person  ia 
allowed  to  receive  two  or  more  lunatics,  unless  such 
house  has  been  previousty  licensed  by  the  commis' 
sionen  in  lunacy,  whiofa  lioence  is  only  given  after 
inspection,  and  a  report  as  to  its  sanitary  aironge- 
tnents  and  other  items  of  management.  No  person 
can  be  legally  received  into  such  licensed  bouse 
withoat  a  wnt(«n  onler  from  the  person  sending 
him,  and  the  medical  certiBcstee  of  two  physicians, 
surgeons,  or  apothecaries.  Tbe  keepers  of  snch 
houses  are  liable  to  visitation  by  the  oommissioners, 
and  to  render  regular  reports  as  to  all  particular* 
concerning  the  admission,  death,  removal,  discharge 
or  escape  of  patients.  The  commissioners  have  power 
to  visit  at  onexpected  times,  and  to  receive  reports 
from  other  visitors.  Tbe  commissioners  may  dis- 
cbarge persons  who  seem  to  be  detained  without 


In  Scotland,  the  law  differs  in  several  respects 
from  tbe  above.  Idiots  and  lunatics  are  often  called 
fatuous  and  furious  persons  respectively  ;  and  thera 
is  an  intermediate  state  called  imbecility  or  weak- 
neos  of  mind,  upon  evidence  of  wbicb  the  relations 
may  apply  to  tbe  Court  of  Session  for  Judicial 
Interdiction  (q.  v.),  which  baa  the  effect  of  protect- 
ing tbe  imbecile  from  squandering  bis  heritable 
property.  The  care  and  custody  of  lunatics  and 
idiots  belong  to  the  Court  of  Session,  which  may 
ippoint  a  cunt^r  bona  or  judicial  factor  to  take 
charge  of  the  estate,  and  a  curator  or  tutor  dative 


contained  in  tbe  statutes  SO  and  21  Vict  c  71,  21 
and  22  Vict  c  SS,  and  25  and  26  Vict  c  Si.  There 
also  a  Board  called  the  Commissioners  in  Lunacy 
for  Scotland,  who  may  grant  licences  for  private 
asylums.  They  may  also  give  special  licences  to 
occupiers  of  houses  for  the  reception  of  lunatics,  not 
iceeding  four  in  number,  subject  to  rules  and 
ignlations.  Counties  aod  parishes  may  contract 
for  accommodation  o£  their  lunatic  paupers.  Minute 
provisions  are  contained  in  these  statutes  oa  to  tbe 
mode  of  tareatnent  and  visitation  of  lunatics.  Var 
the  various  kinds  of   mental   alienation,  aee  Iir- 

LUNAB  CAUSTIC  is  tbe  term  appUed  to  the 
fused  nitrate  of  silver,  when  cast  into  small  cylinders 
It  is,  when  freshly  prepared,  of  a  whitish  striated 
appeamnce ;  but  on  exposure  to  tbe  air,  the  outer 
suroice  becomes  decomposed,  and  blackens. 


The  u 


healthy  action.  It  is  used  to 
remove  and  keep  down  spongy  gtanulatJons  {popD' 
larly  known  as  prond-fleah)  m  wounds  and  lucera, 
and  to  destroy  warta.  It  has  been  applied  with  good 
effect  to  the  pustules  in  small-pox,  m  mder  to  cut 


D,a,,.s=»Guu^le 


LnWAE  THEORY— LUNSVILLB. 


■hort  tbeir  pn^reaa  and  to  prerent  pitting.  It  is  ol 
great  serrice  aa  a  local  applic&tioa  m  inttommatory 
mWpinHivnm  And  ulcerations  of  the  mncona  membivke 
erf  the  month  and  thioat.  In  fianirad  or  ezooiiated 
nipplea,  its  •pplication  give*  great  lelieL  It  ahoold 
be  mainaated  into  all  the  cracks,  and  the  nipple  aft«r- 
mrda  wudied  witii  tepid  milk  and  water.  It  ii  also 
extenaivel^  employed  in  diBenaes  of  the  eye,  of  the 
senito-nrinaiy  organi,  and  in  aome  forma  of  akin- 

LUNAIt  THEORT,  a  term  employed  to  denote 
the  i  priori  deduction  of  the  moon  ■  motiona  from 
the  prindplea  of  gravitation.    See  UooK. 

HT'NATIO  ASYLUM.  The  first  hospitals  for 
the  insane  of  which  history  or  tradition  loakee  men- 
tioD,  were  the  ucred  temples  in  Egypt  In  Uicae, 
it  a  aaii,  the  diBease  waa  mitigated  oy  agreeable 
impresaiona  received  through  the  lenses,  md  by  a 
system  resembling  and  rivaling  the  highest  devel. 
opment  of  moral  treatment  now  practised.  Monas- 
teries appear  to  have  been  the  representative  of 
■nch  retreats  in  the  medieval  Christian  times ; 
bnt  restraint  and  rigid  asceticism  characterised  the 
management.  Oat  of  conventnal  establishments 
BTSW  the  Bethlems,  or  Bedlams,  with  which  oiir 
immediate  ancestors  were  familiar  (see  B1DI.U1). 
But  apart  from  such  receptacles,  the  vast  majority 
of  ths  insane  must  have  neen  neglected ;  in  some 
oountriea,  reverenced  as  specially  Uod-stiicken ;  in 
others,  toloratcd.  or  tormented,  or  laughed  at,  as 
simpletons  or  buifoona ;  in  others,  imprisoned  as 
■ocial  pesta,  even  eiecuted  as  ciiminals.  In  a  few 
■pots,  enjoying  ■  reputation  for  sanctity,  or  where 
miraculous  cures  of  nervous  diseases  were  supposed 
to  have  been  effected,  such  as  Qheel  and  St  Snoire, 
oommunities  were  formed,  of  which  Innatics,  sent 
with  a  view  t«  restoration,  formed  a  large  part,  and 
resided  in  the  houses  of  Uie  peasants,  and  partook 
of  their  labour  and  enjoyments.  Asyloms,  properly 
■o  called,  date  from  the  commencement  of  the  pre- 
sent century ;  and  for  many  yean  after  their  insti- 
tation,  although  based  upon  sound  and  benevolent 
views,  they  resembled  jaus  both  in  construction  and 
the  mode  m  which  they  were  conducted,  rather  than 
hospitals.  Until  very  reoently,  a  model  erection  of 
this  kind  was  conceived  necessarily  to  consist  of  a 
vast  block  of  building,  the  centre  of  which  was 
appropriated  to  the  residence  of  the  officera,  the 
kitten  and  its  dependencies,  the  chapel,  Ao.,  from 
which  there  radiated  long  galleries,  in  which  small 
rooms,  or  cells,  were  arranged  npon  one  or  both 
■ides  of  a  corridor  or  balcony,  having  at  one 
extremity  public  rooms,  in  which  the  agitated  or 
non-industrial  inmates,  as  the  case  might  be,  spent 
Oie  day,  while  the  more  tractable  individuals  were 
withdrawn  to  engage  in  some  pursuit,  either  in 
workshops,  clmrtored  round  the  central  house,  or 
in  the  grounds  attnched,  which  were  surrounded  by 
high  walls,  or  by  b  ha-ha.  The  popolation  of  such 
Mtablishments,  when  they  were  appropriated  to 
paupers,  ranged  from  100  to  1400  patients.  These 
were  committed  to  a  staff  composed  of  a  medical 
officer,  matron,  and  attendants,  to  whom  were 
directly  intnuted  the  management,  disdpUae,  and 
occapation  of  the  insane,  in  acoordanoe  with  regu- 
lations or  prescriptions  issued  by  the  physiaian. 
A  gradual  but  great  revolution  has  taken  place  in 
the  views  of  psychologists  as  to  the  provisions 
and  requirements  for  the  insane  during  seclusion. 
As  a  result  of  this  change,  asylums,  especially 
tor  the  wealthy  classes,  are  assunilsted  m  thai 
arrangements  to  ordinary  dwelling-houses ;  while 
it  is  proposed  to  place  the  indigent  in  oottagea 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  an  mfirmary,  where 
acute   oases,  individuals   dangerous  to  themselves 


or  others,  or  in  any  way  nntrustworthy,  oould  be 
confined  and  actively  treated,  aa  their  condition 
might  require.  In  all  such  eatablishmeab,  whether 
DOW  entitled  to  be  regarded  as  cottage  asylums 
or  not,  tJie  semhlanca  and  much  of  the  rulit? 
of  ooercion  has  been  abolished ;  the  infiuenoe  of 
religion,  occupation,  education,  recreation  j  tiu> 
judjcious  application  of  moral  impressiona ;  and 
the  dominion  of  rational  kindness  and  discrim- 
inating discipline,  have  been  superadded  to  mere 
medical  treatineot,  and  substituted  for  brate  foroe, 
terror,  and  cruelty. — Esanirol,  Det  Hala^et  Mai- 
tale*,  L  u.;  Guislain,  Stir  tAliaialion  MeUaU; 
Broivna  ou  Alyluvw,  &o. ;  Couolly  on  ComtmcUon 

LUND  {Londiiaaa  QoOurmm),  a  city  of  Goth- 
land, in  the  extreme  south  of  Sweden,  and  in  an 
eit«iiaire  and  fertile  plain  30  miles  south-east  of 
Helsingborg.  Its  population,  in  1380,  was  14,301; 
but  it  was  oDce  much  larger,  when  it  was  the  ohief 
scat  of  the  Danish  power  in  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula,  and  for  a  long  period  the  capital  of  the 
Danish  lungdom.  The  principal  building  is  the 
cathedral,  the  lower  part  of  which  is  as  old  as  the 
Iltb  century.  It  nas  manufactures  of  cloth, 
tobacco,  and  leather.  L.  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns 
in  Scandinavia ;  in  920,  it  was  taken  and  plundered 
by  a  band  of  Vii^tigt ;  it  was  the  see  of  a  bishop 
from  the  time  of  Uie  introduction  of  Christianity, 
and  from  1104  its  archbishop  long  exeroised  juris- 
diction over  all  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway. 
L.  has  a  univerait;,  founded  in  1628,  which  has  now 
3D  professors  and  600  students,  a  library  of  100,000 
volumes,  and  some  thousands  of  mannecripta,  an 
excellent  zoological  museum,  and  a  botanic  garden. 

LU'NDY  ISLJL    See  Supp..  VoL  X. 

LU'NEBUEG,  a  town  of  Hanover,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the  nver 
llmenau,  24  miles  south-^st  of  Harbui^  by  railway. 
It  is  mentioned  aa  early  as  the  age  of  Chulemagne, 
and  was  formerly  an  important  Hanseatie  town. 
It  is  surrounded  with  high  walls  and  towers,  and 
poBseasee  many  ancient  buildings.  The  trade  is 
considerable.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  L.  is  ths 
salt-work  of  Sulze,  dlsccvn^  in  the  IQth  a.,  and 
still  very  productive.  Close  by  is  a  hill  200  feet  hifih, 
with  rich  seams  of  lime  and  ^psum.  Pop  (16^) 
19,034.  It  was  at  h,  that  the  tint  engagement  took 
place  in  the  German  war  of  liberation,  2d  April 
1813.  About  16  miles  to  the  south-west  of  the 
town,  in  the  Ltlneburg  Heath,  lies  the  Gflhrde,  a 
beautifnl  forest,  with  a  royal  hunting-lodgei 

LiJNEBUBG,  formerly  a  principality  in  Lower 
Saiony,  now  a  district  in  the  province  of  Hanover. 
Area,  4300  square  miles ;  pop.  (1S80)  401,33^,  mostly 
Frotestauts.  The  Elbe  forms  its  northern  bonndaiy. 
Great  part  of  the  country  is  occupied  by  the  LHae- 
Imrg  Heath.    See  Hakoveb. 

LUNEL,  a  town  in  the  south  of  Fruice,  depart- 
ment of  Heranlt,  14  miles  east-north-east  of  Mont- 
pellier,  has  a  population  of  about  800(^  and  * 
considerable  trade  in  Muscatel  wine  and  raisins. 
Near  it  is  »  cave,  important  for  the  fossil  bones 
found  in  it. 

LUNE'TT^  in  Fortification,  is  a  small  work 
beyond  the  ditch  of  the  ravelin,  to  supply  its 
deliciency  of  satiency,  and  formed  at  the  re-entering 
angle  made  by  the  ravelin  and  bastion.  The  lunette 
has  one  face  perpendicular  to  the  ravelin^  and  the 
other  oearly  ))erpendicular  to   tiie  bastion.      See 

FOETWICiTION. 

LTTNEVILLE.  a  town  in  the  department  of 
Meurthe-et-Moselle,  ia  France,  at  the  oonfluenoe  of 
the  Meorthe  and  the  Texouse,  is  a  reguUrly  built 


,,  Google 


LUNGS— LUPUa. 


ud  DnwaUed  town.  Pop.  (1876)  15,878.  It 
formerly  a  frequent  reeidcace  of  the  Dukea  of 
Loirsine,  uid  their  palace  is  now  used  as  a  cavsJr)' 
barrack.  L.  has  manufactiireB  of  cotton  and 
worsted  Boods,  embroidery,  and  earthenware.  It 
ia  one  olthe  lar^t  cttvairv  Btatione  in  France. 
The  town  has  a  historio  Celebris  from  the  Peace 
of  LnnGville,  concluded  here  on  February  9,  1801, 
between  Oennaivr  and  France,  on  the  bads  of  the 
Peace  at  Caropo-Pormio  (q.  v.). 

LUNGS.    See  BffiFtKATioN,  OBOAna  or. 

LUNGWORT,  or  OAK  -  LDN08  (Stida  puL 
nonaria),  a  lichen  with  a  foliaceous  leathery 
■preading  thalJua,  of  an  oliTe-green  colour,  pale 
brown  when  dry,  pitted  with  nnmeroua  little 
caTitiai  and  netted,  much  lacerated ;  the  shields 
{apotiieaa)  marginal,  reddish  brown  with  a  thick 
border.  It  grows  on  trunks  of  treea  in  monic 
tainooB  re^ons,  in  Britain  and  other  Earopeon 
cooatriea,  lometimeB  almcat  entirely  coTeiine  tiiem 
with  it«  shaggy  thallua.  It  hai  been  used  aa  a 
remedy  for  jmmonory  diseases.  It  ia  nutritious, 
and,  when  properly  prepared,  aObrds  a  light  diet, 
capable  of  being  used  as  a  substitute  for  Iceland 
Most ;  yet  it  is  liitter  enough  to  be  used  aa  a  snb- 
■titute  for  hops.  It  yields  a  good  brown  dye. — 
The  name  Luagworl  is  also  given  to  a  genus  of 
phanerogamous  plants  (PuZmonona),  of  the  nstaral 
order  Borvgineie.  The  oonunon  L.  {P.  ofieinaJit)  is 
a  rare  and  rather  doubtful  natiTe  of  Britain, 
although  common  in  some  parts  of  Europe.  It  has 
ovate  leaves  and  purple  Howers,  and  was  formerly 
employed  in  diseases  of  the  lungs,  bnt  seems  to 
have  been  recommended  chiefly  by  a  fancied  resem- 
blance to  the  luogs  in  its  spotted  leavea.      It  is 

nibe  in  considerable  abundance.    It  is  used  in  the 
north  of  Europe  as  a  pot-herb. 

LUFERCA'LIA,  a  festival  among  the  andent 
Bomauf,  held  on  the  Ifith  of  Febra^y,  in  honoor 
of  Lnpereiu,  the  god  of  fertility,  when  S<nne 
began  to  seek  a  Grecian  origin  for  its  religioua 
oeremoniea,  Lupercus  was  identiSed  with  Lycram 
Fan,  and  bis  worship  was  said  to  have  been  intro- 
duced by  Bvonder,  the  Arcadian.  Modern  Bcholani 
ne  no  value  on  such  Btatemcnta.  Lupercus  is 
eved  by  them  to  have  been  one  of  the  oldest 
pastoral  deities  of  Italy,  and  everything  that  is 
known  regarding  him  and  his  rit^  favours  this 
view.  These  rites  were  of  the  rudest  and  moet 
mimilive  character,  and  indicate  a  high  antiquity. 
Goats  and  dogs  were  aacrificed ;  afterwards,  the 
priests  (colled  Lvperd)  cut  up  the  skins  of  the 
Tiotims,  and  twisted  them  into  thongs,  with  which 
they  ran  though  the  city  striking  every  one  who 
came  in  their  way  (which  women  used  to  do] 
in  hopes  that  the  god  of  fertility  would  be  pro- 
[atioiu  towards  them.  As  the  festival  is  believed 
to  have  been  at  first  a  shepherd  one,  ^his  running 
about  with  thongs  is  nnderstood  to  have  been 
intended  as  a  symbolical  pimScation  of  the  land. 
Hie  place  where  the  festival  was  held  was  called 
the  Lnpercal,  and  was  situated  on  the  Falatine 
HilL  It  conttuned  an  image  oi  Lupercus,  oovered 
with  a  goat's  skin.  L,  ware  also  aeld  in  other 
cities  of  Italy. 

LUTINE  {Xir^nvs),  a  genus  of  [Janta  of  the 
natural  order  Ltguminota,  sub-order  FapOionaoBo, 
mostly  «Tm¥i^lq_  hnt  some  of  them  pereunial  her- 
baceous plants,  some  half-shruUiy ;  and  generally 
having  digitate  leaves,  with  rather  long  stalka 
The  Sowers  are  in  racemes  or  spikes,  me  calyx 
two-lipped,  the  keel  beaked,  the  filaments  all  united 
at  the  base.  The  species  of  L  are  numerous,  and 
are  chiefly  natives  of  the  countries  near  the  Medi- 


jmperatej. 

and  South  America.  The  Whttk  L.  {L.  aJina),  l 
species  with  white  Sowers,  has  been  cultivated 
from  time  immemorial  in  the  south  of  Europe  and  in 
some  parts  of  Asia,  for  the  sake  of  the  seeds,  which 
are  farinaceous,  and  are  used  as  food,  although, 
when  raw,  they  hare  a  strong,  disagreeable,  bitter 
taste,  which  is  removed  by  steeping  In  water  and 
boihng.  They  were  a  favourite  kind  of  pnlse 
amongst  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  ana  still 
are  so  in  some  parts  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
althongh  generally  disliked  by  those  who  have  not 
been  accustomed  to  them,  lliey  ore  used  in  many 
conntrios  for  feeding  cattle,  particularly  draught 
oxen. — The  Yellow  L  {L.  luiaii),  so  caOed  irran 
its  yellow  flowers,  and  the  Eotptuji  Whitb  L, 
[L.  lermif),  which  bos  white  flowers  tipped  with 
blue,  are  also  cultivated  in  the  south  of  Europe, 
Egypt,  ftc,  for  their  seeds,  which  are  similar  in 
their  qualities  to  those  of  the  white  lupine. — In 
many  coontriea,  lupines,  and  particularly  the  white 
lupine,  are  cultivated  to  yield  green  food  for  cattle, 
and  also  to  be  ploughed  down  for  manure.  They 
grow  well  on  poor  and  dry  sandy  soils,  which  by 
this  process  ol  grtm-manMring,  are  fitted  for  other 
crops.  Many  species  of  L.  are  cultivated  in  oar 
flower-gardens,  having  beantiful  white,  yellow, 
pink,  or  bine  floweis.  The  flowers  of  some  species 
are  fragrant  No  L.  is  a  native  of  Britain.  L. 
patnait    adon  -    * 

Fhirida  with  its  fine  blue  flowers. 

LU'PUIilNE.    See  Hops. 

LUPUS  is  a  chronic  disease  of  the  skin,  in  which 
dull  or  Uvid  tubercles  are  developed,  which  have 
a  tendency  to  destroy  or  seriously  to  affect  the 
adjacent  tissaes,  with  or  without  ulceration,  and 
commonly  ending  in  indelible  cicatrices.  It  was 
formerly  known  as  noli  me  langfrt.  The  disease 
usually  attacks  the  face,  especially  the  alie  of  the 
nose  and  the  lips,  but  is  sometimes  met  with  else- 
where It  ia  a  terrible  disease,  bnt  is  happily  of 
rare  occurrence.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  li^tin 
word  for  a  wo^/l  in  consequence  of  its  destructive 

LnpuB  usually  commences  with  the  appearance  of 
one  or  two  circular  or  oval,  doll-red,  Bomewhat 
translucent  tubercles,  about  two  lines  in  diameter. 
After  a  time,  these  tubercles  increase  in  number  and 
size,  and  take  on  new  charaotera.  They  may  ulcerate, 
oonatituting  the  variety  known  as  Lapiu  txtdena, 
in  which  oase  the  ulceration  may  pursue  a  super- 
flcial  or  a  deep  course.  Scabs  are  formed  over  the 
ulcers;  and  as  these  scabs  are  thrown  o^  the  nicer 
beneath  is  found  to  have  increased  in  extent,  till 
great  destruction  of  the  soft  parts  and  (in  the  case 
of  the  ucee)  of  the  cartilages  u  effected.  The  ulcer 
of  lapus  has  thick  red  edges,  and  exudes  a  fetid, 
ichorous  matter  in  considerable  quantity.  When 
they  do  not  ulcerate,  the  tnbercles  are  softer  than 
in  the  previous  variety,  and  form  patches  of  con- 
siderable extent,  the  intervening  skin  and  cellular 
tissue  also  swelling  and  exhibiting  here  and  there 
dull-red  points,  which  are  the  summits  of  the 
imbedded  tubercles.  The  lips  become  much 
enlarged,  the  nostrils  closed  with  the  swelling,  the 
eyelids  everted,  and  the  whole  face  hideous.  This 
variety  is  known  as  Lvpua  non  txedau. 

The  progress  of  lupus  is  usually  slow,  and  the 
Sofferings  of  the  patient  leas  tlian  might  be  expected, 
in  consequence  of  the  sensibili^  of  the  parts  being 
diminished  from  the  first.  The  complaint  may 
continue  for  years,  or  even  for  life,  but  ia  seldom 
fatal.  Its  causes  are  not  well  known,  but  it  ia 
tbouf^ht  that  a  scrofulous  habit  and  intemperance 
predispose  to  the  disease,     Both  sexes  are  liable  to 


,,  Google 


LDRCHEB— LUTHEE. 


tt,  Imt  it  Menu  ni 


D  women.    It  u  Dot 


The  mlemal  treatmeDt  coniista  in  the  lubniiuB- 
tntion  of  cod-liver  oil  and  tha  prepBrations  of 
iodine,  Mpeciollj  Dodotsh'b  solution,  while  locally 
strong  cscHarotici  ihoold  be  applied.  The  diaesse 
tl,  however,  io  aerioii*,  liat  whenever  there  ia  a 
nupicion  of  its  nature,  profesaional  aid  should  be 

LTTRCHEB,  a  kind  of  dog,  eomewhat  resem- 
bling a  greyhonnd,  and  supposed  to  derive  its  origin 
from  some  of  the  old  rough -baired  races  of  grey- 
hound croHaed  with  the  shepherd's  dog.  It  ia 
tower,  stouter,  and  lees  elegajit  than  the  greyhound, 
l^ost  rivahi  it  in  Heetneaa,  aod  much  eiueU  it  in 
■cent.  It  is  covered  with  rough  wiry  hair,  ia  usaall; 


of  a  sandy  red  colour,  altboiigb  «ometimes  black 
grey,  and  has  half-erect  ean  and  a  pendent  tail.    It 
'~  the  poachei'l  favourite  dog,  poBsesBiug  all  the 


least  bint  or  sign  from  its  master.  Of 
course,  it  is  detested  by  gamekeepers,  and  destroyed 
on  every  opportunity. 

LU'ROAN,  a  thriving  town  of  Ireland,  in  Uie 
county  of  Armagh,  a  station  on  the  railway  from 
Belfast  to  Armagh,  20  miles  south-west  ^m  the 
former  town.  It  is  unuaually  neat  and  clean  in 
appearance,  and  carries  on  manufactures  of  damnsks 
and  diapeie.    Pop  (18S1)  10,13& 

LUBLEI,  or  LORELEI,  the  name  of  a  steep 
took  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Khine,  abont  430 
feet  high,  a  little  way  above  St  Goar,  celebrated 
for  its  echo,  which  is  said  to  repeat  sounds  fifteen 
times.  Near  it  is  a  whirlpool,  and  still  nearer, 
a  rapid,  called  lAe  BarUc,  formed  by  tbe  river 
rnthing  over  a,  number  of  sunken  rocks — visibla, 
however,  at  low  water.     In  conseqnenee,  the  navi- 

Stion  of  the  Khine  by  rafts  and  boats  is  rather 
ngerous  at  this  point,  which  circumstance,  in 
connection  with  the  tdio,  has  undoubtedly  given 
rise  to  the  legend  of  the  beautiful  but  cruel  siren 
who  dwelt  in  a  cave  of  the  L,,  and  allured  the 
P***ing  voyagers  to  approach  by  the  magic  melody 
of  her  song,  until  she  wrecked  and  sai£  them  in 
the  wbiclpooL  The  legend  has  been  a  great 
favourite  with  the  Oerman  poets,  but 
treated  it  so  exquisitely  as  Heine. 

LUSA'TIA  ILaunlz),  B  region  in  Germany,  now 
belonging  in  part  to  Saiony  and  in  part  to  Frassia. 
It  was  fonneriy  divided  into  Upper  and  IiOwer 
L.,  which  constituted  two  independent  mar^ira- 
viatea,  including  an  area  of  abont  4400  square  milee, 
and  a  population  of  about  half'a  million,  and 
bonnded  on  the  9.  by  Bohemia,  on  the  W.  by 
Uisnia  and  the  Electorate  of  Saxony,  on  the  N.  by 
BnDdenbnrg,  and  on  the  B.  by  Sileda.  In  1319, 
L  waa  given  to  Bohemia,  bat  was  obtained  by 


Matthias  Corvinns  in  14T8.  and  was  finally  trana- 
ferred  to  Saxony  in  1636 ;  but,  by  the  Concress  at 
Vienna,  the  whole  of  Lower  L.  and  the  naif  at 
Upper  L.  was  ceded  to  Prussia.  The  portim  left 
to  Saxony  now  forms  the  circle  of  Bautzen. 

LU'STEUM  (from  litere,  to  purify  or  expiate), 
the  soleiuu  oSerinf  made  for  ex^tion  and  purifi- 
cation by  one  of  the  censors  in  name  of  the  Rom«a 
people  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Census  (q.  v.).  Tha 
animals  offered  in  sacrifice  were  a  boar  {»us),  sheep 
,,  and  bull  {lauruA,  whence  the  MforinK  w»« 
called  Suovtiaurilia.  They  were  led  ronnd  tie 
assembled  people  on  the  Campos  Martins  before 
being  sacrificed.  As  the  census  was  qoinquennial, 
the  word  tutlram  came  to  mean  a  period  of  6  yeara, 

LUTE,  a  musical  instrument.    See  Sutp.,  ToI.  X 

LUTE  (Lat  lu/um,  clay),  in  ChemiatiTi  denote* 
a  substance  employed  for  efFectually  cfoeing  tiie 
joints  of  apparatus,  so  as  to  prevent  the  eecape  of 
vapour  or  gaaes,  or  for  coating  gloss  vessels  so  as 
to  render  them  more  capable  of  Bustaining  a  high 
temperature,  or  for  repairing  fractures.  For  ordi- 
nary pnrpoeos,  lutes  made  of  common  plastic  clay 
or  pipeclay  with  on  admiitiire  of  linaeed-meal  Ot 
almond' powder,  or,  for  common  stills,  linseed-meal 
and  water  made  into  a  paste,  are  quite  sufficient ;  tor 
more  delicate  eiperiments,  Fat  LvU  (q,  v.),  covered 
over  with  moistened  bladder,  is  used.  Lat«a  for 
coating  gloss  vessels  are  generally  composed  of 
Stourbridge  clay  or  Windsor  loam,  railed  with 
water ;  but  the  most  simple  method  is  to  brash  the 
dass  retort  over  with  n  paste  of  pipeclay  and  water, 
dry  it  quickly,  and  repeat  the  operation  till  a  suffi- 
cient thickness  of  coating  is  obteined.  Other  lutes 
in  frequent  use  are  Willtia  laU  (a  paste  composed 
of  a  solution  of  borax  in  boiling  water,  with  slaked 
lime),  various  mixtures  of  borax  and  clay,  of  lime 
and  white  of  egg,  iron  cement  (see  CrarBHTS), 
moistened  bladder,  paper  preuu^  with  wax  and 
turpentine,  and  caoutchouc  The  use  of  tlis  last- 
named  lute  has,  on  account  of  its  flexilHlity,  and 
consequent  non-liability  to  accident,  been  rajndly 
extenfling. 

LUTHER,  Martis,  the  greatest  of  the  Protestant 
refonneta  of  the  16th  c,  was  bom  at  Eisleben 
on  the  lOth  November  J4S3.  His  father  was  • 
miner  in  humble  circmnstonces ;  his  mother,  ns 
Melonchthon  records,  was  a  woman  of  exemplary 
virtue  {a:emplar  mrtuCum),  and  peculiarly  esteemed 
in  her  walk  of  life  Shortly  after  Martin  s  birth,  his 
parents  removed  to  Maostcld,  where  their  circum- 
stances erelong  improved  by  industry  and  perse- 
verance. Their  son  wsa  sent  te  school ;  and  both 
at  home  and  in  school,  his  training  was  of  a  severe 
and  hardening  character.  Hia  father  somet^ea 
whipped  him,  he  says,  '  for  a  mere  trifle  till  the 
blonl  came.'  and  be  was  subjected  to  the  scholastia 
rod  fifteen  times  in  one  day !  Scholastic  and  parental 
severity  was  the  rule  in  these  days ;  but  whatever 
may  have  been  the  character  of  X.'s  schoolmaster 
at  Mansfeld,  there  ia  no  reason  to  believe  that  hia 
father  was  a  man  of  exceptionally  stem  character. 
While  he  whipped  his  son  soundly,  he  also  tenderly 
cared  for  him,  and  was  in  the  habit  of  carrying  him 
to  and  from  school  in  his  arms  with  gentle  solicitude. 
L's  schooling  wss  completed  at  Magdeburg  and 
Eisenach,  and  at  the  tatter  place  he  attracted  the 
notice  of  a  good  lady  of  the  name  of  Cotta,  who 
provided  him  with  a  comfortable  home  during  his 
stay  there. 

When  he  hod  reached  his  eighteenth  year,  he 
entered  the  university  of  Erfurt,  with  the  view  of 
qualifying  himself  for  the  legal  profession.  Ha 
went  through  the  osual  studies  in  tlie  classios  and 
the  schoolmen,  and  took  his  degree  of  Doctor  o( 


-.-fci-oogic 


FbiloHiphj,  or  Muter  of  Arte,  in  1505,  when  he 
WM  twenty-one  yean  of  age.  FreviouB  to  tliu, 
honever,  a  profound  change  of  feeling  had  begun 
in  b'T".  Chancing  one  day  to  examine  the  Vulcate 
in  the  nnireraity  Library,  be  saw  with  aitoniah- 
TBtDt  that  there  were  more  gospels  and  epistles 
than  in  the  lectionariea.  He  waa  arrested  by  the 
oontents  of  hii  newly-fotmd  treasure.  Hii  heart 
waa  deeply  tonched,  and  he  resolved  to  devote 
hiiDBelf  to  a  spiritual  life.  Be  separated  himself 
feom  hi»  frieada  and  fellow-studenla,  and  withdrew 
ioto  the  Augustine  coDvent  at  Erfurt. 

Here  he  spent  the  next  three  years  of  his  life— 
j«tn  of  pecnliar  interest  and  significance  ;  for 
it  was  dnnng  this  time  that  he  laid,  in  the  stndy 
of  the  Bible  and  of  Augustine,  the  foundation  o! 
those  doctrinal  convictions  which  were  afterwards 
to  rouse  and  strengthen  tiim  in  bis  struegle  a^inst 
the  papacy.  He  descrikKS  very  vividly  ^e  spiritual 
qiima  through  whi£h  he  passed,  the  burden  of  sin 
which  10  long  lay  upon  him,  'too  heavy  to  be  borne;' 
and  the  itJia  that  he  at  length  found  in  the  clear 
apprehension  of  the  doctrine  of  the  '  forgireaesg 
ti  sins '  tJirough  the  nace  of  Christ. 

In  the  year  1607.  L.  was  ord^ned  npneat.  and 
in  the  following  year  he  removed  to  Wittenberg, 
destined  to  derive  ite  chief  oelebritf  from  his  name. 
He  became  a  teoclier  in  the  new  uniTenity,  foanded 
there  by  the  Elector  Frederick  of  Saxony.  At  Hist, 
he  lectured  on  dialectics  and  physics,  but  his  heart 
was  already  given  to  theology,  and  in  1609  he 
became  a  Bachelor  of  Theology,  and  commenced 
lecturing  on  the  Holy  Scriptures.  His  lectures 
made  a  great  impression,  and  the  novelty  of  his 
views  already  began  to  excite  attention.  '  This 
monk,'  said  the  rector  of  the  imiveiiity, '  willpnizle 
our  doctors,  and  bring  in  a  new  doctrine.'  Besides 
lecturing,  he  began  to  preach,  and  his  sermons 
reached  a  wider  audience,  and  produced  a  still  more 
powerful  influence.  His  words,  as  Melanchthon 
Mid,  were  '  bom  not  on  his  lira,  but  in  his  aoul,' 
and  they  moved  profoundly  tba  souls  of  all  who 

In  1610  or  1611,  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Rome,  and  he  has  described  very  vividly  what  he 
saw  and  heard  there.  TTia  devout  and  nnqneatioQ- 
ing  reverence,  for  he  was  yet  in  his  own.  subsequent 
view  '  a  most  insane  papist,'  appeara  in  straDge 
conflict  with  his  awakened  thou^tfulnecs  and  l£e 
moral  indignation  at  the  abuses  of  the  papacy 
beginning  to  stir  in  him. 

On  L.'s  return  troio  Rome,  he  waa  made  a  Doctor 
of  the  Holy  Scripture*,  aod  bis  career  as  a  Befonoer 
nuty  be  said  to  iiave  oommenoed.  Tbe  syeteni  of 
iudulgencea  hod  reached  a  scandaloas  heicht.  The 
idea  that  it  was  in  the  power  of  the  dioich  to 
forgive  sin,  had  gradually  grown  into  the  notion, 
which  waa  wide^  spread,  that  the  pope  could 
issue  pardons  of  his  own  free  will,  which,  being 
dispensed  to  the  faithful,  exonerated  them  from  the 
CDOBequences  of  their  transgressions.  The  sale  of 
these  pardons  had  become  on  organised  part  of  the 
papal  system.  Money  was  ]»rg^y  needed  at  Rome, 
to  feed  the  extrava^nces  of  the  papal  court;  and 
its  Dumeroua  emissaries  sonRht  everywhere  to  raise 
funds  by  the  sale  of  '  indulgences,  m  thej;  were 
ooUed,  for  the  sins  of  frail  humanity  ;  tiie  principal 
of  these  was  John  Tetiel,  a  Dominicao  friar,  who 
had  established  himself  at  Jiiterboch,  on  the  Irarders 
of  Saxony.  L,'s  indignation  at  the  shameless 
fraSc  wMch  this  man  carried  on.  Anally  became 
irrepressible :  ■  God  williog,*  he  excl^med,  '  I  will 
beat  a  hole  in  his  drum.'    He  drew  out  95  theses 


ha  offofed  to  ■"""*•■»'"  in  the  miiTeraity  against  al) 


impngneiB.  The  general  pnrport  of  these  theses 
was  to  deny  to  the  pope  all  rif^t  to  forgive  sins. 
'  If  the  sinner  was  tnily  contritie,  he  reoeived  com- 
plete forgiveness.      The  pope's  absolation  had  no 

value  in  and  for  itself.' 

This  sudden  and  bold  step  of  L.  was  all  that 
waa  neoeaaaiy  to  awaken  a  widenwead  exciteme.-' 
The  news  of  it  spread  rapidly  far  and  wide. 
seemed  '  as  if  angels  had  earned  it  to  the  ears 
all  men.'  Tetz^  was  forced  to  retreat  from  the 
bordera  of  Saxony  to  Prankfurt-on-the-Oder,  where 
he  drew  out  and  published  a  set  of  counter-tl 

and  publicly  committed  those  of  L.  to  the  fli 

The  stadente  at  Wittenlwrg  retaliated  by  burning 
Tetzel's  theses.  The  elector  refused  to  interfere, 
and  the  eicitonent  increased  as  new  combatants — 
Hochstratten,  Frieriaa,  and  Eck — entered  the  field. 
Eck  waa  an  able  man,  and  an  old  friend  of  L.'s, 
and  the  argument  between  him  and  the  Reformer 
was  especisJly  vehement. 

At  first,  the  pope,  Leo  X.,  took  little  heed  of 
the  disturbance ;  be  is  reported  even  to  have  said 
when  be  beard  of  it,  that '  Friar  Martin  waa  a 
of  genius,  and  that  he  did  not  wish  to  have  him 
m<&ted.'  Smiu  of  the  cardinals,  however,  saw 
the  real  character  of  the  movement,  which  gradu- 
ally asiamed  a  seriousDess  evident  even  to  the 
pope ;  and  L  receivad  a  summons  to  appear  at 
Rome,  and  ansner  for  bis  theses.  Once  again  u 
Rome,  it  is  unlikely  he  would  ever  have  beei 
allowed  to  return.  His  university  and  the  elector 
interfered,  and  a  legate  was  sent  to  Germany  ' 
hear  and  determine  tbe  esse.  Cardinal  Cajetan  n 
the  legate,  and  he  was  but  little  fitted  to  deal  with 
Luther,  He  would  enter  into  no  argument  with 
him,  but  merely  called  upon  him  to  retract.  ' 
refused,  and  fled  from  Augsburg,  whither  he  h 
gone  to  meet  the  papal  representative^  The  task 
of  negotiation  was  then  undertaken  by  Miltiti,  a 
German,  and  envoy  of  tbe  nope  to  tbe  Saiou 
court,  and  by  bis  greater  address,  a  tempomry 
wace  was  obtained.  This  did  not  lost  long.  The 
Reformer  was  too  deeply  moved  to  keep  silent. 
'  God  hurries  and  drives  me,'  he  said ;  '  I 
master  of  myself :  I  wish  to  be  qoiet, 
hurried  into  the  midst  of  tumults.'  Dr  Eok  and  h« 
held  a  memorable  disputation  at  Leipzig,  in  which 
the  subject  of  atgument  wm  no  longer  merely 
the  question  of  indulgence,  but  the  general  power 
of  the  pope.  The  diapntation,  of  conree,  come  to 
no  practical  rwUt;  each  controversialist  claimed 
tbe  victory,  and  L.  in  the  meantime  made  progrem 
in  freedom  of  opinion,  and  attacked  the  papal  ^stom 
OS  a  whole  more  boldly.  Erasmus  and  Hutten 
joined  in  the  conflict  which  waxed  more  loud  and 
tbreatening. 

In  1620,  the  refonner  pnbliahad  his  famoua 
adi^«8  to  the  'Christian  Nobles  of  Germany.'  This 
was  followed  in  the  same  year  by  a  treatise  Ob  lltt 
Babytoniah  Captivity  qfOte  Charth.  In  these  works, 
both  of  which  circulated  widely,  and  powerfully 
ioflnenoed  many  minds,  L.  took  finner  and  brooder 
gronnd;  he  attacked  not  only  the  abuses  of  t' 
papacy,  and  its  pretensions  to  sopremocy,  bat  a' 


supremacy,  b 
1   Cborch  of 


the  whole  ReformatioD.'  The  papal  bull  was  isst 
against  bim  ;  the  dread  document  was  bun 
before  an  assembled  multitude  of  doctors,  stndeatl^ 
Bod  dtii^  at  the  Elstar  Gate  of  Wittenberg. 
Qemuuiy  was  convulsed  witb  ezcitemenL  "EiaL 
(who  hod  been  the  it^iy^  agent  in  obtaining  the 
bioll)  fled  from  place  to  place,  glad  to  escape  with 
his  life,  and  L.  wm  everywhere  the  hero  of  the 

QiBrles  T.  hod  at  this  tiroe  suooeeded  to  ' 


11.==:,,  Google 


wu  hii  □ 
language, 
Wlif  injui* 


empire,  twd  he  conTCned  hia  Grat  diet  of  the 
■orereigna  and  states  at  Wornu.  The  diet  mat  in 
the  beginning  of  1621 ;  an  order  was  iaaned  for 
the  deetniction  of  L.'a  books,  and  be  bimaelf  was 
(nmmoaedtoappear  before  tbe  diet.  This  iiai  above 
all  what  he  desired — to  coDfeas  the  truth  before  the 
aaaembled  pon-ars  of  Germanj.  He  reiolTed  to 
obey  the  ianunons,  come  what  would.  All  Gar- 
tiuui;  was  moved  by  his  heroism;  hie  jooinej 
reaembled  a  triamph ;  the  threats  of  enemies 
the  anxieties  of  fneads  alike  failed  to  move 
'  I  am  resolved  to  enter  Worma,'  he  said,  '  although 
as  many  devils  should  set  at  me  as  there  are  tilea 
OD  the  bouse-topa.'  Hi"  appearance  and  demeanour 
before  the  diet,  and  the  firmneos  with  which  he 
held  his  ground,  and  refused  to  retract,  all  make 
a  Bbriking  picture.  *  UoltiBa  I  be  convinced,'  he 
■aid,  '  by  Soriptura  and  reason,  I  neither  can  nor 
dare  retract  anything,  for  my  conacience  is  a  captive 
to  God's  word,  and  it  is  neither  safe  nor  right  to 
go  agunst  coDScienca.  There  I  tako  my  sta^  I 
oax  do  no  otherwlao.    So  help  me,  God.    Amen.' 

Od  his  return  from  Worms,  he  was  seized,  at 
the  instigation  of  his  friend,  the  Elector  of  Saiony, 
and  saCeh'  lodged  in  the  old  castle  of  the  Wart- 
burg,  The  aSair  was  made  to  assume  an  aspect 
of  violence,  but  in  reality  it  was  designed  to  secure 
him  from  the  destruction  which  his  conduct  at 
Worma  woidd  certainly  have  provoked.  He 
remained  in  this  shelter  for  about  a  year,  concealed 
~  a  guise  of  a  knight  TTiii  chief  employment 
is  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  his  native 
^  He  composed  various  treatises  besides, 
r  injured  his  health  by  sedeatary  habits  and 
hatd  stndy.  His  imaeination  became  morbidly 
exoited,  and  he  thought  he  saw  and  heard  tbe  Evd 
OtM  mocking  bim  while  engaged  in  hia  literary 
tasks.  On  one  occasion,  he  buried  his  inkstand  at 
the  intruder,  and  made  liim  retreat.  The  subject 
of  the  personality  and  presence  of  Satan  was  a 
familiar  one  with  L.,  and  he  has  many  things  about 
it  in  bis  TabU-lalk. 

The  disordms  which  sprang  ap  in  ths  progresa  of 
the  Reformation  recalled  L.  to  Wittenbei^  He  felt 
that  his  presence  was  necessary  to  restrain  Carlatadt 
and  others,  and  defying  any  dangers  to  which  he 
might  still  be  exposed,  he  returned  to  tbe  old  ecene 
of  his  laboun,  rebuked  the  unruly  spirits  who  had 
aoqnired  power  in  bis  absence,  and  resumed  with 
reoewed  energy  bis  interrupted  work.  He  strove  to 
armst  the  excesses  of  the  Zwickau  fanatics,  and 
coniuelled  peace  and  order  to  the  inflamed  peasants, 
wbile  he  warned  the  princes  and  nobles  of  the 
nnchrlstian  cruelty  of  many  of  their  doinra!,  which 
bad  driven  the  people  to  exasperation  and  frensy. 
At  no  period  of  his  life  is  be  greater  than  now  m 
tbe  stand  which  he  made  acainst  lawleamess  on  tbe 
one  hand  and  tyronnv  on  the  other.  He  vindtoated 
his  claim  to  be  a  Reformer  in  the  highest  sense  by 
thd  wise  and  manly  part  which  be  acted  in  this 
great  social  crisis  in  tbe  history  of  Gennany- 

Hia  next  act  of  importance  was  by  no  means 
M  commendable.  Although  he  had  been  at  first 
united  in  a  common  cause  with  Erasmus,  ettrange- 
meot  had  gradually  sprung  np  between  the  acbour 
of  Rotterdam  and  tbe  enthuaiatio  reformer  of 
Wittenberg.  This  estrangement  came  to  on  open 
breach  in  the  year  1525,  when  Erasmus  published 
his  treatise  De  Libera  Arbitrio.  L.  immediately 
followed  with  his  counter-treatise,  De  Servo  Arbilrio. 
The  controversy  raged  loudly  between  them ;  and 
in  tile  vehemence  of  bis  hostility  to  the  doctrine 
of  Eraamns,  L  was  led  into  voriom  assertions  of 
*  very  qnestionable  kind,  besides  indnlging  in  wild 
abue  of  his  opponent's  character.  I^e  t^iuuTel  was 
«B  uhappy  one  on  both  aides;  and  it  most  ba 


oonfeMed  Uiere  is  especially  a  want  of  genemn^  In 

tiie  nuumer  in  which  L.  oontinued  to  cherish  the 

■tike  which  spn 

In  the  course 
Katharina  von  Bora,  one  of  nine  Duns,  who,  ondei 
the  influence  of  bis  teaching,  had  emancipated 
themselvos  from  their  religions  yows.  The  step 
r^oiced  bis  enemies,  and  even  alarmed  some  of  his 
friends  like  Uelonchthon.  Bnt  it  greatly  contributed 
to  his  happiness,  while  it  served  to  enrich  and 
sbvngtheo  his  charaot«r.  All  the  moat  ii 
and  touching  glimpses  we  get  of  him  b 
are  in  oonnedion  with  his  w2e  and  children. 

Two  years  after  bis  marriage,  he  fell  into  a 
dangerous  sickness  and  depressian  of  spirits,  from 
which  he  was  only  aroused  by  the  dan^rs  besetting 
Christendom  from  the  advance  of  the  Tnrka,  i  wo 
years  lata,  in  1629,  he  engaged  in  his  famous  con- 
ferenoe  at  Marburg  with  Zwingli  and  other  SwiH 
divines.  In  this  conference,  he  obstinately  main- 
tained bis  peculiar  views  as  to  tbe  sacrament  of 
the  Lord's  Snpper  (q.v. ;  see  also  IxrAUvnos); 
and  as  in  the  controversy  with  Erasmus,  distin- 
guiahed  himself  more  by  tbe  inflexible  dogmatdsm 
of  his  opinions,  than  by  the  candour  aod  compre- 
hensiveneBS  of  his  arguments,  or  the  fairness  and 
"jnerosity  of  his  tem —     '  — 

L  the  first  stage  c 


character,  and  he  shut  bis  mind  pertinaoioosly  after 
middle  life  to  any  advance  in  doctrinal  oijinion.  The 
following  year  finds  him  at  Coburg,  while  the  diet 
sat  at  Angsbure.  It  was  deemed  pmdent  to  intrait 
the  iater^ts  of  tbe  Protestant  cause  to  Melanoh- 
thon,  who  attended  the  diet,  but  Ia  removed  to 
Cobur^to  be  conveniently  at  hand  for  consulta- 
tion. The  establishment  of  the  Protestant  creed  at 
Augsburg  marks  the  culmination  of  t^e  Qennan 
lormatioD ;  and  the  life  of  L.  from  henoeforth 
little  intareit    He  snrvived 

iportanoe.     -■     -    -   - 
end  of  Febroaiy  154& 


poaseeses  oompantivelv  little  intareit  He  n 
sixteen  years  longer,  but  they  ore  years  i 
by  few  incidents  of  importanoe.     He  died 


ithie^ 


iye  energy,  manly  and  affectionate 


simplicity,  and  rich,  if 
is  at  the  same  time  a  spiritual  genina.  His  intui- 
tions of  divine  truth  were  bold,  vivid,  and  penetrat- 
not  comprehensive ;  and  he  possessed  the  art 

God  alone  gives  to  the  finer  and  abler  spirit* 

that  He  calls  to  do  special  work  in  thia  world,  of 
kindling  other  souls  with  the  Gre  of  bis  own  oon- 
victioos,  and  awakening  them  to  a  higher  oon- 
sciousneSB  of  religion  and  duty.  He  wna  a  leader 
9n,  therefore^  and  a  Reformer  in  the  highest 
.  His  powers  were  fitted  to  bis  appointed  taak ; 
)  a  task  of  Titanic  magnitude,  and  he  was  a 
Titan  in  intellectual  robustness  and  moral  strength 
and  courage.  It  was  only  the  divine  energy  which 
swayed  bim,  and  of  which  he  recogniaea  himself 
the    organ,   that  could   have   aooompliahed   what 

Reckoned  as  a  mere  theologian,  there  are  others 
who  take  higher  rank.  There  is  a  lack  of  patieot 
thon^htfulness  and  philosophical  temper  in  his 
doctrinal  discussions;  but  the  absence  of  these 
'cry  qualities  gave  wings  to  his  bold,  if  sometimea 
crude  conceptions,  and  enabled  him  to  triumph  in 
the  itnig^  for  life  or  death  in  which  ha  was 
engaged.  I'o  initiate  the  religious  movement  which 
was  destined  to  renew  the  face  of  Europet  and 
give  a  nobler  and  mora  enduring  life  to  the  Smcod 
nations,  required  a  gigantic  wiU,  whicii,  Instead  of 
being    cradled   by  oppodtka,   or   finghtened   I9 


~n^ 


IV  Google 


LUTHERANS— LOTON. 


hatred,  should  only  gather  strength  trom  the 
fiercence*  of  the  conflict  before  it  To  dear  the 
MT  thoronghlj,  u  he  himself  said,  thuoder  and 
lightning  sre  neccsssiy;  and  he  wu  well  content 
to  represent  those  agencies  in  the  great  work  of 
Reformation  in  the  16th  century.  Upon  the  whole, 
it  may  ho  said  that  history  presents  few  greater 
choraeters — few  that  excite  at  ODoe  more  love  and 
admiration,  and  in  which  «-e  see  tenderness, 
hnmonr,  and  a  certain  piotiiresquo  grace  and  poetic 
sensibility  more  happily  combine  with  a  lofty  and 
mMnanimous,  if  aomeiinies  mgged  subliniity. 

C's  works  are  very  voluminous,  partly  m  Latin, 
and   partly  in  German.      Among  those   of   more 

Senenl  interest  are  his  Tabit-lalk,  his  LetUrt  and 
emumi.  De  Wette  has  given  to  the  pablio  a 
copioos  and  valuable  edition  of  his  Letters,  which, 
alon^  with  his  Tablt'lali,  are  the  chief  authority 
for  bis  life.  See  also  hves  of  him  by  Mekachthoo, 
Michelet,  and  Audin.  The  fourth  centenary  of 
Luther's  birth  was  celebrated  in  Germany  in  13S3. 
LU'THRRASa,  a  designation  originaliy  applied 
by  their  adversaries  to  the  Reformers  of  the  16Ui 
c,  and  which  aftorwarda  was  distinctively  appro- 
priated amonf;  Protestants  themselves  to  those  who 
took  part  with  Martin  Luther  agmnst  the  Swiss 
Reformers,  particularly  in  the  eontroveisies  regard- 
ing the  Lord's  Supper.  It  is  so  employed  to  this 
day,  as  the  designation  of  one  of  the  two  great 
lections  into  which  the  Protestant  Church  was  soon 
nnhappily  divided,  the  other  being  known  as  ths 
B^orvud  (q.  v.).  To  the  end  of  Luther's  life, 
perfect  harmony  subsisted  between  him  and  his 
friend  Melanchthon ;  but  already  there  were  some 
who  stood  forth  as  more  Lutheran  than  Luther,  and 
W  irhom  Melanchthon  was  denounced  as  a  Crypto- 
Calvinul  and  a  traitor  to  evangelical  truth.  Alter 
Luther's  death,  this  party  became  more  confident; 
and  holding  by  Luther's  words,  without  having 
imbibed  liis  spirit,  changed  his  evangelical  doctrine 
into  a  dry  scbolasticiam  and  lifeless  orthodoxy, 
whilst  eitreme  heat  and  violence  oeaiost  their  oppo- 
nents wore  Bubetitnted  in  the  piupit  itself  for  the 
zealous  preaehins  of  the  gospeL  The  principal  seat 
of  their  strengui  was  in  uie  nniversity  of  Jena, 
which  was  founded  in  1657  for  this  very  object,  and 
maintained  their  cause  against  Wittenbei^.  The 
Dtmost  illiberality  characterised  this  party  ;  and  in 
so  far  as  governments  came  under  their  influence, 
extreme  intolerance  was  manifested,  the  measures 
adopted  against  those  who  diflTered  from  them  being 
not  nnfrequently  of  a  persecntiiie  nature.  No  con- 
troversy was  ever  conducted  with  more  bitterness 


of  Germany  found  a  new  object  of  hostility  in 
the  PieluU  [q.  v.),  against  whom  they  stirred  up 
the  passions  of  the  multitude,  and  instigated 
the  governments  to  severi^. — In  the  18th  o.,  tb^ 
came  into  conflict  with  RalUmaliim  (q.  v.),  whiui 
may  be  regardi-d  as  a  consequence  of  the  state 
of  things  existing  in  Germany  during  the  previous 
period  ol  unprofitable  theological  strife. — When, 
alter  the  wars  of  the  Frendi  Revolution  were 
over,  the  Prussian  government  formed  and  carried 
into  eieoDtiou  a  scheme  for  the  union  of  the 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches  into  one  national 
church  (see  Pbussu.),  an  active  opposition  arose  on 
the  part  of  those  who  now  b^^  to  be  known 
as  Oid  iMtheram,  Separate  congregations  were 
formed,  and  an  attitude  of  open  hostility  to  the 
government  was  assumed  by  some ;  whilst  others, 
more  moderate,  but  holding  the  some  theological 
otjinions,  continued  to  maintain  these  opinions 
within  the  United  Stxingdiati  ChunA.  Amougst 
the  latter  were  some  of  the  most  eminent  divines  in 


Oermjmy,  as  Hengstenberg,  Olshausen,  Guericke, 
and  Tboluck.  The  aeparatasts  were  for  some  time 
severely  dealt  with  by  tbe  government,  and  conse- 

Iaently  many  left  their  native  country  to  found  OU 
lutheran  conunuuities  in  America  and  Austr^Ia. 
This  took  place  chiedy  about  the  year  1S3T.  After 
tJiat  time,  greater  tolravtion  was  practised,  and  now 
the  Old  LutLberans  form  a  le^Uy  recognised  eoole- 
eiaatical  body  in  Pniaaia.  For  some  time  after 
the  political  eicitement  of  1848,  those  who  held  the 
Lutheran  doctrines  withio  the  natiooal  or  nnit«d 
Evangelical  Church  of  Prussia,  exhibited  Consider* 
able  uneaameea,  and  a  strong  desire  for  a  position 
more  ciKisistent  with  their  eccleeiastdcol  traditions; 
but  more  recently  this  feeUng  seems  to  have  been 
considerably  allayed, 

Lutberanism  is  the  prevailing  fonu  of  Prates* 
tantism  in  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  tbe  greater  part  o( 
Northern  Germany,  as  well  as  in  Wiirtemberg ;  it 
also  prevails  to  a  ooosiderable  extent  in  other  parts 
of  Germany.  It  is  the  national  religion  of  Denmark, 
Sweden,  and  Norway  ;  and  there  are  Lutheran 
cbnrcbes  in  Holland,  France,  Poland,  &a.  Amon^ 
the  Lutheran  symbolical  huokn,  tho  Avgiburg  C'<m' 
fenaon  (q. v.)  holds  tbe  principal  place;  but  the 
supreme  anthonty  of  the  Holy  Soiiptares  is  fully 
rec<wnised.  Tbe  chief  difieronoe  between  the 
Lutherans  and  the  Reformed  is  sa  to  tbe  retA 
pretena  of  Christ  in  the  sacrament  of  the  Supper  ; 
tbe  Lutherans  holding  the  doctrine  of  coniuA- 
atatdiation,  although  rejecting  tranruhttantiatioa 
(see  Lord's  Scifpeh  ;  Ihpahation  ;  and  Transitb- 
euantution)  ;  whilst  some  of  their  more  eitremo 
theologious  have  asserted  not  only  tbe  presence 
of  tbe  human  nature  of  Cbiist  in  the  Lord's 
Supper,  OS  Luther  did,  but  the  absolute  omni- 
presence of  his  human  nature.  Other  points  of 
difieroDce  relate  to  the  allowonca  in  Christian 
worship  of  things  indifferent  {adiapkora) ;  and  many 
of  those  things  at  Srat  retained  as  merely  tolerable 
by  Lnther  and  his  fellow-reformcra,  have  become 
favourite  and  distinguishing  characteristics  of  some 
of  the  Lutheran  churches — as  images  and  pictures 
in  places  of  worship,  clerical  vestments,  tbe  form  ol 
exorcism  in  baptism,  &o.  Among  the  Old  Lutherans 
of  Prussia,  particularly  tbe  separatists,  a  strong 
tendency  to  exaggeration  in  these  distinctive  peculi- 
aiities  lias  manifested  itself. 

In  many  of  the  Lutheran  churabes,  tbe  doctrines 
of  Lnther,  and  of  their  symbolical  books,  have  long 
given  place,  in  a  great  measure,  to  Armiuiaaism, 
and  to  a  system  A  religion  very  inconsistent  with 
Luther's  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith.  In  soma 
qoartera,  particularly  in  Norway  and  Sweden,  a 
reaction  has  of  late  years  appeared ;  and  many  <A 
the  Lutheran  divines  of  Q^many  are  strenuous 
supporters  of  tbe  'erangdical'  doctrines  of  the 
R^ormeis. 

In  its  constitution,  the  Lutheran  Church  is 
generally  vnepita/pai,  without  being  properly  presbj^ 
lerian.  In  Denmark  and  Sweden  there  are  bishops, 
and  in  Sweden  an  archbishop  (of  Ujnal),  but  their 
powen  are  very  limited.  Where  Lntheranism  is 
tbe  national  religion,  the  sovereign  is  recognised  aa 


of  clergymen  and  laymen.     The  members  of  congre- 
gations  possess  almost  no  rights. 

LITTON,  a  market-town  and  parish  of  England, 
connty  Bedford,  situated  30  miles  north- north-west 
of  London,  on  the  river  Iiea,  which  rises  in  tbe 
parish.  It  is  connected  with  the  London  and  North- 
western and  the  Great  Northern  Railways  by 
branch-lines  from  Leigbton  Bu^^rd  to  Hatfield. 
Staple  trade,  straw-hat  manufacture. 
17,317;   (1881)  23,959.     ~ 


■vClOOgll. 


LtJTZEai— LDXEMBUEG. 


1  elegant. 


kncieat  and  noble  atnicture,  contaios 
Mkd  perhaps  aniqne,  baptaunal  font 

L^T'ZEN,  a  amaU  town  of  [1881)  3134  bhabit< 
anta,  in  the  Pnuaiaii  proTince  of  Saiony,  famous 
for  two  great  batUea  foaght  in  iU  Ticinity.  The 
fint  took  plaoe  on  ,Mb  Ko*einber  1632.  GfiutATui 
Adolphiu,  who  bad  moved  in  the  direction  of 
Bavaria,  being  recalled  from  his  desiena  of  conqueat 
tJlere  bv  the  advance  of  Wallenstein  on  Saxony, 
nnited  hii  forces  with  those  of  Doke  Bemud  of 
Saxe-WeLDiar,  and  attacked  the  Imperialista  at 
LUtseu.  The  fortune  of  the  day  waa  very  vari- 
ona;  but  notwithitaDding  the  death  of  Onstavna 
Adolphoa,  victoiy  remained  with  the  Swedes,  and 
Wallenstein  waa  compelled  to  resign  to  them  the 
field  of  battle.  About  9000  meo  were  killed  and 
seTerely  wonnded. 

The  BaOU  of  L.,  on  2d  May  1813,  waa  fonght 
somewhat  further  to  the  south,  at  the  village  of 
Groazgdrecben.  It  was  the  first  great  conflict  of 
the  nnited  Koudaa  and  Prussian  army  with  the 
army  of  Napoleon  in  that  decisive  campaign.  The 
allies  gained  at  fiist  great  successes,  but  the  French 
were  left  in  possession  of  the  Geld  at  the  close  of 
the  day  ;  tJieir  superiority  in  numhera  securing 
them  tlie  victory,  although  they  lost  about  12,000 
men,  and  the  allies  only  10,000.  By  this  battle, 
the  Frenob  regained  possession  of  Saiony  and  the 
Elbe. 

LUXEMBOURG,  Francois  Hehbi  di  Mokt- 
MOBXNOT,  DiTKl  OP,  Marshal  of  France,  a  famous 
general  of  Louis  XIV.,  bom  at  Paris  Sth  January 
1628,  was  the  posthumous  son  of  Fran;oia  de  Mont- 
morency, Connt  of  Boat«vilIe,  who  was  beheaded  on 
account  of  a  daeL  His  annt,  the  mother  of  the 
Qreat  Conde,  broaght  bim  np  as  a  companion  of 
her  aon,  with  whom  be  took  part  in  the  disturb- 
ances of  the  Fronde,  signalising  himself  in  the 
battles  then  fought  Being  afterwards  received  into 
tavooT  by  Lonis  XIV.,  he  served  as  a  volunteer 
inider  Turenne  in  Flanders  (1667),  in  Francbe 
Comti  as  tiie  lientenant-general  of  Condfi,  and 
in  the  Netherlands,  where  the  battlea  of  Orool, 
Deveuter,  Zvroll,  to.,  greatly  increased  his  reputa- 
tion. He  had,  howover,  the  misfortune  to  embroil 
himself  in  a  qoairel  wiUi  the  all-powerful  Louvols. 
the  results  of  which  were  diaaBtroua  to  his  prospects 
for  a  time.  He  assomed  the  title  of  L.  on  marrying 
the  heiress  of  that  houae.  Some  of  his  mihtary 
exploits  were  very  daring,  and  ware  executed  with 
great  akill ;  his  retreat  from  Holland,  in  particular, 
being  executed  in  such  a  masterly  manner,  that  it 
placttl  him  among  the  foremost  generals  of  his  age  : 
but  he  largely  participated  in  the  savage  burmng 
of  towns,  and  desolating  of  conquered  districts, 
which  disgraced  ijie  French  arms  at  that  period, 
though  it  IS  believed  that  in  this  he  only  earned  out 
the  positive  instmctiODS  which  he  received  from 
Lonvoia  (q.  v.).  In  the  campiugn  of  1677,  he  defeated 
the  Prince  of  Orange  at  Monl-Cassel,  tc«k  St  Omer. 
and  compelled  the  prince  to  raise  the  siege  of  | 
Charleroi.  After  the  Peace  of  Nimegnen,  Louvois 
attempted  to  accotmilisb  his  destruction  by  means 
almost  incredibla.  Having  got  possession  of  a  con- 
tract between  L.  and  a  wood-merchant,  he  caused 
it  to  be  changed  so  that  it  became  a  contract  with 
the  devil  Upon  this,  L.  waa  summoned  before  tbe 
Chambre  Ardertle,  and  obeyed  the  citation,  althouah 
his  friends  advised  bim  to  leave  tbe  countn'-  He 
was  thrown  into  tbe  Bastille,  and  there  confined  in 
a  dark  dungeon.  After  fourteen  months, 
•oqnitted  and  released,  but  banished  to  on 
doioaina,  where  he  lived  forgotten  for  ten  yeara, 
the  end  of  which  time,  the  King  appointed  him 
■    ~     iders.    On  the  1 


July  1690,  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  Prinoe  of 
W^deck  at  Fleunis  ;  on  4th  August  1G92,  and  29th 
July  1893,  over  William  III.  of  England,  at  Steen- 
kirk  and  at  Neerwindeo.  He  took  Charleroi  12th 
October  1693.    He  died  4th  January  1095.    L. 


le  of  bis 


ud  ot  tbe  army  in  FUnde 


activity  of  spirit. 

LU'XEMBURG,  an  old  German  coun^,  and 
afterwards  a  duchy,  which,  about  the  12Ui  c, 
came  into  possession  of  the  Counts  of  limburg,  who 
assumed  the  title  of  Counts  of  Luxemburg.  It  was 
next  acquired  by  Burgundy,  and  iu  tiiis  way  came 
into  the  hands  of  Ausbia.  By  the  Peace  of  Campo 
Formio  {q.  v.),  it  was  ceded  to  France  in  1797.  Id 
1814,  it  was  elevated  to  tbe  rank  of  a  grand  duchy 
of  tbe  Qennan  Confederation,  and  given  to  Holland 
in  compensation  for  the  loes  of  Nassau.  In  1630, 
when  Belgimn  formed  itself  into  an  independent 
kingdom,  L.  was  divided  between  it  and  Holland— 
the  latter,  however,  retaining  little  more  than  the 
fortress  of  Luxemburg,  till  1839,  when,  by  a  treaty 
sigued  in  London,  a  new  division  waa  made  more 
favourable  to  Holland. — Bkujian  L,  or  Ldxem- 
BOURO,  the  lai^est  province  of  Belgium,  forming; 
tbe  south-east  comer  of  tbe  conntj-y,  contains  an 
area  of  1690  English  sanare  milee,  with  a  population 
(1S80)  of  210,533.  It  IB  traveled  from  soutb-west 
to  north-east  by  a  branch  of  the  Ardennes,  wbicl> 
nowhere  exceed  2000  feet  in  height  The  surface 
is  in  general  extremely  nigged,  much  covered  witb 
woods  and  morassee.  The  soil  ia  poor.  About  a 
third  of  the  arable  land  is  devoted  to  pasture,  great 
numbers  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  hones  bemg  reMw.  tor 
export  The  horses  are  a  strong,  hardy  breed,  mnch 
pnzed  both  for  agricultural  and  military  puipcse*. 
The  mineral  wealth  of  the  couubr  consists  of  iron, 
lead,  copper,  marble,  freestone,  siate,  gypsuin,  &c. 
The  cbiii  manufactures  are  cloth,  tuUe,  earthen- 
ware,  leather,  nails,  and  potash  ;  and  the  principal 
articles  of  export  are  hemp,  flax,  oak-bark,  timber, 
iron,  leather,  cheese,  ie.  The  capital  of  tbe  pro- 
vince, Arlon,  has  a  pop.  of  4200. — DuTflH  L,,  east 
of  the  Belgian  province  of  L.,  is  connected  with  the 
Netherlands  in  the  person  of  tbe  sovereign,  but  haa 
a  constitutioD  and  admin  istration  of  its  own.  The 
king  of  Holland,  as  Grand  Duk^  appoints  a 
de[)uty-governor.  Dutch  L.  was  a  part  of  the  Oer- 
~-uiio  confederation  from  its  formation  in  1815,  till 
dissolution  in  18G6.     In  1867,  its  neutraUty  was 

sranteed  by  the  Great  Powera.    See  Gebhanv  in 

FP.  VoL  X.  Its  present  constitution  datea  from 
1868.  The  chamber  of  deputies  consists  of  41  mem- 
hen,  chosen  for  6  yean  by  direct  vote  in  the  elec- 
toral districts.  Area,  99U  Engbsb  square  miles ; 
pop,  (1680)  209,57a  The  inhabitants  are  mainly  of 
tbe  low-German  stock :  Walloon  is  spoken  on  the 
western  border  :  tbe  official  language  is  French. 
The  country  is  hilly.  The  chief  products  are  vrine, 
com,  hops,liemp,  and  flax.  lo  the  eastern  districts 
there  are  iron  mines,  and  lime  and  slate  quarries. 
The  capital  is  Loiemburg.  Tbe  army  consists  of 
13  oScen  and  SOU  men,  beudes  122  gendarmes. 

LUXEMBUEG,  the  capital  ot  Dutch  Luxem- 
borp,  ia  situated  on  the  Else  or  Alsette,  76  miles 
south-by-east  from  Liege,  and  poaaessed  a  pop,  in 
1880,  of  10,700.  Its  situation  baa  often  been  com- 
pared to  that  of  Jerusalem,  being,  like  the  latter, 
surrounded  by  escarped  rocks,  which,  excepting 
the  west  mde,  average  200  feet  in  height  The 
Spaniards,  Anslrians,  French,  and  Dutch,  who  suc- 
cessively held  possession  of  tbe  town,  so  increased 
and  strengthened  its  fortifications  that  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  19th  c.  it  was  considered  to  bo,  with  tbe 
exception  of  Gibraltar,  tbe  strongest  fortress  '" 
Europe.  Another  portii 


srongest 
ailed  the 


L,  called  the '  low  town,' 


iTGoogIc" 


LUZON— LTCIA. 


H  ntii&ted  at  tbe  foot  of  the  precipice,  along  the 
banlu  of  the  Tiver.  It  pooeaaei  a  tine  cathedral, 
rarioua  handsome  buildings  and  pnblio  inatitutioDa. 
It  has  aUo  muiufactures  of  irax,  distilleries,  brew- 
fitonsivo  geneiat  trade. 

dnwn,  and  the  forti£oatioas  demolished. 

LUZiyN,  the  largest  of  the  Philippine  Islands  (q.T.) 
LTCANTHRO'PIA  (Or.  lycoi,  a  wolf ;  anUiropot, 
a  man),  wolf-madness.  There  bos  been  in  various 
coaotries  and  times  a  popular  superstition  and 
dread  that  men  had  been  transmated  into  wolves 
by  Satanic  agency,  and  roamed  throng  forests  and 
desert  places  actuated  bj  the  same  appetites  a» 
the  wild  beast  whose  aspect  or  name  they  bore. 
The  PAluo  thus  inspired  may  have  suggested  the 
delusion  now  under  consideration,  where  the  pro- 
cess of  transformation  wM  pnrely  subjective,  and 
tbe  transforming  power  disease.  Many  ingtAnces 
be  encountered  in  every  asyluni,  in 
themsdves  aogs  {Cynan- 


r,  and  nuiy 
which  the  insan 

IhTopia)  and  other  ^nimikU,  uid 
objects  i  but  these  are  aolitary  cases,  wbereaa  this 
hallucination  has  appeared  epidemically,  and  tycon- 
thropes  have  literally  herded  and  huut«d  together 
in  packs.  In  161X1.  multitudes  were  attacked  with 
the  dUeose  in  the  Jura,  emulated  the  destructivo 
habits  of  the  wolf,  murdered  and  devoured  children; 
bowled,  walked,  or  attempted  progression  upon  all- 
fours,  so  that  the  palms  of  the  hands  became  hard 
and  homy ;  and  admitted  that  they  congrwated 
in  the  mountains  for  a  sort  of  cannibal  or  devil's 
Sabbath.  Imprisonment,  burning  scarcely  sufBced 
to  check  what  grew  into  a  source  of  public  danger. 
Six  hundred  persona  were  executed  on  their  own 
confeesion.  Coaea  in  which  tbe  sufferer  hoasta  of 
being  a  wolf,  creeps  like  a  quadruped,  barks,  leaps, 
bites,  and  which  in  other  respects  are  closely  aUied 
to  these,  still  happen  in  sufficient  frequency  to  sug- 
{rest  the  lenon,  that  we  are  chiefly  protected  from 
Uie  prevalence  of  such  a  moral  peatilsnca  by  educa- 
tion, the  greater  diffusion  of  knowledge  and  sound 
principle,  and  by  attention  to  the  laws  of  health. — 
Calmiel,  De  la  Folie;  Arnold,  On  ImanOy. 
LYCAON,  a  genus  of  CanidiB,  in  deutition  and 

Seneral  oateologi^  structure  nearly  agreeing  with 
Dgs,  but  resembling  h;»D«s  in  tne  form  of  the 
head  and  in  having  only  four  toe*  on  each  foot.  The 
best  ascertained  species,  L.  venatieat,  the  Wild  Doo, 
Hr^NA  Doa,  or  uxarasa  Doo  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  is  rather  smaller  than  a  mastiff,  and  has  a  tall, 
oiunt  form.  It  is  grejcarious,  and  still  infests  even 
the  neighbourhood  of  Cape  Town,  committing  great 
depredations  on  flocks  of  sheep.  It  is  foui^  over 
great  part  of  Africa,  from  the  Cape  of  Qood  Hope 
to  the  valle;  of  the  NUe. 

LTCACIflA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  country  in 
Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Cappadocia,  on 
the  If.  by  Galatia,  on  the  W.  by  Pisidia,  and  on  the 
8.  by  Isauria  and  Cihcia.  Its  capital  was  Iconium 
(q.v.). 

LYCIMTM  (Or.  LvJiaoa),  originally  the  name  of 
a  place  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Athens, 
consecrated  to  ApoUo  Lyedua,  and  noted  for  its 
shady  wood  and  beautiful  gardens,  but  particularly 
for  tta  gymnasinm,  in  which  Aristotle  and  the 
Peripatetics  taught^  and  from  which  the  Romans 
borrowed  the  same  name  for  similar  institutions. 
[n  more  modem  times,  the  name  L,  was  given  in 
honour  of  Aristotle  to  the  higher  Latin  schools  in 
which  the  Aristotelian  idiiloso[£y  fonoed  a  principal 
branch  of  edncotioa ;  and  at  tne  present  day,  the 
name  is  variously  a[^Jied  to  ednotional  and  litciuy 


covered  with  a  root    It  ia  very         

parts  of  England.    The  bodies  of  penona  bt«agk^ 


Lyob  or  Corpse  Oat& 

for  borial  are  set  down  under  the  shelter  of  tbe 
roof  while  the  service  is  read.  Lych-gates  are  very 
rare  in  Scotland.  There  is  one  at  Peebhs;  the 
illuatratton  represents  one  at  Blackford  Church,  in 
Perthshire. 

LT'CKNIS,  a  cenns  of  plania  of  the  natural  order 
CanjophyUacea  ;  having  a  tabular  5-toothed  calyx  ; 
corolla  twice  as  long  as  tbe  calyx,  with  a  spreawng 
wheel-shaped  limb,  crowned  at  the  mouth  of  the 
tube,  and  generally  divided  at  the  border;  ten 
stamens,  and  five  styles.  The  species  are  herbaceous 
plants,  generally  perennial,  natives  of  temperate 
countries.  Several  are  found  in  Britain.  The  RaaoKD 
RoBtK  {L.  Jlos-atcuti)  ia  one  of  the  most  freqnent 
ornaments  of  meadows  and  moist  pastures;  the 
Oeruah  CilcBrLr   {L.   tnaexiHa),  very  rare,  and 


(L.  vaptrlina),  abound  in  fields,  hedges 
and  the  borders  of  woods.  The  last  two  are  diracious, 
and,  strangely  enough,  the  female  of  the  firat  and 
the  mole  of  the  second  are  very  conuoon,  while  the 
male  of  the  first  and  female  of  the  second  are  rather 
rare.  The  flowers  of  L,  vupertina  are  usually  frag- 
rant in  the  evening.  The  Scabltt  L.  (£.  CAalct- 
doitica),  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  is  a  freqnent  and 
brilliant  ornament  of  Qower-borders.  Some  of  the 
apedee  have  saponaceous  properties. 


bounded  on  theW.  by  Cario,  on  the  N.  by  Phmia 
and  Pisidia,  and  on  the  R  by  Pamphylia.  The 
meet  ancient  inhabitants  are  said  to  have  been  two 
Semitio  races  called  the  Solymi  and  TemUta,  the 
former  of  whom  were  driven  from  the  coast  to  the 
mountuns  in  the  north  by  adventiu^n  from  Crete, 
under  tbe  command  of  Sarpedon,  a  brother  of  Minos, 
who  first  gave  the  oountiT  the  name  of  Lyda.  To 
what  race  the  invaders  belonged,  is  not  ceittun ; 
they  were,  however,  not  of  Hellenic  origin.  The 
Lyciana  are  prominent  in  tbe  Homeric  legend  of 
the  Trojan  war.  It  shared  the  vicissitudes  of  tba 
other  statea  of  Asia  Minor,  becoming  subject  to  the 
Persian  and  Sprrian  monarchies,  and  then  to  Rome. 
During  tbe  tuns  of  its  independence,  it  consisted 
of  23  confederate  cities,  of  which  the  principal  were 
Xondius,  Fatara,  Finara,  Olympus,  Myra,  and  Xlos  ; 
and  at  the  head  of  the  whole  confederation  was  a 
president  or  governor  called  the  Lydarch.    Many 


liicrnAiOOgk^ 


LYOOPBRDON— LTIHA. 


and  nnned  iMxildingi  (tample^  tomb^ 

theatrM,  Ao.),  ezqniuts  tcnlptorea,  coiiu,  and  other 
antiqiiitiet,  testify  to  the  mtbuiinieotB  of  the  LjcUn* 
in  oivilisatioii  ftod  the  azta,  in  wUdi  they  rival 
the  Oreeki  themielvea.  These  uitiquitiea,  how- 
ever, had  received  little  attention,  till  Sir  Charlee 
Fellows,  about  the  year  1840,  pointed  out  their 
intereatiiig  chuscter.  Since  that  time,  the^  have 
beui  veiy  aiiiduonsl;  explored  and  atadied.  A 
beautiful  oollection  of  Lycuui  acalptarea,  made  by 
Sir  Charles,  18  now  to  be  seen  intbeSritiah  Maaaiug 
The  most  interesting  of  all  the  ontiquitiea  of  L. 
■re,  howevo',  tiie  insoiiptions  in  which  a  pecnliar 
alphabet  is  lued,  nearly  allied  t«  the  Fhrygmn,  and 
the  laoKiuue  of  which  appears  to  be  on  Indo- 
Germamo  langnage  mingled  with  Semitio  words. 
Grotefend,  Sharpe,  Daniul,  and  others,  have  spent 
maoh  labonr  in  deciphering  these  inscriptions, 
LYOOPE'KDON.  See  Pnw-aui 
LTOOPODIA'OHS!,  a  natural  order  of   i 


many  botanlxta  included  amoogit  fema  ai  a  aub- 
order.  They  have  creeping  stenu  and  imbricated 
leaves.  The  axis  consists  entirely,  or  in  great 
part,  of  """l^f  veesels ;  the  leaves  are  natrow  and 
Luerved.  The  .tJieem,  or  spore-easM,  aia  axillsry, 
Bcadle,  1 — 3-celled,  opening  1^  vilve^  <a  not  at 
^  attd  often  of  two  kinds,  the  one  containing 
minnte  powdeiy  matter,  the  other  spomles  of  much 
larger  size,  which  are  ci^iable  of  germinating.  The 
powdery  particles  have  by  some  been  regarded 
as  aitlaendia  {see  AmHZRimuK),  but  tOie  ques- 
tion  of  their  natnre  is  still  involved  in  uncer- 
tunty.— The  L.  are  most  abundant  in  hot  humid 
I,  especially  in  tropical  i'lanil^,  although 
found  in  vary  cold  climate*.  Abont  two 
a  known. — The  only  British  genus 
is    Lyeo^odiwn,    ol   which 


£.  clatNituMansnutitvthoaeof  £,  SdoiKi  catbartia  i 
a  South  American  apeoiea,  L,  ea&afUeuta,  ia 
violently  poi^tive,  ana  ia  adminiateMd  in  casea  of 
elephantiasis.  L.  SAtgo  is  employed  by  the  Swedea 
to   destroy  lice  on  swina  aod  other  animals.    L. 


of  the  ^ant  and  a  few  leaves  of  the  bog  whratla- 
beny.  J/,  eomplaiuilum  is  nsed  for  the  same  purpose 

in  I^pland,  along  with  birch-?  "  '  " 


Britaui.  The  most  abund- 
ant, both  in  Britun  and  on 
the  continent  of  Europe,  is 
the  common  Olus-nogb  (£■ 
cUnxttum),  which  creeps  npon 
the  ground  in  heathy  pas- 
twes,  with  branching  stems, 
ofteo  many  feet  long.  A 
decoction  of  this  jpliuit  is 
employed  by  the  Poles  to 
cure  that  fnghtful  disease 
the  pUea  j^loaica.  The 
yellow  doat  or  meal  which 
issues  from  its  Bpore-caeea, 
and  from  thoae  of  L.  Bdago, 
is  ooHeoted  and  used  for 
produdng  the  lightning  of 
theatres,  Deing  very  inmun- 
mabte,  and  kmdiing  with  a 
sudden  blaze  when  thrown 


bastion  tokkg  jJace  to 
ra[ndly  that  nothing  elae  is  liable  to  be  kudled  by 
it  It  is  called  L^poit  and  YegtUUM  BrimtUmt, 
and  by  the  Qermans,  LV&AiiiuWal  and  tTiCcA- 
meol  (£2ite->nsAJ  and  HaafmaX^.  It  is  used  for 
rolling  np  pills,  whiol^  when  ooated  with  it,  ma^ 
bep^  into  water  without  being  mdstened.  It  is 
sprmlded  upon  the  excoriations  of  infants,  and  upon 
parts  affected  with  erysipelas,  herpetic  ulceration,  ftc 
It  is  even  used,  although  rarely,  as  a  medicine  in 
diseases  of  the  urinary  organs.  The  powder  of 
other  species  is  also  regarded  in  Bradl  and  other 
oountries  as  possessing  power  over  the  urmaiy 
lerative  organs.      The  stems  and  leaven  <^ 


d  gencF 


h-leavas. — Many  of  the 


LTCU'ROnS,  a  oelebtated  Sputan  lawgiver, 
whose  history  and  Ingislation  are  involved  m  so 
much  obscurity,  that  many  modem  critica  have 
suspected  them  to  be  mythical  The  accoont 
usually  given  is  as  follows :  L.,  who  flonriahed 
about  880  B.O.  (or,  according  to  others,  about  1100 
B.  0.),  was  desoended  from  the  old  Dona  family  of 
the  Proclida.  His  brother,  Polydectes,  kini  of 
Sparta,  died,  leaving  his  widow  with  child.  This 
ambitious  woman  proposed  to  L.  that  he  should 
marry  her,  in  event  of  which  she  promised  to 
destroy  the  fmit  of  her  womb.  L  was  shocked, 
but  feigned  consent  in  order  to  save  his  brother's 
offspring.  As  soon  ss  the  child,  who  was  named 
Chorilaus,  was  boni,  he  proolaimed  him  king,  and 
became  his  guardian.  At  this  time,  Sparta  ia 
represented  as  being  in  a  state  of  great  disorder 
and  demoralisation — the  different  sections  of  the 
community  quarrelling  among  themselves  for  poli- 
tical suprema'^.  L.  after  some  years  left  his 
native  conntry,  and  travelled  through  many  fordgn 
lands— Crete,  Asia  Minor,  India,  Egjrpt,  libya, 
and  Iberia — <*x^"i^'*i"g  and  comparing  the  politicu 
oonstitutions  of  the  diffsrent  coontriea,  and  finally 
returned  to  Sparta,  full  of  knowledge  fitting  him 
to  become  one  of  the  greatest  l^islatots  in  the 
world.  Ihiring  bis  absoioe,  thing*  had  got  much 
worse  in  Spana,  and  h«   had  no  sooner  arrived 


up  a  oonstitntiou  for  them.  To  this  he  conasnted, 
and  having  induced  them  to  solemnly  swear  that 
they  would  make  no  change  in  his  law*  till  be 
came  back,  he  again  left  Sparta,  and  waa  never 
more  heard  of.  By  this  myrtoioos  aeU-expatriation, 
he  hoped  to  make  the  Spartan  oonstitntian  eternal 
The  ^leople  now  saw  that  he  was  a  god ;  a  temple 
was  eret^ed  in  his  hononr,  and  annual  *aan£cea  vera 
ever  afterwards  offered  to  him.  No  eritioal  acholar 
considers  suoh  a  biography  hiatorioal ;  the  most  that 
can  be  assumed  as  probable  is,  that  a  oertiin  L  may 
have  once  existed,  who  at  some  critical  juncture  in 
Spartan  afbin  may  have  been  selected,  probably 
on  BOoonnt  of  his  wisdom  aud  reputation,  to  draw 
up  a  code  of  laws  for  the  better  govemioant  of  the 
state.  To  repreMnt  tlia  antire  h^slatbn  of  Sparta 
as  invented  (so  to  apeak)  by  L,,  and  impoaed  upon 
the  peoida  as  a  novw^,  is  rimply  incredible;  the 
only  theory  worth  a  moment^a  oonsideratian  is  that 
whioh  Bupposea  him  to  have  collected,  modiSed, 
improved,  and  enlarged  the  previously  ■viaHng 
institaticoB  of  Sparta  (q.  v.). 

Lx'DIA,  anciently,  a  conntry  of  Asia  Minor, 
bounded  on  the  W.  by  Ionia,  on  &e  8.  by  Caria,  on 
the  £.  by  Phrygio,  and  on  the  N.  by  Myua.  It 
is  said  to  have  been  originally  inhabited  by 
a  people  called  Maonians  (whether  of  Semitie  or 
lDdo.PelBBgio  ori^  is  muim  disputed  by  modom 
ethnograpl^rt),  i^o  were  subdued  or  expelled  by 
the  Lydiana  (abont  720  b.  a),  a  Carian  race.  The 
countty  waa  moontainous  in  the  south  and  west — 


i,.,.,..v,CiOoqIc 


LYDIAN  MODE— LYME  REGIS. 


wealth,  pBrtiunliLrly  for  the  gold  of  tho 
Paotoliu  and  of  the  neighbooring  mines, 
WM  infamouj  for  the  ooiruutioa  of  aonia  which 
prerailed  unonjpit  ita  iaWjitanta,  and  eij 
In  Sardii  (q.  v.),  ita  cspitaL  L.  attuned  iti . 
protpflritjr  under  the  dynasty  of  the  MermuAdts 
(drca  700-546  a.  a).  The  firrt  of  this  dyna«ty 
WM  the  half-mythical  Gygea  (q.T.) — the  lut  was 
the  famona  Cnsini  (q.v.)i  oelebrated  for  Mi  pro- 
digioni  wealth.  The  subaecineDt  history  of  L.  is 
ummportaQt.  Its  antiquitie*  have  not  yet  been 
Buffioiently  explored.  Compare  Kiebnhr's  Ltetura 
on  Ande»%  Hittory ;  Hanulton's  Eetcartha,  and 
recent  invotigotiona  by  Denoii,  Ramsay,  and  Sayce. 

LTBLAJT  MODE,  one  of  the  andent  Greek 
■utheotia  modea  in  mnsio,  which  was  retained  u 
one  of  the  old  church  modes,  the  notes  being 
F,  O,  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  the  tame  as  in  oar  modem 
diatonic  Male.  Sinoe  the  Befonnatdon,  the  melodiea 
in  the  Lydian  mode  havo  entirely  disappeared, 
and  the  Lydian  mode  is  used  only  oooasioually  in 
modulation  from  other  modes. 

liTDIAN  STONE,  a  Tariety  of  flinty  alate,  but 
lees  hard  than  common  flinty  alate,  and  not  of 
■iaty  sbiioture.  It  oocui*  in  Britain  and  in  many 
otho'  oouniries,  bat  was  first  bronght  from  Lydia. 
It  is  generally  grayish  blaak,  or  quite  black  and 
velvet-lika.  It  is  polished,  and  employed  as  a 
touchstone  for  trying  tho  purity  of  gold  and  silver 
by  compariaon  of  coloors. 

LYE,  a  term  sometimes  used  to  denote  all  solu. 
tions  of  ■alta,  but  more  generally  appropriated  to 
solalioiu  of  Uie  fixed  alkaliea,  potash  and  soda,  in 
water.  The  solutionii  of  caustic  potaah  and  soda  are 
called  caustio  1^ ;  those  of  their  aarbonatcH,  mild 
lyes.  The  fluid  which  remains  after  a  substance 
bu  been  separated  from  its  solution  by  ciystollisa- 
tios,  is  colled  the  MoUier  Lyt. 

LYELL,  8lR  Chaklis,  an  eminent  geologist  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  was  the  eldest  son  m  Charles 
Lyell,  Esq.,  of  Kinnordy,  Forfarehitfl.  He  was  bom 
in  1797,  and  after  receiving  bis  early  education  at 
Uidhiust,  in  Sossez,  was  entered  at  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  graduated  as  BJL  in  1819.  Here 
he  attended  the  feoturei  of  Bnoklaod,  and  thus 
aoqoired  a  tast«  for  the  soienoe  he  afterwards  did  so 
much  to  pnnnote.  After  learing  the  onivetsity,  he 
studied  law,  and  in  due  time  was  called  to  the  bar ; 
but  his  circumstanctis  not  rendering  a  profession 
necesaaiy  for  a  livelihood,  he  soon  abandoned  the 
law,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  prosecution  of 
geology.  To  extend  his  knowled^  m  this  depart- 
ment of  science,  be  made  geological  (oim  in  1824, 
and  again  in  I82S~1S30,  over  varioos  parts  of 
Europe,  and  published  the  results  of  his  investiga- 
tions in  Uie  Tran»a£lion$  of  lAc  Otologieai  Socaig 
and  ebewbere.  The  first  volume  of  his  great  worl^ 
The  Prmeiplei]  of  Otoloify  appeared  in  1S30,  the 
third  in  1833.  This  work  may  be  ranked  next 
after  Darwin's  Origin  of  Speeia,  as  one  of  the  two 
books  which  have  exercised  the  moot  powerful 
influence  on  the  direction  of  scientifio  thought 
the  present  century.  It  broke  down  the  belief  in  ( 
necessity  of  atupendons  oonvulsious  in  past  times 

,_  J  i L..t_.., teift  geologioal  du" '"'"" 

»  cUi  at  work  o) 
lintotwoparb 
.  TkaPriitaplaqfCMon, 
or  the  Modem  Gltange$<i/' tie  Sarth  ana  iUlnhaiUanit 
(12th  ed.  18T6)iand  The  EiemtnU  of  Geology ;  or  the 
Andent  Change*  qf  tha  Barth'and  ilt  InJtabUaaU. 


lished  7VaM&  tn  iforOt  America  (ISU),  and  A 
Second  ViM  to  the  Utuled  Slaits  (1849).  Ihiriog  the 
second  sojoom  he  estimated  the  recession  oE  the  rocli 

at  Niagara,  and  the  amount  of  depofotion  -'  -'' -— — 


siouB;  and  contributed  important  papers  to  the 
T^aaaactioiu  </  the  Oeolagkal  Soatty,  the  Report* 
of  0\e  Briiith  Atsodation,  4c.  On  the  opening  of 
King's  College  in  1832,  L  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Geobgy,  on  office  which  he  soon  resigned.  In  1636, 
and  again  in  1850,  he  was  elected  President  of  the 
Gcolc«ical  Society ;  and,  in  1864,  President  of  the 
British  Association.  Ee  was  knighted  in  134S,  and 
created  a  baronet  ia  1864.  L.  received  the  degree 
of  D.C.L  from  Oxford,  and  that  of  LLD.  horn. 
Cambridge.  He  died  February  22,  1879.  See  hit 
Life,  LeOerg,  and  JoumaU  (1881). 
_IjYLY,   Jobn,   an    T-Ingliuli    dramatist,  bom  ia 


his  career,  notbbg  is  known,  except  that  ha  lived  ii 
London,  and  supported  himself  by  his  pen.  Ho 
died  eoriy  in  the   17th   century.     L.  wrote   nine 

Sya,  most  of  which  are  on  classical  subjects— as 
^pho  and  Phaon,  Endymion,  Midat,  Qaiothea,  and 
the  Ma^t  Metamorphona — tbo  lyrics  of  which  fre> 
qucntly  display  a  sweet  and  graceful  fancy ;  but  the 
two  works  which  have  chiefly  perpetuated  his  name 
are  EuphM*,  ortht  A  naioray  ofWiL  and  Euphuei  and 
hi*  England,  "niev  are  written  in  pnisa,  and  are 
marked  by  great  affectatioi],  bombast,  and  pedantry 
in  the  langiuige  and  imageiy ;  yet  L,  ia  said  to  havs 
intended  them  for  mod^  of  elegant  English,  and 
such  the  court  of  Elizabeth  at  least  undoubtedly 
thought  them.  According  to  L.'s  editor,  Slount, 
'that  beanty  at  court  which  conld  not  parley 
euphuism,  that  i*  to  say,  who  was  unable  to  con* 
verse  in  that  ^lUre  and  refonned  English  which  ha 
had  formed  his  work  to  be  the  stan^rd  of,  was  a* 
little  regarded  as  aha  which  now  there  ipeaka  not 


French.' 
LYME   ORASS  {Blymv*), 


awniesa  domes,  both  on  the  same  side. — The  8ka 
L.  G.  (E.  ormarius)  is  frequent  on  the  aan^ 
shores  of  Britain  and  other  parta  of  Enrope,  H 
--  -  oouse,  grayish  grass,  often  three  or  four  feet 
,  with  apiny-pomtcd  leaves  and  upright  dose 
spikes ;  a  perennial  with  creeping  roots,  vei^  nseful 
■"  binding  the  sand.  On  this  account^  it  u  much 
yn  on  the  shores  of  Holland,  and  also  to  some 
extent  on  those  of  Britain.  In  Iceland  and  other 
countries,  it  is  used  for  thatch.  The  seed,  which 
ia  large,  is  collected  in  Iceland,  and  xronnd  into 
meal,  which  ia  made  either  into  porr^e  or  into 
soft  thin  cakes,  and  is  esteemed  a  great  delicacy. — 
A  dosely  allied  species  or  a  varie^,  called  Oluit 
L  G.  (K  ffigtaUeui},  is  often  sown  in  Holland,  being 
preferred  for  its  mora  vigorous  growth. — Various 
expedients  ore  adopted  to  secore  the  growth  otli.G. 
seeds  in  very  loose  sands,  as  the  laying  down  of 
pieces  of  turf,  a  gradual  adrantwment  trom  the 
margin  of  the  sand,  Slc 

LYME  BE'OIS,  a  seaport,  ancient  mnnio^ial 
borough,  and  watenng-plaoe  of  England,  in  Donet- 
shire,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  a  livnlet  called 
the  Lyme,  26  miles  west  of  Dorchester.  It  received 
ita  iiret  charter  in  the  middle  of  the  13th  o.,  and 
was  a  port  of  oonsiderabte  importanoe  during  the 
reign  <a  Edward  ILL,  for  whom  it  provided  three 
ships  to  assist  in  the  ri^eoE  Calais  in  1340.  l^piv, 


LYMISGTON— LYNDHUEST. 


called  the  Cobb,  a  Eemtcircular  in  form.  Blna  Uu 
■toDB  ia  qauried  in  Urge  quantities  and  exported. 
L.  wu  a  pBrliaToentMy  borough  till  1S07>  Pop. 
(1871)  2333 ;  (ISSl)  2043. 

LYTMINGTON,  a  Bsaport,  market-town,  and 
mnnioipal  borough  of  EngtoQiI,  in  the  countj  of 
UantB,  at  Uie  mouth  of  a  river  of  the  same  name, 
and  on  a  creek  commanicating  with  the  Solent,  18 
milea  Bouth-south-wcat  o{  Southampton.  Salt  haa 
long  been  taannfactiired ;  eome  of  the  ealt- works 
being  of  great  antiquity.  Bocently  trade  has  fallen 
off.  L.  ii  also  of  some  importance  as  a  watering- 
place.  It  uomnunda  fine  prospects  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight  and  the  Eoglish  Channel,  and  its  vicinity 
aboanda  in  chsmiing  scenery.  L.  was  a  parliament- 
ary borough  till  18^  and  before  1867  returned  two 
members.    Fop,  (1881)  of  municipal  borongh,  2431. 

LYHPH  (Gr.  lymjAa,  water)  is  the  term  applied 
by  physiologists  to  the  fluid  contained  in  the 
LmpUATics  (q.  T,).  It  is  a  coburleis  or  faintly 
yellowish  red  fliud,  of  a  rather  saltish  taste,  and 
with  an  alkaline  reaction.  It  coagulates  shortly 
after  its  removal  from  the  living  body,  and  forms 
a  jelly-like,  semi-solid  moss,  which  continues  for 
■ome  time  to  contract,  so  that  at  lost  the  dot  is 
very  small,  in  proportion  to  the  expressed  senun. 
On  micniscopio  examination,  the  lymph  is  seen  to 
contain  corpuscle*  which  do  not  in  any  respect 
differ  &om  the  oolourless  blood-cells,  molecolar 
granules,  fat  globules,  and  occasionally  blood  cor- 
puscles. The  chemic^  constituents  of  lymph  seem 
to  be  pracinely  the  some  as  those  of  blood,  excepting 
the  substance  pecniiar  to  the  red  corpuscles. 

From  expenmeats  on  animals,  it  has  been  inferred 
that  upwanis  oC  28  lbs.  of  fluid  (lymph  and  chyle) 
pass  daily  into  the  blood  of  an  adult  man. 

The  lymph  seems  to  owe  its  origin  to  two  distinct 
sources — viz.,  to  the  ultimate  radicles  of  the  lym- 

Shatio  system,  whiub  contribute  the  homogeneous 
uid  portion,  and  the  lymphatic  gUods,  which  con- 
gioauka,  £c,  seen  under  the 


of  the  fluid  OM  twofold :  in  the  first 
place,  to  convey  from  the  tissues  to  the  blood  eSete 
matten,  to  be  afterwords  excreted  by  the  skin, 
lungs,  and  kidneys ;  and  secondly,  to  supply  new 
materials  for  the  formation  of  blood. 

LYMPHA'TIOB,  the  vessels  containing  the 
Lymph  [q.  v.),  ore  also  colled  Abaorbenit,  from  t^e 
property  whidi  these  vessels  possess  of  absorbing 
foreign  matters  into  (he  system,  and  carrying  thorn 
into  the  circulation.  The  lymphatic  system  indndes 
not  only  the  lymphatio  vessels  and  the  glands 
through   which   they  pass,  but  also   the  liicteals 

3.  v.),  which  are  nothing  more  than  the  lymphatics 
the  small  intestine,  and  only  differ  from  other 
lymjdiatics  in  conveying  Chyle  (q.  v.)  instead  of  lymph 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  digestive  process. 

The  lymphatics  are  minute,  delicate,  and  trans- 
parent vessels,  of  tolerable  uniformity  in  size,  and 
remarkable  for  their  knotted  appearance,  which  is 
due  to  the  presence  of  numerous  valves,  for  their 
frequent  dichotomons  divisions,  and  for  their  divi- 
■ion  into  several  branches  before  entering  a  gland. 
They  collect  the  jproducts  of  digestion  and  the  jiro- 
duots  of  worn-out  tissuea,  and  convey  them  into  the 
venous  circulation  near  the  heart.  (See  the  diagram 
in  the  article  La<tteai&}  They  are  foimd  in  nearly 
every  texture  and  organ  of  the  body,  excepting  the 
anb^ance  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  the  eyeball, 
oortilage,  tendon,  and  certain  fotal  strictures,  and 
poasili^  also  the  snbstance  of  bone. 

The  lym^jiatics  ore  arranged  in  a  saperSdal  and 
a  deep  set.  The  superflcial  veasels  on  the  surface  of 
the  body  Ue  immedu^ety  beneath  the  skin,  and  join 


the  deep  lymphatics  in  certain  points  through  per- 
forationa  ot  the  deep  fascia;  whde  in  the  interior  ot 
the  body  they  lie  in  the  ■ub'macons  and  Bub-smont 
areolar  tissue.  They  ante  in  the  form'of  a  net>work, 
from  which  th^  pas*  to  lymphatio  glands  or  to  k 
larger  trunk,  t^ie  deep  lympnatioa  are  larger  than 
the  superficial,  and  accompany  the  deep  bkiod- 
vcssels ;  their  mode  of  origm  is  not  known  with 
certainty.  The  structure  of  the  lymphatics  is 
similar  to  that  of  veins  tad  arteries. 

Tho  lymphatic  or  absorbent  glands  are  small,  solid, 
glandnlar  bodies,  varying  from  the  size  of  a  hemp- 
seed  to  that  of  an  almond,  and  situated  in  the 
coune  of  the  lymphatio  vessels.  They  are  found  in 
the  neck  (where  they  often  become  enlarged  and 
inflamed,  especially  in  scrofiilous  subiects),  in  the 
axilla,  or  arm-pit,  in  the  groin  (where,  when  inflamed, 
they  give  rise  to  the  condition  known  as  Bubo),  and 
in  Uie  ham ;  while  deep  ones  are  found  abundantly 
in  the  abdmnen  and  the  chest. 

Xhe  lymph  of  the  left  side  of  trunk,  of  both  legs, 
of  the  idt  arm,  and  the  whole  of  the  chyle,  is  con- 
vened into  the  blood  by  the  Thoracic  Duct  (q.  v.) ; 
while  the  lymph  of  the  right  side  of  the  head,  neck, 
and  trunk,  and  of  the  right  arm,  enters  the  circula- 
tion  at  the  junction  ot  the  axillary  and  internal 
jugular  veins  on  the  right  side,  by  a  short  trunk, 
guarded  at  its  opening  by  valves. 

LYKCH  LAW,  the  name  eiven  in  the  United 
States  of  America  to  the  trial  and  ponishmeut  of 
offenders  in  popular  assemblies  without  reference  to 
the  ordinary  laws  and  institntions  of  the  country. 
This  barbarous  mode  of  admiiiietering  jiutice  has 
always  more  or  less  prevailed  in  every  country  in 
times  of  great  popular  excitement,  and  has  been 
necessarily  resorted  to  in  countries  newly  settled, 
where  the  power  of  the  civil  government  is  not  yet 
suSciectly  eatabbshed.  The  name  is  derived  by 
Webster  from  a  Virginian  former ;  bat  a  more 
interesting  ezplaziation  is  found  in  the  story  of 
Jamee  Lynch,  mayor  of  Oolway  about  1495,  who, 
in  the  ^irit  of  Brutus,  with  his  own  hands  hanged 
"  s  son  from  a  window  for  murder. 

LYUCHBUEG,  a  city  of  Virania,  U.S.,  on  the 
James  River,  120  m.  W.S.W.  of  Kiohmond,  remark- 
able for  picturesque  situation  and  scenery.  It  has 
ten  churches,  a  college,  40  tobacco  factories,  2  iron> 
foundries,  4c.    Pop.  (1870)  6826;  (1880)  10,059. 

LYNDHUBST,  Lord  (Johw  SojaLBTOii  Cop. 
ley),  English  lawyer  and  statesman,  was  the  son  of  J. 
S.  Copley,  B.A,  pointer  of  the  '  Death  of  Chatham,' 
and  other  este^ed  works.  The  Copleys  were 
on  Irish  family,  the  pointer's  grandfather  having 
emigroted  from  the  county  of  Limerick,  and  settled 
at  Boston,  United  States,  where  L.  was  born.  May 
21,  1772.  While  he  was  yet  an  infant,  his  father 
removed  to  England  for  the  practice  of  bis  art.  L. 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  was  Second  Wrangler  and  Smith's  Prizeman 
in  1794,  and  a  Fellow  m  1797.  CaUcd  to  the  bar 
at  lincoln's  Inn  in  1804,  he  choao  the  Midland 
Circuit,  and  soon  obtained  briefs,  lo  politics, 
he  was  at  first  Liberal,  and  long  expressed  senti- 
ments hostile  to  the  ministry  of  tne  day.  He 
ably  defended  Watson  and  lliistlewood  on  their 
trial  for  high  treason  in  1817,  and  obtained  their 
aoquittaL  Some  surprise  was  therefore  expressed 
when,  in  1SI8,  he  entered  parliament  for  a  govern- 
ment borough.  In  1810,  he  became  Solicitor-general 
in  the  Liverpool  odministrotiDn,  and  in  1823  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  Attorney-generoL  It  was 
much  to  his  credit  that,  unlike  his  predecessors, 
he  instituted  no  oe  officio  informations  against  the 
proas.  In  1826,  he  became  Master  of  the  Bolls. 
When  Mr  Canning  was  charged  to  form  i 


--^'X 


^ 


1S2T.  ha  offered  the  OiMt  Seal  to  U  (thsD  Sir  John 
Coplej),  who  WM  raiasd  to  the  TJppor  House,  tud 
nmaiiuKl  Lord  Cbkllcellor  from  18^  to  1830.  !□ 
1S31,  he  becftine  Lord  Chief  Baron  oE  the  Exchequer, 
whidi  office  ha  eichftnged  for  the  woolsack  during 
the  biief  adminiitntion  of  Sir  S.  Peel  in  1834. 
In  1839,  he  led  the  ajipoaitioii  to  the  Melboame 
miiiiBtry  in  the  Upper  Hotue,  in  speeches  of  great 
power  and  brilliancj.  L.'b  orations  knd  ananal 
reviews  of  the  sesaion  did  much  to  rasjiimata  the 
Conservntive  party,  and  pave  the  way  tor  their 
retam  to  power  in  1841.  Ha  then  bttcame  Lord 
Chancellor  for  the  third  time,  and  held  the  Great 
Seal  until  the  defeat  of  the  Peel  govermnent  in 
lS4a  After  that  time,  he  took  Uttle  put  in  home 
politics  :  bat  his  voice  has  often  been  heard  on 
nutters  of  foteign  policy,  and  in  denuncistion  of 
tyrannj  in  Italy  andelBewhets.  He  died  in  London, 
October  12,  1863.  L.'b  high  attainmente  as  a  lawyer 
have  never  been  qaestioned,  and  his  judgments— of 
which  that  in  the  great  caM  of  Small  v.  Attwood 
mny  be  particularly  cited— have  never  been  excelled 
for  cleameas.  method,  and  legal  acumen.  In  the 
Honse  of  Peers,  he  had  few  equals  among  his 
contemporaries.  When  he  waa  63  years  of  age,  he 
maintamed,  with  great  force  and  ability,  the  right 
of  their  lordshipe  to  reject  the  Paper  Dutiea  ffilL 
See  the  £i/e  of  L.  by  Sir  Theodore  Murtia 
LTND8AT.  See  Lraoaiv. 
LYNN,  »  city  of  MasBochiuetts,  United  States 
of  America,  nine  miles  north-eoit  of  Boatoc 
which  nearly  the  whole  population  is  engage 
the  numufactare  of  boots  and  shoe*,  leather,  1 
■nd  works  connected  with  this  toannlacture,  w 

employs  about  10,000  hands.    Much  of  this  m 

factnre  has  been  for  the  Southern  States.  The  value 
n(  the  boots,  ftc,  annually  shipped  is  13  to  14  million 
dolUn.  L.  has  30  chordieB,  6  banks,  4  Dewspapen. 
Pop.  (1870)  28,233;  (1880)  38,284. 

LYNN,  LTNK  REGIS,  or  KING'S  LYNN,  a 
seaport,  municipal  and  parliomentary  borough  of 
England,  in  the  county  of  Norfolk,  about  three  miles 
Jrom  the  moutli  of  the  Great  Ouse,  and  41  miles 
W.N.W.  from  Norwich.  It  was  formerly  fortified, 
and  the  old  moat  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
town,  and  portions  of  the  walla  remain.  The  Gram- 
mar.school,  with  an  annual  income  from  endowment 
of£75.bassiEeihibitions  for  Cambridge.  Ropes  ore 
manufactured,  and  ship-building  earned  on.  Great 
numbera  of  sluimpa  are  caught,  and  sent  to  London. 
The  importa  are  com,  oil-seed  cnke,  cork,  sulphur, 
wine,  coal,  and  timber.  In  ISSO,  1204  vessels  in  the 
foreign,  colonial,  and  coasiing  trades,  of  193,223 
tons,  entered,  and  1175,  of  189,441  tons,  cleared  the 
port.  It  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  Pop. 
(1871)17,266;  (1881)  18,475. 

LYNX,  a  genua  of  Fdidit,  having  a  less  elongated 
form  than  many  others  of  that  uunily,  the  Dody 
elevated  at  the  hannches,  long  for,  a  short  tail,  and 
the  ears  tipped  with  tufts  or  pencils  of  hairs.  They 
are  less  courageous  than  other  Felidie  of  simihir 
size,  and  prey  on  small  quadmpcda  and  birds.  In 
pursuit  of  birds,  they  climb  trees.  They  are  generally 
of  a  sullen  and  suspicioua  temper,  and  not  easily 
tamed.  To  this  genus  belongs  the  Caracal  (q.  v.), 
which  is  probably  the  L.  oE  the  ancients.  The 
species  are  pretty  numerous,  and  widely  distributed, 
but  (he  distinclDODs  of  species  and  varieties  are 
somewhat  uncertain.  The  EmiopKAU  L.  {L.  ptV- 
gatta)  is  common  in  many  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
chiefly  in  mountainous  and  wooded  districts.  Its 
colour  is  variable,  but  generally  of  a  dark  reddish 


Ama  probably  belong  to  other  specie* :  those  of 
North  America,  and  probably  also  many  of  thoM  of 
the  north  of  Europe  and  of  Asia,  are  the  %)aim  of 
the  Canada  L.  (L.  Canadentia  or  L.  boradU),  which 


□f  sight.    It  is  nonted  in  winter  for  its 


European  Lynx  (L.  vSrgatat). 

is  generally  of  a  hoary-gray  colour,  a  brood  spao« 
aloag  the  back  blockish  brown.  It  is  rather  larger 
tlioQ  tho  European  L,  and  more  clumsy  in  form. — 
The  Bav  L.  {L  ru/iu)  is  found  in  more  southern 
parta  of  North  America,  both  in  mountainous  and 
in  swampy  districts,  and  often  makes  great  bavoo 
amoD^  poultry.  It  is  commonly  called  in  America 
the  wild  cat. 

LYON,  the  second  town  of  France  in  reapeot 
of  population,  and  the  first  with  regard  to  manu- 
factures, is  Uie  capital  of  the  department  of  the 
Rhoncs  and  stands  at  the  confluence  of  the  river  of 
that  name  with  the  SaAne,  316  milea  by  railway 
south-south-eost  of  Paris,  218  north-norm-west  of 
Marseille,  and  100  weat-sonth-wost  of  Geoevo.  It 
is  situated  partly  on  a  low-lying  peninsula  between 
tho  two  rivers,  and  partly  on  hills  surrounding 
them,  in  a  beautiful  ustrict  covered  with  gaidens, 
vineyards,  and  villas.  It  is  the  Seat  of  an  arch- 
bishop, and  ia  the  chtf-Uea  of  the  seventh  mih- 
tary  division.  Many  of  the  publio  buildioga  are 
intereating  at  once  for  their  arohiteoture,  ertent, 
and  antiquity.  Of  these,  the  cathedral  and  chnrcb 
of  St  Nizier,  the  Hfltel-dc Villa  (town-hall),  the 
finest  edifice  of  the  kind  in  the  empire,  the 
ital,  the  publia  hbrarj  with  150,000  volumes, 
the  Palais  des  Beaux  Arte,  are  perhaps  the 
most  notable  among  numerous  and  important  insti- 
'  tions.  There  are  also  a  nniversity-ooademy,  an 
iperial  veterinary  school — Uie  first  founded  in  the 
untry,  ond  still  the  best — schools  for  agricnl- 
re,  medicine,  and  the  fine  arts,  &c.  The  printing 
trade  ia  extensive  in  L.,  and  it  baa  long  been 
known  for  the  vigour  of  ita  joumola,  such  aa  the 
Covrrier  de  Lyon.    The  two  rivers  ore  crossed  by  19 

bridgea;  12  over  the  Safine,  and  7 "■-  ""--- 

'^-i^ya,'"- 

"ne, .  _  .„_ 

oportant  suburbs — La  GnillotiSre,  Lea  Brot> 
teaux,  La  Croix-Bousae,  &c. ;  several  fine  squares, 
of  which  the  Plact  BeUeamr  is  one  of  the  laivest 
Europe.  The  fortifications  extend  in  o  circle  of 
13  miles  round  the  city.  From  its  situation  on 
two  great  rivers,  and  on  the  Paris  and  Maiseilla  and 


I  in  number,  a 


cipol  manufactnres  of  L.  are  silk  stuffs  of  all  kinds, 
which  have  long  been  held  in  the  highest  esteem. 
An  immense  number  of  eatablishmenta  working 
120,(XX>  looms  in  L.,  its  anburba,  and  anrrounding 
villages,  give  employment  directly  or  indirectly  to 
""1,000  hands.    Nets,  cotton  goods,  blanketi,  hats. 


|ii..nnvCo5'glC 


LYON-LYON  COUET. 


gold.  Mid  silver  lace,  ohemickl  prodncts,  _  drags, 
Uqoora,  eutbeDwiu^  are  also  important  articles  of 
nuumfacture.     The  trade  of  L.  ii  ohieflj'  in  its  owd 

aumufactDrea  aod  in  the  prodocte  of  the  Tiamity; 
the  MDU  ttnd  ailk  ribbooB  of  8t  Etienne,  and  the 
winM  of   CMo-Beiae,   Hermitage  and   fit    Ferar. 

P™.  {18811  372.887. 

L,,  the  ancient  Lu^umiTH,  was  foanded  in  t!ie 
year  43  b-O.  by  Munatius  Plancns.  Under  Ai^iLstua 
it  became  the  capital  of  the  province  Qallia  Lxigdu- 
n«R«u,  poiieaied  a  lenate,  a  college  of  magiatratea, 
uid  an  athemenm,  and  became  the  centre  of  the 
tour  great  road*  tliat  tr»»eraed  GauL  In  68  A.D.,  it 
■ma  deatroyed  in  one  night  by  fire ;  but  wm  built 
an  acain  by  Nero,  and  embellialied  by  Trajan.  In 
the  Mb  o.,  it  waa  one  of  the  principa]  town*  of  the 
kingdom  of  Borgnndy;  and  m  tlie  11th  and  12th 
centuries,  it  hod  riien  to  Rreat  protperi^.  To 
«*cape  the  domination  of  the  lords  and  archbishnpa, 
tile  inliabitaJifa  placed  themselTea  nuder  the  pro- 
tection of  Philippe-le-Bel,  who  united  the  town  to 
Pwooe  in  1307.  itter  the  Eevolation  {1789),  L., 
which  had  at  first  supported  the  movement  with 
great  entbnaiasm,  eventually  became  terrified  at  the 
acta  of  the  central  power,  and  withdrew  from  the 
revolationary  party.  The  reaolt  of  this  was,  that 
the  Convention  sent  against  L^  an  army  of  60,000 
men,  and  after  a  disastrous  siege,  the  city  wu  taken, 
and  abnost  totally  destroyed.  It  rose  again,  bow- 
ever,  under  the  first  Napoleon;  and  though,  since 
then,  it  has  frequently  suffered  much  from  inun- 
dations (1S40  and  163€)  and  from  the  riots  of  opera- 
tives (I8SI  and  1834),  it  is  now  prosperoos.  It  is  a 
centre  of  ted  repnblicamsm  and  socialism. 

LYON  CqUBT,  one  of  the  interior  courts  of 
Scotland,  having  jurisdiction  in  qncations  rtigording 
'  and  precedency,  and  also  in  certain 


coat-onnonr  s 


precedency,  and  also 
matters  connected  vith  the  executive  part  of 
law.  It  is  presided  over  by  the  Lyon  Kmg-of-a 
(q.  T.)  or  Lord  Lyon.  Attached  to  the  Lyon  Court 
are  a  certain  number  of  Heralds  {q-v.)  and  Pursui- 
vants (q.  V.)  appointed  by  him,  whose  principal  duty 
i«  now  the  execntion  of  royal  proclamations  in 
E^burgb,  though  the  heralds  were,  in  old  times, 
to  some  extent  associated  with  Lyon  in  the  exercise 
of  hia  juhgdiction.  Lyon  appoint*  the  meascnsers- 
at-arms  (officers  who  execute  the  procesa  of  the 
CoQit  of  Session),  superintends  them  in  the  execu- 
tion of  their  duty ;  and  in  the  exercise  of  his  judicial 
fonction,  takes  cognizance  of  complaints  against 
them,  and  finea,  suspends,  or  deprives  them  for 
malversation.  It  was  tormerly  the  practice  for 
Lfon  to  appoint  a  deputy,  who  assurted  hin 
or  less  in  bis  judicial  duties;  but  Act  30 
0.  17  baa  made  it  inoompetent  for  him  to  dr 
fatore.     Among  tiie  officials  of  his  court  a 

"  wk  and  keeper  of  records,  formerly  apt 
,  bat  in  futuM  to  be  appointed  by  the 
niwa;  the  FroGurator-fisoal,  or  pnblio  procacntor; 
herald  painter ;  and  a  mcasenger-at-anna,  who 
■ota  as  maoer.  The  juiisdietion  of  the  Lyon  Court 
is  defined  by  two  aeli  of  the  Scottish  parliament; 
1692,  0.  127,  and  1672,  o.  SI,  and  (nether  rwnlated 
by  30  VioL  o.  17.  The  Seotoh  acta  anthoriM  the 
Lord  Lyon  to  inipeot  the  enaiffos  armorial  of  all 
noblemen  and  gentlemen  in  Sootund,  and  oUige  all 
peraou  who,  by  royal  eonceanou  ot  otherwiae,  had 
previonaly  a  richt  to  arm^  to  matricolate  or  roister 
them  in  the  Lyon'a  bot^  He  ia  empowered  ' 
inquire  into  the  rektionsbip  <rf  yonngra  biaool 
of  familjea  having  right  to  anas,  and  to  'aasiEn 
suitable   difference*   to  them,   witiiout  which  the 

cannot   lawfully  be   borne.'    The  Uter  act 


tod  beAringn  in  Sootlaud,'  and  anthoriwa  the  Lord 


unlawful  bearing  ot  arms  subject*  the  detinqnent  to 
a  fine,  and  .oonfiscation  of  all  the  movable  goods 
and  ^ar  on  whioh  the  aaid  aims  ore  eomveD  or 
otbetwiae  repreaanted.  Both  acta  are  in  foil  toroe : 
the  di&mnmng  ot  oad«ta  and  granting  of  new  eoata 
mattera  ot  doily  practice  in  the  Lyon  Office^ 
cause  ahewn,  Lyon  also  empowers  applicants  to 
alter  or  add  to  the  coat  to  whioh  they  are  already 
ititled,  and  sanctions  the  adoption  of  quartering* 
I  indicate  representation.  He  grants  arma  in  con- 
formity to  stipulations  in  enttula  or  other  deeds  ot 
aettiement,  imposing  on  the  heirs  suocaeding  the 
condition  of  oaanmiDg  a  certain  name  and  arms. 
When  a  change  of  surname  is  connected  with  a 
chan;^  of  arma,  it  ia  tihe  practice  to  nant  an  official 
recognition  of  the  new  surname  along  with  the 
patent  of  arms,  the  oertifioate  of  which  recognition 
serves  the  same  purpose  in  the  case  of  a  Scotchman 
as  the  roral  licence  does  in  the  case  of  an  English- 
man, and  ia  required  by  the  War  Office  and  Admir- 
alty from  offioeis  in  the  army  and  navy.  In  his 
judicial  capacity,  Lyon  investigate*  and  deddea  in 
claims  to  particular  ooats  of  aim*  or  amorial  dis- 
tinotions,  his  decision  being  subject  to  review  in  the 
Court  of  Beaaion. 
lUght  to  bear  arms  is  acquired  rather  by  desoent 
:  by  grout  1.  In  the  tormer  ease,  only  tne  repre- 
sentative or  head  of  the  family  can  use  the  nndiffer- 
ced  coat ;  but  a  cadet,  on  presenting  a  petition  to 
a  Lord  Lyon,  and  eotabhabing  his  rsUtionsbip, 
bos,  by  a  matrioolatioa,  the  fami^  coat  assigned  to 
him,  with  Buoh  a  difFerence  as,  oooordiDs  to  t£e  rule* 
of  heraldry,  appropriately  sets  forth  nia  relation* 
ship  to  the  head  <a.  the  &mily  and  to  other  cadets 
already  matriculated.  The  mere  fact  of  one's  bear- 
ing the  same  anmame  with  a  family  entitled  to 
arms,  oonfera  no  sort  of  right  to  wear  these  anna, 
differenced  or  nndifferenoeo.  2.  Where  no  heredi- 
tary right  exists  or  can  be  proved,  on  original  grant 
of  arms  may  be  bestowed  by  the  Lord  Lyon.  As 
in  the  case  of  a  matriculation,  a  petition  is  ptteentcd^ 
to  the  Lyon  Court,  which,  in  this  case,  need  b* 
accompanied  with  no  evidence  of  pedigree ;  and  in 
graotiug  new  coata,  it  IB  the  duty  of  the  Lyon  to 
conform  to  the  rules  ot  good  heraldry,  and  be  ob- 
servant of  the  rights  of  other  parties.  With  these 
tescrvatiobs,  the  wishes  of  the  applicant  are  con- 
sulted as  to  tbe  arms  which  he  is  to  oear.  The  tees 
ore  now  r^ulated  by  30  Vict,  o.  17,  and  amount  to 
about  £14,  lor  a  motriculatioo,  where  relationship  is 
proved,  and  for  an  original  grant,£42.  An  additional 
chai^iamode  for  Supportara  (q.  v.),  which  ore  only 
raven  to  those  persons  who  ore  entitled  to  them  by 
the  heraldic  practice  of  Scotland. 

In  strictneoi,  the  using  of  o  crest  on  one's  plate 
or  seal  without  authority,  ia  a  transgression  of  the 
above-mentioned  acts ;  but  practioally,  proeeontiona 
hove  generally  been  ty>nGned  to  cases  ot  open  and 
publio  assumption  ot  a  shield  of  arms.  The  offender 
IS  cited  before  the  Lyon  Court  by  precept  at  the 
instance  of  the  Proonrator-fiecal ;  tne  statntoiy  fine 
and  conftsoation  have  occaaion^y  been  enforced, 
but  they  have  oftener,  particularly  ot  late,  been 
avoided  by  a  timely  aubnuBsion.  In  this  oommercial 
country,  uiere  are  not  a  few  persons  whose  social 
status  would  entitle  them  to  tite  use  of  arms,  but 
who,  not  having  inherited  a  ooat,  instead  of  acquiring 
tbe  privilege  in  a  leg^  way,  have  a  sham  coat  invented 
for  them  by  some  cooch.painter  or  *  finder'  of  arms. 
The  Bolster  ot  Qenealogies  is  a  department  of 
tbe  Lyon  Office  unconnected  with  heraldry,  where 


ir  humble  lineage,  ai 


,,  Google 


LYON  KISaOP-ARMa-LTSANDBR. 


LYON  KINO-OP-AKMS,  or  LOED  LYON,  the 
title  bone  emc«  the  firat  luJf  of  the  15th  c.  by  the 
chief  henldio  offioer  for  Scotland.  He  ia  tiia  pre- 
mdiag  jndn  in  the  Ljon  Cooit  (q.  v.),  and  appomte 
the  henl£,  pnrmiiT&nta,  uid  mewengen^t-inns. 
Unlike  the  Snglidi  kin^of-ums,  he  hu  olway* 
ez«rciMd  joriadiotam  iDd^wndentlj  of  tiie  oonibible 
and  nuLwbal,  holding  ^oe  diraotly  from  the  tove- 
reiga  W  oommiatitio  under  the  Qrettt  SmL  In 
Seotlud  he  tmkM  preoedoMe  'of  all  knighti  mnd 
gentlemen  not  bein^  o£Soen  ot  state,  or  nnatora  of 
the  College  ot  Jmbce.'  In  EngUnd  be  nnks  efter 
Oorter,  and  before  the  proTinoial  kingB'Of-anni. 
Since  the  TOTival  of  the  order  of  the  Thistis,  he 
hu  been  king- of- arms  of  th«t  order.  So  sacred 
has  his  person  been  held,  that  in  1610  Lord  Dmm- 
mond  was  dedared  guilty  of  treason,  attainted,  and 
imprisoned  in  Blaokness  Castle,  for  striking  t-yaa. 
Prior  to  the  Revolution,  Ljon  vsa  solemaly  crowned 
*t  Holyrood  on  entering  on  office  by  the  sovereign 
or  Ms  commissioner,  hit  crown  being  of  the  form 
of  the  royal  Ofown  of  Scotland,  bnt  enamelled 
instead  of  being  set  with  jewels.  The  crown  is 
now  only  worn  at  oonmations ;  and  that  aotoally 
■applied  on  occasion  ot  the  last  toor  appoint- 
ments has  been  similar  to  the  crowns  of  the 
English  Ung-of-amu.  Lyon's  badge  or  medal, 
suspended  by  a  triple  row  of  gold  chains,  or  on 
common  occasions  iiy  a  broad  green  ribbon,  ex- 
hibits the  arms  of  Scotland,  ana  on  the  lovene. 
St  Andrew  on  his  Cross;  and  bis  baton  i«  of  gold 
enamelled  green,  powdered  with  the  badges  of 
the  kingdom,  and  with  gold  fermlea  at  each  end. 
Besidea  the  Telvet  tabard  of  a  king-of-anns,  he 
has  an  embroidered  orintsoQ  velvet  robe ;  and  as 
king'Of-anns  ot  the  Thistle,  a  bine  satin  mantle, 
lined  with  white,  with  a  St  Andrew's  Cross  on  the  i 
left  shonlder.  i 

LYONNAIS,  a  former  province  of  France,  was 
bounded  on  the  W.  by  Anvergnc^  and  on  the  S.  by  | 
Langnedoc.  Its  territory  coincidea  neu^  with  the  I 
present  department*  of  Bhoius  Loire,  Haute-Loire, 
and  Fuy-de-DOme, 

LYRE,  the  oldest  stringed  initrament  of  the 
I^i^itiaiis  and  Greeks.  There  are  many  different 
kmdJi  and  siiee  of  the  lyre,  each  having  its  own 
pecnliar  name,  such  as  the  Lyre  da  Braccio,  Lyre  da 
Qunbe,  Lyre  Quitare,  Ao. 

LYBB-BIRD,  or  LTRB-TAIL  [ifatard),  a  genua 
ot  birds,  of  which  Uie  best  known  spedea  [if. 
tuperba)  ia  a  native  of  New  SontJi  Wales,  where  it 
is  generally  odled  the  Ltkx  Fhxa&uit.  The  proper 
plMe  of  this  genna  hsa  been  mooh  diapnted  oy 
omitbolo^ta,  some  plaoing  it  among  the  Iiuatortt, 
near  to  t£niahes  and  wrens,  others  among  Qallina- 
ceooa  Birdi,  with  meg&podss.  The  large  feet  and 
habit  of  scraping,  ally  Via  L.  with  the  latter;  the 
form  of  the  bill^  the  bristles  at  the  base  of  the 
bill,  and  above  all,  its  musical  powers,  connect 
it  with  the  former,  to  which  it  was  unhesitat- 
ingly referred  by  Cirvier.  It  is  a  bird  about  the 
size  of  a  pheasant,  frequenting  the  bnuih,  or 
Eparsely-wooded  conntry,  in  the  unsettled  parts  of 
l4ew  South  Wales,  bnt  retreating  from  the  more 
inhabited  districts.  It  is  extremely  aby  and  diffi- 
cult to  approach.  It  is  by  far  the  largert  of  all 
Bong-birda.  It  pCBSesses  the  power  of  imitating  the 
song  of  other  birds.  The  tail  of  the  male  is  very 
remarkable  and  splendid,  the  twelve  featbera  being 
very  long,  and  having  very  fine  and  widely  separ- 
ated barbs ;  whilst,  bendea  these,  there  are  two 
long  middle  feathers,  each  of  which  has  a  vane 
only  on  one  wde,  and  two  eiteriot  teatbera,  curved 
like  the  sidea  of  an  ancient  lyrv.  The  L.  makes  a 
domed  neat— A  second  ipeciei  {M.  Alberii],  also 


LjTC-Bird  (Jfenuro  raperto). 

The  lyre-shaped  feathers  ot  the  tail  are  oompai»-    ' 
tively  short. 

LYEIO  (from  the  Or.  lura,  a  lyre),  the  name 
given  to  a  certain  species  of  poetry,  becanse  it  wa» 
originallv  accompamed  by  the  muno  of  that  instm* 
ment.  Lyrio  poetry  (see  Epio  PoimT)  conoems 
itself  with  the  thonght>  and  emotions  of  the  com* 
poser's  own  mind,  and  outward  things  are  r^ardeal 
chiefly  as  they  afTect  him  in  any  way.  Hence  it 
ia  characterised  aa  gubjedivt,  in  contradistinction 
to  epio  poetry,  which  is  otjedive.     Purely  lyrical 


Tbeytal 


. J  tall  into  several  divisions,  the  inoet  t^picu  — 

which  is  the  long,  which  is  again  subdivided  into 
Siierwi  (hymns)  and  teeidar  (love-songs,  warnsongs, 
comic  songs,  fto.). 

LYS,  or  LEYE,  a  tribnUry  of  the  Scheldt,  rises 
in  France  near  the  little  town  of  Lyabourg,  in  the 
department  of  Faa-de- Calais,  and  flows  in  a  north- 
eastern direction,  joining  the  Scheldt  at  Qhent  in 
Belgium  after  a  course  of  JOO  miles.  The  L.  ones 
formed  the  bonndary  between  France  and  Qennany. 

LTSA'NDER,  a  famous  Spartan  warrior  and 
naval   commander,   of   extraordinary    energy   and 

remarVabh  " 


military    skill,   but 


and  ambition  by  which  he  T 


frimi  which  time  he  constantly  prosecuted  the 
design  of  overthrowing  the  AUienion  power,  in 
order  to  exalt  that   of  Sparta.    He  def^ted  tie 


Athenian  fleet  at  Uie  promontory  of  Notion;  ond 
being  sgun  intrusted  with  the  management  of  the 
fleet,  after  the  defeat  ot  his  successor,  Callicratidas 
(406  B.C.),  he  waa  again  victorious.  He  swept  the 
southern  part  of  the  ^jgean,  and  made  descents 
npon  both  the  Grecian  and  the  Asiatic  coasts.  He 
then  ssHed  norti  to  the  Hellespont,  and  anchored 
at  Lampeaous.  An  immense  Athenian  fleet  soon 
made  its  appearance  at  .^gospotami,  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  straits,  amounting  to  180  shipc 
Of  thaee,  171  were  oaptiired  Iqr  I»  •  f«w  days  after. 


LYTHRACEi— LTTTON. 


Ths  blow  to  Athena  wu  tremendous.    Evenrwhere, 
Im  oolonul  guruoDH  hsd  to  siirreadeT,  uxd  Spartan 


prediimiiuted.  Finally,  in  404  b."..,  ._. 
took  AtlimM  itaali  His  popuWity  now  became 
BO  graat,  espeoudly  in  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  that 
the  Spartsa  epoois  dreaded  the  oonsequences, 
eapecully  as  tCey  knew  how  ambitioiu  be  was. 
Every  means  was  taken  to  tbwart  bis  designs, 
nulil  Anally  it  would  appear  that  be  had  resolved  to 
attem^  the  OTertbrow  of  the  Spartan  constitution ; 
but  this  scheme  was  prevented  by  his  death  at  the 
battle  of  Haliartus  in  the  Bceotian  war  (395  B.C). 

LY'l'M  KA'OB^,  a  aatoral  order  o!  eiogeoons 
plants,  coDsiatiiig  of  herbaceous  plants,  with  a  few 
■hnibs ;  the  branches  frequently  four-cornered.  Ibe 
leaves  are  generally  opposite,  entire,  and  sessile. 
The  flowers  are  solitai^  or  clustered,  regular  or 
irregular,  and  either  axillary,  racemose,  or  spiked ; 
the  calyx  tubular,  the  petals  inserted  into  the  calyx, 
very  deciduous,  sometimes  wantinz.  The  stamens 
are  inserted  into  the  tube  of  uie  calyx  below 
the  petals,  sometimes  equal  to  them  in  number, 
■ometimes  twice  or  tbnce  u  many.  The  ovary 
i*  ■uperior,  geoetally  2— 6'CeIIed.  The  fruit  is  a 
membranons  capsule  with  numerous  seeds,— There 
are  about  300  known  species,  natiTee  of  tropical 
and  temperate,  or  even  of  cold  cliraatefl.  Some 
tt  them  are  occaaionatly  applied  to  medicinal  uses, 
upon  account  of  aitringent,  narcotic,  or  febrifugal 
raopeitiee.  Among  those  thus  em^dojed  is  the 
PiTBFLB  LoosmnirE  (Lt/lhrum  talKaria),  a  common 
British  plant,  erowing  m  moist  places  and  about 
the  manjns  oi  ponds  and  streams,  with  beaattf nl 
leafy  spikes  of  purple  flowers  ;  a  decoctiou  of  either 
the  root  or  the  dried  leaves  of  which  is  sometimes 
advantueously  used  in  diarrhcea.  The  Henna 
(q.v.)  of  Egypt  is  produced  by  Laaaonia  inermit,  a 
plant  of  thu  order.  He  leaves  of  another  (Pempkis 
atidtila)  are  said  to  be  a  common  pot-herb  on  the 
coasts  of  the  tropical  porta  of  Asia.  The  leaves  of 
Ammonia  vtticaiiiria,  on  East  Indian  aquatic  plant, 
are  very  acrid,  lind  ore  sometimes  used  as  blisters. 

LTTTLETOy,  Ozobqb  Loud,  son  ot  SirThomss 
Lyttleton  of  Eagley,  in  Worcestershire,  was  bom  in 
1708— 1709,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ- 
church,  Oxford.  He  entered  parliament  in  1730, 
held  several  hi^  political  offices,  was  nused  to  the 
peerage  in  1759,  and  died  in  1773.  L.  had  once  a 
considerable  reputation  as  an  author.  His  best 
known  works  are  Obteniaiiotu  on  lAs  Convernon  and 
ApotOtAip  of  Si  Paul  (1747),  Dialogue  o/liu  Dead 
(1760},  and  ^ffiKOTTo/ffewy//.  (1764).— He  had  a 
son,  Tbomab,  Lorh  Ltttlkiok,  who  died  young, 
and  who  was  as  conspicnous  for  profligacy  as  his 
father  for  virtue. 

LYTTON,  Lord,  better  known  as  Sia  Edward 
OlOBOI  Earlb  Lyttoh  Bolwbb,  Bart,  the  younmat 
•on  of  Oen«ral  Bulwer  of  Woodollinft  and  Haydon 
Hall,  Norfolk,  was  bom  25th  May  1803,  and  received 
hi*  education  at  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
B.A.  in  1828,  and  M.A.  in  1835.  He  was  disdn- 
gnished  as  a  brilliant  writer,  and  also  to  some  extent 

Eia  fint  publication  was  a.  poem  on  Sadpture, 
which  gained  the  Chancellor's  prize  for  English  versi- 
fication at  Cambridge  in  IS2S.  In  1S26,  he  published 
a  collection  of  miscellaneous  veise,  entitled  Weedt 
and  Wild  Floaert,  and  in  the  year  following,  a  tale 
in  verse  with  the  tiUe  aXeili,  or  Ok  Jttbd.  In  1827, 
his  first  novel,  Faikland,  was  publisbed  anonymously. 
Next  year,  he  published  PdAam,  which  astonished 
the  critics  by  its  cynicism  and  its  iirf  glitter  of 
epigrMU.  The  Ditoamed,  Dtvtraix,  and  Paul  Clifford 
loUowsd  in  rapid  saccession.  In  1831, 
into  more  passionate  and  tragical  regions 


Aram,  and  after  that  ceased  for  a  period  to  convulse , 
the  libraries.  About  this  time,  be  succeeded  Camp- 
"  IS  editor  of  The  Nea  XonMj/  JUagmine,  and 
buted  to  its  pages  «  series  of  pi^»en  which 
afterwards  oolleeted  undtf  the  title  of  Tha 
StadenL  In  1833,  be  produced  his  £n(rland  and 
(As  Englith.    In  1834,  Ee  returned  to  fiction,  and 

Sublished  in  on  Ulustnted  form  Ths  PSfpimt  qf  the 
'Mne.  This  was  followed  by  Tlie  LaM,  Day  of 
Pompeii,  a  work  of  a  higher  class  than  any  A  his 
former  productions.  Jtimxi  followed  in  the  same 
splendid  vein,  and  received  the  same  admiration. 
His  next  work  was  a  play  in  five  acts,  The  Dueheu 
of  La  VaUiirt,  which  was  put  on  the  stage  in  1830, 
and  fuled.  Bmettt  MaUraoen  came  the  year  after, 
which,  as  containing  his  views  on  art  and  life, 
has  ever  been  a  fsTOurite  with  his  more  thoughtful 
readera.  la  the  some  year,  he  published  JMtena ; 
Rite  and  Fall,  full,  of  ""*'"'',  ^,„^'^* 
toria  Leil        -       ■-  ■•  ■  "■ 

next  efforts  w 


among  the  most  popular  of  modem  English  plays. 

Eva,  The  Nev;  Ttmon,  King  ArOmr,  were  poemi ; 
tiie  next  novels  were  Zanoni,  The  Latl  of  the  Baron*, 
Harold,  and  Lucrrlia,  His  greatest  triumphs  were 
vet  to  come.  The  Caxion*,  a  domestio  novel,  fol- 
lowed by  My  Novel,  gave  the  world  a  crowning 
proof  of  L.'s  versatility.  What  viili  He  do  with  Jtf 
A  Strange  Story  ;  St  StepliaCa,  a  clever  poem ;  Money 
and  Wcdpole,  oomediea ;  Caxloniana,  essays ;  and  the 
translation  of  Horace's  Odet,  deserve  mention.  L, 
wrote  much  for  the  Reviews ;  and  as  B«ctor  of 
Glasgow  and  Edinburgh  Universities,  gave  brilliant 
addresses.  His  latest  fictions  were  The  Coming 
Baee,  published  anonymously  in  1873;  Ktndm 
ChiUingly  (1873) ;  and  Tlx  Paritiane  (unfinished, 
1873).   A  collection  of  his  £pi>c£A«3  appeared  in  1874. 

At  the  age  of  20,  L.  entered  parliament  as  member 
for  St  Ives,  and  attached  himself  to  the  Reform 
party.  In  1832,  he  was  returned  as  member  for 
Linoob,  and  held  that  seat  till  1841.  In  1836,  ha 
received  bis  baronetcy  from  the  Melbourne  adminjfl- 
tration  ostensibly  for  brilliant  services  rendered  to 
his  party  sa  a  pamphleteer.  In  1844,  he  succeeded, 
on  the  death  of  his  mother,  t«  the  Knebworth 
estates,  and  son^t  to  return  to  parliament ;  in 
1847,  he  contested  Lincoln  unsuccessfully ;  and  in 
1852,  he  was  returned  at  member  for  the  coonty  of 
Herts,  and  attached  himself  to  the  party  headed  by 
Lord  Derby.  Daring  the  Derby  administration 
(18S8— 1859),  be  was  Colonial  Secretary.  He  did 
not  shine  as  a  debater,  bnt  some  of  his  q)eeches  were 
eloquent.  He  died  18th  Jsnuoiy  1873,  The  first 
volumes  of  the  L^e,  LeUeri,  and  Literarg  Semcdn* 
of  L,  by  his  son,  were  published  in  1883. 

LYTTON,  Eaki,  Edwabd  Babkbt  Ltttow 
BcLvrKR-LTTTOS,  SOU  of  the  preceding,  was  bom 
8th  November  1831,  and  when  IS  years  of  ta«, 
entered  the  diplomatic  service.  He  has  served  the 
crewn  as  a  diplomatist  tn  almost  every  Eoropeon 
capital,  and  in  1676  became  Viceroy  of  India.  In 
1877,  he  presided  at  the  ceremony  of  proclaiming 
the  Qneen  Empress  of  IndJA.  The  tedious  and  un- 
popular Afghan  War  began  in  hia  viceroyalty  j  and 
on  the  overthrow  of  the  Conservative  ministry  in 
IS80,  L.  resigned  and  returned  to  England.  He 
received  the  Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath  in  1876,  and 
in  1880  was  raised  from,  the  baronage  to  be  an  earL 
His  works,  mostiv  published  under  the  pseudonym 
of '  Owen  Meredith,  include  the  poems  ctyleameetra. 
The  Waaderer,  Lueile,  Orval,  Pabiee  in  Song,  and 
translations  from  the  Servian  and  other  tonguea  j 
and  a  pure  romance  The  Sing  qf  Amove. 


,,  Google 


M 


THE  thErteenth  letter  of  the  Engliih 

■Iph&bet,  14  tho  labial  letter  ot  the 

olun  of  liqaids.     See  LsiTxlts.     Ita 

Hebrew  luune  is  Mem,  i.  e.,  'water,' 

aod  its  origiiml  form  waa  probably  • 

wa-ring  line  representing  water.     M 

il  liable  to  many  chances,  and  often 

taa   altogether.      The   Greek   miAvb- 

rreaponds  to  Lat  plumium;   on  oU 

jf   LaL    boniu,   hemtt,   or   lehi»,    wai 

manut,  which  probably  accoanta  for  the  com- 

paKitivo  mdior.     See  B.     Knal  m,  in  Latin,  was 

pTODoaoced  with  sach  a  weak,  undecided  aonnd, 

that  it  waa   propoied   to  write   it  with  half  1' 

letter ;    hence,  also,    before    the   apelling   of   i 

langoage    had   become    fixed,    it    had     in    manjr 

caaea  been  altogether  dropped,  aa  in  Ugo  for  legom. 

See  IvriaoTKiti.    The  nasal  aonnd  ia  Bnal  nt  in 

French  aeem*  to  be  a  relic  of  the  Bomaa  pronna- 

HAAS  (Lat  Mo»a,  Fr.  3fai»e),  a  la»e  offlaent 
of  the  ilhine,  riaea  in  Franoe,  in  the  deportmeat 
of  Hantc-Mame,  near  the  vilWe  of  Meuse,  flows 
in  a  noriierly  direction  through  Prance,  Belgium, 
and  Limbnrg,  and  then  eastward  through  Holland 
to  the  Qermon  Ocean.  From  its  junctirai  with  the 
Waal,  a  branch  of  the  ithine,  to  the  month  of  the 
Yaael,  it  ia  called  the  Mervede.  At  Dordrecht,  it 
dividea  into  two  branches,  enclosing  the  ialaad  of 
yaKlmonde — of  these,  the  northern  is  colled  the 
Nienwe  Maaa  (New  MasBJ,  the  soatli£m  the  Oode 
llaaa  (Old  Maas).  These  branches  unite  on  the 
•astern  aide  of  the  ialaad  of  Rozenburg,  after  which 
the  rirer  faUa  into  the  North  Sea,  in  long.  4°  6'  £. 
Ita  entire  oourse  is  COO  miles  in  length,  for  360  milea 
of  which  (from  Verdun,  in  the  department  of  Vosgee, 
France,  to  the  mouth  of  the  river)  it  is  aavigable. 
The  area  drained  by  the  M.  ia  cstiniated  at  19,000 
tqnare  miles.  Its  principal  affluents  are  the  Sambre 
and  the  Dieze,  on  the  left ;  and  the  Ourthe,  the 
Boer,  mnd  the  Niera,  on  the  right.  Of  tiie  important 
towns  on  the  banks  of  the  M.,  the  principal  are 
Namnr,    Li^ge,    Maastricht,   GoAum,   Dort,   and 


MAA'STRICHT,  or  MAESTRICHT  (oalJed  by 
the  Bomans  Troje^uim  ad  Moaam,  to  distinguish 
it  from  Trajtcium  ad  Shaaim,  now  Utrecht),  is  a 
vcFv  old  town,  capital  of  the  prorince  of  Limburg, 
in  tJie  Netherlands.  Pop.  in  1982,  28,917.  M.uan 
tlie  left  bank  of  the  river  Moaa,  which  ae^aratea  it 
from  the  town  of  Wij  k,  the  connection  being  main- 
tained hf  a  atone  bndge,  600  feet  in  length.  For- 
merly an  impoTtaut  fortress,  U.  is  still  a  gamson  town; 
bnt  tha  ramparts  were  dismantled  in  1371-7a  The 
town  waa  lonnded  in  the  Gth  c,  the  seat  of  the 
Usbop  beinff  transferred  thither  after  Attila  had 
plondered  Tongres,  in  4G1.  It  is  IG  milea  north 
of  Ii6ge,  18  west  of  Aix-la-Chai>elle  (Akan),  and 
pleaaantly  aituated  in  a  hilly  district  The  atreets 
are  broad,  and  the  honaea  regularly  and  well 
buQt,  giring  an  air  of  beauty  and  respectability 


select  public  library  in  the  T^wn-houae,  a  large 
square  stone  bnildine,  ornamented  with  a  tower,  and 
ttaoding  on  the  greu  market.  M.  has  one  Lutheran, 
one  Dntoh  Baformed,  one  French  Beformed,  and 
fonr  Soman  Catholic  chnrches;  also  a  Jewish 
synagogue ;  time  hospitals,  two  orphan-honses,  an 
Atheueam,  and  other  pablio  buildings.  The  plaina 
are  shaded  with  trees  and  refreshed  by  foimtuns. 
There  ia  railway  communication  with  all  porta  of 
the  Netherlands,  Qermany,  Belgium,  .and  other 
countriea  of  the  continent.  M.  haa  a  very  consider- 
able trade.  Earthenware,  glass,  anna,  toola,  objecta 
in  lead,  copper,  and  zinc,  tobacco,  and  cieais,  are 
maDnfactuied ;  soap-boiling,  giuHlistilling,  brewing; 
sugar-refining,  and  iron-founcuug  odd  to  the  pros- 
perity of  the  town. 

M.  hsB  often  felt  the  soonr^  of  war,  and  the  evils 
incident  to  a  frontier  fortibed  town.  It  ia  sur- 
rounded by  broad  and  deep  canata.  It  is  commanded 
by  the  PieterBberg,formeriy  called  Jfoiu^unnorum, 
a  aoft  oalcareoiu  mountain,  which  has  been  very 
extensively  mined,  forming  a  cavernous  labyrinUi 
of  several  leagues  in  length.  Amon^  other  fossils, 
there  have  been  found  in  these  workings  two  hcada 
of  the  gunntic  Mosoaaurus  (q.  v.) ;  and  see  also  M&Ki- 
TBICHT  BsDB  at  page  S53L 

UABILLON,  JuN,  a  leaned  Beoedictine,  bom 
23d  November  1G32,  at  St  Pieiremont,  in  Cham- 
pagne. He  studied  at  the  CoU^  do  Keima;  assisted 
D.  Luc  d'Achery  in  his  Ubonrs  upon  his  vast 
historic  reoKil,  entitled  SpictUffium;  undertook  an 
edition  of  the  works  of  St  Bernard;  and  in  IGGS, 
published  the  first  voliuns  of  the  Acta  Sanctorum 
Ordmit  8.  Bemdicti,  of  which  the  last  part  appeared 
in  1702.  His  classical  work  De  Re  DiptomaikA 
appeared  at  Paris  in  1681.  Colbert  offered  him  a 
^nsion  of  2000  livree,  but  he  declined  it  In  lf>83, 
Colbert  sent  him  to  Germany,  to  collect  documents 
relative  to  the  histoiy  of  Franee,  and  lie  was  after- 
to  Italy  for  a  similar  pnipose.  He  died 
In  Paris,  27th  December  1707.  Other  works  are 
Vetera  AnaUela  (1685) ;  and  Jtuiroim  Ilalieam,  am. 
CtMtdio  Vetermn  Setiptorum  ex  BlUiotheai*  Italicii 
emta  (1689). 
MABINOOION.  See  WBura  Lanodaoe. 
MAO,  or  M',  a  Gaelic  prefix  occurring  frequently 
in  Scottiah  names,  means  'son,'  and  is  probably 
allied  to  the  Ootkie  mofpu,  a  aon,  a  boy,  the  ferni* 
of  which  is  magoAt  (Got.  magd,  a  nuud).  The 
ia  probably  the  Sanscrit  mah,  to  grow  (see  G). 
relsh,  maga  means  to  breed.  The  Wolah  form 
of  Mae  ia  Map,  ahortened  into  'ap  or  'p,  as  Ap 
Bichard,  whence  Prichard. 

MACADAM,  John  Loudok,  was  bom  in  Scot- 
land in  1756,  and  passed  hia  yonth  in  the  United 
Statea.  On  his  return,  he  waa  appointed  mani^er 
of  a  district  of  roads  in  Ayrshire,  and  origini^d 


moned  to  England,  and  was  appointed  by  parliament 


-,sstel 


UACAO— liACASOmC  TIERSS. 


to  (raperintend  tiie  nwdi  in  the  Brurlol  district, 
whidi  ware  in  tt  mort  deplorable  ooadition.  In 
1827,  lie  -WW  appdnted  geaenl  Mirreyor  of  the 
metavpoUUnKMOi;  •ndinrftwaidof  hiiezertioiu  to 
raoder  them  effident,  noeived  s  gnnt  of  £10,000 
from  MTBniiiient  Hii  Bjitem  nindly  became 
aaujnl  ttuonghont  England,  and  wu  also  intro- 
duced into  Fnnce  vith  great  mcceu.  M.  died  at 
Moffat,  in  DomfrieaihirB,  m  1836.  Tho  principles  of 
bii  lyBtem,  vhicli  is  known  u  Sfiuadamitin^,  ~~~ 
a«  foUnw:  'For  the  foundation  of  a  road,  it  u 
necestaiy  to  laj  a  Enbatratnnt  of  large  stones,  paye- 
ment,  Ac,  as  it  ii  a  matter  of  indi&rence  whether 
the  sabetntnm  be  haid  or  soft ;  and  if  any  pre- 
ference is  dne,  it  is  to  the  latter.  Tbe  metal  for 
roads  mnst  con^  of  brobat  ilonei  [gnuute,  flint, 
or  whinstone  i«  bf  far  the  b«at);  thcae  mnst ' 
oaae  exceed  6  ounces  each  in  weight,  and  i 
of  from  1  to  2  ounces  are  to  be  preferred.  The 
large  stones  in  Uie  road  are  to  be  loosened,  and 
RmoTed  to  the  side,  where  they  are  to  be  broken 
into  pieces  of  the  reeiilation  weight;  and  the  road  is 
then  to  be  imootiiea  wilb  a  nkt,  so  that  ths  earth 
maf  settle  down  into  the  holes  from  which  the 
large  stones  were  remored.  The  broken  metal  is 
then  to  be  carefnllT  spread  awr  it ;  and  as  this  opei- 

of  the  1 
•hovalfol 

in  ihoTelfal  after 
to  10  inches,  according  to  the  qnali^  of  the  road, 
has  been  obtained.  The  road  is  to  have  a  fall  from 
the  middle  to  the  sides  of  about  1  foot  in  60,  and 
ditches  are  to  be  dng  on  the  field^rids  of  the  fences  to 
a  depth  of  a  few  indiea  below  the  level  of  Qm  road.' 
This  eyrtem,  which  at  one  time  thwatened  to  super- 
sede eveiT  other,  is  calculated  to  form  a  hard  and 
impermeable  cntst  on  the  surface^  thus  protecting 
the  soft  earth  below  from  the  action  of  water,  and 
•o  pwrenting  it  from  worUng  up  throng  tiie  metal 
in  the  form  of  mod.  Strange  to  say,  it  has  sno- 
oeeded  admirably  in  case*  where  a  ra«d  Iwd  to  be 
oonstraeted  orer  a  b^  or  monwn,  bat  in  aome  oOux 
cironmstanoea,  it  haa  been  foaud  defldeot.  See 
ROJLH. 

HAOAO*,  a  FortngneM  settlement  on  the  ooast 
of  China,  in  lab  22*  II'  N.,  and  long.  132°  33'  B.,  on 
the  western  ^rt  of  tjie  eatuaiy  of  the  Canton  or 
Peari  Biver,  Hang-koDg  bdug  about  40  miles  dis- 
tont^  on  the  oppoate  siiu  of  i^  same  eitaaip'.  The 
aettlemeDt,  wtueh  is  about  eight  miles  in  oircnit,  is 


i*  very  agreeable,  nearly  son-oonded 
with*  water,  and  open  on  evBrj;  ride  to  the  aea- 
breeisea,  with  a  good  variety  of  liill  and  plain.  The 
town  is  slightly  defended  l^  some  fort&  Daily 
Bteam-oommunication  is  mamtained  with  Hong- 
koDgi  The  principal  pnbLo  buildings  are  the  cathedral 
and  chorchee.  It  is  one  <^  the  most  salubrious 
ports  in  Chin^  with  full  expoeora  to  the  sooth- 
weet  monaoon,  and  recent  sanitary  improvements 
have  added  greatly  to  its  healthineaa.  The  maxi- 
mnm  tempcratara  is  about  00°,  the  minimum  about 
43*.  TliepopalatMnisaboat80,00(^l(^000ofwhom 
are  Portugneae  and  Mtet  foreinxn.  The  Portu- 
Duese  obtamed  penniMioii  from  uu  Chinese  authori- 
bea  in  I5ff7  to  settle  in  M.  on  aooount  of  the  assist- 
ance they  gave  in  hunting  down  a  pirate-chief  whose 
lie*d^iarten  were  in  this  ialand.  The  Chinese,  how- 
aver,  lield,  until  recently,  a  lien  upon  the  place, 
requiring  of  the  PortugneseCOO  taela  ground-rent,  re- 
taining iJio  jurisdictdon  over  their  own  people.  The 
privil^[e«  obtMned  by  England  through  the  treaty  of 
Nankin,  were  nibsequently  extended  to  the  Porta- 
gneae,  who,  by  sncoessiTe  aggreanoni,  have  become 


wholly  independent  of  the  Chinese.  The  anchoraM 
at  M.  is  d^ective ;  large  vessels  cannot  approach 
nearer  than  six  miles.  After  the  riae  of  Hong-kong,  the 
commeroe  of  M.  suffered  aeverely.  Some  years  ago, 
a  BUBpicioiia  trade  in  coolies  sprung  up ;  bnt  in  1873 
the  Fortoguese  goveraaent  abolished  the  trade. 
Here  Camoens,  in  exile,  composed  his  LugiacL  The 
imports  and  exports  have  an  «.TinT,».l  value  of 
£1,600,000.  Tea  is  prepared  and  packed ;  there  is 
much  smuggling  carried  on ;  and  the  revenue  is 
largely  derived  from  the  tax  on  Uie  notorious 
gambling  tables. 

MACARO'NI  (ori^nally  Inmns  of  paste  and 
oheese  aqueezed  up  into  balla;  mtm  It.  maeeare, 
to  bruise  or  crush),  a  peculiar  manufacture  of  irtieat, 
which  for  a  long  time  ww  peculiar  to  Italy,  and, 
in  fact,  almost  to  Genoa;  it  is  now,  however,  made 
all  over  Italy,  and  at  Marseille  and  other  placet  in 
the  south  of  France.  Strictly  speaking,  the  name 
macaroni  applies  only  to  wheaten  paste  m  the  form 
of  pipes,  varying  ia  diameter  fnmt  an  ordinary  quilt 
up  to  those  now  made  of  tiie  diameter  of  an  inch ; 
but  there  ia  no  real  difference  between  it  and  the 
iine  threadlike  vermicelli,  and  the  infinite  variety 
of  cuHons  and  elegant  little  forms  idiich,  under 
the  luune  of  liaiicm  p<ute»,  are  used  for  soups. 

On^  certain  kinds  of  wheat  are  iqiplicable  to  this 
manuiitcture,  and  these  are  ths  luud  aorta,  which 
contain  a  luge  percentage  of  gluteiL  At  present 
the  Italian  manufacturers  prefer  the  wheats  ot 
Odesaa  and  Taganrog;  but  they  also  employ 
thoae  of  their  omi  country  grown  m  Sicily  and  in 
Apulia.  The  wheat  i*  first  ground  into  a  coane 
meal,  from  which  the  bran  is  removed— in  that  state 
it  is  called  BemoUt  (see  also  Sknolina);  during 
'^e  grinding,  it  is  neoeasary  to  employ  both  heat 
nd  humidity,  to  insure  a  good  semola.  The  semola 
I  worked  np  into  a  dough  with  water ;  and  for 
lacatoni  and  vermicelli,  it  is  forced  through 
augee,  wit^  or  without  maudiela,  as  in  wire  and 
ipe-diawing ;  or  for  pa^fa,  it  ia  rolled  out  into 
ver^  thin  sheets,  from  which  are  stamped  out  the 
various  forms  of  stars,  rings,  ha. 
The  manufacture  of  Uiis  material  is  of  great 
iportance  to  Italy,  where  it  foimi  a  Luve  article 
..'  oome  consumptioii,  and  is  exported  to  all  parts  of 
the  world.  In  Geaoa  alone,  nearly  170,000  quintals 
best  are  annually  consumed  in  this  mannfao- 
ture.     The  finest  qualities  of  macaroni  are  those 


wheat.    Some  makers  flavour  and  colom- 
saffron  and  turmeric,  to  suit  certain  tastes,  bnt  this 

limited  to  very  few.    The  use  of  macaroni  and 
varietdes  is  rajndly  increaaing  in  Great  Britain, 
where  it  is  employed  in  soups,  in  puddings,  and  for 
Tin«.lriTig  the  favourite  dish  of  macarcni  and  cheeae. 

MAOARO'NIO  yXRSE  is  properly  a  kind  of 
humorous  poetry,  in  which,  along  with  Latin, 
words  of  other  languages  are  iotrodnced  with  I^tin 
inflections  and  constniction ;  but  the  name  is  some- 
timea  applied  to  varies  whioh  are  merely  a  mixtura 
of  Latin  and  the  nnadolterated  vernacular  of  the 
author,  ol  which  a  very  clever  specimen  are  tJie 
Unes  of  Forson  on  the  threatened  invasion  of 
England  by  Bonaparte,  entitled  L^tgo  drwim  /!«■ 
(Ae  Jlfiiitio(BeeWheatley's^ninra™,  ftc).  Teofilo 
Folengo,  called  MeHino  Coccajo,  a  learned  and 
witty  Benedictine,^  who  was  bom  at  Mantua  in 
1484,  and  died  in  1544,  has  been  erroneously 
regarded  as  the  inventor  of  macaronic  poetry ;  but 
he  was  the  first  to  employ  the  tern,  selected  with 
"-' *  'ngredienti  in  ths  dish 


i:«ferance  to  the  miiture  of  ii 


vXiOOgk' 


MACAROON— MAOADLAY. 


iditions)  IB  a  lone  Mtdrio  poran,  in 
Italiui  ar«  minglM.  Fortunately, 
T  ha*  not  be«n  very  aztsnairsl^ 


Hii  Maeeanmea  (TnaetAtiiwa, 
1621,  and  many  editions)  ia  a  loni 
which  Latin  and  Italian 

maoaronio    poetry  haa   L..     ._,    __j 

onltivatod,  althoa^  cpMimeDa  of  it  may  be  fonnd 
in  the  literatore  of  almoat  all  Baropean  oonntoica. 
The  idea  of  it  wan  probably  fint  mggeeted  by  the 
barbarom  tnonkiih  Latin.  Thsie  ii  a  history  of 
poetry,  and  a  collection  of  the  principal 


IS62),  and  his  St  la  Littiraturt  iiaearowiqut  tl 
de  quArutt  BareUa  BibSof/rapkiqua  da  a  Qatrt 
(ToL  a.,Mlt(xaama  ofPhOMUm  ^MU^.Parii,  18H). 
MAOAROO^  (from  the  «ame  root  ai  Maoannu), 
a  favourite  kind  of  biacnit,  made  with  the  meal  of 
sweet  almonds,  initead  of  wheaten  or  other  Sonr. 
The  most  esteemed  formula  for  making  macanrans 
is  either  prepared  almond-meal  dry,  or,  what  is 
stai  better,  aimonda  jnrt  blanched  ajid  beaten  into 
a  paste,  one  ponnd,  thoroQghly  incorporated  with 
a  ponnd  and  a  half  of  refined  angar  in  powder, 
an  ounce  of  the  yellow  part  of  fresh  lemon-peel 
irrated  fine,  and  tht  whita*  cA  six  c^gs.  'Wbea 
thoroaKhly  mixed,  the  paste  is  made  into  the  ahape 
of  small  oval  bucoits,  and  placed  on  sheets  of 
wafer-paper,  and  baked ;  afterwards,  the  saperfloona 


^tEASAHT,  a  native  of  Sumatra  and  other 
islands  of  tbe  same  part  of  the  world.  It  was 
first  described  in  the  account  of  Lord  Macartney's 
embasBy  to  China.  The  entire  length  of  the  adult 
male  ia  about  two  feeL    The  aide*  of  tiie  head  aio 


Maeutnoy  Cock  [Etipbieomui  ^ifuf). 

oovraed  with  a  blniih-imrple  akin.  The  orown  of 
the  head  haa  an  npnght  creat  of  feathers  with 
naked  ihaft,  and  a  number  of  slender  spreading 
barbs  at  this  tip.  The  tail,  when  depreaaed,  ia 
forked ;  when  erect,  it  ii  slightly  folded,  as  in 
the  oonunon  fowl.  The  general  <Kilour  ia  a  deep 
blaok,  with  blue  metallic  nfleotjocui :  ^  middle  itf 
the  back,  brilliant  or^we  j  the  tail,  bloiah  green, 
orange,  and  white.  The  fanude  is  smaller,  and 
almost  entirely  of  a  rich  brown  oolonr.  Xhe  head 
ia  not  crested,  as  in  the  male,  bnt  tlie  hind  leathera 
are  loigthened. — The  gums  Blujiloeanuu  is  allied 
both  to  GoUmm  (Fowl)  and  PhanoKut  (Pheasant), 
•nd  [wrbapa  itiU  more  oearlj   to  Lop/w^orut 


(Impeyan).  Two  or  three  splendid  East  Indian 
species  are  referred  to  it. 

UAOA'SSAB,  the  moat  sonthem  portion  of 
Celebes  (q.  v.),  Le«  in  lat.  4*  ZK—ff  tOf  S.,  and 
long.  119^  ZS'— 120°  SV  £.}  it  is  trarened  by  a 
lofty  chain  of  monntaini.  M.  was  fonnerly  the 
^;r«atest  naval  power  among  the  Mala^  statat,  but 
IS  now  divided  into  the  Dutch  possessions  and  M. 
Proper,  which  is  of  little  importance,  and  goTomed 
by  a  mitive  kin^  who  pays  tribute  to  the  Nether- 
landers.  The  natives  are  among  the  most  civilised 
and  enterprising,  but  also  the  most  greedy,  ot  the 
Msls^  race.  I^y  carry  on  a  considerable  tnde  in 
tortoise-shell  and  edible  nests,  grow  abondanoe  ot 
ricB,  and  raias  great  nnmbeia  of  hones,  oattlck  sheep, 
and  goats ;  fishing  is  also  eztenaive^r  carried  on. 

mosqaes  are  built  of  palm-wood.  They  are  warliks) 
spirited,  and  impatient  of  a  blow — their  laws  allow- 
ing them  to  avenge  it  by  the  death  of  the  oQender, 
if  within  three  days. 

MAOAmAs,  the  chief  town,  is  the  residence  ot  tbe 
Dutch  governor  and  officials.  It  is  situated  on  the 
Strait  ot  Ifacossar,  which  separatee  Oelebea  from 
Borneo,  in  S°  Iff  8.  lat,  and  119*  Off  E.  long, ;  and 
s  built  upon  a  high  ptHnt  of  land,  watered  tiy  two 
ivers  and  smaller  strrama,  mrronnded  by  a  stone- 
wall, and  fnrUieT  defended  Inr  pallisadee  and  Fort 
Rotterdam.  Pop.  abont  20,000.  The  harbonr  ii 
safe  and  convenient,  bnt  difficult  to  enter.  Climate 
healthy,  and  all  kinds  ot  provisions  plentifoL  The 
Biports  consist  of  the  various  products  of  Celebes, 
which  are  brooght  from  the  settlements  Ui  Macassar 
for  shipmenh  Ihe  chief  of  these  are  rice,  sandal- 
'ood,  ebony,  tortoise-shell,  gold,  spices,  coffee,  sagar, 
wax,  coco-nuts,  tobacco,  opinm,  salt,  edible  nests,  ftc. 
The  imports  froni  China  are  principally  silk  fabrics 
and  porcelun;  from  the  NcthcrlErnds,  cotton  and 
'inen  goods,  firearm^  opium,  spirita,  kc  A  very 
arga  proportion  of  the  export  and  import  trade  il 
arried  on  between  Macassar  and  the  free  port  ot 
iingaporc,  about  a  third  part  being  with  Java.  The 
jmual  imjiortB  amount  to  about  £400,000,  and  the 
exports  to  the  same  value  sterling.    No  import  or 


but  were  supplanted  by  the  Dutch,  who,  after  many 
contests  with  the  natives,  gradnoUy  attained  to 
supreme  power.  In  1811,  M.  fell  into  the  hands  rf 
the  British,  who,   in   1814,  defeated  the  king  ot 


prosperity  ot  the  Netherlands' 
£Bstem  Archipelago. 

MAOASSAB  OIL— so  called  from  the  district 
of  Macassar,  in  the  island  of  Celebes,  wheace  it  ia 
eintorted — is  a  species  ot  vawtable  butter,  of  an 
Bahen-gray  colour,  and  rancid  odour. — This  name 
has  also  been  ^veo  io  Britain  to  a  patent  prepara- 
tion need  for  promoting  the  growth  of  the  hair  and 
preventing  its  decay.  It  ia  oompoeed  of  ohve  oil,  or 
oil  ot  almonds,  OHOored  with  Alkanet  root,  and 
mixed  with  perfumes. 

MLAOAULAT,  Thohab  Bakhotok,  Lobd,  ion 
Zaohary  Maoaolay,  a  West  India  toerchant  and 
eminent  philanthropist,  and  fosndsoil  of  the  Bev. 
John  Maoanlay,  a  Preabyterian  minister  in  the 
west  of  Scothuid,  waa  born  at  Rotiiley  Temple, 
Leiceaterdiire,  2Sth  October  180a  He  entered 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  at  the  i^  of  18,  where 
he  acquired  a  brilliant  repntation  both  as  a  scholar 
and  debater.  He  twioa  won  the  Chancellor's  medal — 

181A  for  a  poem  i 
1820,  t< 


ivCOOglt 


ttACATJLAT— MACAW. 


In  1821,  lia  obtuned  the  Becond  Cnven 


^  devote  himself  zettlonaly  to  litenture.    Tha 

periodical  to  whioh  he  first  coDtnbutad  was  Kidghlt 
Quartaiy  JUagaxiiK ;  for  this  he  Troto  sereraj  of 
Ua  ballads,  e.  g..  The  Spanith  Armaila,  Ifoneontour, 
tad  The  Baale  of  lury,  besidea  easaya  and  critdqnea. 
In  1825,  he  took  the  degree  ot  M.A.,  aod  in  the 
Mme  vear  made  hia  appearance  in  the  columns  of 
the  Edittlmrgh  SaneiB  by  nis  faraoiui  essay  on  Milton, 
the  leaining,  eloquence,  penetration,  brilliancy  ol 
tmoy,  and  generous  enthoaiaain  of  which,  quite 
faicinsted  the  edacated  portioa  of  the  public.  For 
nearlj  20  years  he  vas  the  popular,  perhaps  also 
tha  most  diatingnilhed,  contributor  to  the  '  Blue  and 
Tellow.'    In  1826,  he  was  called  to  the   bar  at 


t  M.  T 


a  no  doubt  that 

.   the   T~ 

bebeved  in  Wbiggism  with  a  profound  sincerity 
that  has  never  been  questioned ;  and  ha  was  able 
to  present  the  groiind^  of  his  belief  in  a  manner 
to  poweiful  and  attractive,  that  his  very  opponents 
were  charmed,  and  almost  convinced.  In  1S30,  he 
entered  partiaiDent  for  the  pocket-borough  of  Cahie 
(which  was  placed  at  his  lerrics  by  the  hlorqnia 
of  lAnsdowne)  just  in  time  to  take  port  in  the 
memorable  stramle  for  Befono,  in  favour  of  which 
he  made  several  weighty  and  effective  apeecbes. 
When  the  first  reformed  parliament  assembled  in 
1832,  M.  sat  OB  member  for  Leeds,  and  at  once  took 
a  prominent  position  in  the  House.  He  was  now 
made  Secretary  of  tha  Board  of  Control  for  India ; 
utd  in  the  fallowing  year,  went  out  to  India  as  a 
member  of  the  Supreme  Council  Hera  he  rammed 
till  1838.  His  chief  labour  was  the  preparation 
of  a  new  Indian  penal  code.  A  conspicuous  feature 
of  this  code  was  tha  humane  consideration  it  dis- 
played for  the  natives  (which  drew  down  upon  its 
aathorthe  hostility  of  theAnQlo-Indiane).  Onhisre- 
tum  to  England,  he  resumed  his  politick  career,  and 
was  elected  M.P.  for  the  city  of  Edinburgh  in  1S39. 
In  1840,  he  was  appointed  War'Secretary.  While 
holding  office,  he  composed,  appropriately  enough, 
those  nu^ifioent  martial  ballads,  the  Layt  qfAtu^ejU 
Some  (1W2) ;  and  in  the  foUowing  year,  published 
a  ooUeoted  series  of  his  Eatayt,  in  3  vols.  In  1346, 
he  woa  made  Paymaster-general.  M.  had  alwaya 
been  one  of  the  most  courageous  and  tmflinching 
advocates  of  religious  freedom .-  accordingly  he  bod 
defended  the  Soman  Catholic  Belief  Bill  i  his  first 
speech  in  the  Honsa  of  Commons  wsa  in  support  of 
tha  bill  to  repeal  the  Civil  Disabilities  of  the 
Jews,  and  nowue  supported  the  Maynooth  grant. 
At  this  period,  unfortunately  for  M.,  Edinburgh 
was  the  arena  of  great  ecclesiastical  fermentation; 
and  because  he  advocated  a  measure  intended  to 
moderate  the  natural  discontent  of  IComan  Catholics, 
he  was  ousted  from  his  seat  at  the  general  election 
in  1847.  Five  years  later  (1852),  Edinburch  did 
what  it  could  in  the  wayof  reparation,  by  re-electing 
M.  without  a  single  movement  made  by  him  on  his 
own  behalf.  In  1848,  appeared  the  first  two  volumes 
of  his  Hittory  of  England  from  Ihe  AecaAm  of 
Jama  II.,  the  popularity  of  which  must  have  made 
even  ancceaifnl  novelists  envious ;  next  year,  he  was 
chosen  Lord-reotor  of  the  university  of  Glasgow, 
on  which  occasion  he  received  the  h«edam  of  the 
city.  When  the  third  and  fourth  volumes  of  his 
Htttory  were  published  in  1866,  they  occasioned  a 
furor  of  exoitemeut  among  publishers  and  readers,  'to 
which,'  it  is  said,  'the  annals  of  Paternoster  Kow 
bordly  furnish  any  puaUel.'    In  1897,  the  French 


>i ;  ana  a  complete  eaiuon  oi  nis  woriu,  Dy  nu 
ter,  Lady  Trevelyan,  appeared  in  1866.  Tlu 
'i  and  LtUeri  of  Lord  Macaviay,  by  his  nephew 
orge  Otto  Trevelyan,  M.P,,  an  able  and  tuacia 


Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Scienoet  made  him 

a  foreign  associate ;  and  in  the  course  of  the  tame 
year,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  of  Qreat  Britain 
under  the  title  of  Baron  M  of  l£ithley.  His  health, 
however,  had  long  been  failing,  and  on  the  28th  of 
December  ISJd,  he  expired  somewhat  suddenly  at  his 
residence.  Holly  Lodge,  Campdea  Hill,  Kensington, 
London.  He  was  bnried  in  Weetniinster  Abb^. 
VoL  y,  of  his  History,  a  fragment,  was  published  in 
1861 ;  and  a  complete  edition  of  liis  works,  by  his 

sister,   Lady  Trevelyi-    ■"  --    """'       ""- 

L\ft  and  LtUfri  of  L<r, 

George  Otto  Trevelyan,  ] 

atina  biography,  was  published  in  1876. 

if  was  indispntabfy  a  man  of  splendid  talent. 
His  scholarship — in  the  strictly  classical  sense  of 
the  term — was  admirable ;  his  miscellaneous  literary 
acquisitions  were  Bomethmg  OTodigious ;  his  know- 
ledge of  modem  Buropeau,  and  especially  of  English 
history  from  the  age  of  Henry  VUL  down  to  hia 
own,  was  unsurpassed — we  might  with  safety  say, 
unequalled ;  in  addition,  he  had  a  sagacity  and 
swiftness  of  understanding  that  enabled  ln"'  to 
comprehend  and  rapidly  methodise  bis  vast  array 
of  facts  ;  and  what  is  perhaps  mor«  wonderful  than 
all,  his  at^le  is  not  m  the  least  affected  by  the 
immensit;  of  his  attainments.  He  'wean  all  bis 
load  of  learning  lightly  sa  a  flower.'  In  ease,  purity, 
grace,  force,  and  point,  he  rivals  those  who  have 


gmtifyiug  his  passion  for  epigram  at  the  expense  of 
truth  ;  his  HitUrr])  has  been  termed  a  '  huge  Whig 
pamphlet ; '  and  strong  exception  has  been  taken  to 
particular  passages,  where  bis  views  appear  tc 
to  be  biased  by  pergonal  antipathies,  such  as  his 
description  of  Scotland,  the  Highlands,  the  massacre 
of  Glencoe,  Morlboroi^h,  Fenu,  £c  ;  but  the  essen- 
tial truth  and  accuracy  of  his  narratiTe,  as  a  whole, 
has  never  been  disproved. 

MAOAW  {Matroearau,),  a  genns  of  the  parrot 
family  (PntCooffiE),  distiuguished  by  a  very  long 
wedge-shaped  tail,  long  and  pointed  wings,  larco 
strong  feet,  tha  aidea  of  the  head  naked,  Uie  bill 
short  and  very  strong  the  upper  mandible  greatly 
arched,  and  having  a  long  sharp  tip,  the  lower 
mandible  much  shorter,  and  of  massive  thicknem. 
The  species  are  among  the  largest  and  most  splendid 
of  the  parrot  race  \  uiey  are  all  natives  of  tropical 
America.  They  do  not  readily  learn  to  articulate, 
their  attainments  seldom  exceeding  one  or  two 
words,  but  ore  easily  domesticated,  and  become 
much  attached  to  those  with  whom  they  are  well 
acquainted.  Their  natural  notes  are  hoaise  aud 
piercing  screams.  Thoy  are  mora  or  less  gr^rlous, 
and  the  appearance  of  a  flock  of  macaws  in  bright 
sunshine  is  wonderfully  brilliant.  They  breed  twice 
a  year,  and  lay  their  eggs — generally  two — in  the 
hollows  of  decayed  trees.  They  feed  chiefly  on 
fruits  and  seeds;  and  often  commit  great  depre- 
dations on  fields  of  naixt.  One  of  the  fiock  is  set 
to  watch  on  some  elevated  ntoation,  and  on  the 
approach  of  danger,  gives  the  alarm  by  a  cry.  la 
domestication,  macaws  readily  eat  bread,  angar,  Ac 
— The  ORXaT  ScisiiSr  M.  (if.  araemiga)  is  some- 
Umea  mora  than  three  feet  in  lengUi,  including  the 
long  tail — The  Qkeat  Gbbih  M.  (if.  ntUitaru)  and 
the  BLtJx  AND  Yellow  M.  (if.  aranaaia)  are 
rather  amaller.  These  are  among  the  beet  known 
species.  The  other  species  are  numerous. — Allied 
tha  macaws,  l«t  approaching  to  the  porrakeets, 
the  species  forming  the  genus  Piitiaeara,  all  of 
them  also  natives  of  the  New  World.  The  cheeks 
feathered,  and  the  bill  less  arehed  than  in  tha 
I  macaws. — Allied  to  them  also  are  the  Arara^ 
of  whioh  ooe,  the  Casoliha  ApiMt*;  or  Gaboluia 


I  Google 


MACAW-TEBE-MACCABEES. 


Parrot  [Arara  CaTolinenM),  extendi  much  fu  .  . 
nortli  in  AniericB  than  any  other  of  the  paimt 
family.    It  is  abotit  fourteen  inches  lot^^  gky  ■^**' 


men  and  gold,  U  gregarions,  and  oommiUl  great 
di'i>rcdatiauB  in  orchards  and  maize- fields.  It 
cannot  be  taught  to  atticulato  words,  but  readily 
becomes  very  »miljar. 

MACAW-TBBE,  Grut  lAcraeomia  tdenxxirpa), 
1  palm  of  the  uune  tribe  with  the  cocoa-nut,  a 
native  o(  the  Weat  Indieii  and  of  the  warm  parts 
of  America.  It  is  caUed  Maeoya  in  Ooiana,  and 
AfaeaAidia  in  BranL  It  ia  froni  twenty  to  thirty 
feet  high,  with  pinnated  leave*,  from  ten  to  fifteen 
feet  Ions.  The  fruit  yielda  an  oil,  of  a  yellow 
colour,  of  the  consiBteiice  of  butter,  witli  a  sweetish 
taste,  and  an  odour  of  violets,  used,  in  the  native 
regions  of  the  tree,  as  an  emollient  in  painful  affec- 
tions of  the  joints,  and  extensively  iraported  into 
Britain,  where  it  is  sometimes  sold  ae  Palm  OU,  to 
be  used  in  the  mannfactore  of  toilet-soaps. 

UACBETH  [or  Maobuthu>  MxcFiNi.KOir,  as 
he  is  called  in  contemporary  chronicles),  a  king 
of  Scotland,  immortalised  by  the  genius  of  Shak- 
■peare.  From  his  father  Finle^,  the  son  of 
Ruadhri,  he  inherited  Uie  role  of  the  province  of 
Moray ;  and  he  became  allied  wit^  the  royal  line 
by  Ms  marriage  with  Gruoch  MacBoedhe,  the 
granddanghter  of  King  Kenneth  MocDuff.  In  the 
year  1039,  he  headed  an  attack  upon  King  Duncan 
MacCrinan,  at  a  place  called  Bothgouanon  (the 
'  Smith's  Bothy '),  where  the  king  was  mortally 
wounded,  bat  aurvived  to  be  earned  to  Elgin,  in 
Moray.  M.  now  ascended  the  throne,  and  his  reign 
of  17  yean  is  conunemoratcd  in  the  chronicles  as 
a  time  of  jilenty.  Ha  made  grants  to  the  Culdees 
of  Loch  Leven,  and  in  the  year  1050,  went  in 
pilgrimage  to  Bome.  Malcolm  HocDimcan,  or  Cean- 
more,  the  eldest  son  of  King  Duncan  MacCrinan, 
had  fied  to  Eagland  on  his  father's  death :  and, 
in  the  summer  of  1051,  his  fciwiiman^  giward.  Earl 
of  Northmnberland,  led  u  J'ingli'ih  army  into 
Scotland  against  Macbeth.  That  king  was  defeated 
with  ^reat  alaoKhter,  but  escaped  from  the  fidd, 
and  Bbll  kept  the  throne.  Four  years  afterwards, 
he  WM  again  de{e«ted  by  Malcolm  Haclhincan,  and 


fleeing  n 
called  th 


rthwarda  a 


a  the  moanbun-roDge  d 


Grampians,  he  waa  slain  at  Lumphanan, 
Aberdeenshire,  on  the  Sth  of  December  1058. 
His  followen  were  able  to  place  his  nephew,  or 
step-son,  Lolach,  on  t^  throne ;  and  his  defeat  and 
death  at  Essie,  in  Strathho^  on  the  3d  of  April 
10G7.  opened  the  snccession  to  Malooln,  who, 
three  weeks  afterwards,  waa  crowned  at  Scone. 
This  is  all  that  is  certainly  known  of  the  history  oE 
Macbeth.  The  fables  which  gradnally  accumulated 
round  his  name  were  systematised  in  the  beginning 
of  the  16th  c  by  the  historian  Hector  Boece,  from 
whose  pages  they  were  transferred  to  the  Chronicle 
of  Hollinshed,  where  they  mot  the  eye  of  Shak. 
apeore.  Nearly  half  a  century  before  his  great  play 
was  written,  Bachaoan  had  remarked  how  well  the 
legend  of  M.  was  fitted  for  the  stage. 

MA'CCABEES,  a  word  of  uncertain  meaning 
and  origin.  The  founder  of  the  Moocabean  dynasty, 
Matithjahn  (Asomonaios,  Choshuionaj),  a  priest 
{not,  as  generally  supposed,  a  high-priest,  nor 
even  of  the  family  of  high-priests),  was  the  first 
who  made  a  stand  against  the  persecutions  of  the 


together  with  his  five  sons,  Jochonan  (Qaddes — End- 
dish),  Simon  (Tassi— Mathes),  Jehndah  (Makkabi), 
Eleazar  {Avaran — Syr,  Chavin],  Jonathan  (Appbus), 
to  Modiin.  a  small  placa  between.  Jerusalem  and 
Joppo,  to  mourn  in  solitude  over  the  desolation  of 
the  holy  city  and  the  desecration  of  the  temple. 
But  the  Syrians  pursued  him  thither.  He  being 
peicon  of  importance,  Apelles,  a  Syrian  captain, 
ideavoured  to  induce  bim,  by  tempting  promises, 
.  relinquish  his  faith,  and  to  embrace  the  Greek 
relipon.  He  answered,  by  slaying  with  his  own 
hand  the  first  rea^ade  Jew  who  approached  tha 
altar  of  idolatry.  This  gave  the  sign  to  a  sadden 
outbreak.  His  sons,  together  with  a  handful  of 
faithful  men,  rose  against  the  national  foe,  destroyed 
all  traces  of  heathen  worship,  already  established 
in  Modiin  and  its  neighbourhood,  and  fled  into  the 
wilderness  of  Jndah.  Their  number  soon  increased; 
and  not  long  after,  they  were  able  to  moke  descents 
into  the  a^acent  villages  and  cities,  where  they 
circumcised  the  children,  and  restored  everywhere 
the  ancient  religion  of  Jehovah.  At  the  death 
of  Mattathiah  (166  B.  a),  which  took  place  a 
few  years  after  the  outbreak,  Judah  Makkabi 
(166 — 161  B.  0.)  took  the  command  of  the  patriots, 
and  repulsed  the  enemy,  notwithstanding  his 
superior  foree,  at  Mizpah  (6000  against  70,000), 
Bethsur  (10,000  against  66,000),  and  other  pbicea, 
onquered  Jerawlem,  ponfled  the  temple  (Feast 
Eeconseoration — Chanuka),  and  reinaugarated 
the  holy  servioe  (161  a.  c.).  Having  further  con- 
cluded an  alliance  with  the  Komans,  he  fell  in  a 
battle  against  Bacchides  (161  B.C.).  His  brother 
Jonathan,  who  saccaeded  him  In  the  leadership, 
renewed  the  Roman  alliance,  and  taking  advantage 
of  certain  dispntea  about  the  Syrian  throne,  rendered 
vacant  by  the  death  of  Antiochus,  acquired  th« 
dignity  of  high-priest.  But  Tryphon,  the  guardian 
of  the  young  iMnca  Antiochus  Tbeos,  fearing  his 
influence,  invited  him  to  Ftolemais,  and  had  him 
there  treacherously  executed.  Simon,  tho  second 
brother,  was  elected  by  the  Jewish  comioonwealth 
onme  the  reins  <^  the  national  government, 
ivas  fonnolly  recognised  both  by  Demetrius, 
Tryphon's  antagonist,  and  by  tbe  Bomans  as  '  chief 
and  ruler  of  the  Jews.'  He  completely  re-estab- 
lished the  independence  of  the  nation,  and  the  year 
after  his  saoceaston  (141  b.  a)  was  made  ths 
startln^-poiot  of  a  new  era.  The  almost  absolute 
power  m  his  hands  he  used  with  wiso  modero- 
tioa;  justice  and  righteousness  flourished  in  bif 


.oogle 


UA0CABEE8— lUCCHUVBLU. 


to    Um 

__ .,   Ftolamy,  who  vunly 

to  nujoead  him.  For  ths  niMequent  hiitory  of  thie 
fitmily,  lee  Jiws;  Htscukub;  uid  Hzrod.  Ths 
Feast  of  the  Maooabeei — i,  •>,  both  of  the  eoiu  of 
Mett&thiah,  and  of  the  Kirea  nurtyr  ohildren 
(2  Mecc  7) — >i  found  in  the  Boman  mortyralogy 
uoder  the  date  of  the  fint  of  AngaA. 

MACOABEBB,  Boou  ot,  certMn  apootypluJ 
writinja  of  the  Old  Tertament,  treating  oUefly  of 
the  hwtory  of  the  Maccabees  (q.  v.).  They  ate 
nsoally  divided  into  foor  parts,  or  books ;  the 
first  ot  which — the  jnost  important — oomprisini 
the  period  17S — 13S  B.a,  reUtee  the  events  whioL 
took  place  in  Jndmt,  Antiochoi  IV.  Epiphaoe^ 
misdeeds  against  the  temple,  the  city,  imd  the 
nation  (oh.  L — a.) ;  the  rising  of  Mattathiah  and 
his  eons  aninst  the  oppressor,  the  heroic  deeds 
of  Judah  Maooabeus  (iii. — ii.),  of  Jonathan  (iz. — 
xii.),  and  Simon,  until  the  election  of  Johannes 
Hjn-oanos  to  the  dinuty  of  hich-priesL  The 
aooonjit,  which  bears  uie  aspect  of  strict  tnithful- 
nesi,  proceeds  chronologically  after  the  Saleucidian 
onk  Aoocoding  to  Ongeo  and  Jerome,  this  book 
was  originallv  written  in  Hebrew.  The  author, 
probably  a  Palestinian,  composed  it  partly  bom 
traditions,  pwtly  fiom  official  dooomente,  arter  tjie 
death  of  Simon,  during  the  bigh-prieethood  of 
Johannes  Hyrcanus,  and  it  was  ahortly  afterwards 
tranalatsd  into  Oreek,  Syriac,  and  Latin.  The 
•econd  book  contains — 1.  Two  letters  from  the 
Paleatinian  to  the  Egyptian  Jsws,  inviting  them  to 
celebrate  the  feast  of  ths  Bonaagnrstian  of  the 
Temple  (Channtah),  (L— iL) ;  and  2.  An  extract, 
with  introductioti  and  epilogue,  from  the  fire  Books 
of  the  Maoe^MM,  by  Jason  of  Cyrene>  This  second 
portion  b^ns  with  the  spoliation  of  the  temple 
by  Hesiodorus,  under  Seleucus  Philopator,  and 
ends  with  the  death  of  Nicanor ;  thus  embiadng 
the  |>eriod  17&— 101  B-O-  The  two  letters  are 
spunoos,  and  of  a  late  date ;  and  the  eztnot  from 
Jason's  work— to  a  great  extent,  only  an  embellished 
repetition  of  the  fint  Book  of  the  M.,  of  a  partly 


gether  the  stamp  of  being  written  for  merely 
religious  and  didactio  purposes.  The  date  both 
of  the  original  and  the  extract  are  very  onoeitain, 
but  the  latter  does  not  seem  to  have  been  made 
before  the  middle  of  the  first  a.  u.o. 

■nieee  two  Books  {5ifr«  Chailmumaim)  are  the 
only  ones  received  in  ths  Vuloate,  and  declaied 
canonical  by  the  oonnoils  of  Florenos  and  Trent, 
and  translated  by  Luther.  The  third  and  fourth, 
however,  appear  to  have  been  altogether  unknown 
to  the  western  church.  The  tanota  of  these  ti«ata 
of  an  ante-Maccabean  incident :  the  miiaoaloaa 
salvation  of  the  Jews  in  Bgypt  n4iom  PtolenuBos 
Philopator  {221— 2M  B.a)  tned  to  force  into  idol- 
atry. The  style  and  general  contents  of  this  book 
point  to  an  Alexandrine  Hellenist  as  the  author 
or  oompiler  (about  200  X.C.);  some  investigators 
(Ewald,  Orimm),  however,  are  of  ofunion  that  the 
whole  is  a  poetical  invention,  intended  at  a  typical 
description  of  the  drcnmstancea  of  the  Jews  under 
Calieiua.  The  fourtb  book,  wronoly  mppossd 
to^Se  identical  with  Joaephus's  Snpremaen  of 
Sttuott,  contains,  chiefly,  the  martyrdom  of  Elooar 
and  the  seven  brothers,  and  is  probably  also  the 
work  <^  an  Alozandrine  J«w  Uving  in  Egypt — 
pertiapa  at  the  time  of  Uerod  the  Great— and 
belonging  to  the  Stmo  sohooL  Declamations, 
dialogOM,  monologues,  and  the  like^  are  of  freqoent 
oocnuTsnoe,  and  impart  to  the  book  the  ehorscter  of 


a  most  artificial  and  strained  conipoaition.  There 
is  also  a  so-called  fifth  book  of  M.  to  be  found  in 
ths  Ftdyglot,  but  only  the  Arablo  and  Syriao 
verdous,  not  the  Greek  original — the  unique  MS. 
of  which  is  supposed  to  have  periahed — are  extanb 
See  AroaRrriu,  Biblb. 

HAOOBIAVBUJI,  Nioooio  Di  Berkakdo  dd^ 
bom  of  an  ancient  bnt  dsMTsd  family  at  Florence, 
in  1M9,  and  a  pupil  of  the  oalebtated  scholar, 
Marcello  Virgilio,  was  employed  in  public  mSaim 
from  a  Teiy  early  ue,  and  may  be  r^arded  as  the 
literary  repreientaaTe  of  the  pditical  life  of  the 
important  period  to  which  he  bekmn.  From  m 
subordinate  post  in  the  office  of  the  onanoellor  of 
Florence,  which  he  held  at  that  critical  period  of 
the  republic  which  suooeeded  the  expulsion  of  the 
Medici  in  1493,  he  rose,  in  1498,  to  the  place  of 
of  the  *  Ten,'  which,  in  the  Florentina 


entirely  diplomatic ;  he  was  employed  in  a  great 
variety  of  missions,  the  inatniotions  and  oorrespond- 
ence  connected  with  which  may  almost  be  said  to 
contain  the  secret  political  histoiy  of  Italy  during 
luB  time.  The  culminating- point  of  M.'b  repatation 
as  a  diplomatist  was  his  nusaion  to  the  ereat  master 
of  treachery  and  diasimnlation,  Casar  Borgia,  Duke 
of  Valentino,  in  IG02,  of  whid)  an  account  is  pre- 
served in  £2  letters  written  during  the  course  of  the 
negolaation,  not  surpassed  in  dramatio  interest  by 
any  series  of  state-papers  which  has  ever  been 
produced.  In  the  oomplicated  external  relations 
which  Italy  had  now  aasumed,  and  which  have 
remained  with  few  changes  to  the  present  day, 
M.  is  found  in  communication  with  all  the  great 
foreign  powera,  aa  he  bad  hitherto  been  with  the 
Italian  principaUties.  In  1507,  he  was  sent  to  the 
Emperor  Maximilian ;  and  in  ISIO,  he  undertook 
ission  to  France  (the  third  time  he  had  visited 
country  in  a  diplomatic  capacity),  which  bad  a 
most  important  bearing  on  the  relation  of  France 
with  Itdy,  and  the  mults  of  which  wiU  bs  best 
understood  by  comparing  tlie  leagne  of  Camhrai 
with  the  snbseqnant  alliance  for  Uie  eipulrion  of 
the  PVench  out  of  Italy.  On  the  restoration  of 
the  Medici  in  1512,  M.  was  involved  in  the  down- 
'  ill  of  his  patron,  the  Oonfaloniere  Soderini.  He 
'as  arrested  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy  in  1G13. 
On  being  put  to  the  torture,  he  disclaimed  all 
knowledge  of  the  all^^  oontpiracy ;  but  altboogh 
pardonet^  in  virtne  of  tiie  amnesty  ordered  t^ 
Leo  X.,  he  was  obliged  for  several  ^ean  to  with- 
draw from  publio  Ufe,  during  which  period  he 
devoted  himaelf  to  literature.  It  was  not  tiU  ths 
death  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  in  1S19,  that  M. 
a  to  reoover  &vaar.  He  was  commissioned  in 
year,  by  Leo  IL,  to  draw  up  his  report  oa  a 
reform  of  the  state  of  Florence ;  and  in  1521,  and 
the  foLowing  years,  he  resumed  his  old  offioial 
occupation,  being  emfJoyed  in  various  diplomatic 
serviosB  to  sev^al  of  the  states  of  Italy.  On  his 
return  to  Florence  in  May  1627,  he  wa«  taken  ill, 
and  havinff  trusted  to  his  own  treatment  of  himself, 
~  a  malac^  asomed  a  very  formidable  character, 
d  in  the  end  proved  fatal,  on  June  22,  1627,  just 
M.  had  aompUttd  his  68th  ^ear.  Some  diSorence 
of  oiunion  has  existed  as  to  his  religioua  belief,  and 
his  aentiment*  durins  his  last  hours ;  but  it 
certain  that  his  dsaui  was  marked  by  seuti- 
of  religion,  and  aooompanied  by  the  ordinary 
minislZBtions  of  his  chimh.  His  Isst  years,  how- 
a,  were  comparativaly  n^dected.  He  wis  buried 
the  family  vault  in  the  cboroh  of  Santa  Crocs; 
bnt  it  was  only  in  1787,  and  then  through  ths 
munifioenoe  of  a  foreigner,  the  Earl  Cowper,  that  a 


Cm 


igk. 


MACaLBSriELD— MACDONALD. 


bten  Mid  ftato-iHkpeia,  which,  m  we  lutTe  Men, 
e  ot  the  highen  iiit«re«t^  his  lii>t«rio«l  writing) 


121S  to  1492,  with  •  tngmtaUrf  ooafiiauSoa  to 
14M;  Ducoune*  on  (A«  FinI  Decade  of  Tihu 
Lteius;  a  Hfe  qf  Cialniedo  Oiutraeani  (anfinished) ; 
«  Sitiory  of  &e  Jffairt  of  Laeta.  Wa  litarary 
worki  oompriM  oomediea,  &n  iiaitfttion  of  the 
OoUIat  A*t  ot  Apnleitu,  ui  ««n;  on  the  ItaJiui 
laogoage,  knd  mrrmd  minor  oompontioni.  Ea  also 
wrote  Sevan  Boots  on  Iht  Art  of  For,  which  has 
been  mDch  admired  by  the  learned  in  military 
•denoa.  fiat  the  great  ■oorce  of  his  reputation,  for 
good  or  for  evil,  is  the  celebrated  book  Dt  Prmd- 
patibu4,  or,  as  it  has  ainoe  been  called,  IM  Prineipt, 
•ome  aooount  of  whieh  ia  indiapensable,  in  order  to  a 
jnit  appnoiation  of  the  anthor.  The  nain  qneition 
diMnused  in  thii  world-famed  bo<dt  it  i  ' Howprin- 
dpalitiea  may  be  goremed  and  maintained  t  In 
r^olvins  thif  qneeUtai,  Taiiooi  ouea  we  mppoeed, 
for  eaon  of  whioh,  afiptopriate  nilee,  prindplee, 
Mtd  nugeationa  are  laid  down,  and  all  are  illns- 
Irated  oeth  hj  oontemporaij  axuapleia  and  by  a 
wealth  of  hittorieal  learning  whioh  it  is  difficnit 


Borpa,  I 


nd  the  ISth,  in  whioh  be  diioasiBt  'the 

._  prinoea  as  to  the  obligation  of  keeping 

faiw,'  are  puhapa  those  whioh  nave  most  oontn- 
bnted  to  luaw  nnon  the  author  tike  odious  rapn- 
tation  of  which  his  very  name  has  become  the 
■ymbol ;  but,  in  tmtb,  these  ohwten  are  only  more 
precise  and  uav*  formal  than  ua  reat,  from  Ibcdr 
heaping  togeUier  atatemeote  whioh  are  elsewhere 
*—■""•*■-*  or  «a}^osed ;  the  broad  soheiQe  of  the 
book  bctiLg  ereiy  where  the  same,  vis.,  that,  for 
the  eMtoUwhrnoDt  and  muntenanoe  of  aathority,  all 
means  may  be  resorted  to ;  and  that  the  worst  and 
mcrttoeaalieKNU  acts  of  the  rolar,  howeiver  unlawful 
m  themsalTee,  are  jastified  by  tbe  wiekednees  and 
treachery  of  the  goremad.  Soeh  bebg  the  monl  of 
the  book,  a  qnsatioa  ha*  eriaen  as  to  the  intention 
of  the  writer,  and  a  favonrit*  ilieoiy  for  a  time 
preraUed,  that  3%s  Primu  was  but  a  aatire  npon 

of  liborty,  of  which  M.  wsa  an  ardaat  friend,  ^ 

lliia  t£aory,  hoiniTei,  besidea  being  utterly  irreooa- 
citable  with  tite  tone  of  the  work,  is  oompletely 
disproTed  by  a  letter  <rf  U.  to  his  friend  Vetton, 
1613,  which  wa*  taly  disooTcmd  in  1810,  and  whioh 
shew*  that  7%e  iVMce  was  written  by  M.  in  all 
aarionaneaa,  in  order  to  raocouoMid  hiuBeU  to  the 
Medial  (for  vhoae  inirate  ponsal  it  ma  designed, 
and  not  for  pnbliMtioo)  as  a  masts-  in  the  art 
of  s»Ttimmen£  la  kia  ardoor  for  the  liberatiom  of 
Italy  from  the  mle  «f  fonignan^  U.  had  beooms 
oconnoed  that  itoonx  native  goremmeota,  even 
tkoo^  abeolnte,  mnn  be  okdnrad;  and,  baTing 
aooepted  tliat  of  the  Medki  for  Florenae^  he  was 
content  to  nae  all  means  for  its  aeoority  and  con- 
solidation. TKt  Prince  was  published,  after  M.'a 
death,  at  Bome,  in  1532;  and  if  any  doobt  should 
be  entertained  as  to  the  seriousness  of  the  author, 
it  need  only  be  compared  with  the  commentary 
which  ia  fniniabed  by  erery  page  ot  his  Z^^osiont, 
or  the  report*  ot  hia  diplotiiatio  missioiu,  whioh  are 
also  contained  in  his  mdleoted  works.  Of  the  many 
aitiaisuH  and  rdoindera  to  which  The  Frtnce  has 
DTOi  oocasion,  the  most  remarkable  is  that  ot 
Kvderick  the  Great,  Antimaec/aaitelli,  ok  Examta 
dm  Prince  de  MacMavdli,  1740.    It  may  be  added 


the  prindpal  bbrics  made ;  cotton  goods  and  small- 
warea  are  manufactured,  and  then  are  dye-works 
and  breweries.  In  the  Tidnity,  coal,  sb^  and 
stone  are  obUbed.  M.,  which  used  to  return  two 
inembeta  to  parliament,  was  temporarily  disfran- 
chised for  corruption  in  1S83,  and  permanently  in 
1886.    Popi  (1871)  35,670;  (1881)  37,620. 

aiAGOTTIjLOCH,  Joaw,  a  aeologiat  and  physi- 
cian, bom  in  GnernBey,  of  a  Scottish  family,  Sth 
October  1773.  He  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh, 
and  becaina  aitistant-  surgeon  to  an  artillery  reei- 
ment  In  1811,  he  was  employed  by  government  ul 
[raphical  and  scientific  reeeaickes  in  Scotland.  In 
.  ),  be  became  physician  to  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxo- 
Coborg,  attenraras  king  of  Uie  Belgians j  and  in  the 
latter  year*  ot  his  life,  waa  Prof«asor  of  Chemistry 
and  Geology  in  the  Baat  India  Company's  militaiy 
school  at  Addiseombe.  Be  died  at  Feuuuice, 
Cornwall,  21st  August  1836^  in  aouwqaeooe  of 
an  amputation  remftred  '  .     -  ■     .. 

His  1         ■ 


UA'OCIiESFIBLD,  an  important  manutMtnring 
town  of  CheahiKs  WnglanH,  u  situated  on  the  rirer 
BoUin,  on  the  weatem  base  of  a  range  of  bw  hills,  16 
miles  aooth-eouth-east  of  Hanahtater.  It  contains 
a  fine  old  ehuroh,  8t  Jtiohael'*,  founded  in  I3TB; 


an  annual  revalue  of  £1600.    V^thin  t 


of  Oeoloim,  lailh  a  Theory  </(A<  Earth  (Lend.    

ifalaria—an  BMoy  on  Ihe  ProdtteUon  and  Propa- 
on  of  Oia  Poiion  (Lend.  1827);  and  An  JMoy 
the  BenMent  and  IntermiUtnt  IHtam  (2  vola. 
Lond.  1828). 

MACDONALD,  BnxNiia  JAoqirm  Joseph 
Alexahukz,  Doke  of  Taranto,  Uanihal  and  Peer  of 
Pnuice,  was  born  17th  November  1766,  at  Soocerra, 
in  the  department  of  Cher,  He  waa  deecendeil 
from  a  Scotch  family  which  followed  James  II.  to 
France.  M.  embraced  the  cause  of  the  llevolutJoa, 
entered  the  army  as  a  lientenont,  and  rapidly  rose 
to  high  military  rank.  In  1738,  ha  was  intmated 
with  the  Bovemment  of  the  Bomoa  Statea,  but  was 
oompellea  to  evacuate  them  br  the  superior  force 
of  the  enemy.  In  1799,  be  defeated  the  Anrtriana 
at  Modena,  and  wa«  defeated  on  the  Trebbia  by 
a  superior  Aostrian  and  Bussian  force  under 
Sawarrow.  As  commandant  oE  Yersulles,  he  ren- 
dered vary  important  service  to  Bonaparte  in  the 
revolution  of  Igth  Bramaire ;  and  in  1600  and  ISOl, 
he  chased  the  Autrions  from  Switzerland  and  the 
Tyrol ;  bat  after  honourably  filling  some  important 

.....       .....  tijgl^,  .  "  .     . 


1809,  he  V 


I  summoned  by  the  empero: 


the  ocmunand  ot  the  right  wing  of^  the  army  of 
Italy  nnder  Engine  Beanhamais,  and  took  Laibach. 
He  greatly  disEnguiehed  lumaelf  at  the  battle  of 


greatly  „    

Wnnam.  and  on  the  field  of  battle 
cilea  to  Napoleon,  who,  tor  his  services  on  £ 
created  him  morahal  aud  duke.  He  held 
mond  in  Spain  in  ISIO^  afterwards  in  the  Rnssion 
campaign;  in  1813,  he  defeated  the  Fmssiaiis  at 
Musebur^  and  contributed  to  the  success  of  the 
battle*  3  Lutzeu  and  Bautzen,  but  was  anbse- 
quently  defeated  by  BlUchar  at  the  TTwt'bfi^)'. 
After  the  battle  of  Leipzig,  he  was  employed  in 
covering  the  retreat  of  the  French  armj%  and 
saved  himself  only  by  swinuningthe  EUter.  In  the 
subseonent  etmcdas  on  FrmSi  ground,  between 
the  Mane  and  Sone,  M.  made  desperate  efforts; 

liniirvvAlOOglr 


MACDONALD-MACE. 


bat  when  he  nw  thmt  further  rc*i«tttiic«  wu  hope- 
leas,  he  advised  the  emperor  to  abdicate.  The 
Boarbons  made  him  a  peer,  and  gave  him 
command  of  a  military  divimoD  ;  and  on  Napole 
retain  from  Elba,  it  fell  to  his  lot  to  oppose  his 
prognas  t«  Paris.  All  hia  troops  went  over  to 
fJapoleoD,  but  he  himself  accompanied  Lonia  XVIIL 
ia  his  flight;  and  although  he  returned  to  France, 
he  refused  to  serve  during  the  Hundred  Davs. 
After  the  second  Restoration,  he  was  continusJljr 
loaded  irith  houonra  of  every  kind,  but  consistently 
maintained,  in  the  dumber  of  Peen,  the  prind^des 
of  constitutional  libertf.  He  died  at  his  seat  of 
Coutcelies,  near  Guise,  24th  September  1840. 

MACDONALD,  Gboroe,  LL.D.,  a  popular  and 
well-known  poet  and  aoTelist,  was  bom  at  Huntly, 
Aberdeeoshire,  December  10,  1824,  and  educated  at 
Aberdeen  Cniversity,  and  Highbiuy  Independent 
College,  LoDdoD,  with  a  view  to  the  ministry  of  the 
Conf^e^tional  Church.  He  remained  three  years 
in  his  lirat  charge  of  Arundel,  Sussex ;  removing 
next  to  Uancheater,  he  felt  compelled  to  give  up 
preaching  throogb  delicate  health.  He  aft^wards 
settled  down  to  a  literary  life  in  London,  coonect- 
iag  himself  with  the  Church  of  £ngUud,  ood  has 
since  preached  occssionally  and  lectured  on  literary 
subjects.  Anivil  list  pension  of  £100  was  conferred 
npon  him  in  1877<  In  poetry,  ha  has  issued  WilJim 
and  WitAoul  (18G6) ;  A  Hidden  Lif»  (1B64) ;  ' 
Tht  Diaeiple  (1867).  He  hat  contributed  b: 
periodical  literature  of  the  day,  is  a  master  in  tti 
of  writing  fairy  stories,  and  has  issued  a  long  ( 
of  novels  and  ima^^ioatiTe  works,  of  which  the 
important  are  :  David  Elginbrod  (WoZ) ;  Alec  Forba 
Iff  Haagltn  (186fi) ;  Atmeda  qf  a  Qsirf  N^kboar- 
hood  <1866) ;  Seaboard  Par'ah,  and  Jiobirt  Fedamer 
(1868)  i  Maioolm  (1874) ;  Si  Qeorgt  and  St  Mxebael 
tmS);  ifargvu  qf  L(mU  (1877);  Sir  Oibbie 
(1879} ;  Warhek  of  aiemoarlock  (1882).  He  has 
also  issned  Unepotea  Sermom  (1869),  and  The 
MiradeM  cf  OUT  Lord  (1870). 

M'OLELLATI,  GaoBOa  R,  M»ior.piL  U.S.A, 
was  bom  at  Philadelphia  in  December  1826.  In 
his  16th  year,  he  was  sent  to  the  United  States 
Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  wherfl  he  gradu- 
ated with  high  honours  in  1846,  and  joined  the 
army  as  second  lieutenant  of  engineers,  to  take 


of  ContrBras,  Chnmbuseo,  Molino  del  Key,  and 
Chapnltqieo,  and  waa  promoted  to  a  captaincy.  At 
the  end  of  the  war,  be  wa«  appointed  to  a  proFeesor- 
shipat  West  Point,  and  wrote  a  Manual  on  the  Art 
of  War.  He  built  Fort  Delaware,  oommenoed  a 
tt^Mgraj^cal  survey  for  the  PaciGe  Bailway,  and 
was  one  of  three  American  officers  sent  to  obeerve 
the  campaign  in  the  Crimea.  On  his  return  to 
America,  he  resigned  his  oommisnon  in  the  army, 
and  became  tecboioal  director  of  the  Illinois  Central 
Bailway.  At  the  commencement  of  the  War  of 
Secesnon,  1861,  he  was  appointed  mafor-general  of 
the  Ohio  militia,  but,  by  Uie  advice  of  General  Scott, 
he  WM  tendered  by  President  Lincoln  the  position 
of  DiBjor-geneml  of  the  army.  After  a  successful 
campaign  in  Western  Tirgiuia,  he  was  made  com- 
maudei^in-chiet,  and  reo^anised  the  army  of  the 
Potomac,  defeated  at  Bull  Riin,  July  21, 1861.  In 
the  summer  of  1862,  he  invaded  Virginia,  by  the 
peninsula  of  James  Biver,  and  advanced  near  to 
Bichmond,  but  was  defeated  in  a  series  of  battles  iu 
Jofy,  and  compelled  to  ratreat,  and  finally  to  evacn- 
ate  the  peninsula.  After  the  defeat  ot  General  Pope, 
in  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Bun,  August  29,  1862, 
which  was  followed  by  a  ConCedentte  invasion  of 
Uatyland,  he  reorganised  the  anny  at  Washiagton, 


marched  rapidly  north,  met  the  forces  of  General  : 
Lee  at  Antietam,  and  compelled  hki  to  recross  the  ' 
Potomac.  He  followed  the  Confederates  into  Vir* 
ginio,  but  being  opposed  to  the  policy  of  the  extreme 
war-party,  he  was  superseded  by  General  Bumside. 
In  1864  he  was  the  demooratia  candidate  for  the 
preeidency.  He  wu  then  in  Europe  till  1S68,  and 
in  1877  was  elected  Governor  of  New  Jeruy,  He 
has  published  several  military  papers. 

M'CULLOCH,  JoHF  Bakuy,  bom  at  Isle  of 
Whithorn,  Wigtonshtre,  in  1789,  a  distinguished  poli- 
tical writer,  and  the  foremost  among  our  political 
economists,  first  became  known  in  ooanectMa  with 


soon  after  its  establishment  in  1817 ;  and  for  a  con- 
siderable time  was  ita  editor.  He  made  his  dibut  in 
the  latter  in  1818,  by  ooDtribudng  to  it  an  article 
on  Bioardo's  Priaapla  of  PoiitKoi  Economy,  uid 
eontinaed  for  about  twenty  yean  to  write  pretty 
r^ularly  for  the  Review,  having  contributed  umoet 
all  tbe  economical  article*  t£at  appeared  in  it 
during  that  jieriod,  with  a  few  on  other  (ubjeota, 
M.,  however,  is  best  known  by  his  numerous  works 
published  in  the  course  of  his  uf^  which  ue  remark- 
able for  the  scientific  spirit  in  which  they  ore 
written,  their  practical  good  sense,  and  the  olear- 
oess  and  directness  of  their  stylck  Hia  principal 
iKibhcHtions  comprise :  The  Priadpla  of  PolUkal 
Economy;  The  LiUrature  of  PolMad  Economy; 
TreaiUee  and  Ktmyt  on  Maaey,  Exchange,  Inlereal, 
Uie  Letting  qf  Land,  Abtenteeitm,  Ac;  On  lie  Sue- 
canon  to  Property  vaaaU  by  JMtlh  ;  On  Me  Sate  of 
Waga;  A  nietionary  </  Commerce;  Slatittkal 
AeeoiaU  of  the  Brituh  Empire;  Qeograplueal  JHe- 
(ionory;  A  Trtatite  on  Tiaatian  and  Ute  Funding 
S'jalem,  ic  In  1828,  M.  was  chosen  Professor  of 
Political  Economy  m  University  College,  London ; 
and  in  1838  he  was  appointed  Comptroller  of  KM. 
Stationery  Office,  a  situation  which  he  held  till  his 
death.  M.  was  a  Foreign  Assodate  of  the  Institute 
of  France  ;  and  Peel  conferred  on  him  a  pension  of 
£200  a  year.    He  died  November  1864. 

M'CULLOCH,  EouTio,  a  Scottish  landscape- 
painter,  was  bom  in  Glasgow  in  1806,  and  named 
after  Lord  Nelson.  His  hrst  intention  was  to  fit 
himself  for  being  a  manufactnrer,  bat  finally  be 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  orb  He  exhibited  for 
the  first  time  in  1829.  In  1836,  be  was  elected  an 
Associate  of  the  Scottish  Academy,  and  next  year 
he  fixed  his  residence  at  Hamilton,  and  made  enthu- 
siostio  studies  of  the  oaks  in  Cadzow  Forest.  Two 
afterwards,  when  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
1  Scottish  Academy,  he  removed  to  Edinburgh, 
wh'ere  he  lived  tiU  hia  death  in  1867.  M.  hea<kd 
the  roll  of  the  oontamporary  Soottish  landscape- 
painter*.  He  painted  the  Highlands  with  onrivalled 
trath,  breadth,  and  imagination.  Amonghis  principal 
liictures are 'Highland IiOch,'*Loch-an-£ilan,"  View 
in  Codiow  Forest,'  'Dream  of  the  Forest,'  'Mirty 
'^nies,'  '  Deer  Forest,  Isle  of  Shye,'  '  Loch  Aohmy,* 
Mist  Bising  off  the  Mountains,'  'Rilchum  Castle, 
Loch  Awe,'  and  'Bothwell  Castle,  on  the  Clyde.' 

HAOB,  a  strong  short  wooden  staC^  with  a 
spiked  metal  ball  for  a  bead.  It  was  a  favourite 
weapon  with  knigbti,  with  the  cavalry  immediately 
succeeding  them,  and  at  all  time*  with  fighting 
priests,  viliom  a  canon  of  Uie  chnrdi  forbade  to 
wield  the  sword.  No  armour  could  resist  a  well- 
delivered  blow  from  the  mace.  The  mace  is  now 
borne  before  magistrates  as  an  ansign  of  authority. 


MACEDONIA— MACGLLLYUDDDY  REEKS. 


the  Bnn,  and  flktteniDg.     It  hu  b  pecoluur,  rtrong, 
•gree&ble  imeU  and  tairtA,  and  oontsiiu  a  clear, 

S'low,  Tolatila  oil,  and  a  red,  bnttoiT,  fixed  oiL 
e  volatile  oil  is  obtained  from  it  by  distiUatioii. 
The  bntteiy  oil,  obtained  hy  exprcenon,  mixed  with 
the  volatile  oil  and  other  anbotanoes,  in  knoim  u 
IftUmeg  Bai»am.  Uace  ia  lued  as  a  B{dce,  and  has 
nraoh  of  the  Qavoor  of  the  nutmeg.  It  is  c^  a  bright 
orange-yelloir  colour,  and  has  a  peculiar  irax-like 
texture.  It  is  imported  ohieBy  from  Penaag  and 
Singapore,  where  it  is  recaved  front  the  Spic« 
Islands.  Small  quantitiei  are  sent  also  from  the 
West  Indies,  vhere  its  cultivation  receives  some 
attention.  There  used  to  be  about  120.000  lbs. 
annoaJIy  imported  into  Britaip,  of  which  90,000  Iba. 
vere  re-exinrted ;  but  the  import  seems  to  be  on 
the  decline,  teas  than  30,000  lbs.  having  been  received 
in  a  year. — The  aril  of  epcciea  oC  Sfyruliea,  different 
from  the  true  untmes,  and  coafSe  and  very  inferioi 
BometimiM  appears  in  commerce  as  mace. 

MACEDO'NIA,  andentlf,  the  name  of  a  coimtiT 
lying  north  of  Theaaaly.  It  was  originally  of  smoU 
txteat,  embracing  only  the  district  called  Emathia, 
but  gradually  exteDded  until,  in  the  time  of  Philip, 
father  of  Alexander,  it  reached,  on  the  N.,  the 
Scardian  Mountains,  a  portion  oC  the  Hnmoa  (mod. 
Balkan}  range ;  on  the  W.,  the  frontiers  of  E^inu 
and  lllyria  j  on  the  B.,  the  river  Nestos  (mod. 
Karasu) ;  and  on  the  S.,  Thessaly.  The  countrv 
is  on  the  whole  mountainous,  especially  in  the  south 
and  west,  bat  there  are  several  bu'ge  plains  of 
great  fertility.  The  principal  rivers  were  called  the 
Strymon,  tne  Axins,  and  tlie  Haliacmon.  M.  wat 
Famous  among  the  ancients  for  its  gold  and  ailvei 
mines,  and  its  productiveness  in  oil  and  wine.  II 
contained  a  number  of  flooriahing  cities,  of  which 
the  names  are  well  known  in  ancient  history,  [jar- 
ticnlarly  Pello,  the  capital,  I^dna,  Thessalomca, 
Fotideea,  Olyaljioe,  Philippi,  and  Amphipolis.  The 
Macedonians  are  believed  by  some  to  have  been 
originally  an  Htyriaa  race,  but  this  ia  not  probable. 
Their  laiwuage,  though  different  from,  waa  yet  allied 
to  that  ofQrecce.    ITie  Biogular  fact,  however,  that 


ethnol<^cal  connection  between  Qreece  Proper  and 
Maoedon  belouged  to  an  extremely  remoteperiod. 
The  Macedonians  were  certainly  not  pure  HdUnet, 
nor  did  the  ancients  so  consider  them ;  but  we  may 
regard  them  as  ruder  members  of  the  Grecian 
nation,  whose  early  development  had  besa  hindered 
by  niiknowu  obstacles.  The  histoiy-  of  M.  ia 
involved  in  much  obscurity  till  about  490  K.  c,  when 
tlie  Peniaua  subdued  it,  so  that  the  Macedonian 
king,  Alexander  L  was  compelled  to  take  part  with 
Xerxea  in  bis  invasion  of  Greece.  On  the  retreat  of 
the  Persians  after  the  battle  of  Plattea  in  479  b.  c, 
M.  again  recovered  its  independence.  Under  the 
wise  and  vigorous  reign  of  Arcfaelaus,  who  died  399 
B.C.,  it  greatly  increased  in  prosperi^  and  power ; 
but  after  his  death,  a  period  of  civil  wars  and 
oonteeta  for  the  throne  ensced,  Mhich  ended  in  the 
accession  of  Philip  IL  (369  b-c),  who  not  only 
seated  himself  firmly  on  the  throne,  but  knew  how 
to  develop  the  resoorces  of  his  kingdom,  and  bo  to 
direct  the  warlike  s^iirit  of  his  subjects  as  greatly 
to  extend  his  dominions.  His  son,  Alexander  IIL, 
sumamed  Alexander  the  Great  (q.  v.),  brought  half 
the  then  known  world  under  his  empire ;  but  after 
bis  death,  the  Macedonian  empire  was  broken  up, 
and  at  the  end  of  a  period  of  twenty-two  years 
of  incessant  wan,  formed  into  four  principal  king- 
dona  under  hia  greatest  aeuOTala.  M.  iiaelf  fell  to 
the  lot  of  Antipater,  aner  whose  death  ensued 
another  period  of  civil  wars  and  eonteats  for  the 
276 


throne,  of  wbich  the  Greeks  endeavoured  to  tuke 
advantage  for  the  recovetr  of  their  ancient  inde- 
pendence. But  the  Athenians  having  called  in  the 
assistance  of  the  Bomans  against  Pmlip  V.  of  M., 
by  whom  their  city  waa  besieged,  the  Macedonians 
were  defeated  by  the  Bomans  m  the  great  Iwttle  of 
Cynocephalse  (1S7  b.c),  and  both  Qreece  and  M. 
became  subject  to  the  Boman  power.  Perseus,  the 
successor  of  Philip,  was  finally  defeated  at  Fydna 
(168  B.C),  and  adorned  the  ta-iumph  of  j^^mihus 
Paulus.  An  attempt  of  the  Macedonian  nobles  to 
shake  oflT  the  oppressive  yoke  of  the  B«mana  having 
been  also  defeated,  and  the  nobles  driven  into  exile, 
M.  became  (148  b.o.)  a  Boman  province,  in  which 
The«aa1y  and  part  of  lllyria  were  included.  After 
the  time  of  Constantino,  the  country  was  ravaged 
by  aiavio  tribes ;  by  the  7th  c,  the  old  semi-Greek 
Macedonians  were  extinct;  and  in  the  later  ages 
of  the  B^ntine  empire,  Uleir  place  was  supi>lied 
by  colomes  from  Asia,  many  of  them  of  Turkish 
descent.— See  Finlay'a  Mfdimal  Oreect. 

MACEDONIANS,  a  party  which  arose  towards 
the  close  of  the  Aiian  controversy,  and  took  their 
name  from  Maoedonius,  who  became  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  in  341.  Their  distinctive  doctrine 
was  the  denial  of  the  diviiiity  of  the  Holy  Qhost. 
In  the  early  stage  of  the  Arian  question,  the  subject 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  attracted  no  special  notice,  being 
equivalently  involved  in  the  great  subject  of  dis- 

C' !  regarding  the  Son.  But  when  it  came  to  be 
uBsed,  the  same  division  of  opinions  wss  elicited 
regarding  the  Holy  Ghoat  which  had  already  arisen 
abont  the  Second  Person  of  the  Trinity.  Maoedo- 
nina  taught  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  'subordinate  to 
the  Father  and  to  the  Son.  unlike  to  them  in  sub- 
stance, and  a  creature.' — Socrates,  Ecd.  HitL  iL  46. 
He  baid  liimself  been  a  member  of  the  aemi-Arian 
part^,  and  as  snch,  had  been  deposed  by  Uie  Ariani 
m  360.  Hia  party  was  a  considerable  one,  no  fewer 
than  36  bishops  havine  appeared  attached  to  it  at 
the  council  of  Constantinople  in  381.  Hia  doetriue, 
nevertheless,  was  condemned  in  that  council,  in 
which  also  was  sdded  to  the  Nicena  Creed  the 
special  clause  by  which  the  divinity  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  defined.  The  M.  subsisled  as  a  distinct 
party  so  late  as  the  time  of  Theodoains. — They  are 
also  called  PneumalonuKM,  or  *  Advemaries  ra  the 

UACERATA,  a  walled  town  of  Central  Italy, 
and  capital  of  the  provinoe  of  the  same  name 
(formerly  a  delegation).  Pop.  ll.OOa  It  ia  finely 
situated  in  the  midst  of  hills,  on  a  lofty  eminence, 
22  miles  south-west  of  Ancono,  and  commands  ptc- 
tnreaque  views  of  the  sea  and  the  Apenninea  The 
streets  ore  straight  and  well  paved,  and  then  aro 
lubhc  edifices,  including  a  cathedral  with 
paintings,  six  other  mmor  churches,  and 
conventual  establishments.  The  Polano 
Comunale,  or  town-boll,  is  a  beautiful  building 
of  the  13th  century.  M.  has  a  university  of  high 
repute,  and  is  a  centre  of  intellectual  and  social 
Italian  life.  The  province  contains  a  population  of 
(1881)  239,713. 

MACERS  are  officers  attending  the  supreme 
courts  in  Scotland,  appointed  by  the  crown.  Their 
duty  is  to  keep  silence  in  tho  court,  and  execute 
the  ordera  of  the  courts,  if  addressed  to  them. 
Xhey  hold  office  for  life,  and  are  paid  by  s^ry. 

MACFARREN,  Gkorgb  A.     See  Supp,  Vol.  X. 

MAOOILLTCU'DDT  REEKS,  the  highest 
mountains  in  Ireland,  forming  a  group  in  the  west 
t  the  county  Kerry,  and  riamg  Irom  the  western 
shores  of  the  I^es  oC  Killamey,  to  the  beauty  of 
which  their  lof^  heath-covered  summits  odd  an 
element  of  grandeur.    The  Reeks  cover  an  area  of 


L,i,!iu,i,:!,jC00g<<: 


HACmCOLATIONEt-UAOEENZIE. 


■bont  28  ■qoan  mile* ;  and  Cairui-tnal,  the  lottieat 
peftk,  is  3w4  feet  in  hei^t. 

HAOHIOOLATIONS,  the  speitarM  between 
tlie  oorbeU  mppoitiiie  a  projeotiag  parapet.  The 
machiooUtioiia  ara  hr  uie  porpose  of  allowing 
projectile*  to  be  hurled  at  an  enemy  when  he 
approachet  near  the  wall,  ai  in  scaling,  ondermiii- 
ing,  to.  Sach  defences  are  very  common  in 
oaitellated  architectare,  eq>eciallf  over  gatewaji, 
towers,  ko, 

MAOHIIfE  AND  MAOHINEBT.  See 
HaCKAinoAi.  PowzKB. 

HAOHINlMENaBAVINa  has  within  recent 
year*  been  introdnoed  for  the  pnrpoea  of  sapar- 
■eding,  in  whole  or  in  part,  Uie  mannal  operaboos 
«1  the  engT»T«r.  The  first  step  in  this  direction 
waa  the  inrentioQ  ot  the  nding-machine  ^  Wilson 
Lowry  for  the  pnipoee  of  engraving  plain  back- 


eOeoted  by  this  instrtunent  wu  very  great,  and  as 
its  wok  waa  performed  in  a  moirt  sstisfaotory 
mtuiner,  it  soon  came  into  very  genenJ  ma.  But 
what  is  properly  denominated  macbine-enmving 
ia  ezeaat«d  wholly  by  maohiaery.  Thia  depart- 
ment ooDMqnently  exclodca  all  artistio  work,  And 


■areMl  inft''hh?<  have  been  invoitad,  but  tiieir 
meahaninu  mnnot  here  be  daseribed,  as,  besidea 
b^g  veiy  oomptMt,  it  ia,  for  obnons  reasoni,  kept 
•BOrat  ai  far  aa  pcwibla.  Hie  Amnioans  have 
Pfn^wnlfcrly  ^■■tinpiiiT^"^  themaelvea  in  this  bnmch 
of  engraving  and,  in  fact,  it  is  to  one  of  that  nation, 
Mr  Peojdu^  that  the  introdnotion  of  the  bank- 
note mgiaviiig-maoliine  is  due.  Perhaps  the  moat 
parfeet  maohine  for  engrariiu;  ii  that  invented  by 
Wagnv  of  Berlin,  and  oalledby  him  the  'noiversal 
Boae  Engine,  or  Onilloohe  Machine,'  which  oonsiBtB 
of  a  nombm'  ot  ■"'"*''"'"  capable  either  of  separate 
or  et  oomluDsd  aotdon.  Hat  number  ot  distinct 
inatnuiients  being  oo^ztenflve  with  the  nomber  ot 
■peciM  of  linea  aannwnns  the  pattern.  The  nomber 
nt  of  the  £fferest  instei 


so  Tailed,  that  a  practically  unlimited  nninber  of 
patterns  may  be  obtained,  and  the  ooirectneas  and 
delicacy  of  uieae  patterns  is  snoh  u  can  hardly  be 

BIAOHINEBY,  PounoAJ.  Economr  ot.  It  has 
never  been  qneaidoiied  that  machinery  has  added 
greatly  to  the  prodootive  power  and  the  possas- 
sions  of  mankind,  and  has  thus  tended  to  place 
the  poet  more  nearly  on  a  par  with  the  rich,  by 
fm^Hing  theut  to  obtaiu,  at  a  cheap  rate,  artides 
«I  oonJEwt  and  Inzory  of  so  good  a  quality  a* 
not  to  be  M^iable  of  improvemeat  by  increase  of 
expenditora.  A  mischievous  fallacy  has,  however, 
often  taken  poeseeaion  of  Uie  oninatmcted,  to  the 
effect  that  machinery  has  a  tendency  to  dispense 
with  hand-labour,  and  so  to  benefit  the  consumer 
at  the  expense  oC  the  workmen.  To  olear  away 
this  fallacy,^  it  it  only  neoessoiy  to  remember,  that 
machinery  itself  must  be  made  with  bonda;  that 
the  capital  of  a  coonby  will  not  be  diminished 
by  the  employment  of  machinery j  and  that  such 
capital  must  continue  to  be  employed  in  paying 
warns,  ss  of  old.  It  is  tme  that  there  ii  a  ibifting 
at  ue  parties  to  whom  the  wages  are  paid.  When 
the  power-loom  was  invented,  mnch  ol  the  capital 
that  went  to  hand-weaving  waa  spent  on  iron  and 
wood  for  the  constraction  of  power-looms.  It  it  a 
tpecnality  of  machinery  that  it  is  apt  to  tnun  the 
hands  to  do  but  one  tiling,  and  that  thing  is  liable 
to  flnctoatioiis.  The  remedy  for  this  is  in  the 
working-man  not  snpposing,  as  he  too  often  does, 


of  o 


npations,  or  rather  learning  the  faculty  poe- 
,  by  intelligent  people  of  tnmiog  the  hand  to 
r  hinctian  when  that  is  neceMOiy.  It  is  of 
the  more  importance  to  keep  thit  in  view,  that 
some  kinds  of  mannfactare  aconmnlate  in  certain 
districts  where  they  cso  be  best  executed,  Mid  in 
these  there  arises  a  sort  of  mcaopoly  in  the  manu- 
facture for  the  time  bei^  bnt  thii  monopoly  is 
liable  to  be  broken  and  af^cted  by  many  accidents. 
Thus,  the  war  with  America  has  Utely  in  this  way 
powCTfnlly  affected  the  cotton  manufaotnre^  and 
driven  a  large  body  of  people  either  to  find  another 
ooonpation,  or  to  become  paupers. 

HAOEEKZm,  Sm  Gkoboe,  an  eminent  Scottuk 
lawyer  and  politician,  son  ot  Simon  Mackenzie^ 
brother  of  the  Earl  of  Seaforth,  was  bom  at  Dundee 
in  1630,  studied  Qreek  and  philosophy  at  St 
Andrews  and  Aberdeen,  and  dvil  kw  at  Bourges, 
in  France,  then — oa  he  himself  calls  it—^'  the  Athent 
of  Scottish  lawyers.'  In  1661,  he  acted  as  oonntel 
for  the  Uarqnis  of  Argyle,  then  tried  by  a  com* 
mission  of  parliament  for  high  tressoo.  About  the 
lame  time,  he  was  made  a  jnatice-depnte^  and 
among  his  other  duties  we  find  >™,  in  1661, 
aopointed  to  repair '  once  in  the  week  at  least  to 
Musselburgh  and  Dalkuth,  and  to  try  and  judge 
such  persons  as  are  tber  or  therabont  delated  of 
witchcraft'  He  was  soon  after  knighted,  entered 
the  Scottish  parliament  in  1669  as  member  for 
Rofls-ahire,  and  in  1677  woe  named  king's  advocate. 
Up  to  this  point,  his  careex  had  been  marked  by  a 
decidedly  patriotic  spirit,  and  he  was  even  one  of 
the  most  popular  men  in  the  country.  In  the  midst 
of  hit  profeaaional  labonre,  he  prosecuted  literature 
with  great  assidiii^.  In  1C63  appeared  his  Btiigio 
Sloici,  or  a  Short  Dixxiurae  upon  trvtrai  DUmte  md 
lloraX  Subjedt ;  in  166S,  his  ifna^  £9*0^  u^on  fofi- 
tude;  and  in  1667,  his  MomX  aaUantn.  He  also 
com]>ased  some  poetry.  His  style  is  admirable  for 
the  time  in  which  he  lived ;  he  was  among  the  first 
Scotchmen  who  wrote  the  English  language  purely. 
M.  cultivated  the  friendship  of  the  gceM  Bnglish 
writers  of  his  day,  and  his  own  taste  appears  to 
have  been  excellent.  Dryden,  in  his  Divmirte  on 
0\e  Origin  and  Proffrets  of  Satire,  alludes  to  him  as 
. '  that  noble  wit  of  Scotland.'    Unhappily,  in  the 


of  the  '  Ijlnidy  Mackenzie ; '         .  .... 

disproved— in  spite  of  hia  liberal  antecedents — that 
he  Doconie  a  willing  inttmment  of  despotism.  He 
ban,  however,  written  a  defence  of  himaelf,  entitied 
A  VirtdiaUion  q/"  tAe  Gonrmmmt  of  CharU»  II.  In 
1678  appeared  hit  DUcoarse  on  ike  Law*  and 
Ciutomi  (/  SooSaad  in  Maitxrt  Orimnai;  in  16S4, 
his  Iniliiution*  qfli*  Laiii4  (tf  Scotland;  and  shortly 
after,  he  took  the  lending  part  in  founding  the 
Advocates'  library.  Be  then  retired  to  Oxford, 
and  died  in  London,  2d  May  1691. 

MAOKENZIE,  Hkmtit,  a  British  novelist,  was 
bom  in  Ediobnivh  in  VJiS,  received  hit  edocatitm  at 
the  muversity  of  his  native  city,  and  practised  as  an 
advocate  thm.  In  1804,  he  was  appointed  comp- 
troller of  taxes  for  ScotJoud.  He  died  I4th  January 
1831,  at  the  advanced  age  of  86.  Bia  Man  of  JPediita 
(1771),  Man   of  tht    World  (I7S3),  and  JuBa  de 


>  of  Richardson,  with  a 


gmins.    In  1778,  M  b^an  to  edit  a  periodical  called 


,.C.oo^;;lc 


MACKENZIE  BIVER-MACEINT03H. 


tbe  Mirror  (modcUed  kftar  tha  Bpedaior),  whioh 
luted  for  17  moutti*,  uid  wai  followed  by  Uia  Zoiuiser 
in  I7SS,  which  laitad  for  two  yeus.  Hii  coutriba- 
tiom  to  th«sa  dinplft;  %  grekter  muJincai  of  ityle 
than  his  fioticma,  and  b  coiudderable  meamre  of  wit 
aai  hnmonT.  Ha  had  tbe  credit  of  beinff  tha  firftto 
direct  publio  attentioii,  by  an  article  in  the  Lotmger, 
to  the  merita  of  the  pcema  of  Buini.  Ha  afterward* 
entered  into  the  oontroreny  DonDemhig  the  poenu 
of  Oiaian,  the  aathenticity  of  which  he  denied,  anc 
•l«i  wrote  political  pamphlota  in  saiFport  ot  Pitt'i 


gated  by  Alexander  Maokeime — from  whom  it 
deriTei  iti  name — in  1789,  haa  its  orisin  nude.  .'__ 
name  ot  AlAabatea  Sivtr  (q.v.),  in  Hoout  Brovn, 
and  after  a  north-north-eact  coom  of  687  miles  falls 
mto  I«ke  AUiabasoa.  fincning  from  thia  lake  aa 
the  Btaoa  Sietr,  it  reoeiTe*  the  Peao*  Biver,  and 
after  another  oonne  ot  210  miles  falls  into  Gnat 
Slave  Lake  (q.  v.).  It  now  aMomea  tiie  nan.. 
M.  B.,  and  oonteyi  the  waters  of  the  Oreat  Slave 
Lake  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  at  Mackenzie  Bay,  after 
a  final  coone  of  878  tniles,  making  a  total  of  1773 
miles.  In  many  places  it  is  more  than  a  mile  in 
width,  and  it  ia  navigable  for  steata-boats  throngh- 
ont  the  greater  part  of  ite  comae  from  Great  Slave 
I^ke.  There  is  only  one  obstroction,  and  that  not 
a  material  one,  occnninE  near  Fort  Hope,  in  lat. 
Bbaat  66*  N.  Its  diief  ^oent  is  the  Liard,  which 
rises  on  tbe  west  aide  of  the  Rooky  Monntains,  and 
after  a  conns  of  380  milea,  foroes  its  way  throngh  a 
paai,and  after  flowing  fint  east  and  than  oorth, 
J_:..  .V.  «    -o    -to..  .  .-1.1 >  ggp  ,„i]g^ 


MA'CKEREL  {Soomber),  a  ^ns  of  fishes  of  the 
family  Seombtridie  (q.  v.) ;  hanng  a  apindle-aliaped 
body ;  tha  tail  faeccnning  very  slender,  and  slightly 
ridged  or  keeled  on  each  side.  Some  of  the  spedes 
have,  and  some  have  not,  air-bladders.— One  species, 
the  CoidOH  M.  (S.  teo<n^>tr),  ia  pleutifol  on  tha 
coasts  of  Britain,  and  of  Europe,  from  the  Medi* 
terranean  to  the  farthest  n^th,  also  on  Uiosa  of 
Oreenlaad,  and  on  tha  American  side  of  the  North 
Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  a  very  beautifol  fiah,  ot 
brilliant  green  and  blot^  the  male*  hating  neariy 
ataaight  dark  tranarene  bands,  tha  females  having 
the  bands  elegantly  nndnlated.  The  tail  is  crescent- 
shaped.  The  M.  is  said  sometimes  to  attain  a 
length  of  20  inches,  hat  is  nsnally  abont  14  or  16 
iar£ee  long,  and  about  2  lbs.  in  wdc^t.  It  is 
highly  esteemed  for  the  table,  and  the  M.  fisheries 
of  tha  sooth  of  England  and  of  the  southern  parts 
of  Europe  are  very  important.  M.  is  readily  canght 
by  bait,  and  particmarly  by  any  kind  of  bait 
moving  swiftiy  through  the  water — a  long  slice  out 
from  one  of  its  own  kind,  or  even  a  alip  of  red 
leather,  or  a  piaoe  ot  scarlet  cloth.  Boats  engaged 
in  M.  fishing  are  therefore  often  nnder  sail,  and  a 
■mart  or  *  mackerel '  breeu  is  prefened.  But  the 
greatest  qnantitia*  of  M.  are  taken  by  nets ;  aeiiie- 
neta  wnnight  by  two  boots,  and  enclosing  shoals  of 
fish,  or  dnft-neta— 20  feet  deep  by  120  feet  long- 
well  corked  at  the  top,  and  withoat  lead  at  (he 
bottom.  M.,  after  beuiK  taken,  most  be  sent  very 
qoiok^  to  mariiet,  as  Uiey  vety  soon  cease  to  be 
qnite  fresh.  Fast-sailing  h«ats  are  employed  for  this 
pnrpoee,  whioh  pmvbase  from  the  lishmg-boata,  and 
ofttm  employ  the  aid  ot  steam.  In  France  and  same 
other  parts  of  Eorope,  U.  are  often  salted. — It  was 
formerly  anppoaed  that  great  migrations  ot  M. 
took  piaoe;  bnt  it  is  now  Miered,  aa  in  regard  to 


lisrring,  tiiat  Uiey  merely  leave  tbe  deep  water  and 
approMih  the  cMst  for  the  pnrpoae  of  apawnino, 

TOa   time  whr-    *»•-■ ■ '—    ~    ■•:"■ '■ 

latitudes: 

is  in  tha  end  of  spring  and 

in  Orkney,  it  is  in  the  end 


mcies. 


.  lie  SpunsH  M.  (&  a/iiat),  which  attains 
wei^t  of  4        "  ~ 


S  lbs.,  and  is  more  obscnrely 
can^t  on  tiie  southern  ooasU 
of  Britain,  bnt  is  little  esteemed.  It  haa  an  air- 
bladder,  which  the  oomiaon  M.  has  not. — The  Scui 
(q.v.)  ia  sometimes  oalled  HoBU-iuaKERiL. — The 
MacEXiKL-Miiioi,  a  very  small  fish,  is  a  specie*  ot 

MA'OKIHAW,    or    MICHITJMA'CKINAC,   a 
village^  on  an  island  of  the  sane  name,  in  the  north- 


of  Detoml^  i*  an  old  FMnch 


I   bading-pcwt,  now  a 
Fort  Mackinaw,  oo  a 


immands  tha  village  s 

stopping-iilaoe   for   stumers   plyin^i  ' 
bwer  and  upper  lakes.    Fop.  abont  1000. 


'   steamers   plying  between   the 


HA0KINTO8H,  Sn  Jucra,  a  philosopher  sod 
politician,  was  the  son  of  Captain  John  Mackintoth 
of  Ealladiie,  in  Inveraess-sJiirs,  and  wsa  bom  at 
Aldottrie  in  that  comity,  October  24,  1760.  Ho 
studied  at  King's  College,  Aberdeenjjwhere  his  most 
intimate  oomr     '  —  -     . 


companion 
rated  Bapl 


Bobert  mn,  afterwards 
the  oelebrated  Baptist  preacher.  "Prom  King's 
College  he  prooeeded  to  Edinbnr^  in  1784,  forui^ 
pnrpoee  of  stodyiiig  medicine ;  and  after  obtaining 
his  diploma,  aettlea  in  London,  and  for  acme  time 
■npported  himself  by  writing  tor  the  newspaper*. 
Tua  fint  work  that  brou^  him  into  notice  was  his 


thought^  soond  feelino,  and  coiomon  sense,  it  greaUy 
surpassed  the  Eplen£d  philippic  against  which  it 
was  directed,  and  was  enthimasticaJly  landed  by 
the  Liberal  party ;  Burke  himself  thought  highly 
of  it.  Fox,  Shendon,  and  other  leading  '^^iga 
sought  the  anther's  acc^uaintance :  and  when  ^a 
'  Association  of  the  Fnends  of  the  People '  was 
formed,  he  was  appointed  secretaiy.  About  this 
time,  he  began  to  turn  his  attention  to  the  legal 
profession,  md  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1703,  and 
attuned  huh  eminence  as  a  forenno  lawyer.  In 
1790,  ha  delivered  a  oourse  of  lecturea  on  tbe 
Law  of  Nature  and  of  Nations,  before  the  benchen 
of  lincoln's  Inn,  which  were  attended  by  andieneea 
of  the  most  brilliant  description.  His  defenoe  of 
Peltier  (?ebmary  21,  1803),  charged  with  a  hbel 
on  Bonaparte,  was  superb.  It  was  translated  into 
French  by  Madame  de  StSel,  and  scattered  broad- 
cast over  Europe.  In  ISOi,  ba  was  appointed 
recorder  of  Bombay,  for  which  place  he  suled  in  tha 

fof  the  year,  arrived  there  in  May,  was 
judge  of  the  Admiralty  Court  in  1800,  and 
till  1811.  His  Indian  career  was  highly 
creditable  to  his  capacity  and  bonourabla  to  his 
character.  After  his  return  to  England,  he  entered 
parliament  as  Whig  member  for  Nairn  (1813), 
acoeptad  the  profeBsonhip  of  law  in  the  college  of 
Haileybnry  in  1818,  and  in  1830  became  a  member 
of  the  Board  of  Control  nnder  the  Grey  ministry, 
and  spoke  in  favour  of  the  Keform  Bill.  This  wiu 
his  last  great  political  effort.  He  died  not  limg 
after,  on  tiie  22d  of  May  1332.  Every  one  nou  wiO 
ret  that  Sir  Jatoes  M.  ever  turned  aside  to  a 
,  .  .tioal  life.  He  was  essentially  a  literary  moralist 
and  philoaopher,  and  might  have  won  a  far  hichar 
and  mora  enduring  repntiition  than  he  has,  if  he  nad 
resolutely  prosecuted  the  colling  Ux  which  nature 


C^n'ftgl, 


HACENIGHT— MACON. 


Intonded  him.  HU  IK$terlatlim  on  Ae  Progmg  of 
Bliktd  Phiiotopl^,  written  far  tbe  Encudopadia 
Bniaitaica,  olthouah  very  incamplote,  uid  lacking 
tlut  precinon  and  profundity  that  can  oulv  be 
■cquired  by  rigorom  and  ertansive  researcli,  BhewB 
the  •dmirable  powera  of  tha  author,  his  breadth  of 
view,  tolenmoe,  impartialit;,  love  of  truth  and 
virtue,  and  his  gift  oi  calm  and  mBaonred  eloquence. 
For  Lardnei'B  Cydopadia,  be  wrote  a  brief  but 
eicelleut  mrvey  of  the  Hittoly  of  England.  An 
historioa!  fragment  (intended  to  form  portion  of  a 
large  work)  entitled  Hitlory  ofiht  ReeolwUott  in  Bi^- 
land  In  I68S,  appeared  after  hie  death,  and  waa  pro- 
nounced bj  Maraolay  to  be  the  best  history  of  the 
leign  of  James  n.  A  collection  of  his  nnsoeUaneOQa 
wortis,  including  his  contributions  to  ilie  Ed\iiiivrg\ 
EevieiB,  was  tmblished  at  Jiondon,  in  3  vols.  Sea 
Mvnunrt  of  hu  life  by  hia  son,  2  vols.  (Lond.  1S3S). 

UACKIfiaHT,  Dr  Juoa,  an  eminent  divine 
of  the  Cburoh  of  Scotland,  was  bom  at  Irvine,  in 
Ayreliire,  ITth  September  1721 ;  studied  at  Olaagow 
Univerti^,  and  aJterwards  at  Leyden,  in  Holland ; 
and  in  1753  was  otdained  minister  of  the  pansh  of 
M^bole;  In  1769,  he  waa  tnuislated  to  Jedburgh, 
and  thence  to  BdiDbnn;h  in  1772,  where  he  died, 
13th  January  ISOCX  M,  was  a  superior  scholar,  a 
liberal,  wise,  and  prudent  eccle«a«tic,  and  one  of 
the  most  respectable  wrlteis  that  the  Church  of 
Scotland  has  prodaoed.  His  principal  works  are— 
Harmony  of  th«  Foar  OotpOt  (1766) ;  Tht  TtuUi 
of  lie  Gotpd  Hidory  (1763) ;  and  A  Ifete  Tran^aUon 
of  lh«  Apoitolieal  Epielkt,  viith  CommaibiTy  and 
Kolet  (1796). 

MACLAURTIT,  Colin,  an  eminent  mathemn- 
tidan,  was  born,  in  1098,  at  Kilmodan,  in  Argyte. 
■hire,  Scotland.  He  was  educated  at  Glasgow 
University,  where  hs  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in 
1713 ;  and  after  four  yeara  of  close  atadv  obtuned, 
in  1717,  after  a  severe  competitive  trial,  the  pro- 
feraorghip  of  Mathematics  in  Marischal  College, 
AberdeetJ.  In  1719,  he  visited  London,  and  was 
received  as  member  of  the  Royal  Society,  at  the 
same  time  maltiig  the  acquaintance  of  many  eminent 
men,  Newton  among  the  rest.  Here  he  published 
his  Oeametria  OrgaA\ica  (17^0),  an  elaborate  treatise 
on  t^e  '  description '  of  curves.  He  afterwards 
visited  France  in  the  capacity  of  tutor  to  a  son  of 
Lord  Polwaith,  and  while  there,  wrote  a  diasertSi. 
tion  on  Oie  impact  of  bodia,  which  gained  the  prize 
of  the  Academy  o(  Sciences  in  1724.  The  following 
year,  he  was  appointed  asaistant  to  James  Gregory, 
Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  looa  after  succeeded  him  in  the  chair. 
Be  died  in  1746.  His  writings,  distinguished  for 
their  originahty,  profundity,  cleamesa,  and  elegance 
of  style,  gave  a  strong  impetus  to  the  study  of 
mathematical  science  in  Scotland.  His  works, 
besides  those  above  mentioned,  are— J  TrealiM 
of  Flvxumt  (Edinbureh,  1742),  a  work  written  in 
defence  of  Kewton's  Recoveries,  against  the  attack 
of  Berkeley,  and  the  first  in  which  the  principles 
of  fluxions  were  logically  arranged ;  A  Treatwe  on 
Aljf^fTa  (1748),  left  incomplete  by  the  author;  An 
A  ccotatt  of  Sir  laaac  Newton' i  PlaSotophUxd  Dimxniaia 
(Lond.  1748),  also  incomplete  and  posthmnons, 
vhich  contaua  explanatioiui  of  all  Newton's  dis- 
coveries, the  optical  ones  excepted ;  and  a  number 
of  papers  whi^  were  published  in  the  Ediubui^h 
Philounhkat  TraTiKmttont.  His  most  important 
sdentiiic  investigations  related  to  the  '  form  of 
the  earth,'  the  '  tides,'  and  the  action  of  the  wind 
on  the  sails  of  ships  and  wind-mills.  His  memoir 
on  the  tides  was,  in  1740,  presented  in  oompe- 
titaon  for  the  prize  offered  by  the  Academy  of 
Sciences ;  but  tluee  other  competitors,  Euler,  Daniel 


Bemouilli,  and  Father  Cavalleri,  havinc  appeared 
the  Academy  divided  the  prize  among  them. 

MA  CLE,  a  term  empbved  in  mineralo^  to  deto- 
nate what  are  also  called  fwtn  eryttaU,  wtuoll  are 
crystals  united  according  to  soma  precise  law,  yet 
not  having  their  faces  and  axes  parallel,  so  a«  to 
render  Uie  one  a  mere  continuation  of  the  oUier.  In 
fomemacles,  the  axes  are  parallel;  in  some,  they  are 
inclined  at  aa  angles  CiystallisaUan  in  maclea  is 
veiy  cboractenstic  of  some  minerals. 

MACLB  is  also  the  name  of  a  mineral,  also  ealled 
Cbubtoute,  a  silicate  of  alumina,  containing  a 
little  magneda  and  oxide  of  iron.  M.  has  been 
much  nsed  for  making  beads  for  rosaries,  kc 

MACLEOD,  NoRHAN.    See  Stiw.,  Vd,  X. 

MACLISE,  DlJUKL,  B.A.,  an  eminent  painter  of 
Scotch  extraction,  waa  bora  at  Cork,  in  Ireland, 
January  2C,  1811;  entered  the  Buyal  Aoademy, 
London,  in  1S28,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
a  student.  In  1833,  be  exhibited  his  first  pctnro 
at  the  British  Institution,  *  Mokanna  unveihng  his 
Features  to  Zelica ;'  and  in  tiie  same  year,  '  All- 
Hallow  Eve,*  and  'A  Love  Adventure  of  Frincis  L 
with  Diana  of  Poitiers,'  at  the  Royal  Academy, 
Since  then,  among  his  principal  worka  may  be  men- 
tioned— '  Robin  Hood  and  Richard  Ctenr-de-Lion,' 
and  '  Merry  Christmas  in  the  Baran'a  Hall '  (1S38) ; 
'  The  Bauquet  Scene  in  Macbeth,'  and  '  Scene  from 
Twelfth  Night'  (1340);  '  PUy  Scene  in  Hamlet' 
(1842) ;  '  Ordeal  by  Touch '  (1846) ;  and  his  design 
of  'Shakspeare's  Seven  Agt«'  (1848);  'The  Oroos 
of  Green  Spectacles'  (1850);  'Caxton's  Printing- 
office  '  (1861).  The  fresDoes— each  45  feet  long  ami 
12  feet  high — in  the  Royal  Gallety  of  the  Bouse  of 
Lords,  depicting  'The  Meeting  of  Wellington  and 
Blucher  on  the  Evening  of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo,' 
and  '  The  Death  of  Nelson  at  Trafalgar,'  are  ad- 
mitted to  be  the  finest  mural  puntings  hitherto 
executed  in  Britain.  The  only  pictures  worthy  of 
note  exhibited  by  M..  after  the  oompletioD  of  tnese 
great  works,  wete  '  Othello,'  '  Deedemona.'  and 
'  Ophelia '  (1867) ;  '  The  Sleep  of  Duncan,'  and 
'Madeline  after  Prayer'  (1868);  'King  Cophetua 
and  the  Beggar  Maid'  (1869);  'The  Earls  of  De»- 
mond  and  Ormond,'  posthumoualy  exhibited  in  1870^ 
the  year  in  which  he  died. 

MACLURE,  Sm  Robbht.    See  Sitpp.,  VoL  X. 

MACMAHON,  Masis  Eduk  Patbiob  Maubicb 
SI,  marshal  of  France,  of  Irish  descent^  was  bom  at 
"  "  '  July  13,  ISOa     Entering  the  army,  be  led  a 

iguished  career  in  Algeria,  and  commanded  the 

division  that  stormed  the  Malakoff  at  Sebastopol  in 
He  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  tlie  Italian 
compugn  of  1869,  received  a  marshal's  baton,  and 
was  created  Duke  of  Magenta  in  commemoration 
of  the  battle  of  that  name.  He  waa  nominated 
governor-general  of  Algeria  in  J864  In  the  Franco- 
German  war  of  1870—1871,  he  had  command  of 
the  first  army  coraa,  was  defeated  at  W5rth,  and 
captured,  wounde<C  at  Sedan.  In  1871  after  the 
close  of  the  war,  he  was  made  commander-in-chief 
of  the  French  army,  and  in  1S73  he  waa  elected 
president  of  the  repubho,  his  powers  beina;  confirmed 
to  bim  for  a  period  of  seven  years.  His  sympa- 
thies were  conservatiTe,  and  at  times  seemed  to  be 
reactionary;  suspicions  of  a  coup  if '^laf  were  mora 
than  once  excited,  especially  in  1877.  His  refuaal 
to  sanotioii  the  dismissal  of  several  generals  known 
to  be  hostile  to  the  now  firmly  established  repub- 
hoan  rigime,  led  to  his  reaignatioa  in  Jannai^  1879. 

MAOON  (ancient  Mati»co\,  a  town  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of  SaOne-et-Loire,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  SaSne,  38  miles  norUi  of  Lyon. 
m!  carries  on  an  extensive  trade  in  wines  known  as 


„  Google 


r 


MACON— MACTEA. 


Macon,  as  well  ai  in 


m.  cattle,  Ik.,  and  there  are 
Pop.  (ISSl)  18,412.  M.  has 
•oms  Roman  antiqnitiea. 

MACON,  a  dty  of  Geoigia,  United  SUtm,  at  the 
head  of  tlie  navigatioD,  and  on  both  lidM  of  the 
Ocmnlgee.    Pop.  (1870)  10,810 ;  (1880)  1^748. 

MACPHBBSON,  Jahs,  a  penon  vha  haa 
obtained  a  remarkabla  notoriety  m  literatim^  wac 
bom  in  1738,  at  RnthTen,  in  Invemeaa-ghire.  After 
liniiliing  hia  itadiea  at  Kine'i  College,  Aberdeen, 
he  becune  a  achodmuter  in  hia  native  Tillage, 
published  a  poem  entitled  Th^  Sighiander  in  1768, 
contributed  about  the  tame  time  veiws  to  the  SooU 
JUagaxint,  and  io  the  following  jear,  having  met  with 
the  Eev.  Dr  Aleiander  Carlyle,  niiiiiiter  of  luveresk, 
and  John  Home,  the  author  of  Doitglaa,  he  shewed 
tbem  soma  fragments  of  Gaelic  verse,  of  which  he 
also  gave  tham  '  tranalatiana.'  These  '  tranalationa ' 
(16  in  number)  appeared  in  1760,  and  were  ao  much 
rdiahed,  that  the  Faculty  of  Advocates  in  Edinbnrgh 
raised  a  subscription  to  enable  M.  to  make  a  tour 
through  the  Highlands  for  the  purpose  of  collect- 
ing more  of  the  sain&  M.  wa«  very  lealoog  and 
■occessfal  in  the  'discovery'  of  literary  tresanrea. 
When  he  made  his  disooveriea,  however,  no  man 
knows.  He  found  ancient  M3S.  in  regions  where  no 
one  before  had  snniaoted  their  existence,  and  where 
no  one  sinoe  has  been  fortunate  enough  to  obtain 
them.  Th«  result  waa  the  appearance  at  London,  in 
17B2,  of  the  Bo-called  '  Foema  of  Oasian,'  under  the 
title  of  Fingal,  an  Bipic  Poem,  in  Six  Btyoit ;  and  in 
J763,  of  Tvmara,  an  Epic  Potu^  in  BigU  BooU,  A 
storm  of  coatroveny  soon  arose  in  regard  to  their 
snnuineness,  which  haa  hardly  yet  subsided,  but  on 
Ute  whole,  we  may  safely  say  the  verdiot  is  oofavoor- 
able  to  Macphersou.  See  Osaux,  Toata  or.  Theee 
poema  were,  nowever,  the  making  of  him  in  a  worldly 
point  of  view.  He  waa  appointed  surreyor-general 
oC  the  Floridaa  (in  17M|  with  a  sal^  for  life, 
and  agent  to  the  Nabob  o{  Arcot — a  very  lucrative 
office — in  1770 ;  entered  parliament  in  the  following 
year  M  member  for  Camelford,  sat  for  ten  yeara, 
and  then  retired  to  an  estate  which  he  had  pur- 
chased in  Inverness- shire,  where  he  died  February 
17,  1796.  His  body  was  brought  back  to  Enghind. 
and  WB»  actually  interred  (at  hia  own  request  and 
eipense)  in  Westmiuster  Abbey.  M,  wrote  some 
historical  compilationi,  and  pamphleta,  and  trans- 
lated the  niad  into  prose. 

HACQUA'BIE,  a  river  of  New  South  Wales, 
rises  abont  60  miles  west  of  Sydney  >»<!  ^^^  " 
course  of  760  milea,  &11b  into  the  Darluig  (q.  v.). 

UACQUEB,  PiERBE  JosKTW,  a  famoua  chemist 
and  physician,  bom  at  Paris  in  1718,  died  15th 
February  17S4.  He  wrote  EltmeiUt  de  Ohimie 
IhSoriqae  (1741);  ElfmaiU  dt  ChimM  praiiqae 
(1761) ;  Didionnaire  de  Chintie  (1778).     See  Qasbb. 

MACRAUCHENIA  (Greek,  'long- necked'),  a 
ceniiB  of  South  American  foaail  herbivorous  animals, 
fonning  ^connecting  link  between  the  Palieotherium 
(q.  V.)  and  the  camel  fiunily.  In  form,  they  nearly 
resembled  the  lama,  but  were  as  large  as  a  hippo- 


MAGKEADY,  Willuu  Chiaus^  an  English 
tragedian,  whose  father  was  tha  manager  of  a  pro< 
vincial  company,  was  bom  in  London,  3d  Much 
1793,  educated  at  Bngby,  and  made  his  first 
appearance  as  Eomeo  at  Birmingham  in  1810.  For 
four  yeari  he  waa  connected  with  hie  faUier'a  com- 
nanv,  and  for  two  years  thereafter  he  sust^ed 
lea^K  parts  in  the  provinces.  In  September 
1816,  he  made  hia  first  appearance  before  a  London 
audience,  and  gained  the  applaose  of  Kean,  who 
was  one  of  his  auditors  His  pro^^  '°J^?  higher 
tralks  of  the  drama 


a  hit  in  the  character  of  Richard  III.,  and  he 
afterwards  adventured  on  other  of   Shakspeare's 

characters  with  soocesa.  In  1826,  he  made  a  tour 
in  the  United  States,  and  be  visited  Paris  in 
IS2a  He  was  lessee  of  Covent  Garden  Theatre 
in  1337 ;  and  afterwards  undertook  the  manage- 
ment of  Drury  Lane,  but  lost  heavily  by  it.  He 
visited  America  for  a  leoond  time  ia  1843;  and 
again  in  1848,  whan  he  barely  escaped  with  his  life 
from  a  riot  which  took  place  in  the  theatre  at  New 
York.  On  his  return  home,  he  was  engaged  at  the 
Haymarkot,  and  hia  theatrical  career  was  brought 
to  a  oonclusioo  in  February  J851.  Shcwtly  atter- 
warda,  a  public  dinner  was  given  to  the  great  actor. 
M.  died  April  1873.  Macready'i  Jieminucenca 
appeared  in  1876. 

M.  waa  a  fine  and  impressive  actor,  but  he  was 
more  indebted  ior  his  aucoeu  to  art  than  to  nature. 
He  succeeded  best  in  the  graver  characten  of  the 
drama.  He  inherited  more  of  the  statelinasa  '  of 
Eemble  than  the  fire  of  Kean. 

M'CBIE,  Db  Thomas,  a  Soottiih  divine  and 
historian,  was  bom  at  Dunsa,  in  Berwickshire, 
November  1772,  studied  at  the  nnivertity  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  was  ordained,  in  1796,  pastor  of  an  Asti- 
Burgber  eongregatioD  in  that  dty.  Here  be  died, 
5th  August  1836.  M.'b  works  are  in  the  highest 
degree  valuable  to  the  student  of  Scottish  eccleaias- 
tical  history.  They  exhibit  a  vast  unount  of  minute 
yet  important  research,  and  though  they  are  essen- 
tially  apologetic,  the  author  i>  never  oansciously 
unfair,  and  does  not  miaetate  facta.  He  has,  bow- 
ever,  a  way  of  palliating  even  the  indefensible  acts  of 
the  Reformera.  and  a  zeal  for  Presbjterianism,  that 
caused  the  impartial  Hallamto  describe  hia  spirit . 


I86S— 57),  and  The  Life  of  Andrae  itdviik  (1819). 
MACRCBIUS,  AuBRosiDS  Aubxlitis  Thxodo- 
BiVB,  a  Latin  grammarian  of  tjie  6th  century.  He 
appears  to  have  been  by  birth  a  Greek,  but  hterally 
nothing  wliatever  is  known  of  his  life.  Two  of  his 
works  remain,  entitled  Commenfariiw  ex  CieeroM  in 
Somnnim  Seipioni»,  and  SalurnaHoram  Conviviorura 
LSn-i  SepUm.  The  former  is  the  beat  known,  and 
waa  much  read  during  the  middle  ages ;  the  hitter 
"     ""     the  form  of  a  dialogue^  and  contains  many 


only  extracts   made  ... 

lieen  warmly  discussed  whether  M.  was  a  Christian 
or  a  pagan.  The  editio  prineept  of  M.  appeared  at 
Venice  m  1472;  of  later  edition^  the  beat  are  thoae 
of  Jan  (1362)  and  Eyssenhardt  (1868). 

MACTBA,  a  genos  of  lamellibranchiate  molluscs, 
having  a  somewhat  triangnlar  shell,  broader  than 
long,  Sie  valvea  equal ;  the  animal  with  the  siphons 


Uavtia  Stnltonun. 

united  to  the  extremity,  and  a  large  compreased 

foot.    They   are  sometinea  called  Troogh  Shells. 

Uis  proo'esi  in  tne  nigiier   The  species  are  numeroos,  and  widely  distributed : 

alow.     In  1819.  he  made  they  barrow  in  the  sand  and  mud  of  sea-shores,  and 

'  '  MB 

.sftU 


HACUL£— UADAGASCAB. 


of  the  bottom  of  the  ns.  The  foot  eukble*  them 
&bo  to  move  with  eotivttf,  after  the  raumer  of 
cockles.  Some  of  the  ipeciea  h^ve  beautiful  iheUa. 
SeventI  tmall  specie*  are  very  abundaut  on  the 
Britiah  ahoreo,  ao  that  in  Bome  placea  tbey  are 
eathered  for  feeding  pigs,  but  not  by  thoM  who 
have  much  regard  for  the  quality  dt  the  bacon. 
Tbe  genoji  M.  ii  the  type  of  a  family,  Maarida. 

HA'CUIiJS  is  the  term  given  to  an  order  ot 
skin-diaeuei.  But  the  aflFectiona  included  under 
the  term  can  hardly  be  r«KBrded  u  diieaaee ;  thsy 
are  merely  ditcoloratioos  of  the  ikio,  resulting  from 
aome  cbuge  in  the  prodaction  of  the  colouring 
matter.    1^  following  are  varietiea. 

1.  Lenligo. — Thta  term  ia  applied  to  thoae  Email 
yellowieh  or  brownish-yellQw  irregnlarly  rounded 
apots  which  are  denomuuted  freckles,  and  which 
are  moat  abundant  on  tbe  parts  ohiefiy  exposed  to 
the  light,  as  the  face,  handa,  &o.  In  some  catee, 
theoe  apoti  are  congenital,  while  in  other  caaea  they 
■eem  to  be  prodncS  by  erpoanre  to  the  irun's  raya ; 
and  in  both  oasea  they  chiefly  occur  to  penooB  of 
fair  oomplexion  with  light  aandy  hair.  When 
patches  of  alargar  size  than  that  of  ordinary  treeklea 
are  prodnced  by  eiponu«  to  the  inn,  the  affeution 
receives  the  name  of  EpieU*.  Congenital  spots 
cannot  be  removed  by  any  applications ;  but  those 
vi'hich  depend  on  ei^ioeare  may  be  traated  with 
soothing  lotiona  or  hnimenta,  as  an  emulsion  of 
sweet  almonds,  or  a  miitnre  of  lime-water  with 
almond  oil 

2.  Pigmentary  Ifitmu. — This  is  a  congenital  dark 
disooloration  ot  tbe  skia,  with  little  or  no  elevation 
of  the  stiriace,  and  often  covered  with  hair.  It 
nsoally  occurs  in  small  spots,  bat  lomstimes  appears 
in  la^  patches.  It  is  perfectly  harmless,  and 
should  not  be  interfeTed  with. 

3.  Albtnitm  or  Letia>pai!iy. — This  affection  has 
I  been  already  noticed  in  <lie  artide  Albinos.  When 
j  congenital,  it  may  be  considered  irremediable ;  bnt 

caaea  of  partial  albinism,  occurring  after  birth,  may 
I  sometdmea  be  relieved  by  local  stimulants 
;       UADAGA'SCAB,  the  third  largest  island  in  the 
j  worid,  is  situated  to  the  S.E.  of  A&ica,  and  is  about 
fonr  times  as  large  aa  England  and  Wales.    It  is  in 
I  Ut.  12°  2"— 25'  36*^8..  and  long,  42°— 61°  W  E;  length, 
978  miles ;  greatest  breadth,  350  miles ;  area  about 
I   280,000  sq.  mitea.     Although  frequently  visited  by 
I   Europeans  since  the  beginmng  ol  the  16tb  century, 
M.   is  yet   but  imperfectly  explored.    The  coasts 
were  carefully  surveyed  by  Captain  W.  F,  W.  Owen, 
I   R.N.,  1823— 1S26 )  but  until  lately  there  has  been 
I   a  great  lack  of  accurate  knowledge  as  to  the  geo- 
I   graphy  of  the  interior.    Mnch  li^t  has,  however, 
j   been  thrown  uwm  this  by  a  distmgniahed  French 
'   savant,  M.  Alfred  Gnmdidier,  who,  between  IS65 
]   and   1S70;  explored  the  island,  and  mossed  it  in 
,   several  directions.    Since  then,  numerotis  jonmeya 
:   bare  been  made  by  members  of  the  London  Mission- 
ary Society  and  the  Friends'  Mission  ;  and  the  inform 
'   tnation  thus  obtained  was  embodied  in  a  large  map 
j   of  M.  prepared  in  1879  by  Bev.  Dr  Mnllens. 
I       U.  consists  of  two  great  divisions — namely,  (1) 
an  elevated  interior  region,  raised  from  3000  to  60iX) 
I   feet  above  the  sea ;  and  (2)  a  comparatively  level 
■   country  surrounding  the  high  land,  not  mnch  exceed- 
1   ing  50O  to  600  feet  in  altitude,  and  most  eitensive 
'   on  the  west  and  south.    The  Sist  of  these  consists 
chiefly  of  Primary  rooks,  with  red  clay.   It  is  broken 
np  by  lines  of  htlls,  with  numerous  fertile  valleys, 
and  comprises  about  a  third  of  the  island,  north 
and  east  of  its  oentral  portion.    From  ttua  upper 
region  lise  the  highest  mountains,  those  of  jJikK- 
rura,  whose  summits  are  nearly  9000  feet  in  height. 
The  lower  region  of  M.  is  ferble  and  well  wooded. 


and  appears  to  consist  of  Secondary  strata ;  on  it* 

western  side  are  three  prominent  lines  of  mountains 
running  north  and  south.  All  round  the  island  is  a 
"        ■-    ■-      belt  oi    " 

N.W.  and  N.  an  almost  continuous  line  of  extinct 
volcanic  craters  has  been  traced.  The  climate  is 
temperate  and  pleasant  in  the  interior  highlands, 
but  m^juial  fever  renders  the  hotter  ooart-plaina 
unhealthy.  The  chief  riven  flow  west  and  north- 
west, and  there  are  many  fine  bays  and  harbours 
on  the  north-weat  coast 

The  flora  of  M.  is  very  rich  and  varied,  and  con- 
tains Urge  numbers  of  trees  producing  valuable 
timber.  Amongst  tbe  most  chuacteristio  forms  of 
vegetation  are  the  Traveller's-tree  (Crania  tpecioia), 
the  Bcfia  palm  [Sagui  ni^ia),  the  Lattice-leaf 
[Oavimndra  ftneatralU),  and  numerous  pecoliar 
orchids  and  fem&  The  fauna  is  remarkable,  and 
contains  several  exceptional  and  ancient  forms  of 
life,  comprising  many  species,  and  even  genera, 
found  nowhere  else.  M.  is  Bpoci&lly  the  home  of  tho 
Lemuridm,  there  being  36  species  already  known 
of  this  family  of  quadcnpeda,  including  the  onrioua 
Aye-aye  (Ckaromja  Xoi^igatcariauU).  The  country 
is  remarkably  debcient  in  the  larger  carnivora  and 
in  nngnlate  animals.  Kemains  of  an  immense  struth- 
ioos  bird  [jEpyomi»  maxiimi$)  are  found,  together 
with  its  wgs,  tne  largest  known  (12^  in.  x  9j  in.). 

The  Mdagaay  people  appear  to  be  mainly  derived 
from  the  hulayo- Polynesian  stock,  to  which  they 
have  numerous  affinities.  There  is  also  an  admixture 
of  African  blood,  especially  on  the  weatran  dde  of 
the  ialand  ;  and  there  is  an  Arab  element  both  oa 
the  north-west  and  south-east  coasts.  It  is  also  be- 
lieved that  there  are  teaces  of  an  aboriginal  caoe.  The 
Hovas,  the  most  advanced,  civilised,  and  intelligen-b 
Malagasy  tribe,  inhabiting  the  interior  provinces, 
and  since  the  beginning  of  this  century  the  domi* 
nant  race,  are  probably  the  latest  immigrants.  Alt 
the  ooast  tribes  appear  to  be  closelv  connected  with 
each  other  in  language ;  bnt  althoogh  there  ara 
many  dialectical  difTerenees,  the  lan|aaga  of  th» 
whole  country  is  substantially  one.  The  popnlation 
is  variously  estimated  at  from  2,500,000  to  4,00(^00a 
The  capital  is  AntanAnartvo  ;  pop.  80,00a 

The  principal  exports  of  M.  are  cattle^  hidaa,  gnm- 
copal,  iudia-robber,  and  rice ;  and  co£foe  is  being  cul- 
tivated by  Creole  Settlers.  The  chief  trade  is  from 
the  eastern  porta  to  Mauritius  and  Bourbon.  Th» 
soil  is  fertile,  and  oould  supply  practically  unlimited 

nititiea  of  all  tropical  productions.  Iron  is  abun- 
t ;  copper  and  silver  have  been  discovered,  and 
probably  gold  also  exists  ;  but  these  metals  are  not 
worked.  But  aa  there  are  no  roads  or  wheeled 
vehioles,  the  conntry  ia  ^et  very  backward  in  civili- 
sation, although  there  is  no  lack  of  manual  skill 
among  the  people,  who  excel  in  weaving,  straw- 
work,  carpentry,  and  the  smelting  and  working  of 
metab.  The  Malagasy  have  no  ancient  literature, 
but  their  numerous  proverbs,  songs,  and  folk-talegL 
and  their  oratorical  abilities,  give  ample  proof  of 
their  intellectual  acntcness.  In  their  heathen  state 
they  are  very  immoral  and  untruthful,  and  cruel  in 
war  ;  but  they  are  ^o  courageous,  affectionate  and 
firm  in  friendship,  kind  to  their  children  and  their 
aged  and  sick  relatives,  law-obeying  and  loyal,  ^ery 
courteoos  and  polite,  and  most  hospitable.  Whife 
retaining  some  traditions  of  a  Supreme  B^g,  they 
practis^  a  kind  of  fetishism,  together  with  divina- 
tion, curious  ordeals,  and  ancestor  worship 

M,  was  known  to  and  visited  by  Arab  merchants 
at  least  a  thousand  years  ago  ;  and  settlements  were 
formed  by  them,  as  well  aa  oy  Indian  traders,  in  very 
early  times.  It  is  mentioned  by  Marco  Polo  under 
the  name  of  MagatCer  ;  but  the  first  European  who 


HADDALONI— MADDEB. 


■&W  the  iaUad  wta  tile  Pottngu^e  Soorea  in  1606. 
The  Dutch  had  for  »  tims  some  (ettlemeati ;  tad 
the  Freoch  nude  penuteut  efforts  for  neulv  two 
centuries  to  maintain  military  posts,  but  without 
much  Bucceaa.  But  they  itill  retftiu  Hie  little  iaUnd 
of  Sti  Marie  (E.  cout);  in  1840  they  obtsbed 
the iil&nd of  Nisi-bd  (N. W. oowt) ;  andiu tSS2thej 
made  claim  to  a  protectorate  over  part  of  the  Saka- 
lava  tenitoiy  on  the  N.W.  coaat  of  Madagascar. 
In  13S3  they  bombarded  several  coast  towns,  and 
occopied  the  port  of  Tamatare. 

Up  to  tbe  middle  of  the  ITth  century  &L  waa 
divided  into  a  number  of  indepeudcnt  chieftaiuciea  ; 
bat  about  that  time  the  SUaUlva,  a  warlike  tribe 
on  tbe  S.W.  coast,  made  thunselves  masters  of  the 
vhole  weatem  half  of  the  island,  as  well  as  of 
■everal  interior  provincea.  But  in  the  early  part 
of  this  oeotury  the  Hovas,  led  by  two  enargetio 
diieb,  Iinpdina  and  his  son  Badima  L,  threw  off 
the  Sitkaliva  yoke,  and  with  the  aid  of  English 
Arms  and  discipline  made  themselves  virtually 
IdDgB  of  Madagascar.  They  conquered  Uie  eastern 
kna  central  ^^ovinoea,  but  elsewhere  ilie  Hova 
anthoiity  is  metdy  nominaL  R^iltm^  abolished 
the  eimrt  slave-tmd^  and  gave  encouragement  to 
English  missionanea,  who  commenced  work  at 
hi*  oapital  in  1820.  They  reduced  the  language 
to  a  written  form,  gave  ue  people  a  literature^ 
formed  numerous  schools,  founded  Christian 
churches,  and  introduced  many  of  the  arts  of 
eiviliied  life.  But  the  aooession  of  the  Queen  Rlna- 
Tilona  I.  in  1828  gradually  led  to  repressive  mea- 
sures ;  the  missionariea  were  all  obliged  to  leave  in 
1B36,  and  a  severe  peneontion  of  the  native  Chris- 
tians ensued,  in  which  nomben  p^nshed.  Europeans 
^erally  were  also  for  some  time  excluded  from  the 
island.  The  queen's  decease  in  1861  put  an  and 
to  this  period  of  terror,  and  M.  was  reopened  to 
Europeans  at  the  aooession  of  her  eon  Badlma  IL 
Owing  to  the  young  king's  folhes,  and  to  intrignes 
with  the  French,  he  was  put  to  death  in  1863,  and 
his  wife  Blsohgnna  placed  on  the  throne.  Daring 
her  reign  (1863— 1868)  steady  advances  were  made, 
concluded  with  England, 


France,  and  America.    At  the  aecessCon  of  ^ 

BAnavilona  IL,  sbe  and  her  Prime  Minister  resolved 
io  identify  themselves  with  Chriatiauity,  which  was 
becoming  an  important  power  in  tbe  country.  The 
^neen  and  her  hnsband,  and  many  of  the  nobles, 
wen  baptised;  and  th«  buming  of  the  royal  idols 
in  the  ((Hlowing  year  (1868)  caused  the  whole  popula- 
tion of  the  central  provinces  ot  Im^rina  and  B^tHil6o 
to  put  themselves  under  instruction.  Since  that 
time,  more  than  1100  congregations  have  been 
formed,  and  nearly  900  schoola,  with  60,000  ciiildren 
under  instructdon ;  several  colleges  and  training 
iastitntions,  as  well  as  hospitals  and  dispensaries, 
have  been  established  ;  while  the  mlseion  presses 
are  actively  at  work.  In  ISTQ  all  the  African  slaves 
in  the  country  were  set  tree ;  and  effOTts  have  been 
made  to  improve  the  military  system  and  the 
administratioD  oE  justice,  to  codify  Uie  laws,  and  to 
form  a  kind  of  responsible  ministry.  Three- fourths 
of  M.  is  still  heathen.  Sec  Elli/s  Jlietory  of  M. 
(1838),  ThTK  Firntt  to  M.  (18B3),  and  Th'.  Martyr 
CTimA  (1870) ;  Sibree's  M.  and  iU  PeopU  (1870), 


politique  dt  M.,  W  A.  Grandidier  (vols,  i — iv.  Par. 
1876-1880). 

MADDALOTSI,  a  city  of  Southern  Italy, 
province  of  Caserta,  14  miles  north-north-< 
Naples.  Pop.  (1881)  17,072.  It  is  an  industrious 
and  thriving  place,  with  several  fine  palaces  and 
churches. 


MADDER  {SvlAi),  a  genus  ot  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Balnaeea,  very  nearly  allied  to  the 
genoa  Oaliu/tn  at  Bedstraw  (g.  v.),  and  differing 
from  it  chiefly  in  having  a  jmoy  fmit  resembling 
two  small  berries  growitu  together.  'The  q)eoie* 
are  found  in  the  tropioar  and  wanner  temperate 
parts,  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  and  «ra 
important  for  the  colouring  matter  of  their  toots. 
The  most  important  is  the  Common  M.  or  Dvas'i 
M.  (R.  linetorunt),  a  native  probably  of  the  sontll 
of  Enn^  as  well  as  of  Asia  ;  and  now  very  exten- 
aively  cultivated  in  most  European  coontnea,  and 


pert^na  is  found  in  tne  south-west  of  Encdand, 
and  is  called  WiU)  Maddeb.  It  is  very  simUar  to 
B.  UnOonmi.  The  roots  of  R.  r^bw  and  R.  ChOentU 
are  used  in  Chili  and  Fern, 

There  is  no  material  of  greater  importance  to 
dyers  than  M.  {R.  linctorum),  not  only  from  the 
great  beauty  of  the  ooloun  obtainable  from  it, 
but  also  from  the  ease  with  which  it  cau  be  wotlud, 
and  the  great  variety  of  He  appUcations.  Although 
the  M.  plant  thrives  best  in  warm  otimatea,  it 
may  be,  and  is  successfully  cnltivMed  in  nrartiiem 
districts.  The  Dutch  province  of  Zealand  has 
loDc  been  celebrated  for  iLhe  large  crtrpt  of  M. 
produced  there ;  and  nntil  about  40  years  ainoe, 
our  dyer*  rarely  nsed  any  other  than  Dutch  M., 
which  was  always  sent  ground  and  packed  in  large 
cask*;  bat  with  the  improvement*  in  dyeinA  it  was 
diacoversd  tiiat  tiie  roots  grown  in  warmer  uwalitiM 
possessed  not  only  mnch  superior  quaLties,  bat 
could  be  made  to  produce  other  and  more  beantifnl 
shades  of  colour.  Beaides  a  genial  temperature,  M. 
requires  a  rich,  deep  soil  and  careful  cultivation. 
It  is  usually  propagated  by  cutting  or  by  sboota 
From  the  Stocks  of  old  plants  ;  these  are  set  aboot 
a  foot  apart,  and  in  rows,  three  feet  from  each 
other ;  the  planting  takes  place  in  spring ;  Htd 
sometimes  the  roots  an  lifted  at  the  usual  barvert- 
time  for  madder  (October  or  November).  In  Franoe 
and  Germany,  the  markets  are  supplied  with  OIM 
year  old  (calied  by  the  Oermaos  rOUie),  ei^teea 
months  old,  and  three  years  old,  which  is  the  best, 
and  called  by  the  Oermazis  trapp,  or  M.  par  txett- 
teacx.  The  roots  are  carefully  raised  with  forks,  to 
prevent  breaking  them  aa  mnch  as  possible ;  and 
after  the  soil  is  thoroughly  shaken  oS|  tltaf  are 
dried  in  stove^  and  afterwards  thrashed  with  a 


flail,  t< 


9  the  h 


broken  u 


soil  still  adhering  ;  tiiey  are  then  cu 
pieces,  and  packed  (or  sale,  or  they  i 
mills  to  be  ground.  In  Turkey  and  Italy,  whers 
the  solar  heat  is  great,  the  stove  is  di^wnsad  with, 
the  roots  being  ^ed  in  tbe  sun.  The  more  the 
roots  are  freed  frum  the  epidennis,  the  better  the 
qoality  of  the  M ;  hence,  before  it  is  ground  in 
France,  many  manufacturers  employ  niiechanical 
means,  chiefly  sieves  worked  by  mschinery,  which 
rub  off  and  separate  the  soft,  dark-brown  skin 
which  covers  the  root*— this  process  is  called  roinpe. 
One  year-old  root*  Mnnot  be  profitably  '         *  " 


ground  without  dreasinc,  and  snob  is  called  mh8  in 
trade.  The  grinding  is  effected  in  mills  with  vertical 
Btonea,  and  the  meal  is  passed  throng  sieves  of 
different  degrees  of  fineness,  which  give*  rise  to 
various  qualities  in  the  market.    These  qualities  are 


-,,C.oog[e 


HADDEB-LASE-MADEIBA. 


namerons,  and  have  sp«cUl  markB  to  diEtingniBh 

tliem,  wfjl  known  to  morchuitB.  but  >ra  of  no 
BeDerat  interest.  The  M.  from  Tatkej  and  from 
'■     "   '"      "   ground,  the   roota  are 

Very  small  i 
of  KL  occuibnall;  reach  ns  from  Ruaaia; 
produce  of  the  fnivemment  of  Baku,  on  the  Caspian 
Sea,  and  is  said  by  our  dyer?  to  be  Hhe  finest  in 
the  world. 

As  might  be  expected  oE  a  Bubetance  of  such 
vast  commercial  and  mannfiicturing  value,  M.  has 
nndergonQ  tiie  most  elaborate  chemical  researches. 
Its  dyeing  quality  has  been  known  for  at  least 
two  thousand  years,  and  its  medicinal  qualities 
are  also  mentioned  b^  Fliny  and  Dioecorides.  The 
former  writer,  referring  to  its  value  as  a  dyeing 
material,  says  :  >  It  ia  a  plant  little  known  eioept  to 
the  sordid  and  aTaricious,  and  this  because  of  the 
large  pioSts  obtained  from  it,  owinf;  to  its  employ- 
ment  m  dyeing  wool  and  leather.'  The  M.  of  Ha- 
venna  wa^  according  to  Diosoorides,  the  most 
esteemed.  Its  oiUtivatioa  in  Italy  has  never  been 
discontinued  ■,  and  under  the  present  enlightened 
«>venunen^  it  has  received  such  an  impetus  that 
the  exports  of  the  Neapolitan  provinces  alone,  in  one 

tear,  exceeded  in  value  a  quarter  of  a  million  ater- 
ng.  It  was  about  the  beginning  of  the  present 
centary  that  the  colouring  matter  of  M.  began  to 
attract  very  especial  attention.  It  had  long  Defore 
been  noticed  that  cattle  which  used  the  green  parts 
of  the  plant  as  fodder  had  a  red  colour  communi- 
cated to  their  bones,  which  was  only  removed  by 
diacontintiing  this  kind  of  food  for  a  considerable 
time.  This  shewed  the  colooring  matter  to  be 
capable  of  isolation ;  dyerB  also  began  to  suspect 
that  the  colour  produced  was  a  combmation  of  two 
— one  red,  and  the  other  a  purplish  brown.  But 
Roubiquet,  a  French  chemist,  about  1S20,  demon- 
strated that  M.  contains  two  distinct  colours,  capable 
of  being  isolated  and  used  separately  i  he  called 
them  TSlizarine  and  Purpnrine — the  former,  he 
asserted,  eave  the  bright  red,  and  the  latter  the 
purple  red  colours.  Practically,  Ronbiquet's  state- 
ment may  be  held  to  be  correct ;  but  the  recent 
and  more  elaborate  researches  of  Dr  Schonck,  of 
Manchester,  have  shewn  the  composition  of  M.  to 
be  very  complicated  indeed-  At  the  meeting  of  the 
British  Association  in  1S61,  he  shewed  the  following 
chemical  principles,  all  obtained  from  this  remark- 
able root :  1.  Bubiaaine ;  2.  Rublanic  Acid ;  3.  Rubi- 
anito  of  Potash ;  4.  Purpnrine ;  6.  Chlorrubian  ; 
6.  Pthalic  Acid ;  7.  Alizarine ;  8.  Rnbiadine ;  9. 
Cblorrubiodine  ;  10.  Rubiofine  ;  1 1.  Rubiacine  ; 
12.  Rnbian;  13.  Verantine;  li  Perohlormbian ; 
15.  Rubiagine  ;  16.  Grape-sugar ;  and  17.  Suooine. 
Artificial  alizarine,  first  produced  in  1869,  is  manu- 
foctiired  on  a  large  scale,  and  is  now  extensively 
nsed  by  dyers.  It  is  one  of  the  anmerons  series  of 
aoilina  colours. 

Dyen  employ  M.  for  ginoR  the  celebrated 
Turkey-red  to  cotton  goods,  and  for  this  puipoae 
em[jay  means  for  dev^ping  the  alizarine  ;  and  for 
pnrples,  lilacs,  and  pinli,  which  are  obtained  by 
means  of  the  purpurine.  Manchester,  Glasgow, 
Paisley,  Alexanturio,  and  other  places  on  the  bulks 
of  the  Clyde,  are  the  chief  seaoi  of  this  industry ; 
the  imports  of  M.  into  Britain  in  1875  amoonted  to 
126,162  cwt  (value,  £410,993),  but  in  1882  had 
decreased  to  23,397  cwt.  (value,  £33,207). 

MADDBR-LAKE,  a  painter's  colour,  made  from 
madder,  by  boiling  it  in  a  solution  of  alum,  then 
filtering  the  Kquid,  and  adding  sufficient  carbonote 
of  soda  to  cause  precipitation  of  the  alizarine  or 
red  colouring  matter  ol  the  madder,  which  alone 
has    been    lEssolved   by   the    boiling   solution   of 


alum.    This  lake  i«  used  either  as  an  oil  or  water 
colour. 

TW  A  TiPll'R  4 ,  an  island  in  the  North  Atlantio 
Ocean,  off  the  north-west  coast  of  Africa,  from  tha 
nearest  point  of  which  it  ia  390  tnilea  distant,  in 
lat  32°  43'  N.,  long.  17*  W.  It  lies  280  miles  north 
of  Teneriffe,  in  the  Canaries,  and  620  miles  south- 
west of  Lisbon.  M.,  and  the  other  islands  of  the 
group,  form  a  province  of  Portugal,  with  an  area  of 
315  square  miles,  and  pop.  (1882)  133,955,  includ- 
ing the  adjoining  small  isltuid  of  Forto  Ijanto,  of 
whom  200  are  English  resident.  It  has  been  com- 
mred,  in  appearance,  to  the  island  of  Arran,  in  tha 
Firth  of  Clyde,  but  is  wilder  and  grander.  Its 
coasts  are  steep  and  precipitous,  rising  from  200 
to  2000  feet  above  sea-levd,  comprising  few  bays 
or  landing-places,  and  deeply  out  at  intervals  by 
narrow  gorges,  which  give  to  the  cSrcumfereuce  the 
appearance  of  having  been  crtfmxfd.  From  the 
shore,  the  luid  rises  gradually  C«  its  highest  point, 
the  Pico  Bnivo,  6060  feet ;  there  are  several  other 
peaks  upwards  of  4000  feet  high.  It  is  remarkable 
for  its  deep  valleys,  the  most  noted  being  that  of 
'  Curral,'  which  from  brink  to  bottom  has  a  depth 
of  2060  feet  M.  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  ahsht 
eorthquakee  sometimes,  though  rarely,  occur,  llie 
lower  portions  of  the  island  abound  in  trofncal 
plants,  as  the  date-palm,  banana,  costard-apple, 
mango,  sweet  potato,  Indian  com,  coQee,  sugar-cane, 
pomegranate,  and  fig.  The  fruits  and  grains  of 
Europe  are  cultivated  to  an  elevation  of  2600  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  and  the  vine  and  sugar-cane  on 
the  lower  grounds ;  above  these  are  found  timber  (in- 
cluding the  chestnut,  whose  fruit  is  used  extensively 
by  the  inhabitants  as  food),  pine  {Finia  mariitMa) 
used  as  fuel,  fern,  grass,  and  heath,  and  the  scant 
herbage  of  alpine  rBgionfl.  M.  produces  80  or  90 
plants  peculiar  to  itKlf,  but  the  flora  in  its  general 
characteristics  resembles  that  of  tha  conntriea 
around  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  grape  disease 
has,  within  recent  years,  been  ahnost  universal,  and 
wine  has  not  been  made  in  such  quantity  as  for- 
merly. M.  has  no  indigenous  mft"'"'^*-^^*,  but  Uifl 
ordinary  domestic  animus,  together  with  rabbits, 
rats,  and  mice,  have  been  introduced  by  the  Forta- 
guese.  The  climate  is  remarkable  for  its  constancy. 
There  are  only  10°  diflferenoe  between  the  temper- 
atures of  summer  and  winter,  the  therraometei 
in  Funchal  (the  capitad  of  t^e  island)  shewing  an 
average  of  74°  in  summer,  and  oE  64°  in  winter. 
At  the  coldest  sesaon,  the  temperature  rarely  is  leaa 
than  60°,  while  in  summer  it  seldom  rises  above 
78° ;  but  sometimes  a  wait  of  the  UaU,  or  east 
wind,  raises  it  to  90°.  The  temperate  and  constant 
warmth   of   its  climate   has   made   ""   "   '  '" 


t  favoorito 


educational  institutions  comprise  tne  ronasaeaa 
College  and  Laocasterian  and  government  scEools. 
Funchal  (q.  v,)  ia  the  port  of  the  island.  In 
ISSO,  636  vessels  (487  of  them  BritUh),  of  726.797 

tons,  entered  the  nort.  The  imports  in  1880, 
cotton,  woollen,  and  linen  manufactured  gooda. 
iron,  flour,  earthenware,  Indian  com,  rice^  oil,  and 
timber,  bad  a  value  of  £253,600 ;  the  exports  for 
the  same  year,  wine,  sugar,  citron,  embroidery,  and 
wicker-work,  coal,  sajt-beef,  amd  hides,  amounted 

,to  £267,300.  The  vintage  and  the  sugar-crops  of 
ISSO  were  of  average  v^ua.  About  6000  pipes  of 
wine  are  produced ;  600  tons  of  sugar,  and  240,000 
gallons  of  spirits.  The  trade  ia  chiedy  with  Great 
Britain. 

The  inhabitants  of  SI.  are  of  mixed  Portuguese, 
iloorisb,  and  Kegro  descent;  thqr  are. of  vigoroos 

Dinii..f:nX-.OOQ[C 


MADEIRA— MADI301T. 


frame,  liTely  and  iDdoBtrioiu,  but  totellj  uneducated. 
M.  was  formeriy  covered  with  forests,  whence  its 
DMoe — the  Portuguese  word  madara  sizniFying 
timber.  The  group  to  which  this  ialand  belongs, 
■omeldmes  called  uie  Northern  Canaries,  was  die- 
covered  in  1416,  and  wu  coloniaed  by  the  Portu- 
Kue«e.  Sea  White's  Madtira  (2d  ed.,  1860)  ;  Miaa 
Taylot'B  excellent  worh  Madeira  (1882). 

MADEIRA,  or  MADERA,  or  CAYABA,  an  ' 
important  river  of  Brazil,  South  America,  and  an 
amuent  of  the  Amazon,  hag  ita  origia  in  the  con- 
fluence of  leveral  rivera,  the  chief  of  which  are  the 
Beni,  Mamore,  Madalena,  and  Stanez,  in  lat.  about 
10*  S.  It  hu  a  north-east  coarse  of  TOO  miles, 
for  the  last  600  miles  (A  which  it  is  navigable, 
the  remaining  200  being  obstructed  hy  nomerous 
cataracts ;  and  it  falls  into  the  Amazon  in  lat. 
3*  2S'  S.,  long.  Sr  4fi'  W.  Including  the  Mamore, 
the  entire  length  is  about  ISOO  miles. 

mAdHAVA  is  an  appellation  of  the  Hindu  god 
Tishn'u  (q.  v.),  one  by  'wliich  he  i*  very  frequantly 
deaignatea  in  Hindu  mythology  and  m  iMoscnt 
poefiy. 

mAdHATAchIbYA  (i.e.,  MAeUumi,  the 
Achftrya,  or  spiritual  teacher]  is  one  of  the  greatest 
Hindu  scholon  and  divines  that  graced  the  medi- 
eval  literature  of   India.      Hs   is   famed   for   his 


ramraatica 


•   the 

titing! 


of  the  ancient  Hindus,  and  also  for  his  politital 
connection  with  the  history  of  some  renowned 
kings  of  the  Deccan.  His  leaming  and  wisdoni 
were  ao  eminent,  that  he  was  supposed  to  have 
received  them  from  the  goddtiss  Bhuvanes'warl, 
the  consort  of  S'iva,  who,  gretifled  by  his  incessant 
devotions,  became  manifest  to  him  in  a  human 
ahape,  conferred  on  him  the  gift  of  extraordinary 
knowledge,  and  changed  his  name  to  Vldyftran'ya 
(tiie  Forest  of  Leormng),  a  title  hj  which  be  is 
sometimes  designated  in  Hindu  writings.  All  the 
traditions  about  M.,  however  differing  from  one 
anoUier,  agree  id  ascribing  the  origin  of  Vijay- 
anagan  to  Mldhava.  His  birthpl^  Is  said  to 
have  been  Pampa,  a  village  situated  on  the  bank 
of  the  river  Tungabhadrft ;  and  as  all  the  accounts 
of  hia  life  admit  his  having  been  the  prime-minister 
of  Sangoma,  the  son  of  Kaoipo,  whose  reign  at 
Vijayanagara  commenced  about  1336,  and  to  have 
filled  the  some  past  under  King  Bukka  L,  who 
•Qcceeded  Uorihara  1.  about  1361,  and  as  he  died 
at  the  age  of  ninety,  the  date  of  his  birth  coincides 
probably  with  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century. 
Amongst  his  works,  the  principal  ore  his  great 
conaneotaries  on  the  Kig-,  Yajur-,  and  Sljna-veda 
(see  Veda)  ;  an  exposition  of  the  Mlm&nsft  phil- 
osophy ; .  a  sunmiary  account  of  fifteen  religious  and 
philoooijijcal  eystems  of  Indian  speculation  ;  some 
treatises  on  the  Vedbuta  philosophy ;  another  on 
solvation ;  a  history  of  S'ankara'a  (q.  v.)  polemics 
against  multifarious  misbelievers  and  ^heretios ;  a 
commentary  on  Forfta'ara's  code  of  law;  a  work 
on  detenniniag  time,  especially  in  reference  to  the 
observation  of  religious  acts  ;  and  a  grammatical 
oomment^T  on  Sanscrit  radicals  and  their  deiiv- 
atives.  Ilie  chief  pafonnance  of  Mldhava  is 
doubtless  the  series  of  his  great  commentaries 
on  the  Vedos,  for  without  them  no  consdentions 
scholar  could  attempt  to  penetrate  the  sense  of 
those  ancient  Hbdn  works.  In  these  commentaries. 
labours  to  account  for  the  grammatical 
of  Vedio  wuids  and  forma,  records  their  ^ 
i,  and  explains  the  drift  of  the  Vedic  ^ 
liymns,  legends,  and  rites.  That  in  an  undertaking 
almost  unparalleled,  in  the  literary  history  of  any 
nation,  for  it*  magnitude  and  dimculty,  M&dhava 


properties  o 

baditional  s 


should  have  conuoitted  sundry  inaccnraoiee— Uie 
remedy  against  which,  however,  is  really  always 
afforded  hy  himself—con  surprise  no  one ;  but  when 
modem  Sanscrit  philology  affords  the  speotade  of 
writers  haughtily  eisggerating  these  shortcamings, 
and  combinmg  with  weir  would-be  criticisms  £e 
pretenoe  of  es^blishing  the  true  sense  of  the  Vedaa 
without  the  assistance  of  M&dhava,  a  mere  com- 
parison of  the  commentaiy  of  the  latter  with  what 
the  European  public  is  caUed  upon  to  accept  as  its 
substitute,  adds  a  new  testimony  to  the  vast  supe- 
riority of  the  Hindu  scholar  over  bis  European 
antagonists.  See  Vm^  Some  of  UUhava's  works 
seem  to  have  been  lost. 

UADHTT'CA    See  Bassu. 


seeds  without  pappus,  the  outer  ones  situated 
between  the  leaves  of  the  involucre,  the  flowers 
yellow,  the  exterior  ones  rather  shortly  ligulate, 
those  of  the  disk  tubular.  The  plants  of  this  genua 
are  annual,  of  upright  habit,  rough  with  glandular 
halts,  and  very  visoid ;  they  are  important  on 
account  of  the  utility  of  the  seeds  as  a  source  of 
vegetable  oiL  ^.  sotivo,  a  native  of  Chili,  is  there 
called  Modi  or  ISeloaa,  and  is  generally  cultivated 
as  an  oU-plant.  It  is  3 — S  feet  high,  has  ovato- 
lanceolate,  entire  leaves;  the  flowers  terminal,  and 
crowded  upon  the  ieafy  branches.  It  has  been 
known  in  Euroj>e  since  the  beginning  of  the  19th  a, 
but  first  be^n  to  be  cultivated  in  fields  as  an  oil- 
plant in  \8^.  The  results  of  experiments  in  its 
cultivation  have  not,  however,  in  most  coses  been 
so  favourable  as  was  expected ;  yet  it  deserves 
attention,  as  it  is  only  unmm-l,  does  not  sufler  from 
frost,  does  not  demand  a  veiy  good  soil,  and  pro- 
duces an  excellent  oiL  Madia  tnl  is  richer  than 
poppy  oil,  almost  entirely  inodorous,  of  a  blond, 
agreeable  taste,  and  very  suitable  for  oiling  machines^ 
OS  it  does  not  freeze  even  at  a  cold  of  10*  F.  The 
oil-cake  is  a  good  food  for  cattle.  The  straw  and 
chafl'  have  poisonoits  properties.  It  is,  however,  a 
g;reat  disadvonta^  that  the  flowers  ripen  gradually 
m  succession,  so  that  the  first  are  already  fallen  o£ 
when  the  last  are  not  yet  ripe.  The  cultivation  of 
Madia  aaliva  has  not  yet  been  attempted  od  a 
considerable  scale  in  Britain.  —  Another  Bpecieti 
M.  degoju,  is  cultivated  in  flower-gardens. 

MADISON,  Jams,  American  statesman,  and 
fourth  Froddent  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at 
King  Qeorge,  Virginia,  March  16,  1751.  His  father, 
James  Madison  of  Orange,  was  of  English  ancestry. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton,  K.  J.,  in  1771,  and 
studied  law.  In  1776,  he  wos  a  member  of  the 
Virginia  Convention,  and  though  too  modest  for 
an  orator,  his  life  from  this  time  was  devoted  to 
politics,  and  he  became  one  of  the  most  eminent 
accomplished,  and  respected  of  American  stotes- 
men.  He  was  elected  to  the  Federal  congresa 
in  1779)  in  I7S4  to  the  legisbture  of  Viivinio,  in 
which  he  BUi>ported  the  measures  of  Mr  JeflTerson 
in  the  revision  of  the  laws,  and  placing  all  religiona 
denominations  on  an  equality  of  fre^om  wiuiont 
state  support.  As  a  member  of  the  Convention  of 
17^,  which  framed  the  Federal  constitution,  Mr 
Madison  acted  with  Jay  and  Hamilton,  and  with 
them  wrote  the  FederaXitl.  He  did  as  much  as 
any  man,  i>echaps,  to  secure  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution,  but  opposed  the  flnancial  poUcy  oE 
Hamilton,  and  became  o  leader  of  the  Republican 
or  Jeffersonian  par^.  He  declined  the  mission  to 
France,  and  the  office  of  Secretary  of  State,  but 


in  1792  became  the  leader  of  the  liemibli 
in  congress,  and  wrote  the  Kentucky  II 
of  179S,  which  contain  the  baua  of  the  *l 


■■c;<-iiwic 


UASISON— MADRAS. 


dootrinw.    YirsiidB,  in  ths  adoption  of  the  coniti- 
tatum,  decluM  her  ri&lit  to  withdnw  bom  tiie 


eiirif  poriod 
i«da  oUmt  t 


ooniBdentioiit  ukd  At  tus 
tw«  vtate  anenalt  and  made' 


In  1601,  Mr  Jeffenon  having  been  dukudu  j^hw- 
dant,  at  Maditon  waa  made  Secretary  of  State, 
whioh  poat  he  held  daring  the  raght  yean  of  his 
adminiatratioD.  In  1809,  he  was  elected  Preii- 
dent.  The  European  wan  of  that  period.  wiQi  their 
blookadea  and  order*  in  ooandl,  were  deatractive 

government   to    impress   seamen    from    Amenoso 
'   was  violently  resiKted.    Mr  Madison  vainly 
onred  to  avoid  a  war  with  England,  which 


one  of  th4  four  praudents  elected  for  a 
second  tenn,  duiing  which  ne  amoved  the  estab- 
lishment td  a  national  bank  aa  a  financial  neceasi^ 
— a  measnra  he  had  opposed  and  vetoed.    In  1817, 

he  letiied  to  his  seat  at  Montpelier,  Tixginia, 
where  he  oontinued  to  serve  his  country  as  a  rector 
of  the  univenity  of  Tirrania,  and  a  promoter  of 
agrionltnre  and  pnblic  miprovements.  Without 
being  a  brilliant  man,  he  was  a  statesman  of  emi- 
nent ability  and  purity  of  character.  He  died  at 
Montpelier,  January  28,  1830. 

MA'DISOX,  a  dty  of  Indiana,  United  SUtes  of 
America,  on  the  Ohui  River,  founded  in  ISOS,  Ues 
100  miles  weat-south-weat  of  Cincinnati.  It  is  finely 
■ituated  on  an  elevated  plateau,  with  a  background 
of  hills ;  hat  a  court-house,  2  markets,  3  banks, 
IS  okarches,  cotton,  woollen,  and  iron  factories, 
aareral  flmring-mills,  large  pork-nackiog  establish- 
ments.   PopTuSTO)  10,7(B  ;  <1860)  8945. 

MADISOK,  the  capital  of  WiecoDsiu,  Uoited 
StaUa  of  America,  foauded  in  1836,  is  beautifally 
■itoatod  on  sm  isthmus  between  two  lakes,  80  milee 
west  of  I^e  Miohigao,  and  the  same  distance  east 
of  tbe  Misaisai^ppi  River.  It  contaioa  the  state 
capitol,  university  (founded  in  1819),  lunatic  asylum, 
hiatorioal  looiety,  four  banki,  two  daily,  one  tri- 
veekly,  and  five  weekly  papers,  two  of  Uie  latter 
being  in  the  German  luiguage.  It  is  the  centre  of 
a  fertile  and  aalnbrious  conntry,  and  has  a  large 
trade.    Fop.  (1870)  9176  ;  (I8S0)  10,326. 

MASOO,  son  of  Owen  Qwynnedd,  a  Welsh  prince, 
is  believed  by  his  countrymen  to  have  discovered 
AmeriiM  abo^  300  years  before  Colujuboa.  Com- 
pelled, it  is  said,  by  civil  strife  to  abandon  Us 
native  hud,  he  tailed  westward  in  llTOwitbannall 
fleet,  and  after  a  voyage  of  several  weeks,  reached  a. 
country  wboee  productions  and  inhabitants  were 
quite  unlike  Uioae  of  Europe.  Here  he  lived  for  a 
tong  time ;  then  retoming  to  Wales,  he  gave  an 
account  of  the  new  land  that  he  had  discovered, 

L  will  be  found  in 


lieard  of.    The  story  of 

ittorit  of  Cambria,  fuiw  c 
lAe/omous  lland  qf  Brylaine,  written 
Language  above  2O0  yean  pcutbi/CartK — 
M»EngliihbsH.Lhj/d,genL:  corrected,  auffmtntoi. 


Language  above  2O0  yean  pott  bi/Caradoe;tranaialed 

■  ■  ■SngliAbyH.Lhj/d.gaiL:  corrected,  auffm——' 

I  eontiniud  bj/  l>ai!id  Poweii  (London,  1684). 


lito  Owco'a  BrttUh  Remain*  (1777).  There  is 
aidmble  reaton  for  sotpecting  the  genoineneas  of 
this  Welsh  tiadition ;  and  even  if  true,  the  North- 
men have  a  prior  claim  to  the  discovery  of  America, 
for  it  is  beyond  doubt  that  Oreenlimd  and  the 
New  England  States  were  visited,  if  not  colonised, 
by  loelandera  or  Norw^paoa  at  a  much  earlier 
period.  Snnthey  has  chosen  the  stoiy  of  M.  a 
anbject  of  one  <u  hit  so-called 'epice.' 

MAD<yNNA,»nItali«n  word  signifying ifyiady, 
and  nieciaUy  applied  to  the  Virgin  Mary.     It  baa 


w  become  ctnmnou  in  other  languages,  particulaHy 

ref  erenoe  to  works  of  art.    The  earlieat  Christian 

art,  however,  did  not  attempt  any  repreaentatioD  of 

the  mother  of  Chriat;   auoh  repreeentations  first 


The  face  of  the  mother  ia  generally  full,  oval,  and  of 
mild  eipreasiou  ;  a  veil  adorns  tiie  hmr.  At  first, 
le  lineuoents  of  the  Virgin's  countenance  wer» 
copied  from  the  older  pictures  of  Christ,  according 
to  the  tradition  which  declared  that  tlie  Saviour 
resembled  his  mother.  A  chronological  arrangement 
of  the  pictures  of  the  Virgin  would  exhibit  in  a 
remarkable  manner  the  development  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  doctrine  on  this  subject.  The  Madonna 
principal  subject  of  the  pencils  of  the 
great  maat^a.  The  grandest  success  has  been 
achieved  by  Rajdiael,  m  whose  pictures  of  the 
Madonna  tliere  prevaila  now  the  loving  mother, 
now  the  ideal  ei  feminine  beauty,  nnui  in  that 
of  St  Siztns  ha  reachea  the  most  glorious  reprcaen- 
ition  of  the  '  Qoeen  of  Heaven.'  Among  lymbolio 
spreaantationa  may  be  mentioned  Mary  with  the 
white  mantle,  i.  e.,  the  mantle  of  love  under  which 
she.  receives  the  faithful;  and  tho  Virgin  with 
the  half-moon  or  with  the  globe  under  her  feet, 
according  to  the  neaoing  pit  opon  the  twelfth 
chapter  of  Revelation.  The  Virgin  was  never 
represented  without  the  Child  until  comparatively 
recent  times. — For  farther  information,  the  reader 
should  ocnsult  Mis  Jameson's  delightful  work. 
Legend!  q/'lAe  Madonna  (Loud.  18S2). 

MADOQUA  (^(UtZqpe  Salliana,  or  Jfeotragua 
Saitiainu),  a  apeciea  of  antelope,  abundant  in  AI^b- 
(dnia ;  one  of  the  smallest,  if  not  the  very  smallest 
of  homed  animals,  being  scarcely  the  dze  of  a  hare. 
Its  legs  are  long  and  dender ;  its  tail  very  abort  ; 
its  horns  short  and  conical,  the  malea  alone  having 
horns;  the  general  colour  is  gray,  the  fore-part* 
reddish. 
MADR  A'S,  one  of  the  tereml  local  goi 


dency  of  M,'  occupies  the  southern  part 
Indian  peninsula.  The  21  districts  immediately 
under  the  governor  of  M.  had  in  1871  a  pop.  at 
31,672,613,  and  an  area  of  138,318  EnglJah  aqoM^ 
miles ;  and  the  tributary  atatea  of  Xravanoor^ 
Fudukota,  and  Coohin,  with  an  area  of  M71  aquare 
miles,  have  a  population  of  3,226,427.  Pop.  of 
the  British  districts,  (1881)  .W,S69,181.  On  tiie 
Malabar  Coast,  where  more  rain  falls  than  on  the 
eastern  tide  of  the  peninsula,  the  mean  temperatur* 
is  78°  ;  on  the  Coromandel  Coast  the  average  is  84% 
and  the  barometer  occsaionally  stands  at  above 
100*.  Rice,  cotton,  iodi^,  coffee,  sow,  "'" 
millet  are  ertensively  cultivated,  and  tne  i 


.._  .    manufactures 

itton,  silks  and  carpets,  saltpetre  and  salt. 

MADRAS   (called  by  the  natives   Chemtapat- 

anara,  '  the  city  of  Chennappa,'  an  Indian  prince), 

a  maritime  city  of  British  India,  capital   of  the 

Svemment  of  the  some  name,  is  mtoated  on  the 
Tomandel  coast,  the  western  shore  of  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  in  lat.  13°  5'  N.  No  commercial  centre 
of  equal  size  and  importance  ia  to  unfortunate 
in  iti  site.  The  roadstead  is  open  to  every  wind, 
ezcnit  that  from  the  west,  and  in  the  case  of  a 
sudden  gale,  vessels  are  obliged  to  ran  for  the 
open  tea.  The  city  is  not  built  on  a  navigable 
nver ;  the  soil  of  the  vicinity  is  but  moderately 
productive ;  and  during  the  not  months,  the  ther- 
mometer, even  in  a  well-apptunted  room,  rises  to  M*. 
In  calm  weather,  the  surf  break*  300  feet  from 
the  there,  and  its  wave  is  3  feet  in  height;  during 


..Ciooglc 


MADRAS  SYSTEM— MADRID. 


tonn,  it  break*  1000  feet  from  ihore,  ^tb  & 

e  14  feet  high,  and  at  Boch  a  time  on;  attempt 

a  Uml,  even  in  tile  boats  of  the  natives  built  for 


latter,  however,  ii  so  mnch  broken  by  the  Ohall  that 
its  inflnenoe  b  hardlr  felt  During  the  hot  monthE, 
the  dimate  <rf  M  ii  pleaaantl;  modified  by  a  sea- 
breeze,  called  by  the  residenta  '  the  doctor,'  which 
•eta  in  at  noon,  and  lasta  till  night.  The  city,  with 
its  iuburba,  which  are  nine  in  anmber,  exteiuiU  aloes 
the  ooait  for  fi  milee,  and  baa  an  average  breadth  of 
31  milea.  On  the  coast,  and  midway  between  the 
north  and  south  eiCremitiM  of  the  dty,  is  Fort  St 
Oeor^  stronglv  foitifled,  and  garrisoned  usually  by 
■  reguient  of  Ehuopeao  troopa  and  two  oompaniea 
of  tftillery ;  then  are  also,  however,  three  r^- 
■nenta  of  native  iofantiy  generally  stationwl  here. 
Within  the  fort  are  oomprined  the  council-house 
and  a  number  of  mvil  and  military  officea.  The  dis- 
trict of  Black  Town,  north  from  tie  fort,  lies  low,  in 


encroachments  of  the  sea  by  a  strong  stone  bulwark. 
In  Black  Tuwn  are  the  Seven  WeUs,  the  water  of 
which,  filtered  throu^  a  bed  of  fine  sand,  is  exceed- 
ingly pure  and  wholesomeL  The  principal  buildings 
uid  institutions  are  Gk>vernment  House,  a  handsome 
edifice,  though  much  inferior  to  the  similar  eotab- 
liihments  in  Calcutta,  uid  even  in  Bcmbay;  the 
Light-house,  to  the  north  of  the  fort,  128  feet  above 
Bea-Ievel,  and  having  a  light,  said  to  be  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  iu  the  wodd  ;  the  Scotch  Church  of 
St  Andrew,  founded  in  ISIS,  a  stately  and  beauti- 
ful edifice ;  the  univendty,  with  European  pro- 
fessors, and  nnmeroua  teachers,  both  European 
and  native,  and  oontnining  a  valuable  museum  and 
a  library!  St  George's  Cathedral,  from  which  a 
magnificent  view  of  the  city  and  its  vicinity  may 
be  obtained,  and  containing  several  monuments 
by  Chantrey  (including  one  of  Bishop  Heber),  and 
some  figures  by  ^axnuuu  There  are  also  military 
male  and  female  orphan  asylums,  B  medical  school, 
a  branch  of  the  Boyat  Asiatic  Society,  the  Madras 
Polytechnic  Institution,  the  Goverament  Observa- 
tory, a  mint,  the  churches  of  nnmeroua  ChHatian 
deoominatioui,  and  the  Madras  club,  to  which  mem- 
bers of  the  Bengal  and  Bombay  clnbe  are  admitted 
as  honorary  members.  Madras  stucco,  or  cAunani, 
is  largely  employed  in  the  decoration  of  public 
buildinga.  When  laid  upon  walls,  pillars,  ftc,  ^ed 
and  poUshed,  it  has  the  appearance  of  the  finest 
Parian  marble.  The  first  British  settlement  on 
this  coast  was  at  Armagon,  60  miles  north  of 
M.  i  but  the  seat  of  the  present  fort  being  granted 
by  M  native  prince  in  1639,  a  removal  took  place, 
and  the  nucleus  of  the  present  dty  was  at 
once  formed.      M   is  now  the  residence    of    the 


the  Supreme  Court.  The  tables  of  EnrDpesns 
this  city  are  supplied  with  beef,  mutton,  and  many 
other  home  tumriM.  Fop.  (1871)  397,552,  of  whom 
abont  20,000  are  Europeans,  and  the  great  body  of 
the  remainder  Hindus ;  (IB81)  405,S48,  The  chief 
Biticlee  of  export  are  rice,  cotton,  hides,  skins, 
and  especially  coffee.  The  value  of  the  exports 
from  the  M.  porta  are  valued  at  from  £4,000,000  to 
£J>,000,000  a  year ;  the  importa  at  over  £2,000,000. 
M.  has  telegraphic  oommunication  with  England, 
and  therefore  America ;  and,  in  1871,  cables  connect- 
ing it  with  Hong-Kong  were  laid.  M.  has  railway 
oommunication  with  Bombay,  Calcutta,  and  conse- 
qnently  with  the  main  system  of  Indian  lines. 


UADBAS  SYSTEM.     See  Mtrruu  iNrawTO- 

MA'DBEPOBE  (Jf<iJr«pora),agenasof  EoophytM 
(AtUiuiajM),  the  type  of  a  {amily,  Hadnponda,  in 
which  the  polypes  have  twelve  short  tentadea,  and 
the  polypidom  is  stony.  The  name,  however,  ia 
often  more  extended  in  signification,  and  populArly 
ia  not  dearly  disiin- 
guiahed  from  Cokju. 
The      pdypidi 


and  branched,   some- 

timet  spread  out  iu  a 

leaf-like    form.      The 

cells  in  the  true  madre- 

porea  are  isolated  and 

lamellated,  spread  over 

the    surface    of    the 

polypidom   like  little 

stars.      The     variety 

of  forma    among   thie    Uadiepore  (A$tTaa  ananoi). 

madrepore*    ia    tcit 

great,  and  man^  of  them  are  veiy  beautiful    They 

are  ajl  found  m  the  seas  of  worm  parts  of  th« 

world.    The  Aalraat  are  generally  in  large  convex 

masses,  the  surface  hollowed  with   crowded  atal^ 

They  increase  with  great  rapidity,  as  do  some  of 

the  other  madrepores,  and  are  often  foond  in  hog* 

masaea,  compoaing  some  of  the  tnoat  recently  fanned 

MADRIT),   the  capital   city  of   Spun,  in  the 

evince   of  the  same   name  in  New  CastQa   (see 

LSTILI),  is  situated  near  the  centre  of  the  country, 

.  the  left  bank  of  the  Munzanarea,  a  amall  stream 

whose  waters  join  those  of  the  Jamara,  an  affluent 

of  the  Ta^us.    It  is  built  on  a  billy,  barren,  aod 

ill-watered  plateau,  2000  feet  above  sea-level,  offer- 

ing,  on  the  one  hand,   no  protection  aEainst  the 

bitter  north  winds  from  the  snowy  peaks  of  the 

Onadurrama  Mountains,  and  on  the  other,  open  to 

the  So2aiio,  the  south-eastern  wind,  which,  aided  by 

glaring  sun,  often  raises  the  temperature  to  90*  and 

ven  to  105*  in  the  shade.     • *~ 


Inn 

„ ,  __  -.'.    Siunmer,  however,  ia 

moat  trying  period.  During  this  season,  the 
sunny  and  shady  sides  of  the  same  street  may 
differ  20*  in  temperature.  Not  without  justioe  has 
the  climate  of  M.  been  proverbially  described  aa 
tra  nwsu  dt  waiemo  y  nime  dd  i^fiaTio  (three 
months  of  winter  and  nine  months  of  hell}.  Ths  rate 
mortality  is  1  in  30  to  34.  The  dty  is  droular 
shape,  and  i*  snrronnded  by  low  walla  pierced 
by  16  gatet.  It  contains  32  cbnrches,  14  barracks, 
13  honiitals,  IS  publio  libraries,  4  foundling  hospi- 
tals, 13  royal  academies,  numerous  elementuy 
•choola,  a  university,  7  leading  and  numerous  minor 
theatres,  an  ample  supply  of  newapapers,  many  lite^ 
aiy  and  artistic  inatitutiona,  above  a  dozen  ouaneries 
—44  monsateriee  were  suppressed  in  1S36.  The 
number  of  palaces  ia  fpeat  The  principal  architec- 
tural feature  is  the  Royal  Palace  {Paiacio  Seali,  a 
splendid  edifice,  built  of  granite,  and  of  a  stooa 
resembling  white  marble.  It  is  a  si^uare  470  feet 
in  length  on  each  ude,  and  100  feet  m  height  and 
encloses  a  court  240  feet  square.  There  are  two 
libraries,  the  publio  and  the  private  royal  librarita : 
the  former,  containing  230,000  vols.,  is  well  kept 
and  tended;  the  Utter,  with  100,000  vola.,  is 
rapidly  falling  to  decay.  The  ivnl  armoury  is  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  world ;  the  Toledo  bladea,  the 
artistic  aimonr,  and  shields  from  An^buTE  and 
Milan,  are  superb.  The  armoury  cental  n£cs  cf 
the  greatest  Spsoish  epochs,  and  furnishes  ia  itaell 
a  reolisatiou  of  Spanish  history.  The  Mtueo,  said 
to  be  one   o£   tie   finest   picture-galle-^-  '-   "■* 


■.OOgl( 


UADBIOAL— M.XCEKAS. 


vorld,  besidei  ipecimeai  of  many  other  famooB 
painters,  contains  10  of  Claude,  22  of  Van  Dyck,  16 
of  Guido,  46  of  Mnrilla,  21  of  N.  Fousain,  10  of 
Raphael,  62  of  BDbena,  S2  of  Teniera,  43  of  Titian, 
27  of  Tiotoretto,  62  of  Velasquez,  34  of  Paul 
VeTonese,  and  10  of  WouTermaoa.  Of  all  these 
pictures,  the  most  wonderful  are  thoae  bj  Velas- 
quez, whose  finest  work  is  here,  and  who,  indeed, 
can    here    only  be   studied    to    advantage.      The 

Cerol  aspect  of  M.  is  that  of  a  new  city,  with  fine 
aes,  Btreeta,  and  squares.  In  the  sntiores  are 
numeroiu  statues,  as  those  of  Philip  iV.  and  of 
Cervantes.    The  manufactures  of  the  city  are  unim- 

Eortant.  The  artisans  and  tradesmen  are  supported 
y  the  court,  the  nobility,  the  officials,  and  tbe 
innumerable  body  of  place-huuters.  The  population 
has  nearly  doahlod  in  about  26  years.  In  1S77  it 
was  397,690  (while  that  of  the  province  was  593,775) ; 
in  1SS3  the  city  had  on  area  of  11}  square  milca, 
and  a  population  of  between  500,000  and  600,000. 

The  first  historica]  mention  of  M.  occura  under 
Ramiro  IL,  king  of  Leon,  who  took  this  city  in 
932.  In  10S3,  when  M.,  or,  as  it  was  then  c^ed, 
Majerit,  was  captured  by  Alfonso  VI.  of  Castile,  it 
was  merely  a  Moorish  fortdlied  ontpost  of  Toledo. 
It  rose  into  some  immrtancc  in  the  beginning 
of  the  10th  c,  when  Charles  L  (atterwarfs  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.)  removed  his  court  hither.  In 
1S60,  it  was  declared  the  only  court  by  Philip  IL 
A  number  of  memorable  treaties  have  been  con- 
cluded in  'M.,  and  bear  its  name,  particularly  that 
between  Charles  V,  and  Francis  I.  of  France  in 
1526  ;  that  between  Spain  and  Venice  in  1617 ; 
and  that  between  Portugal  and  Spain  iu  1800.  In 
the  Spanish  War  of  Succession,  it  favoured  the 
French  party ;  and  in  the  war  of  freedom  against 
France,  it  gave  the  signal  for  a  genera]  tiainf;  by 
on  insorreotion  agunst  Mitrat  on  2d  May  ISOS,  in 
which  1500  of  the  citizens  of  M,  lost  their  lives. 
From  1809  till  1812,  it  was  held  by  the  French; 
bat  in  the  latter  year,  the  Duke  of  Wellinir- 
ton  entered  it,  and    rejdoced  it  ia  the  hands 


.  .  -T  17'  S.  hit.,  and  112°  SO'— llS"  9'  E. 
long.,  about  90  miles  long  and  24  broad.  It  con- 
sisted of  three  kingdoms— Madura,  weit;  Pama- 
kason,  middle ;  and  SuDUUap,  east;  bat  ii  now  a 
Dutch  possession,  being  admmistered  by  the  natire 
prinoea  under  Dutch  residents.  It  is  olosely  con- 
nected with  Java  (o.  v.).  Pop.  (1880)  about  770,000; 
of  whom  500  are  Europeans,  4000  Chinete.  Tha 
chief  town  is  Banakalaug. 

The  natives,  of  Malay  stock,  are  ootive,  honest, 
brave,  and  industrious,  but  quick-tempered  and 
revengeful  They  are  mostly  Mohammedan.  They 
quarry  stODe,  burn  lime,  make  saqueruB  palm  sugar, 
vegetable  oils,  mats,  and  baskets,  weave  coarse 
fabrics,  moke  salt,  carve  wood,  fish,  and  cultivate 
rice,  maize,  tobacco,  indigo,  Ac.  The  livera  are 
emaJl,  and  the  hills  never  atbun  to  a  great  height ; 
Padjudao,  the  highest,  being  1364  feet  above  tbe 
sea.  In  some  districts,  petroleum  springs  out  of 
the  ground,  and  is  burned  in  lamps.  A  low  chain 
of  limestone  Tiill«  crosses  the  islaad.  The  exports 
are  sugar,  tobacco,  indigo,  coco-nut  oil,  edible  nests, 
stone,  trepang,  buffaloes,  horses,  many  cattle,  and 
much  salt. 

MADURA,  a  maritime  district  in  tbe  south  of 
British  India,  in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  is 
bounded  on  the  E.  by  the  strait  which  separates 
Hindustan  from  the  island  of  Ceylon.  It  has  an 
of  BG02  square  miles,  and  a  population  (ISSl) 
,163,68a      Eastward  from  the  shore  runs   a 

)w  ridge  of  sand  and  rocks,  mostly  dry,  and 

which  almost  connects  Ceylon  wit^  the  continent. 


adopted  the  cause  of  King  Alfonso  in  1874. 

MA'DBIQAL.  a  word  of  UDcertoin  etymology, 
denotes  a  short  lyrical  poem,  adapted  to  the  quaml 
And  terse  expression  of  some  pleasant  thought,  gene- 
raUy  on  the  subject  of  love.  The  proper  ma£igal 
consists  of  three  verses  or  strophes,  generally  bound 
together  by  rhymes ;  but  this  form  is  not  always 
a^iered  to,  and  the  name  is  sometimes  applied  to 
little  love-poems  of  any  form.  Among  the  Italians, 
the  beat  writer?  of  madrigals  are  Petrsrch  and 
Taaso ;  among  tbe  French,  Montrenil,  lainez,  and 
Moncnf  ;  among  the  Germans,  Zieoler  (the  earliest), 
VosB,  Manso,  Goethe,  and  A.  W.  Schlegel ;  and 
Moong  tbe  English,  the  poets  of  tbe  Elizabethan 
ftnd  Caroline  ages,  several  of  whom,  such  as  Lodge, 
Withers,  Carew,  and  Suckling,  have  written  verses, 
sometimes  called  madrigals,  sometimes  songs,  the 
grace  and  elegance  of  which  have  never  been 
matched. — The  name  madrigal  is  also  applied  to 
piecea  of  vocal  music  of  a  corresponding  character. 
The  musical  madrigal,  which  originally  was  a  simple 
long  sung  in  a  rich  artistic  etyle,  but  afterwards 
wil£  an  instrumental  occoiupanunent  (generally  the 
organ),  is  believed  to  have  originated  with  the 
Flemings,  and  dates  from  the  mfidle  of  the  I6th 
century.  It  went  out  of  fashion  about  the  beginning 
of  the  ISth  c,  but  the  later  glte  may  be  r^arded 
M  a  similar  composition.  The  English  madngalists 
are  especially  famous.  Neither  Italy  nor  the 
Kethertanda  hsa  produced  greater  names  than 
Morley,  Wilbye.  Bennett,  Wa^  Orlando  Gibbous, 
Dowland,  and  Ford. 


ipal  town  is  Madura  ;  and  pop,  (1881)  73,807. 
.t  has  a  famous  temple,  containing  the  Hall  of  the 
Thousand  Pillars,  a  palace,  and  a  great  bank. 

M^A'NDER  (now  Mendirgi,  the  ancient  name 

a  river  of  Asia  Minor,  rising  near  Celteuee,  in 

I'hrygia,  and  flowing  in  a  south-western  direction 

the  Icarian  Sea  at  Miletus.    It  is  noted  for 

umerouB  windings — whence  the  EngUsh  word 

meander  signifies  to  now  in  a  winding  coarse.     The 

Scam'ander  (a.  v.)  is  also  now  called  Mendire. 

M^CCE'NAS,  C.  CiLHTDB,  a  Roman  statesman, 
celebrated  for  his  patronage  of  letten,  was  bom  in 
the  early  port  of  the  first  century  biefore  Christ. 
His  faauly  was  of  Etruscan  origin,  and  of  royal 
descent  (Hor.  Carm.  L  1),  perhaps  from  Porsena. 
He  received  on  excellent  education,  was  familiar 
with  Greek  and  Roman  literature,  and  occasionally 
did  a  little  in  tbe  way  of  authorship  himself.  His 
first  appearance  in  public  life  dates  after  the  assas- 
sination of  Julius  Ccesar  |44  B.  c ),  when  he  figures 
the  fnend  and  adviser  of  Octavian.     He  nad, 

s  clear,  a  talent  for  private  diplomacy,  and  was 

employed  munly  in  that  capacity.  He  '  arranged ' 
a  marriage  between  Octavian  and  Scribonia,  made  up 
(temponuily]  the  diOerences  between  Octavian  and 
Antony,  and  brought  about  the  peace  of  Brundisium. 
In  36  B.C.,  he  was  in  Sicily,  helping  Octavian,  as 
usual.  Five  years  later,  when  the  latter  was  fight- 
ing the  great  and  decisive  sea-battle  of  Actium 
with  his  rival  Antony  and  the  Egyptian  princess 
Cleopatra,  M.  proved  himself  a  vigilant  governor 
of  Rome,  by  crushing  a  conspiracy  of  the  younger 
Lepidus,  and  thereby  preventing  a  second  civil  war. 
When  Octavian  became  emperor  under  the  title  of 
Augustus  fa  step  which  he  is  said  to  have  taken 
by  the  advice  of  M.,  who  was  profoundly  impressed 

with  tbe  necessity  of  a  'strong  gov ■■'  '- 

repress  the  anarcbio  elements  of  the 
latter 


.C.oqqIc 


MABI.AR— MAffAZTNE 


^le  nature  and  extent  of  bu  official  power  ue  not 
very  precisalv  nndentood,  but  they  were  nndoubt- 
edly  great,  though  the  inSaenca  and  authority  of 
M.  are  to  be  ettiinated  rather  from  hia  intiniacy 
with  the  emperor  than  his  mere  noaildan  as  a  pnbho 
servant.  Thia  intJmacj — friandihip  it  mioht,  per- 
haps, be  called — coDtinuad  uninterrupted  hr  many 
yean  ;  but  Kimetitne  before  IS  B.O.,  it  was  ruptured 
fronii  cansee  whidi  raumot  now  be  ascertained.  No 
enmity,  however,  eniued.  M.  waa  a  thorooghly 
■incere  imperialist  He  had  a  belief  in  the  value  of 
an  established  gOTemment ;  and  when  lie  found 
that  he  no  longer  retained  the  confidence  of  bis 
sovereign,  be  did  not  lapse  into  a  conspirator;  but, 
as  a  modem  minister  muht  do,  retired  into  the 
obscurily  of  private  life.  Uteratiire  and  tbe  society 
of  Ltarary  men  now  occupied  all  his  time.  Be 
was  immuksely  rich,  and  kept  an  open  table  for 
of  parts  at  Ms  fine  house  on  the  Esquilina  HilL 
M.'s  intercoune  with  Horace  especially  was  of  the 
moat  cordial  nature,  and  equally  honourable  ' 
both.  So  far  as  peraooal  morali^  went,  M.  v 
B  thorough  pagan — not  a  bad  man  in  the  us 
aense  of  Uie  word,  bnt  co|riously  addicted  to  sens 
delights.  His  adulteries— if  not  worse — were  1 
talk  of  the  city ;  he  dressed  efTeminately,  had  a 
passion  for  theatrical  entertainments,  paid  great 
attention  to  cookery,  gardenine,  &C.;  and  in  ^ort, 
in  his  theonr  of  life,  wo*  an  Epicurean  of '  the  baser 
sort.'  It  doea  not,  therefore,  gurprise  na  to  find 
that  be  was  a  vaietudioorian  and  a  hypochondriac, 
and  that  be  died  childless,  8  b.  c.  He  left  the  bulk 
of  hia  proper^  to  AognstiiB. 

MAE'EjAB,  Li-MM,  one  of  the  largest  and  moat 
beautiful  lakea  in  Sweden,  about  81  milea  in 
length ;  its  average  breadth  abont  13,  and  its  area 
about  525  square  miles.  It  contains  upwards  of 
1200  ialanda.  Its  east  end  is  close  by  Stockholm, 
ire  ita  waters  are  poured  into  the  Baltic  Sea,  tbe 
difierence  of  level  being  scarcely  six  feet.  The 
banks  are  very  much  varied  with  wood,  lawn,  and 
cliffs,  and  are  adorned  with  many  castles,  country- 
seats  and  villas.  They  are  very  fertile  and  well 
cultivated,  and  upon  them  are,  besides  Stockholm, 
the  towns  of  EnkOping.  Weateroa,  Kijning,  Arboga, 
Strengn&s,  Thorsb&lla,  Maricfried,  and  Sigtnnr 

MAE8H0WE'.    See  Snpp.,  Vol  X. 

MAESTCySA,  a  term  in  music,  meaning 
majesty  or  dignity.    It  ia  frequently  followed  by 
con  gravita. 

MAE'STRICHT  BEDS.  In  Britain,  the  chalk 
with  flints  is  covered  with  Tertiary  strata,  but  at 
Maastricht  in  Holland  there  oocma  a  thickncea  of 
100  feet  of  soft  yellowish  limestones  abounding 
he  remains  of  Corals  and  Bryozoo,  sometimes, 
indeed,  entir«ly  made  up  of  them.  The  fcsailB  are 
peculiar,  and  quite  diatmct  from  Tertiary  apeciea. 
let  a  considetable  interval  must  have  tdapaed 
between  the  deposition  of  the  Maeatricht  beda  and 
the  underlying  chalk,  for  that  has  been  abraded 
before  the  depodtion  of  the  newer  beds.  The  most 
remarkable  fossil  found  ia  these  strata  ia  the  fpgontio 
marine  reptile  Mososanma  (q.  v.). 

MAPFEI,  FnAMcmco  SciPiom,  Marchesk,  an 
eminent  Italian  author,  waa  bom  at  Verona,  let 
June  1675,  and  studied  in  the  Jesuit  College  at 
Panno.  He  spent  part  of  his  youth  in  miutary 
service,  under  his  brother  A'"""""'",  who  greatly 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Spanish  War  of  SnO' 
cessioa,  and  who  finally  rose  to  the  rank  of  a 
field-marshal ;  but  his  love  of  literature  prevailed 
over  the  desire  of  military  renown,  and  he  devoted 
himself  to  Uterary  pnrauito.  He  waa  for  some  time 
one  of  the  editors  of  a  critical  joumal,  intended 
to   promote   among  the  Italians  an   acquaintance 


(Modena,  1713)  wureceived  with  great  approbatioa, 
and  went  throogh  70  editions  in  M.'b  lifetuna.  His 
comedy  of  La  Certmonia  soou  followed,  and  « 
also  suooeaafnL  U.  waa  a  zealous  promoter  of  the 
study  of  the  Greek  langujwe  and  literature  in 
Italy,  and  bestowed  much  labour  on  tbe  examina- 
tion of  andott  manuscripts.  Hia  Verona  lUvttrala 
(Vex.  1731—1732 ;  new  ed.,  8  vols.,  Ver.  1792—1793) 
is  a  work  of  much  value  and  leaming.  Be  died 
11th  February  1755.  A  collective  edition  of  hia 
works  was  published  at  Venice  in  1790,  in  21  vols. 
UA'FRA,  a  small  town    of   Portngal,  in   the 

Kvince  of  Estremadoro,  18  miles  ncrth-weat  of 
bon.  Pop.  3500.  It  is  remarkable  only  for  ita 
palace  and  convent,  which  form  an  enormously  large 
and  most  striking  edifice.  It  is  780  feet  in  leogui, 
and  690  feet  in  width,  contains  in  all  866  rooms, 
with  5200  windows,  and  about  aa  many  doors  i 
10,000  men,  it  has  been  said,  could  be  reviewed  on 
its  roci  It  waa  built  by  King  John  Y.  {1717— 
1731),  and  is  splendidly  fitted  up  and  decorated. 
The  library  contains  30,000  vob.,  and  is  300  feet 
in  length ;  its  pavement  consists  of  white  and  red 
marble ;  and  the  bookcases  are  made  of  the  mart 
costly  woodo. 

MAOADO'ZO,  or  MUKDI'SHA,  a  commenaal 
town  on  the  easteru  coast  of  Africa,  on  the  Somali 
coast,  in  lat  2°  2'  N.  It  was  bmlt  by  tbe  Araba  in 
924.  for  the  purposes  of  trade,  and  was  a  fiourisbing 
place  when  the  rortiiguese  first  visited  it.  It  now 
belonga  to  the  Imaum  of  MiuH^t,  whose  flag  floats 
above  the  town.  Pop.,  inclusive  of  slaves,  about 
6000.  It  exports  dhurro,  beans,  pease,  cattle,  cotton, 
spices,  kc 

UAGAZIIfB'  (a  word  derived  from  the  Arabic 
JftblAnin),  literally  means  any  place  where  stotw 
ore  kept ;  bnt  aa  a  military  expression,  ■"■g*""" 
always  means  a  poader-magtaine,  although  arms 
ay  at  times  be  Icept  in  it.  A  magazine  may  be 
d£pOt  where  vast  quantities  of  gunpowder  are 
held  in  reserve,  on  entrepAt  for  the  supply  of  several 
odvaaced  works,  a  battery  magazine  for  the  wonta 
of  a  fortress  during  a  siege,  or  merely  an  expense 
magoziae  for  the  dlily  requirements  of  the  special 
battery  in  which  it  may  be  situated.  The  last 
ia  usually  temporary,  and  hollowed  out  in  the  back 
of  the  rampart ;  but  the  other  forms  require  moat 
careful  Btnicture.  They  muat  bo  bomb-proof,  and 
therefore  necessitate  veiy  thick  walls ;  they  mnst 
'  quite  free  from  damp ;  and  they  should  admit 
goient  daylight  to  render  the  use  of  lanterns 
within  eenendly  unnecessary.  Magazines  are  aom> 
monly  built  of  brick,  the  solid  masonry  being 
arched  over  within,  and  a  liiicknesa  of  earth  aome- 
imes  added  above  the  brickwork,  to  insure  iinper- 
neability  to  sheila.  The  entrance  is  protected  by 
ihot-proof  trBveiaea,  lest  an  opening  ahonld  ba 
forced  by  ricochet  Bhota.  Witlun,  a  mwuine  ia 
divided  into  bins  or  compartments,  and  one  ot 
these  should  always  be  kept  empty,  in  order  that 
the  barrels  of  powder  may  frequently  be  moved 
from  one  place  to  another,  a  process  necessai;  to 
keep  it  in  good  condition,  A  battery  magazine  com- 
monly oontoins  GOO  rounds  for  tbe  guns  dependent 
on  it.  DfoAt  magarines  should,  when  possible,  ba 
limited  to  1000  barrels  of  powder. 

In  a  ship,  tbe  magaiine  ia  strongly  bnilt  in  the 
hold )  it  is  divided  by  a  transparent  screen  from  tbe 
Ugki-room,  in  which  are  kept  properly  provided 
liuitems,  the  introduction  of  fire  in  any  form  into  < 
the  magazine  itself  beina  absolutely  forbidden.  Tbe 
explosion  of  the  magazme  is,  of  contse,  equivalent 
^  -  the  deotruclion  of  the  ship,  and  therefore  meona 
»  devised  by  which,  on  the  least  q>pearaace  of 


.oogli 


MAQDALA— MAGDEBimO. 


The  term  manziiie  hu  been  ^^ed  to  a  well- 
known  cImi  m  periodioBl  pnbliotions,  luiutUy 
iamed  monthly,  and  cootuninc  miacelluieona  pieoee 
in  proae  and  vene,  to  whidk  tt  one  time  wu 
mpended  »  chroniole  of  public  erenta.  The  oldest 
<^  this  clua  of  works  is  the  OaiUeman't  Magcaine, 
hegaa  by  Edward  Cave  in  1731. 

MAQDA'IiA.    See  Sow.,  VoL  X. 

MA'GDALEN  COLDEOE,  Orford;  in  full, 
Tlie  College  of  St  Mar;  Magdalene.  William  Fatten, 
oommonly  called  Waynflete,  from  the  ^>ce  of  his 
Inrth,  iDCoeuiTely  head  master  of  Winchester, 
head  master  and  prorost  of  Eton  Collie,  Biahop 
of  Winchester,  and  at  the  saou  time  Lord  High 
Chanoelior,  foonded  the  Hall  of  St  Mary  Mag- 
daleno  in  1449.  In  1457,  he  obtuned  a  licence 
from  the  king  to  fonnd  a  collie  into  which  he 
tnmsferred  the  president  and  scholan  of  the  HalL 
Magdalen  is  in  many  rapecta  Hm  most  remark- 
aUe  college  in  Oxfom,  and  Wood  declares  it  to  be 
'  the  most  noble  and  rich  gtwioture  in  the  learned 
world,  that  is  to  say,  that  if  Toa  have  reg^  to 
its  endowment,  it  excelleth,  all  thing*  considered, 
any  society  in  Europe.'  Thra^  were  on  the  original 
foundation  a  president,  40  fellows,  30  scholan 
called  demies,  4  chaplains,  and  16  choristers.  The 
fellowships  and  demyships  were  confined  to  cer- 
tain specified  dioceses  and  counties.  Sy  ordinances 
pamed  under  the  powers  of  17  and  18  VicL  c.  SI, 
th«  conititnlion  oi  the  college  has  been  consider- 
ably changed.  Certain  statutable  restricriouB  on 
fellowships  and  demyships  are  abolished.  The  demy- 
■hipa  aie  of  the  valne  of  £95  per  annum,  and  10 
are  to  be  added  to  the  statutable  number.  Twenty 
exhibitions  of  the  same  value  were  at  the  same 
time  foonded.  Four  profesorabips — of  Moral  Phil- 
osophy, Chemistry,  Mineralogy,  and  Physiol  Oeo- 
Sphy — of  the  Tsliie  of  £600  per  annum,  are  to  take 
place  of  throe  lectoreships — of  DiTinity,  Moral 
Philosophy,  and  Natural  Philosophy,  which  were 
fonndod  by  Waynflete.  In  order  to  carry  out  these 
changes,  ten  of  the  fetlowshipa  are  suspended.  By 
the  same  ordinance,  it  is  directed  that  the  fellow- 
ships are  not  to  exceed  £300  per  annum,  ezolosiTe 
of  rooms.  This  college  is  one  of  great  beauty,  and, 
as  is  well  known,  is  rich  in  historical  associations. 
It  hss  41  benefices  in  its  gift 

HAODAItBIf  HAIili,  Oxford.  This  HaU  was 
founded  at  the  samo  time  as  Magdalen  College. 
Up  to  160%  it  was  a  sort  of  school  for  students 
previous  to  admission  to  the  college^  and  was 
governed  by  one  of  the  collega  fellows.  It  then 
becaioe  on  independent  Hall,  and  in  1823  was 
refnoved  to  the  seat  of  the  former  Hertford  College, 
which  was  refounded  by  Mr  T.  C.  Baring  in  1874, 
when  M.  H.  became  mei^ed  in  the  new  foundatioi 

MAGDALEN  ISLANDS,  a  smaU  group  ne 
the  centre  of  the  Qulf  of  St  I^wrence,  f>4  miles 
lunth-west  of  Cape  Breton  Island,  and  about  the 
tame  distanoe  north  from  Prince  Edward's  Island. 
They  consist  ohietly  of  Coffin,  Amherst,  and  Grind- 
ttoaa  Island^  with  about  2000  inhabitants,  who  are 
'  )d  by  the  productive  cod,  herring,  and  seal 
of  the  neighbouring  watras. 

HAGDALE'NA,  the  principal  river  of  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  South  America,  hss  its 
origiD  in  a  mountain  lake  at  the  south  extremity  of 
the  Eastern  Cordilleras.  After  a  northern  coorae 
of  900  miles,  it  fi^  into  tiia  Caribb^n  Sea,  in 
lab  11'  N.,  long.  7S*  W.    Of  its  course,  the  upper 

Srtion  is  rapid,  and  interrupted  by  many  cataracts; 
i  lower  portion  is  through  a  great  phia.  It  is 
'    'tie  to  Honda,  C40  miles  from  its  mouth; 


ohief  afSueut  the  Cauoa,    The  area  drained  tnr  the 

M.  it  estimated  at  110,000  square  milea. 

MA'ODALENB,  Misr,  or  MART  OP  MAG- 
DAT.A,  so  named  from  a  town  on  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  a  woman  '  out  of  whom  Jeans  cast  seven 
devilsi'  and  who  believed  in  him  and  followed  tiJTTi, 
She  was  one  of  the  women  who  stood  by  his  croes, 
and  one  of  thote  who  went  with  tweet  spioet  to 
the  tepnlcfare.  To  her  h»  first  appeared  after  Us 
resurrection.  In  oonsegaence  ol  an  unfounded 
notion  identi^rinz  her  with  the  woman  mentioned 
in  Luke  viL  36—^0,  who  anointed  our  Lord's  feet 
with  oiutment,  and  wiped  tiiem  with  the  hain  of 
her  head,  Maiy  M.  has  been  long  and  generally 
regarded  as  a  woman  whose  early  life  had  been 
veiy  proQigate,  althongh  of  this  there  is  no  hint 
whatever  in  the  narratives  of  the  evangelists  ;  and 
the  Magdslenes,  so  frequent  amongst  works  of  art, 
remsssent  her  seconiing  to  this  prevalent  opinion. 
— The  very  name  Magdalene  has  come  to  be  amJied 
to  women  who  have  faUan  from  chastity,  and  uwti- 
tutions  for  the  reception  of  repentaot  prostitutes  ai« 
knownasAfaff<toie7i6j4«i/(un«.  See PamrBNTiAiiisa, 

MAQDALBIfB  COLLEGE,  Cambridge,  was 
founded  in  1619  by  Thomas,  Baron  Andley  otWalden, 
who  left  far  this  purpose  the  impropriate  pareonage 
of  St  Catherine  Cree  Church,  London,  and  also  a 
considerable  jiart  of  the  city,  anciently  cidled  Oovent 
Garden,  Christ  Church.  It  has  eight  open  fellow- 
ships on  the  foundation.  Four  of  the  fellowships 
are  named  after  persons  who  have  made  benefac- 
tions to  the  college — Spendluffe,  Wray,  Drary,  and 
Millingtoo.  M.  C.  has  13  schohkrsbips— 3  of  £C0, 
3  of  £10,  and  6  of  £20  each— all  of  which  are  like- 
named  after  their  founders:  besides  13  exhi- 
IS,  5  of  which  are  for  schobn  from  Shrewt- 
bury  School,  4  for  scholars  from  Wisbeach  School, 
and  4  for  scholara  from  Leeds,  Halifax,  and  Eever- 
sham  Schools.  There  is  also  an  annual  benefaction, 
called  the  Pepysian,  worth  £60,  in  the  gift  of  Uie 
master,  and  generally  bestowed  by  him  upon  poof 
and  deserving  studenta.  M.  C,  in  1879,  counted  S2 
iDdergraduates,  129  members  of  the  Senate,  and  223 
nembera  on  the  boards. 

MA'GDEBUBG,  chief  town  of  Pmsman  Saxony, 
is  situated  in  S2°  8*  N.  lat.,  and  11*  40*  E.  long.,  has 
s  pop.  (1880)  of  137,109  (inelnding  its  suburbs  and 
its  citadel),  and  is  one  of  the  most  strongly  fortified 
and  most  important  commercial  towns  of  Prussia, 
and  the  focus  of  four  of  the  prindpal  lines  of  rail- 
way in  Germany.  It  liea  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Elbe,  and  is  surrounded  by  extensive  suburbs, 
known  as  Ncnstadt  and  Sudenbur^  but  with 
the  exceptiOD  of  one  long  and  wide  thoroughfate, 
the  Bralt  Wtg  (Broadway),  it  consists  mosUy 
of  narrow  and  crooked  streets.  M.  is  the  seat  oE 
the  governmental  ooorts  of  appeal  and  admiuittta- 
tion,  and  of  a  superintendent-general  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Church.  It  has  two  gymnasia,  a  normal 
Hchool,  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dnmb  and 
blind ;  schools  of  arts,  trades,  practical  minins, 
medicine,  surgery,  and  midwifeiy;  and  is  weU 
provided  with  Institutions  for  the  promotion  of 
charitable  purposes.  Its  most  remarkable  buildings 
are  the  cathedral,  built  between  12D8  and  1363,  and 
containing  the  graves  of  the  Emperor  Otho,  the 
founder  of  tTie  city,  and  of  his  first  wife,  the  English 
miucess  Editha,  and  the  sarcophagus  of  Archbishop 
Ernest,  sculptured  in  1497  by  P.  Viecher  of  NUm- 
berg;  the  town-hall,  in  front  of  which  stands  the 
memorial  of  Otho  the  Great,  erected,  after  his  deatii 
in  973i  bv  the  magistracy  of  M.,  in  grateful  remem- 
brance of  the  favours  which  he  had  conferred  upon 
the  city ;  the  government  house,  the  barracks,  and 
the  theabe.    The  industrial  prodncts  of  U.  embraco 


■  Google 


MAGDEBUBO  CENTUEIBS-MAQENTA. 


•ilk,  cotton.  Mid  woollen  goodi,  glores,  ribbons,  and 
lother,  tai  it  baa  maDiiiMitoriM  of  tobaoco,  ohioorj, 
lead,  SOMT,  and  ytob^i,  and  azteniiva  breweries 
and  diauleriea.  Tbe  tniuit  and  oomnusskm  trade 
ia  Tery  comidarabla;  there  are  annual  wool  and 
other  markets ;  and  trade  ia  facilitated  by  rail,  and 
bj  steam  and  oanal  naTiratian,  In  967,  M.  was 
ruaed  to  the  dignity  of  Deing  selected  by  Pope 
John  Xin.  as  the  aee  of  the  primate  of  Qermany, 
while  it  had  already  aoquired  the  rights  of  a  free 
(uty  nnder  Charlemagne.  During  the  middle  ages, 
the  archbisbon  and  Uie  magistracy  were  frequently 
at  war ;  and  M.  eu*Iy  adopted  the  Beformsd  doc- 
trines, and  tiios  bronght  npon  itself  the  oombined 
wrath  of  the  emperor  and  the  archbishops.  Daring 
the  Thirty  Yeara'  War,  M.  suffered  fearfully.  In 
1GZ9,  it  was  besieged  by  tbe  imperialists  for  2S  weeks 
in  vain  ;  in  1632,  after  a  fierce  resiatonoe,  the  city 
was  taken  by  Tilly,  sacked,  and  nearly  burned  to 
the  gronnd ;  the  cathedral  and  abont  ISO  bouses 
being  all  that  remained  after  the  three  clays'  sack  to 
whi^  it  had  been  exposed.  Thir^  thousand  of  the 
inhabitants  were  slam,  and  nnmbers  threw  tbem- 
aelvM  into  the  Elbe,  to  escape  the  fnt7  of  the 
invadera.  In  1648,  tbe  archbishopric  was  con- 
verted into  a  sacolar  duchy,  and  oonfrared  upon 
the  House  of  Bnndenburg,  m  compensation  for  the 
loss  of  Pomerania.  In  1806,  it  was  taken  by  tbe 
French,  and  annexed  by  them  to  the  kingdom  of 
Wettphalia ;  bat  QnalJy  restored  to  Pmssia,  in 
tMnaequeoce  of  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  in  1814. 

HAODEBtTBO  OESTUBIES,  the  name  pjea 
to  tbe  lint  oomprehanjive  work  of  Protestant  divines 
on  the  histoiy  of  the  Christian  Church,  It  was  so 
called  because  it  was  divided  into  centnrieo,  each  of 
wbich  oeonnied  a  volame,  and  because  it  began  to 
be  executed  at  Magdeburg  (q.  v.).  The  originator 
d  the  work  was  Matthias  Flacitu  (1652),  and  the 
purpose  he  had  in  view  was  to  demonstrate  the 
identity  of  tbe  Protestant  doctrines  with  those  held 
by  the  priaiitive  chnrch,  and  the  departures  of 
the  Boman  Catholic  Church  from  the  same.  Job. 
Wigand,  Matt  Judex,  Basilins  Faber,  Andr.  Cor- 
vinos,  and  Thorn.  Uolzhnter  were  Flocius's  piincipot 
(elIow<labonrers ;  and  severwl  Protestant  jmnoea  and 
noblemen  defrayed  the  heavy  expense  monrred  in 
the  OTsparatioo  of  the  work.  The  vriten,  who  are 
called  Oaimiatart,  bronght  their  work  down  only 
to  Uia  year  tSfNX  It  was  published  *t  Basel  {13 
Tollb,  16S9— 1674) ;  Banmgarten  and  Semler  began 
edition    (6   vols.,  Nllmberg,    1757—1766). 

—tgdebvxg  Ca 

accuracy,  and  soond , 
hktoriaa  Baronio*  (q. 
tUuHd  as  a  reply  to  ii. 

MAODEBITBa  HEMISPHERES  are  two 
hollow  hsmisphcres,  generally  made  of  copper  or 
brass,  with  their  edges  accurately  fitted  to  each 
other,  and  one  of  them  furnished  with  a  stop-cock. 
When  the  edges  are  rubbed  over  with  grease. 
preSMd  tightly  together,  and  the  globe  t^ns  Kirmed 
exhanstea  of  ur  uirou^  the  cock,  the  hemispbores, 
which  fell  asunder  before  eihanstion,  are  now  pressed 
together  with  immense  force ;  e.  g.,  if  they  are  ens 
foot  in  diameter,  they  will,  after  exhangtion,  be 
pressed  together  with  a  force  of  nearly  a  too.  This 
experiment  was  first  performed  by  Otto  von  Quericke 
(q.  v.]  in  1660,  at  the  imperial  diet  at  lUtiabon,  to 
the  ••tonishiaent  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  nl. 
and  his  princes  and  nobles. 

MAGELLAir,  or  (properly)  MA0ALHAEN8, 
Fbanaitdo  he,  a  famous  voyager,  was  bom  in 
Oporto,  of  good  family,  towuds  the  latter  half  of 
the  19Ui  century.  He  served  with  dittinotion  under 
AXbnqneiqne  in   the   East   Indie*      ' "'   ■■  ■  ■  ■ 


V.)  wrote  his  Amwica  £ 


his  Bsrvicea  ill  rewarded  by  the  Portngneae  oonrt, 

he  went,  in  1517,  to  Spain  with  his  oountrymaii, 
Ruv  Falero,  a  geographer  and  astronomer.  They 
laid  before  Cbu'les  V,  a  scheme  for  reaching  the 
Moluccas  by  the  wevt,  which  was  welt  received 
hj  him ;  and  M.  soiled  on  20th  September  1519, 
with  five  ships  and  236  men,  from  San  Lucar,  and 


through  the  strait  wtucb  beara  lus  name  ;  discovered 
the  ^uthem  Pacific  Ocean,  to  which  he  gave  that 
name  upon  account  of  the  fine  weather  which  he 


26th  April  1621.  His  ship  wss  safely  carried  home 
to  Spun,  and  thus  completed,  on  6th  September 
1622,  the  fint  voyage  ever  made  round  the  world. 
The  complete  narrative  of  M.'s  voyage  waa  edited 
by  Amoretti.  See  also  The  First  Voyagt  round  tht 
WorJd,  by  MagiOan,  by  Lord  Stanley  (1670). 

MAGE'LLAN.  or  MAGALHAENS,  Snuir  aw, 
separates  South  America  on  the  south  from  Tienw 
del  Foego.  It  is  300  miles  in  leogUi ;  its  breadth  varies 
from  6  to  30  miles  ;  and  the  navigation  is  diffionlt. 
It  waa  discovered  in  1620  by  Magalhaena,  Uie  Por- 
tuguese navigator,  and  took  its  name  from  him. 

MAGEITDIE,  Francois,  an  eminent  French 
pfaysiotogiBt  and  phyucian,  was  bora  at  Bordeaux 
in  1783,  and  died  fn  Paris  in  1865.  Throogh  the 
influence  of  bis  father,  who  practised  as  a  physician 
in  Paris,  he  became  a  popil  of  Boyet,  tie  celeorated 
anatomist  At  tbe  age  of  30,  after  an  examination 
by  ConcoujB,  he  was  appointed  prosectoc  in  the 
fooolty  of  medicine^  and  soon  afterwards  a  demon- 
strator. He  was  snbseqaentlj  appointed  ^yiician 
to  the  HAtel-Dieu.  In  1819,  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  in  1S31, 
suooeeded  Becamier  in  the  chair  of  Anatomy  in 
the  Coll^  of  France. 

M.'b  cEefphyaiological  work*  are:  Fridt  Eli- 
menWire  lU  PhyrkiUigK  (18'6).  which  went  through 
eeveral  editions,  and  was  enlarged  into  the  Elimau 
de  Fhyaologie,  which  was  translated  into  T!"gli«>i| 
and  was  for  many  yeara  tlie  best  work  on  physiol<^ 
in  t>ii«  language ;  Ltfoni  lur  let  Phhurmina  nymqiut 
de  la  ViK  (18&--1842);  Lt(on*  tvr  le  Sang  (1839); 
Leftm*  stir  la  Fonetiona  et  la  JUaladiet  dit  Suilime 
Narveux  (2  vols.  1839);  and  RtAerdttt  Phiicmf 
phiqaa  el  Cliniqaa  mr  U  lAavidt  Ofphalo-niAictiat 
ou  Cer^rro-ipirud  (1842).  He  waa  likewise  the 
founder,  and  for  ten  yean  the  editor  of  the  Jour* 
tud  de  la  PhyMologie  Bx^ptrimeMale,  in  which  are 
reconled  many  of  Uie  experiments  on  living  »ni»n..lri 
which  gained  tor  him,  too  deservedly,  the  character 
of  on  nnscmpnlons  viviseotor. 

He  was  the  first  to  prove  eix)erimentally  that  the 
veins  an  organs  of  absorption ;  he  gave  a  more 
accurate  account  of  the  process  of  vomiting  than 
had  been  prsviouslv  givan ;  he  pointed  out  that 
non-nitroeenons  foods  are  ncm-numtions,  and  that 
an  animal  cannot  Uve  solely  on  any  one  ktnd  iA 
food,  however  nitrogenous  it  may  be ;  ha  investi- 
gated the  physiologii^  action  and  therapentio 
of  hydrocyanic  acid  and  sbrclmine;  ' 
an  important  series  of  expanmente  oi<  uw  unua,  tu 
death  when  air  ia  admitted  into  the  laiger  vdns ; 
he  made  numerous  experiments  to  detcnnine  the 
functions  of  various  nerves  and  of  different  parta  of 
the  brain ;  and  lastly,  be  shares,  with  Sir  Chories 
Bell,  the  honour  of  having  discov^^  the  separate 
functions  of  tbe  two  roots  of  the  spinal  nerveB. 

MAGB'NTA,  an  Italian  town,  in  the  province 
of  Mi]im,on  the  hish-road  and  iwlwayfrom  Norara 
to  the  city  Milan,  man  which  it  is  distant  12  miles: 
Fop.  6100.     Its  district  yields  excellent  wine  and 


I  ..Googlcl 


MAOEBOA— UAQIC. 


AD   nblUUlBDM 

1859,  M.  WM 

by  the  French  and  8»rdini . 

ll  has  given  its  name  to  one  of  tiie  colonn  deriTed 
from  oral-tar.    3«e  Dte-Stitf»s. 

MA'GEBO^  the  most  norther]]'  of  the  larger 
European  ulands,  beloDgs  to  Norvay,  and  lies  close 
to  the  coaat  ot  Finmark,  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It 
terminates  on  the  N.  in  North  Capo,  970  feet  in 
height,  and  situated  in  lat  71°  Iff  N.,  long.  26°  Sff 
B.  M.  ia  22  m.  in  leDcth,  and  15  m.  in  breadth,  is 
irregnlar  in  shape,  and  deeply  indented  by  bays. 
It  Hupporta  a  feir  Norwegian  and  Lappish  families, 
UAGGIOHB,  Ll.ao,  one  of  the  largeat  lakes  i: 
Italy,  the  Laau  Verbantu  of  the  Bomans,  is  situated 
for  the  most  part  in  Itat^,  but  also  partly  in  the 
Swin  canton  of  Ticino.  It  it  about  36  m.  in  length, 
and  its  greatest  breadth  is  about  8  m.  It  lies  650  ft^ 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  in  some  places  is  2500 
ft  deep.  The  river  Tioino  flows  through  it.  Id  e 
■outh-Teatern  expansion  of  the  lake,  are  the  Borro- 
mean  Isles  (q.  v.).  On  the  north  and  west,  it  ia  aur 
rounded  by  granitic  moontains ;  on  the  aoutli  and 
east,  by  vineyard- covered  hill*. 

MAGGOT,  the  popuUr  name  of  the  larvm  of 
many  kinds  of  dipterous  insects,  particularly  those  of 
the  great  family  Jftueiito, (Flies),  although  it  is  often 
also  given  to  those  of  (Eetrida  (Bot-flies,  tc.).  It  is 
more  commonly  given  to  those  larvEe  which  teed  on 
animal,  than  to  those  which  feed  on  ve^table  sub- 
Btanees,  and  particularly  to  those — of  which  there  are 
very  many  species — which  feed  on  putrescoat  animal 
matter.  Corpse-toorau  are  the  larvie  of  Sarcophaga 
mortaomni,  a  fly  which  is  always  ready— at  least  in 
Buropo — to  lay  its  eggs  in  human  bodies  when  de- 
posited in  open  vaulta.  Maggots  of  the  Flesh-fly 
(q.  T.)  are  naed  to  feed  pheasants  and  as  Gah -bait,  and, 
to  procure  them  in  aWidauce,  dead  bodies  of  ani- 
mala  are  often  exposed  to  putrefaction  in  the  open  air. 
MA'GI.  The  origiD  of  this  term  has  recently 
been  brought  to  light  by  Assyrian  scholars.  Ia 
Accadian,  the  language  of  the  early  Scythian  or 
Turanian  inhabitants  of  Babylonia  and  Media,  imga 
iigntflee  'auenat,'  'reverend,  and  was  the  title  of 
their  learned  and  priestly  caste.  These  Accadians 
had  made  great  advances  in  astronomy,  or  rather 
astrology,  and  were  mnch  addicted  to  divination 
and  similar  mysterious  arts.  The  Semitio  nations, 
afterwards  dominant  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria, 
adopted  not  only  the  learning  and  many  of  the  reli- 
gions obaervances  of  the  early  inhabitants,  but  also 
a  nomber  of  the  special  forms,  and  among  others  tiis 
name  for  the  learned  caste,  modifying  it  to  suit  their 
own  articulation  ;  and  ont  of  the  Semitic  form  the 
Greeks  made  nui^os.  Uuder  the  Persian  empire  the 
magi  rose  to  the  very  highest  importance.    They 


of  God,'  but  also  diviners  and  mantics,  augurs  and 
Bstroloeers.  They  called  up  the  dead,  either  by 
awful  formulas  which  were  in  their  eiclnsive  pos- 
aession,  or  by  means  of  cnp*,  water,  ftc  They  were 
held  in  the  highest  reverence,  and  no  transaction 
of  importance  took  place  without  or  against  their 
advice.  Benoe  their  almost  unboanded  mflnence  in 
private  as  well  as  in  public  life,  and,  quite  apart 
from  the  education  of  the  young  princes  being  in 
their  hands,  they  also  formed  uic  constant  com- 
panions of  the  ruling  monarch.  Of  their  religious 
system  itself,  the  sitiales  Ovibses  and  Par-ires 
will  give  a  fuller  account.     Zoroaster  {q,    '    ' " 


and  severest,  befitting  their  sacred  station,  but 
which  had  become  one  of  luxury  and  indolence ; 
and  by  re-instituting  ths  original  distinction  of  the 
three  classes  of  Herbtdt  (disciples),  Mobeda  (masters), 
and  Datvr  Mobtdt  (complete  masters).  The  food, 
especially  of  the  lower  class,  was  to  consist  only  of 
flour  and  vegetables  ;  they  wore  white  garments, 
slept  on  the  ground,  and  were  altogether  subjected 
to  the  most  ngorous  disoipline.  The  initiation  con- 
sisted of  the  most  awful  and  mysterious  ceremonies. 
PurilicationB  of  several  months'  duration  had  to 
precede  it,  and  it  was  long  before  the  stage  of  the 
disciple's  *  being  led  into  the  realms  of  uie  dead ' 
was  proceeded  with. 

Gradually,  however,  their  mflnence,  which  once 
bad  been  povrerful  enough  to  roose  them  to  Uxo 
throne  itself  (Saasanides),  besan  to  wane,  and  if 
formerly  a  number  of  80,000  delegates  of  magi  had 
to  decide  on  the  affairs  of  state  and  religion,  this 
council,  in  later  times,  dwindled  down  to  the 
number  of  seven ;  and  from  being  the  highest 
caste,  the  priests  of  God,  and  the  '  pure  of  mind, 
heart,  and  hand,'  they  fell  to  the  rank  of  wandering 
juggleiH,  fortnne-telleni,  and  quacks,  and  gave  the 
name  to  the  art  of  sleight-of-hond  and  performance 
of  conjuring  tricks. 

MAGIC  (see  art  Ml.01)  is  a  general  name  for 
wonderful  effects  produced  in  some  mysterious  m^. 
Medicine  in  its  early  form  is  intimately  allied  to 
magic  It  would  soon  be  discovered  by  accident  tliat 
certain  plants  produced  powerful  effects,  both  good 
and  bad,  upon  the  bodies  of  men  and  animals  ;  and 
the  reverence  arising  from  their  real  virtues  would 
lead  to  ascribing  to  them  oil  manner  of  imaginary 
ones.  The  laws  of  nature  being  little  known,  one  thing 
was  not  more  incredible  than  another ;  and  effects 
were  assigned  to  causes  in  the  most  arbitrary  and 
accidental  way.  The  Boaicnician  physicians  treated 
a  case  of  wounding  by  applying  the  salve  to  the 
weapon  instead  of  to  the  woimd  itself ;  and  this 
may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  magical,  as  contrasted 
wiui  rational  medicine.  In  mmlem  times,  drugs 
are  mostly  drawn  from  the  mineral  and  vegetabla 
kingdoms ;  but  while  the  healing  art  was  m  the 
mystic  ati^^  animal  substances  were  most  esteemed. 
If  the  jnice  of  a  plant  could  affect  the  living  body, 
how  much  more  must  the  life-blood  of  another 
animal  1  And  the  rarer  tie  kind  of  blood,  BO  mudi 
the  rarer  the  virtue.  The  blood  of  an  innocent 
child,  or  of  a  virgin,  was  believed  to  cure  the 
leprosy ;  that  of  an  executed  criminal,  the  falling 
sickness.  The  hearts  of  animals,  as  b^ng  the  seat 
of  life,  were  held  to  be  potent  drugs.  The  fat  of  • 
hog  had  been  found  by  experience  to  benefit  a  sore  ; 
what  virtue,  then,  must  there  be  in  human  fat,  with 
the  solemn  mysteries  of  the  grave  about  it  1 

In  early  st^ee  ot  society,  women  are  the  doctors ; 

while  the  men  fight  and  hunt^  the  women  gather 

herbs  and  decoct  salves  for  their  wounds  ;  and  the 

would  naturally  become  a  sort  of  profession  in 

the  hands  of  the  older  women  who  had  a  reputation 

superior  skill  oC  (hat  kind.      Mostly  a  blind 

Eing — a  mystery  to  themselves  as  well  ss  others 
eir  operations  were  looked  upon  with  awe.   The 
se  woman '  with  her  kettle,  cooking  her  myate- 
LS  broth,  adding  ingredient  after  ingredient  (for 
the  more,  the  rarer,  the  horribler  they  were,  would 
not  the  compound  be  the  more  efficacious T|,  inspirod 
not  only  hope  but  fear ;  for  the  art  might  be,  and 
doubtless  was,  used  to  hurt  as  well  as  to  heal, 
Boman  matrons  were  often  accused  and  convicted 
ing  by  their  decoctions ;  and  during  seasons 
,    .     ™ee,  these   female  druggiBts  were  perse- 

^ ,  ^  ,  _     _     cuted  with  indiscriminate  fury,  as  were  witches 

reinforcing  tiie  ancient  laws  about  their  manner  and    afterwards  in  Europe.    So  mucb  was  the  notion  of 
of  the  simplest  I  poisoning  uppermost  in  the  Boman  mind  respecting 


reinforcing  tbe  anoie 
mode  of  fife,  which 


wl^iOOglC 


UAOIC  LAKTEEN— HAunf  . 


tha  geaeml  muns  for  B.  preparer 

ftn    encUuitreu   or   torceren  —  the    correspondiiig 

chancier  to  our  witoh.    See  Wucucbajt. 

The  operatioD  of  m&gical  medidnet  was  not,  aa  u 
the  case  with  thoae  of  the  modem  phonnacopceia, 
confined  to  phyucal  effects  on  liriD^  bodies  to 
which  they  were  applied  i  aaaooiated  with  incanta- 
tiona  and  other  ceremoaisB,  a>  they  always  were, 
they  could  be  made  to  prodnce  almoit  any  desired 
effect— ruse  or  lay  Btorma  ;  fertilise  a  ffeld,  or  blaat 
it ;  kill  OF  core  a  man,  absent  as  well  aa  present ;  | 
and  give  the  power  oE  predicting  future  erents. 
How  a  belief  m  imaginary  virtues  of  tbiogs  may 
grow  out  of  the  experience  of  their  real  virtneo,  is  i 
indicated  by  Dr  Livingstone,  when  speaking  of  tlie  I 
belief  in  raui'making  among  tha  trilMS  in  ma  heart ' 
of  Southern  Africa.  Tha  African  priest  and  the  ' 
medicine-mBn  is  one  and  the  same,  and  his  chief  ' 
function  is  to  make  the  douds  give  out  rain.  The 
prenaratJOQS  for  this  purpose  are  various— charcoal  i 
mode  oC  bumed  bats  ;  internal  parts  of  animals,  u  ! 
is'  hearts  and  h^ry  calculi  from  the  bowels  of . 
cows ;  serpents'  skins  and  vertebne  ;  and  every  I 
kind  of  tuber,  bulb,  root,  and  plant  ti:>  be  found 
in  the  country.  '  Although  you  disbelieve  their 
efficacy  in  ohuimng  tlie  (uoiids  to  pour  out  their 
refreshing  treasures,  yet,  conscious  that  civility  is 
useful  everywhere,  you  kindly  state  that  you  think 
they  are  mistaken  as  to  their  power  ;  the  nun- 
doctor  selecta  a  particular  bulbous  root,  pounds  it, 
and  administers  a  cold  infusion  to  a  sheep,  whioh 
in  five  mittnte*  afterwards  expires  in  convulsions. 
Part  of  the  aame  bulb  is  converted  into  smoke,  and 
ascends  towatds  the  sky  ;  rain  follows  in  a  day  or 
two.  Xha  inference  is  obvious.'  The  religion  of  this  i 
part  of  Africa  anj  be  characterised  as  medicine-  { 
worship.  In  a  village  of  the  Balooda,  Dr  Living- 
stons saw  two  pots  with  charms  or  mediciues  kept 
in  a  little  shod,  like  idols  in  a  niclie.  For  an  idol 
they  sometimes  take  a  piece  of  wood,  and  carve 
a  human  head  on  it,  or  simply  a  crooked  stick, 
when  there  is  no  professed  carver  to  be  had  j  but 
there  is  nothing  divine  about  it  until  it  is  dotted 
over  with  a  mixture  of  medicine  and  red  ocbre. 
Packets  of  medicine  are  worn  as  charms  about 
the  person,  to  ward  off  evils  of  all  kinds.     The 

such  charms ;  and  when  she  had  to  cross  a  river, 
her  travelling-doctor  waved  medicinus  over  her, 
and  she  took  some  in  her  hand,  to  save  her  ftom 
drowning. 

During  the  middle  ages,  and  down  almost  to  the 
ISth  c,  magic  was  greatly  studied  in  Europe,  and 
could  boast  of  distinguished  names,  who  attempted 
to  treat  it  as  a  grand  and  mysterious  science,  by 
means  of  which  the  secrets  of  nature  could  be 
discoverad,  and  a  certain  godlike  power  acquired 
over  the  'spirits'  (or,  as  we  should  now  say,  the 
'forces'}  of  the  elements.  The  ptincipal  students 
and  professors  of  magic  during  the  period  referred 
to,  were  Pope  Sylvester  IL,  Albertiis  Magnus, 
Roger  Bacon,  Baymond  Lolly,  Pico  della  Micaa- 
doht,  Paracelsus,  Cornelius  Agrippa,  TriQiemiuB, 
Von  Hehnout,  and  Jerome  Cardan. — See  Eorst's 
Voa  der  Altm  Mnd  Naten  MoffU,  UTtpnaig,  Idea, 
Uinfang  utui  OaehidUe  (Mentz,  IS20);  and  Enne- 1 
moser's  QeKhkktt  dor  ^agif  (2d  ed.  Leip.  1844 ;  j 
translated  into  English  by  W.  Howitt,  2  vols.  Lood-  I 
1804).  For  an  interesting  account  of  the  discipline  I 
and  ceremonies  of  the  '  art,'  consult  the  Dogme  tt 
BUuel  dt  la  Havte  Afajie  {Paris,  18156).  by  Levi;' 
and  HiaUnre  de  la  Magie,  by  Christian  [Paris,  1S70). 

Some  of  tha  different  fonns  which  the  belief  in 
magic  has  asmmed  will  be  seen  onder  Auitlet, 
ADotrnm  Alia  Auspicb,  Divisaho.n,   Incakta- 


MAGIO  LANTEBN,  an  optical  instrument  by 
means  of  which  magnified  images  ot  small  pictures 

1  are  thrown  upon  a  wall  or  screen.  The  instrument 
consists  of  a  lantern  containing  a  powerful  organd 

j  lamp  ;  in  the  side  of  the  lantern  is  inserted  a  hori- 
zontal tube,  on  a  level  witi  the  flame,  and  the  light 
is  made  to  pass  through  the  tube  by  reflection  torn 
a  concave  mirror  placed  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
lantern.  The  tube  is  furnished  with  two  lenses, 
ODO  at  each  end ;  the  inner  one  is  a  hemlspherioal 
illuminating  laua  of  short  focus,  to  condense  a 
strong  light  on  the  picture,  which  is  inserted  into 
the  tube,  between  the  lenses,  through  a  tronsverao 
slit  The  other  end  of  the  tube  is  fitted  with  a 
double  convex  lens,  which  receives  the  rays  after 
passing  through  the  picture,  and  throws  them  npon 
tha  screen  or  wall.  The  pictures  are  formed  with 
transparent  varnish  on  glass  slides,  and  must  be 
inserted  into  the  tube  in  on  inverted  position,  in 
order  that  the  imo^  may  appear  ereot  If  the 
screen  on  which  the  image  is  thrown  be  at  too  great 
a  distance,  the  image  will  become  indiMlinet  from 
tha  lessened  intensity  of  the  light,  and  dialorttd  by 
tha  increasing  spherical  aod  chromatic  aberraticn, 
though  this  latter  defect  may  be  obviated  by  the 
use  iH  a  screen  of  the  same  curvature  as  the  ontside 
surface  of  the  lens.  This  instrument  is  generally 
used  as  a  toy,  but  is  also  occasionally  em^oyed  to 
produce  enlarged  repreaentatioDi  of  astronomical 
digrams,  so  mat  they  may  ba  well  seen  by  aa 
audience.  Phantasmagoria,  dissolving  views,  tc, 
ore  produced  by  a  i>articnLar  mouipidation  ot  tha 

MAGIO  SQUARES,  a  species  of  puzzle  which 
occupied  the  attention  of  many  celebntted  mathe- 
maticians from  tha  earliest  timea  down  to  the  ISth 
century.  The  magic  square  is  a  square  divided  by 
lines  parallel  to  tha  sides  into  a  number  of  smaller 

anal  squares  or  cells,  in  which  ore  inserted  numbers 
lich  form  the  terms  of  one  or  more  progresuons 
(generally  arithmetical),  in  such  an  order  t£at  each 
line  of  numbers,  whether  added  horizontally,  verti- 
cally, or  diagonally,  shall  amount  to  the  same  sum. 
This  arrangement  is  effected  in  three  difierent  waya, 
according  to  the  number  of  cells  in  tha  side  of  each 
square,  and  can  be  most  easily  effected  when  this 
number  is  odd,  or  evenly  even  (divisible  by  4),  but 
bccomw  a  problem  of  conriderabla  difficulty  when 
tha  number  of  cells  is  oddiy  enen  (divisible  by  2,  and 
not  by  4).  Tha  following  ore  examples  of  the  flnt 
two  methods ; 


B 

2 

31 

ii 

"io" 

IT 

i|_=Ji= 

» 

11 

u 

!a 

M 

IJ 

e 

IS 

a 

,.|., 

• 

I 

i.]i. 

The  arrauzcment  for  the  oddly  even  squares  it  the 
some  as  mat  for  the  evenly  even  ones,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  transpodbona.  Tha  only  excep> 
tion  IS  when  the  number  of  sqnares  or  oells  is  fonr. 
Dr  Franklin  invented  a  similar  pniila  to  this,  called 
the  *  magic  circle.'  Sea  HuUon't  Btertationt  im 
Malhaaitiieal  Sdenee,  voL  L 

MAGri.P,orM£OOELLnP,acomi)a8itionnsed 

by  artists  in  oil-colouis  as  a  vehicle  for  their 
'glazes.'  It  is  made  of  linseed  oil  and  maitio 
varnish,  and  is  thinned  with  turpentine  as  ret^uiied 
for  the  painting. 

!j; 

■ .GoOQlt: 


UAGILnft— MAGNA  CHABTA. 


UA'GILUS,  n  veiy  ooriowi  gemu  of  gwter- 
opodtMUi  molliuos,  of  ihe  order  Tubalibranciuabi, 
iobmbitbg  the  Red  Sea  and  tho  Indian  Ocean. 
They  have,  at  fint,  tbelli  ol  tiie  otdinary  form  of 
■piral  nnivalvea,  and  ettabliah  themialTes  in  little 
botlom  of  tnadrepona,  where  they  romtun,  enlaigln^ 


Shell  of  Uagilns. 

the  ihell  into  a  long  tube  as  the  madrapora  grows, 
and  thus  preveatiDg  themselvea  from  bang  ahut 
in.  The  tube  ia  lometimes  three  feet  long,  aad 
the  animal  deaerta  entirely  the  Bpiisl  part  of  the 
■hetl,  and  lives  in  the  moutii  of  the  tube,  which 
it  closes  against  danger  by  an  operculum,  the  upper 
part  being  wholly  or  partially  tilled  up  with  aoUd 
nuLtter. 
MAOISTBATE.  See  JusnciorTSlPucE, 
MAQLIABEOHI,  Anono  s^  Hakco,  an 
Italian  scholar  of  extraordinary  attainments,  and 
court  librarian,  born  at  Florence  in  1633,  of  a 
respectable  bat  indigent  family.  From  his  earliest 
years,  he  disrJayed  an  inordinate  passion  for  the 
acquisition  of  book-knowledge.  EaTinR  ipeedtly 
nuutered  tiie  Greek,  I^tin,  and  Hebrew  langiutges, 
he  literally  entombed  himself  among  bo^u,  of 
which  disorderly  pilea  encumbered  every  portion 
of  bis  dwelling,  and  lay  in  a  heterogeneous  liUer 
aroimd  bis  feet.  In  his  daily  habits,  M.  jfrew 
regudlees  of  f^e  requirements  of  social  and  sanitaiy 
life ;  and  such  was  his  avidity  of  study,  that  he 
flnidly  denied  himsiJf  even  the  requisite  intervals 
of  repos&  His  memory  was  prodigious,  aijd  not 
only  enabled  him  minutely  to  retain  the  coatente 
of  his  multitudinous  books,  bnt  also  to  sapply,  on 
occasion,  the  most  exact  referenoe  to  any  parti- 
cular  PWi  or  paragraph,  the  place  of  each  book 
being  unScated  with  precision  in  the  midst  of  their 

a  parent  inextricable  manea.  M.  was  regarded  as 
3  literary  prodigy  of  bis  times.  He  was  appointed 
oourt-librarian  by  the  Qrand  Dakee  of  Florenos ;  and 
the  many  tribntea  of  respect  tendered  by  royal  and 
distinguished  penonages  to  his  woDderfol  emdition, 
fostered  in  an  inordinate  degree  his  love  of  fame 
and  praise,  which  rendered  him  intoleiwit  of  literary 
merit  in  others,  and  involved  him  in  several  bitter 
literary  aqnabbles.  He  died  at  Florence  on  I2th 
July  1714,  in  the  8Ist  year  of  his  ^0,  leaving  no 
written  record  of  his  immense  encyclopiedic  know- 
ledge. His  valuable  library  of  30,000  volt,  he 
bequeathed  to  his  native  ci^  ut  Florence,  with  fund* 


for  its  fnture  care  and  extension ;  it  is  now  a  fras 
library,  and  bears  the  name  of  its  collector. 

MA'OITA  CHAltTA,  the  Great  Charter  which 
was  granted  by  King  John  of  England  to  the 
barons,  and  baa  been  viewed  by  aft^-ages  as  the 
basis  of  English  liberties.  The  oppressions  and 
exactions  of  a  tynumiool  and  dastardly  sovereign 
called  into  existence  a  confedency  of  the  barons  or 
tenants-in-chief  of  the  crown,  who  took  up  arms  for 
the  redress  of  their  grievances.  Their  demand  was 
for  the  restoiAtirai  of  tiie  laws  of  Henry  L ;  laws 
which  might  probablybe  characterised  as  an  engraft- 
ing of  Norman  feudslism  on  the  '  ancient  custom  of 
England,'  or  previously  existing  Saxon  and  Danish 
free  inatitntions,  in  which  '  ancient  cnitom '  were 
comprehended  the  laws  of  Edward  the  CkmfeaBor.  A 
conference  between  the  sovereign  and  the  barons 
was  keld  at  Kunnymede,  near  Windsor,  a  place 
where  treaties  regarding  tiie  peace  of  the  kingdom 
had  often  before  been  mad&  King  and  bArons 
encamped  opposite  each  other ;  and  after  teveral 
da3^'  debate,  John  signed  and  sealed  the  charter 
with  great  solemnity  on  June  16,  1216. 

The  Great  Charter  reared  up  a  barrier  against  the 
abuse  of  the  roysl  prert^tive  by  a  series  of  nro- 
visiona  for  the  protection  of  tlie  rights  and  obliga- 
tions of  the  feud^  proprietor.  It  re£%esed  a  variety 
of  grievances  connected  with  fendal  tennres,  some  of 
tbem  now  eo  long  obsolete  as  to  be  with  difficulty 
inteiligiblcL  There  are  minute  provisions  regarding 
the  reheE  of  heirs,  wardship,  mairiage  of  heira  and 
of  their  widows.  No  scntage  or  aid  is  to  be  imposed 
without  the  authority  of  the  common  council  of  the 
kingdom,  except  on  the  three  great  feudal  occasions 
of  Uie  king's  captivity,  the  knigliting  of  his  eldest 
son,  and  the  marriage  of  his  eldeet  daughter.  The 
liberties  of  the  city  of  London,  and  other  towns, 
burghs,  and  ports,  are  declared  inviolable  iEVeedom 
of  commerce  is  guaranteed  to  foreign  merchants. 
Joatice  is  no  longer  to  be  sold,  denied,  or  delayed. 
The  Court  of  Common  Plea^  instead  of,  as  formerly, 
following  the  king's  person  in  all  his  progresses,  is 
to  be  nermanently  fixed  at  Westmiikster ;  assize* 
are  to  be  held  in  the  several  connties,  and  annual 
cirouits  are  established.  Regulations  are  made 
for  the  efGciency  of  the  inferior  courts  of  justice. 
The  protection  of  life,  liberty,  and  property  from 
arbitrary  spoliation  is  the  mott  importAnt  feature 
of  the  charter.  '  No  freeman  ahaU  he  taken  or 
imprisoued,  or  be  disseised  of  bis  freehold,  or 
Lbertiea,  or  tree  costoma,  or  be  otherwise  dami^ed, 
nor  will  we  pass  upon  hjm,  nor  send  upon  him,  out 
by  lawfnl  judgment  of  biH  peers,  or  by  the  law  of 
the  land' — a  provision  which  recognised  a  popular 
tribunal  as  a  check  on  the  ofBcia]  judge*,  and  may 
be  looked  on  as  the  fonndation  of  tho  writ  of 
Eabeaa  Corpns.  No  one  ia  to  be  condemned  on 
Buspiciona,  but  only  on  Hie  evidence  of 
Protection  il  afforded  against  excessive 
B,  illegal  distresses,  and  various  processes 
for  debts  and  services  due  to  the  crown.  The  finea 
imposed  are  in  all  cases  to  be  proportioned  to  the 
ma^tude  of  the  offence,  and  even  the  villein  or 
rustic  is  not  to  be  deprived  of  his  necessary  chattels. 
There  are  provisionB  regarding  the  forfeiture  of 
lands  for  felony.  The  testamentary  power  of  the 
sabject  is  recognised  over  part  of  nis  personal 
estate,  and  the  rest  is  to  be  divided  between  his 
widow  and  children.  The  independence  of  the 
chnrch  is  also  prorided  for. 

These  are  the  most  important  features  of  that 
Charter  which  occupies  so  conspicuous  a  plaoe  in 
history,  and  which  establishes  the  supremacy  of  the 
law  Ol  England  over  Uie  will  of  the  monwch.  A 
charter  was  at  the  same  time  granted  to  mitinte 
the  oppressions  of  the  Forest  Iaws  (q.  v.).      The 


„.==:,,  LlOOgIC 


MAGNA  GRACU— HAONESrUM. 


fasmi  diotat«d  br  the  barotu  to  John  inctndod  th* 
•nirender  of  London  to  thai  oliMVe,  ani  the  Tower 
to  tfaa  cnitody  of  ths  prinute  till  tfas  15th  of  Angitst 
foUairing,  or  till  the  ezecntion  of  tLe  terend  utioleB 
ot  the  Great  Charter.  Twenty-fiT«  bMOiu,  u  con- 
aervntoni  of  the  pnblio  libertiee,  wtnv  inTested  with 
extnordinaiy  aathority,  which  empowered  them  to 
make  war  aralnst  the  soTereign  in  case  of  hia  vitim- 
tion  of  Uie  THiuter.  SevenL  aolonn  ratifioatiou 
were  Teqnired  by  the  barons  both  from  John  and 
from  Henry  ITI. ;  and  a  copy  of  the  Great  Charter 
woi  Bcnt  to  every  caUiedral,  and  ordered  to  be  read 
pnblioly  twice  a  feat.  The  oopj  preaarrod  in 
Lincoln  Cathedral  u  regarded  a«  uie  moat  aocDrate 
and  complete  ;  and  a  fae-nmile  ot  it  wia  engiaTed 
by  order  of  the  late  Boari  ot  Commiadoner*  on  the 
pnblio  racorda.  The  Oi«at  Chatter  and  Charter  of 
the  Foreati  are  printed  with  T'i"el'''l'  tranalatirau, 
and  pt«fiied  to  the  edition  of  the  Stattttea  of  the 
lUaltn  published  by  the  Beoord  CommiMiMt. 

MAGNA  GB.^'CIA  (Gr.  Hi  MegaU BdUu),iii« 
namo  given  in  ancient  times  to  that  jurt  ot  Soatfaem 
Italy  which  was  thickly  planted  with  Greek  colonies. 
When  it  fint  obtained  thia  appellation,  ia  nnknown, 
but  it  muat  have  been  at  an  early  period.  Polybins 
Bays  it  was  ao  called  in  tha  tmie  of  Fytluworss. 
S<»ne  writer*  include  under  the  term  the  Greek 
cities  in  8ioily ;  others  restrict  it  to  those  situated 
on  the  OoU  of  Tarentum,  bat  in  general  it  is  used  to 
denote  all  the  Greek  cities  in  flia  sonth  of  Italy, 
exclniiTe  of  those  in  Sioily.  The  oldest  settlement 
is  believed  to  have  been  <Aan«»— thon^h  it  ia  donbt- 
fal  whether  it  and  its  colonie*,  Dieaardaa  and 
Neapolig,  ware  really  embraced  nnder  the  deaigna. 
tioB  M.  O. ;  while  the  peiiod  aaaigned  to  its  fonnda- 
tdon — vit,  soon  after  the  Trojan  war — ia  obvioualy 
fandful.  If  we  fix  about  the  8th  or  9th  a  before 
Christ,  we  will  perhaps  not  be  far  wrong.  Of 
the  other  Greek  settlements  in  Italy— most,  if  not 
til  of  whidi  weio  later  than  thoaa  In  Sicily — tha 
earliest  waa  Sybaria  (founded  by  tho  Adueana,  720 
B.o.)j  next,  Croton  (hj  the  Aohieans,  710  B.C.); 
then  Tarentum  (by  the  Spartana,  70S  B.  o.),  Loori 
(by  the  Locrians,  TOS  b.  a,  acoording  to  othera,  thirty 
or  forty  years  later),  Bheginm  (by  the  Chalcidians ; 
date  of  or^n  not  known,  but  believed  by  some  to 
be  older  than  even  Sybaria),  MetapoDtnm  (by  the 
Aoha>Hia,7IKI— 680B.a),andVelia(I^theFhocaana, 
£40  B.a>.  These  cities  became,  in  tbeir  torn,  tha 
parents  of  many  others. 

Of  the  eaiiier  hivtory  of  M.  G.,  we  know  almost 
nothing.  The  settlement)  appear  to  have  riaen 
rapidly  to  power  and  wealth,  partly  by  the  briak 
commei'oe  which  they  carried  on  with  the  mother- 
oonntry,  and  partly  also,  it  is  oonjeotored,  by  an 
sn^lgBDiation  with  the  FdaMffo  (and  therefore 
kindred)  natives  of  the  interior.  This,  we  are  told 
by  Polvbiua,  actually  happened  at  locri,  and  most 
probably  elaewhere  alaa  About  the  year  630  b.  a, 
Pythagoras  the  pliilosopher  arrived  at  Cratona,  and 
soon  acqnired  an  influence  in  M.  O.  which  was 
quite  wonderful,  though  it  did  not  last  long.    The 

Suarrels  between  the  different  oitiES  were  often 
itter  and  bloody ;  and  GnaUy,  272—271  a.  a,  the 
Komons  conquered  the  whole  of  Lower  Italy.  Long 
before  this,  several  of  the  dtiea  had  disappeared. 
Sybaria,  for  example,  waa  destroyed  by  the  Croto- 
nians  as  early  as  610  B.  a,  and  now  the  rest  more  or 
tees  rapidly  sank  into  decay,  and  were,  in  the  time 
of  Cioero,  with  a  few  ezceptiona,  rcduoed  to  nttw 

MAGIWaiA.    SeeMiOBMi™. 
MAGNESIAS  LIMESTONE.    See  Doumm. 
MAGNESIUM  (aymb.  Mg.  eq.  12— new  system, 
31— •p.gr.  VJi)  ia  generally  ranked  with  those  metals 


whose  oxides  form  the  alkaline  earths  (baiyb^ 
strontia,  lime),  bat  in  many  respects  it  more  closely 
resembles  ziuc  Itisamalleableductile  metal,  of  the 
oolour  and  brillionoy  of  sOver.  It  fusee  at  about  Hta 
melting-point  of  tin  {abont  412°),  and  at  an  extreme 
heat  it  may  be  distilled  like  aino.  Whan  ignited  in 
dry  air  or  m  oxygen  ^w,  it  boma  with  eztraordirtaiT 

air,  it  imdergoea  little  chanos,  and  ia  nmch  lest 
oxidiaable  thui  tlie  other  metals  of  tha  saoie  group. 
It  does  not  deoomposaoold  water;  but  it  the  vator 
be  heated  to  about  90*,  there  ia  a  slight  evolution  of 
hydrogen ;  and  if  tlie  tenmerafaire  i*  niied  to  212*, 
hydr^eniapvenoffrapidlyandabtmdaiitly.  When 
thrown  into  strong  hydroohlorio  add,  it  ini1»inaf 
sad  beoome*  oonvened  into  ohloride  of  magneoum, 
while  hydrogen  is  given  oS. 

It  is  obtuned  from  ita  chloride  eit^r  by  tha 
action  of  sodium  or  potaatnuu,  or  by  simple  electro- 
lytio  dsoompodtion  ;  bat  the  ordinary  processas  are 
diftionlt,  and  yield  tjie  metal  only  in  minute  qnan- 
tities.  A  patent  lias,  however,  been  taken  out  by 
Mr  SoDstadt  for  iiuproTements  in  its  mannfactnre, 
by  which  it  ciui  be  produced  by  the  pound. 

Hagnena  (MgO)  la  the  only  oxide  of  magnesiiim. 
It  is  a  white  buky  powder,  devoid  of  taste  or  amelL 
and  haviog  ft  iqp.  gr.  of  3-66;  it  i*  infnaible,  tM. 
almott  inaolnhle  in  water;  and  iriieo  plaoed  on 
moistenad  test-paper,  ia  aeen  to  hare  an  alkaline 
reaction.  When  nuiad  with  water,  it  gradnally 
forma  a  hydrate  (MgO,HO),  without,  aa  in  the  oasa 
of  lim^  any  aeniible  elevation  of  heat,  uid  this 
hydrate  alom?  abaorbs  oarbonio  aoid  from  the 
atmoaphenk  Magnesia  does  not  occur  native,  and 
is  nsually  obtained  bj  tJie  ^olonged  ^pliiation 
of  heat  to  the  carboiute.  Hydrate  of  magneda 
oocnrt  natorally  in  a  oryatalUne  tonn  in  t^a  mmtnd 
BrudtcL 

MayTiaia  Alba,  tiie  common  white  "■g—^*  of 
commerce  ia  a  mixture  of  the  hydrate  of  m»m»«i» 
aikd  of  hydiated  carbonate.  It  is  obtained  (^-tiie 
preeipita&on  of  a  hot  solntion  of  salpliata  of  mag* 
neaia  by  a  hot  sdntion  ot  carbonate  ot  p<^aah  or 
soda,  and  by  then  collecting  and  drying  the  depoait. 

Of  the  tnagnerian  talU,  aome  are  solubles  and 
some  insoluble  in  water.  The  soluble  salta  have  a 
peculiar  and  very  bitter  taste,  and  hence  the  German 
name,  BitterenU  (luttar-earth)  for  magnesia.  All 
tha  salts  which  are  insoluble  in  water,  except  tha 
silicate,  diaaolve  in  h jdrMhlorio  and  nitnu  adds, 

OarbomUt  of  MaoMiia  occur*  native  in  the 
mineral  mu/netUe,  and  in  association  with  carbonate 
of  lime  in  aoiomHe,  from  which  it  may  be  manntao- 
tored  in  a  very  pore  state  by  MrPattmBon'a  procesi^ 
which  oooaista  eaaentially  in  the  following  steps. 
Finely  ground  dolomite  i*  eirooeed  for  some  ame  to 
a  red  heat,  by  which  the  carbonate  of  magnesia  ia 
deoompoaed ;  the  powder  is  then  introduoed  into  a 
very  strong  vessel,  where  it  ia  mixed  wiUi  water, 
and  carbonio  add  gas  forced  in  under  heavy  pre*- 
till  it  ceases  to  be  absorbed ;  the  carbonate  ot 

„.iesia  becomes  disaolved  as  bicarbonate,  while 
the  carlMwate  of  Ume  remaina  nnohanKed ;  on  boiling 
the  cImt  liijaid,  carbonate  of  "'•gntam  is  deposited 
and  carbouc  aoid  expelled. 

Svlphaie  qfifagnaia,  or  Eptom  Stdlt  (MeO,80,  -f- 
7A^,  ia  the  most  important  of  the  magneoan  salts. 
It  I*  obtained  from  sea.water,  or  from  magnesiaa 
limestone  (ddomite],  or  from  the  mother.liqnor  of 
alom-worka,  by  procesaa*  into  whioh  we  have  not 
qMce  to  enter,  and  ia  a  common  ingredient  in 
mineral  watera  (see  Epson  Su.t),  It  is  aolable  in 
three  time*  ita  weight  of  water  at  60°,  and  in  1^ 
water  at  a  higher  temperator^  the  solution  having 
>  bitter,  diaa^ceable  tute. 

ifitraU  qfJUoi/netia  (MgO^O,+6Aq]  ooonnin 


ioogli 


UAON£3inU— MAQNEII8M. 


oertuu  mineral  v 


1,  but  is  of  no  ipedol  import- 


A   PkosphaU  of  Moffnaia,  lisving  tiie  formula 
HO,2M^^O,  -f  14Aq,  ii  obtained  bj  tiie  mixture 
of  solutioiia  of  gulphate  of  magnesia  ami  of  otdiimry 
photphate  of  aodo.    It  ocoois  either  ia  tm  omo- 
phooH  «t*te  or  in  six-Bided  prisms,  aocording  as  tt 
tolubODl  are  more  or  less  conceotrated.    Tlus  salt 
a  coDltitaeDt  of  the  seeds  of  wheat  aud  the  other 
cereab,  of  bonea,  and  of  voriaus  morbid  ooncretions. 
The  PhoiphaM  of  Amm/aia  and  Magnaaa,  known 
also  aa  AmmoniiKO-maifnesiaa   Pho^hatt   and 
Triple  Pho^hate  (NH»0,2MgO,PO,  +  I2Aq),   u 
more  important  salt  than  the  preceding.    It  ooc 
either  in  minute  ciTstslline  grains,  or  in  beautiful 
transparent  four-sided  prisms  of  considerable  sizes 
and  with  a  very  characteristio   appearance.    The 
formation  of  the  salt,  which  ia  only  slightly  soluble 
in  pure  water,  and  ia  quite  insolnble  in  water  con- 
taining free  ammonia  or  its  hydrochlocate,  not  only 
fumiiues  a  very  delicate  teat  for  the  preteooe  of 
ma^esia,  but  enables  n«  to  determine  its  qnantitj. 

Hiis  phosphate  of  ammonia  and  magaeda  i 
readily  formed  by  mixing  a  solution  of  a  magnesia 
salt  with  hydrochlorate  of  ammonia,  phosphato  c. 
■oda,  and  a  little  free  ammonia.  It  is  an  occasional 
constituent  of  urinary  calculi,  and  crystallisea  in 
beautiful  prisms  from  mine  and  other  animal  fluids, 
when  they  begin  to  putrefy.  It  is  also  frequently 
present  in  the  excrements  in  cases  of  diarrhcEa. 

The  niiaUti  of  magrueia  are  numerous.  A  laree 
number  of  minerals  are  formed  either  wholly  or  partfy 
of  them,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  Olivine  oi 
Chrysolite,  Tafc,  Steatite  or  Soapetone,  Meerachatuo, 
S^pentine,  Aucite,  Hornblende,  &c 

ThehsIoidsaUs  of  magnesium — the  chloride,  iodide, 
and  bromide — are  of  no  special  interest,  except  that 
the  chloride  of  ""y"'"'"  is,  next  to  chloride  of 
sodium,  the  moat  abundant  of  the  salts  existing  in 
»ea-water. 

The  compounds  of  magnemnm  employed  in  medi- 
cine are  magneeia,  its  ct^bonate  and  its  sulphate. 

Magnesia  is  presented  in  small  doses  (from  ten 
grains  to  a  scruple),  as  an  antacid,  in  coses  of  undue 
acidity  of  the  stomach,  heartburn,  and  abnormal 
Bcidit^  of  the  urine ;  in  larger  doses  (from  a  acruple 
to  a  drachm},  it  produces  distinct  pnrgative  effects- 
It  is  uaefnl,  especially  when  combined  witii  rhubarb 
and  a  little  ginger  (in  the  form  of  Componnd  Rhu- 
barb Powder  or  Gregory's  Mixtnre),  aa  a  pnrgative  for 
children,  in  acid  oonditaoiu  of  the  alimenti^  canal. 

Carbonate  of  magnesia  (""g"*™*  alba)  acts  in  the 


f  of  it  ft 


B   of  K 


B  less 


and  carbonic  acid.  Dinneford's  Solution  of  Magnesia, 
and  other  fluid  preparations  of  the  same  natnre,  are 
mode  by  dissolvmg  this  salt  in  water  charged  with 
carbonic  acid.  A  drachm  of  carbonate  of  magnesia, 
the  juice  of  one  lemon,  and  a  wine-glassful  of  water, 
oonstituto  an  agreeable  laxative,  a  citrate  of  mag- 
nesia being  thus  formed. 

Sulphate  of  magnesia  is  a  pnrgative  in  very  general 
— ".     It  is  much  employed  in  febrile  affections,  or'' 

in  tiie  portal  syi '  .>.,'. 

used  in  almost  any 

laxative  is  required.    It*  dose  .    .   ._ 

four  OF  nx  druhmi.  In  omnbinatdon  with  the  infu- 
sion of  senna,  it  tormt  the  ordinary  Black  Draught. 
See  M.  AiTD  THE  MAONZsnnt  Light  in  Sort.,  Vol.  X. 

MA'GTTBTISM  (said  to  be  derived  from  the  city 
Hagnesia,  where  the  loadstone  was  liist  discovered) 
is  the  power  which  the  magnet  has  to  attract  iron. 
Under  '  Diamagnetism '  it  is  stated  that  every  sub- 
r  lees  affected  by  the  magnet,  but 


natural  and  orti/kiaL  Natural  magnets  conaixt  of 
the  ore  of  iron  called  magnetic,  familiarly  known 
as  loadstone.  Artificial  magneta  are,  for  the  most 
part,  straight  or  bent  bars  of  t^pra«d  steel,  which 
have  been  magnetised  by  the  action  of  other 
m^eta,  or  of  tHe  galvanic  current 

Polariiy  of  &e  MttgneL—Tha  power  of  the  magnet 
to  attract  icon  is  by  no  means  equal  throughout  it* 
length.  If  a  small  iron  ball 
be  nupended  by  a  thread, 
and  a  magnet  (fig.  1)  be 
passed  along  in  front  of  it 
icom  one  end  to  the  other, 
it  is  powerfully  attracted  at 
the  ends,  but  not  at  all  in  f. 
the  middle,  the  magnetio 
foroe  increasing  with  the  dis- 
tance from  the  middle  of  the 
bar.  The  enda  of  the  magnet 
where  the  attractive  power 
is  greatest  are  called  its 
poles.   By  cauaing  a  magnetio  jftg.  i. 

needle  moving  horizontally  to 

vibrate  in  front  of  the  different  ports  of  a  msfnet 
placed  vertically,  and  counting  the  number  of  viW- 
tions,  tlia  rate  of  increase  of  tiie  magnetic  intensity 
may  be  sxacUy  found.    Fig.  2  gives  a  grai^io  view 


ng.2. 


aa,  Ac,  represent  the  ma^etio  intensities  at  the 
points  N,  a,  &c,  of  the  magnet ;  and  the  curve  of 
magnetic  intensity,  NaMa'n,  is  the  line  formed  by 
the  extremities  <a  all  the  upright  lines.  It  will  be 
seen  from  the  flgnre  that  the  force  of  both  halves, 
taking  H  as  l£e  dividing-point,  is  disposed  in 
exacuy  the  same  way,  that  for  some  distance  on 
either  side  of  the  middle  or  neutral  point  there  is 


of  gravity  of  the  areaa  MNn  and  MSn'i , 

oC  the  magnet,  which  moat  therefore  be  aitaated 
lar,  but  not  at  the  extremities. 
A  magnet  has,  then,  two  poles  or  oentres  of 
agsetio   force,  each  having   an  equal  power  of 
tractinc  iron.   This  is  the  only  property,  no  we  ver, 

which   they    possess  in 

common,   for  when  the 

polee  of  one  magnet  are 

made  to  act  on  those  of 

another,  a  striking  dis- 

aimilari^  ia  broudit  to 

light.    To  shew  this,  let 

us   suspend    a   magnet, 

NS,  flg.  3,  by  a  band  of 

paper,  M,  hanging  from 

a  cocoon  thread  ( a  thread 

without  torsion).    When 

the  magnet   ia    left   to  fig.  3. 

itself,  it  takes  up  a  fixed 

position,  one  end  keeping  north,   and  the  other 

south.    The  north  pole  cannot  be  made  to  stand 

as  a  south  pole,   and  vice  mtMI;  for  when  the 


,,  Google  I 


UAGSSHStL 


magnet  il  disturbed,  both  polei  return  to  their 
oH^nal  pnitiona.  Here,  then,  ia  >  striking  dia- 
BJnnlAritv  in  the  poles,  bj  meaiu  of  whicli  we 
are  enabled  to  dishnguiih  them  aa  northpole  and 
»OttApole.  When  thna  anapended,  let  lu  now  tir 
the  effect  at  another  magnet  npon  it,  and  we  abaU 
find  that  the  pole  of  the  suipended  magnet  that  ii 
attiscted  by  one  of  the  poles  of  the  wcond  magnet 
VI  repelled  by  the  other,  and  viet  vertd ;  and  where 
the  one  pole  attracts,  the  other  repels.  If,  now,  the 
•ecoud  magnet  be  hung  like  the  Ant,  it  wUl  be 
found  that  the  pole  which  attracted  the  north  pole 
of  the  &it  magnet  is  a  south  pole,  and  that  the  pole 
which  repellea  it  is  a  north  pole.  We  thui  leam, 
that  tadi  magyiet  Itai  too  poia,  the  one  a  norlA, 
and  the  oOter  a  toulA  pole,  aiite  in  tJuir  poiMr  of 
atlraeling  tojl  iron,  but  d^ering  in  thar  aetton  Oft 
Uie  poUa  qf  another  mofptel,  Ulx  poUt  rtpdllng,  and 
vtUtkt  Jioles  ailTiKiitig,  each  other. 

It  might  be  thought  that,  by  dividing  a  magnet 
at  its  centre,  the  two  potee  could  be  insulated,  the 
one  half  contiuning  all  the  north  polar  mttgnetiam, 
and  the  other  the  soath.    When  this  is  done,  how- 


the  same  rdation  to  the  other  two  poles 
called  into  eiiateace  by  the  sepuration.  We  am 
ttm/bre  navr  hare  One  Und  of  magnetUm  mlh- 
ottl  having  it  aamaattd  in  the  tame  magn^  with  the 
sanut  amrncnl  of  Ike  oppoiile  magneHem,  It  i»  this 
double  maoifestation  of  force  which  constitutes  the 
polarity  of  the  magnet. 

!nie  fact  of  the  freely  Biispended  mo^et  taking 
np  a  fixed  position,  has  led  to  the  theory,  that  the 
earth  itself  is  a  huge  magnet^  having  its  north  and 
south  maffnetio  pole*  in  the  Deighbourhood  of  the 
poles  of  the  axis  of  rotation,  »nd  that  the  maguetia 
needle  or  siupended  magnet  turns  to  them  aa  it 
does  to  those  of  a  neighbouring  magnet.  AJI  the 
manifettations  of  terrestrial  magnetism  give  decided 
confirmation  of  this  theory.  It  is  on  this  view  that 
the  French  call  the  north  pole  of  the  magnet  the 
south  pole  ipiU  aaalral),  and  the  south  the  north 
pole  (pw  ioriat) ;  for  if  the  earth  be  taken  u  the 
rtandard,  its  norUi  magnetic  pole  moat  attract  the 
aouth  pole  of  other  mi^ets,  and  vice  va-ad.  In 
England  and  Germany,  me  north  pole  of  a  magnet 
is  the  one  which,  when  freely  suspended,  pointi  to 
the  north,  and  no  reference  is  mode  to  its  relation 
to  the  magnetLsm  of  the  earth. 

I'orm  qf  Jiagneti. — Arti&cial  magnets  are  either 
bar-magnets  or  hoiBcshoe-magneta.  When  powerful 
magnets  are  to  be  mode,  sereral  thin  bars  are  placed 
•ide  by  side  with  their  poles  lying  in  the  same 
way.  They  end  in  a  piece  of  iron,  to  which  they  are 
bound  by  a  brass  screw  or  frame.  Three  or  four 
of  these  may  be  put  up  into  the  bundle,  and  these 
— '~  into  bundles  of  three  and  four  (fig.  i).    Snch  a 


tig.*. 


collection  a 


„  . ._  is  called  a  magnetie  magaeine 
laaery,  A  mupet  of  this  kind  is  more  powerful 
than  a  solid  one  oftha  same  weight  and  size,  because 
thin  bare  can  be  more  strongly  and  regularly 
magnetiBed  than  thick  ones.  Fig.  7  is  a  horaeshoe- 
magnetic  magaane.  The  central  lamina  protrudes 
alightly  beyond  the  other,  and  it  is  to  it  that  the 
armature  is  attached,  the  whole  action  of  the  magnet 
being  concentrated  on  the  projection.  A  natural 
magnet  is  shewn  in  fig.  5.  It  la  a  paialleloiHiicd  of 
ith  pieces  of  soft  iron,  NK  and 


SS,  bound  to  its  poka  by  a  bran  frama  encireliug 
the  wholot  The  lower  ends  of  tiie  soft  iron  bars 
act  aa  the  pole^  and  aapport  the 


PSg.B. 

aeedle  is  a  small  magnet  nicety  hJaoced 
loint    See  CoHFass. 

e  fndiKtion. — When  a  short  bar  of  aoft 
g.  S},  is  suspended  from  one  end  S  of  the 
rs,  it  becomes  for  the  time  powerfully 
I  a  north  and  south  pole,  like 


_   _  lilinga,  it  attracts  them  as  a  magnet  would 

da  When  it  Is  token  away  from  NS,  the  filings  fall 
oS,  and  oil  trace  of  magnetism  disappears  It  need 
not  be  in  actual  contact  to  shew  magnetic  propci- 
tiea;  when  it  ia  simply  bnnight  near,  t£e  same  thing 
ia  seen,  though  to  a  leas  extent.  If  the  inducing 
magnet  be  sbong  enough,  the  induced  magnet,  lu. 
when  in  contact,  can  induce  a  bar  like  itself  placed 
at  its  extremity,  to  became  a  magnet ;  and  this 
second  induced  maniet  may  transmit  the  mag- 
netism  to  a  third,  and  ao  on,  the  action  being,  how- 
ever, weaker  each  time.    If  a  steel  bar  be  used  for 

eace  is  observed  in  its  action  ;  it 
is  only  aEt«r  some  time  that  it 
begins  to  exhibit  ma^etio  pro- 
perbes,  and,  when  exhibited,  tliey 
are  feebler  than  in  the  soft  iron  i 
bar.  When  the  steel  bar  ia  1 
remored,  it  does  not  part  instantly  ' 
with  its  magnetism,  as  the  soft 
iron  bar,  but  retains  it  perman- 
ently. Steel,  therefore,  boa  a 
fonse  which,  in  the  first  instance, 
resists  the  assumption  of  mag- 
netiam ;  and,  when  asaum^ 
resists  its  withdrawal  This  ia 
called  the  coerdiive  force.  The 
harder  the   tamper  ot  the  ateel,  Fig.  7. 

the  more  is  the  coercitive  force 
developed  in  it.    It  is  this  force  also,  in  the  load- 
stone, which  enables  it  to  retain  its  magnetism. 

MagneHtaiion.   By  SingU  Touch  (Fr.  simple  touchy 
Q^.  ^rtfa^iXT  Slri/A) — l^eateelbartobemagnetiaed 


,/^i00q1^ 


ii  Iftid  on  »  UUe,  mnd  the  pols  of  A  povarfol 
Dugnet  u  Tubbed  A  few  timet  klong  its  length, 
alwayi  in  the  urns  diieotion.  If  the  nugnstiauig 
pole  be  north,  tiie  end  of  the  b&r  it  fint  tonches 
each  time  booomee  aHia  north,  &nd  the  one  where 
it  ia  lifted  sooth.  The  same  thing  may  be  done  by 
patting,  say,  the  north  nuffnetiung  pole  Bust  on  the 
middle  of  the  bar,  then  givm^  it  b  few  passM  from 
the  middle  to  the  end,  retnTmng  tJwa^  in  an  arch 
from  tiie  end  to  the  iniddle.     Alter  domg  the  aome 


to  tha  other  half  with  the  south  pole,  the  ms^etiB- 
atioa  ia  complete.  The  flnt  end  rubbed  beoomea  the 
■outh,  and  the  other  the  north  pole  of  the  new 
magnet — Bv  ZHvided  Ttmch  {Ft.  towAt  tipartt,  Oer. 
g^mnkr  AricA).— 13iia  method  ia  Bbewn  in  fig.  S. 
Jlle  b*T  (U  to  be  magnebaed  li  placed  oa  a  piece  of 
wood  W,  with  ita  ends  abutting  on  the  eitiemitiee 
of  two  powerful  magneta  NS  And  SN.  Two  mbbiDg 
magnet!  are  placed  with  their  poles  together  ot  "-  - 
mi£lle  lA  na,  inoUned  at  an  angle  Mthet  lew 


with  iL  They  are  tiien  aunoltaneoiuily  moTed 
ly  from  e^cfa  other  to  theenda  ot  lu^  and  brought 
back  in  an  aroh  again  to  the  middle.    After  Uiis 


ia  repeated  a  few  timee,  the  bu  nt  ia  folly  magnet- 
iaed.    The  diapoation  of  the  polet  ia  ahewn  in  the 
fignre  by  tb»  lettva  N 
:--,  ,  north,  and  " 


a  Math  pole.  This  method 
oommnnioatea  a  very  r^ular 
magnetiam,  and  ia  empGiyed 
fi*  magnetio  needlea,  ~~ 
where  aoenracy  ia  needed.- 
The  magnedaatian  by  Doubte 
Toudk  a  of  leaa  praotioal 
importance,  and  need  not 
hers  be  demibed.  It  oom- 
mnnioatea a  powerful,  but 
■ometimea  iir^nlar  mag- 
netiam,  giving  riae  to  am- 
mmline  poU*—OM  ia,  to 
mors  polea  than  two  in  the 
,  magnet. 

For     honeihoe  -  magnets, 
Hoffer'a  method  ia  geoerally 
followed.       The      inducing 
.  ^  plaoed  Tertioally  on  the  tnagnet 

to  tie  formed,  and  moved  from  the  anda  to  the  Mnd, 
ot  in  the  oppoaite  way,  and  brought  round  again,  ' 


Fig.  10. 
magnet  (fig.  9) 


an  arch,  to  the  Btarting-point.  A  aoft  iron  armator* 
'   placed  at  the  polea  of  the  induced  magnet    That 

e  operation  may  euooeed  well,  it  is  uecsaaary  for 
both  magnets  to  be  of  the  tame  width.  The  aam» 
method  may  alw)  be  followed  for  magnetiaing  bark 
The  bax%  (fig.  10)  NS  and  ITS',  with  the  annatora* 
a£  and  aI,  are  plaoed  ao  aa  to  fonn  a  rectangle ;  and 
the  honnhoe-magnet  i>  made  to  glide  alraig  both 
in  the  way  jnat  described. 

Ma^ne&taiMm  by  IM  forfA.— The  inductive  action 
of  terreetrial  magnetism  is  a  afcriking  pnwf  of  tha 
truth  of  the  theory  already  referred  to,  that  the 
earth  itself  is  a  magnet  When  a  steel  rod  it  held 
in  A  pomtion  parallel  to  the  Dipping-needle  {q.T.J,  it 
becomes,  in  the  courae  of  time,  po-manently  mag- 
netio. This  result  i«  reached  sooner  when  the  bw 
ia  rubbed  with  a  piece  of  aoft  iron.  A  bar  of  aoft 
iron  held  in  the  same  pomtaon  is  more  powerfully 
but  only  tonporarily  ailectad,  and  when  revened, 
the  polea  ai«  not  reyersed  with  the  bar,  bat  remain 
as  before.  If  when  so  held  it  reoeiye  at  ita  end  a 
few  aharp  blows  of  a  hammer,  the  magnetiam  is 
rendered  permanent,  and  now  the  polea  are  reverted 
when  the  bar  ia  reversed.  The  torsion  oaused  by 
tha  blowa  of  the  hammer  appeals  to  communicate  to 
the  bar  a  coercitive  force.  We  may  onderatand  from 
this  bow  tjie  tods  in  workahopa  are  geiterally  mag- 
netic Whenever  large  motaea  of  iron  are  aUtionaiy 
for  any  length  o£  time,  tiey  are  auretogive  endsQce 
of  magaetiaation,  and  it  is  to  the  induotiTe  action 
of  the  earth'a  poles  acting  through  aces  that  tha 
magnetdam  of  the  loadstone  la  to  be  attributed. 

PnMTvatkm  and  Povxr  of  MagadM. — Uagnet^ 
wheal  freshly  magnetiBed,  are  sometimes  more  power- 
ful than  they  afterwards  become.  In  that  case, 
they  ^*daal^  &11  off  in  strength,  till  they  rea^ 
a  point  at  which  their  strength  remaina  oonatant 
This  is  called  the  polR<y«aiuraMon.  If  amagnethat 
not  been  itdted  to  this  point,  it  will  lose  nothing 
after  munetitatioa.  We  may  ascertain  whether  a 
magnet  it  at  tataration  by  magnetiBing  it  with  b 
more  powerfol  magnet,  and  seeing  whether  it  retaina 
more  magnetiim  than  before.  The  saturation 
pomt  depends  on  the  coercitive  foroe  of  the  m^gne^ 
and  not  on  42ie  power  of  the  magnet  with  which  it 
is  nibbed.  When  a  magnet  is  above  utnratioii,  it 
is  soon  reduoed  to  it  by  repeatedly  dravring  away 
the  annature  &om  it.  After  reacniog  this  point, 
magneta  will  keep  the  same  atrangOi  for  years 
together  if  not  subjected  to  rough  usage.  It  ia 
tavom^Me  for  the  preaerration  of  magnets  that  they 
be  provided  with  an  armatnre  or  keeper.  For 
further  information,  see  article  Abmatoks.  The 
power  of  a  horseshoe-magnet  ia  usually  tested  by 
the  weight  its  armature  can  bear  without  breaking 
away  from  the  magnet  Elicker  givee  the  following 
tormnU  for  this  wei^t .-  W  =  a^m*  ;  IT  is  the 
charge  eipreesed  in  pounds ;  a,  a  constant  to  be 
ascertained  for  a  particular  qmdity  of  steel ;  and 
m  is  the  WN^t  in  pounds  of  the  magnet  Ha 
found,  in  the  magnets  that  he  oonstmcted,  a  to  be 
12'6.  According  to  this  value,  a  magnet  weighing 
2  oz.  sustains  a  weight  of  3  lbs.  2  oz.,  or  25  times 
its  own  weighty  whereas  a  magnet  of  100  lbs, 
sustains  only  271  lbs.,  or  rather  less  than  3  timca 
its  own  weight  Small  magnets,  tiierefore,  are 
stronger  for  their  size  than  la^  ones.  The  reason 
of  this  may  be  thna  erpUinecL  Two  magneta  of 
the  aame  aiie  and  power,  actuig  separat^y,  support 
twice  the  weight  that  one  of  them  does;  but  if  the 
two  be  joined,  so  aa  to  form  one  magnet,  they  do 
not  anstain  the  donble,  for  the  two  magnets  being 
in  close  proiimity,  act  indactively  on  each  oUier, 
'  -  lessen  the  conjoint  power.  Similarly,  several 
■  '  ~  '  '  a  battery  have  not  a  force 
■   "nths 


UAONETISM. 


Mme  waf  nuy  bo  ooiuideTed  u  nude  op  of  (arenl 
Initi'DPi  interfering  mutually  with  each  other,  and 
renderutg  the  uAwn  of  the  whole  veij  much  less 
tbtn  the  nun  of  the  powen  of  each.  The  beat 
method  of  aacertuning  the  Eta-ength  of  bar-nutgDetB 
is  to  cauM  ■  magnetic  needle  to  oaciltato  at  a 
fiTei)  daatance  Eram  one  of  their  poles,  the  axil  of 
the  needle  and  the  pole  of  the  magnet  being  in  tlie 
magnetio  meridian.  Theae  oscillationi  observe  Uie 
law  of  peudnlnm  motion,  ao  that  the  force  tending 
to  bring  the  needle  to  net  is  proportionate  to  the 
square  of  the  nnmber  of  oecillationa  in  a  statud 

Action  nf  Magnda  on  each  oOier. — Conlomb 
discoTared,  by  the  osoillatiou  of  the  magnetic 
needle  in  Uie  presence  of  magnets  in  the  way 
jnst  described,  that  uAot  magneU  art  to  pkictd  liai 
too  cuijoiaiHg  polt*  nu^/  acl  on  eoeA  olKer  taiUtoKt 
1A<  inta/mnee  qf  lAe  qppMits  polo,  that  is,  wheo 
the  magnets  are  large  compared  with  the  distance 
between  their  centies,  titar  attractive  or  repuJsine 
foroe  varia  tnaert^g  as  tAe  tpiart  of  tie  diitatKe. 
Gansa  prored  from  this  theiwetically,  and  exhibited 
Biperimeatally,  that  when  the  distance  between  the 
centres  of  two  magneto  ia  laxge  compared  with  the 
size  of  the  magnets,  tbat  is,  mhen  lh»  action  qf 
boA  poltt  coma  into  play,  lluir  oetion  on  eoA  oUter 
varia  tnverseb  oi  tAe  cube  of  Qie  diilanot. 

Sffect  of  Heat  on  liaijaat.—W\ea  a  magnet  is 
heated  to  redneas,  it  losee  penoanentl;  every  trace 
of  magnetism ;  iron,  also,  at  a  red  heat,  ceases  to  be 
attracted  by  the  magnet.  At  temperatores  below 
red  beat,  the  magnet  parts  with  some  of  its  power, 
the  loss  increaamg  with  the  temperature.  The 
temperatures  at  wnicb  other  substances  affected 
by  the  magnet  lose  their  magnelosm  dlfier  fnnn 
that  of  iron.  Cobalt  renuuna  magiwtia  at  the 
highest  temperatnrea,  and  nickel  loses  this  property 
at  662°  F. 

AmptTt't  Theory  of  XagneStm. — This  theory 
(ormi  the  link  between  magnetism  and  galvanio 
electiicily,  and  gives  a  simple  explanation  of  the 
phenomena  of  elecbo-magnetdsn  and  magneto- 
electrici^.  We  shall  therefore  preface  the  abort 
discnaaion  of  these  two  subjects  by  a  reference  to  it. 
Ampere  cooaidera  that  erery  particle  of  a  magnet 
haa  closed  correats  droolating  abont  it  in  the  same 
direction.  A  section  of  a  magnet  according  to  thia 
theory  is  shewn  in  Sg.  11.  AU  the  separate  cnn-ents 
in  the  varioQs  particka  may,  however,  be  oonaidered 


Fg.ll. 


• 


Hg.  12. 


lo  be  equivalent  to  one  atrong  enrrent  oircnlating 
round  tfio  whole  (fig.  12).  We  are  to  look  upon  a 
magnet,  then,  as  ■  system,  so  to  spckk,  of  rings  or 
rectanf^ea,  placed  side  by  tide,  so  as  to  form  a 
cylinder  or  prism,  in  each  of  which  a  cuirent  in  the 
same  direction  ia  circulating.  Before  magnetiaatton, 
the  eatreuts  ran  in  different  directiona,  so  that  their 
tfkft  as  a  system  ia  Itiet,  and  the  effect  of  induc- 
tion is  to  bring  them  to  run  in  the  same  direction. 
The  perfection  of  maenetisation  it  to  render  the 
Tarioos  currents  porall^  to  each  other.  Soft  iron,  in 
oonseqQence  of  its  ofhring  no  resistance  to  such  a 
dispoEitaon,  beoomes  more  powerfnlly  magnetia  under 


induction  than  steel,  where  such  reastaoce  exists. 
Experiment  very  Btronaly  confirms  the  truth  of 
thia  theory.  Helices  of  oopper-wire,  in  which  a 
anrreDt  is  made  to  circulate,  manifest  all  the  pro> 
perties  of  a  magnet  Such  are  shewn,  in  skeleton, 
u  figa.  13  and  14.    Each  convolution  of  the  sjural 


may  be  taken  aa  a  aulwtttnte  for  one  of  the  ringa 
above  spoken  of.  In  helix  (flg.  13),  the  cnirent^ 
after  entering  goes  from  right  to  left  (eontraiy  to 

the  hands  ofa  watch),  and  it  ia  hence  called  left- 
handed;  in  fig.  14,  it  goea  with  the  hands  of  a 

Fig.  14. 

watch,  and  ia  right-handed.  The  eztremitiea  of 
both  beLoes  act  on  the  magnetio  needle  like  the 
poles  of  a  magnet  while  the  enrrent  nasses.  The 
poles  are  shewn  bv  the  letters  N  and  3,  azid  this 
can  be  easily  dedaced  from  Ampere's  rule  (see 
GaLTAJnaM},  lor,  suppose  the  little  fieure  of  a  man  to 
be  placed  in  any  part  of  the  helix  (fig.  13),  so  that, 
while  he  looks  towards  the  axis  of  ilie  helix,  Hm 
current  enters  by  his  feet,  and  leaves  by  his  bead, 
the  north  pole  inll  be  at  bis  left  hand,  aa  shewn  in 
the  figure.  In  the  left-banded  helix  (flg.  14),  the 
poles  are  reversed  according  to  the  same  mle.  If 
either  of  these  helices  be  bung  so  as  to  be  capable 
of  horizontal  motion,  which,  by  a  simple  constraotion, 
con  easily  be  done,  aa  aeon  as  the  enrrent  is  estab- 
liahed,  the  north  and  south  poles  place  themselves 
exactly  as  those  of  tlie  magnetic  needle  would  do  ; 
or,  if  they  were  hong  so  as  to  be  able  to  move 
vertically  in  the  magnetio  meridian,  they  would 
take  up  the  podtdon  <f  the  Dipping-needle  (q.  v.). 

These  movements  can  be  rbm  farther  explained 
by   refoence    to    the   mutual   actiOD   of   electrio 


currents  on  each  other.  It  is  found  that  uAen  ttM 
mrrent*  art  free  to  move,  lAey  tndeavoar  to  plate 
lAemtdvei  paralUl  to  each  otker,  and  lo  nwM  m  the 
same  dirt^ion,  and  that  currenU  rvnnbig  m  the  sans 
direcli<M  atlraet,  and  Oiote  Tvnning  in  o^posile  (lireo- 
tions,  rmeU  The  apparatus  fig.  IS  ia  intended  to 
prove  this.  The  rectangle  ed^  i*  movable  round 
the  pins,  a  and  h,  resbng  on  two  mercury  oups. 


..Googit 


Hu  arrangement  is  such  that  while  the  rect&ngle 
ed^  it  movable  about  its  axis,  a  current  can  con- 
tinue steadily  to  Sow  in  it.  Further  deecnption  a 
ouneceAaary,  the  diagram  explaining  iteelt  If  a 
wire  in  which  a  current  paasea  downwards  be  placed 
Tertdcally  near  ed,cd  ii  attracted  by  it ;  but  if  the 
current  pan  upwards,  it  is  repelled,  and  s/'atttaeted. 
Pl»oo,  now,  the  wire  below  and  parallel  to  de.  If 
the  current  passes  in  the  direction  d  to  ^  no  chaugs 
takes  place,  as  the  attraction  cannot  shew  itse3; 
bnt  if  the  dureot  moves  from  e  to  d,  the  whole 
turns  lonnd  till  it  stands  where  e  was,  and  both 
currents  nm  the  some  way.  If  the  wire  be  placed 
at  right  angles  to  de,  the  rectangle  turns  round  and 
cornea  to  rest,  when  both  currents  are  parallel,  and 
in  the  same  direction. 

Acoording  to  Ampere's  theory,  the  earth,  b«ng 
a  magnet,  has  currents  circulating  abont  it,  which, 
according  to  hia  rule,  must  be  from  east  to  west, 
the  aoT&  pole  of  the  earth  being,  in  our  way  of 
a  south  pole.  A  magnet,  then,  will  not 
rest  till  the  oorrents  moving  below  it  place 
ves  parallel  to  and  in  the  direction  of  the 
earth's  corrente.    This  is  shewn  in  fig.  16,  where 


Fig.  18. 


□  its  positio: 


ft  section  of  a  magnet  is  repreeented 
of  reat  with  reference  to  tie  earth- 
Ulster  current  being  farther  away  &am  the 
current,  is  leas  affected  by  it,  and  it  is  the 
current  that  determines  the  poeition.    A  tna^ 
needle,  therefore,  turns  towards  the  north  to  allow 
the  currents  moving  below  it  to  place  themselves 

rdlel  to  the  earth  B  current.    This  alao  is  shewn 
the  rectangle  in  fig.   15,  which  cornea  to  rest 
lAien  d  and  e  be  east  and  west. 

SUciro-7iia(pKiii'a  includes  all  phenomena  in 
which  ac  electric  current  produces  magnetism.  The 
most  important  resnlt 
of  this  jiower  of  the 
current  is  the  electro- 
magnet.  This  cousiBtB 
(fig.  IT)  generally  of  a 
round  bar  of  soft  iron 
bent  into  the  hoise- 
shoe  form,  with  an 
insulated  wire  coiled 
round  its  extremitdes. 
When  a  current  passes 
through  the  coH,  the 
soft  iron  bar  becomes 
instantly  magnetic, 
and  attracts  the  anua- 
ture  with  a  sharp 
cUck.  When  the  cur- 
rent is  stopped,  this 
Big.  17.  power   disappears    as 

suddenly  as  it  came. 
Electro-magneta  far  outrival  permanent  magnets  in 
•treiuth.  Small  electro- mani  eta  have  been  made 
by  Joule  wMch  support  3600  times  their  own 
weight,  a  feat  immeasurably  superior  to  anything 
perrormed  by  steel  magnets.  When  the  curreDt 
IS  of  moderate  atrength,  and  the  iron  core  more 
than  a  third  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  iJie  magnetism 
indueed  u  in  proportion  Id  the  ttrenglA  of  tlie  current 
and  qf  ike  ntariber  of  tiimg  in  ih»  txU.  When  the 
bar  is  thinner  than  one-third  of  an  inch,  a 


is  soon  reached  beyond  whioh  additional  turnii 
of  the  wire  give  no  additional  ma  " 
even  when  the  core  is  thick,  these  ti 
be  heaped  On  each  other,  so  as  to  place  them 
'ond  influencing  the  core.  It  follows  from  the 
,  that  in  the  horseshoe-magnet, 
wueiB  ui«  luuuctive  action  in  the  armature  must 
be  taken  into  account,  that  lAe  vteighl  uAie7i  lAt 
magnet  luilaini  it  in  proportion  to  tAe  »gvaret  of 
\l}iM  of  C/t«  carrtjii*,  axid  to  ttie  tjuara  of 
of  Oie  wire.     Tim  r 


,v,;, 


is   in   different  magnets   proportional  to  the  > 

of  section,  or  to  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the 
core.  The  electro-magnet,  from  the  ease  with 
which  it  is  made  to  assume  or  lay  aaide  its  mag- 
netism, or  to  reverse  its  poles,  is  of  the  utmost 
value  in  electrical  and  mechanical  contrivances. 
The  action  of  the  electro-magnet  is  quite  in  keeping 
with  Ampere's  theory,  aa  &e  current  of  the  coi£ 
acting  on  the  various  currents  of  the  individual 
molecules,  places  them  parallel  to  itself,  in  which 
condition  the  soft  iron  bar  acts  powerfully  as  a 
magnet.  The  direction  of  the  current  itad  the 
nature  of  the  coil  being  known,  the  polea  are  easily 
determined  by  Ampere^s  rule. 

Eleetro-magnetie  JfncAuK^,— These  take  advantage 
of  the  facility  with  which  the  poles  of  an  electro- 
magnet may  be  reversed,  by  which  attractions  and 
repulsions  may  be  so  arranged  with  another  magnet 
OS  to  produce  a  constant  rotation.  The  forms  in 
which  they  occur  are  exceedingly  various,  but  the 
description  of  the  apparatus  in  fig.  18  will  suftice 
to  illustrate  their  principle  of  working.  NS  ia  a 
fixed  permanent  magnet  (it  could  be  eqnally  well 
an  electro- magnet) ;  the  electro -magnet,  ru,  is  fixed 
to  the  axis  ee,  and  the  ends  of  the  coil  are  soldered 


Fig.  18. 


n  theft 


to  the  ring  e,  encircling  a  preiection  o_ 

The  ring  has  two  slits  in  it,  dividin)^  it  into  t 
halves,  and  filled  with  a  non-conductmg  material, 
so  that  the  halves  are  insulated  from  each  other- 
Pressing  on  this  broken  ring,  on  opposite  sides,  are 
two  spnngs,  a  and  b,  which  proceed  from  the  two 
bindiag-sorews  into  which  the  wires,  -t-  and  — , 
from  the  battery  ore  fixed.  In  the  position  shewn 
in  the  figure,  the  current  is  supposed  to  pass  alan^ 
a,  to  the  half  of  the  ring  in  connection  with  the  ei ' 
f,  of  the  coil,  to  go  through  the  coil,  to  pass  by  g 
Uie  other  half  of  the  ring,  and  to  pass  along  h,  in  i. . 
return  to  the  battery.  The  magnetism  induced  by 
the  current  in  the  electro-magnet,  makes  «  a  south, 
and  n  a  north  pole,  by  virtue  of  which  N  attracts  9. 


D,a„,.=o.,l^OOglC 


HAGNKTISM. 


and  S  Bttracti  n.  By  this  donble 
is  brought  into  &  line  with  NS,  whare  it  would 
renuuD,  did  not  just  then  ths  springs  pau  to  the 
other  halves  of  the  riog,  and  revene  the  cnrrent, 
making  *  a  DOrth,  and  n  a  south  pole.  lUpulsion 
between  the  like  polee  iostantly  enaues,  and  lu  is 
driven  oawardi  tluvugh  a  quarter  revolution,  and 
then  attractioa  as  before  between  unlike  poles  takes 
it  through  another  qnarter,  to  place  it  once  more 
aziall]^  A  perpetoal  nitatiou  is  in  this  way  kept 
up.  lite  muuier  in  which  a  constant  lotaiy  motion 
may  be  obtained  by  electro-magnetism  being  nnder- 
■tood,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  how  it  may  be  ada^ited 
to  the  discharge  ol  regular  work.  Powerful  maclunes 
of  this  kind  nave  been  made  with  a  view  to  sup- 
plant the  steam-eagine ;  but  snoh  attempts,  both  m 
'  of  economy  and  constancy,  have  proved  atter 


respect  of 
fiJfurea. 


Mofftttto-eUetricUji  includes  all  phenomena  where 
(uagnetiam  gives  rise  tp  electricity.  Under  Induction 
of  Electric  Currents  (q.  v.),  it  is  stated  that  when  a 
coil,  in  which  a  current  djculates,  is  quickly  placed 
within  another  coil  tmconnected  with  it,  a  contrary 
indnced  current  in  the  oater  coil  marks  its  entrance, 
and  when  it  is  withdrawn,  a  direct  induced  corrent 


ithe 


,   coU 
ondaiy  coil,  though  the 


rnimary 
lil,  though 


_  .    .  the  secondary  coiL 

is  oUo  shewn,  that  if,  while  the   primaiy  ocul  is 
(tationaiy,  the  strength  of  its  current  be  mcreased 
cr  diniinished,  each  mcreaao  and  diminution  induce 
opposite  cuirentB  in  the  secondary  colL    Change,  in 
fact,  whether  in  the  poaition  or  current  strength  of 
the  primaiy  coil,  induces  cmrenta  in  the  secondaiy 
coii,  and  Uie  intensity  of  the  induced  current  is 
in  proportJOD   to  the   amoiuit  and  suddenneea  of 
the  change.    In  singular  confirmation  of  Ampere's 
theory,  a  permanent  oar-m^net  ma^  be  snbatituted 
for  the  primary  coil  in  these  ezpenments,  and  the 
•ame  reeulta  obtained  with  greater  intensity.  When 
a  bar-magnet  is  introduced  into  the  secoadaiy  coil, 
a  current  is  indicated,  and  when  it  is  withdrawn, 
a  cnrrent  in  a  cootnuy  direction  is  observed,  and 
these  currents  take  place  in  the  directions  required 
by  Ampere's  theory.    A  change  of  position  of  the 
magnet  is  marked  by  a  current,  as  ia  the  former 
case.    If  we  had  the  means  oC  increasing  or  lessen- 
ing the  magnetism  of  the  bar,  currents  would  be 
induced  the  same  as  those  obtained  by  strengthen- 
ing   or    weakening 
ihe  cnrrent  in   the 
primiLry  coil     It  is 
this  inductive  power 
ofironatthe  moment 
that  a  change  takes 
place    io    its    mag- 
netism,  that    forms 
the  bans  of  magneto- 
electric       macnines. 
The  manner  in  which 
''  this    is    taken    ad- 
vantage of,  will  be 
easily  understood  by 
reference  to  Gg.  19. 
KS  is  a  permanent 
horseshoe  -  magnet, 
and  let  us  suppose 
it  to  be  fixed;  CD 
is  a  bar  of  soft  iron, 
with  coils  A  and  B 
Fig.  10.  ffotind     round     its 

ertremilies,  and  may 
be  looked  upon  as  the  armature  of  the  magnet.  CD 
is  capable  of  rotation  round  the  mis  EF.  So  long 
aa  CD   remains  in  the  position   indicated   in  the 


figure,  no  cunenta  are  induced  in  the  i 
cods,  for  no  change  takes  place  in  the  ^ 
induced  in  it  by  the  action  of  143.  The  moment 
that  the  poles  of  CD  leave  NS,  the  magnetism  of 
the  soft  iron  diminishes  as  its  distance  from  NS 
increasea ;  and  when  it  stands  at  right  anglee  to  its 
former  position,  the  magnetism  has  disappeared. 
During  the  first  qnarter-revolution.  therefore,  the 
magnetism  of  the  soft  iron  diminishee,  and  this  l* 
attended  in  the  coil  (for  both  coils  act,  in  fact,  as  one) 


During  the  second  qoarter- revolution,  the 
of  the  armature  increases  till  it  reaches  a 
when  its  polee  are  in  a  line  with  those  of 
current  also  marks  this  increase,  and  proceeds  in  the 
aaine  direction  as  before ;  for  though  the  magnetism 
iacrosiee,  instead  of  diminishes,  which  of  itseU  would 
revetM  the  induced  current,  the  poles  of  the  ravdv- 
ing  armature,  in  consequence  of  their  change  of 

Cition  with  the  poles  of  the  permanent  magnet, 
e  also  been  reversed,  and  this  double  reversal 
leaves  the  current  to  move  as  before.  For  the  second 
half-revohitioa  the  current  also  proceeds  in  ooa 
direction,  but  in  the  oppodie  way,  correipanding  to 
tbe  reveraed  position  of  the  armature.  Thus,  iii  one 
rmolution  of  a  toft  iron  armatare  in /nmt  of  Ou  polet 
of  a  mrmana>i  magnel  fun  evrrenlt  art  tttdaeid  tH 
Iru  <xnZ>  eaciTding  it,  in  opponle  direelion»,  each  lam- 
ing ha^  a  rsfofud'on,  starfinj/  from  Iht  line  joiniiig 
Oitpda. 

Magndo-deelnc  MmJiine. — The  general  construe* 
tion  01  a  simple  magneto-electric  machine  is  shewn 
in  fig.  20.    HS  is  a  fixed  permanent  magnet.    BB 


Kg.  20. 

is  a  soft  iron  plat«,  to  which  are  attached  two 
cylinders  of  soft  iron,  round  which  the  coils  C  and 
D  are  wound,  CBBD  a  thus  the  revolving  arma- 
ture, corresponding  to  CD  in  Sg.  19.  AA  ia  a 
brass  rod  rigidly  connected  with  the  armature,  and 
also  serving  as  the  rotating  axle.  F  is  a  cylin- 
drical projection  on  AA,  and  is  pressed  upon  by  two 
fork-like  springs,  H  and  K,  which  are  also  the  poles 
of  the  m»^iine.  The  ends,  m,  n,  of  the  coil  are 
soldered  to  two  meUl  rings  on  F,  insulated  from 
each  other.  When  the  armature  revolves,  AA  and  F 
move  with  it.  F,  H,  and  K  are  so  constructed  ss  to 
act  ■*  a  commutator,  reversing  the  current  at  each 


„  Google 


MAGNIFICAT— UAONCSSEN. 


Mml-reTolntion.  Bj  thu  tmagemeat,  the  oppomte 
ODTTenta  prooeodiag  from  the  coil  at  each  eami- 
revolDtion  ixv  tnmmnitted  to  H  anil  K  in  the  sujia 
dlTsation,  lO  Uuit  theee,  which  coiutittito  the  poles  of 
the  battOTT,  BO  to  speak,  ramuii  alwaTS  of  the  Bame 
tuune.  When  the  armature  la  made  to  Mvolve 
with  (nffideiit  rapidity,  a  very  energetio  and  iteady 
cmrent  i>  cenertted.  Of  late  years,  immense  pro- 
graas  haa  bean  made  in  the  construotiaiL  of  such 
toacbine*.  Is  1666,  Wilde  of  Manohester  sor- 
piised  the  aeieiitifie  world  by  a  machine  of  unpre- 
cedented power ;  and  sabaequently  Gramme  of  Paris 
coDstrneted  another  still  more  aatoniBbine-  For 
farther  details  as  to  these  machines,  and  l£oee  of 
Wheatston^  Siemena,,  and  Ladd,  see  Uaqhfto- 
xuoTRio  M&cami  in  Supp.,   VoL   X.    See  also 

ABJtAltTKB,  DxCUNATIOn  NEEDL^   DUMAQNTTISII, 

DippiKQ  Nbidlb,  and  KoMTiotr,  Magnbtisii  of  ; 
and  for  its  own  subject,  TEnBtsrsiAi.  MAGNBnaii. 

MAGNITICAT,  a  mnsiool  eomposition  in  the 
erening  service  of  Oie  EoQ)an  Catholic  Church,  and 
also  of  the  Luthermi  and  Kngliith  Churches.  The 
words  are  taken  from  Luke  i.  46 — 55,  containing 
the  '  song  of  the  Virgin  Mary,'  wbieh,  in  the  Vulgate, 
bs^na  with  Moffn^ooL  In  the  Bonian  Cat£olio 
Church,  the  UagniQcat  is  a  grand  bymji,  powerful 


.  there  have  been  few  attempts  in  Uie  Soman 
Catbolio  service  to  supersede  the  older  music  of  the 
Magnificat  (by  Falestiina) ;  but  in  the  service  of  the 


a  of  ( 


lees 


elevated  charaner,  new  compodtions  are  frequently 
written  for  the  MagniGoat,  by  composers  stnctly  ot 
the  EngKab  school 

UAGKO'LIA,  a  Eenna  of  beantjful  trees  of  the 
oatnral  coder  MafftttMaeea,  having  a  calyx  of  three 
sepals,  ft  corolla  td  6 — 12  petab,  and  carpels  in 
spikes  smuiged  in  cones,  and  opening  at  the  dorsal 
suture.  They  are  natives  chiefly  of  North  America, 
the  Himalaya  Mountuna,  China,  and  Japan.  The 
flowers  are  large  and  solitary ;  the  leaves  lai^ 
The  wood  is  in  general  soft,  Bpougy,  and  of  little, 
value,  if.  groT^iJlora,  sometimes  (^ed  the  BiQ 
Liusm,  has  white  flowers  sometimea  a  foot  in 
diameter.  It  is  a  lofty  and  magnifloent  evergreen 
tree,  conspicuous  at  a  great  distance,  found  in  the 
lower  districts  from  North  Carolina  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  It  succeeds  well  as  an  ornamental  tree  in 
the  soath  of  England,  bat  in  Scotland  requires  a  wall 
and  some  protection  in  winter. — M.  tripetala  Is 
found  on  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  and  extends  as 
far  north  as  lat.  43°.  From  the  radiated  manner  in 
which  its  leaves  are  disposed  at  the  extremities 
of  the  branches,  it  haa  received  the  name  of 
UhbbslIiA  TbbS.  It  has  very  large  white  flowers. 
It  is  one  of  the  ipeciea  most  commonly  colti- 
vated  in  Britun,  but  in  Scotland  it  requires  a 
wall — M.  acumiitala  inhabits  the  same  districts, 
and  is  a  lofty  tree  with  greenish-yellow  flowers. 
It  endures  t^  climate  m  Britain  well,  bat  its 
flowers  are  not  so  much  admired  as  those  of  some 
of  its  congeners. — M.  glaaea,  a  native  of  Penniyl- 
Tania,  Virginia,  and  Carolina,  is  known  W  the 
names  of  Whttk  Bat,  Bzaterwood,  and  sVamf 
SassAteas.  It  is  a  tree  or  shrub  of  IS— 20  feet 
in  height,  with  very  beautiful  and  fr^rant  white 
flowers.— The  YtlLAK,  or  Chinese  M.  {M.  Tvian  or 
onupicua),  baa  been  much  cultivated  in  China  for 
more  than  twelve  hundred  years,  on  accoont  of  its 
batutnfol  and  fngnuit  whit«  flowers,  which  it  pro- 
duces in  great  profnsion.  It  is  one  of  the  finest 
omamentu  trees  we  possess,  and  succeedn  well  in 
the  south  of  Engluid,  and  against  a  wall  in  Scot- 
land.     It   is   a   decidnoua  teee,   and   the   flowera 


expand  before  the  development  ot  the  leaves.- JT. 
txedaa,  one  of  the  finest  species  known,  is  a  vredom- 
inant  tree  in  some  parts  of  the  Himalan  T 
at  an  elevation  of  7000—8000  feet,  the 
when  it  is  in  blossom  appearing  as  qtrinkled  with 
snow. — M.  Campbdlii,  another  native  of  the  same 
region,  prodnoea  R«at  rose-coloored  floweis,  and  is 
d^cribed  hj  Dr  Hooker  as  the  most  snperb  of  the 
genus. — Alued  to  the  genos  if.  is  MieAdia,  eome  ot 
the  species  of  which  are  amongst  the  most  vwloabla 
timber  trees  of  Nepaul,  and  very  omamentaL  The 
bark  of  some  of  them  is  used  medicinally,  and  the 
fragrant  flowers  of  a  species  called  Cbampac  are 
the  delight  of  the  people  of  Hindnatan.  Maiii/lietia 
is  another  cloeely  allied  geoiia,  to  whidi  belong 
valuable  timber  trees  of  Nepaul  and  of  the  liidian 
islands.- The  natural  order  Magnoiiaaa  is  closely 
allied  to  SamtiKuhMa,  differing  chiefly  in  the 
arbore«cent  habit,  and  in  the  la^  stipiUss  which 
envelop  the  young  leaves  before  they  open,  but 
soon  tall  oft  Tlie  leaves  are  simple.  Aroioatio 
propertiM  are  prevalent  To  thia  order  belong 
the  Tnlip  Tree,  Star  Jnue,  and  WitUar't  Sark 

MAGNU3SEN,  Turn,  a  distinguiahed  scholar 
and  arduBologist,  was  bom  in  17SI  at  Skabhdt,  in 
Iceland,  whera  his  family,  both  on  his  mother's  and 
father's  nde,  had  for  many  generations  been  distin- 
gniahed  for  learning  and  integrity.  In  1797,  M. 
entered  the  nniversity  of  Copenh^en  with  a  Tiew 
of  studying  for  the  law ;  and  although  he  so  far 
fulfilled  the  original  intention  of  his  education  as 
to  prsotise  this  profession  for  some  years  in  Iceland, 
his  strong  bent  towards  archieological  pmsnits  led 
him,  in  IS12,  to  return  to  Copemi^^en,  whrav  he 
devoted  himself  with  mnch  zeal  to  his  favourite 
studies  under  the  direction  of  his  distinguiahed 
countrymen  Thorkelin  and  Thorhkcias.  In  ISlfl^ 
be  obtained  a  chair  of  literature  in  the  nniveraity ; 
and  in  1819,  at  the  solicitation  of  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  he  gave  a  course  of  lectures  on  ancient 
northern  literature  and  mythology.  From  this,  or 
even  an  earlier  period,  to  tbe  cl^  of  his  life,  W, 
devoted  Imnaelf  to  the  elucidation  of  tbeee  subjeota 
with  a  sncceea  that  was  generally  commensurate 
with  the  great  ability  and  acute  learning  which  he 
brooght  to  bear  npon  it,  although  in  some  few 
inatancee  his  zeal  led  him  to  adopt  too  hasty  ood< 
elusions.  Among  his  earliest  and  most  noteworthy 
woAs  are  his  papers  on  the  Aboriginal  Home  and 
Earliest  Migrations  of  the  Caucasian  Races  (181S) ; 
his  contributions  to  northern  arclueology  {18W)  i  the 
indices,  glossaries,  and  lexicon  which  he  compiled 
for  the  elucidation  of  the  2d  and  3d  of  the  Ame- 
MagQOSBen  editions  of  the  Eddas  (1818  and  1628); 
his  comprehensive  transition  of  the  Elder  Edda 
{Aidre  Sdda,m><!natog/orlMiret,Kopen.  1924);  and 
his  exposition  of  the  same  work  {Edda  larm  og 
dent  (^JituUUt,  Kop.  1824).  Among  his  later  works, 
bis  Rajuano  og  Rwterve  (Kop.  1841)  haa  given  rise 
to  much  angry  discussion ;  and  although  many  of  hia 
interpretations  of  assumed  runes  have  been  proved 
to  be  utterly  untenable,  the  learning  and  acomen 
which  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  sabjeot  of  runes 
generally,  have  tbrown  great  lif^t  on  this  branch  of 
arclueology,  both  in  re^ird  to  N'orOi  American  and 
ancient  northern  remains.  In  conjunction  with 
Bafn,  M.  elucddated  the  history  and  antiguities  of 
Greenland  in  an  able  work  {OrOiian^t  UUtoridx 
Mindetmerker,  Eop.  1838—1842];  and  he  subse- 
quently prosecnted  a  similar  course  of  inquiry  in 
r^ard  to  Russia  in  Antiqvitit  Stusei  (Cop.  1850— 
18S2).  In  addition  to  these  works,  M.  anno- 
tated nearly  all  the  most  important  remuna  of  old 
northern  literature,  as  the  Heimskringla,  Hahm- 
armed,  Laxdala-Saga,  ta. ;  and  besides  nnmeiona 
monographs  on  archnologicsl  and  faiatorlo  subjects 


i.LiOOglC 


WAOO— MtnABTTARATA 


of  intereet,  mode  msn;  voloAbla  oontribationi 
to  current  Icelsndio  literature.  Daring  He  latter 
veora,  M.  Bat  in  the  Dooiah  landtluDf;  as  deputy  for 
Iceland  and  the  Farite  lalee,  io  which  capaci^  he 
gave  evidence  of  camdderable  political  luiowledee 
and  patriotio  waL  At  hia  death,  in  1847,  he  hdd 
the  office  of  aeAemarvliivar  in  the  HotoI  Chamber 
of  ArchiveB. 

IfA'OO,  a  oommon  CurCbaginian  name;  no 
than  14  different  peiaon*  bouiog  it  occur  in  hiatorj ; 
(^  whom  the  most  distijiguiahed  ia  M.,  the  bod  of 
Hamilcar  Barca,  and  «  Toonger  brother  of  Hannibal 
(q.  V.)  and  HaadrubaL 

HAOPIE,  or  PIE  (Pica),  a  genua  of  birds  of  the 
family  Conrida  (q.  T.),  differing  trom  the  true  cr 
chiefly  in  the  long  and  graduated  tail    They 

alio  of  (mailer  dze  and  raighter  coloura,  the  n 

prevalent  oclonr  being  blue  with  ban  of  black  and 
white. — The  only  Britiah  ipeoiea  ii  the  CouuoK  U. 
(P.  txtndala),  the  KiOa  of  the  Oreelu,  and  Fiea  of 
the  Btanani ;  a  oonmion  bird  in  Britain,  and  almoat 


CommoD  Hagpie  (Pica  caudabi). 


always  conipiouous,  and  its  diasonaut  haith  cry 
equaUy  attracting  attention.  The  M.  it  geieraUy  to 
be  Been  ia  pura  thronghoat  the  year.  It  bailda  its 
neat  in  high  trees;  the  oubdde  being  formed  of  thorny 
Bticka  atrongly  interwoTen,  the  inside  plaitered 
with  earth  and  lined  with  fibres  and  diy  gjft ; 
the  top  a  dome,  and  one  apertnre  left  on  the  Bide  for 
the  parent  bird.  The  M.  ia  shy  and  vigilant  in  an 
extreme  degree,  notable  for  cunning,  bom  in  einding 
eDcmiee,  and  in  seeking  its  own  food,  aa  to  which  it 
Eoay  be  said  that  nothmg  comea  anusB  to  it,  grain 
being  not  unacceptable,  but  eggB  or  earrion  prefer- 
able. In  Britain,  it  ia  persecuted  by  nmekeepers ; 
in  Norway,  it  ia  enconraged  in  the  nei^bonrhood  of 
human  habitations,  and  consequently  often  makes 
ita  nest  under  the  eaves  of  churchea  and  other 
buildings.  The  HL  is  easily  tamed,  becomes  impu- 
dently fomiliar,  and  learns  to  articulate  a  few  woras. 
Both  in  a  wild  and  tame  ftate,  it  has  a  propensity  to 
seize  and  carry  off  bright  or  gUttetinx  srticlea.  It 
aboDjids  in  most  parta  of  Kurope  and  the  North  of 
Asia,  and  in  the  northern  parta  of  America,  but  is 
Hire  in  the  parts  of  America  near  the  Atlantio. — The 
other  apedes  are  mostly  natives  of  ttie  eaatem  parts 

HA'OTAB.    SeeHcsGUT. 


MAHABHARATA  (from  the  8tui«(dt  mahat— 
changed  to  nuiA^l~-greal^  and  Bhdrala)  ia  the  name 
of  one  of  the  two  great  epic  poema  of  ancient 
India.  For  the  other,  see  the  article  SJaUniJr'i. 
Aa  ita  main  story  relates  to  the  contest  between 
two  rival  families,  both  descendants  of  ■  king, 
Bharata,  the  word  M.  probably  implies  'Qie  great 
history  of  the  descendants  of  Bhatata ; '  for  another 
explanation  of  the  word,  which  connects  it  with 
bhdra,  weight,  was  obviously  invented  mnely  to 
convey  aa  flea  of  the  enormous  ertent  of  this  poeo:. 
According  to  this  explanation,  it  would  mean  the 
'very  weighty  (poem),'  because,  'when  weighed,  it 
was  toond  to  be  heavier  than  all  the  four  VedM 
together  with  their  mystical  writings.'  Howarer 
evoid  of  gtammatical  valne  this  popniar  aoconnt 
f  the  word  M.  may  be,  it  does  not  ezaggerata  the 


each  containing  thirty-two  syllablea;  while,  if  a 
tradition,  reported  in  the  introdnction  to  the  work 
itself,  oould  be  tmsted,  it  was  formerly  known  in 
other  recensions  of  a  atOl  greater  extant.  In  ita 
actoal  shape,  it  is  divided  into  eighteen  parvans  or 
books,  the  Sarinatu^a.  [a.  v.)  being  convdered  u  a 
supplementary  part  of  it.  That  this  huge  com- 
poaitioii  was  not  the  woA  of  one  single  indivi- 
dual, but  a  production  of  sucoesaive  age^  cleariy 
results  from  the  mnlti&riousneBS  of  its  contents, 
from  the  difference  of  style  which  QharaoteriseB  its 
varioDS  parta^  and  even  from  the  oontradiotiona 
which  disturb  its  hannony.  ^nda  tradition  asoiibea 
■  ■     KjKUa;  but  as  Vrtsa  '"      


or  arranger,'  and  a 


b  individual  ia  also 


■eraf  other  wort  . 
value  can  be  ass^ed  to  this  generic  name.  The 
contents  of  the  M.  may  be  distingniahed  into  the 
leading  story  and  the  episodical  matter  oonneoted 
with  it.  The  former  is  probably  foonded  on  resJ 
in  the  oldest  histoi^  of  India,  thoogh  in  the 
Lirative  it  will  be  difficult  to  disentangle  the 


vaa  and  Ftn'd'avas,  ending  in  the  victory  of  the 
latter,  and  in  the  establiamnent  of  their  rule  over 
the  norOiem  part  of  India.  Kuru,  a  descendaot  of 
Bharata,  had  two  sons,  Dhr'itaiSah'tra  and  F&n'd'u, 
The  sons  of  the  former,  commonly  called  the  Kaura- 
nu,  were  a  hundred  in  niimbn,  the  eldest  (d  thoni 
being  Doryodhana;  those  (d  Fkn'd'a — the  P4»'(f o 
nu — n-ere  five,  Yndhiah'thira,  W'*'"',  Ariuna,  and 
the  twins  Nakola  and  Sshadeva.  F&n'dn  having 
resigned  his  thrtme,  Dhr'itBrtah'tra,  though  blind, 
asimned  the  government,  and  olldmately  divided 
his  kingdom  between  his  sons  and  the  sons  ot 
F&n'd'u.  The  former,  however,  coveting  the  terri- 
tory allotted  to  the  F&n'd'u  princes,  endeavoured  to 
get  possession  of  it.  A  game  of  dice  was  the  meana 
by  which  they  bound  over  their  cousins  to  T«Iin- 
quish  their  kingdom,  promising,  however,  to  reston 
it  to  them  if  they  passed  twelve  years  in  the 
forests,  and  a  thirteontb  year  in  such  msguiaes  as  to 
escape  detection.  This  promise  was  foiUifally  kept 
by  the  Pftn'd'avas ;  but  the  term  of  their  banish- 
ment having  expired,  the  Kuru  princes  refused  to 
redeem  their  word.  A  war  ensned,  ending  in  the 
complete  destruction  of  the  Kaursvas.  These  are 
the  meagre  outlinea  ot  the  leading  story  of  the  iL, 
whero,  08  may  be  inferred,  Dujyodluuia  and  his 
brothers  are  pictored  aa  the  type  of  all  oonceivable 
wickedness,  and  Uie  Pln'd'a  pnnces  as  paragons  of 
virtus  and  heroism.  That  the  latter  are  the  incar- 
nationa  of  sundry  deitiea — that  the  gods  take  an 
activepart  in  the  development  of  the  plot,  in  short, 
that  Hindu  mythology  u  always  interwora  wHh 

— ^-%^ 


MAHABEVA— MAHATIRA. 


UiSM  ttiniDg  eretits  of  ■emi-hiatoricaJ  Hinda  lati- 
qnity,  reqnirea  no  farther  remark  to  any  one  but 
uightiy  acqnunted  with  Hindu  poetry.  It  ii  neceo- 
i«iy,  however,  to  observe  that  out  trf  the  one  hun- 
dred thousand  verses  which  coiiiti(ut«  the  great  epos, 
htmly  a  fourth  part  ia  taken  up  by  thii  narrative  ; 
all  the  reit  is  episodical  The  matter  thus,  aa  it 
were,  bcidentally  linked  with  the  niain  story,  may 
be  distributed  under  three  principal  beads,  pasung 
over  such  minor  additions  a*  fables,  genealogical 
lilts,  geographical  eniuneratioiis,  and  the  like.    One 


,  for  instance,  the  episodea  of  Nala  and  S'akuntalfl . 
a  leoond  is  more  strictly  mythological,  comprisiiig 
oosmogony  and  tbeogony ;  a  third  is  didactic  or 
doematio— it  refera  to  law,  religioa,  morals,  and 
phHoaophy,  as  in  the  case  of  the  celebrated  Bhaga- 
vadgtift,  and  the  principal  portions  of  the  12th  and 
J3th  books.  By  means  of  this  episodical  matter, 
which  at  various  periods,  and  often  without  regard 

tenoy.  was  superadded  to  the  original 
of  the  work,  the  M.  gradually  be^me 

m  of  all  that  was  nee&d  to  be  known 
by  an  educated  Hindu ;  in  faot,  it  became  the 
enoyolopmdia  of  India.  'There  is  no  narrative  on 
earth,'  the  M.  says  of  itself,  '  that  is  not  founded 
OD  Ulis  epca.  ....  The  twice-bom,  though 
knowing  toe  four  Vedss  and  their  supplementaiy 
science*,  has  no  wisdom  unless  he  knows  this  great 
epoa.  ....  It  is  the  great  manual  of  all  that 
ii  mond,  useful,  and  agreeable.'  Yet  it  should  be 
noticed  that  the  Bnhnuinio  authors  of  the  great 

r  intended  it  especially  as  an  encyclonedia  for 
Kshattriya  or  military  caste ;  for  it  is  chiefly 
the  history,  the  intenats,  the  religion,  and  the 
duties  of  tbe  second  caste  which  are  tanoht  in  it, 
always,  of  course,  with  a  view  of  eetablishing  the 
BOperiority  of  the  firahmanlo  caste.  Sectarian 
religion  is  for  this  nason  not  emphasised  In  the 
M.,  though  tJhe  later  sectarian  works  (see  PukIna) 
have  lai^y  drawn,  for  their  purposes,  on  tbe 
mythological  material  afforded  them  by  the  great 
epM  work.  The  text  of  the  M.  was  published  in 
CUcotta  in  four  quarto  volomes  (1834—1830),  an- 
other at  Bombay  in  1863.  The  best  researches  on 
the  M.  are  those  by  Lassen,  especially  in  his  Indudie 
Alierthnmdnmde.  A  sort  of  analgia  of  the  leading 
Btoiy  of  the  M.  is  given  iu  Eichhoff's  PoiaU  HtrOSmie 
de»  Indittu  (Paris,  ISGO),  and  by  Professor  Momer 
Williams  {Iidian  Epic  Poetry,  1863).  Fauche's 
fWnch  translation  of  the  M.  (10  vols.  1863—1872}  ia 
imperfect  Manyepisodes  (as  tbe  BraoavaS'SITA, 
a.  T.)  have  been  separately  published,  as  by  Pavie, 
Foncaox,  Bopp,  and  others.  See  Talboys  Wheeler's 
Bittory  qf  India  (1867). 

HAHAdevA  ('the  great  god')  is  one  of  the 
Qsual  names  by  which  the  Hindu  god  3'ira  is  colled. 
{His  consort,  Dnrgi,  is  similarly  staled  MahAdei^, 
'the  great^oddeas.')  In  Buddhistic  history,  M., 
who  hved  SOD  years  after  the  death  of  the  Bnddha 
S'&kyamnni,  or  343,  is  a  renowned  teacher  who 
caused  a  schism  in  the  Buddhistic  Church.  His 
adversaries  accuse  bim  of  every  possible  crime,  bnt 
as  he  is  ranked  amongst  the  Arhata,  his  eminence 
eannot  be  matter  of  doubt.  The  school  founded  by 
him  is  called  PArmi'mla.  See  W.  Wassiljew,  Der 
Buddliitmiit ;  Oldenberg's  Bvddha  (transL  1882). 

MAHAKAS'YAPA,  one  of  the  moat  renowned 
disciples  of  the  Buddha  S'ftkyamunL  He  arranged 
metaphysically  the  portion  of  the  sacred  writings  of 
the  Buddhists  called  Abbidhanna ;  and  tradition 
ascribes  to  him  also  t^e  origin  of  the  StAotn'm 
division  of  the  Vaibhdghiia  school  of  Buddhistic 
philosophy.    Many  legends  are  connected  with  his 


life.— See  E.  Bomoof,  Introduction  A  lEUloirt  rfu 
Bti^dhumx  Indim  (Paiii,  1844),  and  his  poethomoua 
worit,  L«  Lota*  dt  ia  Borne  Loi  (Paris,  18fi2). 

MAHANNTT'DDT  (more  accurately,  Mahix- 
ADI),  a  river  of  India,  rises  on  the  sonth-west  border 
of  the  presidency  of  Bengal,  in  lat  20°  W  N.,  long. 
82*  K  After  an  eastinrd  course  oC  620  miles, 
300  milea  of  which  are  navigable,  having  divided 
into  several  branches  at  the  town  of  Cuttack, 
which  forms  the  head  of  its  delta,  it  flows  east  and 
south-east  through  the  district  of  that  name,  sod 
falls  by  several  months  into  the  Bay  of  BengaL 

MAHA8ANGHIKA  is  tbe  name  of  one  of  the 
two  great  divisions  of  the  Buddhistic  Ciarch  which 
arose  about  200  years  after  the  death  of  the  Buddha 
S'ikyamuni,  or  about  ZiS,  caused,  as  it  seema,  by 
the  Bchiam  of  MabAdeva  (q.  v.).  For  the  other  divi< 
sion,  see  SraAVTBA.  Ont  of  tbe  M.  school  arose,  in 
the  course  of  the  next  centories,  numerous  sects. 
For  tbe  tenet*  common  to  all,  and  for  those  pecnliar 
to  each  of  these  sects,  tbe  special  student  of  the 
Buddhist  religion  will  at  present  most  advantageously 
consult  the  work  of  Professor  W.  Wassiliew,  I>rr 
Buddiiitmta,  lane  Dogmen,  GaiAitAte  und  lAttralur 
(St  PeteiabiCTg,  1360). 

MAHAVAKSA  a  the  title  of  two  celebratel 
works  written  in  Plli,  and  relating  to  the  history 
of  Lanki,  or  Ce^on  (q.  v.),  from  ita  earliest  period 
down  to  Uie  roizn  of  Mahjjena,  who  died  302  ^ter 
Christ.  Tbe  older  work  was  probably  composed  by 
the  monks  of  the  convent  UttaravihAra  at  AnurAdbJl- 
pura,  the  capital  of  Ceylon.  Its  dato  is  nncertain ;  but 
it  bas  apparently  preceded  the  reiga  of  Dbfttuscua 
[469 — 477),  as  that  monarch  ordend  it  to  be  read 
in  public,  a  circumstance  which  seems  to  prove  the 
oeiebri^  it  enjoyed  already  at  his  time.— Tbe  later 
work  of  the  same  name  is  an  improved  edition  and 
continuation  of  the  former.  Its  author,  MaMndma, 
aunt  of  the  king  Dhlltusena, 
' '  '         '  "        n,  like  his  , 

A  first  volume 

the  text  of  the  latter  work, '  in  Roman  character, 
with  a  translation  tnbjoined,  and  on  introductory 
essay  on  PUi  Baddbistio  literature,'  was  pnblislied 
by  the  Hon.  George  Tumour  (Ceylon,  1837) ;  other 
portions  have  since  been  done.  See  Lassen,  IndUdie 
AUerlAutmtunde  (18j2  ;  2d  ed.,  1S75}- 

MAHAVIRA  (literally,  'the  great  hero'),  also 
called  VIra  and  Vardhamdiui,  is  tbs  24th  or  last 
Jina,  or  deified  saint,  of  the  Jainas  [q.  v.),  described 
a*  of  a  golden  complexion,  and  having  a  Uon  for  his 
symboL  His  legendary  history  is  given  in  the 
Kalpa-SClra  (q.v.)  and  the  MaJiMtra-OharilTa, 
two  works  belli  in  great  authority  by  the  Jainos. 
According  to  these  works,  M.'b  first  birth  occurred 
at  a  period  infinitely  remoto ;  it  was  as  NayasAra, 
head  man  of  a  village,  that  he  first  appeared  in  the 
country  of  Vijaya,  subject  to  S'atmmardano.  He 
was  next  bom  as  JfoHcAi,  the  grandson  of  the  first 
Jaina  sunt  JfUhaiiha;  he  then  came  to  the  worid  oC 
Irahmi,  was  reborn  as  a  worldly-minded  BiUmuu'a, 
and  after  several  other  births — each  being  sepatnted 
the  other  by  on  interval  passed  in  one  of  the 
Jaina  haavena,  and  each  period  of  life  extending  to 
many  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years — he  quitted 
the  state  of  a  deity  to  obtain  immortality  as  a 
saint,  and  was  incarnate  towards  the  close  of  tbe 
fourth  age  (now  past),  when  75  years  and  Si  months 
of  it  remained.  After  he  was  30  years  of  age,  he 
renounced  worldly  poteuits,  and  departed,  amiibt  the 
ajijilaoses  of  gods  and  men,  to  practise  austerities. 
Finally,  be  became  an  Arhat  or  Jina ;  and  at  the 
age  of  72  years,  the  period  of  his  liberation  having 
arrived,  'he  resigned  his  breath,'  and  bis  body  was 

D,a,t,.sa.,l^OOglC 


MAHMUD  n^MAHOGAKY. 


divided 
not  destroyed  by 
the  flikmeo,  bb  the  teeth  uid  boii«A,  vbich  they  pre- 
•erved  as  relics ;  the  tubes  of  the  pile  were  distri- 
buted unongtrt  the  asdatants :  the  gods  erected  a 
splendid  monument  on  the  spot,  Mid  then  returned 
to  their  reapedive  hesTens.  At  what  period  these 
events  oociUTed  is  not  stated,  bat  jndging  from  some 
of  the  dronmatuiosB  narrated,  the  Isat  Jina  expired 
kboat  five  hundred  veui  before  the  Christisn  era. 
Other  authoritie*  muce  the  date  of  this  event  about 
•  century  and  a  half  earlier.  The  works  above 
referred  to  state,  iritb  considerabla  detail,  the 
coDveraioni  worked  by  Mabftvlra.  Among  the 
pupils  were  IndTcHiAU  (also  called  Oantama,  and 
lor  this  reown,  but  emmeously,  conaiderad  as  the 
same  with  the  founder  of  the  Buddhist  religion), 
J  gnibhOii,  Filg/uMlUt— all  three  sons  of  Vaaubhati,  a 
Br&bnuui'a  of  the  Ootoma  tribe,  and  others.  These 
converts  to  Jains  piiuciplet  are  mostly  made  in  the 
aome  manner :  each,  comet  to  the  saint  prepared 
to  overwhelm  him  with  shame,  when  he  salutes 
them  mildly,  and,  M  t^e  Jainas  hold,  solves  their 
metaphysical  or  religious  donbts.  Thus,  Indrabh&ti 
doubts  whether  there  be  a  living  principle  or  not ; 
VSyubbllti  donbts  if  life  be  not  body ;  Man'd'ita  has 
not  mode  up  his  mind  on  the  subjects  of  bondage 
and  liberation;  Achalabhr&tr'i  is  sceptical  ag  to 
the  distinction  twtween  vice  and  virtues  and  so  on. 
M.  removes  all  t^eir  difficulties,  and  W  teaclilng 
them  the  Jaina  truth,  converts  them  to  the  doctrine 
of  his  secL  For  a  summary  accoont  of  the  life  of 
this  saint,  see  E.  T.  Colebrooke's  JftsceUononu 
Etmvt,  voL  iL  p.  213,  ft. ;  H.  H.  Wilson's  wo^k^ 
vol.  L  p.  291,  E 

MAHHUD  II.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  and  younger 
SOD  of  Sultan  Abdul-Uamid,  was  boni  2l>th  July 
1786,  and  on  the  depodtion  of  his  brother,  Mustaut 
IV.,  by  Balraktar,  Fosha  of  Buschuk,  was  raised 
to  the  throne,  July  2S,  180S.  Balraktar  became 
his  grand  visier,  and  vigorously  aided  him  in  his 
attempts  to  reform  the  constitutioa  of  the  Turkish 
army.  But  the  Jauiiaries,  emboldened  by  their 
successful  opposition  to  the  same  attempt  on  Qib 

rof  Selim  IIL,  rose  in  rebeUion,  and  tjie  murder  of 
vizier  put  a  stop  for  the  present  to  the  carrying 
out  of  any  military  reforms.  M.  was  a^  attacked 
^yJ  the  rebels,  but  he  lecared  his  life  and  throne 
by  the  destruction  of  all  the  other  members  of  the 
royal  House  of  Osman.  The  war  with  Russia  now 
commenced  vigorously ;  but  after  a  confijct  of 
three  yean'  duration,  which  completely  proetrated 
the  strength  of  Turkey,  peace  was  concluded  at 
Bucharest  [a.  v.).  The  daring  and  energetia  M. 
now  applied  himself  to  the  subjugation  of  the  temi- 
inde[>endent  pashas  of  the  outlying  provinces,  and  to 
the  promotion  of  isdical  reforms  in  all  departments 
of  the  government.  The  rebellion  of  the  Wahabis 
was  cnuhed  through  the  instnimeDtality  of  Ibrahim 
Pasha  in  1313,  and  Ali  Fasha  (q.v^,  tiie  'Lion  of 
Janina,'  was  overthrown  in  ISISIL  Greece  revolted 
in  1821,  and  its  independence  was  secured  by  the 
battle  of  Navarino  in  1827,  bnt  it  vras  not  reco^iised 
as  a  separate  kingdom  by  Turkev  till  April  1830. 
During  the  progress  of  the  Greet  revolution,  M, 
had  been  steadily  though  secretly  maturing  his  plans 
of  military  reform,  and  in  June  182S  the  succeea  of 
his  schemes  was  crowned  by  the  destruction  of  the 
Janizaries  (q.  v.).  The  consequent  confusion  into 
which  Turkey  was  thrown  was  immediately  taken 
itaze  of  by  Russia  for  obtuning  fieah  conces- 

lose  plans  of 

e  stability  of 

nation  of  the 

r  with  Russia  (1828—1829),  far  from 


iterfering  with  bis  projects,  only  stimnhited  him 
i  renewed  exertion.  The  successful  revolt  of  the 
Greeks,  and  the  late  tiinmph  of  tlie  Russians,  together 
with  the  disaffection  manifested  by  the  Christian 
population  of  Turkey,  excited  in  the  ambitious  mind 
of  Mehemed  Ali,  pasha  of  Egypt,  the  desire  for 
independence.  See  Meheued  Ali.  The  war  which 
ensued  was  from  Gist  to  last  in  favour  of  the  Egyp- 
tians ;  but  the  intervention  of  Russia  compiled 
both  parties  to  agree  to  a  treaty  (1833)  which  was 
satisfactory  to  neither.  M.  was  now  forced  to  grant 
fresh  concessions  to  his  '  good  friend  and  slly"  the 
Czar,  by  the  treaty  of  Uiuuar-Skelessi  (q.  v.),  July 
8,  1833,  and  by  another  treaty  in  the  following 
year.  He  was  again  at  liberty  to  pursue  his  reforms 
in  the  civil  Bdmioistration,  the  principal  improve- 
ments being  the  modification  and  readjustment  of 
the  more  oppressive  taxes,  the  formation  of  a 
militia  on  the  principle  adopted  by  Bngland,  the 
eatabligbment  of  schools  of  anatomy  ami  painting 
increased  privileges  to  Prankish  merchants,  and  the 
abolition  of  the  export  duty  on  grain,  measures  of 
sound  policy,  which  tended  uu^y  to  consolidate  the 


which  both  strengthened  the  connection  between  the 
two  nations  and  advanced  their  mercantile  interests. 
In  1830,  he  renewed  the  war  with  Mehemed  Ali, 
but  died  before  its  conclnsion,  1st  July  1839,  after  an 
eventful  reign  of  31  years. 

MAHOOAHY,  the  wood  of  the  trunk  of  th« 
Smittenia  laahagorA,  a  tree  of  80 — 100  feet  hi^ 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  Ctdrdaeea,  a  nabve 
of  the  West  Indies  and  of  South  America.  It 
has  pinnate  leaves  with  3 — S  pair  of  leaflets,  and 
panicles  of  small  whitish  or  yellow  flowers,  the 
stamens  united  into  a  tube  whiui  is  toothed  at  the 
summit,  and  set  round  on  the  inside  with  8 — 10 
anthers.  The  capsule  is  6-celled,  about  the  size  <^ 
a  man's  fist,  hard,  woody,  and  oval,  and  the  seeds 
are  winged  at  the  apex.  It  attains  an  '"<" 
second  to  few  others,  and  its  timber  is 
sound  throughout  in  the  largest 
progress  which  it  is  observed 
mdicates  that  the  treee  which 
must  have   attuned  a  great  age 

been  assumed  as  an  approximat  ... 

abundant  on  the  coast  of  Honduras  and  around 
Campeachy  Bay,  whence  the  greater  portion  of  that 
used  in  Europe  is  exported.  St  Domingo  and 
Cuba  ahso  yield  a  considerable  quantity,  which  is 
of  a  finer  quahty  than  that  ootained  from  the 
mainland,  which  is  frequently  adled  Bay  Wood, 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  Cuba  mahogany,  usually 
called  Spanish.  The  occnpatioD  of  cutting  this 
timber  and  removing  it  to  the  coast  for  ^pment, 
is  exceedingly  laborious,  and  employs  a  large  num- 
ber of  men  and  o»en.  The  wood  varies  much  in 
value,  Bocording  to  the  colour  and  beauty  of  curl ; 
single  logs  have  occasionally  realised  as  mnch  as 
£1000,  for  cutting  into  veneere,  in  which  state  it 
is  very  gCTcrally  used,  its  great  weight  and  nine 
unfittmg  it  for  being  always  employed  sohd.  It 
was  first  introduced  into  this  countiy  by  accident 
in  1607,  having  been  used  to  repair  one  of  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh's  ships  at  Trinidadi  but  althoiurh 
the  wood  so  employed  was  much  admired,  it  did 
not  become  an  article  of  commerce  until  rathco^ 
more  than  a  century  later,  when  another  accidental 
circumstance  brought  it  into  demand,  and  it  became 
an  article  of  luxury,  and  has  since  maintained  the 
highest  poeition  as  a  cabinet-mailer's  wood.  Tbe 
annual  imports  into  Britain  are  about  40,000  tons, 
with  a  vafne  of  £400,000  (1880—1883).  The  bark 
has  a  faint  aromatic  smell,  and  a  very  astrin- 
gent bitter  taste,  and  tn  the  countries  where  the 


is  generally 

The  slow 

make,  clearly 

200   yean  hoa 


ivC.ooqIc 


MAHONIA.— MAI 


faee  KTowB,  ii  tued  M  a  inedioiiie.     In  England, 
has  been  recommended  uid  mod  ander  tlie  dui 
Mahogany  Bark,  or  Amartailh  Bart,  a>  a  subatltate 
for  Peraviui  Bark. — Eur  Indu  Mabooant  is  tba 


both  of  the  order  CedrdacoE. 

HAHO'NIA.    Sea  Babberri. 

MAHRATTAS,  a  people  of  Hinds  race,  inha- 
biting Central  India,  south  of  the  Ganeeai  from 
Ow^or  to  Ooa,  and  anppoacd  by  manv  to  be  the 
deacendantB  of  a  Fenian  or  North  IndiAii 
who  had  been  driven  Bouthwarda  by  the  I 
They  are  firat  mentioned  in  history  antnt  tht 
of  the  17th  c,  when  they  poaaessed  a  narrow  atrip  of 
territory  on  tie  west  aide  at  the  peninsula,  ertending 
from  15*  to  21°  N.  lot  The  founder  of  the  Mahiatbti 
power  was  Sevaii,  a  freebooter  or  adTeoturer,  whoso 
lather  was  an  officer  in  the  serrioe  of  the  laat  king 
of  Bejapflr.  By  policy  or  by  force,  he  eventually 
■occeeded  in  compelling  Uie  several  independent 
chiefs  to  acknowledge  him  as  their  leader,  and  with 
the  large  army  then  at  his  command,  overran  and 
subdued  a  large  portion  of  the  emperor  of  Delhi's 
territory.  Eia  aon  and  (lOSO)  successor,  Sambaji, 
after  vigorously  following  out  hia  fath^a  policy, 
was  taken  prisoner  by  Anningzebe  in  1G89,  and 
put  to  deatL  The  incapacity  of  the  subsequent 
mien  who  reigned  under  the  title  of  JtamraJaJi 
('great  king'),  tempted  the  two  chief  ofGcers  of 
state,  the  Ptiihaa,  or  prime  minister,  and  the  Pay- 
master-general, to  diTide  the  empire  between  them. 
This  was  effected  about  1749,  the  former  fixing 
his  residenoe  at  Foona,  and  retaining  a  uomioM 
aapremocy  over  the  wbole  natioo  of  the  M. ;  while 
the  latter  made  NagpUr  his  capital,  and  foonded 
Ui«  empire  of  the  Berar  Mohrattas.  This  paction, 
of  oonne,  required  the  sanction  of  the  more 
important  among  the  minor  chiefs  and  ofBoera 
of  state,  who  gave  their  consent  on  condition  of 
MoeiviDg  a  share  (d  the  apoiL  The  ultimate  result 
was  the  partHion  of  the  Mahratta  kingdom  into  a 
srest  niunber  of  stateB,  more  or  less  powerful  and 
mdependent  j  chief  among  which  were,  beaidea  the 
two  above  mentioned,  Gwalior,  ruled  by  the  Kao 
Seindia ;  Indore,  by  the  Bao  Holkar ;  and  Baroda, 
by  tiie  Guicowar.  It  was  to  be  expected  that  tlie 
nsoal  intestine  waw  would  supervene,  and  ultimately 
the  East  India  Company  was  compelled  to  interfere. 
The  invadOD  of  the  Delhi  empire  by  Nadir  Shah 
afforded  these  wild  uid  warlike  mountaineers  an 
OKlorttmity,  of  which  tbey  eagerly  availed  them- 
■efvee,  to  wrest  additional  territory  from  the  feeble 
grasp  of  the  Mogol  emperor.  From  this  time  they 
discharged  the  office  of  arbiters  in  the  qaarrels 
between  the  emperor,  hia  viiiar,  and  his  rebellious 
mbjecta;  butthefrightfnldefoat (Januatyl761) they 
■natained  at  the  hands  of  Ahmed  Shah  Abdalli,  the 
ruler  of  Afghanistan,  oa  the  field  of  Paniput,  where 
tbev  loat  IH),000  mei^  and  all  th^  chiefs  ezcent 
Holkar,  weakened  their  power  for  a  time.  They  stiJl, 
however,  continued  to  be  the  hired  mercoiaries  of 
the  Delhi  emperor,  till  the  growing  influence  of  the 
British  compelled  them  to  look  to  their  own  safety. 
After  many  long  and  bloody  oonteets  with  the  Bril^ah 
and  their  allies,  in  which  aomatimea  the  whole,  but 
jnore  frequently  a  portion  of  the  M.  joined,  they 
were  one  by  one,  wiUi  the  exception  of  Scindish, 
ndoced  to  a  state  of  dependence.  This  last-men- 
tioned duef,  having  raised  a  powerful  army,  officered 
l^  Frenchmen,  aiu  dia<aplined  after  the  Enropean 
method,  continued  the  contest  for  a  nmnbcr  of 
nan,  till  his  power  was  finaI^f  broken  in  1843. 
nie  dignity  of  Peishwa  was  aboUahed  in  1S18,  and 
Us  territories  were  occapied  by  the  British,  with 
STO 


the  exception  of  a 

. .i.-  ..-.-- -^  g_ 

ragpftr    .    ..    _   . .  _  .    .  .  _ . 

le  British  govemment,  bat 
chiefs  still  posseM  extensive  dominions, 
under  Britdsh  protectdon. 

Tba  M.  are  a  vuorons  and  active  race,  and  though 
diminuljve  and  Ql-formed,  are  diatinKuiahed  for 
their  ooung&  They  are  of  a  cruel  and  perfidiona 
disponldon,  and  have  exercised  a  most  disastrous 
infloenoe  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  they 
have  conquered.  Though  devout  wonhii>pers  Of 
Brahma,    no   distinctions   ot    caste   exist   among 

MAI,  Akoblo,  CiBimJiL,  a  diatinguished  editor 
and  scholar,  was  bom  in  the  Ttll^  of  Sclulpario, 
in  Lombardv,  March  7,  17S2.  He  wm  edocated 
and  lived  tul  1808  in  eatablisluneDts  belonnng  to 
the  Jesuits ;  but  obtained  an  appointment,  first  as 
associate,  and  ultimately  as  doctor,  in  the  cele- 
brated Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan.  His  career 
as  an  author  dates  from  this  appointment.  In 
1S13,  he  published  a  translation  and  commentary  of 
Isocrates,  De  PenmUatione ;  but  his  repntation  is 
due  much  more  to  his  publications  of  me  palimp- 
sests or  re-written  mannscripta,  the  first  apecimens 
of  which  be  issued  at  Milan  {aee  P^losfsist). 
His  earliest  pnblications  in  that  line  were  frag- 
ments of  Ciaro'M  OraUons ;  of  the  yidtiiaria,  a 
lost  play  of  Plautna ;  of  Ldtert  of  Fronto,  Moircus 
Auj^us's  preceptor;  the  CAronlom  of  Enaebins, 
and  other  less  important  works,  which,  however, 
were  entirely  eclipsed  by  hia  well-known  edition 
and  restoration  of  the  Ht  RepahXiea,  of  Cicero, 
pablished  in  1820.  Meanwhile,  M.  had  been  invited 
to  Borne  by  I^os  ViL,  and  named  to  tbe  charge  of 
the  Tatican  Library,  together  with  otber  honour- 
able and  emolumentary  appointmenta.  He  at  once 
turned  hia  att«nti(ai  to  the  unedited  MSS.  of  the 
Vatican,  and  after  a  short  eiamiiiation  of  tbia  noble 
collection,  undertook,  aa  the  mission  of  his  life,  the 
task  of  publishing  tbose  among  them  which  had  been 
overlooked  by  earlier  editors,  or  had  escaped  their 
notice.  This  task  he  steadily  punned ;  and  althou^ 
he  was  appointed,  in  1833,  to  the  onerous  office  of 
Secretary  of  the  Propaganda,  and,  in  1838,  to  the 
cardinalate  itself,  liia  Soman  publicatiooa  fonu  a 
collection  of  an  extent  and  importance  almost  unex- 
ampled in  modem  times.  Hie  first  series  was  in  ten 
"    vols., entitled .^eriptorwn  YtlavmNimaO<^eAio, 


, tons  nnpabliihed 

works,  partly  sacred,  partly  profane,  and  indiffer- 
ently in  the  Greek  and  the  LAtin  ' 


jfawW  Avdora  tx  CoditSnu  Vaticanis  (10  vola. 
8vo,  1838),  SpieiUqium  Romamaii  (10  vids.  Svo^ 
1839— 13«4),  and  JVotn  Patnan  BtbHoOaia  (ft  vota. 
4to,  1353),  are  all  on  the  same  plui,  and  all  equally 
replete  with  new  and  intereabns  materials.  For 
many  years,  too,  he  was  engaged  in  preparing  an 
edition  of  the  celebrated  Oodex  Va^amv*.  which 
he  had  printed,  but  the  pablication  of  which  was 
postpon^  awaiting  the  preparation  of  hia  intended 
preliminary  disaertetions.  He  died,  however,  rather 
unexpectedly,  at  Albano,  September  8,  18S4;  and 
OS  no  trooe  of  tbe  expected  preliminary  matter  wua 
found  among  his  papers,  the  edition  was  published 
(1867)  entirdy  without  critical  matter.  (A  good 
edition  of  the  Codex,  by  Tischendorf,  appeared  in 
18S7.)  His  library,  which  he  directed  totra  sold  for 
the  use  of  the  poor  of  his  native  village,  was  pur- 
chased by  the  pope  for  the  Vatican  Library. 


:oogtc 


MArDEN— MAIL 


from  abont  the  middle  of  the  16th  c.  to  neariy  the 
end  of  tha  17th  ceDtuy.  It  u  uid  to  have  been 
mtroduced  into  Scotluid  by  the  B^ent  Morton, 
who  had.  uen  it  at  TT«i;f«.T^  in  Yorkuiire,  and  was 
faimaaU  tha  fint  to  eoSer  by  it,  whence  the  proverb, 
■  He  that  invented  the  **«'■<"'  fint  haudaelled  it' 
Morton,  for  anything  that  is  known  to  the  con- 
trary, may  have  introdoced  the  Maiden ;  but  he 
certainly  was  not  its  fint  viotim.  Fifteen  yean 
befcmbewu  pot  to  dwth  by  it  (1681  a.1).),  it  wai 
employed   to   behead   Thomai    Soott   of    Camtnu- 


leot  tl 


of  I 


It  would  Mem  at  fint  to  have  bean  called  indiffer- 
ently "The  Uuden'  and '  The  TTidow'— both  namea, 
it  may  be  conjectnied,  having  their  origin  in  some 
(neb  pleMantiy  a«  was  cdanced  at  by  one  of  the 
Muden'a  la«t  victima,  the  £^1  of  Argyle  (1681  ^  d.), 
when  he  protested  that  it  was  '  tha  awaetest  maiden 
he  had  ever  kiaaed.'  A  frightfnl  instrument  of 
poniahment  naed  in  Germany  in  the  middle  age^ 
waa  called '  The  Vitmn.'  But  it  bad  no  Teeamblance 
to  the  Maiden,  which  waa  exaotty  like  the  fWich 
Onillatine  (q.  v.),  except  that  it  had  no  tormng- 
]^ank  on  which  to  bind  the  oriiniiiaL  l!lie  Maiden 
which  wa«  tued  in  the  Soottiah  capita  ii  now  in 
the  Miueain  of  the  Aotiqnariea  of  Scotland  at 
Edinburgh.  A  figure  of  it  is  given  in  the  article 
Gdillotiiib. 

MATDENHAIS  {Adiantvm  CapiUuM-rmrrit),  a 
■mail,  delicate,  and  graceful  fern,  with  bipinnate 
fronds,  alternate  ohovnte  and  wed^-ahaped  mem- 
branaceoni  pinnnles  on  capiUair  stalu,  and  marginal 
(ori  hidden  beneath  oblong  mduiia ;  growing  on 
mobt  rooki  and  old  walls,  especially  near  the  sea ; 
rare  in  Btitajn,  bnt  very  abundant  in  the  louth 
of  Enrope,  where  it  coven  the  inaide  of  wells 
and  the  l>amna  of  fountains  (aa  at  Vauclnse)  with 
A  tapestry  of   the  most  delicate  green.    Another 


dtuated  amid  beautiful  aoenery,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Thamea,  20  miles  west  ot  London.  It  carries 
on  Bome  trade  in  meal,  malt,  and  timber,  and  baa 
alai^brewery.    Pop.  (1371)  6173;  (1881)  8219L 

MAIDS  OF  HONOUR.  See  Lism  or  nil 
Quxkh's  Hodskhold. 

MAI'DSTONB  (old  form,  liedvegtUm),  the 
_.unty  town  of  Kent,  England,  on  the  rizht  bank 
of  the  Medway,  43  miles  from  London  by  the  South- 
eastern Bailway.  It  ia  a  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough,  and  returns  one  member  to 
parliament  It  atands  in  a  noted  corn-district  j  its 
gndn-market  ia  the  most  important  in  the  coon^ ; 
and  in  tha  vicinity  ara  the  famona  hop-grounda 
known  as  '  the  middle  growth  of  Kent.  Xhe 
parish  church,  built  toward  tha  close  of  the  14th  c, 
in  the  perpendicular  style,  oontnins  many  interest- 
ing tombs.  Tha  remans  of  the  College  or  Hosjatal 
of  All-Saints,  which  grew  out  of  a  hospital  founded 
in  1260  at  the  entrance  of  the  town  for  the  benefit 
of  pilgrims  travelling  to  Canterbury,  are  highly 
picturesqnet  M.  has  nnmeroua  educational  and 
other  institntiona.  An  extensive  oil,  and  several 
paper  mills,  sacking  and  twine  manufactories,  and 
several  breweries,  are  in  operation.     Pop.  of  parlia- 

Butary  borough  (1871),  26,237 ;  (1S81)  39,662. 

MAl'GBE  [Sdana  aquOa),  a  fish  of  tha  acanthop- 
torous  family  Scitmhia^  common  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  but  a  rare  visituit  of  the  British  shorea.  It 
attiiina  a  large  size,  being  seldom  taken  less  than  threo 
feet,  whilst  it  is  sometimes  six  feet  long.  In  seneral 
appearance,  it  much  resembles  a  Luge  basse,  but  tha 
head  is  ahortor  and  more  ronnded,  and  the  tongne 
and  roof  of  the  mouth  are  deftitate  of  teeth.  The  M. 


True  Uaideuhur  (Jdtantun  OapiUiti'Vtnera). 

spedea  of  the  same  genns.  A,  pedabim,  a  native 
■M  North  America,  with  ptdalt  leav^  has  a  aweet, 
fragrant  root-atock,  of  which  CapUiaire  (^.  v.)  ie 
made.  It  ia  supposed  that  the  name  M.  or^inated 
in  the  use  of  a  mucilage  made  from  this  lem  b^ 
women  for  stiffening  their  tuur.  This  name  u 
sometimea  applied  also  to  some  species  of  Spleen' 
wort  {Aipla^Jn),  ss  A.  oiianfum  nigrum  and  A, 
Irithomaaei. 

MA'IDENHEAD,   a  mnniciiial  borough  and 
market-town  of  England,  in  the  county  ot  Berks,  is 


Maigre  {Scuma  tupiUa). 

is  in  very  high  esteem  for  the  tabl&  and  the  head 
ia  a  favourite  delicacy  of  epicures.  The  strength  of 
the  M.  is  such  that  a  stroke  of  its  tail  will  throw 
down  a  man ;  and  when  it  ia  token,  the  fishermen 
therefore  quickly  stun  it  by  a  blow  on  the  head.  It 
ia  one  of  those  fishes  which  emit  a  peculiar  sound, 
which  has  been  described  ss  a  kind  of  purring  or 
buzzing,  and  has  been  heard  from  a  depth  of  120 
feet.  Fiahermeii  have  been  guided  by  this  sound 
to  let  down  their  nets  so  aa  to  enclose  a  number  of 
maigrea.  Tha  M.  appears  to  be  the  timbrina  of  the 
Romans,  and  was  highly  esteemed  hy  them.  The 
atones  of  its  ears  were  formeriy  set  in  gold,  and 
worn  on  the  neck,  imaginary  virtues  being  ascribed 
to  then),  particularly  in  the  cure  of  coho ;  but  it 
was  requuita  that  they  should  be  obtuned  as  a 
g^t,  oad  not  by  purchase. 

MAIL  (Ft.  maSk,  It.  magtia;  from  the  Idt. 
macula,  a  spot,  hole,  or  mesh  of  a  net)  ngnifiea  a 
metal  net-work,  and  ia  ordinarily  applied  to  auok 
nst-work  when  used  as  body  defensive  arrooor.  Well- 
mada  mail  formed  an  admirable  defence  against  all 

.CiOoqIc 


MAILED  CHEEKS— UAIM0NIDE8. 


WMpoDi   except   firearmt,  tad   its   pliability  fmd 
eomp&ntivs  lightnew  gave  it  fsvour  over  the  mora 

MAILED  CHEEKS  lSd^TOgenid(e  or  Tridida), 
a  family  of  acantiiopteroui  fisbes,  distinguiihiiiglj 
characteriKd  b^  an  enlargemeiit  of  certain  bonea  of 
the  head  and  gUl-oovera  to  form  a  bony  armour  for 
the  cheeks.  They  exhibit  great  varie^  of  forms ; 
soma  of  tbem  are  remarkable  for  their  ^gaoce  and 
for  their  delicate  or  splendid  hues,  others  for  their 
extreme  uglinesa.  Gnmarda  (q.  t.)  are  among  the 
best  known  and  most  Taluable  of  this  family.  To 
it  belong  aUo  Bnll-heads  (q.  t.)  and  Scorpana  (q.  v.). 
Sticklebacks  (q.  t.)  are  sometimes  referred  to  it. 
The  (peciea  are  widelv  distributed  in  the  seas  of 
•U  pans  of  the  worla;   a  few  inhabit  lakes  aad 


MAIMING  is  the  shooting,  stabtnng,  or  other' 
wise  seriously  injuring  of  a  person,  and  therefore, 
when  treated  as  a  orimiual  offeuce,  properly  belongs 
to  the  heads  of  Assault,  Attempt  to  Murder,  and 
ofiences  against  the  person  generally.  Maiming 
cattle  is  classed  under  the  head  of  Malicious  Injuries 
to  Property. 

MAIMO'NIDES,  or  rather  Moses  bbk  Maiuon 
(R&UBaM=IUsbi  Moses  bev  Maihoh)  b.  Joskph 
B.  Isaac  b.  Jossph  b.  Obadjae,  Ac  ;  Arab.  Aben 
A""-"'  (Amru)  Musa  Iss  Abdauab  Ibs  Maihok 
Al-Eobtobi,  was  bom  at  Cordova,  March  30,  1135. 
Little  is  known  of  his  early  life,  which  fell  in  the 
troublous  period  of  the  Moravide  rulers.  His 
first  instruction  he  receiyed  at  the  hand  of  bis 
father,  himself  a  learned  man,  and  author  of  several 
Important  works  in  Arabic  and  Hebrew.  Under  the 
guidance  of  the  moat  distinguished  Arabic  mastera 
of  the  time,  M.  then  devoid  himself  to  the  stody 
of  Greek  (Ajistotelian)  philosophy,  the  scieooe  of 
medicine,  and  theology.  When,  m  1148,  Abd-al- 
Mnmen,  the  successor  of  Abdallah,  in  the  newly 
established  reigu  of  the  Al-Mohads  (Dnitarians), 
took  Cordova,  and,  shortiy  afterwards,  subjected 
all  Anilnliuia,  both  Jews  and  Christians  residing 
there  were  forced  either  to  profess  Islam  or  to  enu- 
grate.  M.'b  family,  however,  together  with  many 
othere  to  whom  emiCTatioa  was  wut-nigh  impossible, 
outwardly  embraced  the  Mohommeoaa  laith.  or 
rather  for  the  time  being  reaonnced  the  public  pro- 

to  it  in  secret,  and  keeping  up  a  close  commnnico- 
tion  with  their  co-religionists  abroad,  an  arrange- 
ment in  which  the  goveniiuent  readily  a^uieeced, 
since  it  fully  answered  their  purpose.  For  mora 
than  16  years,  M.  thus  lived  together  with  his 
whole  family  under  the  asBuined  character  of 
Mohammedans ;  but  when  the  death  of  the  reign- 
ing BOvereigD  Imiught  no  change  iu  the  system  of 
r^nous  intolecanca,  they  resolved  to  emigrate.  In 
116^  they  embarked,  went  to  Acco,  and,  by  way  of 
Jerusalem,  to  Cairo,  where  M.'s  father  med.  M. 
settled  in  Fost&t  (Old  Cairo),  where  for  some  time 
he  gained  hi*  llvelibood  bj  the  jewel-trade,  until  his 
great  medical  knowledge  procured  him  the  high 
office  of  physiciaii  to  Saloh  Eddin,  the  rdiming 
sultan  of  Effl'pt.  U.'s  importance  for  the  religion 
and  science  of  Judaism,  ood  his  influence  upon  &ea 
devebpment,  is  bo  gigantic,  that  he  bos  rightly 
been  placed  second  to  Mosea,  the  great  lawgiver, 
himself.  He  first  of  all  brought  onier  into  those 
almost  boundless  receptacles  of  tradition,  and  the 
discussions  and  deoisious  to  which  they  had  given 
rise,  which,  without  the  remotest  attempt  at  system 
or  method,  lie  scattered  np  and  down  the  works 
HI 


of  Hoggada  and  Halacha — Midraah,  Mishnah, 
Talmuds.  Imbned  with  tiie  sjorit  of  locid  Greek 
Bpeculatian,  and  the  preduon  of  logical  thought 
M  the  Arabic  Peripatetics,  M.,  aided  by  an  enor- 
mous knowledge,  became  the  founder  of  rational 
Scriptural  exegesis.  The  Bible,  and  sU  its  written 
as  well  as  implied  precepts,  he  endeavoured  to 
explain  by  the  light  of  reason,  with  which,  as  the 
highest  divine  gilt  in  man,  nothing  really  divine 
could,  according  to  his  theory,  stand  iu  real  con- 
tradiction. The  miracles  themselves,  though  not 
always  trooeable  to  their  immediate  cause,  ^et 
cannot  be  wrooght  iu  opposition  to  the  phvsical 
and  everlasting  laws  in  nature.  Where  literal  mtw- 
pretation  seemB  to  jar  upon  the  feelings  of  reve- 
rential awe  towards  the  Highest  Being,  there  an 
allegorical  explanation  is  to  oe  adoptea  unheeitat- 
ingly.  Bcs^ecting  M.'b  philosophical  system,  ws 
can  barely  mnt  in  tins  place  at  ita  close  similarity 
with  that  of  Averroes ;  both   drawing   ft«m   the 


same  views  on  the  great  problems  of  the 
Holding  reason  in  man — if  properly  developed  and 
tutorea  by  divine  revelation — to  be  the  great  touch- 
stone for  the  right  or  wrong  of  individual  deeds, 
M.  fully  allows  the  freedom  of  will,  and  while  be 
urges  tlie  necessity,  nay,  the  merit  of  listening, 
to  a  certvn  degree,  to  the  promptJnes  of  nature, 
he  rigorously  condemns  a  life  of  idle  asoeticism, 
and  dreuay,  albeit  pious  contemplation.  'So  less 
cording  to    him,  r'  '  ' 


^opment  of  the  \toAy  and  the  care  of 
ite  preservation  by  the  closest  apphcation  to  hygienic 
rules.  Providence,  Kt.  holda,  reigns  in  a  certain 
— broad — manner  over  humanity,  and  holda  the 
Bwa^  over  the  destinies  of  nations ;  but  be  utterly 
demes  ite  woiking  in  the  single  event  that  may 
befall  the  individual,  who,  subject  above  all  to  the 
great  physical  laws,  must  learn  to  nnderstand  and 
obey  tbem,  and  to  shape  his  mode  of  life  and  action 
in  accordance  with  existing  conditions  and  circum* 
stances — t^  study  of  natural  science  and  medicine 
being  therefore  a  thing  almost  of  necessity  to  every- 
body. The  son],  and  the  soul  only,  is  immortal, 
and  the  reward  of  virtne  consists  in  ita— strictly 
unbodily — bliss  in  a  world  to  come ;  while  the 
punishment  of  vice  is  tlie  'loss  of  the  soul.' 

M.'b  first  work  of  paramount  import  (several  of 
his  earlier  minor  writings  treat  of  subjects  of 
general  science),  begun  in  his  twenty-third  year. 


by  Juuh  Alcharisi,  Tibbon  (father  and 
ben  Jacob,  Neb  Alm&li,  Jok.  Akkosi,  and  others], 
which  forms  an  extensive  historioil  introdnction 
to  Tnufitton,  or  the  Oral  Law :  tracing  ite  develop- 
ment, ite  divisions,  the  plan  of  the  Mi«hnati^ 
and  its  complements,  &c ;  and  this  introduction 
baa  now,  for  more  than  five  hundred  years,  been 
deemed  so  essential  a  part  of  the  Talmud  itself, 
that  no  edition  of  the  latter  is  conaidered  com- 
plete without  it.  This  was  followed  by  the  S'/er 
HammiBooUi,  or  Book  of  the  Precepts,  in  Arabia 
(translated  into  Hebrew  by  Abr.  Ibn  Chasdai,  and, 
from  the  anther's  second  edition,  by  Moses  Tibbon), 
which  contains  an  enumeration  of  the  613  tradi- 
tional laws  of  the  Halacha,  together  with  fourteen 
canons  on  the  principle  of  numbering  them,  chiefly 
directed  Bgainat  the  authors  of  certnia  liturgical 
pieces  called  Atharolh  (Warnings):  besides  thirteen 
articles  of  belief,  and  a  psyuiological  fr^^ment. 
This  book  is  to  be  considered  chiefly  as  an  intro- 
duction to  the  gigantic  work  which  followed  in 
i  1180,  under  the  title   of  JfuAne   Tharah  (Second 


ivGuui^li^ 


MAIN— MAINE. 


L>w),  or  rod  Cliatabih  (SboDg  Hand),  »  Hebrsw 
oompendimn  in  9B2  oh&ptera,  embradng  the  entire 
Ualaclia,  «Ten  tboae  of  ita  puia  no  longar  in  motioal 
ute,  iDoD  M  preoopta  re^rding  the  soil  m  Jnds» 
and  the  like,  and  wlucb,  with  the  mo«t  Mtonnd- 
ing  minatenaas,  Incidit^Ti  *aA  preciaioa,  places  the 
rcsolti  of  the  lee«l  diitqmtitiotii  Kathered  from  the 
Talmndioal  labynntha  qrttematioally  anuimd  before 
the  reader,  ^e  nunmit  of  hie  renown,  nowarer, 
M.  reached  in  hia  grand  Arabic  work,  Ddalath 
Al-Sairm  (HeK  Moreh  Nebnchim,  'Onide  of  the 
Erring '),  a  philoanruhical  ezeseaia  (tranilated  into 
Hebrew  by  Samael  Tibbon,  edited  for  the  fint  time 
in  the  original  hy  Uwik,  1856,  to.],  which,  while  on 
the  (Mie  hand  it  naa  contiibnted  men  than  an  j  other 
work  to  the  progrew  of  ^tional  developroeat  in 
Judoiam,  haa  on  the  other  hand  also  beoome  the 
arena  for  a  long  and  bitt«r  fight  between  orthodoxy 
and  Boienoe — aurying  oat,  as  it  did,  to  its  last 
oonBeqnencea  the  brrad  principle,  that  'the  Bible 
must  be  explained  metaphorioally  by  establighed 
f  iindamentAl  truthi  in  accordanoe  with  rational  con- 
olaaiona.'  So  bitter,  indeed,  waa  the  contest  which 
broke  ont  between  the  anbaeanent  apiritnaliatio 
MaimoDidiait  and  the  'literal  Talmadiitie'  achools, 
tb»i  the  fietoe  inreotives  were  apeedily  followed  bv 
anathomaa  and  oounteivanatheviaa  iafned  by  bota 
campa;  and  finally,  about  Uie  nuddle  of  the  13th 
o.,  the  decition  wia  tranaferred  into  the  hands 
of  the  Christian  anthoritiea,  v^io  conunenoed  by 
bnming  M.'e  books,  continued  by  bringing  to  the 
stake  all  Hebrew  books  on  which  thty  could  lay 
their  hands,  and  followed  this  deciaioa  up  by  a 
wholesale  alanghter  of  thousands  npon  thonsaads 
of  Jews,  men,  women,  and  children,  irreepective 
of  their  philoaophioal  views.  Under  these  oircum- 
■tancel^  the  antuonistic  j)arti€s,  chiefly  through 
the  influenoe  of  David  Eimchi  and  others,  earns 
I  reconciliation,  and  withdrew  their  mutual 
bemaa ;  and,  as  time  wore  on,  M.'s  name  became 
the  jfnio  and  gtoiy  of  the  nation,  who  bestowed 
npon  him  terms  like  the  'Great  Eagle,'  the'Li^t 
of  Two  Wodds,'  Im.  Nor  was  hia  immense  ode- 
bfity  confined  to  the  narrow  pale  of  his  own 
creed ;  as  early  aa  the  13th  c.  a&eady,  portions  of 
hia  works,  chiefly  the  Moreh  (Doctor  re^leionun), 
became,  in  Latin  rcnians,  the  text-booka  of  Enio- 
pean  nniveraitiea. 

M.  himself  onl^ 
ocmfliet,  the  proportions  and 
certainly  never  anticipated.  At  his  death,  which 
took  pisoe  December  13,  12M,  the  grief  at  the 
loaa  of  the  'Light  of  the  Age'  was  uuiTcrsal  in 
the  East  as  w^  aa  in  the  West  And  he  has 
«<r«r  since  been  reocgniaBd  onivenally  as  one  of  the 
ndUeat  and  grandsA  men  of  all  times:  gifted  with 
Hut  oMBt  powerful  and  brilliant  qnalitiee  of  mind, 
of  tlw  most  varied  and  aatonnding  know- 
^  _  and  imbned  with  deep  piety  and  tme  religion, 
borne  aloft  by  undaunted  energy  and  glowing  zeaL 
Wa  body  was  brought  to  Tiberiaa,  ud  his  tomb 
became  a  place  of  pilgrimage,  even  to  his  early  foes. 

Of  M.'i  smaller  works,  we  may  ennmerate,  in 
ocnclusion,  a  translation  of  Avicenna'a  Otmon ;  an 
extoact  from  Oalen ;  several  medicil,  mathematical, 
logical,  and  other  treatiaee,  spoken  of  with  the 
highest  [Tsiae  by  Arabic  writeiB ;  l^al  decisions, 
theolo^oal  disquiaitions,  fto.  See  The  Omde  qfthe 
Perpttxed  qf  M.,  translated  and  annotated  by  Dr 
FriedlAnder  (3  vols.  1886)  j  and  the  life  of  M.,  also 
by  Friedl&ndeT. 

MAO  <from  the  lAtin  nuijpMu,  grMt),  the  nu 
aimlied  on  shipboard  to  the  principal  mast,  and 
aU  the  parts  belonnng  or  adjacent  to  it — ss,  mai 
topotsa^  main-yarC  main-stay,  maia-ahronda,  ma 
hatAway,  nsin-cbaina,  to. 


HA.IN,  a  river  oE  Qermany,  the  largest  affluent 
the  Khine  receives  from  the  right,  is  formed  by 
the  union  of  two  branches,  the  White  and  Bed 
M.,  foar  miles  below  Kuhnbscb,  in  Bavaria.  The 
more  important  of  these,  the  White  M.,  riaee  in 
the  Fichtelgebii^  2B0O  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
U.  has  a  winding  westward  oouisa  300  miles  in 
length,  to  the  Rhine,  into  which  it  falls  at  Mainz. 
It  IB  navigable  for  the  last  220  miles.  The  principal 
towns  on  its  banks  are  Schweinfnrt,  'Wurzburf^ 
Aschafienburg,  Offenbach,  and  Frankfort ;  and  its 
chief  afSusuU  are,  on  the  right,  Uie  Swde,  and  on 
the  left,  the  Bwuti.  The  M.  is  one  of  the  most 
mctnreaqne  of  Crennan  riven ;  it  flows  throof^  a 
Deautifuloountry.where  the  hill-slopes  are  frequently 
covered  with  vineyards,  and  snrmoonted  t^  castles; 
Its  waters  oommnnioate  with  thcae  of  Oia  Dannbe 
by  means  of  the  Ludwigs-KanaL    See  Bavaria. 

MAINE,  one  of  the  ancient  provinces  of  France^ 
immediately  sonth  of  Normandy,  corresponds  to  the 
modem  departments  of  Sarthe  and  Mayennc.  Its 
chief  town  wss  Le  Mans,  now  the  capital  of  the 
department  of  Sarthe. 


miles  from  north  to  south,  and  212  from 
rest^  with  an  area  of  33,010  sqnare  milea,  or 
21,145,600  acre«._  M.  is  bonoded  N.  by  Quebec,  E, 
by  New  Brunswick,  8.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and 
W.  by  New  Hampshire  and  Canada.  It  has,  on  the 
south,  a  coast-line  of  276  miles  in  a  line,  but  so 
indented  with  bays  as  to  make  24S6  miles.  The 
Uu^est  of  these  baya  are  the  Penobscot,  Machtos, 
Sa^,  Fassamaquoddy,  Ac  Into  these  empty  the 
rivers   Penobscot,  Kennebec,  Saco,  Androaco^iin, 


to.  Nnmerons  islands  stud  the  cwt :  the  largest, 
Mount  Desert,  remarkable  for  ita  sceneiy,  contains 
60,000  acres.  In  the  northern  portions  of  the  state 
ore  numerous  lakes ;  the  largest,  Moosehead,  being 
35  milea  long,  and  the  source  of  the  Kennebec  IQver. 
The  countiy  is  hilly,  with  a  range  of  mountains 
stretching  north-east  from  the  White  Mountains  of 
New  Hampshire;  Mount  Katohdin,  near  the  centra 
of  the  state,  is  63S3  feet  high.  On  the  coast  are 
fine  granite  quarri«a ;  interior,  metamorphio  rocks 
and  minerals,  limestone  and  argiUaceuiui  slates. 
The  climate  ranges  from  9)°  or  30°  below  to  100* 
above  eero.  The  forests  are  rich  in  pine,  spruce,  hem- 
' — ''  maple,  jtc  ;  and  the  chief  agncnltaral  products 
potatoes,  maize,  oats,  hay,  barley,  and  apfdeo. 
The  rivers  uid  coast  abound  in  Gsa.  One  of  the 
chief  exports  is  lumber,  and  one-third  of  all  the 
ships  of  America  are  built  on  the  riven  and 
harbonra  of  this  state.  The  falls  of  the  rivers  fur- 
nish immense  water-power  for  saw-mills  and  fac- 
tories, M.  has  over  lOOO  miles  of  railway,  64  tnuiks, 
466&  public  schools,  0  colleges,  a  theological  hall, 
and  2  medical  aidkoala.  The  government  consists  of 
a  governor,  senate,  and  house  of  representatives, 
elected  by  universal  suffrage.  M.  was  settled  in 
1G21,  and  was  a  part  of  Massachusetts  until  1820. 
In  its  early  history  it  is  said  that  every  20th  settler 
was  killed  by  the  Indians.  A  controveny  respectiaz 
Uie  north-eastern  boandwy  of  M.,  which  threatened 
to  produce  war  with  England,  was  settled  by  a 
oomnTomise  of  claims  in  IS42;  The  chief  towns 
are  Portland,  Lewiaton,  Bangor,  Biddeford,  Ansusta 
(the  capital).  Pop.  (1860)  623^6 ;  (ISTO)  62^916 ; 
(1880)  048,936.— The  Mauib  Liquob  Laws  have 
bug  been  known  for  their  strictness.  The  state 
appoints  special  agents,  and  in  them  vesta  the  sale 
of  intoxicating  liquors,  including  ale,  porter,  strong 
beer,  lager  beer,  other  malt  liquors,  all  dis- 
tilled spirits,  and  wine  and  cider  other  than  what 


..(jOoqIc 


MAINE-ET-LOIHE— MAINZ. 


ia  made,  iiDftdalterated,  from  fruit  gronn  in  the 
atate  (such  wine  and  cider  is  exempted  from  the 
lawB).  All  other  than  these  agents  ore  prohibited 
from  selling  intoxicating  liquon ;  and  uie  msDii- 
facture  of  snch  liquors  for  nnlawfol  ule  is  also  for- 
bidden.' The  governor  appoints  a  commissioner 
who  is  required  to  furnish  municipal  officers  and 
duly  authorised  persons  with  para,  nnadultei^^ 
intoiicsting  liqaors,  to  be  sold  for  medicinal 
mechanical,  and  mannfactnring  purposes.  Severe 
penaltiea  are  attached  to  breai^es  ofthe  law  ;  and 
any  one  inj  ured  b;  a  dmnken  person  may  proceed 
at  law  against  the  person  who  sold  the  liquor. 

UAINE-ET  LOIBB,  an  inland  department  of 
France,  forming  a  portion  of  the  lower  basin  of  the 
Loire.  Area,  2746  English  sq.  milea.  Of  about 
1,000,000  arable  acres  near  200,000  are  in  meadow, 
and  05,000  in  vineyards.  Pop.  (1881)  623,«1.  The 
smI  is  fertile.  Wines,  red  and  white,  are  exten- 
aivelj  prodnced.  Iron  and  coal  mines  are  worlted ; 
and  there  are  mills  for  cotton,  woollen,  and  linen. 
Capital,  ■ 

MAI'NOTES,  the  inhabitants  of  the  monntainoni 
diatrict  of  Maina,  in  the  Greek  province  of  Laconia. 
Thej  profess  to  be  the  descendants  of  the  andent 
Spartans,  whose  land  they  now  oocuot .  They  are  a 
inld  and  brave  race.  Wltile  the  Turks  held  possM- 
aion  of  Greece,  tile  M.  were  almost  independent,  and 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  war  for  ue  liberation 
of  Greece. 

MAJNPBIZE,  in  English  Law,  was  a  term 
denoting  a  security  by  which  the  bulor  or  main- 
pernor took  the  p^ty  bailed  under  hia  own  personal 
charge    or    friendly   custody,   giving    aecojity   to 

Eroduce  him  at  the  time  appointed.  The  practice 
now  obsolete,  and  sapersedsd  by  Bail  (q.  v.). 

MAI'NTENANOB  ia  a  law-term  eommonly  oied 
to  denote  an  illc^  socaoaring  of  a  penou,  as  by 
lending  mooey  to  a  stranger  m  oarrying  on  law- 
■oit*.  Gonttaota  are  aometinieB  held  to  be  iU^al 
on  Ais  ground. 

MAINTENANCE,  Cap  or,  sometimes  called 
Cap  <if  Dipniiy,  ft  eap  Ot  crimson  velvet  lined  with 
ermine,  with  two  potnta  turned  to  the  back,  origin- 
ally only  worn  by  dukes,  bnt  afterwards 


i  tamiliea  of  distioction.     Those  families 

who  are  entitled  to  a  cap 

oC  maintenance  place  their 

crests  on  it  instead  of  on 

a  wreath.     According  to 

Sir    John    Feame,    'the 

wearing  of  the  cap  had  a 

beginning  from  the  duke 

or  general  of   an  army, 

who,  having  gotten  vie- 

C^  of  M^tansnoe.       tory,  caused  l£e  chiefest 

of  the   subdued  enemies 

whom  be  led  to  foUow  him  in  his  trhunph,  bearing 

his  hat  or  cap  after  him,  in  token  of  subjection 

and  captivity.       Most  of  the  reigning  dues  of 

Germany,   and  various  families  bDcaiging  to  the 

peerage  Erath  ol  England   and  of  Scotland,  bear 

their  create  on  a  cap  SC  maintenance. 

MAINTENON,  FBAWfOiM  b'AcbioitS,  Mar- 
tpnss  DE,  was  the  daughter  of  Constant  d'AnbignJ 
and  of  Jeanne  de  CardiUac,  and  granddaughter 
of  ThSodore  Agrippa  d'AubignC,  well-known  for 
his  writings,  his  attachment  to  Frotestantism,  and 
his  energstio  character.  Franjoise  was  bom  2Tth 
November  16311,  in  the  prison  at  Niort,  where  her 
father  was  then  imprisoned.  On  obtaining  his 
release,  he  went  (1639)  with  his  wife  and  daughter 
to  Martinique  in  the  West  Indies,  where  he  died  in 
1645.  Alter  her  father's  death,  E^angoise  returned, 
with  her  mother,  to  France ;  and  her  mother  also 


dying,  hec  father's  nrteri  took  her  onder  their 
oare,  and  educated  her  in  ft  eonvent,  wliet«  her 
conversion  to  the  Boman  Catliolio  religion  was 
accomplished  at  the  age  of  about  14  years — after 
an  obstinate  resistance,  in  which  the  brave  little 
child,  to  oae  her  own  words,  fategKoil  la  pritrei  ta 
Bibla  A  la  main.  It  is  «iT»giil«r  to  reflect  what  a 
zealot  she  afterwards  beoama.  When  she  waa  16, 
she  heoame  acquainted  with  the  poet  Scanon  (q.  v.), 
who,  struck  I^  her  beauty,  intelligence,  and  nelp- 
leas  condition,  ofierad  her  his  hand,  or,  if  ahe  should 
prefer  it,  a  aum  of  money  sufficient  for  her  entrance 
mto  a  nunnery.  Altilongh  Scarron  waa  lame  and 
deformed,  aha  chose  to  marry  him,  uid  now  lived  in 
the  midst  of  tiie  refined  and  intellectual  society  which 
frequented  the  house  of  the  ixiet.    On  hia  death,  '  ~ 


ahe  was  reduced  to  great  poverty,  and  proposed 
m  go  as  a  Bovameas  to  Portugal,  when  Madame  de 
Monteapao  (Q.  t.)  obtained 


ivanieas  to  Portugal,  when 
,,.  T.)  obtained  her  a  pension  from  the 
Four  years  afterwonls,  she  was  intrusted 
with  the  education  of  the  two  sons  whom  Madame 
de  Mouteapan  had  borne  to  Louis  XIY.,  and  in  this 
cspodtrr  displayed  a  patient  tenderness  and  sleep- 
leM  care  tmtt  no  mother  could  have  aurpassed; 
and  now  beooming  acquainted  with  the  kii^  soon 
fascinated  him,  so  that  he  bestowed  on  her  100,000 
livres,  with  which  she  bought  the  estate  of  Main- 
tenon  ;  and  at  last  she  succeeded  in  supplanting 
Madame  de  Monteepan.  It  ia  difficult  to  describe 
her  relation  to  the  king.  She  was  not,  it  ia  believed, 
his  mielress  in  the  ormnary  sense  of  the  term,  but 
from  that  time  to  the  end  of  his  life,  she  exercised 
an  extraordinary  ascendency  over  hjin,  She  had  n 
passion  for  being  thought  *a  mother  of  the  churoh;' 
but  while  ahe  crajfeas^  the  strength  of  her  desire  to 
Bomanise  the  Huguenots,  she  earnestly  denied  that 
sheaj^iroTedof thedeteatableifnytmnadM.  InlSS^ 
about  cd^teen  months  after  the  death  of  the  queen, 
Louis  pnvately  married  her.  She  was  much  disliked 
by  the  people,  bat  the  courtiers  sought  her  favour, 
and  her  creatures  were  made  ministers  and  generals. 
In  the  midst  of  splendour,  and  "~   """  '" 


She  carefully  brought  up  the  children 
de  Mootespan  ;  and  it  was  at  her  instigation  that 
Louis  attempted  to  legitimise  them.  When  he  died 
in  1716,  she  retired  to  the  former  Abbey  of  St  Cyr, 
which,  at  her  wish,  had  been  changed,  thirty  yean 
before,  into  a  convent  for  young  ladleis.  Here  she 
died,  16th  April  1719.  She  received,  to  the  end  of 
her  life,  the  honours  of  a  king's  widow.  Her  pre- 
tended Memoirs  are  spurious,  but  her  LeUra  (9  vols. 
Amst.  1756,  &c.)  ore  genuine.  By  far  the  beat  edition 
is  that  published  by  M.  Lavall6c  (1364  et  seq.), 
entitled  (Euvra  de  Af ""  lU  MaiiUmoa  publUa  poar 
la  j/raniirt  foif  d'aprii  la  Jiamucnit  et  Oopiea 
aiithentiguet,  anec  vn  CommetUaire  et  dtt  Noim. 

MAINZ  (Matenci,  ancient  Jfoffuntincimi),  the 
moat  strongly  fortified  city  in  the  German  empire, 
is  situated  in  60°  N.  lat,  and  8°  Iff  E.  long., 
in  one  of  the  most  fertile  of  the  wine-bearing 
districts  of  Germany,  having  for  its  site  a  gentle 
slope  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  near  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Main.  The  popnlation  was,  in  1871, 
53,918,  inclnding  the  garrison ;  in  1880,  61,332. 
A  floating  bridge,  resting  on  49  pontoons,  connects 
M.  with  the  Rhenish  village  of  Caatel  g  as  also 
a  handsome  railway  bridge  of  iron,  finished  ia 
1864  The  fortidcaticois,  which  extend  a  length 
of  neariy  ten  miles,  eonnst  of  14  principal,  and 
numerous  leaser  bastions,  in  addition  to  lie  ftmr  torts 
of  Castel,  Man,  Montebello,  and  Fet«r*ane.  ia 
•ocordanee  with  a  decree  irf  the  Congrcoa  of  Vienna 
M.  was  surrendered  to  the  grand  dudiy  of  HessS' 
Daimstadt  in  1S14,  on  condition  that  it  was  to 
constitnte  ft  Gennaa  federal  afaonghold,  and  be 


„  Google 


MABTHE-MAITLANB. 


ranuoned  in  oonmioii  by  Atustaun,  Fnusuui,  and 
HeMiMi  troopa.  In  1866,  it  beoune  a  Prnanaii 
fwtreM.  uid  PiUMi*  obtaiaed  all  the  li^ta  that 
llad  hitherto  b«loiiged  to  the  Oennan  Confederation. 
B7  the  treaty  ooncliided  at  VersaillM  on  Norember 
15,  1S70,  the  fi>rb«ei  of  Haini  was  deolaied  an  im- 
p^ial  fortnM.  JL,  which  ii  one  of  the  moit  anoieiit 
citie*  of  GemuHiy,  retain!  tnanr  evidenoa  of  medi- 
eval  tast^  and  oounBts  prindpallv  of  narroir  otwhed 
■tieeta ;  but  of  late  y«an  a  new  torn  baa  aprong  up 
on  the  aite  of  the  ancient  Roman  d^,  and  nomerouH 
■aoitai^  tmjiTOTeiDeEnta  have  been  effected  nnder  the 
joint  direction  of  the  enuHl-dncal  and  oirio  anthori' 
tiea.  M.  bat  one  fWeatant  and  ten  Catholia 
churohea,  among  the  latter  of  which  the  moat  note- 
worthy are  that  of  8t  Ignadna,  with  its  beantifnlly 
pmnfnii  root,  and  the  oathadral,  a  memm^ble  builcl- 
in^  which  was  b^nn  in  978,  and  after  having  been 
nz  times  deaboved  by  Aie,  or  throogb  war,  was 
rectored  hj  NapMeon.  It  h»  one  great  tower,  400 
feet  in  heuht,  and  S  leaser  towera,  14  altan,  and 
20  minor  ctt^ela.  H.  poaanaaB  nnmennu  Boman 
remaina,  the  moat  remarkahle  of  which  an  the 
EiAdiiaM — a  maaa  (rf  atooea  mppoaed  to  be  a 
memorial  erected  in  honour  of  Dmaaa — and  Qie 
nina  of  a  vaat  aqnednot  at  Zalbach.  M.  baa  a 
fHynmaaiain,  a  aemioary  far  pHcsta,  a  normal  achool, 
a  pictnre-giUery,  mnaenma,  and  a  pnblio  library 
coDtaining  about  100,000  Tolnmea.  Among  the 
indnatrial  prodncta  of  M.,  which  include  artificial 
pearia,  iiriinrltiin,  tobacco,  rin^ar,  aoap,  carriagea, 
mnaical  instromenta,  fnmitnie,  and  articlea  in 
leather,  the  fint  and  the  la«t  have  aoqniied 
■pccial  repntatioa.  M.,  from  ita  pOMtion,  neocMarily 
enjoya  a  vei^  important  tnuiait-ttBde,  botii  by 
nulway  and  nver  ateam-nangatiui ;  and  ainoe  the 
abrogation  of  many  onerona  reatriotiona,  it  haa 
become  one  of  tite  great  internal  porta  for  the  00m 
and  wine  trade.  The  history  of  11.  oonnecta  it  with 
Bome  from  the  year  13  B.O.,  when  Drvana  bnilt  on 
ita  site  the  caatle  of  ]Ha{pi7itiaeum ;  bat  it  owes  its 
real  importance  to  .Charlemagne.  It  haa  aoqnired 
celebrity  aa  the  birthplace  of  Gutenberg  (q.  v.). 
In  the  13th  century  H.  waa  head  of  uie  coo- 
federacy  of  Rhine  citiea :  in  146S  the  city  waa 
added  to  the  domains  of  the  Archbishops  of  M., 
who  aa  anch  had  precedenoe  amongrt  the  apiritual 
prinoe-electors  of  the  empire.  M.  waa  aeveral  timea 
in  the  poscsaion  of  France,  notably  in  ISOl — 1814. 
MA18TRB,  CokfTt  Joaipii  CB,  waa  bom  175^ 
in  Chambfry,  of  a  noble  Frsnch  family,  which  had 
settled  in  Savoy.  While  Savoy  waa  occupied  in 
1792  by  the  IWoh,  M.,  who  waa  a  member  of  the 
senate,  withdrew  from  the  coontiy ;  and  when  the 
king  (^  Sardinia,  \2.  1799,  waa  compelled  to  retreat 
to  &e  ialand  of  Sardinia,  M.  acconipanied  his  court, 
and  in  1803  was  sent  aa  ambaaaador  to  3t  Petets- 
borg.  In  this  post  he  remained  until  IS17,  when 
he  was  leoalled  to  oocnpv  a  place  in  the  home 
Kovenuneiiti  and  continn«i  to  reside  in  Turin  till 
Ilia  dertb,  en  Febniaiy  29,  1S21.  M.  waa  an  ardent 
advocate  of  lefptimsoy,  and  in  his  later  career 
became  one  irf  the  most  eminent  writers  of  the 
new  (or  liberal]  eonaervative  school  in  politica  and 
raligion,  of  which  Chateanbriand  may  be  regarded 
as  the  head.  Ha  bad  obtained  some  reputatian 
aa  a  writer  at  a  very  early  period.  Bia  fint  work 
of  note,  CoNAiM-altDM  tar  la  Franef,  appeared  in 
1796.  His  later  worka  were  written  either  at  St 
Petetsburg  or  after  his  return  to  Turin.  Tbey  are 
— EeMi  tar  le  Primapt  Qintraieur  da  OomtUutUm* 
Pl^iliqaa  (St  Petarsbure,  1810);  Du  Pope  (Lyon, 
1621) ;  Dt  tEgtitt  Qmame  (Paria,  1821—1822) ; 
&»rtf  de  Bt  Ptttrtbourg  (2  vola.  1822) ;  and  a 
posthnmoua  woi^  JBxamen  da  ta  PAiloKphic  de 
i^on  (Pant,  18»). 


HAITLAND,  the  nama  of  a  Scottish  family. 
celebrated  both  in  the  literaiy  and  ^litical  hiatoiy 
of  &eir  country.  The  firat  who  acquired  distinction 
waa  Sib  IUobasd  M.  of  Lethington,  son  of  William 
M.  of  LetbinKton  and  Thitlstana,  who  fell  at  Flodden, 
and  of  Haiiha,  daughter  of  George,  Loid  Seaton. 
He  was  bom  in  1496,  studied  at  St  Andrews  and  in 
Franoe,  and  on  his  retnm  to  Scotland  was  tnccea- 
aively  employed  by  Jsmea  V.,  the  R^ent  Anan, 
and  HaiT  of  Loixaine.  About  1661 — 15S2,  be 
reotived  the  honour  of  knighthood,  became  a  lord 
of  the  Court  of  Session  in  1561  (before  which,  how- 
ever, he  had  the  miafortnna  to  lose  bia  sight),  and 
Lotd  Privy  Seal  in  1562.  He  died  20Ui  March  1686, 
at  the  age  of  90.  U.  was  one  of  the  beat  men  of  his 
time.  In  an  age  of  viotenoe,  fanatioiam,  and  perfidy, 
he  waa  honourably  oonapicuona  by  his  moderation, 
integrity,  and  anxiety  for  the  eatabliahment  of  law 
and  order.  He  merita  ooniidaration  not  only  as  an 
eminent  and  upright  lawyer,  bat  as  a  poet,  a  poetioal 
antiqnary,  and  an  histiaian.  All  ha  own  venea 
were  written  attm  hia  60th  year,  and  ahew  what 
things  he  bad  moat  deeply  at  neart.  ?or  the  most 
part,  thOT  conaiat  of  lamentatioDB  lot  the  diabaoted 
atate  of  hi*  native  ootmtry,  the  feuds  of  the  noblea, 
the  diaoontentf  of  the  common  people,  complainti 
'aooia  the  lang  proc«e  in  the  conrta  of  juatioa,* 
and  the  depredations  '  of  the  border  robbus.'  A 
complete  editdon  of  M.'a  original  poema  wsa  first 
published  in  1830  (1  4to  voL)by  the  Maitland  Clnb, 
a  aodety  of  literary  antiqoanaa,  taking  ita  name 
from  Sir  Richard.  Hia  collection  of  early  Soottiah 
poetiy  was  a  work  ondertaken,  if  not  oompleted, 
before  hia  blindneaa  attacked  him.  It  oonauta  cd 
two  MS.  vole.,  the  firat  containing  176,  and  the 
eecond  96  piecea ;  they  are  now  preawved  in  the 
Pej^nan  Library,  Magdalene  College,  Oxford.  M.'a 
prmcipal  historical  performMice  is  the  Hitlorie  and 
UnmideqfAt  Hovt  and Statname qf  8tj/lotcn,  ko. 

MjUTUUfD,  WiLUAiii,  better  known  aa  '  Secre- 
tary Lethington,'  waa  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Richard 
Maitland  of  Lethington,  and  waa  bom  about  162S. 
Like  hia  father,  he  was  educated  both  at  St  Andrews 


io  the  Refonned  dootrinea  about  1655,  but  could 
not  have  been  a  very  violent  partisan,  ainoe  in 
1668  he  waa  appointed  Secretary  of  State  by  Mary 
of  Ouise,  In  the  following  year,  however,  he  openly 
joined  the  Lords  of  the  Conpegation,  and  waa  one 
of  the  Scotch  oommiaaioners  who  met  the  Dnke  of 
Norfolk  at  Berwick,  to  anange  the  eonditiont  on 
wbioh  Queen  EUtabeth  would  eive  them  ataisbuice. 
In  1661,  after  the  arrival  of  Queen  Man-  from 
France,  he  waa  made  an  extraordinary  Lord  ol 
Session.  He  atronidy  objected  to  tbe  ratiScation 
of  Knoi'a  Boot  qfDudpUne,  and  in  1063  condncttid 
the  prosecution  raised  against  Knox  for  treason : 
from  this  time  he  appears  to  have  split  with  the 
Befoimers.  In  1664,  he  held  a  long  debate  with 
KnoT  on  the  daima  of  the  Reformed  Church  to  be 
independent  of  the  state.  In  1666^  he  took  part  in 
the  conspira^  agunst  Ricdo,  i^r  whose  asaaasin- 
ation  he  waa  pioaaribed,  and  obliged  to  seek  shelter 
for  aome  montba  in  ohaimrity.  He  waa,  it  is  believed, 
cognizant  of  BothweU'a  scheme  for  the  murder  of 
Damley ;  yet,  when  he  saw  the  hopeleaa  nature  of 
Bothwell'a  deeigns,  he  immediately  joined  the  con- 
federacy of  the  lords.  WLile  Maiy  was  atlll  a 
Erisoner  at  Loch  Leven,  he  is  said  to  have  written  to 
er,  ofiering  his  services,  yet  bs  waa  present  at  the 
coronation  of  King  James  TL,  1567  ;  and  although 


fought  agunst  her  on  the  field  of  Langside.  1 
he  acoompanied  tbe  Regent  Moray  to  Uie  conf 
hdd  at  xorkregaiding  the  Scotbsh  queenj  b 


„Ggogl|: 


MAITLAMD— MAIZE. 


hera  ha  tried  to  further  her  intersits,  ULd  is  ra 
lukTe  been  the  fint  to  propose  to  the  IXike  of  Norfolk 
a  nnion  between  him  and  Muy.  The  Scottish' 
lorda  now  felt  that  ha  was  a  duicerauB  enemy 
the  oommonwe&lth,  and  in  1669  he  was  arrested 
at  Stirling,  but  was  liberated  shortly  after  by  an 
•rtifioe  of  Kirkaldy  of  Gtanee.  After  the  mnrdar  d 
the  Regent  Moray,  ha  and  Kirkaldy  became  the 
■onl  of  the  qneen'a  party,  in  conBeqaanoa  of  which 
ho  wM  declared  a  rebel,  deprived  of  big  offices  and 
lands  b^  the  Regent  Morton,  and  bedewed,  along 
with  Kirkaldy,  in  Edinburgh  CastleL  After  a  long 
resistance,  the  castle  surrendered,  and  on  9th  June 
1673,  M.  died  a  prisoaer  at  Leith,  'soma,'  says 
Melvitle,  '  sopposing  ha  took  a  drink  and  died,  as 
the  anld  Romans  were  wont  to  da'  Buchanan  ha* 
drawn  his  character  wilJi  a  sererepenin  his  Scottish 
tract  entitled  The  Chamdeon. 

Mattlakii,  John,  Duke  or  IiAddxbdili,  grand- 
son of  John,  first  Lord  Thiriitane,  brother  of  the 
famons  Secratary  Lathingtoo,  and  son  of  John, 
first  Earl  of  lAodardale,  and  of  Isabel,  danghter  of 
Alexander  Seatoo,  Ear]  of  Dnnfennline  and  Chan- 
cellor of  Scotland,  was  bom  at  the  ancient  family 
■eat  of  LethinctiHi,  24th  May  ldl6.  He  received 
an  ezcdlent  ediication,  being  skilled,  aocording  to 
Bisht^  Burnet,  in  I^Hn,  Greek,  Hebrew,  history, 
and  divinity,  nas  oarefnUy  trained  in  Fnabytarian 
principles,  and  entered  public  life  as  a  keen  and 
even  a  fanatical  Covenanter.  In  1S43,  he  attended 
the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines  as  an  elder 
of  the  Cborch  of  Sootland,  and  was  a  party  to  the 
■otreoder  of  Charlea  I.  to  the  English  army  at 
Newcastle.  Shortly  after,  however,  ha  changed 
hia  politics  altwether,  and  became  a  decided 
royalist.  When  Charles  II.  came  to  Scotland  from 
Holland,  I^nderdale  accompanied  bjtn  ;  but  being 
taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Worcester  in  1051, 
was  k^  a  prisoner  for  nine  yeaw.  Set  at  liberty 
t^  General  Monk,  in  1600  be  hastened  to  the 
Hagoa,  and  was  vumly  received  by  Charles.  After 
the  removal  of  Middleton  in  1662,  and  of  liothes  in 
1667,  Landerdala  was  practically  the  sole  ruler  of 
Scotland,  and  for  soma  time  displayed  a  spirit  of 
moderation,  and  an  apparent  regard  for  the  religiona. 
feelings  of  his  countrymen ;  bnt  he  soon  became  a 
bitter  parMontor,  sent  mnltitades  of  the  Covenanters 
•  to  glorify  God  at  tiie  Otaaamarket,'  and  repelled 
in  blimhemoQB  langoi^  the  remonstrances  which 
many  instinguished  persons  ventured  to  make.  In 
1072,  Charlet  shewed  his  a^preciatioD  of  Lauder- 
dale's conduct  by  orestiDg  him  Matqnis  of  March 
and  Duke  of  Lauderdale ;  two  years  afterwards,  he 
was  raised  to  the  Enc^ish  peerage  as  Tiscount 
Fat«rsham  and  Earl  oi  Gnilford,  and  received  a 
seat  in  the  English  Privy  Connoil.  He  was  one  of 
the  famons  '  Cabal ; '  but  having,  by  his  domineering 
arroganoe,  excited  the  disgust  and  hatred  of  his 
coUeagnee,  as  well  as  of  the  nation,  ha  fall  into  dis- 
grace,  was  stripped  of  all  his  offices  and  panrions  in 
16SZ,ailddied  Aug.  24of  thasameyear.  Lauderdale, 
according  to  Bumet,  '  was  in  his  principles  much 
against  popery  and  arbitrary  government,'  and  hia 
iolamy  oonsists  in  his  shamdeas  sacrifice  of  his  con- 
victions to  his  interests.  He  was  a  rode,  blustering, 
passionata  man,  with  what  the  Dnke  of  Buckingham 
called  a  'blundering  nnderstsnding.'  Burnet  has 
also  given  as  a  picture  of  his  appearance.  '  He  was 
very  big,  his  hair  red,  hanging  oddly  about  him. 
His  tongue  was  too  big  for  his  mouth,  which  made 
him  bedew  all  that  he  talked  to ;  and  bis  whole 
manner  was  very  unfit  for  a  court.' 

MAITLAND,  a  town  of  New  South  Wales.  See 
Burr.,  VoL  X. 

HIAITBETA  was,  according  to  the  Boddhista,  a 
disdple  of  the  Buddha  S'&kyamuni  and  a  Bodbi- 


.n  of  ^re-eminent  virtae  and  sani^^, 

_  1.1 ii._i gst  the  god" 

....  as  ganeraUi 

- '  unoonqnered.'    The  Buddhists 


He  is  classed  in  their  mythology  amongst  the  gods 
"   '  ■"    '  ■■  ■"  .happy/aod  has 

oonquei    ■ '    ""    ' 
believe  that  ha  will    become  ..    _. 

future  Buddha.  In  Tibetan,  he  is  called  Jampa. 
A  faithful  representation  of  this  Buddha,  sarroniMled 
by  the  (Tibetan)  goddesses  Dolma,  the  Mnntss  or 
Bnddhas  of  medicine,  two  ancient  priests,  and 
varions  saints,  will  be  found  in  tha  atlas  of  Emil 
Schlagintweit^a  Buddhum  in  Tibet  (London  and 
Leipzig,  1863),  where  an  interesting  sketch  is  raven 
(p.  207,  ff.)  oE  the  characteristic  tyms  of  Buddha 
images,  and  of  the  measurements  of  Buddha  statues 
made  by  his  brothers  in  India  and  Tibet. 

MAIZE  (Zea),  a  genus  of  grasses,  having  mom*- 
ciouB  fiowera ;  the  male  flowers  forming  a  looss 
panicle  at  the  top  of  the  cuhn ;  the  fam^a  flowers 
•~  axillary  spikes,  enclosed  in  large  tough  qtatiie*, 

tyTes— in  the 

„      t  like 

tnfta  of  feathers  or  silken  tassels.  The  grains  ar« 
large,  roundish,  compressed,  naked,  and  arranged  in 
pandlel  rows  along  the  npright  axis  of  the  spike. — 
The  Common  M.,  or  Inbiak  Corn  {Z.  inajft),  is  ganor- 
ally  believed  to  be  a  native  of  the  warmer  parts  ot 
America,  where  it  was  cultivated  by  the  aborigines 
before  IJie  discovery  of 
America  by  Columbna. 
Bat  a  representation  of 
the  plant  found  in  ai\ 
ancient  Chinese  book  in 
the  royal  libraiy  in  ParU, 
and  the  alleged  discovery 
of  some  grains  «E  it  in 
the  cellars  of  ancient 
houses  in  Athens,  have 
led  some  to  Buppose  that 
it  is  a  native  also  of  the 
£ut,  and  has  from  a 
very  early  period  been 
cultivated  there,  and 
even  that  it  is  the  'com' 
oF  Scripture;  althooghon 
this  Bupposition,  it  is  not 
easy  to  account  for  the 
subsequent  neglect  of  it 
nntil  after  the  discovery 
of  America,  since  which 
<Jio  spread  of  its  culti- 
vation in  the  Old  Worid 
has  taken  place  with  a 
rapidity  each  as  might 
be  expected  from  its 
great  productiveness  and 
other  valuable  qnali- 
Columbns  Umsclf 
brought  it  to  Spun  about 


UD,  or  Jnniim' 

(Zea  mayt). 


in  general  cultivation  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  and  supplies  a  principal  part  of  the 
food  of  the  inhabitants  ot  many  countries  of  Asiaand 
Africa,     It  is  by  far  the  most  productive  of  all  the 

cereals;  in  the  most  favourable  situations  yielding 
an  increase  of  eight  hundred  for  one,  wUlst  an 
incroua  of  three  handred  and  fifty  or  four  hundred 
for  one  is  coajmon  where  irrigation  is  practised,  and 
even  without  this  the  return  is  large.  M.  succeeds 
well  in  tropical  and  sub-tropical  climates ;  and, 
being  a  short-lived  annual,  is  cultivated  also  where 
the  heat  ot  summer  is  intense  and  of  sufficient  dnra- 


United  States,  and  is  pretty  common  in  Gemany ; 
although  the  want  of  sufficient  summer  heat  renders 
it  a  very^  uncertain  crop  even  in  the  aonUiem  parts 
of  Britain.    Some  ot  the  varieties  of  M.  reqniis 


,,  Google 


MAJESTY— MAJOE. 


abont  fire  monthi  fiom  the  time  of  aowing  for  the 
ripening  of  their  graica ;  whilst  othera,  which,  of 
oonrse,  ue  prefenied  in  countries  having  a  ci 
parativaly  short  minuner,  ripen  in  nix  weeks,  ._ 
even  leas,  bat  the;  are  tnuch  less  prodnotive.  The 
Tarietite  are  vecy  unineroiu,  of  taller  or  humbler 
growth,  from  three  to  ten,  or  even  fourteen  feet ;  with 


in  size.  The  culm  is  atout  and  erect ;  the  leaves 
from  one  foot  to  two  feet  lone,  and  two  or  three 
inohea  broad ;  the  eara  or  oo&  generally  two  or 
three  in  nomber,  situated  below  tno  middle  oE  the 
ctem ;  in  the  lai^  varieties,  often  above  a  foot 
long,  and  thicker  than  a  mau'i  wriat,  in  the  amallest 
varieties,  four  or  five  inohea  in  lengtL  M.  aucceeda 
beat  in  light,  rich,  deep,  and  rather  moist  ooils ;  and 
disUkea  ahadjr  situations.  It  is  very  generoUy 
plauted  in  little  hillocks  raised  at  intervaU,  and  to 
each  of  which  five  or  six  aeeds  are  atlotted.  North 
American  tettlers  generally  moke  it  their  first 
crop  on  newly  cleiwed  and  very  partially  tilled 
ground.  Xhe  grains  of  M.  make  a  very  pdatable 
kind  of  groats,  and  aflbrd  an  excellent  meoL  for 
baking  purposes.  The  meal  is  not,  however, 
adapted  for  making  bread  without  an'' 
wheat,  flour,  or  rye,  owing  to  its  deficiency 
although,  in  oil;  or  fatty  matter,  M.  is  richer  than 
any  other  groin,  and  is  very  nutritious. 
mixed  with  ryo  meal  forms  the  common  brown 
bread  of  New  England.  M.  very  coarsely  ground 
and  boilod  forma  Uia  hturaay  of  the  Southern  States 
of  North  America.  The  ponidee  made  of  M.  meal 
is  called  miuA  in  North  Amenca ;  and  the  entire 
groins  are  used  under  the  name  of  huUed  corn 
tamp.  The  unripe  giaius,  slightly  roosted,  buist 
and  torn  inside  out,  aasoming  a  very  peculiar 
appearance ;  in  this  state,  they  are  known  aa  pop- 
com ;  and  in  this  state  are  a  favourite  article  of 
food  In  America,  and  have  recently  become  comnuin 
in  shops  in  ifoitain.  The  cobs  of  SL,  ripe  or  unripa, 
are  gathered  with  die  hand.  The  unnpe  cobs  are 
ofteo  pickled ;  they  are  also  often  boiled  for  the 
table.  A  kind  of  beer  called  Chiea  (q.  v.)  is  made 
from  M.,  also  a  Bpiritnona  liquor,  and  vinegar.  Tlie 
etar<!h  of  M.  is  a  good  an&titute  for  arrow-root, 
and  is  DOW  well  known  in  Britain,  under  various 
names,  as  Otatgo  Flour,  Ik, — The  pith  of  the  culm, 
before  the  Bowers  are  prodnced,  abounds  in  a  sweet 

Cic^  which,  extracted  and  boiled  to  a  syrup,  has  of 
te  been  larg^y  employed  in  the  United  States 
to  furnish  sugar ;  it  is  also  fermented  and  distilled, 
and  yields  a  good  apiritnous   liqaor.      The  small 

fimg  stalks  of  thickly  aown  crops  are  cut  over 
de  Mexicans,  as  an  article  for  the  dessert. 
countries  where  M.  does  not  ripen  well,  it  ia 
sometimes  sown  to  afford  food  for  pmiltry,  or  to  be 
mown  as  green  fodder  for  cattle.  Where  it  is  culti- 
Toted  for  its  grain,  the  dried  leaves  are  used  as 
winter  fodder.  The  tops,  cut  off  after  flowering, 
are  stored  for  the  some  use.  The  stalks  are  used 
for  thatch  and  for  fnel,  and  for  making  baskets. 
The  fibres  of  the  cnlm  and  leaves  ofiord  a  durable 
kind  of  yam ;  and  the  bracts  or  ipathes  which 
■uTTOQiid  the  ear  are  elastic,  and  con  be  applied 
to  the  stuffing  of  choirs,  saddles,  &a.,  and  to  the 
manufacture  of  good  durable  mattresses,  which 
have  become  a  ^ofitable  orticlo  of  trade  in  Paris 
and  Strasburg.  The  spaUtea  ore  also  much  used  for 
packing  oranges  ond  lemona  ;  and  in  South  America 
for  n:u£{ng  cigarettes.  Good  paper  has  been  manu- 
factured &}m  them. — There  are  few  plants  of  which 
the  uses  are  more  vorious  than  M.,  and  few  which 
•re  of  greoter  importance  to  man.— For  separation  of 
the  groins  of  M.  from  the  ears,  a,  particnlor  kind  of 
thiashiug- machine  is  used. — Another  spedes  of  M., 


called  Chili  M.,  or  Vaiy iaaiso  Co&K  (Z.  Curagua], 
is  distinguished  by  its  serrated  leaves.  It  is  a 
■mailer  plant,  a  native  of  Chili,  and  has  won  a 
superstiboua  regard,  because  its  gnuuswheu  roasted 
split  in  the  form  of  o  cross. 

MAJESTY,  a  title  of  honour  now  usually 
bestowed  on  aovereigns.  Among  the  Bomons, 
mtyestas  was  used  to  signify  the  power  and  dignity 
of  the  people ;  and  the  senatorial,  consular,  or 
dictatorial  majesty  waa  apoken  of,  in  consequence 
of  these  fimctionoriea  deriving  their  power  from 
the  people.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  republic, 
maje»ta»  became  exclusively  the  ottribute  of  the 
emperors,  digjutaa  being  thenceforth  that  oE  the 
magistrates.  The  maJaUu  oE  the  emperors  of  Borne 
waa  supposed  to  descend  to  those  of  Ocrmany  aa 
their  successors ;  but  the  adoption  of  the  attribute 
by  other  Ehiropeon  sovereigns  ia  of  comparatively 
late  date.  Its  use  began  in  England  in  tbe  latter 
part  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  up  to  which  time 
'Your  Grace'  or  'Your  Highness  had  been  the 
appropriate  mode  of  addressing  the  sovereign. 
Henry  XL  was  the  first  kin^  of  France  who  wag 
similarly  a^lcd,  aud  Louis  XI.  and  his  Buccessors 
became  entitled,  in  virtue  of  a  papal  bull,  to  call 
themselves  by  the  title  of  'Host  Christian  lifajesty.' 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain  similarly  obtained 
for  themselves  and  their  auccesaors  the  title  of 
'Most  Catholic  Majesty;'  and  Stephen,  Duke  of 
Hungary,  and  Maria  Theresa,  of  '  Apostolic  Majesty.' 
The  ecoperor  of  Austria  is  now  styled  bis  Imperial 
Boy^  Majesty;  in  German,  'K.  K.  (abbreviated 
for  'Kaiserliche  Kiliiigliche)  Majest&t'  Emperors, 
kings,  and  qneens  ore  now  generoUy  oddressed  as 
'  Your  Majesty,'  not  including  the  sultan  of  Turkey, 
whoso  proper  style  is  'Your  Highness.'  lie 
sovereign  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  personally 
addressed  as  *  Your  Majesty ; '  and  letters  are 
addressed  to  'The  Kinds'  or  'Queen's'  'Most 
Excellent  Majesty.' 

In  Heroldry,  an  esgle  crowned,  and  holding  a 

sceptre,  is  blazoned  ns  on  ■  eagle  in  his  msjeity.' 

MAJOXICA,  o   name    at   firat  given  by  the 

ilians  to  a  certain  kind  of  earthen-ware,  because 

e    first    Bpecimens    that   they   saw   came   from 

Majorca;  but  as  subsequently  a  large  manufacture 

of  the  same  kind  ol  earthen-ware  was  carried  on  at 

Faenza,    the    name   majolica   was    dropped,    and 

'Faience'  aubstitnted.     The  term  majoaca  is  also 

ised  to  designate  vessels   made  of  coloured  clay, 

and  coated  with  a  white  (q)oqQe  varnish,  so  as  to 

resemble    artistic    '  faience.'    See   PorrsBV ;   also 

Fortnum's  Maioliea,  1875. 

MAJOR,  a  term  in  Mnsic,  applicable  to  those 
intervals  which  are  susceptible  of  being  lowered  a 
without  becoming  false.     See  Iktbkvai. 


scale,  which  ia  said  to  be  in  the  major  when  I 
third  above  the  key-note  is  a  major  third— that  is, 
when  it  is  distant  from  the  key-note  four  semitonea  j 

MAJOR,  in  the  Army,  is  the  second  Seld^ifficer 

in  a  battalion  of  infantry  or  regiment  of  cavalry. 
He  ranks  next  to  the  lieutenant-oolonel,  and  com- 
mands in  his  absence ;  is  mounted ;  and  is  respon- 
sible, with  the  adjutant,  that  the  men  are  properly 
drilled  and  equipped.  The  pay  of  a  major  ranges 
from  £1,  4s.  5a.  a  day  in  the  household  cavalry,  to 
Idi.  a  day  in  the  infajitry  of  the  line.  There  ore  no 
majors  in  the  Royal  Mannes ;  and  it  ^ras  only  in  1872 
tha^  in  the  Royal  Artillery  and  Roy)J  Engineers,  the 
firBt-ca|ibuns  were  converted  into  majors  to  put  their 
J j^jj  j[jg  y„g_     2n  the 


■  .i~,iaU 


HAJOBOA— HAIAOCA. 


Artillery,  ths  major  oomnuiDdB  a  batteiy.  TTeed 
•djectively,  the  word  major,  in  ths  «njiy,  ngnifiea 
■  Bujierior  clasn  ia  a  cert^a  rsok,  u  aar^euits- 


MAJO'HOA  (Spanish,  MaRona),  the  largest  ol 
the  Baleario  lalee  (q.  v.).  Ilea  107  mile«  tontb-eatt 
of  tha  month  of  the  Ebro,  the  nearest  point  of  the 
Spanish  coait,  and  171  milea  north  of  Algiera.  Ita 
greatest  length  (from  east  to  nest]  a  64  miles, 
ao<!  its  breadth  (From  north  to  south]  48  mHes, 
with  on  area  of  about  1386  English  square  miles. 
The  nortJi^east  half  of  the  island  is  mountainous; 
tbe  other  parts  are  finely  diveraiSed  with  hills, 
valleys,  ana  plium.  The  dinute  is  healthful,  the 
■ea-breeze  preeerring  a  nearly  equable  temper;  '-  - 
OTer  the  irhole  island.  Tbe  inhabitants,  who  i 
leaemble  the  Catalans  in  their  appearance  and 
mannera,  number  above  230,000,  are  hospitable 
and  indottrioiu,  and  mostly  employ  themselves 
in  agrioultur&  The  chief  products  of  the  island 
are  marble,  slate,  plaster,  the  oommon  cereals 
and  legmnea,  oranges,  silk,  lemons,  oil,  win*  '' 
excellent  quality,  ouves,  and  aromatic  herbs, 
chief  town  is  P^a  (q.  v.),  the  capitaL  The  Spanish 
goveroment  makes  use  of  M.  aa  a  place  of  boniab- 
ment  for  political  ofTendera. 

HAJ<yBIT7  ia  the  age  at  which  a  petaon  in 
this  connti?  acquires  the  statos  of  a  penMl  tui  juria 
— L  e.,  ia  able  to  manan  his  or  twr  own  afiatrs. 
Thia  age,  in  tbie  United  Kingdom,  is  31.  Under 
that  age,  persona  in  En^and  and  Ireland  are  called 
iDfauts,  and  are  more  or  leas  subject  to  gnardiana, 
who  manage  for  them  thdr  property.  In  Sootland, 
vounK  penona  are  oalled  minora  between  12  (if 
tamalee)  or  14  (if  males)  and  21.  It  is  chiefly  with 
respect  to  tha  management  of  property  that  the 
distinction  of  majority  is  filed  npon,  *s  it  is  assomed 
that  persons  nnder  that  age  have  not  discretion  and 
lirmneas  to  enter  sinijje-handed  into  contracts.  It 
ia  also  a  ounimon  penod  fixed  upon  in  willa  at  which 
to  make  ptvviaiona  payable.    As  far  as  liability  for 


}ngh  to  know  that  particular  acts  are 
minor  can,  in  Sootliuid,  make  a  will  of 
movable  estate,  but  oaimot  do  so  in  "    '     ' 

MAK  AT.T.ATT,  q  seaport  on  the  south  ooast  of 
Arebia,  300  milea  east-north-east  of  the  port  of 
Aden.     It  has  a  well-protected   harbour,   and  is 


much  frequented  by  veasela  for  the  porpoee  of 
laying  in  stores.  It  exports  Rum,  hides,  and  senna, 
Bod  is  an  extensive  slave-market  Pop,  about  4500. 
MAEIA'N,  one  of  the  Moluccas  (q.  v.), 
MAKO',  a  market-town  of  Sungary,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Maros,  16  miles  east-south-east 
ofSK^in.  Pop.  (1880)  30,063,  many  of  whom  b" 
Jewt.  Tbe  town  cont^ns  numerous  mills,  and 
famous  for  its  breed  of  oxen,  which  are  of  unusually 
large  sine. 

MAKBIZI,  Taki  knvat  Anr  Ashad  Mohah- 
klAD,  on  eminent  AnJiie  biatorian  and  geographer, 
wo*  bom  in  1360  a.  d.,  in  Hakir^  near  Baolbec. 
He  eaiiy  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  history, 
jnrispnidauje,  faadildon,  asbolt^,  wc,,  at  Cairo^ 
where  also  he  afterwards  heu  the  offioes  of 
if  weighta  and  meaaores, 
it  dimient  moaquea.  The 
most  Important  of  his  numerons  wn^  are  a  Tom- 
frmAiad  Hiilors  qf  Egypt,  »,  Sittory  of  Oie  Mamhik 
Sv&an*,  and  two  treatises  on  Moalem  (Eufic)  coinB, 


weights,  and  masanrea,  which  have  beoi  edited  and 
translated  by  Tychsen  (into  Idtin),  and  by  Silveatn 
de  3acy  (into  f^enoh).  M.  also  oamaen<»d  a  work 
On  (As  ImporUait  Penanaga  who  had  vitiied  Bgjfft, 
intended  to  fill  80  vola. ;  bnt  only  a  small  poroon 
of  these  (one  autograph  volume  is  in  the  Imperial 
Library  at  Paris)  was  really  aooomplished.  Ha 
died,  at  the  age  of  82  year*,  in  1442  a.  d. 

MAX  ABAIt,  a  maritime  district  of  British  Indi^ 
in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  is  bounded  on  the  K 
by  the  district  of  Coimbatore,  while  on  the  W 
shores  ore  washed  by  the  Arabian  Sea ;  and  it 
extends  ia  lat.  from  10'  1?  to  12*  18'  N.  Ares, 
6765  square  miles;  pop,  (Feb.  1881)  %36S,03S. 
The  anjfoce  is  occupied  in  the  east  t^  Uie  Neil- 
gberries,  and  the  Western  Qbants  cover  a  great 
portion  of  the  district.  The  name  of  tbia  disbict 
IS  applied  to  the  whole  sontii-westeni  ooast  of 
Sontbem  India. 

MALA'BATHRITH,  a  name  given  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  to  aromatio  leaves,  which  wera 
in  high  repute  among  them,  both  as  a  me&ine 
and  a  perfume,  and  with  which  th^  sometime* 
flavoured  wina  These  leavea  were  brought  from 
India,  whence  they  were  often  called  Indim 
Ltava ;  and  from  the  vslue  in  which  they  were 
held,  aometimea  simply  Leave*,  just  as  the  term 
Bark  is  now  nsod  to  iwaignate  the  medioinal  bark 
of  tiie  Cinchonas.  Many  fabulous  aoooimta  wero 
current  of  their  origin.  They  an  now  pretty 
certainly  known  to  be  the  same  with  the  leaves  sold 
in  every  Indian  bazaar  under  the  name  of  Tg-jxtl, 
tbe  produce  of  two  nearly  allied  species  of  Cinnamon 
[Cinnamoinuni  Tarnala  and  O.  aUriJlorum),  gron  ' 
in  tbe  dense  forests  of  the  Himalayan  vallers  ; 
the  name  M.  is  regarded  as  a  comption  of  Tanali^ 
piitra,  Tamala  leu.  They  are  aromatic,  fragrant^ 
and  gently  stimulant 

MAXiA'CCA,  a  British  mantune  settlement  on 
south-west  coast  of  the  M^y  Feninsola,  extend* 
in  Ut  from  2'  to  3*  N.,  and  long,  from  t02*  to  103* 
B.  It  is  40  miles  in  length,  and,  including  the 
district  of  Noning,  about  2fi  miles  broad.  Ai«a, 
about  1000  square  miles;  population  80,OIXIl 
Near  the  coast,  which  is  washed  by  the  Strait  of 
Malaoca,  the  surface  is  flat  and  swampy,  producing 
rice.  Inland,  there  are  low  hills.  Mount  Ophir 
rising  to  3920  feet.  Although  little  agricolture  is 
carried  on,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  country  ii 
-•^11  in  tha  oonditton  of  jungle,  the  soil  is  fertile  in 
sagix  pepper,  fruits,  vegetables,  ratUns,  and 
<r.  In  the  district  of  Nonioc  are  tin-mines  of 
value.  The  climate  is  remwkably  salubrious  j 
tbe  land  and  Sea  breezes  are  regular  j  and  the 
thennometer  ranges  from  72°  to  85°.  The  towu  and 
seaport  of  M.,  capital  of  the  district  of  the  bi 
name,  is  situated  m  lat  2°  11'  N.,  loiw.  102°  IG'  H, 
at  the  mouth  of  a  small  river  which  rbws  into  tha 
Strait  of  Malacca.  It  ia  handsome  and  well  built, 
and  presents  a  fine  appearance  from  the  sea.  Ita 
most  interesting  building  ia  the  church  of  our  Lady 
del  Monte,  tbe  scene  of  the  labouis  and  supposed 
miroclsa  of  St  Francis  Xavier,  the  'Apostle  of  tha 
East.'  Fop.  variously  estimated  at  from  5000  to 
15,000. 

taken  by  the  Fortogueee  under  Albtt- 

Suerque  in  1509 ;  became  a  Dutch  paesemou  in 
042  ;  fell,  b  1794  into  the  honda  of  tie  British,  to 
whom  it  was  finafly  ceded  in  1824.  In  186T  ftt, 
together  with  Singapore  and  the  Prince  of  Wales 
Island,  were  transferred  from  the  control  of  the 
Indian  government  to  that  of  the  Colonial  Secretary. 
MALACCA,  Strait  at,  atmatatei  the  Malay 
Peniaanla  on  the  north-east  from  the  island  t^ 
8nmatr«  on  tbe  soutb-weat.    Lragth,  520  inilet : 


HALACm— UAL&OA. 
I  1147,  i 


MA'LACHI  {prolnblr  u  abbrerikttd  form  of 

JlfaiicftiwA,  meaning  ' meMenger  of  Jehovah;'  tha 
Seventy  uid  the  Vulgate  hava  Maiachitu),  the 
name  given  to  the  lost  oanonioal  book  of  the  Old 


composed  his  propbeciea  ii  conjectured  to  have 
been  dnrinstbe  govemorahlp of  Nahemt^  or abont 
420  B.  a  The  took  exhibits  that  strict  ttftard  for 
tha  proper  observance  of  the  ceremania]  liiir,  and 
that  hatred  of  foreign  murUget,  &o.,  which  marked 
the  religions  Jaws  after  the  retnni  from  exile,  but 
hoa  Uttle  of  the  old  prophetio  fiie,  freedom^  and 
dramatio  force. 

MA'LAOHITB,  a  mineral,  eHentially  a  oarbooata 
of  copper,  of  a  (Tcen  oolour,  often  fonnd  u  an 
incruftation  or  atuoctitio  along  with  other  ores  of 
oopper ;  often  in  law  manea,  and  often  also  crra- 
taUued  in  rather  obCqne  fonr-sided  prisms,  bevelled 
on  the  eztremitieB,  or  with  tiie  bevel- 
ling  planes  tnncated  so  as  to  foim 
six-sided  prisma.  It  is  often  of  a 
fibroDs  sLruoliuft  It  is  valuable  as 
an  ore   of   oopper,   alUumgh   seldom 

smelted  alone,  not  only  because  it  is 

CrvBtal  found  aloDg  with  outer  oi««,  but 
Mduhite.  because  the  metal  is  apt  to  be  oairied 
off  widi  tlie  carbonio  add.  It  is 
sometimes  psssed  off  in  jeweUery  as  tnrqnoise, 
althoojih  easily  distingniahed  hy  its  oolour  and  much 
infeiior  hardness.  It  is  used  for  many  ornamental 
purposes;  Blabs  of  it — obiefly  from  the  mines  of 
Siberia — are  made  into  tables  mautel-pieceA,  &c, 
of  exquisite  beauty.  In  1S35,  a  msss  of  solid  M. 
was  foond  in  the  Ural  Moontain*  of  more  than 
feet  in  langth,  and  weighing  abont  25 


UAIiAOHT,  iKUt,  Archbishop  of 

Ireland,  and  a  saint  of  the  Bouum  Cktholio  _     , 

is  remailuble  not  only  for  his  oonneotaon  with  a 
very  important  period  of  Irish  church  histo>T,  but 
also  from  the  circumstance  of  hia  biogr^ihy  having 
been  written  by  hia  distinguished  oontemponuy,  St 
Bernard.  M.  was  bora,  in  Hie  end  of  the  11th  c., 
of  a  noble  family,  and  having  been  edooated  by  a 
hermit  named  Imar,  received  orden  at  an  early  age 
from  the  hands  of  Cebns,  Archbishop  ot  Armagh. 
His  reputation  for  Isamina  and  sauctity  was  unai- 
ampled  in  that  age,  and  CSlsns  hsd  early  dengned 
M.  as  his  snooeasor  in  the  sea  of  Armsgh'j  but  M. 
protested  agsinst  it,  in  cxmsaquenoa  of  an  abase 
similar  to  Uiat  of  iUt  Impbopeutiok  (q.  v.),  by 
which  the  tempcnalilaes  of  the  sde  ware  neld  1^ 
laymen,  called  Coariu.  In  the  end,  however,  he 
was  elected,  with  the  full  rights  of  his  see,  and 
soon  afterwards,  in  his  capacity  of  primate,  took 
measures  for  the  reform  of  the  many  abnsas  which 
prevailed  in  ^  the  diurches  of  Ireland.  He  went 
to  Borne  during  tbe  pontificate  of  Innocent  H., 
and  having  in  vain  sought  permisaioQ  to  reu(n  his 
see,  and  retire  to  Clairvaox,  returned  to  Lreland 
invested  with  aztraordinaiy  powers  as  legate  of 
the  pope.  In  this  capacity,  he  made  a  visitation 
of  Ireland,  and  many  of  the  oontroversiM  as  to  tha 
aodent  rdigions  nssoa  of  the  Irish  Chnrdi,  which 
would  be  oot  ot  i&oa  in  this  pnblioation,  turn 
■poa  thii  period.     H.  agun  rehired  to  FnoM 


,  ui  uiuei:  lu  meet  the  pope,  Eiuena  IFL, 
i^niing  his  visit  to  that  ooontry ;  bat  before  hia 
arrival,  tha  pope  had  retiimed  to  Rome,  and  M., 
daring  a  visit  to  bis  friend,  St  Bernard,  at  Oair- 
vauz,  was  saixed  with  an  illnesB  which  ended  in 
his  deatJi  in  the  year  1148.  A  cnrious  '  ProfJiecy 
conceming  the  Future  Roman  Pontiffs,'  is  extant 
under  the  name  of  Malachy.  It  deeigostes,  by  a 
few  brief  phrases,  tha  leading  cbaractecistics  of 
each  successive  icigii,  and  in  some  lastances  these 
descriptive  cboiaoteristica  have  proved  so  curiously 
appropriate  as  to  lead  to  some  diacusaion.  The 
charact«ristio  of  Pio  Nono,  Orvx  de  Cruee  (oroea 
after  cross),  was  tha  subject  of  mooh  apecalation. 
That  tha  prophecy  really  dates  from  the  time  of 
M.,  no  scholar  now  supposes ;  it  was  unknown  not 
only  to  8t  Benuurd,  Vut  to  all  others,  until  the 
16th  oantory.  It  is  first  noticed  in  the  end  of  that 
century,  bat  it  may  be  a  sufficient  indication  of  iti 
worth  to  state  that  neithw  BanmioB  nor  any  of  his 
continuabwa  deeoied  it  deserving  of  attentioa. 

HALACOXOQY  {Or.  vtaiaiot,  soft),  a  name 
now  not  nnfrequently  employed  to  designate  that 
branch  of  natural  history  wliich  has  molttuet  (called 
malakia  by  Aristotle)  for  its  snbjecL  Linmaas,  and 
the  oatontlists  who  preceded  him,  devoted  some 
attaitjon  to  this  study ;  but  untQ  the  time  of  Otivier, 
the  shells  of  tlie  shall-beaiing  mollascs  reocdved  a 
disproportionste  share  of  attention,  and  tiie  wijmuli 
theinselvei  were  little  regarded.  Conchology  (q.  v.) 
has  now,  however,  saiSc  to  a  very  subordinate 
place,  as  a  mere  part  of  malaooWf.  *ud  this  farandl 
of  science  has  been  prosecuted  oiuiog  the  present 
oentury  by  many  eminent  natorslists  with  grest 
seal  and  success.  The  names  of  Oken,  Savigny, 
De  Blainville,  Van  Beneden,  Milne- Edwards,  and 
Owen,  perhapg  deserve  to  be  particularly  mentioned. 
MAtACOPTERTGII,  MALACOPTEM  (Or. 
maiakoi,  soft ;  and  pteryx,  a  wing),  or  MALA  COP- 
TEEOUS  FISHES,  one  of  the  two  primary  divisions 
of  Osseous  Fiahes  in  the  syateiu  lA  Cuvier,  distin- 
guished by  soft  or  spineless  fins,  the  rays  ot  which 
ore  jointed.  Spiny  rays  are  occasionally  found  in 
the  fiiBt  dorsal  and  the  pectoral  fins.  Cuvier  sub- 
divided the  M.  into  ordera  accoiding  to  the  position 
or  absence  of  the  veutral  fins  ;  M.  ahdomxTuda 
having  the  ventral  fin*  beneath  the  belly,  as  tha 
salmon  and  herriox;  M.  tuit-braduad  having  the 
'entral  fins  beneal£  the  shoulder,  as  tlie  cod  and 
haddock;  and  if.  apode*  wantinz  ventral  fin^ 
aa  eels.  MllUer,  however — followra  in  this  by 
Owen  and  others — has  separated  from  tlie  M.  an 
order  of  fishes  to  which  ha  has  given  the  name  of 
ANACumHB  {AnaaintltBii ;  Or.  spineless),  differing 
from  acanthopterous  fishes  merely  in  the  absence 
of  BpiDona  rays  in  the  Bub.  Among  the  anaeanthi 
Te  Uu>  important  families  Oodidee  (Cod,  tc)  and 
"learaaecMa  (FUt-fiah), 

MAliAOA,  a  dty  and  seaport  of  Spain,  capital 
of  the  modem  province  of  tha  same  name,  ia  uttuted 
the  ahore  of  tho  Mediterranean,  70  mile*  north- 
t  of  Gibraltar.    Sheltered  on  the  north  and  east 
by  ninuntoina,  and  with  a  climate  of  which  dry- 
ness and  constant  sonBhine  are  t^  characteristic^ 
this  place  is  aapertor  as  a  reisort  for  invalids  to 
any  otlier  either  of  France  or  Italy.    Winter,  in 
the  T^ngljali  sense,  is  here  almost  unknown.    M.  is 
pnrely  a  plaos  ol  commerce,  and  with  the  sooep- 
tioQ   of   some   fine   Moorish   temaina.  it   oontains 
little  that  can  be  called  artistic    The  sea  is  here 
receding,  and  the  Moorish  dock-yatd  and  quay  are 
rw  in  the  town,  while  the  beantifol  AtameJa,  or 
iblic  walk,  was  oovared  with  water  last  oentury. 
.  is  famous  for  its  sweet  Hoseatsl  winsa,  grown 
\  the  heights  in  iha  vioini^,  and  the  richest  of 


..Coogk 


MALAQUETTA  MPPER-MAtATS. 


which  are  called  La»  Lagrmua.  Thoprodt--  - 
the  Tineyarda  is  about  40,000  pipee.  The  eiporta 
conaiat  chiefly  of  wmtM,  oil,  figs,  almonds,  mpea, 
sngar,  and  msias ;  and  the  importi  of  salt  fish,  v" 
mwiiifactnres,  and  colonial  produce.  Buiar 
msuofactored ;  also  cloth,  ropes,  leather,  and  soap. 
Fop.  (ISSJ)  113,426.  The  Midaca  of  the  Ronians  is 
a  Teiy  ancient  place,  and  was  founded  by  the 
PhceniciftM. — The  modern  proyinoe  of  M.,  part  of 
the  andent  kingdom  of  Oranada,  has  au  area  ' 
2824  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1383)  of  619,911. 

MALAODETTA   PEPPER.      See  Guixa 
Paradisb. 

HALAPTERD'RUS  (Or.  maiakoi,  soft;  pla 
*  fin;  and  oara,  the  tail)  is  the  name  ^Tcn  t 
genus  of  tiahes  of  the  Eamilv  Siiisridas  (q.  v.),  in  which, 
m  place  of  a  true  dorsal  nn,  thet«  is  a  soft '  " 
near  tiie  tail,  and  to  this  peculiarity  the 
due.    Two  species  are  known — vii.,  M.  eleetneua  and 
Jtt.  Batmema.     See  Eleotkicitt,  Amimji. 

MALARIA.    SeeMuBHU. 

MALAY  APPLE.    See  EoOKHiA. 

MALAY  PENINSULA,  or  MALACCA,  is  tht 
long  atrip  of  land  extending  from  Indo-China  south. 
waraa  and  south-east  tow^ds  the  island  of  Sumatra. 
Hie  peninsula  b^ins  properly  at  the  head  of  Ilia 
Oulf  of  Siam,  and  would  thus  include  part  of  Siam 
proper  and  the  British  province  of  Tenaaierim ;  but 


square  miles ;  while  the  popola- 
tioii  is  somethmg  leas  than  1,000,000.  The  width 
varies  from  46  miles  at  the  iathmus  of  Kra,  and 
also  at  another  point  farther  south,  to  210  at  Perak. 
The  interior  consiata  mainly  of  magnificent  wooded 
moDntain-rangeB,  aome  of  whose  peaks  attain 
height  of  600U  to  7000  feet ;  while  along  the  co; 
there  it  almoat  everywhere  a  flat  and  fertile  belt, 
fringed  with  numerous  isluida.  Tin  abouudB,  and 
is  largely  worked.  In  physical  features,  M.  re- 
sembles rather  the  ialanaB  of  Sumatra  and  Java 
than  Indo-China.  The  inhabitants  are  mainly 
Siamese  in  the  north,  civilised  Malajrs  (q.  v.)  along 
the  coast,  and  onciviliaad  Malays,  mixed  with  abor- 
iginal Negrito  tribes,  in  the  mterior.  Politically, 
tEe  northern  part  of  the  peninsula  ia  occupied  by 
small  states  tributan  to  Siam  (as  far  south  as  5°  N.) ; 
the  aonthem  part  by  Malav  states  under  British 
proteotion  (as  Perak,  q.  v.,  Johore,  Bumbo,  Solansor' 
and  the  Kitish  Straits  settlements.    These  incmd 


and  Malacca,  all  fully  described  in  separate  articles. 
It  has  bean  proposed  to  cut  a  canal  across  the 
isthmus  of  ^a.^The  ISAi^r  or  Imdun  Abchi- 
PILAOO,  aleo  called  Malitsu,  includes  the  great 
group  of  islands  lying  between  the  peninsula  and 
Australia,  including  Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo,  Celebes, 
the  Philippines,  Timor,  and  the  Moluccas.  In  most 
of  them  the  Malay  race  are  dominant,  though  not 
tlia  solepossMsors.  The  more  important  islands  will 
be  found  treated  each  in  its  own  place  in  this  work. 
MALAYS  (Malatub,  »  Malay  word]  is  the  niune 
given,  in  a  restricted  sense,  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Qie  Malay  Peninsula,  but  in  its  wider  acceptation, 
to  a  great  branch  of  the  human  family  found  also 
in  the  islands  d  the  Indian  Arohipelftgo,  in  Mada- 
gascar, and  in  the  nmnerons  itiaaai  of  tiie  Pacific 
In  the  fivefold  division  of  mankind  by  Blumenbach, 
the  M.  are  treated  as  a  distinct  race,  while  by 
mart  leoent  authors  Uiay  are  regarded  as  a  brandi 
'     "       "        ""  "  ichard    has    subdivided 


of    the    Mongolidcs. 


vea  of  the  Malay  family  into 
three  branches— viz.  (1.)  the  Indo-Malayan,  oompre- 
hending  the  M  proper  of  Malaoca,  and  the  inha- 
bitanta  of  Sumatra,  Java,  Celebes,  the  Moluocaa; 
and  the  Philippines,  with  whom,  perhaps,  may  be 
associated  the  natives  of  the  Caroline  ulonda  and 
the  l4uirooe»;  {2.)  the  Polvnesians;  and  (a)  the 
MadecoBBea.  or  people  of  Madagascar.  Aoeepting 
this  Bubdiviaion,  we  shall,  in  the  preaent  aracle, 
confine  ourBoIvea  to  the  M.  proper — the  natives  of 
Madagascar  having  been  already  noticed  under  that 
heading ;  and  reserving  the  Potyuesians  ^nerolly 
and  the  Maoris  in  particular  for  distinct  articles. 

In  physical  appearance,  the  M  an  a  brown- 
complexioned  raoe,  rather  darker  than  the  Chinese, 
but  not  so  swarthy  as  the  Hindus.  They  have 
long,  black,  shining,  but  coarse  hair ;  little  or  no 
beard ;  a  large  mouth ;  eyes  large  and  dark ;  nose 
eenerajly  short  and  fiat ;  lips  rather  thicker  than 
Uvoee  of  Europeans ;  and  cheek-bones  hi^  In 
stature,  the  Ltdo-Malays  are  for  the  moat  part 
below  the  middle  lieidit,  while  the  Polynesiana 
generally  exceed  it  The  Indo-Malaj^  have  also 
sligbt,  well-formed  limbs,  and  aro  particularly  small 
about  the  wrists  and  ankles.  '  The  profile,'  accord- 
ing to  Dr  Pickering,  '  is  usually  more  vertical  than 
in  the  white  race,  but  Una  may  be  owine  in  part 
to  the  mode  of  carriage,  for  the  skull  does  not 
shew  a  superior  facial  angle.'  Such  is  the  general 
appearance  oE  Uie  M.  proper,  or  inhabitants  of  the 
peninsula  and  Indian  Islonda.  But  these  also  have 
their  subdivisions.  There  ore  the  civilised  M.,  who 
have  a  written  langn^^  and  have  made  some 
pragresa  in  the  arts  of  life ;  then  there  aro  the 
sea-people,  orang-laul,  literally, '  men  of  the  sea,'  a 
kind  ot  sea-gipsiea  or  robbers ;  and  there  are  the 
orang  baatia,  or  orratg  titan, '  wild  men,'  or ' 
dwelling  in  the  woods  or  forests,  and  sni 
lie  the  aborigines  oE  the  peninsula  and 
'These  three  classes  of  Malaya,'  says  Crawfurd, 
'  existed  nearly  three  centuries  and  a  half  ago,  when 
the  Portuguese  first  arrived  in  the  waters  of  the 
Archipelago,  just  aa  they  do  at  the  present  day. 
That  people  deacribea  them  ob  having  existed  also 
for  two  centuries  and  a  half  before  Qiat  event,  as, 
without  doubt,  they  did  in  times  far  earlier.'  Still, 
while  so  widely  differing  in  habits,  all  these  speak 
eesentially  the  same  language.  The  M.  are  cosen- 
tially  ielaodeni,  and  have  much  of  the  daring  anil 
enterprise  for  which  nations  familiar  with  the  sea 
are  famous.  Their  oiuinal  seat  is  by  themselves 
stated  to  hare  been  li^nan^aba,  in  the  iaiand  of 
Sumatra,  rather  than  Uke  peninsula  itself.  EW  the 
M.  of  Borneo  olaim  to  have  had  a  Menaugkabo  origin. 
Falembanfi  however,  also  in  Sumatra,  ho*  been 
mentionedss  the  ori^nol  seat  of  Malay  civilisation; 
and  others,  again,  point  to  Java  aa  the  source  from 
which  both  Menangkabo  and  Palembang 


Malacca.    Honunuuta,  which 

this  people  in  the  oountry  of  the  Malays,  ha 

been  disoorered.    Thus,  Sir  Stamford  Kaffles,  when 


Malays,  have  ei 


visited  Menangkabo,  found  then  inscription 
rtone  in  the  ancient  character  of  Java,  aacH  a*  are 
frequent  in  that  island;  and  ha  was  supported  in 
bis  conclusion  that  they  wan  so  by  the  learned 
aativeeof  Java  who  aooompanied  him  in  his  journey. 
The  settlement  of  the  Javanese  in  several  parts  at 
° ttra  is  indeed  suScientfy  attested.    In  Polem- 

^j  they  have  beeo  immemorially  the  ruling 
people;  and  although  the  Malay  language  be  the 
popular  one,  the  Javanese,  in  its  peimliai  written 
character,  is  still  that  of  the  court'  The  Malay 
language  is  mmple  and  easy  in  its  oonstructionj 
harmonioui  in  its  pronundatiOD,  and  easily  acquired 


ivCiOOL^Ic 


UALCOLH— MALDIVE  ISLANDS. 


ArohipaUgOt      Of  its  i 


Bartern 

Uu  Javuien  ii  the  moat  raflned,  a  Kuperiori^  which 
ft  ovaa  to  the  infloenoe  npon  it  of  Sanicnt  liter- 
Atnre.  Hiany  Aiabio  womb  have  liao  been  inoor- 
pomted  with  it,  bf  meaiu  of  which  the  Javaoeee 
are  able  to  supply  the  definenoy  of  xdentifio  terma 
in  theii  own  toiwue.  In  religiou,  the  oivilised 
M.  M«  MohammedMiB,  haTiDg  embraeed  that  faith 
in  the  13th  or  !4tli  ceDtniy.  The  ttibca  in  the 
interior  and  the  'men  of  the  aea'  have  either  no 
reliKioQ  at  all,  or  tnoh  aa  can  be  regarded  only  in 
the  light  of  meet  debaied  Buperatitiim.    The  aorol 

_i .__  _«  .!_  T_j_  .r_. — J  generally  do«  not 

it^  traacbenmi,  and 
tiongh  good  aailora,  and  able  to 
wealth  by  legitimate  oommeroe,  thej  prefer 
piracy,  and  numerous  have  been  the  victims  among 
European  traders  to  Malay  treachery  and  daiing. 
Indeed,  so  little  faith  have  EoropetuiE  in  their 
profeasioiia  or  engagements,  that  they  will  never 
engage  more  than  two  or  tlu^e  of  them  in  a  ship'i 
orew,  for  fear  of  nnpleaaant,  it  — '  ■"' — ' 


1  hi^ :  they  a 
igefm.     AlUioa 


MALCOLM,  the  name  of  foor  kings  of  Scot- 
laud. — M.    MocDouald   succeeded   to    the    throne 
on  the  abdication  of  Coostantine  MocAodh  in  944 
±.11.    The  most  important  event  of  his  reign  was 
ceasion  of   Cumbria,  in  946,  by  the   Tlnglji'*' 


M.  MacKeimeth,  grandson  of  the  preoedinfc 
ascended  the  throne  in  1003.  His  life  waa  paasMi 
chiefly  in  repelling  the  inoonions  of  the  Donea.    Ha 


MacFinU^  in  December  I05S,  or  of  Lulach  Mac- 
Gilcom^uQ  in  April  1057-  for  the  first  nine  years 
of  his  reign,  M.  was  at  liberty  to  devote  his  energies 
to  the  ooosolidatiou  of  his  kingdom,  England  being 


then  ruled  by  the  peaceful  Edward  the  Confessor. 

"''"'am  of  Normandy  had  settled  himself  c 

throne,  many  noble  Saxons  sought  refuf 


After  William  o 


}nrt,  and  among  them  Edgar 
ing,  nearest  of  kin  to  t^  Confeosor,  with  Ms  mother 
Agatha,  and  his  sistera  Margaret  and  ChriBtino. 
Jlorgaret,  who  waa  yoong,  beantafnl,  and  pious,  capti- 
vatM  the  heart  of  the  Scottish  king,  and  a  marriage 
qnickly  followed.  Her  biographer,  Tui^t  (also  her 
chaplain  ood  cnafeiaor),  tula  m  how  eaniesUy  and 
offcctionat^y  she  laboured  to  civilise  the  people 
and  to  'enbghtea'  her  btubond.  M.,  although  a 
man  of  vigpniiui  intellect,  could  not  read  her 
iniaaala  and  books  of  devotion,  but  he  used  to  kiss 
them  in  token  of  reverence,  and  he  caoaed  them 
to  be  richly  bound,  and  ornamented  with  gohl 
and  jewels.  The  retinue  of  the  king  b^an  to  shew 
■omething  of  antral  magnifioenoe,  and  his  plate  waa, 
according  to  Tn^ot,  'at  least  gilt  or  tilvered  over.' 
Bnt  M.'s  new  relations,  uufortmutely,  embroiled  him 
with  the  Normana.  Li  1070,  be  croaaed  tiie  border, 
hanied  Horthamberland  and  Yoriiahire,  btrt  waa 
•oon  obliged  to  retreat,  'William  the  Conqaeror 
retaliated  in  10T2,  and  wasted  Scotland  aa  far 
M  the  Tay.  At  Abranethy,  M.  was  compelled  to 
acknowledge  him  aa  his  li^a  lord  bnt  (as  the 
Scottish  historiona  hold)  <m^  for  inch  parts  of 
his  dominions  as  hod  belonged  to  England — vit,, 
Onmbria  and  the  Lothians.  War  broke  out  again 
between  Endand  and  Scotland  on  the  aooer''-~ 
of  William  Bufas,  probably  at  the  inatigatioi 


the   fugitive   Anglo.SaionB  and  the  disoontented 

Normans,  who  hod  been  pouring  into  the  conntry 
dnring  the  iron  reign  of  'William,  and  had  obtained 
large  grant*  of  huid  fnnn  tiia  Seotliah  ■f^fi"''', 
Kothing  of  note,  however  hai>pened,  and  peaca 
was  osam  concluded ;  bnt  the  seiznre  of  Carliale  by 
the  E&glioh  king  not  long  after  provoked  a  trew 
rapture,  and,  in  1003,  M.  again  oroaaed  the  boido', 
and  laid  siece  to  Alnwick ;  but  while  so  engaged, 
he  was  saddenly  attacked,  defeated,  and  tbin, 
November  13,  1093.  His  wife  died  immediately  on 
ti Baring  the  fstol  newB. 

U.,  sumamad '  The  Maiden,'  grandson  of  David  I., 
■noceeded  that  monarch,  &4t£  May  1163,  when 
only  in  his  13th  year.  He  had  no  sooner  mounted 
ths  throne  than  a  Celtio  insnneotion,  headed  by 
Somerled,  Lord  of  the  lalea,  broke  ont  Some  years 
after,  another  insunectiou  broke  onC  among  'the 
wild  Soote  of  OoUoway,'  nuder  their  chief  Fergua, 
to  crush  which  M.  had  to  employ  a  large  force. 
In  1161,  he  had  to  chastise  a  revolt  of  the  men 
of  Morav,  and  to  put  down  a  second  rebellion  of 
Somerled.  He  died  at  Jedburgh,  of  a  lingering 
disease,  9th  Deoember  11S5,  at  the  early  age  ^ 
twenty.fonr. 

MALCOLM,  Sib  John,  O.C.B.,  a  Britiah  state*- 
man  and  historian,  was  bom  at  Biirafoot.  porloh 
of  Westerkh^  Domfrieasbire,  May  2,  1TG9,  and 
at  the  age  of  14  went  to  India  as  a  cadet  in  the 
Madras  army,  Abont  1790,  lie  commenced  to 
devote  hia  leisure  honrs  to  the  study  of  the  Oriental 
lanffuagss,  especially  Persian.  He  distinguished  him- 
aelT  at  the  siege  tu  Seringapatam  in  1792,  and  waa 
appointed  to  UU  staff  as  Persian  inteipreter.  In 
1800,  he  waa  sent  as  ambassador  to  Persia,  to  form 
an  oUiiuiae  with  that  conntiy  against  BomqNtrte, 
in  which  he  succeeded.  In  1802,  1807,  and  1809, 
he  was  a^un  sent  aa  nunister-planipotentiary  to  the 
Persian  coort;  and  shortly  bdore  nis  final  return, 
received  from  the  Shah  the  order  of  the  'San 
and  Lion,'  and  the  titlea  of  'Ehao'  and  'Sepahdar 
of  the  Empire.'  In  1803;  he  hod  been  appointed 
president  of  Mysore;  and  dnring  the  two  following 
years,  his  admmistrative  talents  hod  been  of  most 
important  service  to  the  government  in  reducing 
to  order  and  tranquillity  the  newly  conquereil 
Mahratta  states.  In  1812,  he  returned  to  EngUnd, 
received  the  honour  of  knighthood,  and,  after  a 
lapse  of  five  years,  returned  to  India  as  the  governor- 
general's  pohticol  agent  in  the  Deccon,  and  with  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the  Indian  army ;  in 
the  latter  o^iocity,  be  fmatly  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  wars  a^inst  the  Bndarris  and  Holkar- 
In  1627,  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Bombay,  but 
finally  left  India  m  1830.  Be  died  of  paralyus  at 
Windsor,  May  1333.  M.'a  writings  are  highly 
esteemed  aa  anthorities ;  they  am— A  Ei^org  oj 
Penia  (London,  181S,  2  voU.  4to ;  Sd  ed.  1^  ; 
Memoir  of  CaUrai  Jtulia  (2  voU.  London,  1823) ; 
Feliliaa  Hidoni  of  India  from  I7M  to  1823  (2  vola. 
8vo,  1826) ;  and  i/«  of  Lord  Chve  (London,  1830). 
See  his  Life  and  Correspondence,  by  Kaye  (185C). 

HATiDEGEM,  a  «maU  town  of  East  Fkndei^ 
Bdginm,  17  miles  N.W.  of  Ghent.  Tobacco  ia 
manufactured.    Pop.  above  6000. 

HALDBIf,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  tr.S,,  G  miles 
N.  of  Boston.  There  are  manafactnrce  of  india- 
rubber  shoes,  boot-lasts,  leather,  tassels,  and  iron 
pipes.    Pop.  (1880)  12,017. 

MAXDIYB  ISLANDS,  a  chain  of  low  coral 
islands,  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  about  400  miles  west- 
aouth-west  of  Oeylon.  They  extend  SOO  miles  in 
lensth  by  45  miles  in  average  breadth,  and  oonsist 
of  17  groups  or  atoUs,  each  atoll  ■urronnded  by  a 
coral  nef.    The  entire  nnmber,  inoliidiiig  the  islets, 

LY.Ii. LlOQljlli 


UimOS—UAllO  ACIS. 


it  Mtinutad  at  abont  S0,00a  Mali,  the  krgeit  of 
tiw  aliain,  and  the  reeideiioe  of  the  lutiTe  prince, 
Tbo  w  called  '  The  Saltan  of  the  Twelve  Tbouuod 
I*ie%'  it  Hven  mil«e  in  airomnferenoe,  and  oontaina 
a  population  of  2000.  The  popnlatioii  ol  the  whole 
cboia  ii  catimated  at  160,000.  Baoh  island  ii 
dicolar  in  fom,  with  a  lagoon  in  its  centre,  and 
biu  an  elevation  above  the  tea  in  no  cam  of  more 
than  20  feet  at  high-water  mark.  The  larger  and 
inhalnted  iil«nd>  are  clad  vitb  paba,  flg,  citron, 
and  bnad-frnit  trees.  Grain  ie  also  abundantljr 
produced.  Wild-fowl  breed  in  prodigione  numben; 
filh,  lioe  (imported  from  Hindnitan),  and  cocoa- 
nnta,  oon^tnte  the  food  of  the  inhabitants,  who 
are  itrict  Uohammedana.  The  '  iniltan '  aands  an 
annual  tribute  to  the  goremor  of  Cejrloa. 

MA'LDON,  a  market-town,  river-port,  and  mnni- 
(ipiJ  boTDagh  of  Enzlsnd,  in  the  county  of  £a)Ki, 
a  mile  below  the  conUaence  of  the  Chelmer  and  tbe 
Blackwater,  9  miles  east  of  Chelmsfoid,  and  44 
north-east  of  London.  Betides  the  manofactitm  of 
crystaUiaed  salt,  brick-making,  brewing,  and  iron- 
foandiug,  tiie  asnal  branchea  m  indnstiy  connected 
with  a  port  are  carried  on.  In  1880,  35G5  veraels, 
of  162,066  tons,  entered,  and  3068,  of  164,090  tons, 
cleared  the  port.  Till  1S8G,  M.  retomed  one  member 
to  parliament    Pop.  (1871)  56S6;  (ISSl)  6470. 

HALB  FEBN.    See  Fnai,  Uuk. 

MAIiEBBAZTOHE,  Niooua,  s  2^«nch  philo- 
sopher, bom  Angaxt  6,  1638,  at  Paris,  where  hia 
father  was  President  of  the  Chamber  of  Accounts. 
He  was  deformed  and  sickly,  and  from  his  childhood 
fond  of  solitude.  At  the  age  of  22,  he  entered  into 
the  couKregation  of  the  Oratory,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  tiia  stndjr  of  Bible  history  and  ot  the  Fathers 
nf  the  chnrch,  till  Descartea's  treatise,  De  Homine, 
foiling  into  his  hands,  attracted  him  to  pliilosophy. 
His  fiuuons_  work,  Dt  2a  Redxrdu  de  2a  FfrtU 
(3  vols.  Paris,  1674,  and  other  editions],  diaplayiog 
great  depth  and  orimnaUty  of  thonslil^  combined 
with  perspicuity  and  elegance,  hod  tor  its  object 
the  p^F(^lo||icM  investigation  of  the  causes  of  the 
errors  to  which  th*  human  mind  is  liable,  and  of 
the  nature  of  tmth  and  the  way  of  reaching  it.  Ho 
tiituntaina  that  we  see  all  things  in  God  (his  famous 
Vuion  ea  Dita) ;  that  all  beings  and  thoughts  exist 
in  Ood  {Diea  tit  le  Urn,  dtt  tiprilt,  amimt  fetpaix  at 
U  lieu  del  eorpi);  and  that  God  is  the  first  canae 
of  all  changes  which  take  place  in  bodies  and 
souls,  which  are  therefore  merely  passive  therein. 
Hia  BVjrtem  it  a  kind  of  mystic  idealism.  It  was 
itnmediately  opposed  by  Ant.  Amauld,  Bossuet, 
and  many  others,  and  was  subjected  to  a  thorough 
and  critical  examinatiDn  by  Locke  and  Leibnitz. 
Besides  the  work  above  mentioned,  M.  wrote  a 
TraiU  d«  Morale,  a  Traitt  de  la  Ccmaiamieaiion 


exhibit  the  haimoa^  of  hia  philosophic  views  with 
Christianity.  He  died  at  Paris  (as  English  critics 
are  fond  of  saying)  of  a  dispute  with  the  snbtle 
Beriteley,  October  13, 1715. 

HALG3HERBES,  CanririEN  OuiLLiinii  si 
IiAMOlONOH  vt,  a  distdngnished  French  stateEmon, 
was  bom  at  Paris,  December  6,  1721,  and  educated 
at  the  Jesuits'  College ;  he  became  connieUor  to  the 

Cj'Iiameat  of  Pari*  in  1744,  and  sncceeded  hi* 
bher  as  President  of  the  Court  of  Aids  in  17S0. 
where  his  clear  judgment,  strict  integrity,  and 
humane  disposition,  enabled  bnn  to  be  oi  great 
MTvice  to  his  country.  A  quiet  but  detenained 
opponent  of  government  rapacity  and  l>yraDny,  he 
winched  the  ministry  with  a  jealoo*  eye,  and  wa* 
bidefatlRable  in  hia  efforts  to  [Ofvent  uie  peinile 
from  being  plnnderod.    About  the  tame  tiin*  (lltO), 


of  t^  P>'**%    ^I*^  ^"'i  '^ 

have  accepted  it  lest  it  ahonld  fall  into  tb«  nands  (rf 
some  mere  bigot  or  ooait-hireling ;  and  so  tolerant 
was  he,  that  French  autbon  pntuonaoe  the  oeriod 
of  his  censorship  '  the  golden  age  of  letters.  To 
M.  we  owe,  among  other  thiogs,  the  publication  of 
the  famous  EncgaopidU.  In  lT71i  his  bold  remon- 
strance* against  the  abnsea  of  law  which  Louis  XV. 
waa  perpettatinK  led  to  his  banishment  to  one  of 
his  ertwteL  At  the  accession  of  Louis  XVL  (1774), 
who  esteemed  M.,  he  was  recalled,  and  entered 
Pari*  in  tainmph.  In  1776,  he  resigned,  on  tiie 
dismissal  of  Tnrgot,  all  official  employment;  and 
from  this  period  on  to  the  Bevolntion,  spent  hit 
time  in  travet  or  b  the  improvement  of  his  estates. 
The  first  storms  of  that  wild  period  passed  by  aoi} 
left  him  unsoathed ;  but  when  he  heard  that  the 
unfortunate   king,  who  had   always   neglected  to 

Clt  by  his  advice,  was  about  to  be  tned  by  the 
venbon,  he  munanimoualy  Wt  his  retreat,  and 
offend  to  def^id  his  old  master.  The  Convention 
granted  permissioD,  but  from  that  day  M.  was 
hiiDself  a  doomed  man.  He  was  arrested  in  the 
beginning  of  December  1793,  and  guilloldned,  April 
£2,  1794,  along  with  his  daughter  uid  her  husboiid, 
M.  de  Chateaubriand,  brother  of  the  famous  author 
of  that  name.  M.  was  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy,  an  able  writer  on  political,  legal,  an4 
financial  questions,  and  one  of  the  most  viitnoua 
and  high-minded  statesmen  of  the  18th  century. 

HALIBBAN,  Masia  Fzliciti,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  mezzo-soprano  singers  of  recent  times, 
bora  at  Paris,  March  24,  18%,  was  the  daughter 
of  Manuel  Oarda,  a  Spinieh  singer  and  teacher 
of  singing.  When  she  was  still  very  young,  her 
reputation  extended  over  Europe^  Her  mther 
attempted  to  eatablish  the  Italian  opera  in  New 
YoT^,  bat  without  Buccest ;  and,  on  aooount  of 
his  circumstances,  she  married  M.  Malibron,  a 
Frenchman,  who  was  supposed  to  be  one  of  the 
richest  merchants  of  that  city,  bat  who  soon 
became  bankrupt,  on  which  she  went  again  upon 
the  stage,  and  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm 
in  France,  England,  Germany,  and  Italy.  She 
expended,  with  remarkable  benevolence,  Ute  great 
snms  which  she  won.  Her  first  marnage  having 
been  dissolved,  she  married  U.  Beriot,  a  famous 
violinist,  in  1836;  but,  u.  September  of  that  year, 
she  died  at  Maochetter,  vrhither  she  had  gone  (a 
take  port  in  a  musical  festivaL  M.  was  a  woman 
of  noble  heart  and  hi^  intellect,  and  her  con- 
versation possessed  an  exquisite  fascination.  She 
has  Ibft  a  number  of  mnaiod  compoaitioii*,  some  of 
which  are  deservedly  popular.  A  memoir  of  her 
wo*  publithed  in  Ei^;Und  shortly  after  hia:  death, 
by  the  Coantesa  of  Merlin. 

MALIC  ACID  {C.H.0„2H0),  to  called  from 
malum,  the  I^tin  word  for  an  apple,  occnrs  abond* 
antly  in  most  acidulons  fmits,  pwticniarly  in  unripe 
^iples,  gooaeberriee,  and  onrrants,  in  which  it  i* 
foond  as  an  acid  or  taper-salt  of  potash  or  limc^ 
which  gradually  changes  into  »  nsntral  eaH  at  the 
fruit  rqMms,  It  oiystallises  in  group*  of  radiating 
acicular  prions,  but  as  the  oynals  are  very 
delitjuescent,  it  is  usually  obtained  aa  a  aympy, 
temi-bonsparent  mass,  with  a  v«ry  sour  smell,  uul 
readily  soluble  in  watc^  and  alcohoL 

The  chemical  changes  whidi  this  acid  undergoes 
under  the  influence  of  various  reagent  are  very 
singular,  and  serve  to  illuibate  many  points  in 
vegetable  physiology  in  reference  to  the  maturation 
of  fruits,  &0.  Thus,  nitrio  odd  oonverH  it  into 
oxalic  acid;  faydiated  potash,  into  oxalic  and  aoetia 
■""     *  bu^ric^  ocetio,  and 


wGuu^lc 


HALiaNAKI?  PtratOlB-lULLO  V. 


beora  tEis 


cu-bonio  soidj  and  water.  Wlien  heated  to  obont 
350°,  it  loaei  the  elementa  of  water,  and  beoomea 
converted  into  the  two  Uomerio  acids,  malnia  aoid 
and  fnraario  acid  (q.  t.). 

Molia  acid  forma  two  eerioB  of  nlta  with  baaea, 
namely,  neattal  and  acid  Baits.  The  most  chatao 
teristic  of  tbeM  salts  are  tha  nentnJ  malatea  of  laad 
and  of  lime. 

toaijI'qsast  pustule 

ei7  fatal  disease,  common  in  France,  where  it 
— le  of  (MarioTt,  but  of  comparatively 
rare  occiUTence  in  England.  It  begins  as  a  intaU 
dark-red,  painful  apot,  on  which  there  aooa  appeara 
a  pnstala  or  vesicle,  seated  oq  a  hard  inilamad 
base.    When  this  ia  opened,  a  black  slough  beoomas 

i        m>..-_  _>.....t!_  ,.  ■■,  r^inyi^ying 

le  adjacent 


aometdmea  aSected  by 
similar  diaease,  bnt  it  also  ariaea  by  inoculatioa 
oi  diseased  fluida.  It  ia  believed  that  fliee  which 
liave  alighted  on  the  tUcers  of  diseased  aaimali 
may  aeoMdooally  convey  the  iofeotioD.  Hie  consti- 
tational  ■ymptoma  are  mnoh  the  same  aa  thoea 
of  putrid  typUDB  fever;  while  the  treatment  con- 
aiste  in  deatroying  the  diaeaaed  snrfaoe  by  powerful 
caustics,  in  keeping  np  tha  strength  by  wine, 
brandy,  beef -tea,  haA  with  nitrio  acid,  Ac.  j  and 
in  givina  ofnatea  in  sufficient  dosei  to  relieve  the 
pain  dnnng  the  day  and  to  pnjeure  sleep  at  m^t. 

MAIilGITAirr  TUMOTTRa    Sea  Camoeii  and 
Tmiouit. 

MALITras,  or  ME-CHLTTr,  one  of  the  chief 
cities  of  the  Belgian  province  <i  Antwerp,  15  miles 
south- south-east  of  &e  city  of  that 
navigable  river  Dyle.  The  pop.  i 
43^351  It  has  fine  squares,  noble  buildings,  and  wide 
regolar  streeta,  bnt  u  devoid  of  aJI  signs  of  life  and 
industry,  having  lost  ita  fonner  jpreatnen,  and  fallen 
far  beMnd  all  other  Belgian  cities  in  coaunercial 
enterprise  and  industrial  activity.  As  tha  see  of 
the  cardinal-primate  of  Belgiom,  it  still  retains 
a  certain  degree  of  ecijlesiastical  importance,  and 
posseaaea  numerooa  churches,  the  most  noteworthy 
of  which  is  tiie  cathedral  of  St  Bomnald,  a  vast 
bailding,  covering  nearly  two  aorea  df  ffroond,  and 
adorned  in  the  interior  wiHi  many  fine  pictnres  and 
choice  corvinga.  It  waa  built  between  the  12th  and 
Ifith  c,  bnt  one  tower,  345  feet  in  height,  remaina 
nnfiniahed.  The  otherobiectsmoet  warUiy  of  notice 
are  the  ohnrehea  of  St  Jobn  and  of  Our  I^dv, 
Hbich  contain  worka  by  Rubens ;  the  town-hall, 
dating  from  the  16th  c,  and  known  aa  the  Beyard ; 
tbe  Idarket  Hall,  an  ancient  building  with  towers, 
erected  in  1340,  and  now  used  as  a  gnard-hoose; 
the  splendid  modem  archiepisoopal  palace  ;  and  the 


<t  of  Auatna,  erected 
M.  ha*  two  clericu  seminaries,  an  academy  of  paint- 
ing a  gymnasiam,  and  a  botaiiical  garden.  It  still 
retmns  some  of  the  important  lace  manufactories, 
for  which  it  has  been  long  noted,  and  manufacturea 
caps  and  woollen  goods,  besides  having  considerable 
brswerieo.  M.  oonititntes  an  important  central 
point  of  jnnction  for  the  entire  Be%ian  system  of 
latlwaya. 

HALlIf  OEBINO,  a  tetm  derived  from  a  similar 
fVench  word,  oigiufies  the  feigning  of  dinnane,  in 
rader  to  avoid  doty.  This  offence  is  punished  veiy 
severely  in  the  British  aimy.  For  furUier  particn- 
laiB,  aee  Fkiondiq  ov  Diseass. 

MALIi,  or  PALUMALL  (pr.  Pell-Mell),  a  name 
given  to  plaocB  in  London  snd  other  Eog[liih  towns 
where  then  w«re  onos  alleya  for  ^ymg  tennis. 
SeeBuu 


HALLBABI'LITY  ia  the  propert?  which  certun 
metala  posieaa  of  being  tedndue  to  thin  leaves, 
either  by  hammering  (hence  the  corresponding 
German  word,  BaTOmtTbarlcali  or  by  lamination 
between  rolleiu  The  order  in  which  tiie  maUe- 
able  metals  exhibit  this  property  is  as  follows — 
Gold,  Silver,  Copper,  Platinum,  Palladinm,  Iioo, 
Alumininm,  Tin,  Zinc,  Lead,  Cadmiam,  NicJcel, 
Cobalt.  Gold  far  sorpassea  oil  the  otlier  metals  ia 
malleablUtT,  bong  capable  of  redaction  into  film* 
□at  exceedmg  the  200,000th  of  an  inch  in  tjiii^eaa ; 
and  silver  and  copper  may  be  reduced  to  leave* 
of  great  tenuity.  Altboogh  gold  and  silver  alao 
present  the  property  of  Duciility  (q.  v.)  in  the  hi^est 
degree,  there  la  no  constant  rdation  between  tha 
two  propertiea ;  for  example,  iron,  although  it  may 
be  reduced  to  extremely  thin  wire,  ia  not  nearly 
ao  malleable  aa  gold,  silver,  or  copper. 

MALLBVnH^j  g,  family  of  lomellibranchiate 
moUuBCB,  regarded  by  many  aa  a  aub-family  of 
Avicvlida  (see  PKA.BL  Oteitzb),  and  of  which  the 
Epical  genus,  Malietii,  is  remarkable— in  an  adult 
state — for  the  elongation  of  the  ears  of  the  shell,  tha 
other  part  of  which  at  the  same  time  assumes  a 
curionalj  elongated,  wavy,  or  crumpled  fonn.  The 
shell  tiins  acquires  the  nuna  of  HxtatSR  SHELL, 
The  species  are  natives  of  the  East  and  West  Indiea 
and  01  Uie  Soath  Seas. 

MALLOW  (JfaJm),  a  genns  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  ifaieaeoE,  having  a  6-fid  calyx,  with 
an  outer  calyx  of  three  leave*;  stamen*  cohering 
in  a  tube;  nnmvoua  sMe*  cohtring  at  the  base: 
and  numerons  one-seeded  carpels  fixed  in  a  whorl 
around  an  axis,  and  fonung  a  tepaiable  orbicolar 
fruit.  The  species  are  herbaoeons  plant^  or  nior« 
rarely  shmba. — The  CowfOH  M.  {M.  «t>n««frii)  ia 
plentiful  over  most  ot  Europe,  and  in  Britain  on 
waysidea  and  heap*  of  rubbish.     It  is  a  perennial, 


Common  Hallow  {itaiva  if/lvettrU). 

wttli  rather  large  binish-red  flowers  on  ereot  stalks. 
The  DwAJir  U.  {if.  rotundifoUa),  alao  a  common 
native  of  Britain,  has  smaller  whitiah  or  reddiah- 
wli^te  flower*.  These  two  planta  have  a  mucila- 
ginous and  somewhat  bitter  tnite,  and  the  leaves 
•~)  used  aa  an  emollient  and  demulcent  medidne ; 
deooctioD  ti    them   being   employed  ia  oases 

jana;  and  ponltice*  made  of  them  are  veiy 
&tt]Qently  employed  to  allay  extern^  inflammatioiL 
Other  ipeciea  have  ""■■Ifr  properties. — The  MtrsK 
M.  [if.  moteiuUa),  not  nnfieqnent  in  England,  bat 
rare  in  Sootland,  has  a  faint  mnsk-like  smell — The 
fibre  of  Afi  eritpa  a  a*ed  in  Syria  for  textile  pur- 
poses, and  the  fibres  of  many  speoia*  am  probaUy 


v.diwgk 


MALLOW— MALPIGHL 


he  vouDg  leaves  ol  some  ue  occmiodsUt 

liled    vegGtablea. — A   ipecies   of   M.    (L 
arboma)  grovi  on  the   Boai  Rock,  ftnd  adjooeiit 
mainland  of  Haddingtonahire. 

UA'LLOW,  a,  market-town  and  watering-placL 
of  Ireland,  in  the  county  oE  Cork,  is  beaatifnlly 
Btaated  oa  the  left  btmk  of  Uie  Bkckwater,  19  miles 
north- north- weat  ot  the  county  town.  On  the 
opposite  aide  of  the  river,  vhicli  a  here  crosaod  by 
a  bridge  of  three  arches,  is  the  suborb  of  Ballydahin. 
The  town  is  resorted  to  in  sommer  on  account  of 
its  tepid  mineral  watera,  and  contains  a  neat  spa- 
house.  Tannins  and  some  gmall  manufactures  are 
carried  on.  Bear  M.  are  large  flonr-mills.  Pop. 
(1871)  4165  J  (1881)  4437.  Tifl  the  Distribution  of 
Sealz  Act  (1SS5),  M.  returned  one  member  to  T 
House  of  Commons, 

MAXHESBURT.a  market-towii  ot  England, 
the  county  of  Wilti,  20  milei  north-north-west 
Devizes,  and  96  miles  weat  of  London,     Pop,  (ISI. 
3133.    Till   1SS5,  it  returned  one  member  to  the 
Hoote  of  Commons. 

U.  was  the  birthplace  of  the  philosoplier  Hobbea. 
It  is  a  very  ancient  and  interesting  town.  Hero, 
according  to  William  of  Malmesbury,  a  monastery 
was  fonnded  before  the  year  670.  The  abbey  after, 
wards  become  a  cloth- factory.  The  remains  of  the 
abbey-churoh,  partly  early  Norman,  and  partly 
decorated  English,  may  still  be  seen.  There  are 
several  other  relics  of  antiquity  in  the  place. 

MALMESBURY,  William  or,  an  early  Eng- 
lish historian,  was  bom  near  the  close  of  &e 
nth  c,  probably  in  Somersetshire,  educated  in  the 
monastery  whence  he  derived  hu  name,  and  of 
which  he  became  librarian.  He  died  some  tin: 
after  1142,  but  the  exact  date  is  not  known.    M. 

K'ucipal  works,  which  are  written  in  Latin,  are 
Ot»tU  Bigvm,  a  history  of  the  kings  of  England 
from  the  Saxon  invasion  to  the  2Gth  year  of  Henry 
I. ;  Hittoriai  Noedla,  extending  from  the  26th  ytar 
of  Henry  L  to  the  escape  of  the  Empress  Maud 
from  Oxford;  and  Dt  Oalu Pontffietcin,  containing 
an  oecount  of  the  bishops  and  raindpat  monastenes 
of  England  from  the  conversion  of  Ethelbert  of 
Kent  by  St  Augortine  to  112a  The  first  of  these 
was  translated  into  English  by  the  Bev.  John 
Sharpe  (Lond.  1315),  and  has  been  reprinted  in 
Bohn's  Antiquarian  Library,  under  the  editorship 
of  Dr  Giles  (1S47).    Of  his  other  works.  Gale  has 

rted  his  Antiguilia  o/ Olailoabury,  and  Wharton 
Life  of  St  Wtdttan,  in  his  Anglia  Sacra.  M. 
give*  proof  in  his  writings  of  great  diligence,  good 
tense,  modesty,  and  a  gennine  love  of  truth.  His 
■tyle  is  mnch  above  that  of  bis  oontemporaries. 

MAXMOB,  the  principal  town  of  the  'Jam,' 
district,  of  MalinUebus,  in  Sweden,  is  situated 
the  Sound,  nearly  opposite  Copenhu^n,  uid  had, 
in  iSHD,  a  po^iUBtion  of  38,<»4.  M.  is  a  busy 
seaport,  nmiataining  an  active  steam  and  sailing 
commnnication  with  Copenhagen  and  all  the  great 
Baltic  and  Ciennan  Ocean  ports,  and  has  manu- 
tactures  of  stockings,  tobacco,  soap,  angar,  woollen 
goods,  Ac  It  is  the  teat  of  a  governmental  depart- 
ment, and  is  a  lively,  pleasantly  situated  town. 
The  aooient  fortiUcationB,  most  of  which  are  now 
oonvsrted  into  pnUic  walks,  date  from  the  time  of 
Eric  of  Pomerania,  who,  in  1434,  erected  strong  lines 
of  defence  on  th&  sea-side  of  the  town,  and  built 
the  castle,  which  still  remains,  JiL  was  an  import- 
ant place  of  landing  and  embarkation  as  early  as 
1259,  and  throngh  the  middle  ages  it  was  exten- 
rely  visited  by  German  acd  other  ttadera.     In 

:0^    it  «»•  4.1.»    -,.«.^    ^   4.l.„    ^ : r    _   J . A 


MA'LMaET  (Ualvasian  Wine;  Ti.viade  Mat- 
nouM),  a  name  originally  bestowed  on  Uie  red 
and  white  wines  of  Napoli  di  Malvosia,  in  the 
Horea,  and  afterwards  on  similar  wines  produced 
in  Cypms,  Candia,  and  other  islands  of  t£e  Archi- 
Ualmsey  wines  are  of  a  luscious  sweetness, 

'^  peonlisr  bouquet.    The  Malms^ 

wines  ot  commerce  are  mostly  the  produce  Ol 
TenerifTe,  the  Madeiras,  the  Azores,  tlie  Lipari 
Isles,  Sardinia,  Sicily,  and  Provence.  Malmsey  it 
made  from  grapes  grown  on  rocky  ground,  fully 
exposed  to  the  sun,  and  left  to  hang  on  the 
vines  for  a  month  longer  than  those  nsed  to 
make  dry  wines,  by  whicL  timo  they  are  partially 
withered. 

MALONE,  Eduohd,  one  of  the  most  respect- 
able editors  of  Shakspeare,  was  bom  in  Dublin, 
4th  October  1741,  and  educated  at  the  univeraity 
of  that  city,  where  he  won  a  high  reputation  as 
a  scholar,  and  took  Gie  degree  ot  KA.  In  1767, 
he  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar;  but  soon  after 
becoming  possessed  of  n  considerable  fortune,  he 
went  to  London,  and  devoted  himself  to  literaiy 
pursnits.  His  first  appearance  at  an  aatiior  was  in 
1780,  when  he  publisbed  2  vols,  supplementary  to 
Steevens's  edition  of  Shakspeare  (1778).  His  next 
achievement— though  in  this  he  was  only  one  of 
several — was  eijioBing  the  splendid  forgeries  of 
Cbatterton.  He  also  contributed  some  notes  to 
Steevens's  third  edition  of  Shakspeare,  published 
in  1785,  in  which  he  occasionally  controverted  the 
opinions  of  the  editor.  This  led  to  a  serious  quarrel 
between  the  two,  in  which  Steevens  was  wholly  to 
blame.  M.'s  own  edition  of  the  great  dramatist 
(1790)  was  warmly  received.  The  esaays  on  the 
History  of  the  Stage,  and  on  the  Qeaamtneu  of  Ihe 
Three  Playi  of  Henry  VI.,  have  been  praised  m  an 
especial  manner.  In  this  work,  M.  displays  extreme 
g(x>d  sense,  much  ocnteness,  extensive  research,  and 
a  becoming  respect  for  the  text  of  the  earlier  editions. 
In  1796,  be  again  signalised  himself  ss  a  literary 
detective  by  eiposiogthe  Shakspearian  forgeries  ot 
the  Irelands.  In  1^,  he  published  a  posQiumous 
edition  of  the  works  of  his  friend  Sir  Joshua 
Beynolds.  His  death  took  place  25th  May  1812, 
He  left  behind  bim  a  large  quantity  of  materlaia 
for  another  edition  of  Shuspeore,  which  appeared 
in  1321,  in  21  vols.,  under  the  editorship  of  Mr 
James  Boswell  See  Life  of  Bdmcnd  Maionr, 
uiiJi  Selections  from  Ids  MtuMtcr^  Anecdotes,  by 
Sir  James  Prior  (Lond.  1860). 

MAIiPIGHI,  Marcello,  an  eminent  Italian 
anatomist,  was  bom  near  Bologna  in  IS28,  and  died 
at  Rome  in  1694  He  held,  at  different  periods  of 
his  life,  the  professorship  of  medicine  in  Bolwoo, 
PIso,  and  MessiniL  In  1G91,  he  was  sumninncc?  to 
Home,  and  amwinted  chief  physician  and  chamber- 
lain to  Fope  Innocent  XIL 

He  is  now  chiefly  known  for  his  discoveries  in  Qm 
anatomy  of  the  skin,  of  the  kidney,  and  of  the  spleen ; 
and  although  the  so-called  rete  Malpi^ii  at  the  akin 
is  no  longer  regarded  as  a  special  stnictnre,  the 
Malpigkian  bodies  or  eorputdee  of  the  kidney  and  the 
"""'  ■EO  atill  retain  the  name  of  their  discoverer, 
ia  also  remarkable  aa  being  the  first  who  exam- 
ined the  circulation  with  the  microecope,  and  thus 
discovered  the  blood  corpuscles.  Amongst  his  moat 
important  works  may  be  mentioned  De  FormaOotu 
PulU  in  Ovo;  DeCerAro  ;  Dt  LingvA  ;  De  Extenvi 
Taet&t  Organo;  De  Strvxturit  Viaxmm;  De  Ptd- 
monibiu;  and  Dt  Strwlurd  Olandvlarum  Omgh- 
batarum.     Hit   Opera  Paithuma  were  edited  by 


IV  Google 


HAZflGHIACEA-UALTA. 


UALPIGHIA'CrKS,  a  nxtaml  older  of  ozo- 
genoo*  pUnti;  tree*,  or  Bhraba,  numy  of  them 
tdunbing  shniba  or  liuiai.  Thej  often  exhibit  an 
uiottMloaa  formation  of  the  stem,  great  [Moi  of  the 
woody  nutter  being  deposited  in  lobed   zoneleai 


on  the  atalka  or  nikder^dda^  "Ae  calyx  is  5-^ilrtite, 
ffenenUy  with  veiy  large  glandi ;  the  corolla  of 
five  petala  convolute  in  bi^ ;  the  (tamena  gene- 
ralbr  ten,  often  monadalplunia,  a  fleehy  coniLwtiTa 
profeoting  beyond  the  antheia.  There  are  about 
600  known  speoieB,  natiTea  of  tropical  oountries,  and 
chiefly  of  South  America,  many  of  them  having 
gaui^  flowera.  A  few  produce  timber  of  a  bright 
yellow  colour.  The  bw*lc  of  eome  epeciee  of  the 
genua  Byrmnitna  in  aatringent  and  medicinal,  and 
at  one  time  atttncted  coneiderable  attention  oa  a 
remedy  for  pnlmooary  conjnunjition.  It  ii  known 
ai  Aieontoqtu  Bari.  The  fniit 
EutSADon  CsxKBI  (q.  t.],  is  plea 

HALPLAQUET,  a  village  (pop.  400)  in  the 
department  of  Nord,  France,  20  mUea  east  of 
Valenciennes,  and  close  to  Vtm  Belgian  frontier, 
ia  celebrated  for  the  bloody  defeat  of  the  French, 
nnder  Marshal  Vniars,  by  the  British  and  Dutch, 
commanded  \r}  the  Duke  of  Marlboroogh  and  Prince 
Eiigene,  Ilth  September  1709.  The  forces  engaged 
GonaiBted  of  more  than  300,000  men,  the  alliee 
having  •  alight  superiority  iu  numbera ;  aud  the 
loss  on  each  side  amounted  to  about  SO.OOO  men, 
the  Frmck  loaing  also  manv  standards  and  cannon. 
Marshal  Villars  waa  severely  wonnded  early  in  the 
engagement,  and  IJie  comnuiid  devolved  npon  the 
old  Hawhal  de  Booflen,  nnder  whom  the  Treneb, 
after  great  daughter,  retreated  in  good  order.  Tho 
resnlt  of  the  conSict  was  the  capture  of  Mans. 

MAXSTKOM,  or  MOSKOESTEOM  ('whirling 
stream'),  the  moat  famous  whiripool  in  liie  warlc^ 
is  situated  on  the  Iforwegian  coast,  between 
MoskOe  and  Moskenla,  two  ol  the  Loffmlen  (q.  v.) 
Islea.  The  tremendous  current  that  mahea  between 
the  Great  West  Fjord  and  the  outer  ocean  thnmgh 
the  channeU  between  the  Loffoden  lalee,  creates 
many  other  dangeroua  cnnenta,  anch  as  the  Oal- 
strijm,  NapetrUm,  ftc ;  but  these  are  not  to  be 
compared  with  the  famona  Malstrijm.  The  current 
mns  for  six  hours  from  uorth  to  south,  and  then 
six  hours  from  sonth  to  north,  producing  immense 
whirls.  The  depth  of  t^  water  has  been  ascer- 
tained to  be  about  £0  fathoms,  while  immediately 
to  the  west  of  the  straite  the  soundings  are  from 
100  to  200  fathoms.  The  whirlpool  is  greatest  at 
high  or  low  water ;  and  when  the  wind  blows 
directly  against  the  current,  it  becomes  eitcemely 
dangerooB,  the  whole  sea  for  several  miles  around 
being  so  violently  agitated  that  no  boat  can  live 
in  it  for  a  moment.  In  ordinaiy  circumstances,  it 
may  be  traversed  even  across  Uie  centre  without 
ap^«hensiou.  The  stories  of  ships,  whales,  ic., 
being  swallowed  up  in  the  vortex,  are  simply  fables ; 
at  the  same  time,  there  can  be  no  doubt  tnat  a  ship, 
once  fairly  under  IJie  inSueace  of  the  current,  would 
oertsjnly  either  founder  or  bo  dashed  npon  the  rocks, 
and  whales  have  often  been  found  stranded  an  the 
Fli^stadt  ooast  from  the  same  cause. 

MALT  AMD  HALTING.    See  Besr. 

MALT  BBFU8E,  or  MALT  WASTE,  is  of  two 
kinds  1  (1.)  the  commit  or  small  shoots  and  radicles 
of  the  Berminated  gram,  which  are  separated  before 
the  malt  is  used  by  the  brewer,  often  called  Mall 
Dtul  and  Kiln  Dual;  and  (2.)  the  exhaosted  malt, 
after  it  has  been  used  by  the  brewer,  called  Draff, 
Both  are  of  use  for  the  feeding  of  cattle,  but  the 
flrit  kind  is  the  most  nntritioas,  being  rich  in 
aittogeoou  nhataiicea  which  the  brewer  extoacta 


from  the  malt  used  by  him;  draff,  however,  is 
advantaceonsly  employed,  aloi^  with  turnips,  for 
the  feeding  ol  dauy  cattle  Malt  Dust  is  also 
used  as  a  manure,  imiedy  as  a  top  dressing,  and  is 
very  fertilising  and  rapid  in  its  eSeot. 

MA'LTA,  an  island  and  BritiBh  possetaion  in  the 
Mediterranean,  171  miles  long  by  9^  broad,  with 
an  area  of  124^  aqnare  miles.  It  is  of  late  Eocene 
formation,  the  prevailing  rocks  sandstone  and  lime- 
stone ;  and  it  occupies  a  very  central  position  in  the 
Hediterrauean  Sea,  being  distant  some  54  miles  from 
the  Sicilian  coast,  and  about  200  from  Cape  Bon  on 
the  African  coast  From  its  posItioD,  and  also  fnun 
the  enormons  strength  of  the  fortifications,  M.  ia 
a  poMeasian  of  immense  value  to  any  commerdal 
nation  which  possesses  a  navy  strong  euouf^  to 
prevent  it  beiiig  blooksded.  It  happens,  conse- 
quently, that  H.  is  one  of  the  most  important,  after 
India,  of  the  British  dependencies,  for  it  is  not  in 
any  sense  a  oolong.  Possessing  cue  of  the  most 
splendid  harbcore  m  the  world,  with  such  an  even 
depth  that  the  loi^Eet  vessels  may  anohor  along- 
side the  very  shore,  the  island  forms  at  oDoe  an 
odmitnble  station  for  a  fleet  to  command  the  Medi- 
termnean — a  militoiy  focos,  where  a  force  protecting 
the  route  to  £gypt  and  India  can  be  concentrated 
— and  a  useful  entrepot  for  receiving  the  mannfao- 
torc*  of  Britain,  which  the  small  crut  of  the  Medi- 
terranean carry  to  every  point  on  the  ihoro  of  that 
inland  soa  and  its  tributaries.  By  whomsoever 
possessed,  M.  has  always  been  held  in  high  esti- 
mation. Between  it  and  Ooqo,  or  Gozo  (q.  v.).  Ilea 
the  small  island  of  Comino ;  and  off  this  last,  the 
still  smaller  islet,'  Cominotto,  tears  its  rocky  crest, 
while  elsewhere  round  the  shores  of  M.  and  Qoio, 
a  few  rocks  stud  the  ae%  anstoining  each  a  few 
fishermen,  and  affording  herbage  fur  goats  on  their 
mosa-grown  summits ;  among  tlieee  ore  Filfla,  with 
a  venerable  chnrch;  Fietro  Nero^  or  Black  Bocki 
Sooglio  Mario,  Salmonetta,  and  tiie  Hagtra  tal 
ffoifral,  or  Fttngna  Book,  where  grows  the  famed 
Pvngv*  m^itouit  (see  CrHOifOBiuif).  M-  and  Gozo, 
with  their  adjacent  islets,  form  togeUier  a  compact 
little  realm,  celebrated  in  historr,  possessina  a 
magnificent  capital  ia  Valetto,  and,  from  th«  loot 
that,  owing  to  necnllar  eimunstonces,  vast  ooDtribu- 
tioiks  came  to  M.  from  oU  Catholic  Europe,  adorned 
with  public  bnildii^  institutions,  and  woib  out 
of  all  proportion  to  its  aotnal  intrinsia  importance. 

In  phrsical  conformation,  M.  is  comparatively 
low,  its  highestpoint  not  exceeding  590  feet  above 
the  soa-leveL  The  snrEooe  is  diversiHed  by  a  succes- 
sion of  hill  and  dole,  the  land  being  intersected 
by  parallel  volleya,  running  from  sontii-weet  to 
oorth-east,  the  most  conaidaable  of  which  is  the 
vale  called  Melleha.  Across  the  island  stretch  the 
Ben-jemma  hills  or  crags,  and  many  spurs  .branch 
from  them,  which  give  a  picturesqaeneoa  to  the 
scenery.  From  the  spongy  nature  of  the  Umestone 
of  which  the  island  u  ««mpoaed,  much  of  the  rain 
ng  in  tho  wet  season  soaks  in,  and  beiiig  eva- 
porated through  the  thin  alluvial  oovoring  by  tha 
heats  ol  summer,  keeps  the  ground  moist,  ud  gives 

a  fertility  which  could  not  otherwise  b«  expected 

un  so  scanty  and  comparatively  poor  a  soiL  So 
thin,  indeed,  was  the  original  surfaoe-soil,  that  con- 
siderable quantities  of  earth  were  imported  into  M. 
from  Sicily.  The  productiveness  of  the  soil  must 
also  be  attribnted  to  the  quantity  of  carbonate  of 
lime   held  in  a  minutely  divided  state  above  the 

itire  face  of  the  rock. 

M.  shews  no  signs  of  rolcanio   formation ;  but 

the  action  of  the  sea  among  its  difis  has  hoUowed 

out  grottoes  and  caverns  in  almost  every  direotioo, 

'  some  of  oonaiderable  extent-    The  inhabitants 

inductfious,  and  good  agriculturists,  and  every 


.CoogK. 


I 

J 


toot  of  tOie  wril  U  diligently  oolttTftted.  On  the 
whole,  about  the  qaanti^  of  anperioT  kinds  of  gram 
conauDied  iB  raised  on  the  islands,  and  of  inSrior 
■orb)  a  oongiderable  amount  is  exported.  Wine, 
reeembliDK  that  of  Spain,  is  produMd ;  the  sagar- 
Oftne  is  oultiTateii  THe  vegetable  products  oomprise 
all  that  flourish  in  Italy,  m  aloes,  oranges,  and 
oliTei^  with  many  plants  of  a  more  tropical  growth. 
M.  was  famed  of  old  for  roses.  Salt  and  Mda  are 
tnuiufactuied ;  there  are  quarries  of  marble,  al&< 
baster,  and  biiildiog-EtoDes.  Mules  and  asses  are 
remarkable  in  M.  for  their  streugth  and  beauty,  but 
homed  cattle  are  small.  Maltese  go«ts  are  fioe 
saiinals.     The  birds  of  M  are  renowned  for  their 


Medina,  the  former  capital  of  the  island,  now 
known  sa  Citta  Vecchia,  or  Notabdie,  is  a  handsome 
old  town,  lying  inland;  it  contains  the  andent 
palace  of  the  Qraud  Maateis  of  the  order  of  St  John, 
the  cathedral,  a  collt^,  and  is  still  the  seat  of  the 
bishopric  Pop.  7000.  Its  rival  and  snccessor  is 
Vslettk  (g.T.)-  ^he  numerous  eataU  or  vills^ 
Mstt«rad  chrMigboat  U.  and  Oozo  are  neatly  biSt, 
17  present  ml  a^eot  of  indtub?  and 


is  thought  by  some  that  M.  was  the  ffyptrSon 
or  vgygia  of  Homer,  but  there  is  little  doubt  that 
the  Fhcenicians  colonised  the  island  at  a  very  early 
date,  probably  in  the  16th  o.  B.O.  Before  th^  were 
dispossessed  by  the  Oreeks  in  730  B.a,  tbJ^  hod 
developed  considerable  commerce.  The  Greeks 
ealled  the  island  JUditat,  and  were  driven  out  by 
the  Carthaginians  about  flOO  &a  As  early  as  the 
first  Punic  war,  it  was  plundered  by  the  Koman^ 
bnt  did  not  come  finally  into  their  poueesjon  until 
212  B.O.  They  valued  it  highly,  on  accouat  of  its 
nsa  aa  a  conunnoial  entrepAt ;  and  also  for  its  cotton 
and  linen  cloths,  fabrics  tlien,  as  now,  monufaotiired 
of  wonderfnl  fineness  I7  the  Maltese.  The  island 
remained  under  its  old  laws,  governed  by  a  pro- 


flies  the  wreck  of  tixa  ship  eanring  that  apostle  to 
Borne.  On  the  division  of  the  Empire,  M.  followed 
the  fortunes  of  the  eastern  division.  Daring  the 
fith  c.,  it  fell  successively  under  the  Vandals  and 
Qoths,  whose  barbarism  nearly  annihilated  ita  com- 
merce. In  633,  Belisarius  recovered  M  to  the 
Byzantine  empire,  in  nominal  union  with  which  it 
remained  for  more  than  three  centnries ;  but  its 
prosperity  bad  departed,  and  its  civilisation  almost 
vanished  amid  constant  local  feuds.     In  870,  the 


Count  Roger,  of  Sicily,  drove  ont  the  Arabs  iu 
1090,  and  eetabliahed  a  popular  connoil  for  the 
gOTomment  of  the  island,  composed  of  nobles,  clersy, 
and  elected  represeata^et  of  the  people.  This 
-'   -"- —  leM  modified  form,  subsisted 


and  was  merely  a  garrison  of  more  expense  than 
Talae,  CharleB  of  Anjon,  after  overrunning  Sicily, 
inade  himself  master  of  M.,  which  clung  to  the 
French  even  after  they  had  been  oi^iclled  from  Sicily  ; 
bnt  after  a  time  the  Houses  of  Aiagon  sod  Castile 
Buccenively'  held  the  island.  Subsequently,  the 
Emperor  Charles  Y.  took  poeseeiiDD  of  M.,  and,  in 
1530,  granted  it,  with  Gozo  and  Tripoli,  in  perpetual 
sovereignty  to  tJie  Knights  of  the  order  of  St  John 
of  JenSalem,  from  whom  the  Turks  had  recently 
captured  their  creat  sbvnghold  at  Bbode&  The 
Knights  raised  by  dwrees  the  stupendous  forti£ca- 
tdoDs  which  render  M.  so  powerfnl,  and. 


■pent  their  large  iaeome  in  beantifyiiig  t^e  island  in 
eveiT  way.  Meanwhile,  they  rendered  inoessant 
services  t«  Christendom  in  the  chastisement  of  the 
ferocious  Barbary  pirates.  To  revenge  these  acts, 
the  Turks  brooght  immense  forces  i^unst  M  in 
ISin,  and  agun  in  1669.  The  latter  siege  was 
carried  on  by  the  Sultan  Solyman  himself  with 
the  Qower  of  the  Ottoman  army ;  but  the  Qrand 
Master  La  Valette  opposed  a  henna  resistance,  and 
ho  was  forced  to  re-embait  with  the  loss  of  more 
than  2S,000  of  lua  best  Izoops.  The  defenders  lost 
260  knights  and  71KK1  Maltese  soldiers ;  and  their 
gallantry  was  the  theme  of  admiiatioQ  thnjuf^out 
tho  world.  After  this  siege  the  Knights  bnilt 
Valetta.  In  1571,  they,  with  the  Maltoe,  behaved 
moat  conraFSonsly  at  tiie  battle  of  Lepanto,  i^ars 
the  Turks  lost  30,000  men.  Though  waging  per^ 
petual  war  with  the  Moslem,  the  knights  oontmned 
in  possession  of  M.  until  179S,  when  overcome  by 
Bonaparte's  treachery,  and  disorganised  by  iotemu 
quarrels,  the  order  surrendered  their  noUe  for- 
tresses to  the  French.  After  pillage  and  infamous 
treatment  by  the  republican  foroca,  tlie  Maltese 
rose  in  a  few  months  against  their  opprcesora, 
aud  after  a  si^  of  two  years,  British  auxiliaries 
arriving,  the  fWch  garrison  of  Valetta  cspitQ' 
lated  to  the  English  general  Figot.  The  trea^  of 
Amiens  stipulate  that  M.  should  be  restored  to  the 
Knights  of  St  John ;  but  the  Maltese  loudly  pro- 
tested against  such  an  arrangement,  and  prMerccd 
the  pea^ul  government  of  Great  Britain,  The 
British  government  consequently  refused  to  make 
the  transfer,  appreciating  also,  doubtleaa,  the  vast 
value  of  their  new  possession,  and  Napoleon  made 
the  refusal  one  of  his  grounds  for  tho  resumption  of 
hostilities.  The  Congress  of  Vienna  recoguised  M. 
British  dependency,  the  condition  in  whidi  it 


In  ISiSl,  H.  and  Gozo,  with  the  adjacent  islands, 
together  contained  140,782  inhabitants  {including 
the  British  residents  and  foreigners,  but  excluding 
the  military,  who  numbered  653IV  The  popu- 
lation was  iQcreasin?  rapidly,  but  tne  aonoal  r&te 
of  increase  had  declined  from  18SS.  The  upper 
classes  speak  Italian,  but  the  real  language  of  nie 
people  is  a  patois  compounded  from  many  sources, 
as  must  be  expected  from  so  cbeijuered  a  history. 
Arabic,  however,  so  tar  predonucates  Uiat  the 
Maltese  find  little  difficnlty  in  communicating  with 


Ptinic,  and  would  accurately  represent  the  speech 
of  CariJisge  at  the  time  of  its  destruction.  The 
religion  of  the  people  is  strictly  Roman  Catholic, 
and,  considering  that  the  British  flag  waves  over 
the  island,  bnt  a  scanty  toleration  is  granted  to 
other  forms  of  faith.  There  are  good  provisions  for 
education ;  a  coUege  at  Valetta,  where  degrees  are 
conferred  in  divinity,  law,  and  physic  ;  60  public 
schools,  with  8324  pupils,  besides  1 14  private  places 
for  education.  There  is  also  an  excellent  public 
library,  free  to  alL 

The  commandant  of  the  garrison  is  governor, 
and  is  aided  in  the  civil  government  by  a  council 
of  18  membeiB,  of  whom  10  are  officials,  and  8  are 
freely  elected.  The  revenue  amounted  in  1883  to 
£205,566,  while  the  amount  of  the  expenditure 
was  £183,738.  Customs  and  excise,  with  a  tew 
assessed  taxes,  provide  t^e  former;  the  latter  is 
absorbed  in  the  cliarges  of  the  civil  government,  and 
in  a  coutributioa  of  £6200  towards  the  military  ex- 
penditure. On  the  other  hand.  Great  Britain  main- 
tains a  considerable  force  in  the  islands,  mainly 
for  imperial  purposes,  at  a  cost  of  (1686)  £432,181 
a  year.    Besides  a  large  body  of  British  artillery 


ivCiOogIc 


MALTA— MALTHU8. 


lerr,  &  fine 
Xhere  ii 


-jportaiit  dock-yard,  M.  bMiix  the  Wd-qiurten 
of  tlie  BritJah  fleet  in  the  MedJtanneaiL    Ttken 

altogether,  M.   U  a  paeMenon  the  Britiih  highly 

Tains;   it   IB   nearly,   if   not   quite,     -   -" — 

Qibraltar,  and  far  more  oeeful. 

The  publio  debt  amounted,  in  ISS  . 
at  a  Tery  low  rate  of  intereet.  In  1S83,  the  v^aele 
vhich  entered  and  eleared  the  port^  eioIuaiTe  of  the 
coMtiiig-tRule,  bad  a  total  tonnage  of  9,618,965 
tons.  Of  thia  total  oeariy  8,416,000  tons,  or 
•eren-eighthB,  are  let  down  m  mpreeenting  Britiih 
Teaaels.  In  the  same  year  the  total  value  of  the 
import*  amonnted  to  £^T50,6IS ;  while  the  eiporta 
were  estimated  at  a  total  of  £21,970,678— oom  en 
route  from  ItDBsia  for  the  United  Kingdom  figuring 
very  largely  in  the  tnmaoctions, 

MALTA,   EITIOHTS   OP.    Bee  loss, 
jKBDSALm,  EmoBTB  or. 

MALTEBRTTK,  Eonkad  (properly,  Uuthi 
Bbititr),  an  eminent  geogr^her,  com  12th  Angnat 
1770,  at  Thisted,  in  Jutland,  studied  in  Copenhagea, 
and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Kerolutioii, 
embraced  with  great  ardour  the  Uberal  cipse,  so  that 
being  prosecut^  apon  account  of  poUticnl  publica- 
tiim«,  be  was  twice  obliged  to  flee  from  Denmark,  and 
fiuttlly,  in  1800,  was  condemned  to  perpetual  banish- 
ment from  his  native  countiT.  He  souaht  refuge  in 
Paris,  where  ho  maintained  himself  bv  teaching  and 
literary  laboni«.  In  1808,  he  beram  the  AmtaUi  de» 
YoT/aga,  <U  la  QiogrofMe  et  dt  fHutoxre  (24  Tok.), 
which  he  concluded  m  1811.  In  1S18,  he  began, 
along  with  Cyiiei,  the  JfouveUet  Annala,  tc  Ho 
devoted  hi*  pen  to  the  support  of  Napoleon  during 
his  reign ;  and  in  1615  became  connected  with  aa 
nltra-royidiBt  journal,  and  a  defender  of  the  theory 
of  l^tunafly  adopted  by  the  Cougrees  of  Vieima. 
Hi*  principal  work  is  lua  Pridt  dt  la  Otograpliie 
Unireridte  (8  vols.  Par.  1S24— 1328,  with  an  atlas). 
Ho  took  pwl;  also  in  the  ZHetionjiaire  Oiographigue 
UniueritSe  (8  Tola.  Par,  1821),  and  was  Secretary 
to  the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris.  He  died  Hth 
December  1828 — His  nan,  Victor 
AfiOui  M.  {bom  1816)  is  one  of  the 
most  eminent  living  geographers  of 
France,  and  has  sui^aeded  hts  father 
as  Secretary  of  the  Oeographical 
Society  of  Pari*. 
HALTErSB  CROSS,  a  cross  of 
Sloltese  Cross,  «ght  points,  of  the  form  worn  m  a 
dmsoration  by  the  Hosjutalleis  (q.  v.) 
and  other  orders  of  knighthood. 
MALTESE  DOQ,  a  small  kind  of  spaniel,  with 


lapdog ;  bat  is  a  vei;  andent  breed,  being  figured 
on  Bomau  monument^  and  noticed  by  Strabo. 

MALTHTJS,  Tsoiug  B«b>bt,  the  foonder  of 
those  opinion*  concerning  the  relation  of  popula- 
tion to  the  mean*  of  sustenanoe  which  have  been 
named  after  him  'M^thuiian,'  was  bom  in  the 
county  of  Surrey,  in  the  year  1766.  He  was  well 
connected,  and  graduated  with  hononrs  in  1788,  at 
Je*n*  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  a 
Fellow.  He  became  soon  after  clareyman  of  a  imaU 
paHsh  in  hi*  native  county,  and  divided  his  time 
between  his  onre  and  the  aoiverai^  hbnuiea.  In 
1799;  be  left  Britain  to  see  foreign  conntcieo,  along 
with  the  eminent  tMTeller,  Daniel  Clarke.  The 
great  European  mr  was  then  mging,  and  the  moat 
interesting  portions  of  the  oontineut  <rf  Europe  were 
closed  to  onr  countrymen.  M.,  however,  with  an 
evidently  keen  anziely  to  observe  mankind  under  a 
variety  of  oonditiona,  wandered  through  Sweden, 
Norway,  Finland,  and  part  of  Husaia,  miudng  notes 
oC  what  he  observed.  Next  year,  he  took  advantage 
of  the  short  Peace  of  Amiens  to  visit  France  and 
other  portions  of  Central  Europe.  These  efforts  to 
become  acquainted  with  mankind  are  signiflcaDt 
einoe.  Although  M.  has  the  reputatioa  ol  being  a 
bold  theorist,  ute  charm  of  his  writings  consists  in 


.  .. ,  , ..-itings  CO 

his  practical  knowledge  of  how  men  nave 
and  acted  in  various  parts  of  the  world  and  under 
diverse  conditions;  ud  his  knowledge  of  actual 
human  natnrs'-his  sagacity  and  occoracy,  in  short, 
in  the  details  which  he  brought  to  bear  on  his  great 
theory— were  b  a  considerable  measure  the  source 
of  the  gr«at  influence  exercised  by  him  over  publio 
opinion,  and  had  the  seoondary  effect  of  making  hi* 
books  readable  even  to  those  who  made  war  on  his 
conctnaiouB.  It  was  in  1798  that  he  flrst  published 
hia  Saiay  on  the  Prinapta  of  PopKlatio*  at  ii  c^fftdt 
the  Fitiiat  ImprovetaaU  of  Society ;  but  in  Bulwe- 
qaent  editions  ke  so  greaUy  enlarged  and  enriched 
the  work,  that  it  ooud  hu^y  be  identifled  with 
the  first  impression.  The  pre<i(ominant  idea  of  the 
book  was  evidently  suggested  by  Hume's  essay  on 
thu  populouBuess  of  ancient  nationa,  in  whii^  vague 
statements  aa  to  vast  multitudee  of  human  beings 
Bubaisting  in  any  place,  or  wandering  from  place 
to  place,  are  brought  to  the  test  of  Uie  means  of 
subsistence  at  their  diaposaL  M.  set  himself  to 
finding  out  how  the  relation  of  population  to  the 
means  of  sustenance  could  affect  the  future  of  the 
world.  The  result  was  appalling.  The  human 
race  wae  found  to  mcreaae  at  something  like  geo- 
metrical jirogrcsslon ;  while  the  fertility  of  land,  by 
bringing  in  waste,  and  improving  the  methods  of 
a^culture,  only  increased  in  something  like  an 
arithmetical  proportion.  Hence,  if  population  were 
permitted  to  increase  at  its  natural  rate,  it  would 
soon  overtake  the  means  of  subsistence.  The  final 
check  to  the  growth  of  population  is  the  want  of 
food ;  other  natural  checks  are  poverty,  exposure, 
unwholesome  toil,  and  disease.  Of  preventive  checks, 
the  only  one  recognised  by  M.  was,  that  a  man  should 
not  marry  till  he  eoold  sapport  a  family.  Emigra- 
tion and  free  trade  palliate  the  disadvantages  of 
swift  growth  of  population,  M.'s  work  was  directed 
"tgainst  tie  old  view  that  the  chief  duty  of  a  state 
vaa  to  increase  its  population  as  much  as  possible ; 
and  also  against  the  optimist  theory  of  Kousseau 
and  others  that  misery  was  mainly  the  fault  of  bad 
government.  U.  sought  to  prove  that  the  undue 
growth  of  populstion  is  an  inevitable  and  all  but 
msurmounbible  cause  o{  poverty  and  misery.  The 
influence  of  M.'s  teaching  was  great  on  many 
eooiiomists  who  did  not  accept  his  pseudo-mathe- 
matical theory,  and  largely  contributed  to  bring 
about  the  great  poor-law  reform  of  1834  M.,  one  (3 
the  best  of  men  persoiially,  has  been  fiercely  abused 


HALTON— HAMUBL 


both  for  hia  tesohiug,  aod  for  ioferences  from  it 
whicl)  ho  luEnself  never  made  and  wonld  have : 
repudiated.  Appointed  Protewor  of  Modem  Hiatory 
and  Political  Kbonomy  at  tlie  Baat  India  Company  i 
coUege  of  Haileybury  in  1805,  M.  tUled  liia  chair 
with  great  repnta  until  his  death  at  Bath,  on  the 
20th  December  1834.  See  Bouar'a  M.  and  kit 
Work  (1886). 

HAXTON,  a  market-town  in  the  North  RidJni, 
of  Yorkshire,  on  an  eleration  on  the  lidit  bank  ol 
the  Derwent,  22  miles  north-eait  of  York.  Ita 
two  ohnrchea  preeent  fine  featnrea  of  Korman  archi- 
tectnre ;  and  a  grammar-sohoot,  foanded  in  1S47, 
poaeeace*  tm  annual  endowment  of  £100  a  year. 
There  are  alao  the  remains  of  a  Qilbertine  priory, 
founded  in  IlEO.  Iron  and  braai  fonuding,  tanning, 
brewidc,  kc,  are  carried  on ;  and  the  trade  ia  con- 
■idemble.  Pop,  (1881)  of  borough,  which  extooded 
far  beyond  tlia  town,  and  which,  till  1886,  rettimed 
one  member  to  parliament,  S7S0. 

M.  waa   an  important  Roman  nfilitary  station. 
Aft«  having  been  Inimed  down,  the  town  waa 
bnilt  in  tbe  reign  of  Stephen,  eince  whidi  time 
has  been  generally  oalled  New  Malton. 

MALUItXJS,  a  genne  of  Anstralian  birda,  givin;; 
its  name  to  a  large  Biibdivieion  of  the  family  StjU 
viadte,  in  which  are  contained  many  Asiatic  and 
Africui  apedea,  and  aonie  that  are  natives  of  the 
Bonth  of  Europe.  The;  have  generally  a  long  tail 
in  some,  very  long,  as  in  the  Euxu  WRKH  of  Ans 
trilia,  in  wlueh  it  is  more  than  twice  the  length  of 
the  body,  the  shnfU  of  its  feathers  looaely  fringed  on 
each  side.  The  Emeu  Wren  ISCipiiami  malaeaBriu) 
is  a  very  pretty  little  bird,  living  chief"  " 
long  grass.  One  of  the  most  noted  Mali 
cyaneiu,  the  Blitv  Wiueh  or  S<;pkrb  W«.iibleb  of 
Australia,  which  ia  gorgeously  attired  in  black,  bine, 
wbitei  and  biowiL    It  nannte  scmbby  bnuhwood. 

MALVA'CE^  a  natural  order  of  ezogenooa 
planta,  of  which  about  1000  apecies  are  imown, 
chiefly  toopical,  and  most  abundant  in  America, 
althongh  toe  moat  important  apedea  belong  to  Uie 
Old  Worid.  They  are  herbaceous  jOuits,  shmba, 
and  occasionally  in  tropical  countries  trece ;  with 
alternate  entire  or  lobed  leaves ;  the  pubeicence, 
if  any,  stany ;  the  flowers  ahewy,  generally  on 
axillary  stalks ;  the  calyx  generally  <d  five  sepals 
or  five  segments,  often  with  an  epciuyx ;  the  p^als 
genroally  five,  h;pog:rnoa8,  twisted  in  bud;  the 
etomeoa  Dumerons,  Dnited  by  their  filaments;  the 
oviuy  consistdog  of  a  number  of  carpels  around  a 
common  axis,  the  styles  generally  fire,  the  ovules 
few  or  many ;  tbe  friut  dry  or  fleehy.  Ihe  plants 
of  this  order  have  a  ^vat  general  sinularity  both  in 
their  appearance  and  in  toeir  properties  and  pro- 
ducts. All  of  them  contain  a  mucilaginous  substance 
in  great  quantity,  which  is  partionlarly  abundant 
in  Ule  roots  of  the  perennial  herbaceoua  speciee. 
This  mucila^eus  quahty  makes  some  veiy  nsefnl 
as  emolUentt  and  demulcents  in  medicine.  The 
young  foliage  of  some  ia  used  as  a  boiled  vegetable. 
The  seeds  of  all  contain  a  considersble  quantity  of 
bland  fixed  oil.  Ihe  inner  bark  of  the  atom  often 
yields  a  usefnl  fibre,  for  which  spedea  of  HSnaait 
and  Sida  are  particularly  valued  ;  and  to  this  order 
belong  the  Cotton  planta,  so  valuable  for  the  fibre 
which  envelope  their  seeds.  Many  of  them  are 
frequent  omamenta  of  flower-gardens. — 9ee  Cotton, 
HiBisoiTB,  Hollyhock,  Uallow,  Missh-iu1iI.ow, 
Sida,  and  TJbkma. 

MA'LYEBN,  Qbb&T,  a  town  and  waterinj^-place 
in  Worcestenhire,  Eni^d,  jncturesqnelv  situated 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Malvern  Hills,  S  miles 
south-west  of  Worcester.  Tbe  pmity  and  abundance 
of  the  tpring-water,  and  the  udlibes  for  healthful 


exercise  afibrded  by  the  hills,  have  rendered  Ualvem 
a  great  resort  for  invalids  followiog  the  hydro- 
pathic treatment,  for  which  there  are  several  laiga 
!  establishments.    Pop.  (1871)  6693 ;  (1881)  5847. 

MA'LWA,  a  former  kingdom  of  India,  lying  for 
the  most  part  north  of  the  Nerbudda,  and  south- 
west of  the  valley  of  the  Oaiue^  is  an  uneven 
[ilateau  varying  from  1600  to  2m)0  feet  above  sea- 
eveL  It  is  now  divided  into  a  number  of  protected 
states. 

MA'MELtnCES,  UAHLOUKS,  or  UEU- 
LOOKS,  an  ArsHo  word  signifying  atavet,  ttm 
name  given  in  EWpt  to  the  alaves  of  the  beys, 
broudit  &om  the  Caucasus,  and  who  formed  their 
armed  force.  When  Oendua  Khan  desolated  great 
part  of  Asia  in  the  13th  c,  and  carried  aww  a 
miUtitode  of  the  inhabitants  for  slaves,  tbe  Sultan 
of  Egypt  bought  12,000  of  them,  partlv  Mingi^ians 
and  Tcherkesses,  but  mostly  Tu^s,  and  formed  tliem 
into  a  body  of  troops.  But  they  soon  found  their 
own  power  so  great  that,  in  12M,  they  made  one 
of  their  own  number  Sultan  of  Egypt,   founding 

another 

in  1.182.  .  , 

the  first  djoiasty,  the  Tartar  element  in  the  second. 
In  general^they  formed  able  and  energetia  ruler^ 
and  Egypt  under  theii  sway  arrived  at  a  dc^;i«a 


[ynaa^  of  the  Baharitea,  which  gave  place  to 
ler  Aumeluke  dynasty,  that  of  tbe  Borjites, 
182.    The  Caucasian  element  predominated  in 


of  prosperity  and  i 


pelled  to  permit  the  continoance  of  the  twenty-four 
Mameluke  beys  as  goremars  of  the  provinces,  liiis 
arrangement  snbeisted  till  the  middle  of  the  18th  c, 
when  the  rnunber  and  wealth  of  the  M.  gave  tbran 
such  a  preponderance  of  power  in  Egypt  tliat  Uie 
pasha  named  b?  the  Porte  was  roduowl  to  a  merely 
nomioalruler.  The  number  of  them  scattered  through- 
out all  K^pt  was  between  10,000  and  12,000  men. 
Their  number  was  kept  up  chiefiy  by  slaves  brought 
from  the  Caucasus,  from  among  whom  the  beys 
and  other  officers  of  state  were  exclusively  chosen. 
Their  last  brilliant  achievements  were  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  French  invasion  of  Egypt,  and  duting  the 
time  immediately  following  the  retirement  ^A  the 
French.  At  this  time,  Murad  Bey  stood  at  their 
head.  But  in  ISU  they  were  fooUy  masaacrod  by 
Mohammed  Ali  (q.  v.),  afterwards  Viceroy  of  Egypt. 
MAMEBS,  a  small  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Sarthe,  25  miles  north- north,  east  of  Le 
Mans.  Coarse  linens,  calico,  beer,  and  leather  are 
manufactured.    Pop,  600a 

MAMIANI,  Count  Tibkhzio,  an  Italian  philo. 
Bopher,  statesman,  and  writer,  ham  in  1801,  at  Pesaro. 
Having  taken  a  prominent  [Nut  in  the  futile  revola. 
tiooary  outbreak  which  aocompanied  the  accession 
of  Gregory  XVL,M.  was  compelled  to  seek  safety  in 
flight,  and  repaired  to  Paris,  from  whence  be  pro- 
moted with  energy  the  revolutionaiy  tendencies  of 
Ilia  country.  In  1846,  on  the  accession  of  Pius  IX., 
he  declined  tbe  proffered  papal  amncaty,  as  long  as 
its  acceptance  involved  a  ^savowal  of  his  former 
political  principles ;  but  on  its  being  unconditionally 
granted,  he  availed  himself  of  it,  and  even  formed 
part  of  the  papal  ministiy  on  the  promulgatioa  of  the 
couBtitutian,  The  inconsistent  pdicy  of  the  pope 
having  compelled  him  to  raetgn  his  post^  he  withcurew 
to  Tunn,  where  he  founded,  with  Oioberti,  a  society 
for  promoting  the  nnion  of  Italians.  On  the  fi^ht 
of  Pius  IX  fioro  Borne  to  Oaeta,  he  re.enteredlhe 
pcditical  arena,  and  waa  for  a  short  period  foreign 
ministerin  therevolutionaiycabinet  of  Goletti.  On 
the  faU  of  Borne,  he  retired  to  Genoa;  in  1896,  he 
WIS  returned  member  of  the  Sardinian  pariiament^ 
and  in  1800  entered  Cavonr^s  ministry  **■  Miniatuv 


,,  Google 


of  iDatrnction.  Ho  wm  appointed  ambuudor 
Greece  in  1S61,  to  Switzerland  in  1865.  Hii  chief 
works  are  :  Del  Jtinnovamenlo  della  FUoaofia  antifa 
Ilaiiana  (1836) ;  Poeti  dtW  eid  Media  (1842) ;  DtW 
xynUilogla  e  del  Metodo  ;  Pr'awipi  deila  FUoaofia  '  ' 
DiriUa,  and  a  number  of  treatises  on  various  b 
jecta.  Id  ISTO.  he  became  editor  oE  a  new  quarterly 
review,  Filotofia  delle  ScuoU  lialiane. 

MAMMA'LIA  (Lat.  mamma,  a  teat),  tbe 
higbest  class  of  the  Bnimal  sub-kingdom  Vertd>rala 
(q.  v.).  This  class  includes  Man  and  all  the  onimala 
which  resemble  bim  in  the  moat  important  points 
of  their  orgaDisation ;  and  it  is  naturally  placed  at 
the  bead  w  the  animal  kingdom,  because  (indepen- 
dently of  Man  being  a  member  of  it)  it  contains 
the  asimals  which  manifest  the  highest  dagrae  of 
intelli^Qce,  and.  which  poaseaa  the  most  complex 
organisation. 

The  most  diatinctive  character  of  the  mammalift 
is  their  mode  of  development  aad  of  nourishment 
diuinz  the  earliest  period  of  life^      They  are  all 
brought  into  the  world  alive  (viviparous),  not  merely, 
as  in  certain  (ovo-viviparons)  reptiles  and  fishes,  hy 
the  retention  and  hutching  of  the  egg  within  the 
oviduct,  hut  by  the  formation  of  a  new  connection 
between   the  embryo  and   its   mother,   while   the 
former  lies  within  the  maternal  cavitiA,  bo  that 
praviaioii  is  made  for  its  development  beEora  birth, 
not,  aa  in  birds,  Ac.,  by  the  loive  yelk  (sea  Dbtelop- 
KENT  o»  TBI  Ebbhto),  but  by  a  constant  supply 
of  nutriment  direct  from  the  maternal  blood.     In 
mammals,   the   ovum,   on  quitting   the   oraiy,   is 
of   extremely  minnte   size,   and  Uie  materials   of 
the  yelk  ojiy  serve  to  support  the  embryo  during 
its  very  earheat  period.    After  undergoing  certain 
changes  in  the  pasea^  through  the  Fallopian  tube 
or  oviduct,  which  it  is  unnecessary  here  to  notice, 
the  ovum  reaches  the  uterus  or  womb,  and  con- 
□ects  itself  by  a  set  of  root-like  tufts  of  vessels  with 
the  maternal  vessels.    These 
tufts      absorb      from      the 
mother's  blood  the  ingredi- 
ents necessaiy  for  the  sup- 
l>ort  of  the  embryo,  while 
they  convey  back  to  it  the 
effete  particles  of  the  em- 
bryonic   tissues.      Throngh 
this  organ,  which  stmultui- 
eously  moreases  in  lize  with 
the  embryo,  and  is  named 
the     placenta,    the    young 
anima^  except  in  the  fowe^ 
orders  of  the  class — viz.,  the 
Musnpialia  (q.v.)  and  the 
Mooooemata       (q.  t.) — de- 
rives  its   nutriment   during 
the  whole  period  of  Oesta- 
tion  (q.  V.) ;  while  in  the  two 
orders  just  named,  no  vas- 
cular connection  of  the  ovum 
with    the    uterus    of    the 
mother  is  formed,  the  ovum 
being  simply  retained  for  a 
time  withm  the  uterus,  and 
the    requisite    nouriahmetit 
for  the  development  of  the 

young  aniiMl  bemg  obtained  ^^„,^  «tl«bt»i  «(, 
by  abflorption  through  the 
membranes  of  the  ovum 
until  birth,  which  takes 
plsce  very  early  iu  de- 
velopment. The  mammaUan  embryo  agrees  with  I 
that  of  birds  and  reptiles  in  poaseesing  an  Amnion 
(q.  V.)  and  AUantois  (q.  v.).  In  all  mammaK  we 
find  the  same  provision  for  nonnahing  the  animal 
during  the  period  immediately  snooe«ding  ita 
279 


n  the  pig. 


birth— viz.,  the  Milk  (q.  v.},  a  fluid  secreted  by 
peculiar  glands,  called  the  mammarj/  glandt,  which. 
become  greatly  developed  in  the  female  during  the 
periods  of  gestation  and  lactation ;  and  as^£is  is 
round  in  no  other  class,  it  is  ttie  character  by  whioh 
the  entire  group  is  moat  obviously  defined,  and 
from  which  it  derives  ita  name. 

The  mammary  glands  exist  in  both  sexes,  but 
except  in  very  rare  oases,  it  is  only  in  the  female 
that  they  secrete  milk.  Their  number  is  never 
less  than  two,  and  when  more,  is  generally  nearly 
irtionol  to  that  of  the  young  produced  at  eatSt 
.  In  the  monkeys,  the  ele^iant,  the  goat,  the 
mare,  Ac,  there  are  two  ;  in  the  cow,  stag,  and  lion, 
four;  in  the  cat,  eight;  in  the  rabbit,  ten; '-  "--  -'- 
generally  twelve ;   and  in  the  rat,  ten 

These  glands  are  often  blended  togethet,  .._ 

cow ;  uid  their  number  is  then  indicated  externally 
by  that  of  the  nipples  or  teats.  Their  position 
bUo  varies :  in  the  monkeys  and  hats,  and  iu  the 
Sirenia  (see  Manatee),  they  ore  situated  on  the 
thorax,  as  in  man  ;  in  most  of  the  carnivorous 
ols,  tiiey  are  situated  on  the  abdomen  as  well 
1  the  thorax ;  white  in  the  mare,  cow,  sheep, 
&c,   they  are  placed  still  further  back,  near  the 

e  tkin  in  the  greater  numlier  of  mammalia  it 
covered  with  hair,  a  form  of  t^umentary  onpend- 
u(e  peculiarly  characteristic  of  this  daas.  In  the 
(t^t-Aiiea,  however,  we  have  an  nlmoet  entire  absenoe 

lir ;  one  of  its  uses — that  of  keeping  the  heat 
within  the  body— being  here  provided,  for  by  the 
thickeniiu;  of  uie  skin  and  the  deposition  of  the 
blubber  beneath  it.  In  the  Edentata,  the  hairy 
eovering  ia  almost  entirely  replaced  by  homy  scales, 
as  in  the  scaly  ant-eater,  or  by  bony  plates,  as  in 
the  annadilla  In  the  quills  of  the  porcupine 
and  the  spiny  bristles  ol  the  hedgehog,  we  have 
other    modifioatious    of    hail    which   depart   Itsi 


Fig.  L— Skeleton  of  the  Camel: 
ini]  Tsrtabna;  vl,  iDmbiir  Tn-tfbra;  M,  sscnl  VNtstnti 
** boDfi  ot  Anvsrin  (radios  sna 


from  ita  ordinary  character  than  those  just  men- 
tioned. Moreover,  the  claws,  nails,  and  hoo£i  of 
oil  mammtth,  the  boTU  Or  homs  on  the  nose  of  the 
rhinooeiOB,  and  the  horns  at  the  hollow-homed 
ruminants   (sai^   at   tiie  ox,  sheep,  ^),  are   all 


bCioogI' 


composed    of    more    or    Ian    aiioilH    ^demio 

stmctures> 

The  tkdeton,  u  a  general  mle,  goTcnu  the  general 
form  of  the  body.  In  itt  general  coofornution,  ''' 
ihewB  ■  close  knalo^  vith  that  of  mao,  which 
described  in  the  article  Skklbton'  ;  the  differenoee 
which  are  remarked  amoogsC  the  varioiu  animal  h 
of  this  clui  mainly  depea&g  (1)  apon  the  absence 
of  porterior  limba  m  the  manne  msjmnals,  sach  aa 
the  dngonc,  the  porpoise,  and  the  whale ;  (2)  apon 
the  diminuhed  nmober  of  d^ta  (see  HAJn>  and 
Foot),  and  upon  the  absence  of  the  clavicle  in  th 
greato-  nnmber  of  those  ipeciea  whoee  anteri( 
unbs  SGTTe  only  for  raotioa  %  (3)  apon  variatiwi 
in  the  nnmber  of  Tertebne ;  (4)  apon  the  iaeqnalities 
in  the  relative  aisea  of  the  aama  bones  ;  and  (G)^npon 
variations  id  the  Btmctiire  of  the  HknlL 
Although  the  same  bona)  veXet  into  the  formation 
. ,i._  gkol),  great  diffcreooM  preeent 


thMDScJvei 


ikoU,  ere 
itsknlls, 


ivea  in  different  skitfis,  according  as  ttie  face 
I  or  lua  prolonged,  or,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  brain'Caae  or  craniom  is  more  or  less  developed. 
In  proportion  as  a  mammal  il  removed  in  cUsii- 
fieation  from  man,  we  find  that  the  cranium  is 
diminished ;  that  the  face  ii  jirelonged  by  extension 
of  the  jaws  and  nasal  cavities  ;  that  the  orbits  are 
directed  outwards,  and  are  less  distinct  from  the 
temporal  fosin  ;    and  that  the   occipital  foramen 


(thronch 
eondylei 


eondylei  (by  which  . _.     .   . 

first  vertebra  of  the  spinal  coluun)  are  placed 
towards  tho  posterior  p^  of  the  akull,  inetead  of 
oooupying  the  middle  of  its  inferior  surface,  as  in 
man.  Amongst  the  most  characterise  points  in 
the  mammaliui  skull  geoerally,  may  be  mentioned 

il],  that  the  lower  jaw  articulates  directly  with 
tie  skull,  without  Uie  iaterveutioa  of  a  snspea- 
sorinm,  the  upper  portion  of  the  raandibolar  and 
hyoid  arches  being  taken  into  the  internal  ear,  and 
formiog  the  malleus  and  incus ;  and  (2)  that  the 
aknll  articulates  to  the  vertebral  oolnmn  by  two 
condyles,  the  basi-occipitol  bcicg  also  ossLGed. 

The  vert^iral  eolvmn,  except  in  relation  to  ita 
length,  closely  resembles  that  in  man,  where 
there  are  T  cervical,  12  dorsal,  6  lambor,  5  sacral, 
and  8  caudal  vertebrse.  The  Miwoi  vertttra  are 
almost  univeraally  7  id  niim1>er,  however  long  oi 
short  the  neck  may  be,  the  only  known  excep- 
tions being  two  Sireniam  {Maaatiu  and  JIAvtintri, 
which  have  fl,  and  the  three-toed  sloth,  which  aas  S. 
The  nnmber  of  dortai  vaitbra  ranges  from  11  to 
23,  which  latter  number  oocuis  in  the  two-toed 
sloth.  The  lumAor  verl^inB  range  from  2  U>  9, 
the  most  common  nujnber  being  fi.  The  gocroJ 
nerfeinE,  which  coalesce  to  form  the  sacrom  and 
to  support  the  pelvic  arch,  vsiy  ' 
Monotremata  and  M 
the  most  oommo: 
the  rudimentary  , 
■ingle  vertebra,  and  there 
cannot  be  said  to  be  a 
sacrum.  The  eavdai 
bra,  which  ia  man  and 
the  highar  apes  coalesce  to 
fonn  the  ooeeyx,  are  usually 
very  numerona,  20  or  30 
being  a  common  number, 
and  40  oocnrring  in  the 
long-t^ed  ant-eater.  The 
form  and  number  of  eaudai 
WTtebravaij  in  accordance 
with  the  parpooes  to  which 

the  tan  is  aj^lled;  JUid  the  In 

special  uses  of  this  organ 

(,m_     Y^  example,  in  the  kaaganM  tt 

third  leg  when  tne  animal  stands  sreot  j 


peivio  arcn,  vsiy  irom  -^  (m  cue 
d  Uanupialia)  to  6  (in  tbe  mole), 
n  number  bona  4,    In  the  Ceb^ea, 

pelvis  is  loosely  conneoted  with  a 


in  tiie  American  monkeys,  and  in  soma  of  the  opoa- 
sums,  it  is  a  prdiensile  organ ;  and  in  tha  Cetscea 

and  in  the  beaver  it  is  a  powerful  instmmcnt  ol 
propulsion  in  water.  The  ribs  correspond  in  num- 
ber to  the  dorsal  vertebne,  and,  as  a  general  role 
(excepting  in  the  Monotiematl^,  they  are  oon* 
naoted  saperiotly  not  only  with  tile  bodies  of  two 
vertebra,  but  with  the  traosvetse  process  of  one 
of  them,  and  hence  present  corresponding  articular 
surfaces.  The  dermoH  is  genarally  divide  into 
three  portions ;  the  middle  one,  in  place  of  being 
rapiesented  by  a  single  piece,  as  in  nuui,  usually 
consisting  of  ss  many  pieoes  as  there  are  true  ribs. 
It  is  very  short  in  the  Cetacea,  and  ii  very  long  in  the 
Camivora  and  Edeotata,  extending  in  some  esses 
nearly  to  the  pelvis.  In  certain  cases,  in  which  it 
is  neoeseary  that  the  anterior  members  shoold  be 
endowed  with  nnuBual  strength,  as  in  the  bats, 
moles,  and  armadillos,  there  is  a  projecting  keel 
upon  this  bone  (as  in  birds]  for  the  attachment  of 
powerful  pectoral  muscles. 

The  cavity  of  the  lAorox,  which  is  bounded  supe- 
riorly by  the  dorsal  vcrtebne,  laterally  by  the  liba, 
and  inferiorly  by  the  sternum,  is  completely  separ- 
ated from  the  abdominal  oavily  in  mim-ipBlf  (but 
in  no  other  vertebrates]  by  the  muscular  sqitom 
known  as  the  diapkraata,  or  mtdrifC 

The  capillar  arek  in  mammals  is  comparatively 
imperfect,  its  coracwd  element  (see  Coracoid 
Bohk)  not  beiog  snfficiently  developed,  except  in  the 
Monotremata,  to  roach  the  sternum,  or  to  meet  ita 
fellow  in  the  mesian  line.  Where  the  scapula  bat 
any  bony  oonnectioD 
with  the  stemtim,  it 
is  through  tha  clavicle 
or  collar-bone,  which 
is  fraqoantly  absenfc 
Ths  ptima  anA  is 
always  oconpoted  of 

and  pubis  on  either 
side,  and  these  bones 
generally  coalesce  to- 
gether, as  la  man, 
at  an  early  period 
of  life;  but  in  tho 
Uonotremata  they 
t£"\r™?SII^^..'S  Flg.&— Pelvis  of  tha  Bdudn.: 

■' 'Tdlll» 


publt  1  iH,  ninaplil  luns. 


the  Utmotiemata  and 
Marsupialia,  the  pel- 
vis presents  two  addi- 
tional bones,  termed  tlie  marsapial  bones,  projecting 
forwards  and  outwards,  which  are,  however,  simply 
ossiGcations  of  the  tendons  of  the  external  oblique 
moBcles  of  the  abdomen  (see  fig.  2],  and  an  that  of 
xtance.  They  may  aid 
. .         „  .or  ponch,  when  that  is 

present    In  the  bat,  the  pelvis  is  greatly  elongated, 
and  the  bones  do  not  unite  in  the  median  line  to  form 


■^physis,  lo  that  the  lower  part  remaioa  open, 
I  m  bins ;  while  in  the  Cetaoea,  which  have  no 

D,ai,.s=:»  Google 


MAMMAT.T* 


ior  limba  to  b»  supported  by  the  pelTil,  that 
ii  extremely  radimenbuy  (aea  fig.  3),  or  evem 

ly  abaent.  A<  a  general  rule,  the  pelvis  of 
iTsr  w  bioad  aa  in  lita  human  (object, 
«lid  it*  lateral  walla  are  almya  relativd;  tnuiller, 
Batter,  and  longsz. 

The  lOiUrior  txbtmilUt  am  aliraja  pitaeat, 
oltbongh  their  modea  of  confoinuttiou  are  very 
varied,  according  to  the  par^oaea  for  which  thev 
are  designed;  toA  the  potUnor  txtranUia,  whioh 
are  also  alwava  preaent,  except  in  the  Cetacea, 
doaely  reeemble  the  antraior ;  ue  difference  being 
greater  in  man  than  in  imy  other  case,  in  con- 
sequenoe  of  the  special  adaptation  of  the  pelvic 
eztremitie*  for  the  support  oE  his  body  in  an  erect 
position.  The  ordinary  modifications  of  theee  organs 
are  described  in  the  articles  Haxd  and  Foot.— See 
Owen  On  Uie  Nidun  t^fLimbM. 

The  leeth  of  """"""i"  oonstitnte  so  characteristdo 
a  feature  in  their  ornniaation,  and  are  of  M  much 
service  in  th^  claa^cation,  aa  to  require  a  special 
notice,  ^le  only  animftT*  of  this  c^aa  in  which 
teeth  are  altogetner  absent  we  the  true  ant-eaters 
Mid   the   MonotrematA.    The  nnmber  of  teeth  is 


and,  in  geoenJ,  teeth  are  situated  in  all  tiieea  bonasL 
In  all  existuig  mftrmrmli',  except  mui,  there  is  ft 
vacant  space  between  the  incisor  and  canine  teeth. 
No  ■"■"'""I  haa  more  than  two  sets  of  teeth ;  most, 
however,  have  two ;  the  firs^  which  are  called  tem- 
porary, deddooDs,  or  milk  teeth,  being  diafdaoedi 
and  succeeded  by  the  permanent  teetli,  aa  shewn  in 
&^.  A.  For  a  deocripbon  of  the  atruntiire  and  priii' 
cipal  forms  of  these  iH^ans,  we  most  refer  to  the 
article  Tkkth,  and  to  Frafesaor  Owen's  nwgniflcent 


diffen 


Kg.  4. — Lovet  Jaw  of  a  yoimg  Kg  {t 

i,liidfcatB«iD  Inolior;  0,  ft  cftntnc ;  |i,  ft  prtt 
Wlwo  Uu  latler  d  li  pnflied,  the  tooUi  li 


n  Owen'i  Mamnatia) ; 
ilaeldiunii  or  milk  looUi. 


The  digatiut  apparalia  (of  which  the  teeth  may 

be  conaidered  a  portion)  acquires  its  greatest  com- 

leoi  and  elaboration  in  this  gronp.   The  leading 

I  which  it  preseDts,  and  which  depenS 

Aimy  uu  the  nature  of  the  food,  have  been  already 

iHced  in  the  article  DiaisriOH. 

The  heart  is  four-chambered,  and  the  red  blood- 

corpuades  are  not  nocleatcd.    The  single  aortic  arch 

lies  OD  the  left  side.     The  diaphragm  is  complete. 

See  CiBC[mA.Tiov  and  KESFiai.Tiov. 

The  jlidnsys  of  mam  mala  genenJly  agree  with 
those  of  man  in  thur  intranal  stinactar&  See 
~  L    In  some  «n™»l.  (eapaciallj'  those  that 

live  in  water),  they  are  moch  lobolated.  In 
the  ox,  thtt«  are  20  free  rounded  lobules ; 
in  the  bear,  40  or  SO ;  in  the  seal,  70  or 
100;  iriiile  in  the  true  Cetacea,  the  separate 
lobolea  are  ao  nuaerous  as  to  give  a  raoemi- 
form  appearance  to  the  kidney.  AH  mam- 
mals are  provided  with  a  urinary  btaddtr, 
in  which  the  excretion  may  accumulate  so 
as  only  to  rei^uire  being  discharged  at 
intervals.  This  organ  is  largest  m  the 
Herbivora,  and  very  small  in  the  Cetacea. 

The  lumoiu  tyttem  is  remarkable  for  the 
large  size  of  the  brain,  and  especially  of  its 


BeneroII; 


.    When  the  teeth  ai 


being  to  a  great  degree  in  correH^adence  with  the 
amount  of  mtelliffence  of  Hie  ammal.  The  hemi- 
spheres are  miited  at  tlieir  lower  gorts  (except 


DOXabara,  they  are  small,  nearly  equal,  and  nsoally  of 
a  simple  conical  form,  bat  exoeptiog  in  theae  case^ 
most  mammals  have  particular  teeth  for  apecial 
porpceea;  thus,  the  front  teeth  (fig.  4,  (),  from  being 
commonly  adapted  to  eflTect  the  first  ooaroe  division 
of  the  food,  are  called  cutters,  or  mctsDri,  and  the 
back  teeth  (m),  whioh  aomp1et«  its  oomminution, 
grinders,  or  mdartj  while  the  Iwge  conical  pointed 
teeth  (of  which  there  is  never  more  than  one  in 
each  half  jaw},  which  are  specially  adapted  for  hold-  daely  the 
ins  the  food  while  the  aniioal  teon  it  asunder,  ara  noiations 
ouUed  holders,  laniaries,  or  more  oommonly  eoiuna 
(e),  from  beii^  well  developed  in  the  dog.  llie  inci- 
sors and  canines  may  be  absent,  bnt  except  in  the 
eases  previously  mentiimed,  the  molara  are  always 
ncwmt.  The  mode  in  which  the  teeth  are  implanted 
in  the  jaw  is  characteristic  of  the  daas.  Excepting 
'  '  teeth  which  grow  from  persistent  pulps  (1 
of  lie  fi  '     ■      '  ■       ■■ 


implaoental  mammals)  by  a  fibrous  ba^  or 
oDuuniMire,  termed  the  eorpu*  caitotum,  which 
does  not  ooonr  in  the  other  vettebrates.  In  the 
lowest  in..niY.»l«,  the  cerebellom  is  situated  anit 
behind  the  hemisphuea,  so  aa  to  be  viaible  troL 


the  front  teeth  c 


e  Rodents,  for  example),  the 


»  which  the  exterior 


„ J  ofwe  animal,  *a 

The  reproductive  organs  open  into  a  cloaca  in  the 
embryo,  and   permanently  in  Omithodelphia ;   in 


continoon*  csaifioation  or  anchylosis  of  the  tooth  to 
the  jaw.  Amiti,  the  fang  of  tlie  molara  is  usnatly 
divided  into  twO|  three,  or  even  four  divergent  po- 
oeases,  and  there  is  no  known  Gah  or  reptile  in  which 
even  a  bifid  fang  oocnis.  Teeth  are  confined  in 
this  class  to  the  maxillaiy,  pre-maxillary,  and  lo«« 
nuHlary  Ixmes,  ^"'^  fonn  only  a  single  row  in  eseh ; 


above;   aa  we  Ret  higher  in  the  scale,  it  is  more 

or  lees  oovered,   in  eonseqnencs  of  the  prdongo- 

tion  of  the  hemisjiherea  backwards ;  anUl  in  ue 

highest  apes  and  in  man  it  i*  almost  completely 

ooDoealed. 

The  orj/an*  qf  IA«  aaua  are  constructed  on  pre- 

'    "-    -  -       plan  aa  in  mun,    The  most  important 

noticed   in  the  articles   Ein,  EYt, 

The  maseuZar  tyiltm  generally  accords  with  that 
:  man,  but  presents  many  remarkable  deviations, 
according  to  &e  form  of  the  skeleton,  the  use  of  the 


several  01 


n  the  act  of  locomotiim,  the  natural 


marsupials  their  o] 

sphincter,  and  in 

mpletely  distinct. 


lally  divided  as  follows ; 

I.  ORNTTHODELFHIA,  incIndiDg  t 
whioh  resemble  birds  and  reptiles  in  the  ponession  of  a 
doooa  and  of  large  coiaooid  bones,  arbonlating  with 
the  stemam.  There  is  no  vs^na,  and  the  mammary 
glands  are  destitute  of  teats.  This  group  contains  oofy 
one  order,  Honotremata  (q.  1.),  and  two  genen,  Ornt- 
M^rAincAui  (q.  v.),  and  Sdidna  (q,  v.). 


,CoQgk 


MAMMALIA. 


Ihe  conu>jid«  ore ,       

ft  Tagtiu,  and  the  mjimiDixy  gli 
special  ohamctcra  of  Didelphia  are,  that  the  embiyo 
does  not  beooma  oonnected  irith  th«  vaU  of  the  ator — 
b;  ■  plaoenta,  and  that  the  Tagina  is  doable.     Thera 
onljr  one  ordec,  Habhcpiiua,  but  its  memben  a 
difierentialed  into  tbc?  diatioct   familiei  (lumgnrooe, 
oposninu,  wombat^  &c.),  and  adapted  to  via?  vat' 
habita  at  lite. 

m.  HONODELPHIA.— Id  tkU  gub.clasa,  the  emi 
is  uourialied  while  irithin  the  ntenu  hj  a  placet 
and  the  vagiju  is  single.    The  eiiatiug  onlcrs  are  : 

1.  Edshtaia  (ant-eaten,  ilothi,  armadillos,  &a]. 

Z  Utbaooedia  (eon?,  Byraa). 

S.  FBOBoaaimA  (elephant). 

1.  Uhqulata.— This  larjce  order  ii  dirided  into  .  . . 
irell-marked  groaps,  Periuodaetj/la  and  Artio- 
daclyla :    the    former  indnding  three    existing 

Eneia  (hotse,  tapir,  and  rhinooeros),  and  -the 
ttcr  tbepigs  and  tnminanta. 

B.  SlSKNIA.— Thii  order,  which  inclndei  the  Manatee 
jq.  v.),  Dogong,  and  Rhjtina,  was  formerly 
inoluded  under  Cetacea,  but  is  now  considered 
a  modifloation  of  the  DnguUie  type  in  aeoord- 
anoe  with  an  aqoatic  mode  of  life. 

&  Cadnivoba.  — This  large  order  is  divided  into  two 
groups— (a)  Fiitiprdia,  inoloding  the  dog,  bear, 
and  oat  tamilies;  and  {b)  Pinnipedia,  the  sea- 
lions,  valnues,  and  seals. 

7.  Craoba  (whales,  porpmses,  Jlre.).— This  order 
ptesenia  an  eitieme  modification  of  the  pinni- 
pede  type  to  aqoatic  habits,  and  stands  in  the 
same  relation  to  Camivara  as  iSircnia  '- 
Vaffvlnia. 

&  iNflECTtvoBA  (hedgehogs,  shrews,  moles).— These 
are  in  many  respeota  tiie  lowest  and  simplest 
order  of  Plaoenial  mammali,  with  the  eioeptior 
of  the  Edentata. 

9.  BODKMTTA  (hares,  rats,  porcapines,  squirreU,  >K.y 

10.  CheibOfti&a     (bata). — EuentJally    a    modifioatiou 

of  the  Insectivorous  type  for  purposes  of  flight 

11.  Pbiuateb;   inclading  lemnrs,  monkeys,   apes,  and 

Ditlrihulion  in  Time.— The  study  of  tiie  extinct 
Mammalia  haa  yielded  more  important  results  than 
any  other  branch  of  pal»ODtology — a  department  of 
zoological  inquiry  iriiich  was  indeed  initiated  by 
the  inveal3gations  of  Ciivier  .upon  the  mammalian 
remains  of  the  Paris  baaia,  and  which  has  since 
continned,  in  the  hands  of  Owen,  Gaudry,  Marsh, 
and  many  others,  to  throw  the  most  remarkable 
light  upon  the  most  important  problems  of  zoology 
and  geology  alike. 

The  earUest  remainB  with  which  we  are  noqiuinted 
data  from  the  Trias,  and  otiiars  occur  sparmzly  in 
the  wibsomient  periods  of  the  Secondnry  epoch,  bat 
all  are  of  mariupial  type.  iNo  omithodelphoua 
mammals  have  yet  occurred  in  the  fossil  state,  and 
the  affinities  of  mammals  to  the  lower  vertebrate 
olaases  still  remain  as  obscure  aa  ever.  In  the  Ter- 
tiary itrata,  however,  placental  mammal*  occur  in 
great  abnndance,  and  the  more  important  ordinal 
types,  Carnirores,  Ungulates,  &«.,  are  already  dis- 
tinctly differentiated.  We  find,  however,  within 
the  limits  of  these  orders  a  vast  number  of  ancient 
forms  BO  perfectly  gradated  below  the  definite 
gronpa  which  alone  remain  at  the  preaent  day,  as 


___     __   .        ..      .       _  of 

„'pei  that  of  regular  seriea. 
Taking,  for  inetance,  the  horse,  a  Perissodoctyle 
Ungulate  to  reraaFkably  spedatiaed  as  to  have  been 
oonsidered  by  Cuvier  the  type  of  a  distinct  order, 
SolidvngiJa,  we  ore  now  in  poascssion  of  a  complete 
series  of  forms  connecting  it  with  the  lowest  and 
simplest  five-toed  ungulates.  The  horse  walks  upon 
tlu  terminal  joint  ol  the  third  or  middle  digit  of 
each  limb  (the  hoof  oorresponding  to  the  nail),  and 
the  only  trace  of  the  missing  digita  is  afforded  by  the 


skeleton,  whioh  shews  the  rudimentary  second  and 
fourth  metacarpals  and  metatarsals  aa  slender  bony 
splints  applied  to  each  side  of  the  well- developed 
corresponding  bone  of  the  middle  digit.  The  fibula 
is  mdimentary,  and  the  molar  teeth  have  long 
crowns,  and  bear  a  very  complicated  and  character- 
istio  double-crescentic  pattern.  The  horse  of  the 
later  Pliocene  period  [Pliohipput)  differed  a  little 
from  OMr  present  eenos,  cbieny  in  possessing  much 
better  developed  but  still  rudimentary  second  and 
fourth  metacarpals,  and  shorter  and  less  complicated 
teeth.  In  the  earlier  Pliocene  strata,  however,  we 
find  a  hotae  {Bipparion)  which  poasrased  not  only 
complete,  though  ttill  slender  second  and  fourth 
metacarpals,  but  even  tlie  phalanges  of  the  corre- 
sponding digits,  which  most  have  dangled  beside  the 
large  central  hoof,  without  resting  on  the  ground, 
like  the  analogous  '  dew-claws '  of  our  existing  deer 
and  cattle.  Its  teeth  too  are  considerably  shorter. 
Passing  downwards  into  the  Miocene  strata,  we  find 
a  new  genus,  Atiehiiherium,  in  which  the  second 
and  fourth  djgita  are  considerably  larger,  and  > 
minute  rudiment  of  the  fifth  metacarpal  makes  its 

Svpearanco.  The  rudimentary  fibula  too  is  better 
aveloped,  and  the  molars  have  crowns  acaroely 
larger  than  those  of  ordinary  mammals,  and  shew 
the  equine  pattern  in  a  more  simple  form.  Earlier 
still,  we  have  Muohippas,  which  differs  from  its 
last-named  snccessor.  chiefiy  in  the  better  develop- 
ment of  its  rudimentary  fifth  metacarpal ;  while  in 
the  Eocene  we  find  Orohippua,  in  WEiich  the  fifth 
metacarpal  bears  a  perfect  digit,  the  fibula  too 
becoming  complete,  and  the  teeth,  now  forty-four 
instead  in  forty  in  number,  yet  more  simple.  Finally, 
in  the  Lower  Eocene,  the  equine  type  is  representwl 
in  its  simplest  state  by  Eohipaas,  in  which  the 
missing  first  digit  of  the  fore-umb  appears  as  a 
rudimentary  metacarpaL  Eohippus  in  turn  is 
closely  related  to  the  families  of  Uipirs  and  Pulieo- 
therla,  and  these  in  turn  to  the  yet  simpler  Corff- 
pliodoTt,  which  possessed  five  complete  toes  on  each 
foot.  Thus  then  not  only  does  ttte  iiolgeoatologist 
possess  a  series  of  gradations  of  the  most  perfectly 
gentle  kind,  from  the  equine  to  the  primitive  un- 
gulate type  (for  of  the  six  extinct  equine  genera  aboTo 
named,  Marsh  has  described  at  least  forty  speciea), 
but  these  ore  arranged  in  the  most  precise  strati- 
crapbical  order,  greater  and  greater  specialisation 
keeping  pace  witlt  later  and  later  time.  The  reader 
will  thus  readily  understand  how  the  hoise,  with  so 


So  too,  keeping  within  the  Umita  of  the  perisso- 
dactyle  ungulates,  we  find  the  tapirs  and  rhinoceros 
families  leading  back  to  a  common  form,  the  Lower 
Eocene  HHaUte»j  while,  starting  from  the  simple 
Ooryphodoaia,  wo  find  strange  new  families  aniie, 
long  completely  extinct,  such  as  the  huge  six-horned 
Dinocerala  of  the  Lower  Eocene.  Passing  to  the 
sub-order  Arliodaelj/la,  we  find  the  allied  families  of 
pigs  and  hippopotami  converging  in  the  Eocene ;  the 

-'oants,  too,  lead  back  to  lower  oud  simple  forms, 

of  which  cloaelv  approach  the  porcine  type. 

Taking  a  simple  family,  uiat  of  the  deer  (Oertida), 
—  "nd  its  Lower  Miocene  representative  entirely 

.  JesiL  that  of  the  Middle  Miocene  {Pnxxrvultu) 
provided  with  simple  non-deciduous  horns,  while  k 
sKghtly  later  form  shews  a  lateral  tine,  and  a  '  bnrr,' 
shewing  that  the  horn  was  deciduoos  ;  but  ciiriooaly 
enoogh,  the  burr  is  placed  some  way  up  the  hom 
instead  of  close  to  the  skull,  as  in  our  present  forms, 
shewing  that  a  much  smaller  portion  of  the  horn 
was  shed.  The  Pliocene  deer  possess  two  lateral 
tines,  and  it  is  instrnctive  to  notice  that  so  for  aa 
horns  are  concerned,  the  three  successive  types  of 
deer  are  in  the  position  of  our  existing  deer  of  the 


MAMMAETf  GLAifD— MAN. 


first,  aaeond,  and  third  year  resfwctively ;  while  the 
more  complei  antlem  with  which  we  are  familiar, 
do  not  appear  until  Post-Tertiary  times.  A  Bimilar 
progreuive  increase  ia  obaerTable  in  the  brain  oE  all 
orders  of  mammale,  from  the  small,  low,  almost 
reptilian  Eocene  type,  to  the  maasire  and  well- 
coDToluted  brains  of  the  present  fauna. 

AtCTHOBiTMS.— Ahatomt — Hiutlev,  AtuUt>mg  qf 
Vertdfmled  ATtimaU  (Lond.  1871) ;  Hioholaon,  Pala- 
ontology  (Edio.  1880) ;  WaUtM, DUlribuiion  (ffAni- 
maia  (Lond.  1ST8). 

MA'HMABY    GLAND,    Ahatoky    or.       See 

MAMMARY  GLAND,  DraSASn  OF.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  moat  important  of  these 

affections. 

Aeul*  m/bniination  qf  the  breaal,  which  is  char- 
aoterised  by  great  swelling,  tenderness,  pain,  and 
fever.  There  is  a  knotty  feeline  in  the  inflamed 
part,  and  matter  soon  form* ;  but  uie  abscess  it  often 
'  '   "  The  affection 

and  sometimes  arises  from  very 
a  loaded  state  of  the  bowels, 
too  sttmnlating  a  diet,  &B,  The  bowels  should  at 
once  be  cleared  out  by  sharp  purgstivea ;  leeches 
and  fomentatiomi  abooid  be  appliMl ;  the  arm  on 
the  affected  aido  ahoiUd  rest  in  a  sling;  and  an 
opa&injj  should  be  made  where  matter  can  be  fait 
The  milk  ahoold  also  be  regularly  drawn  off,  if  it 
can  be  done  without  extreme  pain. 

_  Sore  nippla  are  a  freqaent  cause  of  the  preceding 
disease.  Amongst  the  remedies  for  excoriations, 
cracks,  fissures,  and  ulcerations  of  the  nipple 
which  cause  great  pun  in  snoklmg,  are  the  appli- 
cation of  strong  astringent  lotions  (tannin  lotion, 
for  example),  touching  the  sore  point  with  solid 
nitrate  of  silver  (lunar  caustic),  and  especially  the 
application  of  collodion.  In  bad  oases,  a  raetaUtc 
shield  must  be  placed  on  the  nipple,  to  protect 
it  from  the  clothes  and  from  the  child's  mouth. 
The  regtdar  applicatioii  of  a  liniment  of  rectified 
spirits  and  olive  oil  in  equal  parts  will  sometimes 
prevent  this  affection. 

The  mammary  gUnd  is  also  liable  to  hydatid 
disease  (see  Htdatik),  to  the  morbid  growth 
known  as  chronic  tomonr,  serocyslia  dismisei  or 
glandular  tumour,  &c,  and  to  Cancer  (q.  y.). 

MAHMEE  APPLE  (afamnua  amerkana),  a 
highly  esteemed  fruit  of  the  West  Indies  (where  it 
is  sometimes  called  the  Wild  Aprieol)  and  tropical 
America.  It  is  proditoed  by  a  beautiful  tree  of  the 
nataral  order  Quiliftnr,  60—70  feet  high.  The 
fruit  is  roundish,  from  the  size  of  a  heirs  egg  to 
that  of  a  small  melon,  with  a  thick  leathery  rmd, 
and  a  very  delicate  inner  rind  adhering  closely  to 
the  pulp,  which  mnst  be  carefully  removed  on 
account  of  its  bitter  taste.  The  pulp  is  firm  and 
bright  yellow,  with  peculiar  sweet  and  very 
uieeable  taste,  and  a  pleasant  aromatic  odour. — 
A  similar  fruit  is  produced  by  itammea  aJHeana, 
an  African  spedes. 

MA-MMOLA,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  in  the 

grovince  of  Regeio,  seven  and  a  half  miles  from 
ersce;  It  staniu  in  a  b^utiful  and  fertile  district 
on  the  Locano.    Pop.  (ISSl)  6369. 

MA'MMOTH,  the  Russian  name  for  the  (oasil 
elephant  {Eiephtu  primigtaitt*),  whose  remains  are 
so  common  in  the  recent  deposits  of  Northeni 
Earcpe.  For  a  description  of  it^  see  the  article 
Fossil  Elepbamt.  The  name  is  sometimes  erro- 
neously given  to  the  Mastodon  (q.  v.). 

MAMMOTH  CAVE,  the  larnat  known  cavern 
in  the  world,  i>  in  Kentucky,  tJ.S.,  79  miles  S.S.W. 
of  Lonisville.  The  cave  is  abont  nine  miles  long ; 
but  it  is  said  to  require  upwards  of  IGO  miles  of 


travelling  to  eipk 

chambers,  grottora,  ...     

is  300  feet  high ;  another,  600  feet  long,  70  feet 
wide,  and  70  feet  high.  Some  avenues  are  covered 
with  a  continnons  incrustation  of  the  most  beautiful 
translucent  forms ;  stalactites  and  stalagmites 
abound.  There  are  several  abysses  or  pits  contain- 
ing water,  one  o£  which  is  176  feet  deep.  The 
Echo  River,  which  has  a  coarse  of  j  mile,  and  is  in 
some  places  200  yards  widev  has  invisible  communi- 
cation with  Green  River  outside  the  cave,  and  rises 
and  folia  according  to  the  state  of  the  latter  river. 
la  the  cave  are  found  two  or  three  species  of  eyeless 
or  blind  fish,  including  the  cnrions  Amb^mia 
epelatu,  a  blind  crayfish  (naariy  white  in  coWr 
like  the  fish),  lizards,  frogs,  crickets,  rats,  and  bats. 
The  earth  of  the  cave  is  charged  with  nitra  (so  that 
saltpetre  used  to  be  mode  here).  The  air  of  the 
cave  is  pnre  and  healthful ;  the  temperatore  re- 
mains constant  about  G9°. 

MAN.  The  intellectual  and  moral  chaiacter  of 
man  is  copiously  discnaeed  in  the  several  articles 
of  psychological  and  ethical  import  as  at  Ekotcon, 
Wiu,  Intkllect,  MiiTD,  iNsmtcT,  BiLioioK.  The 
various  races  of  mankind  are  treated  of  nnder 
Ethnolooy.  The  constitution  of  ha  bodily  frooie 
occnpies  such  articles  as  Bbain,  Nervoits  stgttK, 
Skou,  SsELrroN,  Muscle;  and  human  physiology 
falls  under  such  headings  as  DiOKTriON,  NimrnON, 
CIBOIII.ATIOK.  The  size  and  weight  of  the  hnman 
infant  is  detailed  at  F<etu3.  The  proporti(m  of 
males  to  females,  mean  expectation  of  Ufa,  and 
other  particulars,  are  given  at  VrrA-L  STATlsiloa. 
See  also.  FmLOLoev,  Specis  ;  and  Descrht  of 
Mas  and  McbcdIiAK  Forc^  both  in  Supp.,  VoL  X. 

The  present  article  is  mainly  devoted  to  the 
question  of  the  antiquity  of  man,  oertainly  one  of 
tne  most  interesting  questions  in  the  range  of 
Anthropology.  It  may  be  well,  however,  here  to 
summarise  the  outstanding  diatinotian  between 
man  and  the  anthropoid  apes,  the  animals  whose 
form  approximates  most  closely  to  that  of  man. 
The  human  figure  is  erect ;  the  feet  non-prehensile. 
The  skull  is  markedly  different,  being  proportionally 
smaller.  The  orbits  and  jaws  are  rdatively  smaller 
in  man ;  the  face  is  more  vertically  directed ;  the 
nasal  bones  prelect  more  beyond  the  maxilla  than 
in  tlie  apes.  The  most  atnking  distinctions  are, 
however,  the  very  much  greater  volume  of  the 
human  brain  as  compared  with  the  highest  apes. 


with  the  cerebellum.  Nevertheless,  as  will  be 
from  the  article  Mahuaua,  the  most  recent  dassi- 
Gcation  of  mammals  no  longer  constitntes  man  an 
order  by  himself,  but  ranks  him  as  only  a  genus 
(with  but  one  species)  of  the  group  of  higher 
animals,  the  primates,  to  which  belong  also  the 
lemuie,  monkeys,  and  M|^^ 

AnliguUy  qf  J{an.—S<it  onlv  do  we  find  among 
ancient  oivilieations  such  as  those  of  Egypt^  India, 
and  China,  a  claim  to  an  antiquity  of  many  thou- 
sand years,  bat  such  authors  as  Lucretius  and 
Horace  have  recorded  the  widely  diffused  traditions 
of  a  yet  more  remote  state  antecedent  to  all  mvi- 
lisation,  when  the  ancestral  savage  wandered  homo- 
leos  [□  search  of  fruits  and  roots,  ignorant  of  all  the 
simplest  arta  of  life,  even  of  the  verv  use  of  fire,  a 
branch  his  only  weajmn,  a  stone  his  only  tool. 
With  the  rise  of  Christianity,however,aahort  system 
of  chronology,   based  upon  that  of  the  Hebrews, 

red  universal  acceptance  through  the  sanction  of 
church,  and  has  indeed  only  recentiy  been 
abandoned  by  scientific  men.  The  steps  by  whioh 
'ogists  have  demonstrvted  the  vast  antiquity  of 
earth  being  amimed  as  known  {see  GEOLoar), 


„.„:„  Google 


it  will  laffiM  ben  to  indioats  the  prinoipal  points 
in  the  very  BimiUr  Ki^ameDt  with  reapect  to  idad, 

Cnvier,  the  fotinder  of  pkhsoDtology,  nltlioiigh 
well  Awu^  of  the  antiquity  of  the  etuth't  cnut 
Mai  of  ita  OTgmiio  renuini,  Bttempted  to  mccoont 
for  Uie  occasioitfl  occuirence  of  honun  remains 
lUong  with  those  of  extinct  mammola  in  mvenia, 
by  aoaming  that  the  former  had  either  been 
acddentallj  miied  by  floods  or  by  nnnaoally 
profonnd  bnria],  and  for  mare  than  thirty  yean 
■abaeqaeat  inveatigatora  proteated  in  vain  against 
BDch  nigh  authority,  that  these  methods  of  account- 
ing for  the  poeitioQ  of  such  remiuns  were  absolutely 
oontcadicted  by  all  the  obserred  facta.  The  most 
patieat  and  lea^  unfortunate  of  these  inquirers  was 
the  archoologiet  Bouchec  de  Perthes,  who  found  at 
Abbeville  in  183S,  in  imdistnrbed  stnta  20— 30  feet 
Bnder  the  surface,  a  large  depositv  where  the  bones 
of  mammoths  and  rhinoceroses  were  associated  with 
rudely  chipped  dint  azee,  qnite  different  from  ibe 
■moothif  poliahed  stone  tools  which  had  long  been 
known.  Thus  oonvinced  of  the  contemporaneity  of 
ft  rwM  of  men,  rader  than  any  which  had  been 
dreamed  of  before,  with  these  extinct  mammals,  he 
continued  his  researches,  accumulating  the  most 
•bondant  uumms  of  evidence,  yet  making  acaroely  a 
vngle  convert  to  his  view,  and  unable  even  to  secure 
%  hearing  from  the  scientific  societies  to  which  he 
addresKd  himaelE ;  and  it  was  not  for  nearly  twenty 
year*  that  he  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  his  long- 
Degt«atad  discoveries  at  last  considered,  verified,  and 


shewing  little  variety  of   form,  and   being  never 


lolished 
and  lieoJiUue 
are  nsnally  applied  to  the  old  and  new  stone  ages 
reepectivrfy. 

The  excavations  whkb  have  been  made  in 
hundreds  of  caverns  in  Britain  and  oa  the  oon- 
tineut,  have  yielded  thoroughly  aooordant  results. 
In  their  superficial  depoeiS  ocomr  comparatively 
reoent  remains,  Roman  coins,  Celtic  ornaments,  and 
implements  of  iron  and  bronze,  together  with  bona 
of  mammals— ox,  deer,  sheep,  horsey  dog,  ka,  A. 
litUa  deefwr,  but  still  associated  with  ' 


floor  of  stalagmite — a  deposit  itself  of  excessively 
slow  fonnataon-~ocanr  one  or  several  beds  of  eu-th, 
mde  breoda,  and  shingle,  often  many  feet  thick, 
containing  throngfaoot  tiieir  whole  depth  abundant 
palnolithio  implements  and  other  remtuns,  together 
with   bones   of  an  extinct  mammalian  fnma,  ele- 


excavated  the  cave,  but  which  may  now  ) 
seventy  or  a  hondred  feet  below,  having  l' 
deepened  its  valley  to  that  extent  Iliua  in 
valley  of  the  Ytotoe,  in  Dordogne,  we  find  the 


e  exisiing  *vidence  in  his  Anttqvils  qf  Man,  ai 
e  nbjen  bat  since  been  cnlbvated  with  ev 


consider  briefly  how  far  bs 
e  globe — how  deep  in  the  st 

e   earth's  crust — distinct  tr 


I.  Port^lKlaL. 
I.  Fleistocaua  o.  .    .  _ 
OluiiJ  foinutloD]. 

4.  Msirw  Pllocms ■  „ 

G.  OlddT  FllocsBS (■rLioonm. 

0.  „,.„ , HioomB. 

Ardueologists  have  long  been  accustomed  .. 
olaaiify  antiqqities  by  the  aid  of  the  materials  of 
which  the  coutemporaneous  implements  and  orna- 
ments are  composed,  and  thus  refer  any  object  to 
the  age  <rf  iron,  a  previous  age  of  bronze,  or  a  yet 
more  remote  age  of  stone.  This  classification 
is  in  accordance  with  the  progress  of  civilisatioti, 
for  men  acquainted  only  with  the  use  of  stoi 
implements  would  most  readily  pass  to  the  n 
of  copper,  a  metal  freqnentiy  occurHog  native, 
and  easily  malleable  ;  thence  to  extracting  it  from 
Its  highly  conspicuous  ores ;  then — perhaps  by 
accident — to  hardening  it  with  tin  to  form  the  fu 
more  useful  alloy  bronze ;  and  only  after  long 
metallurgical  experience,  to  the  working  of  a 
material  comparatively  so  intractable  as  i  ''  ' 

mo[«oveT,  in  accordance  with  observed 
fact    See  Qeoumi. 

The  age  of  iron  is  still  with  as,  that  oE  bronte 
seems  to  have  been  comparatively  brief,  and  the 
geologist  has  therefore  mainly  to  deal  with  the 
relics  of  the  stone  age,  and  the  vast  changes  oE  the 
climate  and  surface  of  Surope  which  took  place 
dnring  its  duration.  Stone  implements  are  found 
to  bdong  to  two  well-marked   classes ;  the  older 


Fig.  1.— Barbed  Bone  Harpoon,  31  indies  lon^ 

of  Le  Monstier  ninety  feet  above  the  stream,  while 
that  of  Ia  Hadsleine  is  little  above  the  level  of  the 

hi^est  floods. 
Ths  evidenoe  of    tba  contemporanuty  ot   man 


Fig.  Z— a.  Needle  ot  Bone^  3  fnohea;  b,  Flint 

irith  the  extinct  fauna  is  thus  absolutely  clear, 
and  we  are  even  enabled  to  form  a  tolerably 
clear  idea  of  his  state  of  cultni«  and  mode  of  life. 


Progress  was  not  wanting  even  in  the  pateolithio 
nenod,  the  oldest  deposits,  such  as  those  of  Le 
Moostier,  yielding  the  most  primitive- looking  in* 
strumeota ;  while  in  the  Inter  onei^  like  La  Made- 

., — L.!ii-M,.i,Cooi;lc 


leine,    the    Sint    objects    become 
implemenCt  ntoh  u  tutrpoon 
become  onmcnniB,  and  at  lut 


«  engnmngi  tail 
(fifi  3).    Wo  find; 


rounded  by  abomfftnca  of  bones  split    for   thi 
muTow,  from  which  we  may  assnme  some  know- , 
ledga   of  cookery,    tdao    bone    needles,    pins,  and 

Cpcera,  shewing  that  some  clothing  mncrt  hare 
D  kt  least  occasionally  worn.  In  all  leipecta! 
thew  people  seem  to  be  meet  nearly  resembled  in| 
onr  own  day  by  the  Eekimoe,  who  it  has  even 
h«eD   «nggeatod   may   be    their  direct  hein   and. 


Sinira  mammals  with  which  palsoUthic  man  was 
contemporaneons  oooapied  Britain  in   early  intor- 

S'  icUI  and  even  pre-gtacial  times — and  since  we 
ve  o^mclnsive  evidence  as  to  the  existence  of 
palnobthio  man  ia  Britun  dnring  the  last  inter- 
glacial  period,  and  of  the  appearance  of  neolithic 
msn  along  with  the  new  faona  at  the  close  of  the 
glacial  period — it  becomes  possible  to  fix  approxi- 
mately the  dates  of  these  erenta  in  human  history, 
■ince  the  advent  of  the  glacial  period  can  be  shewn, 
by  calculations  based  upon  the  Precession  of  the 
Eqainoira  (q.  v,),  to  have  taken  place  about  250,000 

fears  ago,  and  i(«  close  about  100,000  years  a^o. 
t  is  oIao  poealble  approximately  io  date  certam 
deposits  by  calculations  baaed  npoa  observed  rates 
of  denudation  or  deposit. 

Active  discnssion  has  been  in  pnwresa  for  some 
years  aa  to  the  sapposed  traces  of  man  in  Plio- 
cene strata,  and  Abbfi  Bonrgeois  has  discovered  in 
the  Miocene  beds  of  Thdnay,  flinta  so  much  ruder 
than  tme  palteolithio  implementa  as  to  make  many 
archieologiats  doubt  their  human  origin-  How  long 
therefore,  before  the  gtadal  period  man  may  have 
existed  in  Europe  thus  remuns  for  the  present 
uncertain. 

Lyell,  Atai[vil^  of  Man;  Croll,  CUmaU  and 
TiTot ;  De  Qnatrefl^es,  L'Eapict  Humame ;  J. 
Oeikie,  The  Ortai  Jce  Age,  and  Prtluttorie  Europe; 
also  articles  on  Cbanhoob,  Bfionsi  Ab^  fto. 

MAN,  Isle  or,  U  aitoated  in  the  Irish  Sea,  in  N. 
lat  H-  ff— M"  26'  and  ff.  lou^  4°  18'— 4°  47' ;  the 
shortest  distance  betw«en  the  island  and  the  adja- 
cent conntries  being  from  Point  of  Ayre  to  Burrow 
Head  in  Scotland,  16  miles.  The  length  of  the 
island  is  33^  miles,  breadth  12}  miles,  and  area 
about  145,325  acres,  of  which  more  than  90,000  are 
cultivated.  At  the  south-weste: 
islet  called  the  Calf  of  Man,  oonl 
large  portion  of  which  ia  undsr  cultivation.  A  chain 
of  monnfauns  extends  from  north-east  to  sonth-weBt, 
the  hi^ksst  of  which  i«  Snaefell,  2024  feet  above  the 
mean  sea-level  i  bvm  its  lommit,  the  view  is  Tuy 
imposing ;  the  pioturesqae  slens  and  undulating 
ooontay  in  the  irawronnd ;  tns  lioh  plains  of  the 
north  and  sooth  of  ue  iahuid  in  Eoid-distanae ;  and 
beyond,  the  Irish  Se>,  bomidad  h^  the  high  lands  of 
the  mrroanding  countries,  on  wlueh  even  ths  oom- 
fialda  nkav  be  descried.    Several  rtream*  t»ke  their 


abound,  thoufh :_  , 
1^  the  washings  from 'the  le«d  mines.  Th»  ooMt- 
seeneiy  bma  Maiuhold  Head  on  the  east,  pMnng 
•onth  to  Peel  on  tha  wert,  is  bold  and  potnjesqne, 
espsdaUy  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Calf,  whers 
Spanish  Heftd,  the  •anthem  extcemil~   *  ""  '-'--' 


'oi^  tns 


The  gTe«t«r  ^ut  at  th< 
slate  under  various  modifioationB.  Throngh 
ola^-sdust,  a»nit«  has  bnnt  in  two  locaUtiea,  in  ma 
vjoinity  of  Miich  mineral  vona  have  been  discovered, 
and  are  extenuvely  worked.  Neariy  4000  tons  of 
lead  ara  extracted  annually,  as  well  m  consdenble 


:  very  rioh  in  quality, 

I  baring  be«a  oaaaskiiially  oxtaaoted  from  the  ton. 

The  iriand  is  divided  mta  Bx  jAAidtni;* ;  these  into 
parishes,  of  which  there  are  seventean;  these^  a^m, 
int*  htauf  and,  lastly,  into  ij^arter&wds.  The 
towns  are  Castletown  (q.  v.),  Douglas,  the  modem 
cara(«l  (q.  v.),  Peel  (q,  v.),  and  Bamse^  (q.  v,). 

Withm  the  past  few  years  great  un^ovementB 
have  been  made  in  the  island.  At  Douglas,  a 
beaalifol  promenade  has  been  erected  ;  also  a  hand- 
some landioB-piar,  at  a  ooet  of  £48,000.  Very 
extensive  breakwater  and  other  harbour  works  have 
been  erected  at  Douglas.  The  total  expense  has 
been  over  £200,000.  An  outer  pier  and  break- 
water, confltruoted  of  tonerete  cement  blocks,  at  a 
cost  of  about  £150,000,  was  opened  in  1370.  At 
Bomsey,  a  pnbUc  promenade  and  inclosore  on  the 
foreshore  have  been  carried  out ;  and  harbour  woAm 
have  been  erected  both  here  and  at  Fort  Elrin,  in 
the  latter  case  at  a  coat  of  £77,500.  Port  Erin 
harbour  is  more  especially  designed  for  the  herring 
fleet,  and  for  the  stcamen  &am  Ireland,  which  are 
expected  yet  to  form  a  great  trade  for  the  island, 
aa  a  port  of  call  between  England  and  Ireland.  A 
sum  of  close  on  £10,000  has  been  expended  in 
casing  the  existing  breakwater  at  PeeL  To  cover 
the  extensive  outUy  on  harbour  works,  the  consent 
of  the  imperial  treaaun'  was  asked  and  obti^ed  in 
1866  for  the  readjustment  of  duties,  on  artioles 
imported  into  the  island,  such  as  spirits,  wines, 
tobacco,  teas,  sugar,  &c 

The  Isle  of  Man  possenet  mnch  to  interest  the 
antiquary.  Castle  Rushen  (see  CitaTLKTowN),  prob- 
ably the  most  perfect  building  of  its  date  extant, 
was  founded  by  Qnthred,  son  of  King  Orry,  in 
847.  The  ruins  of  Bushen  Abbey,  dated  from  1154, 
are  picturesquely  situated  at  Balloaalla.  There  are 
numerous  so-oalted  Druidiool  remains  aud  Runic 
monuments  throughout  the  island. 

The  population  of  the  island,  in  1871,  was  54.043 ; 
in  1381,  64,089 ;  the  small  rate  of  incieoae  being 
attributable  to  emigration.  The  language  of  the 
natives  is  a  dialect  of  the  Celtic,  and  is  closely 
allied  to  the  Gaelic  and  the  Erse  or  Irish.  As  a 
spoken  language,  it  is  almost  entirely  disused. 

The  climate  is  remarkable  for  the  limited  range 
of  temperature,  boUi  annual  and  diurnal ;  westerly 
and  south-westerly  winds  greatly  predominate ; 
easterly  and  north-easterly  winds  occurring  chieSy 
in  the  autumn  quarter.  Myrtles,  fuchsias,  and  otlier 
tender  exotics  flourish  throughout  the  year. 

The  fisheries  afford  employment  to  nearly  400O 
men  and  boys.  More  than  700  boats  of  various 
tonnage  are  employed  in  the  herring  and  cod  fish- 
eries, the  average  annual  produoe  being  above 
£60,000.  In  addition  to  these,  a  large  number  of 
English  and  Irish  boats  arrive  at  the  island  during 
the  fishing  season.  Besides  the  herrings  consumed 
fresh,  there  are  about  40,0UU  barrels  cured.  The 
trade  is  chietly  coastwise ;  the  exports  are  limited 
to  the  prodncte  of  the  island. 

Apioultore  has  of  late  years  made  considerable 

Moess.    I^rge  numben  of  fat  cattle  are  shipped 

I  t^  EiuiLsh  markets,  as   well  as  about  20,000 

qnartert  of  wheat  annually.    The  manufactures  are 

inctHiaklarable ;  but  to  make  up   for  this,   about 

130,000  visitors  coma  to  the  island  each  season. 

The  revenue  derived  from  the  island  amounts  to 
•bout  £50,000  per  annum;  of  which  the  greater 
part  i*  received  from  anstoiua  duties,  and  the  whole 
of  which,  except  £1(^000  a  year  payable  to  the 
imperial  tressniy,  is  used  for  insular  purposes,  such 
as  public  improvements,  education,  poliM^  cost  Ot 
government,  fto. 

The  principal  line  of  oonunnnicatiou  with  tbe 


wGuuyli 


MAIfAAB— HANAS8EH. 


United  Kingdom  ii  between  Daa^aa  tnd  Liver- 
pool, b^  meuia  of  »  fine  fleet  of  iwift  ateunen. 
There  u  •  anbDUuine  telegnphio  cable  between 
Usnghold  He«d  toid  St  Beei  Head.  In  July  1873, 
k  line  of  railway  was  opened  between  Donglai  and 
Peel ;  in  1S74  to  Caatletown  and  the  Booth ;  and  in 
1879  to  Eamaey — all  on  the  nanow-gaaee  lyatem. 

Prerioui  to  the  6th  Oi,  the  histoiy  of  the  lale  of 
Uan  ia  mvolved  in  obocori^;  from  that  period,  it 
was  ruled  bj  a  line  of  WeUh  IdngE,  ontil  aesr  the 
end  of  the  9th  a.,  when  tjie  Norwegian,  Earald 
Haarfager,  invaded  and  took  powesnon  oC  the 
islaiid.  According  tn  traditian,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  lOth  c.,  Orry,  a  Dave,  effected  a  landing,  and 


the  fonnder  of  the  p 

line  of  ScandinaTi 

king  of  Norway,  oeded  liis  right  ii 


:ings  succeeded,  until  MagaoB, 

id  nis  right  in  the  iaUnaaad 

the  Hebrides  to  Alexander  UI.  of  Scotland,  1266 


I   again  l 
SB,  loth' 


*.u.j  uiu  uausieimuo  of  claim  being  the  direct 
result  of  the  diaaatroas  failure  of  the  eipediti< 
HacM)  irf  Norway  Mainat  the  Scota  in  1263. 
the  death  of  Alezan^r,  the  Manx  placed  themselves 
under  th«  proteotdon  of  Edward  L  of  England  by  a 
framal  instnunent  dated  1290  ±,v. ;  on  the  strength 
of  this  document,  the  kingi  of  En^and  granted 
the  ialaod  to  vaijoni  royal  favoorites  from  time  to 
time  until  the  year  1406,  when  it  wag  granted  to  Sir 
John  Stanley  in  perpetuity,  to  be  held  d(  the  crowa 
of  England,  by  rendering  to  the  kins,  his  heii^  and 
sncceaaors,  a  cast  of  fflcont  at  their  coronation. 
The  Stanley  family  continued  to  role  the  island 
under  the  title  ot  Kings  of  Man,  until  James, 
the  7th  Earl  of  Derby,  adopted  the  humbler  title 
of  Lord,  on  hia  acceasian  to  the  government:  In 
1651,  the  island  was  surrendered  to  a  parlia- 
meatAiT  force  by  Receiver-general  Christian,  who 
had  raised  an  armed  bodv  agaioat  the  government, 
which  waa  then  in  the  bands  of  the  Conntess  of 
Derby ;  the  parUament  having  thus  obtained  pos- 
Msaion  of  the  itland,  granted  it  to  Thomas  Lord 
Fairfax.  On  the  Bestoratioo,  the  Derby  family 
gia  pat  in  possession.  On  the  death  of 
.  .0th  Earl  ot  Derby,  without  issue  In  1735, 
Jameo,  2d  Duke  of  Athol,  descended  from  Amelia 
Sophia,  youngest  daufditer  of  James,  the  7th  Earl 
of  Derby,  became  Lord  ot  Man.  The  Isle  of  Man 
having  been  for  a  long  period  the  seat  of  an  exten- 
sive smug^ing-trade,  to  the  dotriment  of  tlie  imperial 
revenae|the  sovereignty  of  it  was  purchaatnl  by 
the  British  govemmeut,  in  I7G5,  for  £70,OOU  and 
«B  annoity  M  £2000  a  year,  the  duke  still  retaining 
oertwD  manorial  rights,  chnrch  patrons^,  ^,  After 
negotiation  and  sales  from  time  to  tune,  the  last 
remaining  interest  of  the  Athol  family  in  the  island 
was  transferred  to  the  British  crown  by  John,  the 
4th  duke,  in  January  1829 ;  the  amooot  pud  for  the 
islandhavingamoniitedinUieaggre^teto  iE493,000. 

The  Isleu  Uan  forms  a  separate  oiahoprio  under 
the  title  of  Sodor  and  Man.  The  bishopric  of  tlie 
Sudoreys,  or  Southern  Isles,  was  for  a  time  annexed 
to  Man,  hence  the  title  of  Sodor,  which  is  still 
retained,  the  name  having  been  applied  to  the  islet 
of  Holm  Feel,  on  which  the  cathedral  church  of  the 
diocese  stands.  This  bishoprio  is  said  to  have  been 
foDuded  by  St  Patrick  in  447.  The  Manx  Church 
has  its  own  canons,  and  an  independent  convocation. 
The  see  is,  for  certain  purposes,  attached  to  the 
province  of  York.  There  are  in  the  island  about 
20  places  of  wotship  in  connection  with  the  Estab- 
lished Chorch  of  Man.  The  livings  are,  wiUi  few 
exceptions,  in  the  gift  of  the  crown.  The  principal 
denominationa  of  dissenters  are  represented  in  the 
Uand. 

Hie  ble  of  Man  baa  a  oonititution  and  govern- 


ment of  its  own,  to  a  oertain  extent  independent  of 
the  Imperial  Parliament.  It  has  its  own  laws,  Uw- 
officen,  and  coorts  of  law.  The  legislative  body  is 
styled  the  Court  of  Tynwold,  consisting  of  the 
Lieutenant-governor  and  Council — the  latter  being 
composed  of  the  Bishoa  Attorney-general,  two 
Deemsters  (or  Judgea),  Clerk  of  the  fiolla.  Water 
Bailiff,  ArchdeaooD,  and  Vicar-genenJ — and  tie 
House  of  24  Keys,  or  representatives.  A  bill  is 
separately  considered  by  both  branches,  and  oa 
bemg  passed  by  them,  is  transmitted  for  the  toyal 
assent ;  it  does  not,  however,  become  law  ontil  it  is 
promu^ted  in  the  English  and  Manx  langnagea 
on  the  IVnwald  Hill.  The  House  of  Keya  waafor- 
merly  self-elective ;  but  in  1866,  an  act  waa  passed 
establishing  an  election  by  the  people  every  seven 
years,  the  electoral  qnaUfication  being,  in  the 
country,  £12  yearly  value  occupation,  or  £8  propria. 
tory ;  and  £8-  proprietary  or  tenancy  ia  the  towns. 
In  1S80.  a  bill  to  amend  this  Act  was  carried 
by  the  House  of  Keys,  abolishing  the  proper^ 
qualification  for  member*  ;  granting  household  suf - 
age  in  towns,  £i  owner  and  £6  tenant  franchise 
.  the  country,  and  conferring  the  eufiraoe  on 
omen.  For  uie  armorial  bearings  of  M.,  see  Lena. 
See  TheIile<!fMait,iUiruU>n/,ltc,bjihaRev. 
J.  G.  Gumming,  M.A.,  F.G.S. ;  Sulory  nf  tU  ItU 
of  Man,  by  Joseph  Train,  F.S.A  Scot. ;  Srtmm'i 
Popular  Cfuide ;  and  the  works  published  by  the 
Mmox  Society. 

MANAA'R,  OiTLr  OF,  lies  between  the  west 
side  of  the  isUnd  of  Ceylon  and  Hindustan,  and  ia 
divided  from  Polk's  Passage  on  the  north  by  the 
islands  of  Banusserani  and  Manaar,  and  oy  a 
low  reef  called  Adam's  Bridge.  At  its  north-east 
exb-emity,  it  is  SO  miles  in  width :  while  at  its 
south-weetem  limit  it  reaches  a  width  of  nearly  200 

MANAOA  (Franaae^a.  aniflora,  or  Sopeana],  a 
plant  of  the  natnral  order  SerojAutariaoea,  a  native 
of  BraziL  The  whole  plant,  and  eepecdally  the 
root,  is  foond  to  be  of  great  value  in  exciting  the 
lymphatic  system.  It  is  nauseously  bitter,  purga- 
tive, emetic,  emmenagogue,  and  alexiphannio ;  in 
ovenlcacs,  an  acrid  poison.  It  is  much  used  in 
Brazil  as  a  remedy  for  syphilia. 

MANACO'R,  a  town  in  the  island  of  Majorca 
(q.  v.),  in  a  fertile  plain,  30  milea  east  of  Palma.  It 
manufactures  brandy,  wine,  and  oil.    Fop.  10,000. 

MAMAQUA,  Lakk  or.    See  Lboh. 

leh.   Nadu: 

to  forget'), 

of  Joseph. — At   the   Exodus,  the 

"*•  =s  said  to  have  counted  !B,200 

.  .    --    entering   Canaan,   62,700.      It 

received  laud  on  both  sides  of  the  Jordan.  The 
eastern  half  embraced  the  rich  pasture -lands  of 
Argob  and  Basban,  as  far  as  the  alopea  of  Hermon  ; 
the  western  extended  from  the  Jordan  to  the  Medi- 
temuiean,  and  lay  between  Ephraim  and  tssachar. 
— M&HASSca  was  aUa  the  name  of  one  of  the  kings 
of  Judah  (the  foorteenth),  who  succeeded  his  father 
Heiekioh,  699  B.C.,  at  the  age  of  12,  and  teigned, 
according  to  the  narrative,  tor  65  years.  He  r^ed 
headlong  into  all  manner  of  idolatry,  and  sednced 
the  people  to  follow  his  example.  The  sacred 
writers  cannot  otherwise  express  their  sense  of  the 
enormity  of  his  guilt,  than  by  saying  that  the  very 
heathen  never  went  so  far  in  their  praotioe  of 
abominations  as  Judah  did  in  those  daya.  His  sub- 
sequent  history  is  differently  related  in  Clironiela 
and  in  the  Boot  of  Kingt. — The  apocryphal  com- 
position called  the  Fraytr  ij  Maauum*  is  reoaived 

cuionical  by  the  Qreek  Ohnrch. 


""iizooovdOOQlC 


fclANATBfc-MAliCHBSTfiR. 


UAHATEE',  or  LAMAWTTN  {Mmatiu),  t.  geooa 
of  Sirania,  belonginK  to  the  f^milj  JtaluUida  (q.  v.). 
diatingnished  by  t£a  rounded  tAil-fin,  fmd  further 
choracteiiae^  by  ths  proKinoe  oE  imaU  flat  nails  at 
thi  edge  of  the  inrinmimg  paws,  and  by  the  atmc- 
tnre  of  the  grinders,  which  have  square  crowni  with 
e  ridges.  The  Bpecies.  which  are  all 
t  tropical  coaits,  feed  not  only  on 
algn,  but  on  the  pluitB  which  grow  along  the  Bhore, 
and  are  rendered  acceaaible  to  them  by  the  tide, 
which,  after  it  haa  rdared,  often  exhibit  plain  proob 
of  their  browting.  They  lira  chiefly  in  shallow 
bayg  and  ereeks,  and  i&  tho  eetnariea  of  rivers,  aud 
often  aaoeud  rivera  to  a  great  distance  from  the  sea. 
Tho  beat  known  speciea  (Jf.  amerieanvg)  ia  found  in 
the  We«t  Indies  and  on  tho  western  coasts  of  tropical 
Africa.  It  sometimes  at^ns  a  length  of  20  feet, 
and  a  weight  of  three  or  four  tons.  The  skin 
is  very  thick  and  strong,  and  is  almost  destitute 
of  bair.  The  fingers  can  be  readily  felt  in  the 
swinuning  paws,  and,  connected  together  as  they 
are,  possess  considorable  power  of  motion,  whence 
the  name  M.  (from'Lat:  nanus,  a  hand).  The  M.  is 
usnaUy  found  in  herds,  which  combine  for  mutual 
protection  when  attacked,  placing  the  young  in  the 
centra.  When  one  ia  struck  with  a  harpoon,  the 
others  try  to  tear  out  the  weapon.  The  females 
shew  great  affection  for  their  young.  No  animal 
is  more  gentle  and  inoffensive  than  the  manatee. 
It  has  been  tamed  and  rendered  familiar  enough  to 
come  for  food  when  called.  Vast  numbers  were 
formerly  found  in  places  where  it  is  now  compara- 
tivelr  rare,  as  its  capture  is  easy,  and  its  flesh^ 
which  baa  been  variously  likened  to  beef  and  pork — 
is  held  in  considerable  esteem.  A  common  name 
for  the  M.  ia  Sea-cow. — Another  species  is  found  on 
the  coast  ot  Florida,  and  a  third  on  the  west  coaat 
of  Africa. 

AtANATID^  were  formerly  considered  to  be  a 
family  of  Celaixa,  including  all  the  herbivorooa 
section  of  the  order,  but  are  now  ranked  as  a 
distinct  order,  8irenia ;  for  althouah  by  their 
aquatic  mode  of  life,  their  exteraal  characters, 
and  by  the  absence  of  hind-limbs,  they  greatly 
resemble  Cetaceo,  a  more  profound  stndy  has 
demonstrated  that  their  affinities  are  really  with 
Ungulates,  while  those  of  Cetaceaoa  are  with  the 

Comivoro.    There  are  three  genera 
I  of  ii.,  described  in  the  articles  Du- 

aoso,  Maitatbe,  and  Stellerihb. 
MANBT,  Gm).  See  Sirpp.,  Vol.  X 
MANCH,    or     MADNCH    (Fr. 

manektj,  a  frequent  charge  in  English 

heraldry,  meant  to  represent  a  sleeve 
Manch.         with  long  pendent  ends,  of  the  form 

worn  by  ladies  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  L  Or,  a  manch  gules,  has  been  for  a  long 
time  the  arms  of  the  Hastings  family,  one  of  whom 
was  steward  of  the  household  to  Henry  L 

MATIOHA,  or  LA  MANCHA,  a  district  of 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Ciudad  Real,  and  the 
■onthemmoat  [Mrt  of  the  kingdom  of  New  Castile. 
SeeCASnu. 

MANCHE,  a  maritime  department  in  the  north- 
west of  Ftanoe,  formed  from  the  most  western 
district  of  the  old  provinoe  of  Normandy,  derives 
its  name  from  La  Monche  (the  gngiii^  Channel), 
which  washes  its  coaata.  Qreatast  length,  98 
miles;  average  breadth,  27  miles;  area,  1,426,289 
acres.  Pop.  (1881)  628,377.  Of  the  entire  area, 
940,047  acres  are  cultivated,  and  about  235,000 
'a  meadow.  The  surface  of  the  depart- 
Tegular;  hills  of  no  great  elevation 
traverse  it  from  north  to  south.  The  Vire,  the 
Doavc^  aud  the  Selnne  are  the  chief  riren.    The 


climate    ia   mild   and   temperate^    but   somewhat 

humid.  Flax,  hemp,  and  fruit  are  aztensively 
caltivated.  Immense  quantities  of  apples  ai 
grown,  from  which  44,000,000  gallons  of  cider  a; 
made  annually.  Horses  of  the  true  Norman  bread 
are  reared  in  the  postures,  and  exc«Uent  cattle  of 
large  size  are  bred  in  the  valley  The  department 
ia  divided  into  the  six  arrondissements  oC  St  U, 
Ooutanoes,  Valognes,  Cherbourg,  Avranches,  and 
Mortain.    Capit^  St  hi. 

MA'NCHESTEB  (Sax.  llanuxilTt),  a  cttj^,  muni- 
cipal and  psrliamentaiy  borough  of  Lancashire,  and 
ths  great  centre  of  the  cotton  loanufactuia  of  Uie 
north-west  of  England,  stands  on  the  Irwell,  32 
milee  east-north-e^  of  Liverpool,  and  183  miles 
north-north-west  of  London  by  railway.  On  tho 
west  side  of  the  Irwell  is  the  borough  of  Salford, 
eommnninating  with  that  of  M.  by  means  of  10 
bridges,  and  considered  as  virtually  a  portion  of  the 

la  1381,  the  population  ot  the  parliamentary 
borough  of  M.  was  393,585,  as  se^cat  379,374  in 
1871  ;  while  the  adjoining  borough  of  Salford  hod, 
in  1831,  a  pop.  of  170,235,  iwaiast  124,301  in  1871. 
The  area  ot  the  borough  oiM.  is  g-B  aquare  miles ; 
ot  Salford,  7'9  square  milea.  Both  boroughs  were 
enfranchised  by  the  Reform  Bill  of  1332,  M.  return- 
iog  2  members,  and  Salford  1  member  to  parlia- 
ment The  Distribution  of  Seats  Act  (1SS5)  gave 
M.  6,  aod  Salford  3  membeta.  M.  was  incorporated 
in  1838,  Salford  in  1344.  M.  was  made  a  bishopric 
in  1847,  andreceived  the  litie  of  city  in  1853.  Water 
for  the  supply  of  M.  ia  collected  on  the  Lancashire 
side  of  Blackstone  Edge.  In  1377,  the  city  council 
adopted  the  proposal  to  purchase  Thirlmere  Lake 
in  Oomberlaod,  aud  convey  the  wnter  to  M.  in 
an  aqueduct  100  miles  long.  The  water- works, 
in  which  are  invested  about  £3,750,000,  and  the 
gas-works,  involving  about  £450,000,  belong  to  the 
oorporation.  The  manorial  and  market  righta  were 
also  acquired  by  the  corpomtiou  in  1845  for  the 
sum  of  £200,000.  There  are  four  publio  markets  in 
M.,  and  tvo  iu  Salford,  besides  the  cattle -market. 
SmitiiEeld  Market  in  M.  is  more  than  four  acres 
in  extent,  and  is  entirely  covered  in.  The  market- 
tolls  and  rents  of  M.  alone  amount  to  £35,000  per 
annum.  The  Bale  of  gas  makes  a  profit  of  some 
£44,000  per  aonora,  which  is  devoted  to  improve- 
ments in  the  borough.  In  1845 — 1340,  a  publio 
subscription  founded  three  p.irks  of  about  30  acres 
each,  and  the  corporation  has  since  acquired  a  fourth 
lark  of  about  60  acres.  M.  was  also  the  first 
lugh  to  take  advantage  of  the  Free  Libraries' 


branch  leudiug  libraries  and  a  museum  have  si 
been  established  in  M.,  aud  a  reference  library, 
one  branch  lending  library,  and  an  excellent  museum 
in  Salford ;  so  that,  includjng  the  old  college  library 


wards  of  130,000  volumes  of  oncieut  and  modern 
literature,  besides  newspapers  and  periodicals. 

The  twoboroaghs  have  about  100  churches  belong- 
ing to  Uie  establShmont.  The  cathedral,  common^' 
cdled  the  Oid  Chmck,  built  1422,  is  a  very  fine 
Gothic  structure,  and  iias  latterly  undergone  a  very 
extensive  process  of  restoration  in  its  original  style. 
There  are  17  Roman  Catholic  and  ISO  dissenting 
chapels,  some  of  which,  especially  St  John's  Catbolio 
Cathedral,  the  Church  ot  Uie  Holy  Name,  and  Caven- 
dish Independent  Chapel,  are  very  beautiful  speci- 


..Googk 


MANCHESTBR-MANDAMtrS. 


imrpoBM  >re  tlia  Town  Hull^  built  at  the  ccst  of 
Qiree-fonrths  of  a  million  Bterllng,  in  QotUo ;  the 
Roynl  Infirmary,  the  Royal  Eiotuinge,  the  Royal 
Ingtitation,  all  in  tha  Grecian  etjU;  the  Free 
Trade  Hall,  in  Compoaite ;  and  the  Aisize  Courto, 
in  decorated  Gothic  There  is  a  home  for  ISO 
conTaleooenta  in  tha  inhnrba,  founded  by  Robert 
Barnes,  a  former  mayor  of  Abncheater.  Many  of 
the  irarehouaes  of  the  merchanta  are  palatial  in 
appearanoe,  and  the  business  tnuiMot«d  is  qnite  in 
accordance  with  tha  magnitude  of  the  bmldings. 
lie  floor  of  the  Royal  Exchange  contains  about 


hcsides  branches  of  the  Bank  of  En){Und.  and  the 
National  Provincial  Bank.  The  celebrated  Bridge- 
wnter  Canal  connects  M.  with  Liverpool,  and 
access  is  also  obtained  for  heavy  barges  by  the 
rivers  Irwell  and  Mersey.  It  has  lately  been  pri>- 
posed  to  make  a  ship  canal  from  the  sea  to  M,,  so 
OS  to  enable  cargoes  of  goods  [eapecioUy  cotton)  to 
be  delivered  direct  at  the  wharves  of  U. ;  thna 
avoiding  transhipment  or  rulway  carriage  tnd  Livei^ 
pool.  There  ia  commonication  by  railway 
direction.  In AlbertSquaraaPrincaAlbertMemorial 
has  been  erected.  A  bronze  statae  of  Richard  Cobden 
stands  in  8t  Ann's  Square  ;  and  there  ia  one  of 
Cromwell  (unveiled  in  1875)  at  tbe  foot  of  Victona 
Street.  M.  publishes  IS  jonrnali  and  newspapera, 
five  of  which  are  issued  daily. 


also  oonsiderable  manofac- 
tnres  of  silk  and  miied  goods,  of  small-wares,  of 
machinery  and  tools,  of  paper  and  chemicals :  and 
M.  is  also  a  depOt  for  all  Kinds  of  textile  fabrics, 
and  does  a  very  large  export  trade.  Th^ 
ordinarily  employed  in  me  cotton  mills  nl 
60,000  persons,  who  earn  abonl  £30,000  per  week 
in  wages.  Tlierc  are  at  least  7000  skOled  me- 
chanics constantly  engaged  in  the  production  of 


ateam-engiaeg,    spinnbg-males,    looms,   and    other 
machinery,  chiefly  tor  thl         »     ■-        '  ■' 
textile  fabrics,  wh( 


t  production  of  the 

[es  BvarsAS  about  32s.  each 

1  some  1600  labourers  1 


pel  week,  and  who 

The  edncational  endowments  of  M.  are  small 
pared  with  its  population.   There  is  a  hospital  school 
lor  lO'"- —  '       '   '  '      "'    " .---™---i-- 


grammai-Bchool,  w. 


1  about  2E0  free,  and  3S0  pi 


1S73,  the  number  of  day -scholars  in  M.  was  38,500 
in  actual  attendance ;  and  in  evening  schools  and 
literary  institutiani  there  are  from  4000  to  SOOO 
pupils.  In  1846,  John  Owens,  a  Manchester 
merchant,  left  £100,000  to  found  a  college  for 
■ecalar  instmction.  In  1873,  Uie  new  building  ol 
Oweus  College  iq.  v.),  the  centre  ol  the  recently 
chartered  Victoria  University,  was  erected  at  a  cost 
of  about  £90,000.  M.  powesses  beddea,  a  Literary 
and  PhiloBopliical  Society,  Royal  Botanical  Gardenr, 
a  School  or  Art,  an  Academy  of  Fine  Arts ;  with 
Commercial  Schools,  and  a  High  School  for  girls  ; 
the  Lancashire  Independent  (Allege,  and  Baptist 
and  Wesleyan  Collcffiea.  A  mechanics'  institution 
was  Mmmenced  in  1^  and  is  still  carried 
•nocesafolly.  It  has  day  and  evening  classes, 
good  library,  and  reading-room,  and  all  the  necea- 


u  the  out-townahii 
Harpurbey,  Cheetham 
criginated  the  agitatic 


^ight,  Rusholme, 

'endleton.     In  H. 

agitation  bit  free-trads  (see  Aitn-, 


OOBK-Liw  Luon).    U.  was  also  tbe  first  plaoe  to 
■Bonn  the  privilege  of  inland  bonding  for  aiiiclee 
obaigcable  with  ooitonw-dntie*,  and  now  prodnoee 
a  lat^  rereniM  from  that  aonroe. 
Csiiidan,  who  died  in  1623,  says:    'Where  the 


)  (aoootdiiu  to 
different  c«^nes),  Manaaiima  and  MamUium.  Fer- 
bape,  as  an  uland  town,  it  has  the  best  tnds  tt  any 

in  these  northern  parts.  The  fustian  n 
called  Mandtattr  tottmu,  still  continnes 
with  a  great  variety  of  otber  maoofaot 
Manch^fer  warm,  renden  not  only  the  town  itself, 
but  tbe  inrish  about  it  rich,  populous,  and  indus- 
trious.' The  parish  of  M.  oovan  a  large  amk, 
reaching  to  Stockport,  Oldham,  and  Ashton-ondsr' 
Lyne,  and  in  the  early  part  of  tbe  16tll  o.  mu 
reckoned  to  have  20,000  < ' --■- 


MANCHESTER,  a  city  of  Ifew  Hampshire, 
Dnited  States  of  America,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Merrimao   River,  at   the   falls-  of   Amoakeag,  18 


manofacturing  companies,  with  fact«nee  <^  ootton, 
paper,  locomotivea,  hardware,  kti.  There  are  also 
extensive  print-works  and  Btarch-mills.  There  are 
sixteen  churches,  forty-five  pubUo  schools,  nine 
banks,  and  two  daily  and  three  weekly  newspapers. 
Pop.  (133S)  50 ;  (1870)  23,536 ;  (1880)  32,63a 

MANCHINKEL  (Higpomana  Uanan^a),  a 
tropical  Americaa  tree  ol  the  natural  order  Bt^kcr- 
biarxtx,  celebrated  for  the  poiaonoua  fsoperties  of 
the  acrid  milky  jaioe  with  whioh  every  part  of 
"'  abounds.  A  drop  of  this  juice,  which  is  of  a 
pure  white  oolour,  bums  like  firs  if  it  falls  upon 
the  skin,  and  the  soie  which  it  produces  is  very 
difficult  to  heal.  The  Indians  of  tropical  America 
HI  it  for  poisoning  their  arrows.  The  fruit  is 
.  form,  colour,  and  soent  not  nulika  a  small  Bp}de 
Uie  name  is  from  the  Spaidah  nianewulla,  a  snuQ 
>ple — and  contains  a  nut  about  the  mis  of  a 
.-teetnut.  The  fluid  which  the  fruit  oontains  is 
milder  than  that  of  other  ports  of  the  teoe,  but 
its  acridity  is  so  great  as  immediately  to  r^el 
any  who,  tempted  by  its  appearance  and  citron -like 
fragnnce,  may  ignorantly  attempt  to  eat  it.  The 
leaves  are  alternate^  ovate,  serrate,  and  ahining.  It 
is  said  tliat,  owing  to  the  volatile  nature  ot  the 
poiBonona  juice,  peisons  have  even  died  from  sleep- 
ing nnder  the  shade  of  the  M.  tree.  Much  seems 
'  depend  on  the  state  of  the  abnosphere,  and  there 
—  good  evidence  that  nun  or  dew  falling  from  the 
branches  of  the  M.  does  produce  injurious  effects. 
Ilie  fruit  of  M.,  dried  and  pulverised,  is  dinretio  ; 
the  seeds  are  excessively  so.  The  wood  is  of  fine 
quali^,  and  well  suited  for  cabioet-makinK.  Wliole 
ionsts  of  M.  at  one  time  existed  in  Martinique, 
which  have  been  burned  down.  It  grows  chiefly 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea.  Omntraria  iatifoUa, 
another  West  Indian  tree,  of  the  natural  order 
ApoeynaixtE,  ia  called  BiarABD  M.,  from  its  resem- 
'  'anoe  to  M.  in  its  poisonous  ixDpcrtie& 

MAN CHUS,  an  Ural-Altaio  peopK    See  Mast- 

cnimu,  TuxacB. 

HAND.     " 

MANDALAT.    See  Sdpp.,  V<4  X. 

MAKDA'MUS  is  a  prerogative  writ  which  issues 

from  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  ccmmanding  some 

public  body,  or  inferior  court,  or  juaticea  of  the 

peace,  to  do  wmeUuDg  which  it  ia  their  legal  duty 


jvC.ooglc 


liASbABtS— MANbOtUtt 


MANDARI'N,  k  general  tenn  applied  to  Chinese 
officers  of  every  grttde  by  foraignsra.  It  is  derived 
from  the  Fortagaeoe  memdter,  to  aomnund ;  the 
Chineae  egmTaleot  is  ham.  'mere  ue  nirw  nnlu, 
each  diBbngiiiihed  by  a  difforent-oolotired  ball  or 
button  pixxd  an  the  apex  of  the  cui.  by  a  pecnliu 
emblaunuy  on  the  breAit,  and  a  dinerent  <ilatp  of 
the  girdle.  The  balla  are  ruby,  coral,  Mppbire,  a 
blue  opume  rtone,  ciTBtal,  opaqae  white  ibell, 
workea  gold,  plain  gol^  and  olveT.  Theoretioally, 
these  grades  are  indicative  of  relative  merit,  but 
as  ofBca  and  titles  are  sold  to  a  great  extent,  the 
competitive  ezaminationB,  which  are  the  only  legiti- 
mate road  to  distinction,  have  lost  mnch  of  their 
voloe.  A  mandMin  is  uc^  allowed  to  hold  office  in 
his  native  provinot^  the  intention  being  to  prevent 
intrigae,  and  to  dnw  to  Pekin  Uie  ambition  and 
talent  of  the  ooontry,  where  temporary  employ- 
meat  is  given  in  mbordinate  omces,  prior  to 
appointmeata  to  the  proyincea.  He  is  not  allowed 
to  marry  in  the  jurisdiction  nnder  his  control, 
nor  own  land  in  it,  nor  have  a  near  relative 
holding  ofBce  nnder  him  ;  and  he  is  seldom  oon- 
tinned  in  office  in  the  station  or  provinoe  for 
more  than  three  years — a  system  of  espionage  which 

.  r  and  oil 
nnder  him,  which  he  periodically 
Board  of  Civil  Office ;  the  points  (d  chsracter  are 
arranged  nnder  six  different  heads,  viz.,  those  who 
are  not  ^ligent,  the  inefficient,  the  snperfioial,  the 
antalented,  snpersnnnated,  and  disessed.  Aooord- 
ing  to  the  opinions  given  in  this  report,  officers  are 
elevated  or  d^;rsded  so  ma^  steps  in  the  scale  of 
merit,  lilu  boys  in  a  class.  'Diey  are  required  also 
to  aocose  themselves  when  remiss  or  guil^  of  Qiime, 
and  to  request  pnnishment. 

&LA.'NDATE  is  a  contract  by  which  one  employs 
another  to  mauwe  aometbing  gratuitously  for  nim. 
The  erne  ia  called  a  mandant,  and  the  other  a  man- 
datory ;  the  term  bein?  derived  from  the  Koman 
law  01  jnandaturM,  In  England,  in  consequence  of 
the  doctrine,  that  a  simple  contract  cannot  be 
enEoroed  nnlew  there  is  some  conaideiation  for  it, 
or  a  qaid  pro  que,  it  is  held  tiiat  if  the  mandatory 
undertakes  to  do  the  work,  but  omits  to  do  so,  no 
action  will  lie  against  him,  though  it  is  otherwise  if 
he  once  enter  upon  the  work,  in  which  esse  he  i* 
bound  for  tlie  ooDsequences  of  anything  injurious  or 
n^ligenb  If  the  duty  or  work  is  undertakeu,  the 
mandatory  is  bound  to  use  ressonahle  skill  and 
diligence  In  Scotland,  where  a  consideration  is 
not  necessary  to  mako  a  valid  contract  by  word  of 
mouth  or  writing,  the  mandatory  is  liable  to  an 
action  if  he  has  contracted  or  agreed  to  act.  In 
Scotland,  the  word  mandatory  ia  used  to  denote  a 
person  who,  in  a  litigation  by  a  foragoer  or  person 
reaiding  out  of  Scotland,  undertakca  u  give  security 
for  coati,  in  the  event  of  the  maudant  losing  tlie 
snit,  otherwise  the  suit  is  not  allowed  to  go  on  in 


of  Cutch,  Hindustan,  on  the  north  shore  

of  Cntch,  in  lat  22'  61'  N.,  long,  68°  26'  E.  Thot^h 
there  is  no  regular  landing-place,  boata  of  any  size 
can  land  at  the  sandy  beMh,  and  large  veesels  find 
secure  anchorage  in  the  offing  at  a  distance  of  abont 
thie«  miles  troai  shore.  Its  velk  are  nnmerons,  and 
fuU  of  water.    Pop.  offioislly  eatimoted  in  1872  at 


SLUfDEVILLE,  Sm  Jowa,  an  old  Bnilish 
traveller,  bom  at  St  Albans  about  the  year  1300. 
Prompted  by  curiosity  or  love  of  adventure,  he  left 
his  native  connt>7  abont  1327,  visited  the  Hdy 


Land,  served  under,  the  Sultan  of  E^pt  and  the 
Great  Khan  of  Cathay  (China) ;  and  lOter  33  years' 
wandering  through  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  retoned 
to  En^and,  where  he  wrote  an  account  of  his  travels 
in  I^tin,  French,  and  Bngliah-  He  died  at  U^ge, 
17th  November  1372.  h£'s  work  ia  not  of  great 
valne  lt»  historio  geogn^y,  as  he  not  OMNly  states 
what  came  under  liua  own  obeervation,  but  what  he 
heard ;  and  he  was  orednloaa  enough  to  admit  what 
aranowregatdedaa  themoatabanraand  monstrous 
fables;  but  to  do  him  justice,  he  (like  Herodotus) 
cnstonuuily  preface*  these  by  the  phrases,  '  thei 
seyne,  or  men  seyti,  but  1  have  not  eene  it'  Besides, 
several  of  hii  BtetemeotB,  once  recorded  as  improb- 
able, have  sinoe  been  verified.  The  common  notion 
of  ills  being  pre-eminently  a  'lying'  traveller,  is 
therefore  in  all  likelihood  not  well  founded.  Leland 
the  antiquary  even  says  that  he  had  the  reputatioa 
oF  being  a  very  conscientious  man.  His  oook  is 
niitten  in  a  very  interesting  manner,  was  long 
exceedingly  populu',  and  waa  truudated  into  many 
languaoea.  A  MS.  of  M.'s  travela,  as  old  as  the 
time  <u  the  author,  exists  in  the  Cottonian  Library. 
The  first  edition  printed  [n  England  is  that  by 
Wynkin  de  Worde  (Wertminster,  1499);  the  last, 
with  Introauction,  ko.,  by  J.  O.  Halliwcll,  waa 
published  in  London  in  1S39  (reprinted  1S66). 

MANDTBULATA,  MAITDI'BULATED  or 
MASTICATING  INSECTS,  a  term  used  to  in- 
dude  those  Inseota  (q.  v.)  having  the  month  of 
the  stmotnre  desoribed  in  the  article  CoUopCera, 
and  containing  tha  orders  Ci^topUra,  OrlJu^lem, 
NeuivpUra,  and  Hfmmoptera.  The  hautidtaU 
mouth— formed  for  suction— ia  regarded  as  a  modi- 
fication, in  all  its  separate  parts,  oi  the  mandibniate 
month. 

UANDIHGOES  are,  strictly  ipeakine,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  most  south-weaterly  temtoriea 
belonging  to  the  anat  west  African  race  of  the 
Wangarawa  (sing,  wongora),  and  iuhabitina  a  dis- 
trict extending  in  lat.  from  8°  to  12°  N.,  and  between 
the  west  coasts  and  the  head  waters  of  the  Senegal 
and  Niger.  The  name,  however,  as  generally  used, 
is  applied  to  the  whole  natiOQ  of  the  Wanearawa, 
compriaina  a  population  estimated  by  Dr  &uth  ti 
from  6,00(F,000  to  6,000,000.  The  ori^nat  seat  of  the 
M.  is  smd  to  be  Manding,  a  small  mountain  conntiy 
-  tJie  eastern  sources  of  the  Senegal,  whence, 
ly  by  conquest  and  partly  by  emigration,  they 
spread  themselves  over  a  most  extensive  tract 
luntty,  and  now  consist  of  a  variety  of  tribes. 
The  M  are  black  in  coloiu-,  toll  and  well  shaped, 
with  regular  features,  and  are,  generally  speakii^  a 
fine  race,  capable  of  a  high  degree  of  civilisation 

'  '    ''  tt  travellers,  fond  of  trading, 

their  industry  and  energy. 
Of  the  neighbouring  nations,  they  were  tha  first 
who  embraced  '»!»'"■""  Tha  greater  portion  of 
them  are  now  Moslems,  and  ai«  zealous  propagators 
of  their  religion. 

MA'NDOLINE,  a  mnsioal   instrument  oE  the 


shell,  formed  of  a  number  of  narrow  pieces 
of  different  kinds  of  wood,  bent  into  the  sbami 
and  glued  together.  On  the  open  portion  of  ue 
body  is  fixed  the  sounding-board,  with  a  finger- 
hold and  neck  like  a  guitar,  The  Neapolitan 
mandoline,  which  is  the  most  perfect,  has  four 
double  strings,  which  are  timed,  beginning  with  die 
lowest,  O,  D,  A,  K  The  Milanese  toimdoline  has 
five  double  etrings,  tuned  G,  C,  A,  D,  R  The  sound 
of  the  mandoline  is  produced  by  a  plectrum  in  the 
right  hand,  while  the  left  band  produces  tiie  notes 
on  the  finger-board.  The  mandoline  is  chiedy  need 
for  accompaniment ;  in  the  beauty  (^  qnoli^  of 


^^^'^<^gl' 


MANDBAEB-MA24ETHO. 


iU  Mnnd,  it  it  difierent  from  all  oUicr  atringed 


I  AtrrmNAi.  M.  ( Jf.  (mlumnalui), 
which  flowen  in  antiuiui,  Hui  has  Isnceolate  leaves 
and  ovate  berriea;  and  tlie  Vxhnai.  M.  (if.  vernalii], 
which  flowen  in  spring,  and  has  ohloog'Ovate  leaves 
aad  globose  benicfl.  Both  are  natives  of  the  South 
of  Europe  and  of  the  east,  and  are  united  b^  many 
into  one  species  {if.  offidnorum).  The  root  u  la^ 
and  carrot-like,  and  Erom  it  th«  Imtm  firing  wiUi 


Uandiakg  {Xandraffora  offltinammt). 


DO  apparent  stem,  and  among  them  the  itolked 
whitish  fioweta.  The  calyx  and  corolla  aw  6-cleft, 
there  are  five  Btamena,  and  the  fmlt  is  a  one-celled 
berry,  about  the  size  o£  a  spMTOw'a  oga.  The  whole 
plant  haa  a  very  fetid  narcotdo  smoU  Tbut  the  fresh 
bem'ta,  when  cut  or  bnused,  have  a  pleaaaJit  odonr 
like  that  of  wine  or  apples,  sad  two  or  three  may  ba 
eaten  without  ioconveuience.  All  ^arts  of  the  plant, 
however,  hove  poisonous  properties  like  those  of 
belladonna,  but  more  narcotic,  for  which  reason  a 
dose  of  the  root  was  formerly  sometimes  given  to 
patients  about  to  endure  surgical  operations.  The 
ancients  were  well  ocquaintea  with  uie  narcotic  and 


■tupifyinff  properties  of  M.,  and 
saying,  01  a  sleepy  or  indolent  man,  tuat  uu  fiou  mim 
maiK&ott  The  root  often  divides  into  two,  and 
presents  a  indo  resemblance  to  the  human  figure; 
and  human  figures  were  formerly  often  cut  out  of 
it,  to  which  many  magical  virtues  were  ascribed. 
Sometimes  the  roots  of  the  bryony  were  employed 
instead  of  those  of  the  M.,  and  sold  under  the  name 
of  M,  root.  From  the  most  ancient  times,  aphrodisiao 
virtues  have  been  ascribed  to  the  M.,  which  was 
therefore  lupposed  to  core  barrenness.  See  Oen. 
xzx.  14 — 10.  !nie  same  reputation  has  been  attached 
in  America  to  the  berries  of  the  nearly  allied  genera, 
Bimenatiiaa  and  JiUioroKi.  Many  fables  connected 
with  the  M.  are  recorded  by  ancient  writers — at 
that  it  shrieks  when  torn  out  oE  the  ground. 

MANDRIL.    SeeBABOoy. 

MANDU'RIA  (formerly  Cculd-Ifuova],  n  town 
in  the  Italian  provinca  of  Lecce,  twenty  miles  east 
of  Tarauto,  Pop.  about  9000.  It  haa  two  celebrated 
wells,  one  of  which  has  been  minutely  described  by 
Pliny,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  unalterable  level 
of  its  waters.  Near  to  it  stood  the  ancient  town  of 
Manduria,  of  which  some  important  relics  are  atiU 


IiLAN^a    See  Lakes. 

MA'NBTHO,  a  celebrated  Egyptian  historian, 
native  of  Selmnnytua,  and  of  the  sacerdotal  order, 
flonriahed  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy.  According  to 
some,  he  was   prierf  of   Diospolis  or  HeliopoUs; 


thing  is  imown  of  the  history  of  M.  himseU,  and  £ 
is  more  renowned  for  his  Egyptian  tiistory  than  on 
any  other  account.    On  the  occasion  of  Ptolemy  I. 


dreaming  o: 
oonnlteS   I 


with  Timothens  of  Athens,  the  interpreter  of  the 
Elensinian  mysteries,  declared  the  statae  of  Seraius, 
InoDght  by  orders  of  the  king  from  Sinope,  to  be 
that  of  the  god  Serapis  or  Plau),  and  the  sod  Iiad  a 
temple  and  his  worship  inaugurated  at  Abiandria. 
The  fame  of  M.  was  much  increased  by  his  writing 
in  the  Greek  language,  and  so  being  enabled  to 
oommnnicate  from  E^^tian  sources  a  more  correct 
knowledge  of  the  history  of  his  native  country  than 
his  Greet  predecessors.  Of  this  histoiy,  only  ertraofa 
given  by  Josephus  in  his  work  against  Apion,  and  an 
epitome  by  Eusebiua  and  other  ecclesiastical  writers, 
lematn.  It  appears  to  have  been  drawn  up  in  a 
oompendioiu  annolistio  style  of  narrative,  resemblinE 
the  acoonnts  given  by  Herodotus.  The  work  of  M. 
was  divided  into  tlu«e  books,  the  first  beginning 
with  the  mythic  reigns  of  gods  and  kiogs,  and  end- 
ing with  the  11th  dynasty  of  mortals;  die  second 
l>ook  continued  the  nistory  from  tlie  12th  to  the 
IStb  dynasty;  and  the  third  from  the  20th  to  the 
30th  dynasty,  when  I^ypt  fell  under  the  dominion 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  reigns  of  the  gods  are 
given  as  amounting  to  34,900  years,  and  the  epoch 
of  MencB,  the  founder  of  tJie  monarchy,  commenced 
3565  years  before  Alexander  (332  B.O.).  The  diffi- 
culties attending  the  recondUation  of  this  chron- 
ology with  the  synchronistic  history  of  the  Hebrews, 
Greeks,  and  other  nations,  have  given  rise  to  numer- 
ous speculations  and  chronologit^  systems  since  the 
revival  of  learning,  by  Scaliger,  Fretet,  HarBham, 
Dshcr,  Biinsen,  Btiotdi,  Lepaiua,  Poole,  and  other*. 
The  confusion  in  which  the  lists  of  kings  have 
been  transmitted,  the  ciphers  of  the  lengths  of  each 
reign  not  agreeing  with  the  summationB  of  the  dura- 
tions of  the  dynasties,  and  these,  again,  differing 
from  the  total  period  assigned  to  the  existence  o! 
the  Egyptian  monarchy,  has  given  rise  to  two  or 
tliree  schools  of  chronology.  The  so-called  long 
chronology,  which  SHpposes,  with  8caliger~  and 
BSckh,  that  the  30  dynasties  followed  consecutively 
one  after  the  other,  has  elevated  tije  epoch  of  Menes 
to  5702  B.C.  The  short  chronology,  or  that  which 
endeavoiira  to  sqnare  the  dates  of  M.  with  the 
Hebrew  chronology,  or  4004  n.  o.  tor  the  year  of  the 
world,  on  the  contrary,  assames  that  several  of  the 
d3Tiastica  were  contemporary,  and  that  some  inter- 
vals, such  as  that  of  the  rule  of  the  Shepherd-kings, 
have  been  either  exaggerated  or  misunderstood, 
and  better  inf<»inatioQ  from 
i^yptian  monnmenta,  TM^yn, 
.  has  considerably  emiaiioed 
the  genetsl  valne  of  the  history  of  H.,  wbicb,  prior 
to  &eir  discove^,  had  fallen  mto  discredit.  Bat 
the  restoration  of  tlie  history  of  M.,  notwithstanding 
all  these  resonrces,  and  the  positive  epoch  of  the 
mooorchy,  are  still  to  be  souf^t,  although  certain 
dynasties,  in  the  2d  and  3d  books  of  his  work,  con 
be  reconciled  with  monumental  evidence^  Besides 
the  true  work  of  M.  above  cited,  which  he  appean 
to  have  written  ui  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  L  or  IL, 
another  work,  called  SoOtis,  or  the  '  Dogatar,'  in 


..Google! 


MAIfFBED-UANOAKESR 


alliudon  to  the  cycle  of  tha  heliacal  rUiiig  of  tiiat 
star  of  1461  yevs,  and  dedicated  to  8ebiictoa  or 
AuguEhia,  the  title  of  the  Roman  emperon,  and  not 
found  in  nae  before  that  period,  luta  been  handed 
down.  This  work  acema  to  have  been  added  W 
tiie  epitonuBera ;  and  another  wock,  called  the  Oid 
CAronieJe,  in  irluoh  the  histoiy  wu  arraDged  accord- 
ing to  cycles  iraa  comiriled  bv  them.  Besideg  the 
history,  M.  wrote  T6n  PhytikAn  Epitome  (Epitome 
of  Fhynci],  b«ating  on  the  origin  of  gods  and  the 
world,  oad  the  lawg  of  morality ;  and  anotiur  work 
on  the  pteparation  of  tha  aai^^  hj/phi,  a  kind  of 
fronkinceiue  of  otomatdo  food.  The  aatrvaomioal 
work  called  Apoldermata  ia  a  Bpntioiu  production 
of  the  5th  c  A.  D. 

Suidas,  ooce  Manetho ;  Joeephiu,  Contr.  Apion,  i. 
S,  9 ;  Buoaen,  ^gyplau  SuUe,  Bd.  iL  j  Fiiun, 
MantOum.  Rdlq.  (8to,  Leyd.  1B47) ;  BSckh,  JfanetAo 
(8vo,  BerL  184S). 

HANFBBD,  king  oC  Naples  and  Simly,  a  rare 
example  of  heroio  fortitnde  and  disintereetednesa, 
was  a  natural  son  oE  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.  by 
Bluico,  the  daoghter  of  Count  Bonifacius  Lsnzia,  and 
WM  bom  Bbontl231.    On  his  father's  death  "  '""" 


he  received  the  principality  of  Taientmn,  and  in  the 
absence  of  his  half-brother,  Konrad  IV.,  acted  as 
regent  in  Italy.  Notwithatanding  Konrad's  dislike  to 
him,  M.,  with  nnezampled  fidelity,  bravaly  defended 
his  sovereign's  interests  asainat  thp  mochinationa 
of  Fope  Innocent  IV. ;  and  after  Konrad's  death, 
which  the  pope  accused  him  of  having  caused,  he 
was  acknowledged  as  regent  of  -^^pnlia,  in  name 
of  his  nephew  Konradin  (q.  v.).  The  pope,  how- 
ever, renewed  his  pretensions  to  Apulia,  uid  com- 
pelled H.  to  See  for  shelter  to  the  Satoceoa,  by 
whose  tud  he  defeated  the  papal  troopa  at  Foggio,  on 
2d  December  1261,  and  again  obtained  posseasioa  of 
Apnlia,  to  which  he  soon  afterwards  added  Calabria. 
The  new  pope,  Alexander  IV.,  caused  a  crusade  to 
be  preiiched  agunst  him ;  bnt  M.  steadily  pursuing 
hit  Tictorious  career,  becajne,  in  1267,  master  of  the 
whole  khiedom  of  Naplee  and  Sicily.  On  the 
nunoiir  of  Konradin's  death,  be  was  crowned  king 
at  Palermo,  11th  Augost  125S,  and  immediately 
afterwards  was  excommunicated  by  tha  pope  along 
with  his  adherents,  among  whom  wer«  the  first 

S relates  of  the  kinodom ;  but  M.  invaded  the  papal 
ominions,  levied  heavy  contributions  from  t-h^m^ 
and  made  himseU  master  of  the  whole  of  Tuscany. 
His  power  now  seemed  secure,  and  his  government 
was  at  once  mild  and  vigoroos ;  he  fonnded  many 
schools,  built  towns  and  harbours,  and  laboured  in 
many  ways  for  the  improvement  of  his  kingdom. 
Bnt  this  tronquilhty  was  not  of  long  duration.  Pope 
Urban  IV.  renewed  the  exconununicatian  against 
him  and  his  friends,  and  best«wed  his  dominions  as 
s  papal  fl^  on  Chories  of  Aojon,  the  brother  of 
Louis  IX.  of  Fronee.  M.,  thon^  at  first  ■occeasful 
in  the  war  which  ensued,  was  at  last  treooheronaly 
defeated,  and  sUin  in  a  bloody  battle  at  Benevcoito, 
26th  February  1266.  His  widow  and  children 
were  savagtQy  treated  by  the  French,  the  daughter 
being  conBned  for  18,  and  the  sons  tor  3t  yeai*. 
His  body  was  found  some  days  after,  and  interted 
OS  that  of  on  exoommnnicated  person  ;  bnt  the 
people,  and  even  the  French  soldieia,  heaped  up 
stones  for  a  monument,  which  received  the  name  of 
the  Book  of  Bosea. 

MANFBEDO'NIA,  a  citrv  of  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Foggia,  26  m.  north-east  of  the  dty  of 
Poggia,  founded  by  Manfred  (q.  v.),  king  of  Naples 
and  Sicily,  from  the  ruins  of  ancient  Sipontum ;  pop. 
ibovo  8000.     It  is  strongly  walled,  and  ar  ■' ■-- 


Logo   di  Saipi — the   beds    of  which,  during   the 

summer  heats,  ore  thickly  incrusted  with  sajt 

MANFBEDONIA,  GuLV  or  lSim4  UrUu),  on 
inlet  of  the  Adriatic,  which  washes  the  Neapohtan 
provinces  of  Bon  and  Capitanata,  15  miles  in  length, 
and  30  in  breadth. 

MANCALO'BE,  a  seaport  in  the  district  of 
Canaro,  ia  the  presidency  of  Madras,  lat  12'  52  N. 
In  former  times,  the  harWur  was  good,  and  the 
t*wn  prosperous,  but  within  the  present  century  it 
has  became  to  a  great  extent  silted  up.  Population, 
including  seven  villages  in  the  vicinity,  about  30,000. 
The  cantonment  on  the  north  side  of  the  town  is 
healthy,  being  elevated,  well  drained,  and  open  to 
the  breezes  from  the  sea. 

MA'NGANESB  (symb.  Mo,  equiv.  27-6;  new 
system,  65 — spec  grav.  S)  is  one  of  the  heavy  metals 
of  which  iron  maybe  taken  as  the  representative. 
It  is  of  a  grayish-white  colour,  presents  a  metallic 
brilliancy,  ia  capable  of  a  high  degree  of  polish,  is  so 
hard  as  to  scratch  glass  and  steel,  is  non-magnetic, 
and  ia  only  fused  at  a  white  heat.  As  it  oxidises 
rapidly  on  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  it  should  be 
preserved  ander  na[ihtha. 

It  occurs  in  small  quantity  in  sasociation  with 
iron  in  meteoric  stones ;  with  this  exception,  it  is 
not  found  naUve.  The  metal  may  be  obtained  by 
the  reduction  of  its  sesquiozide  by  carbon  at  on 
extreme  heoL 

Manganese  forms 

often  called  black  oxide  of  manganeBe,  manganic 
acid  (MnO,|,  and  permanganic  octd  (Mo.O;).  The 
probxdde  occurs  as  an  ohve-green  powder,  and  ia 
obtained  by  igoiting  carbonate  of  manganese  in  a 
current  of  hydrogen.  Its  salts  are  colourless,  or  of 
a  pale  rose  colour,  and  have  a  stronii  tendency  to 
form  double  salts  with  tha  solta  of  aimnonio.  The 
carbonate  forms  the  mineral  known  aa  man^neae 
spar.  The  sulphate  is  obtained  by  heating  the 
peroxide  strongly  with  sulphuric  acid,  dissolving 
the  residue  in  water,  and  crystallising.  It  is  em- 
ployed largely  in  calico-printing.  The  silicate 
occurs  in  various  minerals. 

The  taquiaade  is  found  crystallised  in  an  anhy- 
drous form  in  braaaite,  and  hydrated  in  manganue. 
It  is  obtained  artificially  as  a  black  powdJeir  by 
exposiDg  the  peroxide  to  a  prolooged  heat.  When 
ignited,  it  loses  oxygen,  and  is  coaver1«d  into  red 
oxide.  Ita  salts  are  isomorphoua  with  those  of 
alumina  and  sesquioxide  of  irou.  See  IsouoBPUlSM. 
It  imports  a  violet  colour  to  gloss,  and  civea  tha 
ametJiyst  its  choracteristio  UaL  Its  sulphate  is  a 
powerful  oxidising  agent. 

The  red  oadt  corresponds  to  the  bLick  oxide  of 
iron.  It  occurs  native  in  hauamaanitt,  and  may  be 
obtained  artificially  b^  igniting  the  sesquioxide  or 
peroxide  in  the  open  air-  It  is  a  compound  of  the 
two  preceding  oxides. 

The  bmaide,  or  peroxide,  ia  the  block  manBartese 
of  commerce,  and  the  pyrohu^  of  mineralag^stB, 
and  is  by  far  the  most  ^nmdont  of  the  manganese 
■"  ~  "  '  hydrated  form  in  vareiate  and 


jrtlon  of  chlorine  which  a  given  ■      ^  .     _ 

Uberate  when  it  is  heated  with  hydrochloric  add, 
the  quantity  of  chlorine  being  proportional  to  the 
excess  of  oxygen  which  this  oxide  contains  over 
that  contained  in  the  some  weight  of  protoxide. 
The  reaction  is  explained  by  the  equation — 

Blui.lU>«.      H)l.AeU.        CUh.  iflUai.         IFMa.  Cblsdw 

MnO,    -I-   2HCI    -     MnCl     +    2H0    +    a 
When  nuxed  with  ohlorlde  of  sodium  and  snl^orio 
add,  it  canssa  an  evolution  of  chlorine,  the  other 


.oTVJi 


MAKQE— UANQO  FISH. 


Saa  +  MnO,  +  aSO,  =  NHO,aO,  +  MnO^O,  +  01 
When  mixed  with  kcidi,  it  U  b  Tiluable  oxidiibu 
Ueat.  It  ii  mnoh  u»ed  for  the  prep&ntiou  m 
Chosen  in-  t.),  either  by  nmply  ha«tang  il^  whan  it 
yieliu  12  per  cent,  of  g«s,  or  by  heixing  it  vith 
Eolphiirio  icid,  when  it  yields  18  per  oent.  Betides 
its  nuoyvaet  in  the  laboratory,  it  is  emplojred  in 
the  mannfactnriog  of  glus,  porcelain,  ho, 
Mimfiame  add  is  not  known  in  a  free   atite. 


black  mass  whidi  reanlti  from  thi«  operktion  ii 
■olnble  in  water,  to  which  it  oommonioateB  a  green 
colour,  doe  to  the  preaenoe  of  the  manganate. 
Ttora  tbi«  water  the  ult  ii  obtained  in  vaaio  in 
beaatifol  green  erjttfiM,  On  allowing  Uia  aolntian 
to  rtaod  eipOMd  to  tbe  air,  it  rapidly  beoomea  blue, 
violet,  pnifue^  ud  finally  red,  by  the  gradual  oon- 
vendon  of  the  manganate  into  tbe  pennaoganate  of 
potaah ;  and  on  aotxnmt  of  theae  change*  of  oolow, 
the  black  maaa  has  reoeiTed  the  name  of  mintnU 
ehamdam. 

Petaanganie  oM  a  only  known  in  Bolution  or 
in  a  itate  of  combination.  Its  solution  is  of  » 
Bplandid  red  colour,  but  appears  of  a  dark  violet 
tmt  when  seen  by  trannnitted  light.  It  is  obtained 
by  treating  a  solution  of  permanganate  of  baryta 
with  anlphnria  acid,  when  sulphate  of  batyta  fallB, 
and  the  permanganio  acid  remains  diraolved  in  the 
water.  Permanganate  of  potash,  vhich  cryatsUiMa 
in  reddiih  purp^  miims,  is  the  moat  impotiant  of 
H*  aalts.  It  is  largely  employed  in  analytioal 
chemieby,  and  is  the  Dsois  of  Condy's  Disinfeotant 


Fluid. 

MmganeM   b   a   constitaent  of 
waters,  and  is  found  in  small  qnantdty 


{■  mmeral 
he  ash  of 
T^etable  and  animal  substances.    It  is  almost 
always  aarcoiated  with  iron. 

Variooi  ^Ksparationa  of  manganese  have  been 
employed  in  medidne.  Tbe  an^ihate  of  flie  pro- 
toxide in  doaea  of  one  or  two  drachma  produces 
pUTgative  efieota,  and  is  snpposad  to  increase  the 
excretion  of  bile ;  and  in  smalt  doses,  both  this  aalt 
and  the  carbonats  hare  been  aven  with  the  inten- 
tion of  Improving  the  oondi^on  of  the  blood  in 
il  aiUBmia.     Mangaoio  add  and  pennanganate 


manganio  add  is  the  iwent  employed  in  Dr  Angus 
SmiOt's  celebrated  test  lor  the  impurity  of  ttie  air. 

HANQE,  in  horses,  dogs,  and  oattle,  and  scab  in 
(beep,  are  diseases  veiy  similar  to  itch  in  the  human 
subjeet,  resulting  from  the  attacks  of  minute  mitce 
or  aeairi,  which  burrow  in  the  akin,  eapecially  if 
it  be  dirty  or  scurfy,  oanse  mudi  irritation,  heat, 
and  itching  and  the  ''         >      -     .       -      ■ 

_-i.i.    a_ "-BSS,   oaioness,  ana  ^ 

iestroyiiuj 

tbe  oeori,  and  iDauiing  the  cleatiUiteas  and  h^(£ 
of  the  skin,  both  of  which  objects  are  effected 
by  washing  tbe  parts  tiioronghlv  every  second 
day  with  soft  soap  and  water,  and  dressing  daily 
with  sulphur  or  mild  mercurial  ointments,  or 
with  a  solution  ooutaining  four  grains  either  of 
comMive  sublimate  or  arsemc  to  tbe  ounce  of  water. 
CaatoT'Oil  seeds,  bruised  and  steeped  for  twelve 
honn  in  bntter-milk,  are  very  sneeesafnlly  used  by 
the  Dlktive  Indian  farriers,  where  the  heat  and 
itching  are  great,  a*  ia  often  the  case  in  dogs,  a  few 
drops  of  tinotive  of  belladonna  may  be  used  to 
the  usual  draMing,  or  ^ipUed  along  with  a  little 


glyoarine.  Where  the  gensial  health  i«  indifferent, 
as  in  obronio  oases,  the  patient  should  be  libetally 
fed,  kept  clean  and  cmnfortabls,  have  an  oec^ 
sional  aitetative  dose  of  any  simple  siJins  medioiue, 
such  a«  nitre  or  common  salt,  and  a  oounM  (ri 
snob  tonics  as  iron  or  aisenio.  OleanlincM  and 
occasional  washing  and  brushing  Tn^nf.^in  \^  »Hn 
in  a  healthv  state,  and  thus  prevent  its  becoming  a 
suitable  nidus  for  the  aeari. 

MJ.'NaO  {lirmg^tra),  a,  mma  of  t 
natoral  order  J.nacarc{taosa,  having   flon 
four  or  fivepetah^Gve  stamens,  of  whioh  tl 


flowers  witii 

,_ _,  ,. ih  the  greater 

part  are  generally  sterile,  one  ovwy  seated  on  a  flasliy 
disk,  the  fruit  a  fleeby  drup&— The  Common  H.  IJl- 
iruftco)  is  a  native  of  India.  It  is  a  spreading  bea 
'  w^id  growth ;_  30—40  teetin  hei^t,  the  stem 


Common  Hango  {Mantgiftra  bndica), 

bnming  rays  of  tha  sun,  affording  a  most  grate- 
ful shade  ;  the  lesTea  lanceolate,  entire,  altcniate, 
■talked,  smooth,  shining,  leathery,  and  tjiont  seven 
or  eiriit  inehe*  lona  with  a  sweet  rennous  smelL 
The  ft>wen  are  small,  reddish  white  or  yellowish,  in 
burge  erect  terminal  panioles ;  the  tnut  is  kidney- 
shaped,  smooth,  varying  oonsiderably  in  size  and 
colour,  and  containing  a  large  flattened  stone,  which 
i*  oovered  on  the  ontsde  with  flbrous  filameuta, 
longest  and  most  abundant  in  the  inferkf  varietiei, 
some  of  which  oonaist  ohiefly  of  flbte  and  juice, 
whilat  the  finer  onea  have  a  oompmtively  solid 
pulp.  The  fruit  of  some  of  the  variBtiea  in  coltiva- 
tion  is  m  larn  aa  a  man's  fist  The  M.  is  much 
priced  for  tbe  dessert;  it  is  luscioos  and  sweet,  with 
slii^t  addity.  It  was  introduced  into  Jamaica  in 
17o2i  and  is  now  very  generally  cultivated  in  tropica] 
and  subtropical  countries.  The  unripe  fruit  ia  made 
into  tarta  and  pickles.  M.  kernels  are  nntritioua, 
and  have  been  cooked  for  food  in  times  of  eearoity. 
The  tree  is  raised  from  seeds ;  the  flner  varieties  are 
propagated  by  layering  and  inarching,  and  treei 
obtained  in  this  way  often  bear  much  fruit  with- 
out attaining  a  large  eise.' — There  are  several  other 
qiedea  of  Ti.,  nativea  of  different  parts  of  the  east, 
but  the  fruita  of  all  of  them  are  very  inferior. 

MAirOO  PISH  {Polyntrmut  paradimi*),  a  fish 
whioh  inhabits  tbe  Bay  of  BengiX  and  aaoenda  the 
Ganges  and  other  rivers  to  a  considerable  distance- 
It  is  accounted  one  of  the  most  delicious  flihea  of 
India,  but  ia  particularly  esteemed  when  salted  and 
prepared  in  a  peculiar  manner,  when  it  bears  the 
name  of  Burlah.  The  name  M.  is  given  to  tbia  fish 
from  its  beautiful  yellow  colour,  resembling  tiut  of  a 


■  Coo^iilc 


MANOOLD-WUBZEL-MANHATTAN  I8LAHD. 


ripe  nuDgo.  Another  uaine  [is  7'upaee.  It  ia  of  s 
perch-like  fonn,  and  belongs  to  a  genua  once  Teferred 
to  the  Perohei  {Pereidrt),  but  now  the  type  of  m 
diltmct  family  of  AoBnthoptercnu  TeleoiteMis  (Pob- 
nanidai),  having  the  ventral  Gna  behindthe  pectorau, 
altliongh  partially  attaohed  to  the  bones  of  the 
Bhonlder,  and  the  'lower  rays  of  the  peotoraU  ei- 
tended  iato  thread*,  which  in  the  numrai  fiibn  an 
twiM  tiie  leosth  of  the  bodj.  The  M.  is  wldom 
more  than  eight  or  nine  inchee  in  length.  The  genna 
PoIyHenuM  containa  a  number  of  apeoiee  of  tropical 
fldiea,  Qte  air-bladdei*  of  Mme  of  which  are  of  im- 
portance aa  iaingiaae ;  thou  of  P.  mdiaa,  a  flih 
Bometimet  SO  Iba.  weight,  and  other  ipeciea,  forming 
a  conaiderable  article  of  ezp<»t  from  Singapore, 
nnder  the  name  of  FiA-tnam. 

MATfGOLD-WUBZEI,  (0«r.  beet-root),  or 
MANQOLD  (Ger.  beet),  a  name  in  Eeneral  naa  in 
Britain  and  America,  to  deaignate  the  varietiea  of 
ttie  Common  Beet  (q.  t.)  ctiltirated  in  fielda  tor  the 
feeding  of  cattle.  By  miatake,  the  name  waa  at  Srst 
written  Manf/d-  Wurtd,  and  Uua  erroneona  form  ia 
■tiU  aometiineB  naed.  The  field-beeti  differ  from 
the  gardea-beeti  chiefly  in  bcdng  huger  in  all  their 
ports,  and  ooarser.  Tliey  hare  large  roota,  which  in 
(ome  of  the  varieties  are  red,  in  aome  greeniah  or 
whitish,  in  some  corrot-ahaped,  and  in  aome  nearly 
globolar.  The  cultivation  of  M.  aa  a  field-crop  waa 
mtroduoed  into  En^and  in  1780,  bat  it  ia  <m]y  of 
late  that  it  haa  much  extended.  At  flnt,  ao  little 
waa  ita  value  known,  that  the  leavea  alone  were 
naed  aa  food  for  catUeL  !!•  importance,  however, 
waa  aoon  appreciated,  and  it  nuudl]'  gained  favour. 
It  ia  much  more  patdeut  of  a  high  t^peratnie  than 
the  tomip,  liable  to  fewer  diseaaea,  and  vaatly  more 
productive  onder  liberal  treatment.  In  the  ialand 
of  Jersey,  and  in  highly  manured  ground!  in  the 
.vicinity  of  London,  aa  mnch  aa  from  70  to  80  tona 
to  the  acre  have  been  riised.  Throoghout  the  sontli 
of  FjigUnd,  it  ia  geaenlly  admitt^  that  it  ia  aa 
easy  to  grow  30  tona  of  M.  to  the  aore  aa  20  tona  of 
Swedish  tnmipa.  The  lower  temperature  of  Soot- 
land,  however,  doea  not  odioit  of  the  crop  being 
raiaed  to  the  same  advantage.  The  yield  la  mnc£ 
smaller  than  in  the  aontJi,  lutd  the  plants  are  more 
liable  to  run  to  flower.  This  Menu  to  be  owing 
to  the  oold  cootraoting  the  vessela,  and  in  some 
mearan  actios  in  tiie  aame  motmer  oa  a  diminlahed 
rapply  of  food  in  favouring  the  formation  of  seed. 
The  mcreased  precariouanesa  of  the  tumip-crop  of 
late  years,  however,  has  induced  many  to  make 
trial  of  the  cultivation  of  U.,  and  with  consider- 
able succeea.  The  mode  of  culture  does  not  vary 
materially  &on  that  followed  in  Bootland  in 
raising  tumijs.  The  land  in  which  the  crop  ia  to 
be  }dauted  receives  a  deep  farrow  in  autumn; 
and  if  it  is  quite  free  from  perennial  weeds,  it  is 
often  previously  well  manured.  Drills  or  ridges, 
from  20  to  30  inches  wide,  are  formed  in  sprmg 
by  the  double-moulded  plough;  and  if  manure  haa 
not  been  applied  in  antnmn,  from  20  to  30  loads 
are  spread  along  the  furrows.  In  additbm,  frcnn  3 
to  4  cwta.  of  guano,  and  4  cwts.  of  ammonia  salt,  are 
•ownlmiadcsst  over  the  drills;  indeed,  this  crop  can 
rarely  be  over-mannred.  The  manores  are  then 
covered  by  the  ploagh,  and  Uie  ridgea  are  afterwarda 
ran  over  with  a  light  roller,  to  amooth  them  down- 
Two  or  three  seeds  are  then  dibbled  in  on  the  tops  of 
the  ridgee,  from  1  foot  to  1(  foot  apart.  It  raquirea 
about  7  lbs.  of  seed  to  the  acre ;  and  aa  the  gruna 


for  two  daya  previous 
being  planted,  for  the  pprpoae  of  ramnotini;  a  qnick 
and  regular  braird.  Th«  long  red,  the  round  red, 
and  the  round  green-topped  yellow,  are  all  favourito 
!_^.._  1^  Sogi^Q^     ^  ,ooQ  M  Q^  plant*  are 


obont  three  inohM  above  gronnd,  t2iey  are  dn^ad 
oat  by  the  hand,  and  their  onltindiion  is  afterwards 
"'  'all  respects  aa  in  the  case  of  Swedish 


delayed  beyond  this  period,  for,  being  a  native  of  the 
warm  ooaata  of  the  Meditemuieaii,  it  ia  injured  by 
■svere  frost  Tbe  leavea  are  wrenched  off  by  the 
hand,  amd  the  earth  is  merely  roughly  l^en  away 
from  the  roots,  aa  Ouj  do  not  keep  well  through 
the  winter  if  ont  or  braised.  The  roota  are  stored 
in  [ata  or  clamps,  ooreted  with  straw  and  a  Uttle 
earth,  aa  a  proteotian  in  aevere  weather.  It  ia  soma 
time  after  storing  before  the  roots  can  ba  used  with 
odvanta^ ;  for  m  autumn  and  the  eariy  part  of 
winter,  ita  juices  being  unripened,  have  a  laxative 
cSect  on  ^nim.li,  Swedish  turidps  ore  at  thlt 
preferred  for  feeding;  bat  the  harshneas  of 
the  U.  wears  off  by  spring,  and  it  then  beoomes  an 
exoellent  food  for  atock  of  all  kinds,  and  if  wdl 
kept,  retains  ita  juicincsa  till  the  middle  of  aominer. 

HAIfGON,  or  MAVGONEL.    SeeBuiau. 

HA'NOOBTEEN  [Oardaia  mangotlaita),  one  of 
the  most  delicioua  of  all  fruita,  produced  by  a  tree 
of  the  natural  order  OuUifera  or  Claaacta,  a  native 
of  the  Molnoca  T»l«.ni1»  The  tree  is  in  general  <mly 
about  20  feet  high,  but  of  beautiful  amiearanoe^ 
having  an  erect  tapering  stem  and  a  tt^uW  form, 
somewhat  like  that  of  a  fir;  the  leaves  7  or  8  inches 
lone,  oval,  entire,  leathery,  and  Khining ;  the  flowers 
are  large,  with  corolla  of  four  deep  red  petals.  His 
fruit,  in  size  and  iJiape,  reaembles  aa  orange ;  it  is 
dark  brown,  spotted  with  yellow  or  gray,  has  a 
thick  rind,  ana  is  divided  int«niaUy  by  thin  parti- 
into  oella.  The  pulp  is  soft  and  juicy,  of  a 
rose  colonr,  refrigerant  and  sligbtiy  laxative,  witji 
a  mixture  (A  sweetness  and  acidity,  and  having  an 
extremdy  delicato  flavour.  It  may  bo  oaten  very 
freely  with  perfect  safety,  and  is  eateemed  very 
beneficial  in  fevera.  The  M.  ia  cultivated  in  Java 
the  south-east  of  Asia  ;  it  has  recently 
.  common  in  Ceyloit,  and  haa  been  succesa- 
fully  introduced  into  some  other  tropical  countries. 

HA'NOBOVE  {ShiiophOTa),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  Datuml  order  RhhophOTrKece.  This  order  con- 
eista  of  trees  uid  shrubs,  all  tropical  and  native* 
of  ooaata,  portioolarly  aboat  t^e  mouths  of  rivet*, 
where  they  grow  in  tlie  mud,  and  form  a  close 
thicket  down  to  and  within  the  marge  of  tbe  sea, 
even  to  low-water  ma^  Most  of  t^e  species  send 
down  roota  from  their  branches,  and  thus  rapidly 
extend  over  large  spaces,  forming  secure  retreats 
for  mnltitudea  of  aquatio  birds,  whilat  crabs  ore 
also  to  be  found  in  them  in  vast  nambers,  and  shell- 
attached  to  the  branches.  The  order  is 
distinguished  by  simple,  opposito  leaves,  witii  con- 
volute deciduous  stipules  between  the  leaf-italka ; 
the  ovary  2 — 4-celled,  each  cell  containing  two  or 
more  ovules ;  the  fiiiit  not  opening  whan  ripe, 
crowned  with  the  calyx,  1-celled,  1-seedcd.  'tin 
seeds  have  the  peonliari^  of  germinating  whilat 
atill  attached  to  the  parent  branch,  a  long  thick 
radicle  proceeding  from  the  seed,  piercLDg  tta  cover- 
ing, and  extending  rapidly  downwards,  tul  the  frait 
foBs  off,  when  it  ia  soon  imbedded  in  the  mod, 
into  which  its  club-like  form  enables  it  to  peneUate. 


matigU)  ia  sweet,  eatable;  and  i^  juice,  when  fer- 
mented  yields  a  light  wine.     The  bark  of   the 
common  M.  ia  sometune*  imported  for  tanning. 
MAKHAITAK  ISLAHD,  the  ishmd  on  which 
kter  port  of  the  dty  of  New  York  (q.  v.) 


the  greatei 


L,i,!iu,i,:!,jC00gk 


MANI,  MANTS,  VASlCBMUa—iiAmCEMASS. 


MANI,  SfANES,  «:ANICH.«:US  (entitled 
Zeadit,  Sadducee),  the  [ouoder  of  the  heretioal  sect 
of  the  ManiduBuii  (q.  v.),  who  lived  in  the  3d  a. 
&.!>.  Little  is  knowD  with  record  to  hu  early 
hiltor;,  and  the  accoanta  traiiBmitted  throngh  two 
diitinct  sources — the  Weatem  or  Greek,  uid  the 
Euit«rD — ore  legendarj  and  contradictory  oa  almost 
evetj  important  point.  AocordicE  to  cejiain — very 
dnbious--«ctB  of  a  disputation  heM  between  Manes 
and  Archelans,  Bishop  of  CaBaar(T),  he  was  first 
called  CnrbicQS,  and  waa  bonght  as  a  slave,  at  the 
ue  of  seven  years,  by  the  wi^  of  one  Ct«eiphon,  in 
Kbylonia,  whp  ^ve  him  a  good  education,  and  at 
her  death  mode  nim  sole  heir.  Among  the  books 
■he  left  h™,  he  is  said  to  have  found  the  writings  of 
Bcythianua,  which  had  been  fflven  to  her  by  one  of 
the  latter'H  disciples  named  Terebinthns,  or  Bmida. 
M.  emipated  into  Peraio,  where  he  remained  op  to 
bis  sixtieth  year,  and  changed  his  former  name,  so 
M  to  obliterate  all  traces  of  his  origin  and  former 
state.  Here  he  also  became  aoquainted  with  the  New 
Testament  and  other  Christian  works  ;  and  gradually 
conceived  die  idea  of  amalgamating  the  Magian 
with  the  Chriitian  relinon,  and  of  adding  what  he 
knew  of  Bnddhinn  to  the  new  faith.  For  the  better 
carrying  out  of  (his  plan,  he  announced  that  he  waa 
the  Paraclete  promised  by  Christ.  King  Sapor  I. 
of  Penia,  in  whose  days  he  first  proclaimed  his 
mission,  at  first  looked  not  unfavourably  upon  his 
proceedings ;  but  when  he  had  failed  to  heal  the 
prince,  his  son,  he  was  cast  into  prison,  whence  he 
managed  to  escape,  but,  pntstted  and  captured,  he 
was  publicly  execiited.  According  to  other  accounts, 
however,  M.  was  the  scion  of  a  noble  Magian 
family,  and  a  man  of  extraordinary  mental  powers, 
and  artistic  and  scientifio  abilities — an  eminent 
painter,  mathematician,  &c. — embraced  Christianity 


in   early   manhood,   and   became    presbyter 

■"    '     "  ■ '      ',  in  the  Persian  provii 

:  to  be  the  Paraclete,  i 


church  in  Ehvaz  or  Ahvaj,  in  the  F 


slated  himself  in  ecclesiastical  dociunents  '  Mani, 
called  to  be  an  apoetle  of  Jeans  Christ  through  the 
election  of  God  uie  Father.'  PerHecoted  by  King 
Sapor  L,  he  sought  refnge  in  foreign  ooiuitries, 
went  to  India,  Cliina,  and  Turkiston,  and  there 
lived  in  a  cave  toi  twdve  months,  during  which  be 
is  said  to  have  been  in  heaven.  He  reappeared 
with  a  wonderful  book  of  drawings  and  pictures, 
called  Erdshenk  or  Ertenki-Mani.  After  tbe  death 
of  Sapor  (272  A-D.),  he  returned  to  Persia,  where 
Hormuz,  the  new  king,  who  was  well  inclined 
towards  him,  received  Jum  with  greot  honours,  and 
in  order  to  protect  him  more  ctTectually  against  the 
pencoutioQs  of  the  Magi,  gave  liim  the  stronghold 
of  Beahereh,  in  Suaiona,  as  n  residence.  After  the 
death  of  this  king,  however,  Behram,  his  successor, 
outropiied  M.  into  a  public  disputation  mtt  the 
Mw,  lor  which  piiriHisc  he  had  to  leave  his  castle  ; 
ana  he  was  seized  upon,  fiayed  alive,  and  hung 
before  Djondishapttr,  277  A-D.  For  his  doctrine, 
&c,  see  MAHlCHdUJB. 

MANIA  is  the  form  of  mental  derangement  most 
familiar  to  ordinary  observers.  The  excitement 
and  violence  by  which  it  is  sometimes  characterised 
have  become,  erroneously  and  unfortunately,  tbc 
type  and  standard  by  wmch  the  disease  and  tboso 
subject  to  it  have  been  reoognised  and  treated. 
These  qualities  oocosionally  involved  danger  to  those 
around,  and  were  always  calculated  to  inspire  fear  ; 
so  that  for  centuries  they  were  counteracted  by 
repression,  coercion,  and  harshness.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark  that  contemporaneously  with  the  cstabbsh- 
meiit  of  confidence,  and  with  the  introduction  of  a 
humane  system  of  treatment,  the  fury  and  formid- 
able pngnain|^  of  the  insane  to  a  great  degree  dis- 
appeued.     Thia  eSect  most,  however,  in  part  be 


referred  to  that  change  of  type  in  the  nature  of  the 
malady  Itself  which  is  supposed  to  depend  upon  • 
modification  in  the  human  constitution,  as  well  aa 
upon  external  circnmstanoes,  and  whicji  has  been 
observable  in  all  afiections  of  an  inflammatory 
character  since  the  b^;innin^  of  the  present  century. 
The  discontinnance  of  restoamt,  and  the  cessation  of 
the  necessity  for  such  a  measure  in  osylomt,  whether 
regarded  as  protective  or  remedial,  may  be  accepted 
as  a  proof  of  the  reality  and  extent  of  this  • ' 
upon  whatever  It  may  depend.  It  is,  i~~ 
probable  that,  by  the  aoonracy  of  modem  ■  _ 
cases  of  wild  frenzy,  depending  npon  fever  or  inflam- 
mation o!  the  bmn,  have  been  distinguished  from 
those  of  true  maoia,  and  Its  true  feahires  thus  better 
determined.  These  are  loss  of  appetite,  general 
uneasiness  and  irritation,  watchfulneBS,  heiulache, 

propensities,  rapid  ideation,  incoherence  and  loqua- 
city, violence  or  unbridled  agitation  and  eitrava- 
Knce ;  and,  as  the  disease  advances,  emaciation^ 
llowneas  of  the  cheeks  and  eyes,  discoloration  of 
the  skin,  brilliancy  and  fixity  of  eyes.  However 
similar  these  symptoms  may  be  to  what  are  seen  in 
the  fevered  and  the  phrenetic,  great  caution  must 
be  eierdsed  in  concluding  that  the  circulation  is 
involved  directly,  or  at  all,  for  of  222  cases  exaqined 
by  Jacobi,  23  only  presented  any  indications  of 
fever,  and  in  these  this  condition  was  attributable 
to  hectic  and  other  causes  unconnected  with  mania. 
Esquirol  rarely  mentions  the  poise  as  affording  any 
guidance  in  this  kind  of  alienation.  Tbo  true  mter- 
pretation  of  these  symptoms  appears  to  be,  that  they 
are  connected  with  debility  and  exhaustion ;  that 
although,  remotely,  they  may  originate  in  any  oivan 
or  condition,  they  proximately  depend  upon  impaired 
nutrition  and  irri^tion  of  the  nervous  systeEn,  call- 
ing for  support,  stimulation,  cslm,  and  repose,  alike 
moral  and  pnysicaL  The  classification  of  the  various 
aspects  uuder  which  mania  occurs  has  been  so  for 
regulated  by  the  bodily  affection  wit^  which  it  is 
complicated  or  associated.  Epileptic  mania,  the 
moat  furioiu  and  formidable,  and  puerperal  mania 
perhaps  the  most  intractable  species,  consist  in  the 
Bupornddition  of  the  indications  formerly  detailed 
to  certain  states  of  the  nervoiui  system,  and  to 
that  of  parturition.  Whatever  the  combination  or 
complication,  however,  the  essential  psychical  char- 
acteristic of  mania  is,  that  all  mental  powers  are 
Involved,  and  are  thrown  into  a  state  of  exaltation 
aud  perversion.  When  the  initiatory  extravagance 
and  excitement  have  subsided,  when  the  affection  has 
become  chronic,  delusions,  previously  existing,  become 
prominent,  and  impart  a  predominating  complexion 
to  the  condition.  It  is  probable  that,  wnerever 
delusions  or  hallucinations  are  detected,  although 
they  may  seem  solitary  deviations  from  health,  there 
is  a  broader  aud  deeper  substratum  of  disease,  of 
which  they  ore  trivial  manifestations;  and  where 
mania  has  ushered  in  such  affections,  the  original 
disease  may  be  held  to  remain  while  they  remain, 
and  to  be  reacted  upon,  and,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, roused  into  activity  through  their  instru- 
mentality. In  these  views  may  be  found  an  explan- 
ation of  those  partial  mental  derangements  vi^iich 
appear  to  coexist  with  health. — Bncluiill  and  Tuke, 
Peyeholoffieal  Sftdidna—SkelAes  in  Bedlam. 

MANICH.£'ANS,  a  religious  sect,  founded  by 
Mani  (q.  v.),  which,  although  it  utterly  disoloimed 
being  denominated  Christian,  yet  was  reckoned 
among  the  heretdcal  bodies  of  the  church.  It  waa 
intended  to  blend  the  chief  dogmas  of  Farsism,  ot 
rather  Magion,  as  reformed  by  Zoroaster,  with  a 
certain  number  of  Buddhistio  views,  under  the 
outward  gM'b  of  Biblical,  more  especially  Kev 
Testament  history,  which,  explained  iJl^oT^lly  and 


D,a,t,.s=.,l^OOglc 


UAHIFE3TO— MANILA. 


i  aprnng  all  visible  and.  inTisible  creation,  and 
ijch — totally  onCagoniatic  in  their  oatures — vera 
respeotiyely  Htyled  tha  Light,  tlie  Good,  or  God, 
and  the  Barkiieaa,  the  Bad,  Matter,  or  Archon. 
Tltey  each  inhabited  a  region  akin  to  their  natures, 
and  excluding  each  other  to  Euch  a  degree  that  the 
region  of  Darkness  and  ita  leader  never  knew  of 
the  exiatence  of  that  of  the  Light.  Twelve  noDa 
— «ORe*ponding  to  the  twelve  aigna  of  the  zodiac 


IMM,'  filled  with  the  eternal  fire,  which  burned  but 
■hone  not,  wu  peopled  by  'demoiiB,'   who  were 

""  ~la  oonteata,  pressing  towards  the  oater  edge,  as 

Fere,  of  their  region,  they  became  aware  ^  the 
DeighboDring  renon,  and  forthwith  united,  attacked 
it,  and  succeeded  in  carrying  the  Kay  of  Light  that 
waa  sent  againat  them  at  the  head  of  the  hosts  of 
Light,  and  which  was  the  embodiment  of  the  Ideal 
or  PnmevJ  Mau  (Christ),  captive.  A  stronger 
won,  howsYer  (the  Holy  Ghoat),  hurried  to  fiie 
ttscue,  and  redeemed  the  greaW  and  better  ^irt 
*   the   captive  Light    (Jesus    Impatibilis).      The 

iller  and  fainter  portion,  however  (Jesus  Paaai- 
bilis),  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  powen  of  Dark- 
ness, and  out  of  this  they  fonned,  after  the  ideal 
of  The  Man  qf  Light,  mortal  man.  But  even  the 
ill  fraction  of  hght  left  in  him  (broken  in  two 

la)  would  have  prevailed  against  them,  had  they 
not  found  means  to  further  divide  and  snbdivide 
it  by  the  propagation  of  thia  man  (Eve — Sin).  Not 
yet  aatiBfied,  they  atill  more  dimmed  it  by  burying 
it  nnder  dark  '  forma  of  belief  and  faith,  such  aa 
Pi^anism  and  JudMsm.'  Once  mor^  however,  the 
<>— nual  Light  came  to  save  the  light  buried  in  man, 

tbe  person  of  Ctuist^  descending  from  the  sun, 
with  which  he  is  one.  The  demons  snoceeded, 
however,  in  cutting  bis  career  of  salvation  short 
li^  seducing  mau  to  crucify  him.  Hia  aafTsringg 
and  death  were,  naturally,  only  fictitiona,  since  he 
conld  not  in  reality  die ;  he  only  allowed  himself 
to  become  an  example  of  endurance  and  passive 
pain  for  his  own,  the  souls  of  light.  Since,  however, 
even  his  immediBte  adherents,  the  apostles,  were 
not  strong  enough  to  suffer  as  he  had  Did  them,  he 
promiaed  them  a  Paraclete,  who  should  complete 
hia  own  work.  This  Paraclete  waa  Mani,  who  aur- 
ronnded  himaelf,  like  Christ,  with  twelve  apostlea, 
and  sent  them  into  the  world  to  teach  and  to  preach 
liis  doctrine  of  salvation.  The  end  of  the  '  world ' 
will  be  fire,  in  which  the  region  of  Darkness  wiD 
be  oonsumed  and  ntterly  annihilated.     To  attain 


;   hence  . 


s  abstin. 


!  from  all  e 


igon 
a,  asceticism,  in  fact,  to  the  utmost  decree, 
u  to  be  exercised.  The  believers  are  divided  mto 
le  Elect  and  the  Auditors.  The  Elect 
have  to  adhere  to  the  Signacuium  Orit,  itamu,  and 
StTou,  that  is,  they  have  to  take  the  oath  of  ahsti- 
nence  from  evil  and  profane  speech  (including 
'religious  terms  snch  as  Christians  use  respecting 
the  Godhead  and  religion '),  further,  fromfleah,  eggs, 
milk,  fiah,  wine,  and  all  intoxicating  diioks  (cf. 
Mann,  ItuIU.  w.  61,  62,  63:  'He  who  makes  the 
"  'i  of  an  »"■"!»!  his  food  ....  not  a  mortal  eiista 
e  sinful  ....  he  who  ....  desires  to  enlarge 
his  own  flesh  with  the  flcah  of  another  creatiire,' 
ftc) )  furUier,  from  the  possession  of  riches,  or, 
indeed,  any  property  whatsoever ;  from  hurting 
any  being — fhpim»l  or  vegetable ;  from  heeding 
280 


their  own  familr,  or  shewing  any  pity  to  him  who 

is  not  of  the  MaoichiBan  creed ;  and  finally,  frran 
breaking  their  chastity  by  marriage  or  otherwise. 
The  Auditors  were  comparatively  free  to  parbak* 
of  the  good  things  of  this  world,  but  they  had  to 

Erovide  for  the  subeisteDce  of  the  Elect,  and  their 
ighest  aim  also  was  the  attainment  of  the  stats 
of  t^eir  superior  brethren.  In  this  Manicluean 
worship,  the  Visible  Bepresentatives  of  the  Li^t 
(sun  and  moon)  were  revered,  but  only  ss  represen- 
tatives of  the  Ideal,  of  the  Good  or  supreme  God- 
Neither  altar  nor  sacrifice  was  to  be  found  in  their 
places  of  religions  assemblies,  nor  did  thsy  erect 
sumptuous  temples.  Fasta,  prayers,  ocossional  read- 
ings in  the  supposed  writings  of  Mani.  chiefly  a 
certain  Fundamrnlai  BpiiUe,  were  all  their  outer 
worship.  The  Old  Testament  they  rejected  nncondi- 
tionally ;  of  the  New  Testament,  they  retained  certain 
portions,  revised  and  redacted  by  the  Paiacleta. 
(Aogiurt  c.  Faust.,  book  xviiL;  cf.  book  ii.).  8an> 
day,  as  the  day  on  which  the  visible  univeru  was 
to  be  consumed,  the  day  consecrated  to  the  sun, 
was  kept  as  a  great  festival ;  and  the  most  solemn 
dtiy  in  their  year  waa  the  anniversary  of  the  death 
of  Mani.  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  were 
celebrated  as  mysteries  cf  the  Elect.  Of  this  mode 
of  celebration,  however,  we  know  next  to  nothing ; 
even  Augustine,  who,  for  about  nine  years,  belonged 
to  the  sect,  and  who  is  our  chief  anthority  on  Q^ 
subject,  confesses  his  ignorance  of  it.  A!e  to  tha 
general  morality  of  the  .M.  we  are  equally  left  to 
conjecture ;  but  their  doctrine  certainly  appears  to 
have  had  a  tendency,  chiefly  in  the  case  of  the 
uneducated,  to  lead  to  a  sensual  fanaticism  hurtful 
to  a  pure  mode  of  life. 

The  outward  hlatory  of  the  sect  is  one  of  almort 
oontinnoua  persecntion.  Diocletian,  as  early  a*  iKK 
A.  c,  iaaued  rigorous  laws  against  them,  which  wen 
reit^ted  by  v  alentinian,  Theodoeius  I.,  and  snooea- 
sive  monarchs.  Notwithstanding  this,  the;  gained 
numerous  adherents  ;  and  very  many  medievaTseots, 
as  the  Prisciniana,  Katharenes,  Josepbinions,  kc., 
were  suspected  to  be  secretly  ManichEsans.  Italy, 
the  south  of  France,  Spain,  and  even  Germany, 
were  the  snooessive  seats  of  this  sect,  which  did  not 
disappesLT  entirely  until  the  time  of  the  Reformation. 

HANIFE'STO,  a  pnblic  declaration  issued  by  a, 
sovereign  prince  or  by  a  government  on  some  atat~ 
emergency,  expressive   of  intentions,   opinions,   c 
motives.    Immediately  before  entering  on  a  war, 
manifesto  is  issued  containing  a  statement  of  tii 
reaaona  which  have  been  held  to  juatify  these 
or  government  in  taking  up  arms.      In  ca 
revSt,  a  manifesto  is  sometimes   issued  to  recall    ' 
subjects  to  their  allegiance.  , 

MAITI'LA,  the  oajrital  of  the  Philippine  Islands    i 
(q.  v.),  and   reaidence    of   tha   Spanish  viceroy,    or 
governor  of  the  Pliilippine  Archipelago,  is  ntuated  in    I 
tiie  isUmd  of  Luzon,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Pasig,     I 
and  at  the  embonchnre  of  that  river  in  the  Bay  of    t 
Manila.    It  is  divided  by  its  river  into  M.  Proper    I 
and  Binondo.     M.  Proper,  or  the  eiiy  of  M.,  consist- 
ing of  IT  spacious  streets,  crossing  at  right  angles, 
contains  the  Cathedral ;  the  Palacio,  buiTt  in  1690 ; 
the  Archtepiscopal  Palace,  the  Hall  of  Andience,  11    I 
churches  and  3  convents,  besides  pnblio  offices,  bar-    ! 
racks,  and  other  military  establishments.     Beyond    i 
the  ramparts,  on  the  east  side,  is  the  Calzado,  or    ', 
public  promenade,  crowded  in  the  evening  by  car- 


with  piates  of  semi-tronaparent  oyster-shells.  Bin- 
ondo ia  larger  and  more  animated  than  M. ;  but 
the  streets  are  less  regular,  and  many  still  unpaved. 
Numerous  canals  int^nect  this  suburb,  which  is  the 


;."7".  1 


5r?^,-»  Google 


UABIN— UANHL 


iwdenoe  of  tile  wealthy  m«cluati.  The  bay  m 
hwboiiT  of  M.  we  magmfloent,  and  the  Faaig  is  na- 
ffl"  ~ "        ■"  ^ 


magmfloent^  ^- 

.bla  for  ten  mile*.    The  trade  ii  chiefly  with  the 
'nited  Statea,  Great  Britain,  Chins,  anil  AoBtmlia. 


ezporta  an  lu^r,  abao'a  (Uanila  hemp),  dgara,  leal- 
tobaocQ,  ooffee,  lioe,  uid  fine  woods.  Hie  impoiia 
consist  ohieSj  of  woven  goods  from  Manchester 
and  GlMftow,  wiUi  lead,  iron-ware,  and  beer ;  silks, 
nsnfcin^i  verinilion,  and  onriooitieB  u«  imported 
fnmi  Cluna.  The  cheiooto  of  H.  are  famoos ;  they 
Me  generally  preferred  to  those  of  Havana  every- 
wbov  eaat  of  the  Cape  of  Qood  Hope.  Their 
mannfaetan  is  nndec  the  charge  of  an  admioistra- 
tioD  whose  headquuteiB  are  at  M. ;  20,000  persons 
are  employed  in  this  branch  of  manofaotnre.  The 
climate  <u  U.  is  on  the  whole  healthy,  and  the 
avenwe  tentperatnre  ihronghoat  the  year  is  nearly 
82°.  CoBTnlsions  of  the  earth  have  fremiently  made 
trightfnl  nnget  in  this  city.  In  1824,  1S28,  and 
1607,  severe  and  dastmctive  shocks  were  felt ;  and 
on  tile  3d  Jnne  1S63,  the  city  was  almost  wholly 
mined,  and  SOOO  lives  were  lost.  On  30th  October 
187S,  a  violent  bnrricane  killed  250  peiaons,  and 
destroyed  3S00  houses.  A  fearful  earthquake  threw 
down  most  of  the  larger  buildings  in  M.  in  Jnly 
1S80;  there  were  th>«e  violent  shocks  in  three 
several  days  and  many  minor  ones ;  the  damage 
was  reckoned  at  8,000,000  dolUrs.  In  1SS2  there 
was  a  fearful  visitation  of  cholera,  followed  by  a 
deetructive  typhoon  which  nnroofed  all  the  stone 
boildinga  and  destroyed  all  the  native  houses.  M. 
is  one  of  the  fonr  porta  of  the  Philippine  Archipelago 
which  are  open  to  foreign  vessels.  Id  1878  the 
value  of  the  exports  from  M.  was  above  £3,000,000 
(above  £1,000,000  of  which  was  for  Britain),  and  of 
the  imports,  a  little  leas.    Fop.  of  M.  (1878)  160,000. 

UAKIH,  DufixL,  an  iUuetrioos  Italian  patriot 
and  pohticsl  lender,  elected,  dniing  the  revolution 
of  1848,  President  of  the  Venetian  Itepnblia  Bom 
in  180*  at  Venioe,  M.  gradnatod  at  the  university 
of  Padna,  was  admittal  Doctor  of  Laws  at  19, 
and  ■nbeeonentlj'  practiBed  at  the  bar,  of  which 
his  father,  Fietro  Ilanin,  was  an  eminent  member. 
From  ISSljhe  became  a  recognised  leader  of  liberal 
ojriiiion  in  Venioe ;  in  1847,  his  reputation  as  a  poli- 
tics] economist  was  established  daring  the  sittings 
of  the  adentiflc  congrea*  at  Venice ;  and  shortly 
after,  he  was  thrown  into  prison  foraspirited  public 
address  of  which  he  was  ttie  author. 

Previous  to  the  outbreak  of  1848,  M.  was,  for  the 
second  time,  incarceisted ;  but  on  the  promulgation 
of  the  news  that  Paris,  Naples,  and  Tnscanv  were 
m  revolution,  he  mis  released  in  triumph  by  the 
popolaca,  and  was  at  once  invested  with  supreme 
power.  The  organisaldoa  of  a  dvic  guard,  and  the 
expulsion  of  the  Anstriani  from  the  arsenal,  were 
M.  s  first  public  measure*  ;  the  mob  that  clamoured 
for  the  hves  of  their  fonner  oppressors,  shrunk  back 
abashed  at  his  dignified  rebuke. 

From  the  period  of  his  election  to  the  prem- 
denc;  of  the  Venetian  republic,  M.'s  energies  were 
devoted  to  the  organisation  of  the  inhabitants  for 
Belf-defena& 

During  the  annexation  of  Lombordy  to  Piedmont, 
M.  laid  down  his  authority;  but  on  the  defeat  of 
the  Sardinian  army  at  Novora,  23d  March  1849,  he 
resumed  it,  and  was  the  »niniBti"g  spirit  of  the 
entire  population  of  Venice  during  the  heroio  defence 
of  the  city  for  four  months  against  the  besieging 


native  language^  declining   innumerable   i 


aid.  From  thanoa  he  proolumed  his  desirB  thai 
the  republican  system  dioold  give  place  in  Italy 

to  the  Sar^Unian  monarchy,  or  any  executive  form 
tending  to  get  rid  of  Austrian  riile.  He  died  (rf 
hntrt  iTiimsf  at  Paris  in  September  1857. 

In  this  really  great  man  appeared  a  rare  nnioa 
(A  qualities  the  meet  exalted,  enthusiasm  beintc 
gnidfid  by  great  proctiGal  sagacity ;  extreme  personal 
hnmility  ooejdatiM  with  a  lofty  sense  of  authoritj^ 
and  great  faoulty  ^  command;  and  the  enei^  and 
firs  of  action  bemg  equalled  by  the  calm  and  stoical 
endurance  of  defeat  and  mortal  diseaaa. 

MA'NIOO,  MANDIOO.  or  CASSAVA  {XaH&ot 
udUtmna,  formerly  known  as  Jatropha  numikei, 
and  OS  Janipha  mnniAoOt  a  large,  balf'shnbbr 
plant  of  the  natural  order  Evp/iorhicaxa,  a  native 
of  tropical  America,  and  much  cultivated  thers.  It 
is  now  also  extensively  cultivated  in  AMofe,  and 
has  been  introduced  ibto  other  tropical  oonntoiea. 
M,  or  Mandioca,  is  the  Bnwilian  name ;  Oauaso,  the 
West  Indian  ;  and  in  Peru  and  some  other  parts  of 
South  America,  the  name  i»  Jura  or  rutxa.    The 

Slant  grows  in  a  bushy  fiwTn,  with  stems  usnoDy 
— 8  feet   high,  but  aometiines  much  more.    Thi 
I  aw  white,  brittle,  and  have  a  very  large  pith; 
.>.«  .>rBnohea  are  crooked.    The  leaves  are  near  the 
ertremiUee  of  the  branches,  larf^e,  deeply  7-psrted. 
The  roots  are  veiy  large,  tnniip-like,  sometimea 
weighlag  30  lbs.,  &om  three  to  eight  growing  in    | 
a  cluster,  usually  from  a  foot  to  two  feet  long.    In    : 
common  with  otber  parts  of  the  plant,  they  contain     | 
an  acrid  milky  j  uice,  bo  poisonous  as  to  cause  death    < 
in  a  few   minute*;   but  as  this  is  owing  to  ths 
prcecnce  of   hydrocyanio    acid,  which    is    quiokly 
dissipated  by  heat,  the  juice,  inspissated  by  btnling,    I 
forms  the  excellent  sauce  called  CASiJtnp  (q.  v.) ;    ' 
and  fermented  with  molasses,  it  vieHs  an  intoiicat. 
ing  beverage  called  Ouyctm;  whilst  the  root,  grated,    I 
dried  on  hot  matal-plates,  and  roughly  powdered, 
b«oomea   an  article  of   food,  very  largely  used  in    ' 
South   America,  and  there   very  generally  known    '■ 
as  Farinah  (Portug.  meal).     It  is  made  mto  tiUD    I 
cakes,  like  the  oatmeal-cakes  of  Scotland,  wMch  are 
formed,  however,  not  by  mixing  it  with  water,  bot 
by  the  action  of  heat  softening  and  agglutinating 
the  particles  of  starch.     These  cakes   are  soma- 
times  called  Camava  or  Cataada  Bread.    It  is  also 
imported  into  Britain,  to  be  used  in  manufactoriM 
as  starch.     The  true  starch  of  M.,  eeparated  in  the 
ordinary  manner  from  the  fibre,  is  al«o  imported  in 
considerable  quantity  into  Britain,  under  the  name 
of  BraxiUan  ArTovj-rnot ;  and  from  it  Tapiooa  1) 
made,   by  heating   it  on  hot  plates,  and   stirring 
wtUi  an  iron  rod;   the   starch'graius  bnrst,  some 
of  the  starch  is  converted  into  dextrine,  and  thie 
whole   a^lomeratca   into   small   irregular  miisa, 
— Another  speciee  or  variety  of  M.  is  also  cnlti* 
vated,  the  roots  of  which  contain  a  perfectly  bland 
juice,  and  are  eaten  raw,  roasted,  or  boiled,    Thia, 
the  SwKBT  Cassava  or  SwErr  Joca  (Jf.  Aipi  of 
some  botanists,  said  to  be  a  native  of  Africa  as 
well  OS   of  America),  is  described  as  having  the 
leaves   G-parted,   and   the    coot    of   longer   shape 
than  the    common   or  bitter   cassava,   and   much 
smaller ;   only  about  six  ounces  in  weight   (other 
accounts  make  it  as  large).— The  M.  ia  easily  propv 
gated  by  cuttings  of  the  stem,  and  is  of  npid  growth, 
attaining  maturity  in  six  months.     The  produce  is 
at  least  six  timee  that  of  wheat 
MANIPCE.    See  Cas3AT. 
MA'NIS,  a  genus  of  lln^mmATia,  of  the  Older 
Edmlata,   containing   several    ipeoiea,    natives    ol 
Africa  and  the  warm  parts  of  Asia,  and  in  their 
habits  and  many  of  their  charaoten  closely  reaon- 
bling  the  Ant-eaten  (q.  v.)  of  South  America ;  bat 


,v  Google 


HANTSSA— ICANKA  QRA8S. 


hsTuig,  aakMig  oQwr  diSenuuxa,  the  body  and  the 
tail  covered  with  an  armoni  of  large  ■harp'^dged 
and  pointed  acalea.  The  speciea  aie  pretty  nameroai. 
One,  reniarkiibU  for  the  length  of  it*  tail,  the 
PhaUagen  of  Uie  ancianta  {H.  tetradacU/ia),  inhabita 
Western  Africa.  It  ia  about  Gre  feet  long,  of 
which  the  tail  ooonpiee  three  feeL — Another,  the 
Bhobt-iulkd  M.  {M.  penladaOyla),  ia  oonunon  in 
many  parti  of  the  Baat  Indiea. 

UAKI'SSA  (aiux  if(vn«*la  ad  S^i^m),  a  town 
«{  Aaia  Uinor,  on  the  •oath  bank  Ot  the  Sarabat 
(iren)uu),28mileBnMth-eaatcif Smrcna.  Itaboundi 
in  hw^r"""  public  buildinga.  Silk  and  cotton 
raanuEactnTea  are  carried  on.  Pop.  ■^-  --  -'-  -■-'-' 
at  39,000  and  60,000.    The  aaoieot  L] 


itulvitated 
D  Magnuia 


one,  generally  called  Magnena  ad  Maandrvm. 

MANITOBA,    See  Rkd  Ritbb  Sbttlkmbst. 

MATTITOiriilK  ISLA1TD8— wxnprimng  Orand 
Manitonlin,  or  Sacred  Isle;  Little  Hamtoulin,  or 
Cockbom  ble,  belon^ng  to  Britain;  and  Driun. 
mond  Me,  belonging  to  th«  ttate  of  Michigan — 
are  lituated  in  I^ke  Hunm,  from  whoM  northern 
■hore  they  are  leparated  by  a  ohaonel  varying  from 
7  to  IS  milM  in  breadth.  Qrnnd  Mttnitoulin  ia  90 
miles  lonfb  by  5  to  30  broadj  Little  Manitonlin  is 
ciicnlar  in  ahap^  and  has  a  diameter  of  7  miles ; 
Dmmmond  Isle  is  24  miles  long,  E>y  trom  S  to 
12  broad.  All  are  irr^ular  and  striking  in  their 
natural  faatiiree,  and  tbs  Grand  and  Little  Mani- 
tonlin are  covered  with  large  and  dense  forests  of 
pine.    Pop.  aboTe  20UO,  mostly  Indians. 

MAMS,  HoEtoc,  LL.D.,  American  (tstesnuui 
and  educationist,  was  bom  at  Franklin,  Massa- 
ehnsstla,  Ua^  4,  1796,  gndoated  at  Brown  Uni- 
vwdty.  Providence,  and  commenced  the  study  of 
law.  Elected  to  the  legislature  of  Masssohnsetts 
in  1627,  his  first  speech  was  in  tavottr  of  religions 
liberty,  and  his  second  a  plea  for  raihrayi.  He 
was  an  advocate  of  temperance,  and  a  founder  of 
the  State  Lnnatio  Asylum.  Eranoving  to  Boston, 
he  waa  elected,  I83S,  to  the  state  senate,  of  which 
he  became  preadent.  After  editing  the  revised 
atatntea  of  the  state,  he  was  for  deTai  years 
Seoretaiy  of  tiie  Boud  of  Edncati<m.  He  gave 
op  bustnesi  and  politics,  and  devoted  his  ^ole 
fame  to  the  oanae  of  edoeation,  introduosd  normal 
■oboola  and  paid  committees,  and,  in  1843,  made 
a  visit  to  educational  estaUishments  in  Enrop& 
His  Report  was  reprinted  both  in  Encland  and 
Ameiica.  For  eleven  years,  he  worked  fi&ien  hours 
a  day,  held  teachers'  conventions,  gave  lectnre*, 
and  oonducted  a  large  oorreepondence.  In  1S4S, 
he  was  elected  to  (ingress,  as  the  luoceesor  of 
er-preddent  John  Qnlnoy  Adams,  whoae  example 
he  followed  in  euergetio  opposition  to  the  extension 
of  slavery.    At  the  end  01  bit  Una,  he  aooepted  the 

Sreaidenoy  of  Antioch  CoUegei  at  Ydlow  Springs, 
ihio,  established  for  the  edoeation  of  both  sezce, 
where  he  laboured  witii  seal  and  success  until  his 
death,  AngoK  2,  I3S9.  His  tirinoipal  works  are 
hit  educational  reports,  and  Slavery,  Letlen,  and 


HA'NIf  A,  a  species  of  sugar  which  ezndea  from 
incisiona  made  m  the  stems  of  the  Manna  Ash 

b),  a  ikative  ot  the 


ir  Augnst,  tl 
le  bark  to  th 


rising  nntH  the  branohss  am  reached,   and  then 


some  of  the  latest  are  also  cmL  ^te  following 
year,  the  other  side  of  the  tree  is  opsrated  upon, 
and  tiiis  alternation  gives  the  bark  time  to  heaL 
If  the  weather  is  warm  and  favourable,  the  manna 
bqpns  to  oose  out  of  the  cnts  slowly,  and  to 
haiden  in  lunms  or  flakes,  which  are  from  tints  to 
time  removed  by  the  oolleiotors.  Maima  is  a  light 
porons  tnbataoDe,  of  a  yellowish  colour,  not  nnllka 
hardened  honey,  but  harder  and  drier.  There  ar« 
various  qualities  known  in  commeroe,  aooording  t» 
the  time  of  eoUection,  the  goodnos  of  the  season, 
and  other  csnsea.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  medicine, 
having  a  gentie  purgative  effect,  which  rendera  it 
valn^le  for  odnunirtration  to  very  young  ehildren. 
It  omitistB  uindpally  of  a  ct^tallisable  au^ 
osllad  MaiuMt,  and  an  onctystAllisable  sugar,  which 
posBSBss  the  sweet  and  porgative  properties.  Then 
are  several  other  manna- yi^ding  plsnti  besides  the 
sab,  Bspecislly  the  manna-beanng  Enoalyptna  of 
Australia  {SMeaiyptua  nxmni/ira),  which  is  non. 
pnintive,  and  ia  a  favourite  sweetmeat  with  the 
children  of  that  oonntry.  Small  qouitities  are  foimd 
on  the  oommon  larch  (Lara  Buropixiu),  in  some 
districts ;  this  kind  is  known  under  the  name  of 

minute  qnantities  from  various  mushrooms,  and  from 
the  frond)  of  some  sea-weeds. 

The  maona  ot  the  Israelitei,  which  tiiey  ate 
duriDg  their  wanderings  in  the  wildemeet,  appears 
probably,  as  shewn  by  Ebrenberg  in  bis  Syniboia 
Phytiat  (Fseo.  i  1823),  to  have  been  the  saccharine 
nibstance  called  Jfounf 
produced  In  that 
ntonni/'era,  a  specie 
bnmcnes  of  which  it  falls 
not,  however,  oontain  any  maiuute,  but  connsts 
wholly  of  macilsginoos  sugar.  The  exudation 
which  eoQcretea  into  this  manna  is  caused  by  the 
punctures  made  in  the  bark  by  insects  of  the  genns 
Cocctu  [C.  mannipaTut),  which  sometimes  cover  the 
branches.  It  ia  a  kind  of  reddish  sirup,  sod  ia 
eaten  by  the  Arabs  and  by  the  monks  of  Mount 
Sinai  like  honey  with  their  bread.  It  has  been  very 
generally  suppoeed  that  the  manna  of  the  Jews  waa 
produced  by  a  speoies  of  Camel's  Thorn  (q,  v.). 

MANNA  CROUP,  or  MANNA  OROATS,  a 
kind  of  semolina,  prepared  in  Russia,  usually  from 
the  hard  wheats  of  Odeeaa  and  Taganrog.    In  " 


d  Taganroj, 
process  of  grinding  for  flour,  smatr  rounded  fnw- 


1  of  grinc  ^ 
nenta  of  these  hard  grains  are  obtained  from 
grooves  of  tha  grindmg^tooes,  and  these  oonsti- 
tuta  the  ordinary  manna  greats,  which  forms  one 
of  the  most  esteemed  materials  for  puddings.  It 
is  nndistingnishable  from  the  semolina  of  Italy. 
Another  kind  is  made  byJiusking  the  small  grain  of 
the  aquatic  grass,  Qlyceria  JhtUant,  which  is  care- 
fully ooUected  for  the  purpose  ;  it  is  expensivG,  and 
is  <nily  used  as  a  luxury.  Small  quantities  of  the 
oommonex  kind  are  occasionally  imported  for  use  in 
this  conntrj,  but  it  is  by  no  means  suffioienUy  well 

MABNA  GRASS  [Glfctria  JhUmt,  or  Foa 
jiuifani],  a  gnus  plentiful  in  marshes,  ditches,  and 
by  the  sides  ot  stagnant  pools  in  Britain,  and  most 
I»rts  of  Snntpe ;  found  a&o  in  Asia,  North  America, 
and  New  Holland.  It  is  also  known  as  FhU  Facue, 
Floatmg  Stool  Mtadow  Qtom,  Sm.  It  variea  in 
height  m>m  one  toot  to  three  feet,  and  has  a  lonA 
slender,  neaiiy  erect' panicle,  the  branches  c^  whl^ 
sn  at  first  erect  and  apprcMod  to  the  rachis;  tlM 
sjHkeletB  awnless,  slender,  cylindrical,  an  inch  lou 
m  nearly  so,  with  7 — 20  florets;  tiie  ^umet  smi^ 
nneqnal,  and  obtuse;  the  outer  palea  with  seven 
prominent  ribs  and  a  loembranous  mu^n ;  a  aotja 
of  one  thiok  fleshy  [nao«h   1^  steins  are  deonmbent 


,,  Google 


MANiraBS-ttANWraG  THE  TARDa 


at  the  bus,  uid  rootiDX  at  the  jointa ;  the  leeTw 
long  and.  rather  broao,  the  lower  onen  often 
floating.  M.  O.  k  peTennlal,  and  useful  in  iirieateil 
meadows  and  in  very  wet  eroands,  affording  large 
■  of  food  for  catM.      In  nutnj  parta  of 


ii^  a  cloth  under  the  panicles  and  ahaldng  them 
witli  a  stick;  thej  ara  used  in  soups  and  graels, 
-~e  yeiy  palatable  and  nntritiouB,  and  are  known  in 

lopt  as  PoUJi  Manna,  ManTta  Setdt,  and  Manna 
Croup  (q.  v.).  They  are  a  favourite  food  of  gee«e, 
and  are  also  eagerly  devoured  by  carp  and  other 
kinda  of  fiah. — Akin  to  this  grass  u  the  Reed 
Headow  Oran,  Water  Ueadow  Grass  or  Reedjr 
Sweet  Water  Qraa*  {Olyceria  or  Poa  amatiea], 
a  still  laj^er  grass,  with  very  abundant  herbs 
the  most  ^^notive,  indeed,  of  all  British  fodi 
grasses,  growing  in  ponds,  ditches,  marshes,  and  the 
sides  of  rivers,  often  wbere  they  are  tidaL  Hay 
made  of  it  is  greatly  preferred  to  that  of  other  bog 
grasses.  Its  rapid  growth  often  chokea  up  water- 
channels,  so  that  thej  most  be  cleared  o(  it. 

MAIf  If  ERS,  Tkb  FiJOLT  or.  This  noble  famO^ 
are  of  Northumbrian  extraction,  Uieir  ancestor,  °'- 
Hobert  de  Manners,  having  been  lord  of  the  mai 
of  Ethale,  or  Etal,  in  that  county  in  the  13th 
eentory.  His  descendant,  also  Sir  Robert  de 
Manners,  temp.  Edward  III.,  was  governor  of  the 
important  border  fortress  of  Norham  Castle.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  VL,  we  find  another  Sir  Robert  de 
Mannen  acting  as  sheriff  of  Northumberland  ;  his 
^andson  was  raised  to  the  earldom  of  Rutland  by 
_enry  VIII. ;  and  the  tenth  earl  was  rused  to  the 
dukedom  in  1602.  The  eldest  son  of  the  third  duks 
was  the  celebrated  Marquis  of  Oranby  (q.  v.]. 

MATINHEIM,  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
Rhenisii  palatinate,  now  the  moat  important  trading 
town  in  Badett,  and,  after  Cologne  and  Coblenta, 
im  most  important  on  the  Rhine,  is  sitnatod  in 
I  fertile  plain,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
it  the  junction  of  the  Neckai,  about  18  miles 
below  the  city  of  Spires.  The  site  of  the  town 
is  low,  and  a  high  dyke  protects  it  from  inunda- 
tions. A  bridge  of  boats  crosses  the  Rhine,  which 
is  here  1200  feet  in  breadth,  and  a  chain-bridge 
the  Neckar.  The  town  is  remarkable  for  its  clean- 
liness and  regularity,  the  whole  of  it  being  laid 
out  in  quadrangular  blocks.  Its  fortiUcations  were 
destroyed  after  the  peace  of  Lunfiville,  and  gardens 
now  occupy  their  place.  The  palace,  built  1 720 — 
1729  by  the  Elector  Palatine  Karl  FbUipp,  is  one 
of  the  largest  buildings  of  the  kind  in  Germany. 
The  city  contains  a  lyceum  with  a  library,  a  botanic 
garden,  an  observatory,  Ac.  Tobacco,  stuwls,  linen, 
and  playing-cards  are  manafaotnred,  and  there  are 
several  tanneries  and  bleach-works.  A  thriving 
trade  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  boats  on  the  Neckar 
and  Rhine.  About  660D  vessels,  of  270,000  tons, 
enter  and  clear  the  port  annually.  M.  is  con- 
nected by  railway  with  the  chief  towns  of  Germany. 
Pop.  (1880)  63,605.— M.  was  a  mere  village  till  the 
beginniog  of  the  ITth  c,  when  a  castle  was  bnilt 
by  the  fUector  Palatine  Frederick  IV.,  aroand 
which  a  town  grew  up,  chiefly  peopled  by  exiles 
for  religion  from  the  Netherlaada.  It  was  several 
times  £ikeu  and  retaken  daring  the  wars  of  the 
17th  a.,  totally  destroved  bv  the  French  in  the  end 
of  that  century,  rebuilt,  and  strongly  fortified. 

MANNING,  Henrt  Edward,  a  cardinal  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  was  bom  16th  July  180S,  at 
Tottoridge  in  Hertfordshire,  and  was  educated  at 
Barrow  and  Balliol  -  College.  While  at  Oxford  he 
[  was  remarkable  aa  an  eluqnent  preacher,  and  as 
a  leader  of  the  Tractarian  party.  In  1834  he 
see 


obtained  a  country  rectory,  and  io  1840  became 
Archdeacon  of  Chichester.  In  1861,  however,  M. 
left  the  Church  of  England,  and  joining  the  Church 
of  Rome,  was  made  prieat  in  1867.  For  a  time 
superior  of  a  monastic  house,  he  was  in  1865 
appointed  Catholic  Archbishop  of  Westminster. 
At  the  (Ecumenical  Council  o(  1870,  M.  was  one  of 
the  most  sealouB  supporters  and  promoters  of  tha 
infaUibility  dogma ;  and,  named  cardinal  in  1876, 
he  has  continned  an  influential  leader  of  fjie 
Vltramontrane  section  of  the  church.  Bnide* 
being  the  leading  spirit  in  moat  Catholic  move- 
ments in  England,  he  has  taken  part  in  many  nan- 
sectarian  good  worka,  and  has  dene  mnch  to  fm- 
K)ve  the  condition  of  the  poor  Irish  in  London. 
fore  his  secession  to  Rome,  M.  published  several 
volumes   of    powerful    sermons ;    since    then,    his 

Eubticationa  have  been  mainly  polemieaL  Amongst 
is  numeroni  volumes,  pamphlets,  and  artjcles  are 
discusaiona  of  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope,  inf^- 
libility,  the  Vatican  Council,  and  Ultramontanism. 
MANNING  THE  NAVT,  Cntii  a  looant 
ate,  sailors  only  engaged  themselvea  for  the  term 
a  certain  vessel  ahonid  be  in  commiasion,  which, 
there  was  a  tadt  understanding,  would  be  about 
five  years.  When  the  captain  hoisted  his  pendant, 
the  men  came  down  and  volunteered,  or  the  crimu 
in  some  manner  made  it  their  interest  to  produce 
them.  When  the  captain  was  a  popnlar  otBcer,  or 
noted  for  his  daring,  nis  crew  was  Boon  completed ; 
while,  when  his  reputation  was  that  of  a  martinet^ 
or  of  a  commander  under  whom  prize-money  would 
probably  be  scarce,  a  sliip  would  often  lie  for  weeks, 
)r  even  months  in  harbour,  while  the  authoritiea 
jought  in  vain  to  provide  her  complement  of  men. 
In  tlie  Napoleonic  and  former  wars,  when  aeamen 
were  ujrgently  needed,  and  knew  tiieir  value,  the 
presagang  was  resorted  to,  and  vacanciea  filled  by 
compulsion.    See  IfCPBEasmNT. 

At  present,  seamen  are  enoooraged  by  oontingent 
advantages  to  enlist  for  a  spedfled  nnmber  of  years, 
at  the  end  of  iriiich  they  become  entitled  to  perma- 
ent  peiisi<m.  On  the  paying  off  of  iJieir  ship,  these 
len  are  granted  libenl  leave,  after  which  IJiey  join 
dfipAt,  and  are  thence  drafted  to  some  other  vemel 
1  which  their  service*  are  required.  As  a  reserva 
for  times  of  emergency,  there  is  the  Royal  Navai. 
RssERVK  (q.v.),  upwards  of  20,000  strong,  a  very 
important  auxiliary.  The  Naval  Artillery  Volun- 
teert  (see  Voldkteers)  in  some  respects  take  the 
place  of  the  Coast  Volunteer*,  a  force  not  now 
maintained. 

The  JJutch,  Danish,  and  Swedish  navies  are 
mainly  manned  by  volonteen,  as  is  that  of  the 
United  States  The  navies  of  France^  Rnsua,  and 
Italy  are  manned  by  conscripts  levied  in  the  mari- 
time proviaoes  of  the  respective  countries.  The 
German  ships  of  war  depend  on  the  law  of  oom> 
polsory  service  for  their  complement. 

MANNING  THE  YARDS,  in  » tiractioal  soiM, 
insista  in  sending  sufficient  men  aloft  and  on  to 
the  yards  to  furl  or  unfurl  the  sails :  in  a  compli- 
mentary sense,   the  yards  are  said  to  be  manned 
when  a  row  of  sailors,  with  their  hands  touching, 
ranged  along  them,  standing  on  tiie  yard  itee^ 
balding  to  a  rope  which  runs  across  about 
breast-high  oetween  tbe  lifts.    When  the  men  are 
all   in  clean  whito   uniforms,  the   act  of  manning 
the  yards  has  a  singularly  lively  and  picturesque 
effect.    It  is  resorted  to  when  any  great  personage 
the  ship  or  comee  on  txurd,  or  in  corn- 
great  event ;  but  as  the  opera- 


far  mote  rarely  than  used  to  be  the  i 


i.LiOOglC 


MAimiTE-MASSB. 


HANNITE,   or  MUSHROOM    SUGAR 

!0i,H,,O,t),  ii  apeenlitur  sacGharme  matber  vhioh 
moa  the  prinoipAl  coiurtitattDt  of  M*"""  (q.  v.) ;  it 
n  liao  fonnd  in  sereral  kinds  of  fui^  in  MpftnguE, 
celery,  omona,  &o.  It  in  most  nadJy  obtomea  by 
digeatiug  ">«""»  in  hot  alcohoL  On  oooling  the 
Shared  lolution,  the  mannite  is  deposited  in  crystals, 
which  us  very  aolable  in  mter,  and  possess  a  sweet 
taste.  It  is  not  naoeptible  of  alcohohc  fermantation, 
and  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  oane  and 
giape  SQgar  by  lim^e  testa.  Heated  with  hydrate 
of  potash,  it  givee  a  mixture  of  acetate,  formate,  and 
Tafaianate  <d  potash,  hydrogen  being  evolved. 

Sf  AlfNTTS,  according  to  Tadtus,  the  name  given 
W  the  Germans  to  the  con  of  the  earth-bom  god 
TutKO.  Prom  his  three  dons,  they  derived  tfiair 
three  great  tribes,  the  Tnganonet,  the  Itkavonet,  and 
the  Henmuma.  M.  belon;^  not  to  the  Teutonio 
people  alone,  bat  to  the  great  mytbos  of  the  origin 
of  the  human  raoe,  conmion  to  the  whole  Aryan 
family,  and,  like  the  Hindu  Mami  at  Marm»,  stuids 
forth  as  the  progeniter  of  the  inhabitants  (^  earth 
endowed  with  reason.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  Aryan  root  man,  to  thinlL^Compare  WacLer- 
nagel  in  Hanpf  s  Zatadv^fl  Jvr  DeuttiAe*  AU^lhum 

HANOBI.,  Don  FiUMcnBCO,  the  moat  emineot 
d  modem  Portuguese  lyric  posts,  was  bom  at 
LdaboD  in  1734,  Md  devoting  himself  to  the  pur- 
soits  of  literature,  acquired  ahigh  reputation.  The 
hostility  of  the  Inqniaition  compelled  him,  however, 
to  abaodoD  his  oatire  country.  He  took  Qp  his 
rtndenoe  at  Paris,  where  he  died,  2Cth  Februai; 
IS19.  There  are  more  editions  than  one  of  his  Obrat 
eompkbu.    His  Odas  are  highly  esteemed. 

HANCEU'TKB,  a  French  word,  si^i^ng 
'  handy-work,'  is  somewhat  vaguely  used  in  English 
mUitaiy  and  naval  language  to  denote  collateral 
movements,  not  openly  apparent,  of  bodies  of  men 
ta  squadrons  of  slupe,  by  which  an  enemy  is  coerced, 
m  by  which  i^  is  sought  to  compel  him  to  take  some 
DoniBe  adverse  to  his  interests. 

MAN-OP-WAB,  an  expresdon,  ol  unknown 
orwi)>t  foi*  on  armed  vessel  canying  cannon,  and 
be^iging  to  some  CMistitated  and  acknowledged 
government  As  such,  she  posMsses  the  privilege 
of  war :  her  daok  is,  by  a  l^al  fiction,  taken  to 
be  a  portion  of  the  toil  of  the  nation  whose 
flag  she  hoists :  in  time  of  war,  she  ia  justified  in 
attacking,  sinking,  bnmioK,  or  destroying  the  ships 
and  goods  of  the  foe,  and  by  the  law  o!  nations, 
she  may  stop  and  search  the  mercbont-vesBela  of 
nentral  powers  which  she  Buspects  of  carrying  aid 
to  her  enemy.  See  Cohtkabaicxi.  In  case  of  bein^ 
oveipowared,  the  orew  oE  a  man-of-war  are  entitled 
to  the  ordinary  mercy  granted  to  vanquished  com- 
batanta,  lawfully  Gghtii^  Any  vessel  making  war, 
but  not  belonging  to  an  acknowledged  government, 
is  either  a  Pnvateer  (see  Letteb  ox  MIIbqox)  or  a 
Pirate  (see  Pikacy). 

HAN-OF-WAB  BIRD.    See  Fbioat*  Bibd. 

MANaMETEB  (Or.  maaot,  thin,  rare)  is 
properly  an  InstmmeDt  for  measnring  the  rarit^  of 
the  air  or  of  other  eases ;  but  the  name  is  most 
frequently  applied  to  mstmnients  for  indicating  the 
elastic  force  of  K««e«,  which  is  always  inversely 
OToportbnal  to  Uieir  rarity.  The  several  kinds  of 
Barometers  [q.  v.]  are  really  manometett,  and  so  is 
the  steam-gauge  of  a  Steam-engine  (q.  v.). 

UAITOK,  in  EiuUsh  Law,  is  a  freehold  estate 
held  by  the  lord  of  the  manor,  who  is  entitled  by 
faoniemorial  cnrtom  to  maintain  a  tenure  between 
himself  and  the  oopybold  tenairta,  whereby  a  kind 


of  feudal  relation  ia  ke{^  up  between  them.  A^ 
however,  subinfeudation  in  Buglan'l  was  prohibited 
by  the  statute  of  Qaia  Emptora,  in  the  reign  of 
£!dward  L,  and  no  manor  could  be  created  since  that 
data,  it  follows  that  all  existing  monora  must  trace 
their  origin  from  before  that  time.  Copyhold  estate* 
are*  thus  a  relic  at  ancient  feudalism,  and  form  an 
exception  to  the  general  rule  in  England,  where 
freeholdi  form  the  highest  kind  of  estate  known  to 
the  law.  See  Copyhold.  Manors  closely  resemble 
the  feudal  eotate  held  in  SooUand  by  all  prcprietoi* 
of  land,  who  have  to  tbis  day  unlimited  powers  M 
snbinfeudatioo,  which  they  oonetantly  act  upon, 
and  thus  keep  up  a  chain  of  vassals.    ^  Fsn. 

UANRENT  [mora  properly,  Manskd),  Bonds  of, 
agreement*  which  used  to  lie  entered  into  in  Uie 
Highlands  of  Scotland  between  tlie  greater  and 
leaser  mssnatea,  where  protection  on  the  one  hand 
was  stipulated  in  return  for  allegiance  on  the  other. 
Such  bonds  were  common  up  te  two  or  three  cen- 
turies ago,  the  royal  authori^  being  comparatively 
powerless  to  repreaa  internal  warure  among  the 
faatnesses  of  the  north  and  west. 

MAN'S,  Li,  a  city  of  Prance,  formerly  capital  of 
the  proviooe  of  Mune,  now  of  the  department  of 
Sarthe,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  of  that  name, 
132  miles  S.-W.  of  Paris  by  railway.  The  chief 
edifice  is  the  cathedral,  ccntaining  the  tomb  of 
Berengaria  of  Sicily,  the  queen  of  Richard  CiBur  de 
Lion.  There  is  a  public  ubraiy  of  60,000  volomea, 
and  several  artistic  and  acientiuc  institutions  The 
town  mannfactures  wai-eandles,  woollens,  laoe,  soap, 
and  hosiery,  and  is  famous  for  its  poultry,  of  whidi 


1870— 1871,  in  which  the  French  were  defeated  with 
the  loss  of  20,000  prisoner*.  Pop  (ISSl)  55,347.  Le 
M.  (anc^  Gauymam)  was,  in  the  age  of  Charlemagne, 
one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  Franktsh  empire. 

MANSARD  BOOP,  a  form  of  roof  invented  b* 
Ptancia  Mansart,  a  distinguished  French  arohitaai 
of  the  17(h  century.     It  ia 
constructed  with  a  break  j^^^^ 

in  the  alope  of  the  roof,  ao  ^^     ^s^ 

tiiat  each  aids  has  two 
planes,  the  lower  being 
steeper  than  the  upper. 
The  framework  ought  to 
be  arranged  so  that  its 
parte  are  in  eqailibrinm. 
Thia  kind  of  roof  has  the 
advantage 


UonuidRoot 


form  of  giving  mon 
spaoe  in  the  roof  for  living  room. 

HANSE,  in  Sootch  Law,  is  the  designation  of  a 
dwelling-house  of  the  minister  of  the^tabliahed 
Church,  and  in  popular  use  the  term  is  often 
applied  generally  to  the  dwelling-house  of  any 
— '"'-ter  of  a  dissenting  congr^ation,  thon^  no 
right  existB  in  the  latter  case.  In  the  Eatab- 
1  Church,  every  minister  of  a  rural  pariah  is 
entitled  to  a  mause,  which  the  lieritors  or  landed 
proprietors  are  bound  te  build  and  uphold:  u>d 
he  is  also  entitled,  as  part  of  the  manse,  to  a 
stable,  cowhouse,  and  guden.  The  manse  must, 
by  itatute,  be  near  te  the  church.  The  usual  sum 
allowed  of  late  years  to  build  a  manse  is  £100a 
It  has  often  been  made  a  queation,  how  far  the 
heritors  can  be  oompelled  te  rebuild  a  manse 
which,  by  time  or  other  circnmstancea,  haa  become 
inadeqiiate.  It  ia  now  held  to  be  the  law,  that  ft 
least  the  presbytery  has  power  to  order  sufficient 
altaations  ijld  additiona,  and  they  can  ordv  a 
visitation,  and  take  estimates  from  skilful  trade*- 
I,  and  decree  what  is  neoeasaiy  to  be  don&  It 
inly  the  oiiiuster*  of  rural  parishes  that  ai« 


,,G00gl( 


UAKSEL-UANTIOEB. 


entitled  to  >  iiiaii««>  and  not  miniaten  of  a  k^vI 
bnrgh  when  there  is  no  landward  district. 

UAIfSEL,  Hknkt.    See  Sore.,  VoL  X. 

HA'NSFIBLD,  a  m&rket-toint  of  England,  in 

the  txiimty  of  Nottingham,  and  14  miles  north  of 
the  town  of  that  nuns,  ia  nuTonnded  by  the  repuina 
of  the  ancient  foreat  of  Shenrood.  It  atandi  in  the 
centre  of  a  large  maaafactming  and  mining  district, 
and  oontaini,  among  other  mititutiana,  a  Royal 
Free  Qrammar  School,  with  an  annnaJ  income  from 
endowmeDt  of  £2fi0.  Silk.,  ootton,  and  dnnbling  mills 
ne  in  operation,  and  the  com  and  cattle  markets  are 
Urgel;  attended.  Pop.  (1871)  11,824 ;  (ISSl)  13,651. 
HAHSFIELD,  WnjjAM  Mdbiut,  Easl  or, 
Lard-ehief-jnEticc  of  the  King's  Bench,  vu  Urn 
toarih  son  of  Andrew,  'Vuoonnt  Stormont,  and  wM 
bom  at  Perth,  2d  March  170i.  He  studied  at 
Christ-Church,  Oxford,  took  the  degree  of  MJL  in 
1730,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1731.  He  soon 
acquired  an  extemdve  praotice— mainly,  it  voold 
■eem,  on  account  of  his  facility  and  force  as  a 
■peaker,  for  neither  then  nor  at  any  lubgequinit 
period  of  bis  career  was  he  reckoned  a  Tery  erudite 
lawyer— and  was  often  employed  on  ap[«al  oases 
before  the  House  of  Lord*.  In  1743,  he  wu 
appointed  by  the  ministry  Solidtor-genenl,  entered 
toe  Honse  of  Commons  a*  membm  for  Borons- 
bridge,   and   at   onoe  took   a  high  position.      Ja 


lel  against  t 
1   Kimiamoc] 


rebel  lords,  LoTat,  fialmerino^  and  Kilmamock ; 
ns  appointed  King's  Attorney  in  1754 ;  and  at  this 
time  stood  so  hi^  that  had  not  the  keenness  of 
bis  ambition  been  mitigated  by  a  well-founded 
distrust  of  his  fitness  for  leading  the  House,  he 
might  have  aspired  to  the  highest  political  honoors. 
He  became  (Aiief- justice  of  the  King's  Bench  in 
1796,  and  altered  ths  House  of  Lords  onder  the 
title  of  Baron  Mansfield  of  Mansfield,  in  the 
oonnty  of  Nottingham.  Still,  his  political  rOie  has 
Uttie  interest  for  posterity.  As  his  opinions  were 
not  those  of  the  popular  sida,  he  was  erposed 
to  mnch  abuse  and  partr  hatred.  Junius,  among 
others,  bitterly  attacked  him ;  and  during  the 
Ooidon  riots  of  1780,  his  house,  with  all  his  valu- 
able books  and  manosoripts,  was  burned.  He 
declined,  with  much  dignity,  indemnification  by 
parliament.  In  1776,  Munay  was  made  Earl  of 
MansSeld.  He  worked  hard  sa  a  jndge  tdll  1738, 
when  age  and  ill-bealth  forced  him  to  resisn.  Hs 
died  SOth  March  1793,  in  the  88tb  year  of  his  age. 

UA'MSLAUGHTEIt  is,  in  Scotland,  the  offence 
of  causing  the  death  of  a  person  by  some  careless- 
Desa  or  neglect.  In  England,  the  imenoe  is  nsuaily 
called  Colpahle  Homicide. 

HANTOHITRIA,  a  territory  in  Eastern  Ama, 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  extend- 
ing between  lab  42*  and  63°  H.,  and  bounded, 
according  to  its  pressnt  limits,  by  the  Ainnr  on  tbe 
ninth ;  by  the  Usuri  and  the  Snngacdia  on  the  east, 

"      'an  maritime  territoiy 

1  r«Dge  on  the  sooth, 
'  *  portion  of  the 
[uren,  and  the 
district  of  the  upper  Snngari,  which  separate  it  on 
Uia  west,  from  the  desert  of  Oobi  nevionaly  to 
the  iocnrsions  of  the  Knisians  on  the  north,  the 
area  of  this  territory  was  about  682,000  square 
mUee ;  it  is  now  about  378,000  square  miles ;  nearly 
one-half  haring  passed  into  the  possession  of  the 
Eussistu,  who  concluded  a  treatf  with  the  Chbeee, 
14th  HoTsmber  1860,  finally  ntsJciiig  over  to  them, 
selves  ill  the  territory  Mat  of  the  Csnri  and  north 
and  east  of  the  Amur.  Popolation  (formerly  giren 
at4,000,000)  nowstatedat  12,000,000.  M.  Udivided 
Into  three  raovinces,  Shing-King — formerly  Lettotong 

no 


irtiiab  alone  oontaios  upwards  of  2;100,000  inhabil- 
ant^  and  tite  chM  town  of  which,  Mnkden,  is  the 
seat  oE  goTetnment  for  the  three  proTinoes— Oinu 
or  Kirin,  and  Tsi-tsi-har.  "Hie  ooontoj  is  moon- 
tunous,  AtaMj  wooded  in  tbe  sonth,  bat  oondstiiig 
chiefly  of  pminea  and  nass-land  in  the  Dorth.  It  is 
weU  watnad  and  frattml  in  the  Tall^^  The  rivers 
are  the  Amur  (the  northern  boundaiy),  the  Usuri 
(the  eastern  boondary),  sad  the  Sungari,  which 
waters  the  two  provinces  of  Oirin  and  Tsi-tai-har. 
TfaeSnngvi  is  about  1200  miles  in  length ;  itsbank% 
which  form  the  moat  densely-peofded  region  of  l£, 
are  low  and  fertile,  and  its  geoeiid  couiM  is  north- 
east to  its  junction  with  the  Anmr.  About  200  milas 
from  its  souroe,  it  passes  the  flonrishing  trading 
dty  oE  Qirin,  in  lat  43*  40'  N^  with  a  popnlatioo 
varionsly  estimated  at  from  160,000  to  160,000,  and 
inhabited  by  Mautoh  OS  and  Chinese,  bnt  by  the  latter 
in  far  greater  numbem.  The  city  of  Mukden,  on 
the  Sire-Muren,  is  large  and  beaatifnl,  surrounded 
by  walla,  and  oontninmg  200.000  inhabitants.  In 
1631,  itwas  the  seat  of  t^gOTemment  of  tbe  empire 
of  Mantchu.  Millet,  barley,  tobacco,  and  oats  are 
lar^ly  produced,  and  herds  of  cattie  are  fed  <m  the 
prairiea.  Chinese  form  the  great  bulk  of  the  popu- 
lation ;  ths  Mantchos  are  for  the  most  part  soHiers, 
and  are  drafted  out  of  the  country  into  China.  For 
the  history  of  M.,  see  Chihbb  EIkfirb. 

The  Mantchus  are  the  preeeut  nilen  of  China, 
who  gradually  subjugated  the  country ;  the  first 
emperor  of  the  new  dynasty,  Sbonche,  snooeeding 
the  last  of  the  Mings  in  1644.  They  an  not  a 
nomadio  race  like  the  Mongols,  but  are  given  to 
agriculture  or  hunting,  acoordiog  to  tbe  part  of 
their  country  they  inbabit.  Tbey  are  of  a  lighter 
compIeiiDn  and  slighUy  heavier  build  than  tke 
Chinese,  have  the  same  conformstitHi  of  tht  eye- 
lids, but  rather  more  beard,  and  their 


C"  ina,  and  the^  are  leas  under  the  prieatbood- 
Mantchus,  m  short,  may  be  regarded  as  tha 
most  improvable  race  in  Central  Asix,  if  not  on  the 
continent. 

MANTELL,  QiDEOK  Aloernoh,  an  eminent 
British  palsontologiat  and  geologist,  wss  bom  at 
Lewea,  in  SosBex,  in  1790 ;  atodied  medicine,  and  fbr 
some  time  pnictiaed  in  his  native  town.     Snbse- 

Sjotly,  ha  removed  to  Brighton,  and  thence  to 
ndoii,  where  he  died,  November  10,  1862i  M.'s 
principal  works  are — FoaiU  of  tAe  South  Dmen* 
{1822)  i  The  FotmU  qf  TOgaU  Forai;  Wonda-t  of 
Qeotogy  (1S38),  perhaps  the  moet  popiilaj  geologiod 
work  ever  written  by  an  Englishman ;  aiul  MedaU 
d/*  Crtation,  or  Fir^  L«mofU  m  Geology  (1844). 
He  was  a  very  voluminous  writer,  no  less  than 
67  works  and  memoin  of  his  being  mentioned  in 
Agasaii  and  Strickland's  Sibiiolheca  Zoologut  el 
Otologia.  His  claims  to  a  ^lenoaoent  plaee  in  Qm 
history  of  science  rest  chiefly  on  his  laborious 
investigations  into  the  foenls  <rf  the  Wealden  beds. 
To  him,  we  owe  the  disoovery  and  deseriptiim  of 
four  out  of  five  oE  the  great  Dmosanrian  reptiles-^ 
viz.,  the  Iguanodon,  the  HyttKtaurv*,  the  Pdoro- 
taunu,  and  the  Regnotawna. 

MANTBLPIEOB,  the  lintel  over  the  ^>euiwt 
of  a  flieplaoe  supporting  the  mssonry  above,  u 
was  in  ancient  times  fnquenUy  ornamented  with 
mouldings  and  cftrvinoi  The  name  is  now  apidied 
to  the  marble  or  wooden  jambs,  lintel,  and  shdf,  so 
universally  used. 

MA'NTID.a:.    See  Minna. 

MA'NTIQEB,  at  UANT&ORE,  a  monster  wiQi 
the  bodf  of  a  t^er,  the  hMd  oE  an  old  man^  and 
long  wpzA  boms.     It  is  one  of  the  iniaguaty 


■;■■  '^lOO'^IC 


MA^rnSBA.— MANTLmO. 


itf  lum  knovn  in  heraldic  blazon,  and  ia  Tari<niil7 
repreaented,  vometiinei  with  the  homa  of  an  ox 
and  feet  of  a  dragon.  The  aapporten  of  the  Earl 
of  Hnntingdoa  are  mant4gr«a  inthoat  horni. 

HANTINE'A,  andently.  a  ciir  of  Arcadia,  in  the 
PeloponnEsiu,  on  the  boraani  of  Argolii.  It  waa 
Rtnated  OD  the  river  Ophia,  in  the  midst  of  a  broad 
plain,  and  woe  famcnui  as  being  the  scene  of  aeTeral 
battles,  of  which  the  most  important  was  that 
fought  between  the  Spartaog  and  the  Thebans  nnder 
Epuninondaa  (382  B.C.),  in  which  the  former  were 
defeated.  Ita  nte  ia  now  called  Fakeopoli.  Some 
Rnni  still  remain,  the  principal  of  which  are  those 
of  a  theatre  whose  diameter  was  240  feet  See 
Colonel  Leake's  TVomI*  In  Ihe  ifor«a  (Lond.  1830). 

UAIfTIS,  a  T.lnnaaan  genns  of  orthoptcroiiB 
inaecta,  which  included  not  only  those  now  con- 
ititntliig  the  family  Maalida,  but  also  the  Phatmida 
(Leaf-iiuects,  Spectre-insects,  Walking-stick  insects, 
CO.).  All  of  them  are  of  very  remarkable  forms. 
^The  MantidjB  have  a  narrow,  compressed,  and 
elongated  abdomen,  and  a  long  thorax,  which  oon- 
lists  almost  entirely  of  the  first  segment.  The  head 
ia  triangular,  with  large  eyes,  three  small  item- 
matio  eyes,  and  rather  long  bristls-Uke  antemue. 
The  wings  fold  in  a  fan-hke  manner,  and  the  wing- 
eorera  are  lonf^  narrow,  and  thio.  The  second 
and  third  pair  of  le^  are  long  and  slender,  and 
are  used  only  for  locomotion ;  the  first  pair  an 
chiefly  used  a*  weapons  of  combat  ana  instm- 
menta  of  prehensioa,  and  have  the  ctma  anasaally 
'  -  '^  ■'      ' -'-J  long  luid   ' 

Szed  in  one  position,  moving  their  fore-lega  in'the 
air  to  catch  prey,  which  has  led  to  a  supentitdoos 
regard  for  them  as  praying  iruata,  and  to  many 
foolish  notions  and  legends  concerning  them.  One 
roeciee  [M.  refimom)  is  plentiful  in  the  sonth  of 
mtioa  and  is  Italy,  and  othera  are  freqaent  in 
WMDHr  parts  of  the  world.  The  Mantidn  not  only 
Ue  in  wmit  for  pr^,  bnt  move  about  in  qoeat  of  it. 


to  ight  with  each  other  for  the  : 

beholden.    Some  o(  the  Maotidn  (ganna  Smputa) 
have  tiie  forehead  produced  into  a  horn. 

HANTLE,  a  long  flowing  robe,  worn  in  the 
middle  agea  over  the  armour,  and  fastnied  by  a 
fibula  in  front,  or  at  tiia  right  shoulder.  The 
mantle  is  an  important  part  cd  the  official  insignia 
of  the  various  orders  of  knightliood.  Ladies  of 
rank    wore   wmi^nr   mantleo,    in   many   instances 


UA1TTLET,  a  tort  of  temporary  fortifloatioD 
Intended  to  protect  the  men  working  guns  in 
embrasnrea,  oasemates,  or  port-holea  from  the  bullets 
of  sharp-shooters.  The  mantlet  is  usmdly  made 
*"  be  hoisted  np  while  the  gimner  takes  aun,  and 

m  lowered  to  cover  the  whole  opening  except 
a  cireolar  aperture  for  the  muzzle  of  the  cannon. 
With  every  increase  in  the  range  and  precision  o{ 
smaU-anus,  mantlets  become  more  eaaential  for  the 
safety  of  gunners.  Mantleti  are  made  of  thick  fir, 
of  solid  oak  planks,  or  of  iron  platee,  the  last 
being  preferable,  as  the  lifbteat.  At  Sebaatopol,  the 
BasBiajia  effectively  blo^ed  their  embtatures  by 
thick  mantlets  of  plaited  rope  suspended  freely. 
A  mantlet  of  planks  or  iron  plates,  about  flv«  feet 
high,  and  oocasiooaUy  mount^  on  small  wheels,  is 
also  nsed  to  protect  sappers  working  at  the  end  of 
a  sap,  although  a  rolling  gabion  is  prefrared  for  this 
purpose  by  many  engineaa. 

MANTLING),  or  LAMBREQUIN,  a  heraldia 
depicted   as   hanging   down    from  the 


Uaatii  Be1igi< 


moling  slowly,  and  adTancing  stealthily  on  the 
viotdm.  Many  of  them  are  large  inseots.  Some  of 
the  Sonth  Americaa  onea  are  foor  inches  in  length, 
Hmv  are  all  of  v«ry  jmgnacions  dispodtioD,  the 
«unbat  oeneially  termmutng  iu  the  deoapitatioQ 
ni  on*  m  the  oombatants,  or  the  dividing  of  its 
bo^  in  some  part  by  the  legs  at  the  oUier ; 
and  the  viotor  enjoys  his  trinmph  in  eating  the 
Tanqnished.  In  China  and  some  other  parts  of 
ths  Bast,  these  insect  are  kept  in  eagea,  and  set 


helmet,  and  behind  the  escutcheon.  It  Ei  con- 
sidered to  represent  either  the  ooiutite,  an  orna- 
mental scarf  which  passed  round  the  body,  and 
over  the  shonlder  ;  or  the  military  mantle,  or  lobe 
of  estate.  When  intended  for  the  cointisB,  it  is 
oat  into  irregular  strips  and  curls  of  the  mo«t 
oaprioioua  forms,  whose  contortions  are  supposed  to 
inidieate  that  it  has  been  torn  into  that  ragged 
oondition  in  the  Geld  of  battle.  When  the  manUing 
te  treated  aa  a  lobe  of  estate,  the  bearing  of  the 
shield  are  sontetimesemfaroideredon  it.  Amantling 
adjosted  so  as  to  form  a  background  for  the  shield 
and  its  accessories,  constitntes  an  AAieBematt  tff 
Amu.  It  is  not  till  the  latter  end  of  Ihe  I4th  c. 
that  the  mantling  appears  as  a  heraldic  ornament 
on  seals.  In  Brrtish  heraldry,  the  mantling  of  the 
sovereign  is  of  gold  lined  with  ermine;  tiiat  ol 
peers,  m  crimson  velvet  lined  with  ermine.  Kni^ta 
and  gentlemen  have  generally  crimson  velvet  lined 
witii  white  satin;  but  sometimes  ths  livery  oolonn 


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UAHTUA— UANUBG. 


(lee  Litxbt)  m«  adopted  instiead,  aa  ii  i^nerally 
the  i»aetice  in  oontinental  teraldiy. 

MATITUA  (ItaL  Manlom),  Bn  (undent  city  ot 
LomWdj,  and  farmerlf  capital  of  a  duchy  of  «atae 
muDe,  but  now  belonglDg  to  the  kingdoDi  of  Italy, 
ie  dtuated  in  Ut  i^  9  3ir  N.,  loni;,  10°  4S  1"  £. 
Its  pop  {1881)  of  28,018  oompruea  a  number 
<A  Jews,  whoBa   oommerdal  inSaeaoe    and  aooial 


fay'  branohea  of  'the  Mincioi  the  waters  of  which 
■OTT^imd  the  city,  with  the  additLonal  defence  of 
■wampa  or  marahy  lakes.  It  is  the  most  strongly 
fortified  town  in  Italy,  bat,  owing  to  its  situation, 
it  extremely,  mihealthy — a  fact  eviiiced  by  the 
p«Uid  faces  of  the  mhabitanti.  There  are  five  gate- 
way* leadioE  into  the  city,  one  of  which.  La  Porta 
dei  Mtiimi,  deserrea  examination.  The  fortifioations 
ol  M.,  indndiag  its  vast  citadel,  present  such  a 
combination  of  defensive  resources,  that  its  r^ulsr 
inTcstment  conld  only  be  effected  by  a  numeronl 
army ;  and  its  reduction  erea  then  would  be  imprao- 
)le,  except  by  famint     It  forms  one  of  the  four 


spacious  and  regular,  but  indiffer- 
ently paved ;  the  eqoarea  are  numerous  and  Gae. 
Some  of  the  public  buildines  are  splendid,  both  front 
the  massive  grandeur  of  weir  proportions,  and  the 
novel  beauty  of  their  architecture.  The  inadeqoate 
popniationof  M.,  added  to  the  sombre  character  o{ 
its  feudal  structures,  imparts  to  the  city  an  air  of 
gloomy  decadence,  except  in  the  central  commer- 
cial quarters,  and  the  populous  animated  Ohdlo  or 
Jewish  quarter,  still  subject  to  enclosure.  The 
anoient  dtical  palace,  or  Castello  di  Corte,  a  vast 
imgnlar  pile  of  building,  was  the  state  residence 
and  fortress  of  the  Oonzagaa,  by  whom  it  was 
erected,  and  now  serves  as  a  state  prison  and  for 
pablio  offices.  The  adjoining  sumptuous  edifice, 
which  now  comprises  Uie  PaUaxo  Imperiaie,  the 
Paiazio  Yecduo,  and  the  Corte  ImperUdt,  or  Pro- 
vincial Tribunal,  was  originally  planned  and  b^un 
by  Boonacolsi,  the  feud^  lord  of  M.  in  1302;  it 
oontains  SOO  rooms,  including  a  magnificeat  snite  ol 
•tate  apartments,  whose  choicest  embeUishment  con- 
•ista  of  the  paintings  and  designs  of  the  great 
Hantiiau  artist,  Oiuho  Romano.  The  cathedral  of 
8an  Pietro,  aLso  designed  by  O.  Romano,  contains 
some  fine  frescoes.  The  chiirchea  of  San  Martino 
and  Santf  Egidio  are  of  great  antiquity — ^tbe  former 
dating  tima  52S,  and  the  latter  from  B68.— The 

Gvince  of  M.  had  a  high  reputation  in  the  time  of 
Romans.    After  shaong  the  fate  of  ihe  rest  of 
Northern  Italy,  it  was  seized  by  the  Gouza^ns  abont 


1708,  when  M.  fell  into  the  hands  of  Austria. 
Austria  gave  it  up  witli  her  other  Italian  possessions 
in  1866.  ^M.  is  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name, 
with  an  atea  of  856  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1881)  296,612. 

MANU  (from  the  Sanskrit  man,  to  tiunk,  lit«- 
rally,  the  thinTittig  being)  is  the  raputed  author  of 
the  most  renowned  law-book  of  the  ancieot  Eindos  ; 
and  likewise  of  an  ancient  Kalpa  work  on  Vedia 
rites.  It  is  matter,  however,  of  considerable  doubt 
whether  both  works  belong  to  the  same  individual, 
and  whether  the  lUuae  M.,  especially  in  the  case 
of  the  author  of  the  law-book,  was  interaled  to 
designate  an  historical  personage ;  for,  in  several 
passages  of  the  Vedas  (q.  v.),  as  we!!  a*  the  Mah&- 
bh&rata  (q.  v.),  M.  is  mentioned  as  the  progenitor 
of  the  human  race ;  and  in  the  first  chapter  of  the 
law-book  ascribed  to  him,  he  declares  himself  to 
bare  been  produced  by  Tiiftj,  an  ofipiing  of  tlie 


Supreme  Being,  and  to  have  oreated  all  this  nniraBK 
Hindn  mythology  knows,  moreover,  a  sucoession  at 
Manns,  each  of  whom  created,  in  his  own  period, 
the  wmd  anew  after  it  had  pmished  at  the  end  of 
a  mnndano  ago.  The  word  M.— kindred  with  our 
'man' — belongs  therefore,  propwiy  apeakinf^  to 
ancient  Hindn  mythology,  and  it  was  oonneoted 
with  the  renowned  law-book  in  order  to  impart  to 
the  latter  the  sanotity  on  which  its  authority  rest*. 
This  work  is  not  merely  a  law-book  in  the  Enro- 
pean  sense  of  the  word,  it  is  likewise  a  system  of 
cosmogony ;  it  propounds  metaphysical  doctrines, 
teaches  the  art  of  govenunent,  an^  amongst  other 
things,  treats  of  the  sl«te  of  Uie  soul  after  death. 
The  oiuef  topics  of  its  twelve  books  are  the  follOTT- 
ing :  1.  Creation  ;  2.  Education  and  the  duties  of  a 
pupil,  or  the  first  onler ;  3.  Marriage  and  the  datiea 
of  a  householder,  or  the  second  order ;  4  Means  lA 
snbeistence,  and  private  morals  ;  6.  Diet,  purificA* 
tion,  and  the  duties  of  women ;  6.  The  duties  of  an 
anchorite  and  an  ascetic,  or  the  duties  of  the  third 
and  fourth  orders  ;  7.  Government,  and  the  duties  of 
a  king  and  the  military  caste ;  8.  Judicature  and 
law,  private  and  criminal ;  9.  Continuation  of  tha 
former,  and  the  duties  of  the  commennal  and  servila 
castes ;  10.  Mixed  castes,  and  the  duties  of  the 
castes  in  time  of  distress;  11.  Penance  and  exioa- 
tion;  12,  Transmigration  and  final  beatitude.  The 
date  of  the  work,  Kirmerly  given  at  1200  B.C.,  is  put 
by  Mouier  WiUiams  at  500  B.a,  and  by  Max  Muller 
and  Burnell  at  600  A.n.  It  was  translated  by  Sir 
W.  Jones.  See  The  Ordinanca  o/ 3fonu,  translated 
from  the  Sanscrit,  with  introduction  by  Bumell, 
completed  by  Hopkins  (1886). 


drilled,  to  give  them  a  free  use  of  their  limlHi, . 
of  the  weapon  regarded  merely  as  a  pike.    It  com- 
prises the  first  course  of  instruction  after  the  lifle 
has  been  placed  in  the  learner's  hands. 

ALANUBL  I.  COMNENUS,  Emperor  of  Constan- 
tinople, and  fourth  son  of  the  Emperor  (Mo-Joannes, 
was  bom  about  1120,  and  succeeded  his  father  in 
1143.  He  liecame  at  once  involved  in  an  nnintei^ 
rupted  series  of  wars  both  with  the  esstem  and 
western  nations,  and  greatly  distioguiBhed  himself 
by  his  oonrage  and  heroism.  In  1144,  Raymund, 
fiince  of  Antioch,  who  had  thrown  off  the  Byzan- 
tine yoke,  was  compelled  to  submit  again  to  vassal- 
age j  and  in  the  fallowing  year,  the  Turks,  who 
had  invaded  Isaaria,  were  paralysed  by  repeated 
and  decisive  defeats.  In  1147,  the  Crusaders,  under 
Louis  VU.  of  France,  and  Conrad  IIL  of  Germany, 
marched  through  M.'s  dominions  without  hindranoe 
on  his  part,  as  he  was  at  this  time  preparing  for  his 
notable  contest  with  Roger,  Iring  of  Sicily,  for  the 
possession  of  Greece.  At  first,  tliia  oonteat  waa 
highly  favourable  to  M. ;  but  aflier  the  death  of 
Roger,  the  fortune  of  vrar  changed,  and  peaoe  was 
concluded  in  1105.  The  rest  of  hia  life  was  ipeDt 
in  wan  with  the  Hongariana  and  Turks.  He  died 
24th  September  118a 


MANU'RE.  This  is  a  term  applied  to  a  gTMt 
variety  of  substances,  mineral  as  well  as  orf^anic, 
which  have  been  used  for  the  purpose  of  increasiiu; 
the  produce  of  those  plants  that  mui  selects  for  ool- 
tivatiOD.  Lime,  and  the  ashes  of  vegetables,  hare 
been  applied  to  the  land  to  increase  its  fertility  fnan 
time  immemorial ;  so  also  have  all  kinds  of  organia 
substances,  whether  vegetabla  or  jnimnl,  "tbt 
rationale  of  such  applications  to  growing  plants  waa 
but  little  understood,  till  chemistry  reveided  to  a* 
the  nature  of  the  nurterials  which  entered  into  the 
composition  of  all  plants.  At  the  present  day,  munh 
definite  knowledge  has  been  acquired  of  the  true 


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natore  and  action  <A  the  tbt 
ue  [ODnd  to  iDOTeaBB  the  growth  of  oof  cnltiTated 
oropfl.  It  wu  long  sappooed  th&t  the  food  of  such 
tt  TUied  claw  of  puuts  ai  the  globe  preseDta  mnst 
neceuorily  be  veiy  different,  almost  aa  much  eo  aa 
the  difference  in  their  forms  and  propeitiea  of  theii 
prodootB.  CheouBtry,  however,  Has  ihewn  that  the 
toed  of  all  plants  is  veiy  much  ahke,  though  aome 
elassea  must  be  anpphod  with  certain  suba^noes  in 
greater  sbnndBnce  tluui  'others.  The  great  mass  of 
■U  vegetables  is  resolved  into  carbonic  acid,  water, 
and  unmonia,  on  being  snbjected  to  heat  or  burned 
in  a  fire.  It  is  these  same  subetancea  which  con- 
stitute the  chief  food  of  all  plants.  The  light  of 
the  son  enables  plants  to  decompose  and  aaaimilate 
CKrbonio  acid  and  anunonia.  and  to  manufacture 
oat  of  them  the  various  produota  thej  contain.  S  " 
organic  substances  yield  theae  hy  slow  decomi 
ntiou,  as  well  aa  by  combuation.  It  ia  for  tl 
reason  that  such  anbatancea  increase  the  fertility 
of  land  when  added  to  it.  Wat«r  ia  so  common  an 
article,  that  nature  provides  all  that  planta  require. 
Carbonic  acid,  too,  ia  contained  in  considerable 
proportian  in  the  atmoaphere,  and  la  readily  token 
from  it  by  the  leavesj  atill,  it  is  of  great  use  when 
applied  to  the  soil  as  vegetable  matter,  and  the  decom- 
position rendered  accessible  to  the  roots  of  plants- 
Ammonia  exists  in  Biceedingly  aparing  qnontities 
in  the  atmosphere,  aa  well  oa  in  rain  and  river 
water,  to  that  artificial  applications  to  the  soil  are 
generally  needed  to  produce  full  crops.  The  nitrogen 
which  enten  into  the  compoattion  of  plants  is 
generally  supposed  to  be  capable  of  being  only 
asaimilated  either  in  the  form  of  ammonia  or  nitric 
acid  ;  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  aalta  of  ammonia 
and  nitrio  acid  are  all  verj  powerful  feiiUisen 
They  generally  prodnce  a  d^h-gi«en  colour  in  the 
•'■■'-"-   ""'•  ~  IB  associated  with  healthy  growth 


But  besidea  carbonic  acid,  Mrater,  and  ammonia, 
planta  feed  upon  certain  mineral  or  earthy  sub- 
■toncea,  which  aeem  to  import  the  power  of  oon- 
doiaing  and  digeatina  the  other  orgonia  elements. 
On  plants  being  DumM,  they  leave  lime.  potsHh,  soda, 
magnesia,  silica,  sulphates,  and  phoBphates,  oa  sab. 
These  BubetoQces  ore  all  found  to  eidst  in  certoio 
kinds  of  planta  in  proportiona  which  are  oonfined 
within  raUier  narrow  liioits.  The  earthy  aubatancea, 
it  most  be  remembered,  enter  into  combinations  in 
definite  proportioDS  with  the  other  constituents,  and 
are  thus  linked  together  in  the  vc^table  organisms 
aa  port  and  parcel  of  their  Btructnr& 

Lime  acts  as  a  manuring  subetaDce  directly  by 
tnpplying  one  of  the  constitaents  of  planta  ;  so  also 
doM  magnesia.  But  lime  is  often  added  as  an  agent 
to  asaiat  in  digeatina  and  preparing  the  organic 
materials  existing  in  uie  soiL  aee  Lmi.  Magntgia 
ia  seldom  applied  singly  to  the  soil ;  it  ia  usually 
oaaociated  with  limestone,  and  is  generally  con- 
tained in  the  soil  in  quantitiea  sufficient  £>r  the 
wants  of  plants- 
Potash  is  a  aabstonce  most  easential  for  all  our 


cultivated  plant* ;  its  motket-prioe,  however, 
high,  that  Eonners  seldom  apply  it  directly  to  me 
soiL    They  employ  certain  crops,  soch  as  clover  and 
turnips,  to  gather  it  ap  for  th^  in  the  soil    These 


the  form  by  cattle  and  sheep,  and 
as  litUe  potash  entera  into  animal  tissues  as  a 
permanent  constJtucat,  it  ia  mostly  returned  to  the 
dnngbill  in  the  excrementitions  matters.  Farm- 
yard dang  thus  poaaeasea  a  value  of  its  own,  by 
supplying  this  constituent,  which  cannot  be  bought 
economically  in  tho  morket  Soda  con  be  easily 
obtained  iu  the  form  of  common  salt,  but  as  this 
■abstauce  is  usually  aaaocioted  with  potash,  the  one 
is  found  in  the   dnng-heap  aa  well  oa  the  other. 


Common  aalt  is  applied  to  coru'crops  that  are  grow- 
ing too  rapidly.  The  salt  has  the  effect  of  sti^ning 
the  straw,  and  rendering  it  lea  liable  to  lod^ 
Salt  ia  also  nsed  with  great  aiiccess  in  growing 
mai^d-wucrel,  as  this  is  a  plant  which  was 
oTunnoUy  taken  from  the  sea-shore. 

Sfdpfiatei.—^i!ij  plant  contoins  a  qnantily  of 
sulphur,  which  ia  denved  from  the  sulphates  that 
ore  found  ta  the  soil-  Sulphate  of  magnesia  has 
often  been  applied  with  marked  effect  br  tnmipa 
and  potatoes,  out  ita  use  does  not  oommouly  pay 
the  expense  of  the  applicatioii.     A  moch  cluaper 

" of  snlphur  ia  lound  in  sulphate  of  lime  or 

:q-  v.). 


PlioipAaiti. — Th««e  ore  largely  used  in  agriculture. 
Phosphoric  aeid  being  very  sparingly  diffused  ia 


culty  ii 


ipid  growth,  and  henoe  the  import- 

artihcial  supply,  which  is  administered 

hate  oil'  ~      '"  " 


■  important  el 


»"<*  ff  .     ..  ... 

are  Bones  (q.  v.).  Apatite 
.,     ,.  ^,  The  reason  ot  its  import- 

ono^  and  the   pnnai[Ue  which   should   soide  its 
applicati(m,  ore  expUujied  in  the  article  Bonbs  as 

MlNUBK 

Niimgenoiu  JMonura*.— Planta  ore  mipplied  with 
nitrogen  in  tie  form  of  nitrates,  or  of  solta  of  ommonia. 
Nitrataa  and  the  solta  of  ammonia  promote  growth 
in  nil  cultivated  plonts  when  the  eorthy  aubstanoea 
that  enter  into  their  cumpoaition  ore  prsaent  Nitro- 
genooa  manurea  ore  often  beneficially  applied  without 
other  subatonces  to  grain,  because  the  grain-planta 
have  greater  facilities  than  the  turnip  for  taking 
up  phoephates  and  other  conatituents  from  tho  soil 
So  olao,  te  a  still  greater  extent,  do  we  see  the 
operation  of  thia  principle  in  the  cose  of  grass. 
Having  a  permanent  staff  of  roots  in  the  toil,  the 
ploabi  are  ready  to  gather  up  the  necessary  snppl^ 
of  mineral  food  when  abundant  nitrogenous  food  is 
presented  te  them,  and  thus  nitrogenous  manure* 
of  all  kinda  have  very  marked  eOects  on  grssa- 
Wliat  determinea  the  amount  that  con  be  profit- 
obly  applied  to  the  different  cultivoted  plontB,  is 
simply  the  capability  that  each  speciea  posaeaaes  of 
~panding  under  such  treotment. 
i'arm-yard  Manure. — Thia  ia  the  most  valnable 
anura  that  the  farmer  uses.  It  contains  all  the 
elements  of  plants,  and  without  its  use  in  ordinary 
IS,  the  fertility  of  the  land  would  rapidly 
deteriorate.  The  richer  the  food  upon  which  stock 
is  fed,  so  mach  the  richer  the  manure  produced. 
Stock  fed  upon  straw  and  water  leave  a  very  inferior 
manure,  that  requires  te  be  largely  supplemented  by 
other  materials.  Turnips  add  largely  to  the  value 
- '  -uanure,  and  oilcakes  of  all  kinda,  from  contain- 
nitrogen  and  tho  earthy  matters  of  the  seeds  of 
bearing  planta,  produce  a  rich  manure.  Farm- 
yard manure,  mider  ordinary  circumstances,  is  much 
more  valuable  for  some  kind  of  cropa  than  foi 
others.  The  pototo,  for  example,  cannot  be  raised 
with  much  success,  unless  it  be  supplied  with  tiiia 
or  other  bulky  manure  having  the  greater  atunber 
of  ingredienta  present.  This  does  not  appear  to 
arise&om  ita  abaolutety  requiring  more  of  any  one 
substance  than  many  otlier  planta  that  con  do  far 
better  without  artificial  supply.  It  seema  to  be 
owing  rather  to  a  deficiency  of  power  to  gather  ita 
food  when  diapened  through  the  aoih  A  large 
allowauoe  of  farm-yard  manure  ia  therefore  applied 
'■-  lie  potato  when  it  is  grown  in  great  qu— *-"" 


___,  than  the  pea.     ._    „ 

often  raised  withcnt  farm-yard  .. 

Bap[jied  with  phosphate  and  nitrogen,  they  aeem  to 
have  greater  focilitiea  for  taking  ap  what  is  diffused 


iTGUDgfe 


MANUBB— MANUBC&IPTa 


fhnHigh  the  maL    Tbe  wuker  tmd  poorer  the  loil, 

the  mora  imporfauit  does  fum-yard 

for  iH  plants.     Farm-yard  manon 

render  loili  more  adapted  for  carrying  oloTere,  and 

many  fonnen  alwaye  apply  this  to  landa  which  ~~  ~ 

to  be  aowD  ont  in  graraoa. 

lAjuid  Manure,— This  is  a  faTomite  maniire 
many  diitrida.  Scotch  and  Eneliih  fanners, 
geaml,  endeavour  to  have  all  the  liquid  ezcreme 
of  the  itoch  absorbed  by  the  itraw,  and  oairied  ont 
in  the  lolid  form.  On  many  faniiB,  howerer,  far 
more  is  produced  than  can  be  absorbed  by  the 
■baw.  Variona  mode*  have  been  adopted  to  apply 
it  when  this  is  the  case.  It  is  commmly  done  l^  a 
targe  barrel  drawn  by  a  horse ;  the  liquid  is  distri. 
bnted  by  varioos  methods  a*  the  horse  walks  over 
Ule  ground.  The  liquid  manure  is  commonly  appHed 
to  grassee,  more  especiaUy  to  clovers  or  rye-graas, 
common  or  Italian.  As  tlie  liquid  accnmnlates,  it 
may  be  ajmlied  to  the  young  grauM  ae  soon  u  the 
com  crop  is  removed.  The  ^nts,  being  yiporoni  in 
autumn,  absorb  it,  and  form  roots  and  jmces  thi ' 
are  available  aa  soon  as  the  growing  season  arrive 
It  may  be  applied  daring  intervals  of  mild  weathi 
daring  the  whole  winter.  It  is,  no  doubt,  moi 
eoonomical  to  apply  it  at  the  season  of  growth,  aa 
the  roots  take  it  np  then  very  readily,  and  there  is 
mete  Irom  being  washed  on' 
Urge  HrtablishmentB,  the  wholi 
urine  is  collected  diiriog  the  winter  in  large  tanks, 
•nd  applied  in  spring.  This  ha*  been  done  on  a 
large  scale  by  means  of  nndergroand  pipes  laid  over 
the  fields,  the  liquid  being  distributed  by  means  of  a 
pomp  and  hose.  Steam  or  water  power  has  been  in 
•ome  cases  applied  to  this  operation ;  in  others  it  is 
effected  by  gravitation,  when  the  aitnation  of  stead- 
ing and  reserroir  suits.  In  wet  weather,  the  liquid 
manure  can  be  put  on  pretty  strong,  but  in  dry 
weather  large  quantities  of  water  are  added  for  the 
porposa  of  diluting  it,  and  not  allowing  it  to  injure 
the  plants.  Ijquid  manure  is  ezceedin^y  nch  in  all 
the  elements  of  plants,  and  is  valuable  for  all  cro^; 
but  there  are  often  considerable  practical  difficultiea 
eonnected  with  its  use  and  distrfl>ation. 

MA'NUSCRIPTS,   iLLUimJiTioir   o»,   the   art 
of  Dainting  manuscripts  with  miniatnrea  and  oma- 
a  art  of  the  most  remote  antiquity.    Xhe 


or  miniatures,  attached  to  the  chapters,  either 
dengned  in  black  outlines,  or  painted  in  primary 
ooloura  in  tempera.  Eicopt  these  |«pyri,  no  other 
mannsoripta  of  antiquity  were,  sljictly  speaking, 
illntmnatod ;  nch  Qreek  and  Roman  ones  of  the 
lat  0.  aa  have  reached  the  present  day  being 
written  only.  Fliny,  indeed,  mentions  from  Varro 
that  authors  had  their  portraits  painted  on  their 
works,  and  mentions  •  bit^raphioat  work,  with 
nomerons  portraits  introdoced,  but  all  such  have 
disappeared  in  the  wreck  of  ages ;  the  oldest 
iUummated  MSS.  which  have  snrvived  being 
the  Dioacorida  of  Vienna,  and  the  Virgil  of  the 
Vatican,  both  of  the  4tb  c,  and  ornamented  with 
vignettes  or  pictures  in  a  Bysantine  style  of  art. 
8t  Jerome^  indeed,  in  the  same  century,  com- 
plains of  the  abase  of  the  practice,  as  shewn  by 
filling  up  books  with  capital  letten  of  prepostercus 
size;  but  the  manoscnpts  of  this  and  the  tubee- 
qoent  century  are  ornamented  with  rubrics  only, 
aa  evidenced  by  the  Codex  A  lexandriKiu  and  other 
manuscripts.  Probably  the  art  of  illumination  was 
derived  m>m  rubrics,  as  the  emperors  in  the  6th 
c,  commencing  with  Leo  (470  t,  d.),  signed  in  this 
oolonr,  like  the  Chinese,  and  this  '  vemulion  reply,' 
adapted  by  Charles  the  Bold  in  the  9th,  oontbuM 
down  to  the  13th  century.    The  art  of  illiuninatuig 


maauioripti  with  gold  and  silver  letter*  ia  snppoMd 
to  have  been  derived  from  Bgypt,  but  it  ia  rsnaik- 
able  that  no  papjjns  has  any  gold  m  silver  intro- 
duced into  it.  The  artists  who  painted  in  gtdd, 
called  CAr^wofrmpAi,  are  mentioned  aa  ewly  M  the 
Sd  century.  One  of  the  oldest  mannacripts  of  this 
style  is  the  Oodtz  Argatieaa  of  Ulphilu  (360  a.  D.) ; 
and  the  charter  of  King  Edgai  (96S  A.I1.),  six 
centuries  later,  shew*  the  use  of  these  letten.  Gdd 
letters  smiiii  to  have  been  mad  in  the  East  during 
the  12th  and  I3th  eenturiea.  At  an  earily  pario^ 
the  nae  of  iUnminated  or  decorated  initial  letten 
oommenoed,  which  ia  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
-"      -   -■   »         pointed  pages   placed     '  ^'""   '---' 


large  initial  lettras,  sometimes  dect»«ted  with  little 
pictuna  or  miniatures,  cam*  into  fashion  in  the 
Greek  and  Latin  manosoript*.  Tha  subjects  of  the 
figurea  mixed  up  with  the  Arabeaqua  ornaments 
often  raferred  to  the  texts ;  warriors  and  wariika 


where  the  chap 
Thwa  initial  le 


teis  following  tn«ted  on  thatr^^ML 
ttwa  soon  increased  to  a  great  sic^ 
24  inches  louE;  they  were  most  used 
in  the  6th  and  Mh  oanturiea,  but  oontinned  till  the 
I2th  c,  and  degenerated  in  the  16th  to  the  last 
deoadenoe  of  art — the  grotesque.  The  art  which 
flourished  in  the  Eastern  and  Western  Empires  passed 
over  to  Ireland,  and  there  ^ve  riaa  to  a  separate 
sduxd  or  kind  of  illuminatiDn.    Thia  str^ls^  which 


and  other  «"i"wlii  seem*  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  later  patterns  of  Bynmtine  art,  seen  on  mosaics, 
moral  pamtings,  and  other  objects.  Som^  indeed, 
have  thoQ^t  that  they  are  of  oriental  oiijnn.  The 
so-called  Dnriuun  Book,  b  tha  Britiab  MuMun, 
of  the  8th  c  is  a  splendid  eiam{d«  of  the  tohod 
which  was  eetabliahed  in  Holy  Island  by  St  Aidaa, 
«id  in  Kent  bv  8t  Dunstan,  before  the  end  of  the 
6th  oentuiy.  A  remarkable  MS.  of  the  6th  oentury 
is  the  Book  of  Kells  (q.  v.),  at  Dublin.  The  Scrip- 
torium of  the  monaatary  at  Hyde,  near  Winchester, 
was  celebrated  at  thia  period  for  its  illuminations  ; 
and  the  oeldnated  St  Dnnatan  of  Olaatonbuiy 
applied  in  early  yoath  his  talents  to  this  art  The 
— -- -te  size  and  number  of  interlacemeota  of  the 

of  Kdit,    at    Dublin,   is    quite  wonderful; 

while  the  Beiudielional  at  Chatsworth,  executed 
by  one  Oodemann  of  Hyde  for  Ethelwold,  Bishop 
of  Winchester  (1100  a.D.),  exhibits  a  bold  style  « 
art  and  omamenb  Separste  schools  prevtuled  in 
the  Ilth  a,  the  Greek  or  Byxaotdne  mannsnipto 
of  the  period  exhibiting  a  fine  style  of  ornament 
derived  from  the  Byuntme  school ;  while  the  I^tan 
iscripti  of  the  period  are  distinguished  by  the 

I  a  light  blue  and  green  in  titlea  and  pioturea. 

While,  however,  the  omamenta  of  the  Byzantine 
and  Latin  schools  were  of  a  more  purely  architec- 
tural character,  and  the  Anglo-Hibernian,  8axon, 
Mid  even  Pranco-Gidlio  mannscripts  of  Charlemagne 
and  his  snooeasors  ezhil>it  a  umon  of  Boman  and 
Gaulish  treafanent;   a  new  kind  of  work  anas  in 


Gothio  arukiteoture,  a  remarkable  specimen  of  whieb 
is  seen  in  the  Qoqiela  made  for  Knut  or  Oannt& 
Daring  the  12th  &,  Ihtte  arose  a  new  sig'le,  dii- 
tingnished  by  ths  pvofoaion  of  its  irmatnffntatimit 
inlaieato  mode  4rf  iDnmiDation,  and  abundant  um 
«f  gold  and  silvsr.    The  taste  was  false,  but  the  art 


tC-iOoqIc 


MANCnuB— MAORIS. 


tfaa  limnera 

more  deteriorated  in  Weatem  Europe — lone-tuled 
illiiminftted  initial  letten  were  intiodnoed ;  the 
baoligroiind  wu  ofteD  of  gold,  on  irhioh  ths  onu- 
menti  and  mbjeots  were  colonjed  in  a  style  reiem- 
bling  oil-paintiiig,  from  1190  to  1230;  Tn»nn»l«  ware 
than  prepared  to  instraot  the  limner,  and  the  art 
WB«  fortnaUMd.  The  Gothio  ityls  of  omaoMat  <d 
tidi  1^  had  gnperaedod  the  Koman  or  ByatntiiM  ot 
preriona  centnriea.  In  the  14th  c.,  the  art  greatl; 
unproved ;  the  border  or  omantant  nuuung  alTrooDd 
the  p(u«  waa  introdaced,  and  the  (wnamenti  mve 
intenwuted  and  enricbed  with  Duniatnn  piotaru, 
ereit  by  celebrated  artUitB,  a*  Niooolo  PiMno, 
Ginuboe,  Giotto,  in  Italy.  Few  toIiumi,  howerer, 
were  iUominated  till  after  the  rngn  of  Edward  L, 
whoD  the  art  took  a  fnrtlier  davelopmant;  ^«te«gae 
Sgorea  were  introdaoed,  and  are  alladed  to  by 
writeiB  of  the  peiiod.  In  the  16th  c,  coDtinnoai 
borders  and  fine  miniatiire  pictnrea  were  in  lue,  and 
towirda  the  end  of  the  centory,  celebrated  works  of 
this  nature  were  produced  by  Ginlio  Clovio  in  Italy, 
and  Lncos  van  Leyden  in  Flanders,  the  Tan  £yokB, 
And  Memling  or  Hemlink ;  medallions  of  exquisite 
style  and  fimnh  were  inserted  in  the  border.  Of  this 
age^  the  tnost  beauldM  known  specimen  is  the  Boot 
<y  SoUTt  of  Anne  of  Brittany,  wife  of  Louis  XIL, 
with  borders  of  natural  idants  on  a  gold  ground, 
nie  Italian  art  of  the  same  i^  was  rpnmetrical 
rather  than  pictoreaqne  and  naturalistic,  bnt  on 
solid  bsckgronnda  ;  the  ornaments,  althou^  reaem- 
bliiur  thoee  of  preceding  oentnriea,  are  disbngnished 
by  uie  introdaotion  of  nuniatnres.  In  the  ISth 
cenhuy,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  the  art  became 
dtinct,  ending  with  a  style  of  painting  called 
eamiOett  grit,  a  kind  of  monochrome,  in  which  the 
lights  are  white  or  Kold,  and  shaded  so  as  to 
emulate  bas-rehefs.  Among  oriental  nations,  the 
Persians,  Hindus,  and  Chinese  have  illumiikated 
mannscdpts  of  ereat  beauty,  oooe  of  which,  howerar, 
•an  compete  with  thoaa  «  the  Weaten  nationi  in 
--''quitT.  For  beauty  of  design,  mum  of  thie  Arab 
inacnpta  are  oharming,  but  thnr  antiqnitr  doea 

reach  beyond  the  1^  eeatiuy.    The  Cnineae 

Buddhists  have  also  illominated  cUeaica,  or  relinous 
books  of  their  sect,  one  of  which,  the  Diamond  Boole 
as  it  is  called,  in  the  British  Maaeum,  has  a  text 
splendidly  printed  in  silTer  and  gold  letters  on  a 
blue  ground  [  and  the  vignettes  oharmin^y  punted 
in  tempera,  on  macerated  leaves  of  the  Fiaa  Indiea. 
Humphrey,  H.  NoeL  Art  of  lUamination  (12mo, 
Lond.  1849);  Shaw's  lUujninaltd  Lai/rt  (foL  1S28); 
Bradley,  J.  W^  Manuat  of  lUuminaiion  (12ino, 
Loud.  I860]. 


ways  b^  himself  or  his  deecendanta,  vis.,  Mannrio, 
Mannzzi,  and  Manucci ;  while  from  his  patron, 
Alberto  Fio,  Lord  of  Carpi,  he  took  also  the  name 
<d  Pio,  and.  after  the  year  1S03,  always  deognataa 
himself  Aldo  Pio  Manntdo  Bomano.  He  is  often 
called  Aldus  tite  Elder.  He  was  bom  at  BasMano, 
near  Velletii,  in  the  Statea  of  the  Church,  in  1449, 
and  established  a  printing-preaa  si  Venice  in  1490 
—though  the  first  book  bearing  a  date  has  1494 
(see  Aldinb  Editions).  HediedlSlSL  Qea  Didol, 
Aide  ilanwx  (1876). 

HANZOITJ,   ALnuHDBO,   one    of   the  moat 
admired  of  modem  Italian  novelists. 


1?6^  of  noble  parents,  his  fotbar  bong 
uoni,  and  his  mother  the  ^fted  dauditer 
of  the  great  aavao,  tlie  M«n}ni*  Beooari^     Vram 


youth,  the  literary  predileotiona  of  M.  gave  good 
promiie  of  his  after^mentol  development.  In  fsOt, 
at  the  age  vl  21,  his  essay  on  poetry,  entitled  Vera 
Seiolti,  was  inspired  by  the  death  of  Caiio  Im- 
bonati,  an  intimate  family  friend  ;  and  in  1810  his 
sacred  lyrics  met  with  general  admiration.  Several 
tngedies,  written  with  much  spirit  and  originality, 
attnteted  notice  not  only  in  Italy,  bat  in  France  and 
Gtnnany ;  and  foremost  amid  IJie  warm  admiraia 
and  favourable  eritica  of  M.  stood  Ooethe.  The 
wn^  however,  by  which  M.  attained  to  European 
fame  is  hia  hiatoricol  novel,  I  Prometfi  Spoti — a 
Milaneae  story  of  the  17th  c,  translated  into  Gof- 
man,  B!n^i«ii,  French,  and  other  toikguea — (3  vols. 
Milsa,  l^},'by  whiob  a  new  era  may  be  si^  to 
have  been  craved  in  the  fictitious  lit^tore  of  his 
oountry.  The  tale  abounds  in  inteieetine  aketohea 
of  national  and  local  Italian  cnstoma  and  modea  ot 
life,  portrayed  with  nnSaggiog  spirit  and  bumonr, 
while  various  grave  histoncaT  events  are  narrated 
with  force  and  grandsnr  of  style,  especially  the 
episode  of  the  plwue  in  Milan  M.'*  ode  to  Napo- 
leon {1S23)  is  noble  in  thought  and  diction.  The 
poet's  later  yean  were  spent  in  atriot  and  devoot 
aeclnEiDn,  the  free  tendency  of  hia  early  opinions 
having  been  sncceeded  by  a  itiii^Dt  conformity  to 
the  doctrines  of  Rome.  A  compute  edition  of  H.'s 
works,  in  6  vols.,  was  published  by  Tommaseo  in 
Florenoe  (1828—1829).    He  died  in  187a 

BIAOB,  the  royal  offidsl  who,  in  the  early  period* 
of  Scottish  history,  was  placed  over  crown  or  fiscal 
lands,  and  at  an  after-time  became  the  Thane.  A 
nmilar  official,  the  Maer,  existed  in  Walea. 

MAORIS  (prononnoed  mou'rit,  a  word  meaning 
indigenoni)  is  the  name  given  to  themselvea  by 
the  inhabitants  of  New  Zealand,  and  that  by  wliloh 
they  are  now  osoaUy  deeignated  by  ethnolofiats. 
The  M.,  in  oommon  with  the  nativea  geneni^  of 
Polynesia,  belong  to  the  Malay  raoe  or  family  of 
m^pMnil  Though  calling  themselves  indigenooa, 
the  H.  have  a  tradition  that  their  ancestota  migrated 
to  the  neaent  aeat  ot  ths  nation  from  the  island  <d 
HawBJki  about  600  yeara  ago.  They  came  in  seven 
canoeo,  which  had  outriggers,  to  prevent  fonndering, 
and  were  called  Aniatiatia,  being  very  difiereat  from 
tbcae  auhaequeutly  need  by  them,  which  were  mnoh 
simpler  in  oonstniction,  uid  named  Wakka.  The 
first  of  then  canoee  that  touched  at  New  Zeaknd 
was  named  Arawa,  and  this  brought  over  the  fiiat 
settlers  from  whom  the  M.  are  descended.  If  any 
faith  is  to  be  attached  to  this  tradition,  Hawaiki 
was,  probably,  the  same  as  Hawut,  the  prindpol 
of  the  Sandwich  t«i«Tiil«,  distant  abont  4000  muea 
ooitii-east  of  New  Zealand.  Some,  however, 
raw  that  it  may  have  been  Savaii, 
Smuoob  or  NavigHtors'  lalaodi^  a  groap  am  nau  inac 
distanoe  aw^r,  xhe  traditioi)  saya  nothing  of  any 
indigaaooB  population  found  in  New  Zealand  before 
tha  arrival  at  theoe  immisranta.  Uany  writos, 
howevar,  incline  to  the  belief  that  it  was  previously 
a  darker  race,  aomewhat  akin  to  the 
Fapoaa  of  ^ew  Guinea,  sometimes  called  N^ritoa 
and  Pelagian  negroea.  Suppoaing  that  the  two 
raoea,  in  [Hooeaa  of  time,  interminried,  this  might 
acooun^  in  atane  meoaura,  for  tha  differancea  appa- 
rent between  the  H.  and  tha  Tohitiaiis,  SanuMns, 
Sandwich  Islanden,  and  other  native*  (rf  the  Padfio. 
But  whether  of  pure  or  mixed  lace,  all  teatimMiy 
— Mnea  in  representing  the  M.  a*  a  natioQ  standing 
high  in  the  scale  oF  humanity.  The  skin  of  Uw 
'"  — general  of  an  olive-brown  oolour,  but  there 
in  whom  the  shade  ia  mooh  lighter,  while 
in  othera  it  is  darker.  In  atatore  they  olmoat  equal 
ihigliTliinaii,  and  have  a  powerful  muacular  devdop- 
'     Tbej  have  well-ahaped,  intellectual  heads. 


a  ot  tG« 


,v>^iOOglC 


HAOBHOB— MAP. 


utd  their  featnrea,  vhen  not  tattooed,  migbt  almovt 
be  tiken  for  Earope&n.  Few  of  them  have  bearda 
or  whiskem,  it  b^e  an  immemoria]  omtom  with 
them  to  pluck  out  Qie'hair  on  the  face  with  pipi 
■hellB.  On  the  head,  the  majority  have  long  block 
hair,  with  a  alight  wave  in  it ;  but  with  Bome  i 
of  a  raddieh  tinge,  and  some  M.  again  have  the  hair 
■lightlj  M^ed.  Their  eve*  are  lane,  their  lipa 
thick,  and  their  teeth,  nnlucs  thoae  of  moat  aaTaga 
natioiiB,  are  la^  and  iiregnlar.  The  women  are  o' 
leaa  atatnre  than  the  men  in  proportion,  and  ace  ii 
Vthei  respecta  inferior  to  them,  perhape  from  their 
marryii^  too  joudj;,  and  having  to  perfc 
mach  ofthe  diiidgety  of  life.  Some  of  tlie  women, 
however,  are  r^reeented  as  being  delicately  moulded, 
witii  long  eyelaehea,  pleaaing  feature*,  and  a  plain- 
tive, pathetic  voice,  which  makea  them  highly  inte- 
Tcatug.  Both  aexea  used  to  practiae  tattooing  - 
cnatom  which  haa  been  nlmoet  abandoned  ami 
the  conversLOQ  of  the  M.  to  Chriatianity.  It  wt 
ft  painful  operation,  performed  with  a  hammer  and 
MW-like  cUaeL  The  pmicturM  were  atained  with 
regetable  dyea,  and  Uie  patterns,  which  extended 
over  the  face,  hipa,  thigha,  &o.,  represented  oma- 
mmtal  scrolls  and  Ggiirea,  aiippoaed  to  denote  the 
rank  of  the  individual  wearing  them.  The  women 
were  bat  alightly  tattooed,  with  a  few  lines  mi 
the  lips,  chin,  and  oocaaionally  other  parts  of  the 
body.  The  prieeta  were  the  principal  operator*^ 
and  dnring  the  proceea,  ancient  songs  were  Bong, 
to  encouram,  divert  the  attention,  and  increaae  the 
patience  of  the  anfTerera.  This  tattooing  waa 
Buppoaed  to  make  the  Maori  youth  both  more  terrible 
in  the  eyes  of  hia  enemies,  and  more  acceptable  in 
those  of  his  miatreaa.  Another  remarkable  cnatom 
among  the  M.  was  that  of  the  laboo,  by  which  the 
priest  conld  make  certain  persona  and  things  aocred 
and  inviolate.  Thia  was  portly  a  religions  and 
partly  a  poUtiool  ordinonoe,  and  waa  so  much 
respected,  that  even  in  war-tiinB  hoatile  tribea  left 
nnhanned  all  peraons  and  thinza  thus  protected  by 
the  loAoo  of  the  opposite  aide.  Cannibalism,  a  muidi 
more  beinaoa  and  abominable  coatom,  practised 
to  lately  oa  within  the  laat  forty-five  years,  was 
tmiversally  prevalent  among  the  IS.  before  their 
converaioa  to  Christianity.  The  last  instance  of  it 
Monrred  in  tie  year  186.  '  Now,  however,'  says 
Dr  Scbener  ( Voyagt  of  Iha  Nowvra),  '  any  allnaion 
to  thia  revolting  ptactice  is  very  painful  to  the 
New  Zealander,  an  reminding  him  of  nis  former  low 
position  in  the  scale  of  nations.  Every  time  that 
we  endeavoured  to  make  any  inquiry  of  the 
natives  reapecting  this  ooatom,  they  withdraw  with 
an  ashamed  look.  In  like  manner,  dogs'  fleah  has 
ceased  to  be  an  article  of  food,  ever  aince  the 
bb«dnction  of  pork  by  Cantain  Cook.    Formatly, 

the  native  or  Maori  dog,  whioh  at  pt««ent  ' 

•carce,  waa  eaten   ~    — '-— — 

blood  played  a  aomewliat  oonapiououa  part  m 
Maori  ^banoMsy'  Infautioide,  which  alao prevailed 
lai^dy  among  them  in  their  davs  of  heatheniam, 
is  now  nnivenaUy  aboliahed,  and  the  same  ia  the 
case  vrith  alavety  and  polj^amy.  The  M.  ganeially 
marrv  vei7  young,  and  matances  ore  uown  of 
females  among  tham  becoming  mothers  even  at 
tiM  tender  age  of  eleven  yeara.  Hieir  moiriages, 
however,  are  not  veiy  productive,  three  in  a  family 
being  considered  a  good  averace,  and  many  of  these 
dyius  in  their  flrst  year.  It  is  difflonlt  to  account 
for  tiiia,  aeeing  that  the  M.  of  the  present  day- 
are  not  addicted  to  intemperance,  like  other  half- 
eivilised  tribes.  The  wars  of  the  M.  were  formeriy 
carried  on  with  spears  and  clubs  of  various  kinds, 
manufactured  from  stone  and  wood.  Their  meat 
remarkable  weapon  was  a  spear  of  nephrite,  which 
descended  among  the  ptinoipal  ohii'    '         '  ^<--- 


while  ita 


a  ptinoipal  chiefs  from  father 


to  Km,  and  was 

even  a   saored 

'  the  fire  of  the  gods,'  and  was  tometiiaea  nsed  for 

scalping   jirisoners.      There  are  other  weapons  of 

nephrite   m   use  among  the  M. ;   they  are   much 

soo^t  after,  and  very  costly.    The  use  of  fireaim* 

is  now,  however,  very  general  among  the  M.,  and 

too  uiparent  in  their  contests  with  F-nglish  tnopc 
The  language  of  the  M.,  like  the  Polynesian  lan- 
guages generally,  belouKS  to  the  Malay  family.  Its 
up^bet  comprises  only  fonrtaen  letters,  vul,  A, 
E;  H,  I,  E,  M,  N,  0,  P,  R,  T,  n,  W,  and  Ng.  Seven 
tolerably  distinct  dialects  are  spoken  among  them. 
The  language  is  represented  as  rich  and  soDorooa, 
well  adapt^  for  poetical  expreasion,  especially  of 
the  lyric  kind.  The  M.  hive  an  abundance  of 
metrical  proverbs,  legends,  and  tnditioua,  of  which 
a  oollection  has  been  mode  by  Sir  George  Orey. 
They  are  alao  passionately  attached  to  moaio  and 
song.  More  than  five-aixths  of  the  M.  are  now 
converted  to  Chrialunity.  Of  these,  snch  ss  live 
within  the  T^gli'T"  settlements  are  becoming  gradu- 
ally assimilated  to  our  own  colonists,  for  £e  most 
port  wearing  the  European  dress,  t/i.,  while  thoM 
further  removed  are  content  with  the  blanket, 
which   has   come  to  supersede  the   native    oloth. 


men,  aai,  indeed,  taata  than  a  hundred  oooating- 
vessels  of  a  good  sise  ore  now  the  property  of 
natives.  The  M.,  however,  aa  a  nation,  although 
ready  to  imitate  oar  manneiB  and  caatoms,  ore  imt 
tuite  contented  with  onr  colonial  rule,  and  have 
requently  raised  tiie  standard  of  revolt  against 
Britain  under  their  native  chieftains.  In  1361,  hos- 
tilities commenced  between  the  M.  and  the  British, 
which  terminated  in  favour  of  the  latter  the  follow- 
ing year.  In  I863,warbrokeout^ain,the  M.  having 
oonapired  to  expel  the  British  troops.     In  186S,  they 

sacred  many  of  the  aettleia,  and  resiated,  to  dea- 

peration,  the  troops  sent  to  quell  them.  Binoa 
1369  they  have  been  perfecUy  peaoefoL  In  1880 
the  M  nnmbered  46,000. 

MAORMOR,  the  old  equivalent  of  ths  earl  in 
Scotland,  like  the  MaOr  (q.  v.),  but  placed  over  an 
earldom  or  oounty  instead  of  a  barony,  acting 
OS  ro^al  depaty  or  steward  over  the  territOTy 
of  wUch  he  hod  at  a  still  earlier  period  been  the 
independent  lord,  and  probably  retaining  to  him- 
self the  third  part  of  the  royM  revenues  and  pre- 
rogatives. Prior  to  the  introduction  of  feudaliaio, 
Scotland  aeema  in  theory  to  have  been  aubdivided 
into  maormordoms,  each  mode  up  of  the  mooimor'a 
portion  and  the  king'a,  in  later  language,  the  earldom 
and  the  regality,  over  both  of  which  the  maoimot 
exercised  his  office,  though  the  former  was,  in  a 
apeoial  sense,  his  own.  Practically,  however,  in 
certain  of  these  districts  the  king  retained  both 
maormordom  and  reality  in  his  own  hands,  and 
the  maora  held  their  thanagea  directly  of  tbe 
sovereign,  without  the  intervention  of  a  maormor. 
As  the  feudal  system  extended,  the  maormors  wei* 
converted  into  earls,  who  were  confined  within  ths 
limita  of  their  own  districts,  the  Earl  of  Fife  alone 
retaining  the  privilege  of  exacting  hia  rights  ovar 
the  whole  province. 

MAP  (Lat  mappa,  a  towelj.  A  map  ia  a  delinea- 
}n,  on  a  plane,  of  some  portion  of  the  sorface  of  a 
sphere,  oeleatial  or  terrestrial,  on  which  the  objects 
iutended  to  be  shewn  an  trooed,  whether  stars  or 
towns,  mountaios,  &&  Termtrial  maps  are  termed 
geooraphieat,  when  they  refer  to  the  londi  and 
hyarogrt^iieal  nu^is,  or  duuU,  when  they  deiiosats 
the  shiKea  of  the  sea.   A  perfect  representation  of  a 


,,  Google 


eoonby,  with  all  its  parts  in  tme  pioportiotia  and 
relative  poaitioiii,  may  be  made  cm  m  globe ;  but, 
'  loe  the  anrfaoa  of  the  earth  ia  ipherical,  it  is 

t  possible  to  to  delineate  any  large  portioD  of  it 

a  plaoe  as  to  letain  these  properties.      Henos 

geogiapheis  tesort  to  different  methods  of  repre- 
BCDtation  sailed  projections  (q.  v.),  which  are  of  two 
kinds — eitii«r  real  perspectiTes  from  different  points 
of  -new,  or  Bi)proxuaativa  derelopmenta.  The  five 
prinmpal  projections  an — the  orthognphio,  the 
•tsreoscaphio,  the  globular,  the  conical,  and  the 
ojlin&cal,  or  Meroator's. 

Id  the  first  nf  these,  the  fiat  Btufaoe  on  whioh  the 
map  is  drawn  is  snppoeed  to  pass  throagk  the  oentre 
of  the  earth,  and,  according  to  the  distance  of  the 
en,  the  projection  is  either  of  ths  flist,  second,  or 
third  kind.  In  the  orUutgrapliic,  the  eye  is  assumed 
to  be  at  an  infinite  distance  from  the  oentre  of  the 
earth,  so  that  all  reya  of  light  proceeding  from  every 
point  in  its  surface  are  panllel  and  perpendicular. 

From  the  nature  of  this  projectaon,  it  is  evident 
that  while  the  central  parts  of  Qie  hsnisphere  are 
almost  acouTately  represented,  towards  the  cironm- 
ferenoe  the  countries  are  crowded  together  and 
diminished  in  size.  On  this  account  it  il  of  little 
OSS  for  geographical,  though  of  oonlidetabls  valae 
for  astronomical  purposes.  In  the  stertograpliie,  the 
eye  or  point  of  projection  is  aesomed  to  be  placed  on 
the  surface  of  the  sphere  opposite  the  one  to  be 
delineated.  If  the  globe  were  transparent,  the 
tire  woold  then  see  Sia  opposite  concave  surface. 
Gontnry  to  the  orthi^taphio,  this  method  contracts 
the  centre  of  the  map,  and  enlarges  it  towards 
the  (nrcnmference.  Owing  to  the  unecjnal  area  of 
the  divisions,  and  the  dimculty  of  finding  the  tme 
latltade  and  lonntode  of  places  this  projection 
is  not  much  emmoyed.  In  order  to  rectify  the 
opponte  effects  of  Uie  two  preceding,  the  globular 
projection,  a  modification  of  the  two,  ia  generally 
adopted.  If  we  snppose  the  eye  to  bo  removed 
from  the  surface  to  a  distance  eqoal  to  the  sine 
of  4?  of  the  circmnscribing  circle,  the  projection 
is  called  fflobolar.  In  other  words,  if  the  diameter 
of  the  Hpbere  be  200  parts,  it  must  be  produoed 
70  of  these  paria,  in  older  to  give  tbe  point  of 

All  meridians  and  parallels  in  this  projection  are 
in  reality  elliptical  curves,  but  aa  they  approach  so 
nearly  to  being  circular  Kt*,  t^ey  are  voy  rarely 
ahewn  otherwise. 


NESW,  to  represent  a  meridian,  and  draw  two 
diameters,  NCS  and  WCE,  perpendicnlar  to  each 
other,  the  one  for  a  central  mendian,  the  other  for 
the  equator.  Then  N  and  8  will  reprcaent  the 
North  and  Sooth  poles.  Divide  each  of  the  quad- 
rants iuto  9  equal  parts,  and  each  of  the  radii  CN, 
CE,  and  C  also  into  9  eq^oal  parts.  Produce  NS 
both  ways,  and  find  on  it  the  centres  of  cirelea 
which  will  pass  through  the  three  points  SO  x  80, 
70  y  70,  Ac.,  and  these  arcs  deecribed  on  both  sid^ 
of  the  equator  will  be  the  parallels  of  latitude.  In 
like  manner,  find  on  WE  produced,  the  centres  of 
cireles  which  must  pass  through  a,  b,  e,  and  the 
polea.  Having  selected  the  Gist  meridian,  number 
the  others  suoceBsively  to  the  east  and  west  of  it 
&  map  in  this  way  may  be  comtmcled  on  the 
ntional  hoiiion  of  any  plaoe. 

The  impossibility  of  setting  a  perfect  representa- 
tion of  special  parts  of  the  sphere  by  any  of  the 
previous  methods,  led  to  the  desire  for  othera  less 
defective.  Of  all  solid  bodies  whose  surfaces  can 
be  accurately  developed  or  rolled  out  upon  a  pituie 
without  alt^tion,  the  cone  and  (blinder  approach 
nearest  to  the  character  of  &e  sphere.  A  portion 
of  the  sphere  between  two  parallels  not  far  distant 


ments  make  the   best  projections  for  special 
grephicol  maps,  and  even  with  soma  modificatioDs 
n>r  large  porhona  of  the  globe. 
A  conidal  projection  of  Europe  (Sg.  2)  ia  constructed 


Fig.  Z.— Conical  Projection  of  Europe. 

thus :  Draw  a  base  line  AB  of  indefinite  length ; 
bisect  it  in  B,  and  at  that  point  erect  a  perpmidi- 
cular  ED,  to  form  the  central  meridian  of  the  map    ; 
Take  a  space  for  6*  of  latitude,  and  since  Europe 
liea  between  the  36th  and  T6th  parallels  of  latitude,    i 
mark  off  eight  of  these  spaces  along  ED  for  the    ! 
points  throii)(b  which  the  parallels  must  pass.    The    . 
oentm  from  which  to  describe  the  paraUcla  will  be 
the  ptnnt  in  ED  where  the  top  of  a  cone,  cutting  the 
^obe  at  the  40th  and  65th  parallels,  would  meet  the 
axis  of  tiie  sphere.    This  point  will  be  found  to  be 
beyond  the  North  Pole,  at  C.   Since  on  the  paraUels 
of  45°  and  65°,  whefe  the  cone  cuts  the  sphere,  the 
d^rees  of  longitude  are  exactly  equal  to  those  on 
the  globe,  if  ofi  these  parallela  distances  be  marked    I 
off  equivalent  to  5°  of  longitude,  in  proportion  to 
the  degrees  of  Utitnde  in  those  parallels,  and  through 
these  points  straight  lines  be  drawn  from  C,  they 
will  represent  the  meridians  for  every  C°. 
Sines  all  mEridiaos  ou  the  globe  are  great  circIea 


rnyGaogtc' 


HAPE8— HAFLE. 


painng  throngk  tlie  poIe«,  the  north  lud  south 
pdnto  at  uy  plaoa  corretpond  witii  the  poles  of 
the  CMtfa.  The  eut  and  west  pointz,  howerer,  an 
ifldi«atad  by  a  line  at  right  anglea  to  the  meridian, 
aod  da  not,  exoept  at  the  eqoator,  oorreapond  with 
thoae  of  the  earuk  In  all  the  pTojectdona  hitherto 
deaoribed,  the  direction  either  of  the  north  and 
■onth,  or  of  the  eaat  and  weet  pointi,  is  nrpresented 
hj  a  curved  line,  lo  that  on  inch  a  map  the  oourse 
of  a  vessel  would  almost  always  he  laid  down  in  a 
onrve,  which  oould  only  be  described  by  contdnoally 
laying  off  from  the  meridian  a  line  at  an  angle  eqn^ 
to  that  made  with  the  meridian  by  the  point  of  the 
compass  at  which  the  ship  was  sailioK  If  the 
vessel  were  to  steer  in  a  direct  north- easToounw  by 
one  of  the  previoiu  projections,  the  would,  if  laod 
did  not  intervene,  describe  a  Spiral  round,  and  ulti- 
mately anivB  at  the  North  Pole ;  therefore,  the 
marimer  requires  a  obart  which  will  enable  hun  to 
steer  his  couna  b^  compass  in  straidit  lines  only. 
This  valuable  instrument  is  supplied  by  Mercato^s 

ptTpendictitar  to  Uie  equator,  and  aU  t^  parallels 
«tr«i(;ht  tbes  paraUd  to  the  eqnator. 

It  u  ooDstrooted  •■  follow!  (fig.  3) :  A  line  AB  is 


■ 

ng,  3l— Mereator'a  Piojeotion. 

drawn  of  the  nqnired  lengtli  for  the  equator.  This 
line  is  divided  into  36,  24,  or  IS  equal  parts,  for 
meridians  at  10°,  15°,  or  20°  apart,  and  the  meridians 
are  tiien  drawn  throng  these  perpendicolar  to  AB. 
From  a  table  of  meridional  parts  (a  table  of  the 
nnmber  of  minutes  of  a  d^ree  of  longitude  at  the 
eqnator  oomprised  between  that  and  every  parallel 
of  latitude  up  to  89°),  take  the  distances  of  the 
parallels  *"^  of  Uie  tropics  and  artrtdo  oiiolee  from 
uie  equator,  and  mark  them  ofT  to  the  north  and 
sontli  of  it.    Join  these  points,  and  the  projeotian  is 

This  rmjeddOD,  of  conne,  do«f  not  and  is  not 
intendedT  to  ^ve   a  natural  representation  of  the 

euih,  its  effect  being  to  exaggerate  the  polar  r^ona 


map  proper  u  a 


degrees  of  latitude  being  made  to  increase  propor- 
tionably  to  those  of  longitude.  This  is  the  only 
map  wnioh  gives  an  nnuroken  view  of  the  whole 
nulaoe  <rf  the  earth. 

The  term  map  is  specially  applied  to  represeuta- 
tionsot  land,  or  land  and  water  together;  iriiile  that 
ot  t^art  is  luoited  to  the  coast  and  water  surface 
only,  shewing  cnirents,  rooks,  anchorage,  light- 
houjei^  harbonn^  aoundingi,  and  other  objeeta  of 
imporlMoe  to  aeamen. 

A.  geogi^ihical 


the  world,  or  of  a  large  extent  of  oonntry.  A 
topographical  map  differs  &om  it  in  being  limited  in 
area,  and  ranch  more  detailed.  The  Ordnuice  Siurniy 
of  Britain  is  a  good  example  of  a  topogn^iluoal 
map.  Besides  pnrel;  geographica]  and  topognphicid 
maps,  others  are  ooiutrncted  for  spedaJ  purposes, 
which,  ma;  be  phymcal,  political,  or  oivil,  mihtaiy, 
statialical,  historical,  &a. 

In  order  to  oonitruot  a  map,  and  to  determine 
accnrately  the  positions  of  places  on  it,  a  knowledx^ 
of  two  elements  is  essential— viz.,  latitude  or  dis- 
tance from  the  eqnator,  and  longitude  or  diatuus 
east  or  west  of  the  meridian  adopted. 

Bvety  map,  whatever  its  dimensions.  Is  in  soma 
definite  relation  to  the  actual  size  of  the  j^obe, 
Tbia  relation  is  indicated  by  a  scale— a  grai&ated 
line  ahewing,  by  its  dfvinoDS,  the  number  of  milM 
oorrespondins  to  any  spaoa  measured  on  the  miqt. 
The  scales  of  geographical  maps  range  from  afa«mt 
800  milea  to  an  inoh  (for  maps  of  qoarteiB  of  the 
globe]  to  10  miles  to  an  inch ;  those  of  topo- 
graphical maps  range  from  1  inch  to  2S  inoMM 
Co  a  mile,  the  largest  topographical  maps  we  have, 
admitting  of  the  most  mmute  details. 

The  Ordnance  Survey  of  Great  Britain  is  on  the 
scale  of  rrirv  °'  nature,  or  one  inoh  of  paper  to  one 
mile  ot  tiaaaa, 

A  recent  improvement  Introdnoed  into  our  best 
maps,  is  that  of  printing  the  water-coursca  in  Una 
ink,  making  the  ororaaphy  and  skeleton  td  anrj 
country  stand  out  in  clear  relief. 

>E3,  or  MAP,  Walteb,  a  famoos  mediieval 
cif  Latia  prose  and  verse,  was  bom  on  tha 
s  of  Wales  about  1143.  After  studying  at 
le  was  attached  to  the  court  of  Henij  IL  of 
L     He  acted  for  a  time  as  one  of  the  king's 

ut  judges,   and  held   varioui   ecclesiastical 

posts.  He  repreeeuted  his  sovereign  at  the  court 
of  Louis  YU.  of  France,  and  was  a  member  of  tha 
I^tenn  Council  at  Rome  in  117S.  Id  1196  he 
became  Archdeacon  oE  Oxford,  and  is  last  heard  ot 
'a  1208^  within  a  year  or  two  of  which  date  he 
leema  to  have  die<£  Of  the  rhymed  I^tin  poems, 
attributed  (with  some  dubiety)  to  M.,  the  most 
notable  is  the  Oolias  series  {Apocalyptu  Oolia,  Prf 
dicofio,  Can/atio,  ha.),  a  powerful  satire  on  the  cor- 
'uptions  in  the  Churdi  aod  the  vices  of  the  clergy. 
[t  is  into  the  mouth  of  his  hero.  Father  Golias,  a 
godless,  wine-bibbiog  priest,  that  M.  puts  the  famous 
verses,  Maim  e$l  propotiium  ia  laberna  mori,  fta, 
which,  regarded  not  as  a  scathing  sarcasm  but  as  » 
jovial  drinking-song,  secured  for  M.  the  title  of  '  t^ 
Anaoteon  of  the  12tb  century'  I  His  prose  IM 
Nvgia  CuTiaHvm,  designed  to  shew  the  shallownen 
of  oonrt  life,  branched  out  into  a  lengthy  and 
most  multifarions  miscellany,  oomprising  old-world 
legends,  court  gossip,  cocttonporary  history,  and 
tlKological  polemica.  Probably  his  greatest  achieve- 
ment IS  his  infusing  purity  and  spiritual  purposa 
into  seieral  of  the  Arthurian  legends,  which  we 
have  in  a  prose  dress  apparently  doe  to  M. :  tha 
stories  of  Laocelot,  the  Qnest  of  the  Holy  Oraal, 
and  the  death  of  Arthur.  The  Latin  Poemt  were 
edited  by  Wright  in  1841,  the  De  JTu™  in  1860,  aud 
the  Qnat  of  oU  Holy  Oraal  by  FurmvaU  in  1864. 

UAPLE  [Acer),  a  gennji  of  exogenous  trees  o( 
the  natural  order  Aeeraatm,  This  order  contains 
more  than  sixty  species,  natives  of  the  temperat* 
parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  partioulariy 
numerous  in  North  America  and  the  north  of  India. 
They  have  opposite  leaves  without  stiptdea,  nsaally 
lobed  or  palmate.  The  floweis  are  in  axillai; 
coirmbt  or  racemes,  small,  bat  abomidin^  in  honn, 
and  very  attractive  to  bees.  The  calyx  is  general^ 
divided  into  five  segments ;  the  petals,  when  ^laan^ 


i.LiOOglc 


MAQQI— MAiLAJa 


•qnal  in  nnmbar  to  the  ngmsnta  of  tlie  oalyz. 
|miw  bmn  the  nurgm  of  »  Qeah7,  hypo^ynoua  duk. 
The  trait  u  fanned  of  two  niwU  winged  nati, 
ekdl  with  one  or  two  eeeda.  With  fow  ezceptioni, 
the  geniu  Acer  inoludea  the  whole  order. — The 
CoimON  U.  [A.  eomputrc),  a  snutU  tree,  ia  a  mttiTe 
of  Britain,  and  of  many  parte  of  Eorope  and  Ana. 
The  leavea  are  amall,  and  niiiaUy  fiva-Iabed ;  tha 
wood  ie  oompacL  fine-grained,  takes  a  high  poliah, 
and  ia  much  naed  br  tamen  and  for  oarred  work. 
Sereral  neariy  allied  Ipeoiea  an  found  in  the  lonth 
of  Europe. — The  Stuped  Bark  M.  (J.  drialum)  of 
North  America,  where  it  often  forme  great  part  of 
the  undergrowth  in  woods,  ii  remarkable  for  lon^- 
tndinal  black  and  white  stripee  on  its  bark ;  and  ita 
wood,  which  if  very  white,  ii  oied  for  inlaying  in 
cabinet-work.— The  Qreateb  M.  or  Stcamori  {A. 
pieiulo-plalanut),  commonly  called  Plan»-lrtt  in 
oootUnd,  ig  a  oativa  of  rarioaa  parti  of  Enrope, 
bnt  a  doubtful  natlTe  of  Britain,  in  which,  lunr- 
erer,  it  hae  long  beeu  common.  It  attains  a  height 
of  70 — 90  feet,  has  a  spreading  umlaageous  head, 
and  large,  palmate,  ooanely  serrated  leaves  on  Ions 
stalks.  It  is  of  qnick  growth,  and  ancoeeds  weU 
near  the  sea,  and  in  other  entosed  situations.  The 
wood  is  white,  compact,  and  Ann ;  not  hard,  but 
capable  of  a  &ne  polish ;  and  is  used  by  wheelwrights, 
turnery  fto.  It  is  not  tpt  to  warp.  Stair-rails  are 
often  made  of  it^  and  pattern-blocks  for  muiufao- 
torics,  as  well  as  bowls,  bread-plates,  fto.  Sugar  is 
sometimes  made  from  the  sap  of  this  tree,  ss  from 
that  of  sereral  other  maples  ;  but  the  spades  which 
yields  it  mo«t  abundantly  is  the  Sdoas  M.  {A. 
Kuxharimim)  of  North  America,  a  species  which 
tnnoh  reeemblee  (he  sycamore,  and  abounds  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  Doited  States  and  in  the 
British  possestioitB,  where  large  quantities  of  sugar 
are  made  from  it,  although  only  for  domestic  use. 
The  trunk  of  the  Sugar  nC  is  generally  more  slender 
than  that  of  the  sycamore.  To  obtam  ragar,  holes 
are  bored  in  the  trunk  when  the  sap  is  ascending, 
earlj  in  spring,  before  the  winter  fnist  has  passed 
away,  in  an  obliquely  ascending  direction,  at  no 
great  distance  from  Uie  ground,  at  first  only  to  tho 
depth  of  half  an  inch,  Irat  afterwards  deepened  to 
two  inches ;  and  the  sap  thus  oolleoted  is  evapor> 
ated  in  boilen  over  a  brisk  fire,  to  the  cowdxteaaj 
of  sirup,  itrained  and  poured  into  moulds,  in 
which  it  orystaUisei  into  a  coarse  gray  or  brown 
coloured  togar.  It  ia  sometimes  afterwards  refined. 
Pour  gallons  of  sap  yield  about  one  pound  of  sugar. 
■     ■   te  yields   '  '      '""    ''   ""~  '~   '~ 


1  tree  yieli 


3  six  pounds  in 


processes  of  i 
be  kept  long  after  being  collected.  Good  vinegar 
is  made  from  it.  and  a  kind  of  molasses  moeh 
superior  to  that  from  the  sngsTM^ne,  and  much 
used  in  America  with  buckwheat  cakes,  Ac.  The 
wood  of  Uie  Sugar  M.  has  a  satiny  appearance, 

and  is  used  for  cabinet-making;   it  is  lonset-' 

finely  marked  with  undulations  of  fibre,  and  ia 
known  as  BireCi-tye  M.,  and  is  used  for  ren 
The  cultivation  of  the  Sugar  M.  ia  Europe,  for  the 
■aka  of  its  sugar,  has  of  late  been  much  advocated. 
It  is  not  BO  hardy  in  the  cUmate  of  Britain  as  the 
sycamore,  sod  seems  to  require  a  dry  and  sheltered 
situation,— The  Nobwit  M,  {A,  ^aUatoxda)  is  a 
native  ol  the  north  of  Europe,  although  not  ol 
Britain,  and  i*  alao  found  in  North  America.  It 
much  resembles  the  sycamore,  and  its  wood  is  used 
for  the  same  purpoaea.  It  is  pratty  oommon  in 
plantations  in  Britain. — A  Himalavan  apectes  {A. 
mUomim),  a  noble  tree,  found  with  pines  and  birches 
at  great  eleTation*,  has  recently  Men  introduced 
into  Britain. 


HAQUI  {AriMotdia  Ifaqui),  the  only  known 
lecies  of  a  genus  of  plants  sometlmea  r^erred  to 
le  natural  order  Tiiiaeem,  and  which  has  also  bawi 
made  the  type  of  a  proposed  order.  It  is  an  ever- 
green or  sub-evergreen  ahmb,  of  cooaderable  aiac^  a 
native  of  ChilL  The  flowers  are  small,  greeo,  and 
yellow,  in  axillary  racemes  of  no  gn&  brauty. 
The  fruit  ia  a  three-ctlled  berry,  about  Uis  aixa  of  a 
pea,  black,  acid,  and  eatable ;  the  Chilians  make  a 
wine  from  it.  The  wood  im  used  for  ni'tking  musical 
instruments,  and  the  tough  bark  for  thdr  strings 
The  M.  lometimee  ripena  fruit  afpinst  a  wall  m 
England,  and  is  frequently  cultivated  s«  an  onu- 
mantal  ahrub. 
MA'RABOU  PBATHEHS,  See  AnJirrAjrei 
UA'RABUTS,  a  name  given  to  the  descendants 
of  the  Iforavida  [Arab,  frontier  inhabitants),  a 
certain  Arabic  tribe,  which,  in  1075,  founded  a 
dynasty  in  the  north-western  parts  of  Africa,  and 
held  Morocco  and  Spain  for  a  oonsiderable  period. 
The  Almohads  having  put  an  end  to  their  tem- 
poral dominion,  their  descendants  exercise  to 
this  day  a  kind  of  spiritual  superiority  over  Uie 
Moslem  negroes  iu  Barbai^,  the  coast  of  Guinea,  ho. 
They  form  a  kind  of  pnestly  order,  officiating  at 
mosques  and  chapels,  explaining  the  Koran,  pro- 
viding the  faithful  with  amulets,  prophesying  and 
workmg  minKle*.  They  are  looked  up  to  with 
great  awe  and  reveireiioe  by  the  oommon  populaoe, 
who  also  allow  them  a  certain  vague  licence  over 
their  goods  sad  chattels — (heir  wives  not  excluded. 
The  Great  Marabut  ranks  next  to  tile  king,  and  tlw 
dignity  of  a  Marabut  ia  gmtmHy  hereditary.  One 
of  the  mort  eminent  M.  of  our  day  was  the  late 
Abd-el-Kader  (q.  v.). 

MABAOAY'BO,  a  fortified  dty  of  the  South 
Amerioau  republic  of  Venezuela,  is  situated  on  a 
sandy  [dain  on  the  weet  shore  of  the  strait  which 
'     he  Uke  of  Maraoaybo  with  the  gulf  of  Uu 

3.    Lat  10"  46' N.,  long.  71°  4ff  W.    Itii 

the  chief  town  of  the  etate  of  ZuKa  (formerly  called 
Maraoaybo).  comprising  the  territory  surrounding 
the  lake  of  Maracaybo,  and  oontaiumg  33,076  sq. 
m.,  and  a  population  of  about  80,000.  It  U  a  hand- 
e  town,  with  a  hot  but  healthy  climate,  and 
a  harbour  deep  enough  to  contain  the  lai^esf 
.  lelsj  but  iuacceaoible  to  theni,  owing  to  the  shift- 
ing bar  at  its  mouth.  The  chi^  articleB  of  export 
are  cocoa,  coffee,  hides  and  skim,  and  cotton. 
Bricks,  leather,  saddlery,  sugar,  rum,  and  chocolate 
e  mauufactured.  Pop.  (1881)  26,000. 
MABACAYBO.  Laks  and  Gum,  The  Lake  of 
_L,  in  the  north  of  Venezuela,  ia  about  100  miles  in 
leI^^  and  TO  miles  in  breadth.  Jt  ia  of  consider- 
able depth,  bat  the  bar  at  its  mouth  prohibits  the 
entranoe  m  large  veasela.  It  is  connected  with  the 
gulf  of  the  some  name  by  a  strait  npwards  of  20 
miles  in  length,  and  from  6  to  10  miles  in  breadth. 
The  gulf  ia  a  wide  iolet  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  ISO 
miles  from  east  to  weat^  and  abont  7S  nilea  from 
north  to  south. 

MA'BAGHA,  an  old  town  of  Ferna,  in  th« 
province  of  Azerbijan,  60  miles  south  of  Tabfiz,  on 
a  tributary  oE  Lake  Urumiah.  It  is  surrounded  I^ 
walla,  and  was  long  tiie  capital  of  the  provinoe.  It 
ooDtains  two  bridges  of  the  11th  a,  and  the  renuna 
of  the  observatory  of  the  celebrated  medieval 
astronomer,  Noair  Eddin.    Pop.  10,0001 

UARAJO',  an  island  on  the  north-«a«t  coast 
of  Br&zil,  belonging  to  the  provinoe  of  Psra,  and 
situated  between  the  estuaries  of  the  rivers  Amazon 
ud  Pal*,  ia  180  miles  in  length  by  125  miles  in 
breadth.  In  the  north-east,  it  is  somewhat  elevated, 
wi^oot  tM«s,  and  oorend  by  hvds  ti  oattla.    The 


„  Google 


UARAlfRAM— UABBLB. 


w«at«an  portion  is  low,  and  watered  hy  muDennia 
Btreatna.     Fojil  estimated  at  30,000.  I 

MAKANHA'M,  or  MAEANHAO,  a  rich  and 
important  maritime  proTince  of  the  empire  of  i 
Brftdl,  i»  bonndad  on  the  north  bj  the  Atlantio  [ 
Ocean.  Area,  141,939  »qaarB  milei;  pop.  (1880) 
430,000.  The  Burface  is  uneven,^  bnt  there  ii  no 
range  of  monntams.  It  is  qnadrilaterBl  in  Kha^ 
•nf  it  watered  by  Dmnerooji  rivers,  which,  folbng 
into  the  Atlantic,  trsTerae  its  whole  len^^  in  a 
direction  parallel  with  its  dileB.  Ita  climate  ig 
fine,  and  its  loil  produces  raat  quantitiee  of  rice, 
for  the  production  of  which  it  is  peculiarly  fitted. 
Cotton,  sugar-cane,  and  fruits  are  also  extensively 
grown.  Ita  surface  is  still  to  a  great  extent  oorered 
with  forests  ;  iron  and  lead  oree  and  antimony  have 
been  discov^ed;  and  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses  are 
eiteniiivelj  reared.— The  chief  city  is  Ifaraaham, 
or  San  Luix  dt  Maranham,  the  fourth  in  rank  and 
impoctonce,  and  the  beet-built  city  in  the  Brazilian  ' 
empire.  It  is  aitiiat«d  on  an  ialond  of  the  same  , 
tuune,  in  Ut  r  30*  S..  long.  44*  18^  W.,  is  remark-  I 
ably  cleoD,  gay,  hospitable,  and  prosperoua,  and  bas 
a  peculation  of  36,000.  M.  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop, 
coatains  a  cathedral,  ten  churches,  several  mon- 
asteries and  oonventl,  a  lyccum,  and  other  educa- 
tional inBtitutioD& 

BIARA'NO,  a  town  of  the  provinos  of  Naples, 
mtoated  on  a  gentle  slope  four  miles  from  Naples,  i 
Pop.  7300.  I 

MARANTA'CBLE,  or  CAKNACE  j;  a  natural ' 
order  of  endogenoos  plants,  very  nearly  allied  to  | 
EdUaminea  (q,  v.),  and  differinB  chiefly  in  having 
■11  the  stamens  peUl-Uke,  and  ttw  ooe  fertile  stamen 
lateraL  The^  are  destitute  of  the  aromatic  property 
so  general  m  the  SdlavunerB.  There  are  about 
180  known  species,  oil  tropical  or  tnh-tropicaL  ' 
They  are  all  herbaceooi  perennioU.  Not  many  of 
them  are  large  or  notable  for  the  beauty  of  tndr  i 
flowers.    The  tuberous  root-stocks  of  many  aboond 

MAKASCHI'KO.    See  LiqtiEint. 

MARA'SMUS  is  a  tenn  which  was  somewhat 
Tagnely  used  by  the  older  medical  writers  to  desig- 
nate those  cases  of  general  emaciation  or  atroj^y 
for  which  they  did  not  see  any  special  cause.  The 
word  is  now  seldom  used  except  occasionally  as  a 
synonym  for  iabt)  maoUerica,  or  tubercular  dJBeBsw 
of  tile  mesenteric  glands.     See  Mcsehtekv,  MksbN' 

TEBJO  DiSEASB. 

UAKAT,  Jean  Paul,  one  of  the  most  infomons 
characters  of  the  French  Revolntion,  bom  1744,  of 
Protestant  parents,  at  Baudry,  in  NeofcbftteL  He 
practised  medicine  in  Paris  and  London;  spent 
some  time  in  Dublin  ;  taught  languages  in  Edin- 
burgh ;  and  in  1775,  got  the  degree  of  M.D.  from 
St  Andrews  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Edin- 
bm-gb  doctors.  Ho  published  works  on  optics,  &re, 
electricity,  and  oo  medical  snbjects,  some  of  them 
in  English.  Afterwards  returning  to  Paris,  he 
practised  medicine  until  the  Revolution  brought 
nim  ijito  prominence.  His  appearance  was  gro- 
t^ue,  his  look  wild,  and  bis  speeches  extravagant. 
His  influence  over  the  lowest  cmsses,  however,  soon 
became  great.  He  issued  a  journal,  which  he  at  first 
colled  the  Pubticuie  Pariiien,  bnt  afterwards  the 
Ami  (fu  PeupZt,  which  is  historically  connected  with 
some  of  the  most  fearful  events  of  that  period.  No 
falsehood  was  too  monstrons  to  be  published  jn  it, 
no  atrocity  too  great  to  be  recommeniicd.  It  was  in 
a  great  meaaure  tbo  infiuence  of  M.  which  led  to  the 
cruelties  and  massacres  of  September  1792,  in  the 
midst  of  which  he  was  elected  a  member  of  tha 
Convention,  but  on  his  appearanoe  there  he  was 
m 


received  with  almost  nniveraal  expressiona  ot  abhor- 
rence.   No  one  wonld  sit  beside  him,  and  when  he 

attempted  to  speak,  a  tomolt  always  arose.    His 
journal,  now  the  Joamai  ds  la  ElpMiqve,  became 


granted,  he  wonld  demand  more.  Dming  the  king's 
trial,  he  was  nrgsot  for  his  immediate  execnticm, 
and  in  his  journal  called  upon  the  people  to  slay 
200,000  of  the  adherents  of  tha  old  regime,  and  to 
reduce  the  Convention  to  one-fourth.  Id  April  I793i 
Id.  obtained  the  eoacfaneDt  of  the  fearful  law  against 
snapected  penoos,  in  virtue  of  which  400,000  wer« 
imprisoned  Bobespierre,  Danton,  and  M.  were 
now  the  trinmviiata  whii^  ruled  France.  But  on 
July  13,  1793,  M.  was  stabbed  in  his  own  bimae  by 
Charlotte  Corday  (q.  v.).    This  event  was  followed 

Ksome  of  the  worst  atrocities  of  the  Reign  of 
rror;  streams  of  blood  flowing,  as  was  aafi,  to 
the  mane*  of  M.,  whose  likeness,  with  gaping 
wounds,  painted  by  David,  was  eriiibited   —   '- 


housekeeper,  whom  he  had  married  '  one  fisie  day, 
in  the  presence  of  the  Sua,'  should  be  maintained  at 
the  expense  of  the  state.  A  decree  of  4th  November 
1793  gave  to  M.'s  remains  the  honoure  of  the 
Pantheon  i  but  they  were  cast  out  of  it  again  on 
8th  November  179S,  and  his  picture  was  removed 
from  its  place  in  the  Convention.  See  Bougeart's 
M.,  L'Amidu  PeupU;  Chevremont'e  Jf.  (1881). 

MARAT'EA,  an  Italian  town  of  the  province 
of  Basilicata,  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  mountain, 
in  a  lovely  conntry.     Pop.  6480; 

If  A'BATHON,  anciently,  ■  village  on  Ui«  cut 
coast  of  Attica,  about  20  miles  nortii-eost  of 
Athens,  now  called  Marathona,  or,  according  to 
Leake,  the  present  Vrana.  It  was  situated  m  k 
plain  ot  the  same  name,  about  six  milee  in  lengUi 
and  three  in  breadth,  with  a  backgronnd  of  moun- 
tains in  the  west,  and  a  marsh  both  on  the  north 
and  south ;  eastward,  it  reached  the  sea.  Byron's 
lines  in  the  I^a  of  Qnex  correctly  describe  it : 


The 


look  01 


PeTsian  hordes  of  Darius  \sj  the 
Greeks  under  Miltiodea  (490  B.a). 

MARAU'DINO  (a  word,  common  nnder 
orthographic  variations,  to  most  of  the  European 
languages,  and,  probably,  of  identical  root  witii  t^ 
verb  'to  mar')  is  irregular  plunder  or  violence 
offered  to  the  inhabitants  of  a  ooantiy  by  the 
individuals  of  an  army.  In  all  armies  where 
discipline  is  maintained,  marauding  is,  at  least 
professedly,  punished  by  death;  the  provost-marshol 
having  power  to  inflict  that  penalty  summarily  oo 
all  oSenders  taken  in  the  act 

MARAVB'DI,  an  old  Spanish  coin,  either  of 
vellon,  worth  about  }tbs  of  a  farthing ;  or  of  diver, 
worth  f  ths  of  a  fortliing. 

MARBLE,  in  its  strict  and  proper  sense,  ia  a 
rock  crystallised  in  a  saocharoidol  nuuiner,  having 
the  fracture  of  loaf-sugar,  and  composed  of  carbo- 
nate of  lime,  either  almost  pure  when  the  colour 
is  white,  or  combined  with  oxide  of  iron  or  other 
impurities  which  give  various  colours  to  it.  But 
many  other  kinds  of  stone  ore  popularly  included 
under  tiiis  title.  Indeed  any  limestone  rock  suffi- 
ciently compact  to  admit  of  a  polish  is  called  inaTbl& 
It  is  only  m  this  vocue  sense  that  the  iiidiir»l«d 
amorphous  rocks  used  in  tiiis  country  can  reotsve 


TTOgtr 


MAEBLEHEAD— MAECELLUS, 


this  Dune.  Such  u«  the  bUck,  red,  tx»j,  and 
Torimted  limeBtonea  of  tKe  Old  Red  SaodirtoDe 
Period  fomid  in  Deronghire,  which  are  rery  beau- 
tiful from  the  nntpben  of  exqniaitely  preaerred 
cnrala  which  sbound  ia  them  i  the  marblei  of  the 
Corboiiiferous  eeriea  from  Flintehire,  BeTbyihire. 
and  Yorkihire,  ao  full  of  eDorinitei ;  the  shell 
marbles  from  the  OoLte  rocks  at  Ranoe,  Stamford, 
and  Yoril ;  and  the  dark  Pmbeck  and  Fetworth 
marbles,  bMntifnllf  '  figured '  irith  shells,  from  the 
Wealden  sbata,  which  were  so  much  used  bjr  the 
arohitects  of  the  middle  ^es. 

Sacchariae  or  itatuarj  marble  ia  a  white  fine- 
grained rock,  resembling  loaf-auEsr  in  colour  and 
texture,  working  freely  in  every  direction,  not  linbta 
to  Bplinter,  and  taking  a  fine  polisL  Of  the  marbles 
UBed  by  the  ancicDts,  the  most  famous  are — Parian 
m&rble,  a  finely  graaular  and  very  durable  stone, 
with  a  wa^  appearance  when  polished.  Some  of 
the  finest  Grecian  sculptures  were  formed  of  this 
marble,  amonji  otheis,  the  famotu  Yenus  ds  Medici. 
The  marble  of  Pentelicus  was  at  one  time  preferred 
by  the  Greeks  to  Parian,  beoaose  it  was  whiter  and 
finer  grained.  The  ParUienon  was  entirely  built  of 
it,  BQd  many  famous  statues  still  remain  which  were 
executed  in  this  marble,  but  they  are  always  mora 
or  less  weathered,  never  retaining  the  beautiful  finish 
of  the  Parian  statues.  The  quarries  at  Carrara  were 
known  to  the  ancients,  but  they  have  been  more 
extensively  wrought  for  modem  sculptors,  who 
use  this  marble  chiefly.  It  is  a  fine-grained,  pure 
white  marble,  but  is  so  often  traversed  by  gray 
veins,  that  it  is  difBcult  to  get  large  blocks  free  from 
them.  Of  coloured  marbles,  the  beat  known  are 
the  Rosso  Antico,  a  deep  blood-red,  sprinkled  with 
minute  white  dots ;  Yerde  Antioo,  a  clouded  green 
prodnoed  by  a  mixtore  of  white  marble  and  green 
serpentine ;  OiaUo  Antioo,  a  deep  yellow,  with 
black  or  yellow  rings ;  and  Nero  Antico,  a  deep 
black  marble. 

The  crystalline  struotnre  of  marbles  may  be  the 
original  condition  in  which  the  rock  was  formed 
as  a  chemical  depcsitioD,  in  the  same  manner  as 
<  crystalline,  but  there 

I  their  sti .. 

taken  place  sabae- 
mtent  to  tbeic  deposition.  This  action  havins  at 
the  same  time  destn^ed  all  trace  of  fossils,  marbles 
were  oonsidered  fomieily  as  belonging  to  the  Primi- 
tive or  Metamorphio  series  of  rocks ;  but  while 
they  generally  are  membora  of  one  of  the  Paheoioio 
formations,  it  is  now  known  that  aome  of  the 
statnary  marbles  of  Oreeoe  and  Italy  are  Seoondaiy, 
and  othera  even  Tertiary  limestones. 

MARBLEHEAD,  a  seaport  town  of  Uassachn- 
setts.  United  Statea  of  America,  on  Maasachnsetts 
Bay,  16  miles  DoTth-east  of  Boston.  It8  population 
was  formerly  devoted  to  the  flaheries,  but  ia  now 
also  largely  engaged  in  manufaoturing,  chiefly  boots 
and  shoes.  The  town  was  settled  by  emigrants  from 
the  Channel  Islands.  At  the  close  of  Uie  revolu- 
tionaiy  war,  t^ere  were  GOO  widows  :  and  at  the  end 
of  the  war  of  1812,  500  citizens  of  M.  were  prisoners 
of  war  in  Eagl^d.    Pop.  (1870)  7703  ;  (1880)  7467. 

HA'BBITRG,  an  interestmg  old  Oermau  town, 
in  the  Praaeian  province  of  ^ase-Naasan,  on  both 
banks  of  the  river  Lahn,  60  miles  north  of  Frank- 
furt-on-the- Main,  and  49  miles  aoath-west  of  CaaseL 
Its  situation  is  strikingly  beautiful.  It  ia  placed 
chiefly  on  a  hill,  round  which  are  built  quaint  obi- 
fashioned  houses,  interspened  with  buildings  of  i 
lator  date,  and  seiiarated  by  terrace-Barr"---  ""- 
hill  is 


fine  Gothic  church  of  St  Elizabeth,  begun  12SS, 
completed   1283,  having   two  towers   303  feet  in 

height  It  was  erected  in  hononr  of  St  Elizabeth 
(<^.  v.),  danj^ter  of  Andreas  II.  of  Hungary,  and 
wife  of  Lnawig,  lAndgraf  of  Hesse  and  TfanriDgia. 
From  her,  the  ancestress  of  the  Cassel  and  Darm- 
stadt branches  of  the  House  of  Hesse,  is  descended 
the  present  Princess  (Alexandra)  of  Wales.  The 
caatle  of  Marbnrg  was  built  in  106Sl  In  one  of 
it*  holla,  the  oonferencea  lietween  the  Wittenberg 
and  Swiss  reformers  regarding  the  Lord's  Supper 
took  place.  The  nnivcnity  of  M.  was  founded  in 
1527  by  Phihp  the  Magnanimous,  Landgral  of 
Hesse,  and  soon  became  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
in  Protestant  Enrope.  Amons  its  eariieat  students 
were  the  celebrated  Patrick  Hamilton,  and  William 
Tyndale,  the  translator  of  the  English  Bible.  The 
univerai^  has  four  faculties — Theology,  Jurisnu- 
denocs  Medicine,  and  Arts ;  and  oomprises  about 
forty  professors,  twenty  lecturers,  and  from  300 
to  400  student*.  It  oontuns  a  Ubrary  of  130,000 
volumes.  Extensive  potteries  and  tanneriea  are  in 
operation.     Pop.  (1880)  11,225. 

MAROA'TO,  in  Muaic,  means  in  a  strongly 
accentuated  or  marked  manner. 

MAROB^IiTTS,  M.  Claitoiob,  a  famons  Bomait 
general,  of  one  of  the  most  eminent  plebeian  families. 
He  was  conaul  for  the  first  time  in  222  b.  o.,  and 
obtained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Inaubiiana  in 
Ciaaipine  Gaul,  alaying  with  hie  own  hand  thtir 
king,  Britomartna  or  viridomarus.  whose  spoils  he 
defeated  to  Jupiter,  and  was  honoured  with  a 
triumph.  This  was  the  third  and  lost  occasion  in 
Roman  history  on  which  tpolia  o^nna  were  offered 
to  the  gods.  In  the  Second  Punio  War,  M  fought 
aa  pnetor,  in  216  B.C.,  against  Hannibal  at  Nolo,  in 
Campania ;  and  the  victory  which  he  gained  was 
the  more  important,  aa  it  shewed  that  Hannibal 
waa  not  invincible,  and  that  the  Romans  had  not 
been  irTeparafaljr  overthrown  at  Cannn.  In  the 
coarse  of^two  year*,  he  thrice  repulaed  the  Cartha- 
ginian geueral  at  this  place.  Bemg  consul  again  in 
214  B.O.,  he  was  intnuited  with  the  command  of  the 
war  in  Sicily.  He  took  Leontim,  massacring  in 
cold  blood  2000  Roman  deserters  whom  he  found 
there,  and  then  advanced  against  Syracuse,  which 
he  tried  to  storm.  All  hia  efforts  were  rendered 
unavailing  by  the  skill  of  Archimedes  (q.  v.),  and 
he  woa  compelled  to  rezulacly  blockade  the  city. 
Famine,  pestilence,  and  mtimatety  treachery  on  the 
part  of  the  Spanish  auxiliaries  of  the  Syracuaans, 
enabled  M.  to  make  himself  master  of  the  plaoe 
(212  B.C.),  after  which  the  remainder  of  Sicily  waa 
brought  under  the  dominion  of  tho  Romans. 


quered  cities  of  their  works  of  art. 
ho  was  again  consul,  and  was  agmn  opposed  to 
Hannibal,  with  whom  he  fottght  an  mdeciaive 
battle  at  Numistro,  in  Lncania.  and  by  whom  hs 
woa  defeated  at  Canusium,  in  Apulia,  m  209  b.  a, 
but  on  the  day  following  retrieved  the  defeat  In 
20S  B.  c,  he  was  for  the  fifth  time  elected  to  the 
consulate,  and  assumed  once  more  the  command  of 
the  Roman  army  against  HannibaL  When  out 
reconnoitring  one  day,  he  fell  into  an  ambuscade, 
and  waa  alam.  The  Carthaginian  general  treated 
his  remains  with  honour.  It  ought  to  be  noticed 
that  the  acoounta  of  M.'a  life  given  by  livf, 
Plutarch,  and  othera,  are  believed  to  be  very  mliut 
coloured  and  diatoried— aa  Polybiua,  one  of  the 
best  and  most  trustworthy  authorities  on  the  Ponlo 
War,  denies  that  he  ever  defeated  Hannibal  at  all  I 
pes,  of  whom 
laving,  when 


i.CooaU 


UABCH— UABCION. 


Ojuditwl  MiTcello  Cerrmi,  token  a,  toit  pnmunent 
part  in  the  diacunoiu  of  the  Council  of  iS-ent,  orer 
whioh  he  wu  sppointed  to  preiide  m  legate  of 
Julina  IIL  He  u  alio  ramarliiible  from  the  minor 
but  enrioiu  circvnutanoe  of  hia  not  complying  with 
the  Muaent  nuton)  by  which  the  pope,  oa  hi*  deo- 
tion,  1^«  wide  his  t»ptinaal  nime,  and  aaanme*  • 
new  on«>  Mttrcello  Cerrini  retained  on  ht«  tlev^^^ 
tion  tiia  luune  whioh  he  had  previooaly  borne.  He 
WM  elected  March  9,  1563,  and  Borvived  hia 
cdcTation  bnt  22  day*. 

MARCH,  the  firvt  month  of  the  Bnuan  year, 
and  the  thml  Moording  to  onr  present  calendar, 
ooniista  of  31  days.  It  was  oonmdered  as  the  fint 
month  of  the  year  in  EnsUnd  until  the  chanra  of 
■^le  in  176^  and  tlie  lezal  year  wM  reckoned  &om 
tlie  2Gth  March.  The  Ando-Saxons  called  it  Hlyd 
Tnottalh,  stormy  month,  and  Hraed  nanaih,  ragged 
month.  There  ii  an  old  proverb,  still  used  by  the 
Bnffljsh  and  Scotch  roatics,  which  rernvsents  March 
as  boirowinff  three  daya  from  April ;  and  in  Th* 
ComptaytU  lySooUaad  they  ore  thus  desoribed  ; 

The  first  it  shall  be  wind  and  weet ; 
The  next  It  ihall  be  maw  and  sleet ; 
The  third  it  shall  be  aic  a  freeze 
Shall  gai  the  binls  itiek  to  the  trees. 

Bnt  it  is  disputed  whetiiertbeie 'borrowed  days' are 
the  last  tbrM  of  March  or  the  first  t^iree  of  April 

MARCH,  a  inaaical  composition,  chieQy  for 
military  bands,  with  wind  instruments,  intended  to 
accompaoy  the  marching  of  troops.  There  are  slow 
and  quick  marches,  also  marches  peculiar  to  different 


MARCHA'NTIA,  a  genua  of  nepaika  (q.  v.), 
the  type  of  a  sab-ordei  distinguished  by  the  spore- 
coaes  buii^Dg  irregularly,  and  the  snores  being 
mixed  with  elaters,  by  some  botanists  elevated  into 
a  distinct  order,  several  species  are  natives  of 
Britain,  some  of  which  are  veiy  common  in  moist 
■bady  sitnations,  oovering  rocks,  earth,  &o.,  with 
their  spreading  green  Lohen-like  fronds. 


MARCHB7TA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Sevilla,  and  33  tnileB  east-south-east  of  tlie  city  of 
that  name,  in  a  district  rich  in  com  and  olives.  In 
the  vidnity  are  solphnr  hatha,  to  which  many 
invalide  mart    Pop.  (1877)  13,768. 

MARCHES,  the  boundaries  between  England 
and  Scotland,  also  between  England  and  Wales. 
See  Mask. 

MARCHES,  in  Scotch  Iaw,  mean  the  bonndariea 
of  property.  By  an  ancient  Scotch  statute,  one  pro- 
prietor can  compel  an  adjoining  proprietfo'  to  join 
tiim  in  erecting  a  mntual  fence,  or  to  bear  half  the 
eipense  thereoL     Ko  snch  power  exists  in  England 

MARCHINQ,  one  of   the    first   necessitiea   to 

distinguish  a  body  of  disciplined  tRK^  from  a  mere 
crowd  of  men,  is  a  reguUr  cadenced  step,  taken  by 
every  individual  at  Oie  same  time  and  with  the 
same  foot.  The  necessity  of  this  for  harmonioos 
action  ia  obvioua.  The  ancient  Roman  legions  had 
military  music  to  beat  time  for  their  march.  In 
tlie  feudal  ages,  when  infantry  fell  into  disrepate, 
cadenced  marching  was  unattended  to,  and  aeems 
only  to  have  been  thorooghly  revived  by  Marshal 
Saxe.  The  best  mnaio  for  a  march  is  found  to  be 
some  simple  tuoe,  snch  as  ean  readily  be  performed 

S  drums  and  fifes.  The  music,  besides  preserving 
>  time,  acts  as  a  preventire  of  fatigue- 
In  the  British  service,  there  are  the  slow  march 
of  76  paces,  each  of  30  inches,  in  a  minute — 
only  used  on  parade;  the  quick  march,  of  ISO 
paces,  in  which  all  evolntions  are  psrffKmed ;  and 
the  doubloHiaiok,  of  16S  running  paoee,  wi^  the 


knees  rused  high.     This  last  cannot  be 

for  any  great  distance,  and  is  employed  in  a  ohaiK 

or  in  suddenly  ooottppng  a  hill  or  some  commandmg 

position,  and  in  a  lew  short  internal  ntorementau 

r^inienta. 

Oi»MiermarAi»g  is  an  evolution  by  which  a  body 
of  men  change  front,  and  at  the  same  time  retain 
the  same  men  in  the  front-rank.  The  opnation  for 
a  eompany  will  be  miderstood  by  Uie  annexed 
diagram,  where  the  sohd  line  represents  the  first 


/C 


lJiP~ 


.l..tf, 


AB,  ob,  oflglna]  potttlon  i  AgBg.  Ofb^  tlie  s«ir  paslltoii*  ^is 
UTOwi  danotd  the  dinvtloa  In  trtdcb  tlift  nalu  Cftce- 

podtian,  and  the  broken  line  that  afterwards  taken 
upj  the  movement  being  represented  hy  '  right  toni, 
gniok  march,  left  whee^  forward,  halt,  front,  dress. 
On  the  same  principle,  a  whole  army  will  some> 
times  change  front.  If  after  the  countermarch  the 
order  '  rear-tum'  be  given,  the  same  front  will  be 
preserved,  with  the  rear-rank  in  front,  and  what 
was  previcualy  the  right  now  serving  ss  the  left. 
A  rear-rank  may  also  become  a  &)nt<rank  by 
merely  countermuching  round  the  end  of  tite  Latter, 
which  remains  stationary. 

MARCIANIBI,  a  town  of  the  Italian  province 
ot  Caaerta  (Terra  dji  Lavoro),  situated  13  miles  north 
of  Naples,  in  a  low  unhealthy  pUin,  in  the  midst  of 
aeveral  lakes.     Fop.  10,00a 

MAROION,  the  founder  of  the  Mardcoitea,  an 
extremely  ascetic  Onoetic  sect,  was  the  s<xi  ol  a 
Bishop  of  Sinope  in  Fontns.  In  his  eaiiier  years, 
he  was  a  sailor  or  ship-master.  Being  exoom- 
mnnioated  by  his  fatliar,  on  aooonnt  of  hia  heretical 
opiniona,  he  went  to  Rome  abont  140  A.U  He 
made  several  anxious  efforts  to  obtain  a  reoon- 
ciliation  with  the  Catholic  Church,  for  he  does  not 
appear  to  have  loved  "^l*'"" ;  but  his  reatiess, 
prying,  theorising  intellect  oonstsntly  led  him  into 
opinions  and  praoticea  too  hostile  bi  tlMse  of  his 
fellow-Chriatians  to  pemit  of  their  being  pawed 
over  in  silence.  After  bis  final  accommnnioation, 
he  aswciated  himself  with  the  Syrian  Onostie 
Cordon,  and  fotmded  a  system,  in  some  MspeetiL 

Suite  antagonistio  to  Christianity.  Hie  gospel  of 
hrist,  aocordina  to  him,  consisted  in  free  love  of 
the  Oood;  the  Moaoic  system,  with  its  motives  of 
rewards  and  panishments,  was  mere  legality ;  and 
there  is  as  irreconcilable  an  opposition  between  the 
respective  authors  of  the  '  Iaw  '  and  the  '  Gospel,' 
L  e.,  the  Creator,  on  the  one  hand,  and  ths  Ood  <^ 
the  Christians,  on  the  other,  as  there  is  between 
these  two  works.  His  system  is  but  imperfectly 
known ;  and  it  is  supposed  to  have  assumed  either 
three  or  four  aboriguial  beings — Good,  Evil,  Creator, 
and  Matter.  See  ONOsnCB.  B«spe«ting  the  out- 
ward form  of  worship  ranutited  among  his  f  oUowen, 
little  is  known  save  tiiat  it  had  great  mmlari^ — 
as  had  their  whole  relisiauB  system— to  that  of  the 
ManicluBMis  (q.  v.).  M.  entirely  rejected  the  Old 
Testament;  uid  of  the  New  Testament,  all  bat  a 
Caw  Epistles  and  the  Qospel  of  Bt  Luke,  whioh  had 
also  to  undergo  certain  changes  from  his  hand. 
The  first  four  chapters  were  omitted,  and  the  fifth 
he  b^an  with  the  vmrds :  '  In  the  15th  year  of  the 
rugn  <rf  TiboriuB  Cnsar,  God  came  to  Capemaunt, 
a  city  of  Oainee,  and  spoke  on  the  SabbaUi.'    The 


ivGUU^IL 


MAHDDI— MAEGAaET  OP  AKJOU. 


MmiooitM  mhaiited  •■  k  distinct  party  till  U>e 
■Cth  c  ftod  were  difiiued  through  aynk,  I^gypt, 
fUeatine,  Ita,    TertnUiau  uid  othen  wrote  ftgaintt 

HARDI'N,  >  ooiuiderable  town  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  i*  rtnkiDf^^  ritoated,  at  an  eleTBtioD  of 
2300  feet,  on  the  Bonthem  alopes  of  the  Mardin 
Hull  (ftncieiitlj  Hmmt  Mafrinx},  SJ  milea  Roath- 
eait  of  DiaiMdr.  It  conbuna  nnnieroaig  moaquee, 
bazaars,  and  batbs,  and  the  roina  of  an  old  CMtle. 
The  onuunents  in  Anbemne  on  the  g>tM  of 
the  citadel  are  sud  to  be  naer  than  those  of  the 
Alhambra.  Pop.  about  1S,000,  of  whom  the  half 
are  Moslem  Kords,  and  the  other  half  Chaldeans,' 
MaromteH,  and  Jaoobites  (q.  v.),  and  who  osiry  on 
manoAtctnrei  of  linen  and  ootton  fabrics,  and  of 
leather.  During  the  decline  of  the  khslifate  of 
Bagdad,  M.  roee  to  ooniiderable  importaitce,  and 
was  for  a  long  time  the  capital  of  a  principslitj 
nnder  a  brand)  of  the  A7nbit«a  (detoendanti  ot 
8alah-ed-din),  bnt  ita  short-lired  gloiy  was  soon 
after  qnenched  by  the  advancing  tide  of  the  Mon- 
g<da.    It  was  snbaeqnentlj  taken  by  TimOr. 

MABEB',  Loch,  in  tho  west  of  Hoss-lbire.  Bcot' 
land,  is  12f  miles  in  length,  with  a  breadth  of  from 
3  furlongs  to  21  inilei,  and  a  depth,  in  some  places, 
of  60  fathoms.  Owing  to  its  great  depth,  it  never 
freezes  over  its  Wholo  extent.  It  is  surronnded 
by  mountain  Bceueiy  which,  for  wildness  snd 
grandeur,  is  not  ezcdled  in  Scotland.  Ita  waters 
are  carried  off  to  the  sea  by  the  river  Ewe,  two 
miles  in  length.  The  loch  contains  27  islets,  one 
with  remains  ot  an  ancient  chapel  and  a  eraTcjard. 
The  Queen  stayed  here  in  September  1877- 

HARKMMA  (cormpted  from  Karittima,  tUoaUd 
<m  iJie  tea),  a  vast  nuusby  region  of  West  Italy, 
extending  along  the  sea-coast  of  Tascany,  from 
tha  mouth  of  the  Cecina  to  Orbitello,  and  em- 
bracing an  area  of  997  square  miles.  The  Pontine 
Marshea  and  the  Campagna  of  Borne  are  similar 
distnct&  Formerly,  these  Marerome  were  fruitful 
and  popoloos  plains ;  but  neglect  of  the  water- 
courses of  the  district  allowed  the  fonnation  of 
marshes ;  and  now  they  hare  become  generators 
of  tertiary  fevers,  and  present  an  aspect  of  drcoiy 
desolation  in  the  anmmer  moutbe,  when  the  inha- 
bitants flee  froni  their  miasmata,  prejndioia]  alike  to 
man  and  beaut.  Leopold  IL,  the  late  Grand  Duke 
of  Tuscany,  directed  especial  attention  to  the  drain- 
age and  amelioration  of  the  Tuscan  Maremme,  and 
oonsiderable  tacceas  attended  their  being  largely 
planted,  trees  being  a  corrective  of  their  malarious 
effects.  Fiom  ISSS  to  1648  the  cost  of  the  dninage 
ot  the  M.  was  £031.00a  The  arable  land  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  M.  ia  exuberantly  fertile ;  but  the 
harrests  are  gathered  by  hired  labourer*  in  the 
most  infected  diatriota,  and  in  their  emaciated  and 
lirid  ftstnrea  may  be  seen  the  fatal  action  ot  malaria. 
During  innter,  the  M.  ia  inbalritable,  and  yields 
good  pastom 

HARB'NOO,  a  tillage  of  Northern  Italy,  in  the 
provincQ  of  Alessandria,  litnated  near  the  Bonnida, 
in  the  midst  of  eitensiTe  forests.  M.  was  the 
•cene  of  a  memorable  battle,  in  which  a  French 
army,  commanded  by  Bonaparte,  and  numbering 
somewhat  more  than  20,000,  defeated  and  routed 
32.000  Anstrians,  nnder  tienenl  Melas,  «n  the  14tJh 
Jane  1800. 

MARBOTIS,  or  MARTCTA,  Laki,  the  modem 
Siriti-tt-Mari&Uf  a  salt  lake  or  maish  in  the 
■ortjt  of  Efpqit,  extends  aonthwaid  from  the  oity 
of  Alexandria,  and  is  aeparated  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean, on  its  north-west  aide,  by  a  nairvw  isthmna 
of  sand.  Id  ancient  timea,  ita  length  was  abont 
IS  mih*,  its  breadth  about  22.     Ita  shore*  were 


planted  with  olives  and  vines,  and  the  papyra% 
which  grew  upon  its  banks  and  on  ita  eight  islets 
waa  famooa  for  its  fine  quality.  In  more  recent 
times,  the  oanaU  which  fed  Lake  M.  were  neglected, 
and  its  depth  and  area  were  much  reduced.  In 
the  ISth  0.,  the  bed  had  become,  in  great  part^ 
a  sandy  waste ;  but  in  1801,  during  the  war 
between  the  BngHph  and  French,  the  aea  was  let 
in  by  the  former,  and  it  is  now  again  a  marshy  lake. 
The  paaaaes  by  which  the  sea  £nnd  enbaace  was 
sabaeqnenfly  closed  up  by  Mehamed  All  The 
DTSMut  dimensions  of  the  lake  are  about  27  miles 
long  by  25  milea  bnmd. 

MABOAUBT,  sometimes  called  the  'Northern 
Seminunia,'  qneeo  of  the  trii^e  SoandinaTion  king- 
dom of  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  waa  the 
seotmd  daoditer  of  Valdemar  UI.,  king  of  Denmark, 
and  wife  ofHakon  VUL.  kins  of  Norway.  M.  waa 
bom  in  1353,  and  on  the  deaOi  ot  her  father,  with- 
out direct  male  hairs,  in  1876,  the  Danish  nol^s, 
paasing  over  the  son  of  Valdemar's  eldest  daughter, 
Ingebc^  of  Meoklenboift  oSsnd  Urn  CTown  to  M. 
and  her  Diubaod  in  trust  tor  their  infant  son  OlaL 
the  death  of  Hakon  in  1380,  M.  became  soli 


guatdian 
17  in  138^ 


oftl 


regmqr,  that  the  estates  of  boldi  kingdoms  concnrred 
in  electing  her  as  their  Joint  soverugn  ruler.  Having 
received  ths  oown  at  their  hands,  ahe  convoked  a 

landiAing,  in  which  she  announced  that,  with  the 
concurrenoe  of  her  aubjeots,  she  would  nominate  her 
grand-nephew.  Brio  of  Pomerama,  aa  her  succeaaor; 
and  although,  owing  to  Erlc^a  infancy  at  the  time, 


God,  daughter  of  Taldemar,  king  i  ...  ._. 
the  moment  that  M.  was  cementing  the 
Norway  and  Denmark,  the  condition  of  aOaira  in 
Sweden  opened  the  way  for  a  fuiiher  extension 
of  her  power;  for  the  Swedish  kins,  Albert  of 
Mecklenburg,  bad  so  thoroughly  aUenatcd  the 
affections  of  bis  aubjects,  that  the  nobles,  declaring 
the  throne  vacant,  offered  to  acknowledge  M.  as 
their  ruler.  The  queen  lost  no  time  in  sending 
an  army  into  Sweden  to  support  her  pretensions, 
and  defeated  the  king's  Oenuan  troops  at  Leaby. 
where  Albert  and  his  aon  Erio  fell  into  her  handa. 
Albert  ronained  in  prison  aeren  yean,  during 
which  time  M.  auooeeded  in  wholly  aubjugating 
Sweden;   and   in   1397   she   made  her  tnumphu 


Act  of  Union,  whioh  siie  had  drawn  np  with  her 
own  hand,  and  to  which  were  appended  the  aigna- 
turee  of  seventeen  of  the  prindul  men  in  the  three 
kingdoms.  Br  this  rsmarkable  act,  known  aa 
the  Dnion  of  Calmar,  from  the  place  at  which  it 

signed  and   first  promulgated,  it  waa  atipu- 

uiat  the  three  kingdoma  ifaoold  remain  for 
at  peace  under  one  king,  retaining  their  own 
laws  and  customs ;  and  that,  at  the  £ath  of  the 
sovereign,  if  he  left  several  aoua,  one  of  their  number 
ahould  be  chosen  by  the  combined  estates  of  the 
three  realms,  who  were  alao  to  elect  a  new  kiua  in 
the  event  of  the  deceaaed  monarch  havingdied 
childless.  This  Utopian  aoheme  utterly  broke  down 
at  the  death  of  M.,  wbioh  took  place  in  1412. 

MARGARET,  St,  Qnean  of  Malcolm  Canmore 
(q-v.). 


^ 


MAEOARIC  ACm— MAEIA  CHRISTINA. 


titular  king  of  Sicily,  and  of  Isabella  of  Lomine, 
w*a  bom  at  PoDt-l^Moaason,  in  Lorraine,  MarcQi 
1423.  She  wai  mamed  to  Henry  VL  of  England 
in  1445 ;  and  ber  hnibaiid  being  a  person  of  very 
weak  character,  she  exercised  an  almost  tmlimited 
anthority  over  him,  and  wu  the  Tirtoal  •overeign 
of  the  realm  ;  bat  a  secret  contract  at  her  marriage, 
by  vhich  Maine  and  Anjou  were  relinqnished 
to  the  French,  exoit«d  great  disaatiifaction  in 
Engluid.  The  strife  between  the  English  and 
fVench,  which  lost  to  the  former  the  whole  of  their 
pomestiona  in  France  except  Calais,  was  charged 
upon  Marearet.  In  1450,  occurred  the  inrarrec- 
tion  of  Jack  Cade,  and  soon  after,  the  conntrr  was 
plnnged  in  the  horrors  of  that  Uoody  dvil  war 
known  as  the  Wart  of  tAt  Rota  (q.  t.).  After  a 
straggle  of  nearly  20  years,  M.  was  defeated  aod 
takeii  prisoner  at  Tewkesbury,  and  imprisoned  in 
the  Tower,  where  she  reuksiued  five  years,  till  Lonis 
XI.  redeemed  her  for  fifty  thousand  crowns.  She 
then  retired  to  France,  and  died  at  the  chfttean  of 
Dampierre,  near  Sanmnr,  inAiijon,26thAngnst  1482. 

MARGAltlO  ACID  (CuHnO, ,  HO)  is  one  of 
the  solid  fatty  acids.  At  an  ordinary  temperature, 
it  is  solid,  white,  and  crystalline ;  it  is  perfectly 
insoluble  in  water,  dissolves  in  boQing  aloobol,  from 
which  it  separates  in  glistening  groape  of  ve^ 
delicate  neecUes,  and  is  readily  sotubls  in  ether.  It 
unites  witb  bases,  fonnlng  margarates,  and  in  com- 
bination with  Glycerine  (q.  v.)  forms  the  glyceride 
or  fat  known  as  margarint. 

This  acid  occiiis  either  in  a  free  state  or  in 
combination  with  alkalies  in  most  of  the  animal 
fluids,  with  the  exceptJon  of  the  urine,  and  as  a 
glyceride  it  is  widely  diffosed  in  the  animal  and 
vegetable  fats.  Heintz  muntains  that  this  acid  is 
mraely  a  mixture  of  about  ten  parts  of  Palmitic 
Acid  (q.  T.)  with  one  part  of  Stearic  Acid  (q.  v.). 
Maiganne  ii  the  solid  ingredient  in  haman  fat, 
goose  grease,  olive  oil,  to.    See  Olio-maroakih*, 

MAEQAEITA,  or  NUEVA  SPARTA,  an  island 
in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  belon^ng  to  Venezuela.  Area, 
440  so.  miles  ;  pop,  39,000,  Discovered  by  Columbus 
in  I4W,  M,  was  long  famous  far  its  pearl-fisheries. 

BIABOARITA,  Saitia,  a  town  of  Sicily,  42 
milea  north-west  of  QirgentL    Pop.  7000. 

UA'BOATE,  a  manicipil  borongh,  leaport,  and 
famous  watering-place  of  England  in  the  Isle  of 
Thanet,  Kent,  about  70  miles  E.S,E.  of  London. 
All  the  usual  resources  of  a  wataring.plaoe— theatre, 
baths,  libraries,  ossembl;^  room,  Ac— are  found  here ; 
and  a  fine  pier,  which  is  the  principal  promenade. 
The  shore,  eovered  with  a  floe  and  finn  sand,  is  well 
adapted  for  sea-bathing.  Fishing  is  carried  on  to  a 
considerable  extent.  A  deaf  and  dumb  asylum  was 
opened  in  1875.  A  fluctuating  pop.  of^  between 
SO.OOO  and  100,000  is  poured  into  the  town  during 
the  season.     Fop.  (1881)  15,8SS. 

MARGINAL  CREDITS,  the  name  given  to 
business  operations,  in  which  bankers  lend  the 
credit  of  their  names,  as  it  were,  to  their  customers, 
and  thus  enable  them  to  carry  ont  important  com- 
mercial transactions  which  oUierwise  could  not  be 
gone  into,  or  only  at  excessive  coat.  A  merchant  in 
this  conntr}',  for  instance,  desires  t«  import  tea  or 
silk,  but  bis  nanie  is  not  so  well  known  on  the 
Chinese  Exchanges,  that  bills  drawn  upon  him  by  a 
merchant  in  China  can  be  sold  there  at  a  reason- 
able rate  of  exchange.  The  tea  or  silk  cannot  be 
bought  without  the  money  being  on  the  spot  to  buy 
it  with,  and  if  he  sends  out  specie  for  that  purpose 
he  involves  himself  in  heavy  charges  for  freight  and 
insurance,  and  loses  the  interest  A  his  money  while 
on  the  voyage.  Before  it  arrives,  the  prices  of  tea 
and  silk  may  have  been  so  altered  in  the  market 


wouia  inuB  oe  piacea  wnere  n  is  not  want 
while  drafts  ay  the  merchant  in  China 
metchant  in  this  country  would  not  sell,  o\ 
a  heavy  sacrifice,  the  drafts  by  the  mer 


that  he  would  not  be  inclined  to  buy,  and  his  money 
would  thus  be  placed  where  it  is  not  wanted.    Rot 

.       ..  ...      .ij^ij^  ^^  jjj^ 

China  on  a  banker  in  this  country  will  sell  at  the 
best  price.  The  merchant  in  this  country  therefore 
deposits  with  his  banker,  cash  or  eecurities  equal  to 
the  amount  to  which  he  desires  to  use  the  btmker's 
name,  and  receives  from  him  Marginal  Oafiti  for 
the  amount.  These  are  bill-forms  drawn  upon  the 
banker,  but  neither  dated  nor  signed,  with  a  mania 
containing  an  obligation  by  him  to  accept  the  buls 
when  presented.  The  bills  are  dated,  drawn,  and 
endorsed  by  the  merchant  in  China  before  being 
sold,  so  that  the  obligation  runs  from  the  date  on 
which  the  money  was  actually  paid,  and  the  tea  or 
silk  is  most  likely  in  the  merchant's  warahonsa  be- 
fore tba  bill  is  payable.  For  the  transaction,  the 
banker  charges  the  merchant  a  oommission  to  te> 
numerate  himself  for  the  risk  involved. 

Many  othertransactionsbetween  merchants  abroad 
and  in  this  coontry  can  only  be  carried  through  by 
the  acceptaucee  of  a  Loudon  banker  being  tendered 
in  payment^  but  the  transactions  are  intrinsically 
the  some  as  when  Marginal  Credits  are  used.  The 
banker  in  the  country  can  arrange  with  his  customer 
to  obtain  the  London  banker's  oredit  for  him. 
Bankets— usually  in  London — also  accept  bills  to 
a  great  amount  for  the  exchange  operations  of 
foreign  banks.  A  banker  in,  say  Canton,  buys 
from  bis  customers  bills  drawn  upon  meichonts  in 
this  country  for  a  ^ven  amouol^  and  sends  them  to 
his  oorrespondent  in  London,  who  holds  them  for 
him  and  grants  a  credit  in  his  favour  on  the 
security  of  them.  The  Canton  banker  operates 
upon  this  credit  by  drawing  apou  the  London 
banker,  and  sells  his  drafts  at  the  most  favourable 
exchange.  With  the  money  received  be  purchases 
other  buls,  and  remits  them  also,  to  be  again  drawn 
gainst  When  these  operations  are  nutde  with 
caution  and  sound  judgment,  they  are  beneficial 
to  all  conoemed ;  but  when  engaged  in  without 
sufficient  knowledge  or  recklessly,  they  involve 
most  disastrous  consequences. 

marguerite:  DB  TALOIS,  in  ber  yonth 
known  as  Maivnerite  d'Augoutime^  sister  of 
Frands  L  of  Fiance,  and  daughter  of  Charles 
of  Orleans,  Comte  d'Angoulfime,  was  bom  at 
Angouleme,  11th  April  1492,  She  received  a 
brilliant,  and  even  a  profound  education,  but  vraa 
characterised  by  the  most  charming  vivacity.  In 
1609,  she  was  married  to  Charles,  Duke  of  Alenson, 
who  died  in  1625.  In  1627,  she  was  married  to 
Henry  d'Albret,  king  of  Navarre,  to  whom  she  bore 
a  daughter,  Jeanne  d'Albret,  mother  of  the  great 
French  monarch,  Henri  IV.  She  encouraged  agri- 
culture, the  arts,  and  learning,  and  to  a  certain 
extent  embraced  the  cause  of  the  Reformation. 
Later,  she  found  it  necessary  to  be  prudent^  and 
even  to  return  to  the  praotices  of  the  Roman 
CathoUo  Church.  But  she  never  ceased  to  act  with 
a  courageous  generoait;  towards  the  Reformers, 
who  always  found  an  asylum  and  welcome  in 
Navane.  She  wrote  a  litUe  religions  work  Miroir 
ds  I'&me  pidiereue,  which  was  condemned  by  the 
Sorbonne,  as  favouring  ProtestAit  dootrinea.  She 
also  wrote  poems  and  tales,  and  a  Hepttantron  de» 
youveiUe  (Par.  1S50),  modeUed  on  the  neeamaron 
of  Boooaocio.    M.  died  21st  December  1649. 

MARIA  OBRISTINA,  queen  of  Spain,  bom 
2Tth  April  1806,  was  a  daughter  of  Francis  I., 
king  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  In  1829.  she  became 
the  fourth  wife  of  Ferdiiuuid  VII.  of  Spain ; 
who    in    1830   restored   the   taw    by   which,    in 


„  Google 


MATH*  LOCISA— MiKIA  THERESA. 


default   of    nuJe   imae,  the   right 

wu   man   to   femaU*,   and   io   October  of  that 

Sit  tne  qneen  gave  birth  to  a  daughter,  babeUa 
,  ex-queen  of  Spain.  The  Spanish  liberals  gladly 
embraced  the  eause  of  the  queen,  rejoicing  to  see 
the  dreaded  Don  Oarlos,  Ferdinaad's  brother,  further 
removed  from  probable  mccesaion  to  the  throne. 
Ferdinand  died,  29th  September  1S33,  and  by  his 
testament  hia  widow  was  appointed  guardian  of 
her  cMldiea — the  young  Queen  Isabelu,  and  the 
Infanta  Maria  Louisa,  now  Duchess  de  Montpensier 
— and  also  regent,  till  the  young  queen  should 
attain  the  age  A  eighteen  years.  A  civil  war  broke 
ont,  the  adherents  of  Don  Carlos  seeking  to  place 
him  OQ  the  throne.  The  event  of  this  nar,  which 
continued  till  1840,  was  long  doubtful,  and  Spain 
was  fearfully  desolated  by  contending  armies;  but 
the  qaeen-mother  seemed  indifferent  to  everything 
except  the  company  of  Don  Fernando  Mullo^  one 
of  uie  royal  body-guard,  whom  she  made  her 
chuoberlain,  and  with  whom  she  was  united,  in 
December  1S33,  in  a  morganatic  marriage,  which, 
however,  was  kept  secret,  whilst  her  connection 
with  him  waa  no  secret  She  hitd  tea  children  by 
him.  A  conspiracy,  whioh  broke  out  on  the  night 
of  the  13ch  Ancnst  1836,  exposed  Munoz  to  great 
danger,  and  led  the  qneen-mother  to  ooncMe  a 
oimatitiidon  to  Spain.  Her  practice  as  regent  was  to 
adopt  the  conne  agreeable  to  the  minitrtet  of  the  day, 
and  thns  her  government  waa  despotic  under  one 
ministry  and  libenl  under  another.  She  contrived, 
however,  upon  many  occasions  to  embarrass  the 
proceedings  of  her  more  liberal  or  constitutional 
ministers ;  but  when  she  sanctioned  by  her  aigna- 
ture  the  law  reepectiDg  the  Ayuntamientos  (q.  v.),  a 
popular  commotion  ensued,  and  she  gave  to  the  new 
prune  mioiater  Espartero  (q.v.),  lOth  October  1840, 
a  remmciation  of  the  regency,  and  retired  to  Franoe, 
but  continued  to  intertere  from  her  retirement  in 
the  aOaiiB  of  Spain.  After  the  fall  of  Espartero, 
she  returned  te  Madrid  in  1S43,  and  in  October 
1S44,  her  marriage  with  MuQoz,  who  was  now  mode 
Duka  of  Rionzores,  was  publicly  solemnised.  Her 
participatioD  in  the  schemes  of  Louis  Philippe  as 
to  the  marriage  of  her  daughters,  iu  1346,  and  the 
continual  exerciBe  of  all  her  in^Tience  in  a  mumer 
unfavourable  to  constitutional  liberty,  made  her  the 
object  of  great  dislike  to  the  whole  liberal  party 
in  Spain.  At  length,  in  July  1S51,  a  revolutiou 
expelled  her  from  the  country,  and  she  a^tin  took 
refoge  in  France,  but  returned  to  Spun  in  1864, 
only  to  retire  a^in  in  1868.  She  died  Aogiut  1878. 
MARIA  LOUISA,  the  second  wife  of  tie 
Emperor  Napoleon  L,  bom  12th  March  1791,  was 
the  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Francis  L  of  Austria. 
She  was  married  to  Napoleon,  after  his  divorce  of 
Josephine,  2d  April  ISIO.  The  marriage  seemed  to 
give  stability  to  the  Bonaparte  dynasty,  and  in 
some  measure  to  afford  a  prospect  of  peace  to 
Europe.  On  20th  March  1811,  she  bore  a  son,  who 
was  called  King  of  Home.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
campaign  of  1813,  Napoleon  appuintcd  her  regent 
in  hia  absence,  but  nnder  many  limitations.  On  the 
abdication  of  Napoleon,  she  went  to  Orleans,  and 
thence,  in  company  with  Prince  Esterhazy,  to  Bam- 
bouillet  She  waa  not  permitted  to  follow  her 
husband,  but  went  with  her  son  to  ScbBnbrunn, 
where  she  remained  till,  in  1816,  she  received  the 
duchies  of  Parma,  Plaeenza,  and  GnaBtoUa,  on 
the  government  of  which  she  then  entered.  She 
contracted  a  moi^onatic  marriage  with  Count  von 
Neipperg.   She  died  at  Vienna,  Igth  December  1847. 


Vienna,  13Ul  May  1T17.   By  the  Fragmntio  Sanction 


(q.  v.),  her  father  appointed  her  heir  to  his  heredi- 
tary thrones.  In  1736,  she  married  Francis  Stephen, 
Grand  Duka  of  Tuscany,  to  whom  she  gave  an  equal 
share  in  the  government  when  she  became  Queen 
of  Hungary  and  of  Bohemia,  and  ArchdudleBa  of 
Austria,  on  the  death  of  her  father,  2Ist  October 
1740.  She  found  the  monarchy  exhausted,  the 
finances  embarrassed,  the  people  discontented,  and 
the  army  weak ;  whilst  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saiony, 
Naples,  and  Sardinia,  stirrtd  up  by  France,  put 
forward  claims  to  portions  of  her  dominions,  chiefly 
founded  on  the  extinction  of  the  male  liue  of  the 
House  of  Hapsburg.  Frederick  IL  of  PruBSia  soon 
made  himself  master  of  Silesia ;  Spain  and  Naples 
laid  hands  on  the  Austrian  dominions  in  Italy ;  and 
the  French,  Bavoriiuia,  and  Saxons  conquered  some 
of  the  hereditary  Austrian  territories.  The  youug 
queen  was  in  the  utmost  danger  of  losing  all  her 
pDBMsaiauB,  but  was  saved  by  the  chivalrous  fidelity 
of  the  Hungarians,  the  assistance  of  Britain,  and 
most  of  aQ  by  her  own  resolute  spirit.  Her  enemies 
also  qaarretled  ainongrt  themselvea;  and  the  War 
of  the  Austrian  Succeaaion,  after  lasting  more  than 
seven  years,  terminated  in  her  favour  by  the  peace 
of  Ain-la-Chapelle  in  17*8,  She  lost  only  Silesia 
Eind  Glatz,  and  the  duchies  of  Parma,  Fiacenza,  and 
Guastallo,  whilst,  on  the  other  bond,  her  husband 
waa  elected  emperor.  Daring  the  time  of  peace,  she 
made  great  financial  reforms ;  agricultore,  manufac- 
tures, and  commerce  flourished,  the  national  revenues 
grealJy  increased,  and  the  burdens  were  diminished. 
The  empress  avuled  herself  of  the  increase  of  the 
revenue  for  the  increase  of  her  military  power.  She 
held  Uie  reins  of  government  herself,  bnt  waa  much 
guided  by  her  husband  and  her  ministers.  She 
found  at  last  in  Eaunitz  (q.  v.)  a  minister  possessed 
of  the  wisdom  and  energy  requisito  far  the  conduct 
of  affairs,  and  in  him  she  phtced  almost  unlimited 
confidence  The  Seven  Yeari  War  (q.  v.)  between 
Austria  and  Prussia  again  reduced  Austria  to  a  state 
of  great  exhaustion ;  nut  when  it  was  concluded, 
the  empress  renewed  her  eSbrta  to  promote  the 
national  prosperity,  and  made  man;  imports  at 
reforms,  ameliorating  the  condition  of  the  peasantry, 
and  mitigating  the  penal  code.  Her  son  Joseph  waa 
elected  king  of  the  Romans  in  176*;  and  on  the 
death  of  her  husband,  in  1765,  she  associated  him 
with  heiself  in  the  government  of  her  hereditary 
states,  but  in  reality  cormnitted  to  him  the  charge 
only  of  military  affairs.  She  joined  with  Russia  and 
Prussia  iu  the  partitiou  of  a  third  part  of  Poland 
(1772),  after  Oie  death  of  AnguBtns  III.,  although 
she  at  fiiBt  objected  to  the  proposed  spoliation,  and 
thought  it  necessary  to  satisfy  her  conscience  by 
obtaining  the  approval  of  the  pop&  Galicia  and 
Lodomena  were  added  to  her  dominions  at  this 
time.  She  also  compelled  the  Porto  to  give  up 
Bukowina  to  her  (1777).  The  brief  Bavarian  war 
of  snccesaion  ended  in  her  acquisition  of  the 
Innthal,  but  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Fdrtlta- 
bund   or   L<agii/e   of   <3«nnan   Princet,  which   sot 


ahe  displayed  a  resolute  and  masculine  character, 
and  raised  Aujstria  from  deep  depresdon  to  a  hmght 

wer  such  as  it  had  never  previously  attained. 

jugh  a  zealous  Bomon  Catholic,  ahe  maintoined 
the  rights  of  her  own  crown  against  the  court  ot 
Rome,  and   endeavoured  to  correct  some  of  the 

■j  abuses  in  the  oborcb.    She  prohibited  the 

nee  of  priests  at  the  making  of  wills,  abolished 
the  right  of  asylum  in  churches  and  convents,  sup- 
pressed the  Inquisition  in  Milan,  and  in  1773  the 
order  of  Jesuits.  She  alao  forbade  that  any  person, 
male  or  female,  should  take  monastic  vows  before 
the  age  of  25  years.    She  did  nothing,  hon-evcr,  to 


Cioogk 


MABIAlTA—MASm  DB"  MBDICt 


uneliorata  the  condition  of  the  Protectanti  in  her 
dominioiu.  Bhe  had  three  hhu  sad  fix  danghtera. 
Her  eldest  loo,  Joaeph  IL,  noceeded  her. 

HABIAITA,  Jthv,  k  disUoguuhed  Sputieh 
hutorinD  and  aohoUr,  wu  bom  at  Talavera  in  1537, 
and  in  1554  entered  the  then  lisiiu  order  of  tlie 
Jesoita.  Hia  earlj  itndiea,  both  in  ungiugM  tud 
theolos7,  were  ao  brilliant  that  he  wu  appointed 
to  teaS  in  the  achooU  of  hi«  order,  fint  at  Rome 
(where  the  celebrated  BellamuBe  wm  one  of  his 
acholan)  in  1561,  fttterMrorda  in  Sicily  in  1565,  and 
finally  in  Pom  ia  1569.  Ailer  a  reaideuoe  there  of 
■even  yean,  his  health  iiecame  co  mnoh  impaired 
that  he  was  compelled  to  retam  to  his  native 
country,  and  lettled.  at  Toledo,  where  he  resided  till 
his  death,  at  an  extreme  old  age,  in  1624.  His  retire- 
ment, however,  was  not  inconsistent  with  the  mo«t 
energetic  and  mitained  literary  activi^  From 
an  early  period,  he  devoted  bimaelt  to  a  History  of 
8p^  of  which  he  pnbliahed  20  books  m  1592,  and 
10  ailditiODal  books,  carrying  the  narrative  down 
to  1516.  in  1605.  The  crtf^oal  of  this  history  was 
Latin,  the  elegance  and  pnnty  of  which  have  secured 
for  M.  ■  gilace  among  the  moat  distinguished  of 
modem  Latinista.  Its  great  historical  merit  also  is 
admitted,  although  with  some  drawbacks,  even  by 
Bayle.  M.  himself  published  a  Spanish  translation, 
nUoh  itill  remains  one  cd  the  clusics  of  the  Ian- 


Treatise*  CQ  varioui  snbjecti ;  scholia  on*  the  Bible, 
which,  although  written  at  tbe  age  of  83,  display 
a  dtsree  of  vi^ur  as  of  learning  which  nugbt 
provoke  the  admiration  of  modem  biblical  students ; 
an  edition  of  tbe  works  of  Isidore  of  Seville,  with 
note*  and  dissertations ;  and  several  similar  works. 
But  the  moat  celebrated  of  the  works  of  M.  is  bis 
well-known  treatise,  De  Etgt  et  Regia  IiMitaiUme, 
whioh  appeared  in  1599,  ai^  in  which  is  raised  the 
important  question.  Whether  it  be  lawful  to  over- 
throw a  tyrant!  M.  decides  that  it  is — even  where 
the  tyrant  is  not  a  usurper  but  a  lawful  king.  See 
JiSDm.  The  principleB  of  the  book,  in  other 
particulars,  are  in  the  main  the  same  aa  those  of 
all  modern  constitutioaal  writers.  The  tyrannicide 
doctrine*  of  thia  writet  drew  mnch  odium  upon  the 
entire  order  of  Jesuit*;  but  it  is  only  just  to 
oLaerve  that  while,  upon  the  one  hand,  pteciaely 
the  same  doctrines  were  taught  in  almost  the  some 
words  by  several  of  the  Fn>t«stant  coDtemponuieB  of 
M.  {see  Uoaom'*  Uttrary  IIUoit,,  m.  130—140) 
on  the  other,  M-'s  book  itself  was  formally  con 
demned  by  the  general  Acquavivo,  and  the  doctrine 
loibidden  to  be  taught  by  member*  of  the  order. 

MABIAZEXI^  the  most  famous  pUee  of  pilgrim- 
age in  Austria,  on  tbe  north  border  of  the  crown- 
land  of  Styna,  24  miles  north  of  Brack.  It  consists 
of  a  number  of  ions,  or  W  '  ' 
1100  inhabitant*.  Itisvi 
annually.  Here  there  is 
believed  to  possess  the  poi 
Daring  the  srsat  annualprooession  from  Vienna,  the 
greater  number  of  Uie  pilgrim*  of  both  sexes  spend 
the  niuht  in  the  wood*  in  drinking,  nnging,  and 
general  riot.  Formerly,  the  prooea*ibns  from  Oratz 
and  Vienna  took  place  at  the  aame  time,  but  owing 
to  tbe  fighting,  aa  well  as  dabanchery,  that  obar- 
octensed  the  occasion,  the  ptocetrion*  were  ordained 
to  take  place  at  different  timrea. 

MARIE  ANTOHTBTTE  DB  LORHAINE, 
JosEFEUHB  Jeuine,  wife  of  Ixiois  ZVL  of  France, 
was  the  youngort  daughter  of  Franci*  L,  Emperor 
of  Germany.  Her  mother  wm  the  famons  Maria 
Theresa  (q.  v.).  M.  A.  wa*  bom  at  Vienna, 
November  2,  1755;   at  the  age  of  fourteen,  was 


betrothed  to  the  Dauphin ;  and  in  the  following 
rear  was  married  at  Versullea.  Her  teoeption  by 
her  husband  and  the  king,  Louis  XV.,  was  dattering- 
enough ;  but  her  ABstrian  franknea*  and  simplicity, 
her  noIvetS,  nnceremonion*  plea«utry,  and  date*- 
tation  of  rigid  etiqnettei  •oandaliaed  Versaille*; 
Soon  after  tht  aooeamon  of  Loui*  XVL  (May  1774), 
libels  were  circulated  by  her  enemies,  accusing  her 
of  constant  intrigue*,  not  one  of  which  has  ever 
been  proved.  Her  fault*,  as  a  queen  (and,  in  that- 
^e,  rapidly  growing  eonieat,  angry,  and  imbittwed, 
they  were  &tal  once),  were  a  certain  levity  of 
disposition,  a  girlish  love  of  pleaoure,  bonqneta, 
fine  dreas,  an  aristocratic  indifference  to  general' 
opinion,  and  a  lamentaUe  incapacity  to  see  tbe 


actool  misery  of  France.  The  affi^  <^  ttia  dia- 
mond nttUaca  (q.  v.),  in  J735,  hopeleolT  oomna- 
mi*ed  her  good  name  in  Uis  eye  of  tiie  pnbli<^ 
although,  in  poiat  of  fact,  U.  A.  waa  quite  innocent 
of  any  grave  offence.  Her  political  rAle  wa*  not 
more  fortunate.  Lominie  de  Brienne  and  Calonno 
were  minister*  of  her  choice,  and  ahe  ahared 
the  opprobrium  oalled  down  upon  them  for  thnr 

^blee, 

id,  indeed,  *h«  hacC  good'  reason  to  dreo^  their 
convocation,  for  one  of  the  very  flt*t  thing*  the 
Notable*  did  was  to  declare  the  queen  the  oauB» 
of  the  derangement  of  the  finance*.  FVom  tba  first 
hour  of  the  Bevolntion,  she  waa  an  object  of  fana- 
tical hatred  to  the  mob  of  Foria.  Her  life  was- 
attempted  at  Versailles  by  a  hand  of  nmniirini  o» 
the  morning  of  October  6,  17S9,  and  she  namnriy 
escaped.  Albtr  this,  she  made  aome  spasmodio 
efforts  to  gain  the  goodvrill  of  the  populace  by 
visiting  the  great  manufactorjea  of  the  capita^ 
such  as  the  Gobelins,  and  by  iteming  to  take  an 
interest  in  tiie  labouni  of  the  workmen,  bnt  tiis 
time  was  Done  by  for  such  transparent  Aammhio 
to  succeed.  The  relentless  populace  only  hated 
her  the  more.  At  lost  she  resolved  on  flight 
Her  busbuid  long  refused  to  abandon  his  county, 
and  she  would  not  go  without  ti'm,  ^  ^ita  tenae 
of  kingly  duty  and  honour  waa  not  awaating  to- 
Louis,  but  after  tbe  mob  stopped  hi*  oooch 
(April  IS,  1791),  and  would  not  let  him  go  to 
St  Cloud,  he  consented.  The  flii^t  took  place  on 
the  night  of  the  20th  June,  ifnfortanately,  the 
royal  fugitives  Were  recognised,  and  captured  at 
Varennea.  Prom  this  time,  her  attitude  became 
■  heroio  ;  but  the  French  people  could  not  rid  them- 
selves of  the  suspicion  that  she  was  secreUy  plot- 
ting with  the  allies  for  the  invasion  of  the  country. 
After  the  useless  effort  to  defend  the  Toileries  (Au^ 
10, 1792),  she  was  confined  in  the  Temple,  separate 
from  her  family  and  friends,  and  subjected  to  most 
sickeiunghunuliatious.  On  Aug.  1, 1793,  she  was  re- 
moved to  the  Conciergerie,  by  order  of  the  Conven- 
tion, condemned  by  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  (Oct. 
15],  and  guillotined  next  day.  See  Mtmoira  tar 
la  rie  pnvie  de  Marii  ArUouieUe,  by  Us"  Campan 
(1823)1  Fcuillet  de  Couches,  Louis  XF/.,  Marie 
AntoiatUe  et  M^"'  EUsabtih  (IS64-1873) ;  D'Ameth, 
Corruprmdanct  leerilt  aUrt  Marie  Thlriti  et  fe 
Vomit  Mtrcy  d^Argealtau,  avee  dtt  Utlru  de  Man» 
ThlTiM  tt  Marie  AtiiomtUe  (2d  ed.  1S75);  oni 
Yonge,  L\fe  of  Marie  Antoinette  (1876). 

MARIE  DE'  MEDICI,  wife  of  Henri  IV.  of 
Froncts  was  tbe  daughter  of  Francis  L,  Grand-Duke 
of  Tuscany,  and  was  bom  at  Florence,  26th  April 
1S73.  She  waa  married  to  Henri  16th  December 
1600,  and  in  the  following  September,  gave  birth  to 
a  son,  afterwards  Louis  XIIL  The  union,  how^ 
ever^  did  not  prove  happy.  M.  was  an  obstinate,. 
passooate,  waspish,  and  tritiial  dull-headed  female. 


,,  Google 


MAEIE  GALANTE-MARINE  FORTIFICATION. 


Bsd  bar  quarrels  vith  Henri  Kwu  beckme  the  tklk 
of  Paris.  She  wu — aa  enoh  women  are  apt  to  be — 
wbtdly  under  tiie  inflnenoe  of  faronrites.  A  oeTtain 
ooi^e,  who  profened  to  be  man  and  wife,  Leonora 
OaKgal  and  Coacini,  eserciaed  a  mo«t  ditaatron* 
inflnenee  over  her  mind,  and,  of  cooncs  enoonraged 
her  dielike  to  her  hosbaod.  The  anaaeination  of 
Eeori  (May  14,  1610)  did  not  much  (pieTe  her, 
and  she  waa  even  anspected  of  oomplicity  in  the 
ad^  bnt  nothing  waa  ever  aaoertained  that  could 
.-__-__._  ..__      Yo[  tho  next  seven  years,  ahe 


Conoini,  a  aort  oE  revolution  took  plaoe.  Lonii 
XILL  aaaiuned  royal  power.  M.  was  confined  to 
har  own  honiE^  and  her  son  lefoaed  to  aee  her. 
Her  partiaaaa  tried  to  bring  aboat  a  civil  war,  bat 
their  attempt*  proved  fatUe ;   aod  by  the  advice  of 


took  her  place 
at  ooorb  M.  hoped  to  win  over  Eiohelien  to  her 
party,  but  >be  did  not  ia  the  leaat  coa^^end  that 
mightr  geoiuB ;  however,  ihe  loan  enou^  foond 
ont  that  he  had  no  ntind  to  be  ruled  by  her, 
wliereapon  she  resolved,  if  poedblc^  to  undermine 
hia  influence  with  the  kui^  Her  intrigues  for  this 
purpoao  fiuled ;  she  was  impriaoned  in  CompiA^e, 
irttMMO  the  ewaped,  and  fled  to  Bmaaela  in  1S31. 
Her  last  veara  were  apeot  in  utter  destitution,  and 
ahe  is  said  to  have  died  in  a  hayloft  at  Cologne, 
U  July  IMi. 

HABIB  GALANTB,  an  island  in  the  Weet 
Indies,  one  of  the  Leaaer  Antilles,  belong*  to  fnooe, 
and  lies  17  miles  south-east  of  Guadeloupe.  Area, 
about  60  square  miles,  oovered  for  the  most  p&rt 
with  WTXid,  wid  surrounded  by  steep  rooky  shores. 
The  cultivated  soil  produces  sagar,  coffee,  and 
cotton.  Cattle  and  horses  are  abnudant,  the  latter 
of  a  highly  eeteemed  breed.  Ite  chief  town,  Grand- 
boorg,  or  Marigot,  on  the  south-west  coast,  has  a 

ropidation  of  2W0.  The  population  of  the  island  is 
^000.  M.  G.  is  so  called  from  the  name  of  the 
■hip  commanded  by  Colnmbus  when  he  discovered 
the  island  in  1493. 

HABI'EHBAD,  one  of  the  most  frequented  of 
the  Bohemian  spas,  33  miles  north-west  of  FItsen, 
at  on  elevation  of  almost  2000  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  The  springs  of  M.  have  long  been 
nsed  by  the  people  of  tne  vicinity,  bat  it  is  only 
since  Uia  commencement  of  the  present  century 
that  it  has  become  a  place  of  resort  for  persons 
from  distant  ports  of  the  world.  The  springs  are 
numerous,  vairiag  in  temperature  from  48°  to  54° 
Fahrenheit.  They  are  safine,  containiue  sulphate 
of  soda  and  various  alkaline  ingredients,  nut  uiETer- 
ing  considerably  in  their  compOflitioD  and  qualities. 
They  are  used  both  internally  and  in  the  form  of 
baths.  Groat  quantitiea  of  the  waters  of  some  of 
the  springs  are  exported  to  distant  places.  M.  is 
■arrounded  by  wooded  heights,  has  a  population  of 
SOOO,  and  is  visited  every  season  by  upwards  of 
9000  patients. 

MARrENBUKG,  an  old  tovm  of  Pruaiu,  in 
the  province  of  Fnistia,  on  the  N<^t^  29  miles 
•oath-east  of  Danzig.  It  was  long  the  aeat  of 
the  Grand  Masters  of  the  Teutonic  Order  |q.  v.) 
of  Knights,  who  removed  from  Venice  hither  in 
the  year  1300.  The  6rat  fortress  of  the  Knij|btB, 
however,  was  founded  here  in  1274.  M.  remmned 
in  the  hands  of  the  Knights  till  1457,  when  it 
was  taken  by  the  Poles.  The  castle,  or  palace, 
in  which  17  Grand  Masters  had  resided,  a  noble 
•diflco  in  a  species  of  Gothio  peculiar  to  the 
vitunitv  of  the  Baltic,  was  reatored  in  1820. 
Fop.  (187S)  8538;  (1880)  955a 


MARI'ENWBBDER,  oi 
us  aud  beautiful  towns  of 
in  the  kingdom  of  Prussia,  is  pioturesqnel;  situated 
on  an  elevation,  about  two  miles  E.  of  the  Vistula, 
and  47  miles  S.8.E.  of  Danzig.  It  was  founded  in 
1233  by  the  Teutonic  Order  of  Knights,  and  its  old 
oastle  was  the  residence  of  a  commander  of  that 
order.  The  town  derives  its  prosperity  chiefly  from 
being  a  residence  of  numerous  government  officials. 
Manufactures  of  various  kinds  are  carried  on,*  and 
fruit  is  extensively  cultivated.    Pop.  ( 

MAIUGOLD,  a  name  given  to  oertain  plants  of 
the  natural  order  OompotUa,  snb-order  OorymbiferOf 
chiefly  of  the  genera  OalendtUa  and  Tageta.  The 
genus  Calendvia  baa  the  aclienia  remarkably  curved, 
varbusly  toothed,  and  very  rough  oa  tAe  back. 
The  species  are  annual  and  perennial  herbaceous 
plants  and  shrubs,  of  which  some  of  the  former  are 
'ound  in  the  couutriea  bordering  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean, the  latter  chiefly  in  South  Africa. — Pot  M. 
(<7.  officinalis)  is  an  annual,  a  native  of  France  and 
"  more  southern  parts  of  Europe,  with  an  erect 
I,  1 — 2  feet  high,  the  lower  leaves  obovate  on 
^  stalks,  and  lai^e,  dee^  yellow  flowots.  It  has 
long  been  verr  oommon  in  British  gardens,  and 
there  ore  varieties  with  double  flowers.  The  whole 
plant  has  a  slight  aromatic  odour,  and  a  bitter 
taste.  It  wss  former^  in  great  repute  as  a  carmin- 
ative, and  was  regarded  also  as  an  aperient  and 
sudorific  The  fioreta  were  the  part  used,  and 
they  were  dried  in  automn,  to  be  preserved  for  use. 
""  often  employed  to  adulterate  saffron,  and 

>  for  colouring  cheese.  They  were  formeriy 
a  frequent  ingredient  in  soups,  and  ore  still  so  used  in 
some  parts  of  EngLwd. — The  genus  Tagcie*  consists 
of  annus!  and  perennial  herbaceous  plants,  natives 
of  the  wanner  parts  of  Amerioa,  although  T,  ereeta, 
of  those  most  frequently  cultivated  in  Britain, 
bear*  the  noma  of  AjBicaH  Maeioold  ;  and  T, 
paiula,  another  anunal  well  known  in  our  ftower- 
Wders,  is  called  Fbehoh  Mauoouj.  Both  specie* 
are  Mexican.  They  have  been  long  in  cultivation, 
and  vrith  a  httle  assistance  of  a  hotbed  in  spring, 
succeed  well  even  in  Scotland,  and  are  much  admired 
for  the  brilliancy  of  their  flowera. — Cobh  M.  f 
CkTytanthtnmn  (q.v.). — Uabsh  M.  (q.v.)  has 

MABINB  ENGINE.    See  SruM-ENaiiix. 

MARI'lTE  FOBTIFICATION  diffeia  from  hud 
fortification  in  that  the  approachea  of  the  enemy 
which  are  to  be  resisted  take  placo  on  the  level 
of  the  sea,  so  that  ha  can  come  near  without 
having  to  overcome  the  dangerous  slope  of  the 
glada  The  combat  ia  simply  one  between  two 
j)owerful  batteries,  and  the  question  to  be  decided 
us,  whether  the  ship  or  the  fort  will  first  be  placed 
hat  de  combat:  the  ship  having  ordinarily  the 
largest  nnmber  of  guns,  while  the  fort  ha*  mora 
solid  battlements,  and  its  fewer  guns  of  great 
calibre  can  b«  fired  with  a  steadiness  anattunabla 
so  shifting  a  base  as  die  ocean.  Under  these 
oircnmstanoes,  the  less  relief  a  sea-fortress  has  the 
better,  a*  by  so  much  the  less  is  it  likely  to  bo 
hit  from  the  shipping.  Its  walls  are  usually  built 
perpendicular,  or  neariy  so.  The  magazines  and 
quarters  for  the  men  are  bomb-proof,  as  also  are  the 
casemate*,  from  whioh  the  guna  are  usually  fired, 
althon^  tometimes,  as  in  £a  martello-tower,  the 

n  i*  worked  on  the  top  of  the  structure. 

Sea-fortifications  may  be  of  various  importanoe ; 
._e  simplest  bring  the  battery  consisting  ot  a  mere 
parapet  formed  in  a  cliff  or  on  a  bill,  and  monoted 
with  guns  to  command  the  sea  ;  these  are  generally 
built  u  such  couoealed  situations,  that  it  is  hoped 
the  hostile  ships  will  not  perceive  them  nntil  they 

■ u ,„,,  Goggle 


UABINIE-STORE  DEALERS— UABQIL 


actually  open  fire.  Hey  an  numeroiu  aU  aromid 
the  Bnttali  coaet  Neit  greater  in  importaneo  ii 
the  Martello  Tower  (q.v.).  More  p)werfiil  atdll 
are  the  beaoh-forta,  aach  aa  those  which  on  either 
ahore  defend  the  ectranoe  to  Portsmouth  harbour  : 
theae  we  conatructeil  of  the  motA  lolid  maaonry, 
faoed  with  muaiTe  iron  platea,  and  armed  with  gona 
of  tlis  heaviest  calibre,  aweeping  the  very  autaoe 


theae  in  all  manoauvrea  of  the  ahip,  to  far  aa  these 
can  be  performed  on  or  between  decka,  and  in 
canning  out  the  interior  economy  of  the  ahip.  Tbua 
combimns  the  *'""^'"™»  of  the  lailor  with  Uie  train- 
ing of  the  aoldier,  they  are  justly  r^arded  ■■  a 
moat  valuable  body  of  men.  To  attain  thia  high 
itaaditrd,  the  unmbera  voted  annually  must  b^ 
due  proportion  to  the  nnmber,  nature,  and  comple- 


about  equal  to  that  under  traimne  and  reviaing 
drilla  on  ahore.  Upon  U.,  naval  officers  atiU  rely 
the  certain  maiatenaiice  of  diaciplino ;  althongh, 


under  modem   conditions  of   manning 

in  thia  respect 
not  at  once  so  obvioua.    When  on  ahore  u 


Caaemated  Bomb-pniot  Sea-fort : 

A,  n«ema(«  miliranurcf :  n,  loophotct  tot  uiull-irtiit  i 

h,  foni  monntvd  mbarbfUr^ 

of  the  sea,  io  a*  to  strike  an  approaching  ship  be- 
tween wind  and  water.  The  gnna  are  nauaUy  in 
bomb.proof  casemates,  and  the  fort  ia  often  defended 
oa  the  land  aide,  if  the  coast  be  level ;  if,  however, 
higher  ground  be  behmd,  tlus  would  be  useleas,  and 
then  the  sea-front  alone  is  defensible.  Most  terrible 
of  all  sea-forte,  however,  are  the  completely  iaolated 
forts,  with  perpcadicdar  faces  and  two  or  three 
tiera  of  heavy  guns.  Such  are  the  tremendon* 
batteries  whidi  render  Cronstadt  almost  inapproach- 
able, and  by  which  Spithead  and  Plymouth  Sound 
are  now  fortified.  These  forts  are  ^nerally  larpe, 
with  all  the  requisites  for  a  garrison  tn  mam- 
tun  itself '  againet  them,  wooden  ehips  stand  no 
chance,  and  in  the  American  Civil  War,  Fort 
Sumter  at  Charleston  shewed  itaelf  no  mean 
antagonist  for  ironsides.  In  such  forts,  iron  is 
employed  as  the  facing,  in  phtea  of  such  vaat  thick- 
ness and  weight,  that  it  la  supposed  no  ahip  can 
ever  possess  any  comparable  resisting  power ;  a,nd 
as  ttiey  are  armed  witn  guns,  the  smalleet  of  which 
■wiU  probably  be  300-pounders,  it  is  expected  that 
they  will  be  able  to  de8trt>y  any  fteet  that  could  be 
sent  againat  them. 

MABIHE- STORE  DEALERS,  in  point  of  law, 
are  subjected  to  certain  restrictions  aa  regards  tbe 
bnainesa  Uiey  aairy  on,  in  order  to  keep  acme  check 
on  their  relationa  with  thieves  and  other  vendora  of 
stolen  property. 


MARINES,  or  the  Royal  Marina  Forces, 
that  body  of  Uie  rwilar  forces  which  i*  under  the 
control  of  ijie  Adminlty,  for  aervioe  in  the  navy. 
They  furnish  from  one-fourth   to  one-fifth  of  the 
com^ement  of  all  men-of-war,  and  are  designed 
aasist  In  action  in  the  service  of  tbe  guns,  or 
amall-arms  men,   and  to  form  tha  nudeos  of  a:..^ 
armed  party  that  may  be  thrown  on  shore.    First 
raised  in  1664,  theu-  original  aim,  since  modified, 
was  to  form  a  nursery  whence  to  obtain  seamen  to 
man   the   fleet,   the   commerce  of  England  being 
then  too  limited  to  procure,  from  out  of  the  merchant 
Heet,  gnfficient  aeamen  for  the  public  service ;  and  aa 
those  obtained  by  the  s'    '         '  ' 

CMil^amenabletodisoipL-., ^_ _..  ._ . 

aa  disciplined  troops,  had  to  be  relied  on  to  check 
or  Buppresa  the  frequent  tendency  to  mutiny.  They 
are  now  ordinarily  employed  as  sentries,  but  do 
much   other   useful  work,  keeping   regular   deck 


the  M.  ai«  governed  by  the  Army  Act,  and, 
great  meaanre,  by  the  Queen's  Regulations  for  the 
Army ;  aa  alao,  in  certain  cases,  when  landed  for 
service  ashore  from  H.M.  ships  abroad;  but,  when 
afloat,  they  are  subject  hke  the  aailora  to  the  Naval 
Discipline  Act.  The  force  is  composed  of  two 
branches  with  separate  lists  for  the  promotion  of 
officers,  styled  respectively  the  Boyal  Marine 
Artillery,  and  Royal  Marine  Light  Infantry ;  the 
former  of  one  division,  with  headquarters  at 
Eastney,  near  Fortamouth ;  the  latter  of  three 
divisions,  at  Chatham,  Portsmouth,  and  Plymouth. 
The  uniform,  blue  with  red  facings,  of  the  Royal 
Marine  Artillery,  is  almost  identical  with  tliat  of 
the  land  artillery.  The  dress  of  the  Boyal  Marine 
Light  Infantry,  red  with  blue  facings,  ia  much  the 
same  aa  that  of  the  line  regimenta.  The  officers 
rank  according  to  seniority  with  ofGcera  of  like  rank 
in  tha  army,  and  are  prontoted  b^  seniority  inp  to 
the  rank  of  major,  beyond  which  promotion  ia 
governed  by  selecUon.  The  navy  estimates  for 
1832-83  provide  tor  12,400  M„  ata  cost  of  £913,466. 
The  original  nnmber  of  M.  was  1200.  The  third 
regiment  of  the  line  was  called  the  Maritinie  Ren- 
ment,  also  the  Admiral's  Regiment.  In  ITOZ,  the 
force  of  M.  had  risen  to  six  raiments ;  from 
1714  to  1739  no  marine  force  existed;  in  the  latter 
year  it  was  reconstituted  in  aix  K$;imenta,  which, 
m  1741,  roae  to  ten.  Once  more  disbanded  in 
174S,  it  was,  in  17S6,  wholly  placed  under  the 
Admiralty.  Subeequently,  however,  on  the  sudden 
expansion  of  the  fleet  for  the  wars  with  France, 
several  line  regiments  were  at  timea  called  upon  to 
serve  as  M.  llie  land  artillery  was  alao  represented 
in  the  bomb-vesaets,  and  were  so  servinz  in  IS04, 
when  their  dutiee  were  taken  over  by  the  Royal 
Marine  Artillery,  then  first  formed.  This  branch, 
more  than  once  diabanded  since  then,  according  to 
the  views  of  tbe  Admiralty  of  the  time,  and  recently 
again  threatened  with  diabandment,  ia  now  recog- 
nised aa  a  cheap,  reliable,  and  most  valuable  reaerve 
of  specially  trained  gunners.  See  the  Hittorital 
Rtcord  of  Royal  Marine  Forces,  by  Nicolas. 

MARINI,  Giovanni  Batista,  an  Italian  poet, 
bom  at  Naples  in  15G9.  M.  alondoned  Jurispru- 
dence for  the  more  congenial  pursuit  of  poetry, 
a  dedsian  which  led  ia  his  expulsion  from  home. 
All  through  life,  M.  seems  to  have  courted  troubles 
by  his  unbridled  liccntioosness,  and  many  of  hia 
beat  compoBttions  are  polluted  with  a  ahameleaa 
obscenity.  M.  sojoumeS  sueceasively  in  Eome,  in 
Turin,  and  in  France,  where  Marie  de*  Medid 
received  li'm  with  marked  favour,  and  conferred  on 
him  a  liberal  pension.  His  best  work,  the  Adone, 
was  written  durins  hia  residence  in  France ;  and 
on  its  publication  ne  revisited  hia  native  country 
(1622),  and  died  at  Naples,  aged  66,  in  1625.  He 
is  the  founder  of  the  Marittitt  school  of  poetrv,  of 
which  the  essential  features  are  florid  hyperbole 


watch  like  sailors,  when  not  on  guard,  and  asaiating  and  false  overslawned  imagery. 


,,  Google 


MAEDJO— MABJOLATEY. 


MABI'NO,  or  3AK  UABINO,  one  of  the  matt 
•Qdeat  and  mort  limited  republioan  atfttes  of 
EiiTope,  consisti  of  k  cisggy  mountain  2200  feet  ' 

height,  litaatad   unidEt  ^e  lesser  ranges  of  t 

ApeanineB,  and  encircled  bj  provinoee  formerly 
belon^g  to  the  Ponlifioal  State*.  It  poaMasea 
a  total  area  of  33  oiiles,  and  comjiriBes  a  town 
of  the  same  name,  and  several  villagea  in  the 
adjacent  territoi?.  The  climate  is  healthy,  but, 
owing  to  iti  expoenre,  high  winda  and  frequent 
ruDS  prevaiL  The  town  of  M.  ii  built  on  a  slope 
of  the  mountain  j  it  ii  aooesiible  only  by  one  road, 
and  i*  protected  by  wails  and  towers ;  it  contaiaa 
HvenJ   aqoarai   and   streeis,  rudely   paved,   and 


vents,  museums,  and  hospitals.  The  inhabitants, 
irho  numbered,  in  1874,  7816,  are  noted  for  their 
hospitality,  sobriety,  industry,  and  eeneral  morality. 
They  are  eensitirely  jeeloos  of  their  ruhte,  and 
clingwith  tenacity  to  their  territorial  and  legislative 
independence.  Their  chief  trade  is  in  agricultural 
produce  and  cattle. 

The  early  history  of  the  republic  is  very  obscure. 
During  the  medieval  ware  of  Italy,  M.  had  its  pigmy 
feuds  and  footioiiB,  which  ssem  to  have  been  none 
the  lest  enveoomed  from  the  pettiness  of  the  arena 
in  which  they  were  enacted.  In  17*),  the  demo- 
cratioal  form  of  goTenunent  was  securely  guaranteed 
against  further  assault  The  rights  of  this  minia- 
ture state  were  scrupulously  respected  by  Napoleon 
duiing  his  Italian  campaign.  The  govenunent, 
designated  the  Sovereign  Grand  Council  {Generale 
ConngUo  PriiKipe],  is  composed  of  60  members,  of 
whom  one-third  are  nobles.  From  this  number 
are  selected  the  smaller  '  Council  of  Twelve '  (two- 
thirds  from  the  town  and  the  rest  from  the  country}, 
who,  with  the  assistance  of  a  jurisconsult,  decide  in 
questions  of  the  2d  and  3d  instance.  The  repre- 
tentatives  of  tiie  atato  are  termed  Captains-regent 
{Oapiiaai  Stggeaii).  They  are  chosen,  the  one 
from  the  party  of  the  nobles,  the  other  from  the 
boorgeoisie-  They  each  hold  office  only  for  six 
monUis.  The  army,  or  rather  the  mihtia  of  the 
tepnblic,  numberB  950  men. 

MABIO,  GioaaFFB,  Mutqins  sk  Cisdia,  was 
bom  at  Turin  in  ISIO,  of  an  ariatooratic  fanuly,  and 
evinced  from  his  boyhood  high  musical  abihtiea 
In  1830,  he  received  tus  commission  as  ofEcer  in  the 
Chasseurs  Sardca ;  but  having  involved  himself  in 
Bome  youthful  escapade,  was  ordered  from  Genoa 
to  a  temporary  retreat  at  CagliarL  From  thence 
he  threw  up  hu  commission,  ud  finally  escaped  to 
Paris,  oa  his  cesigoation  not  being  accepted.  The 
foung  Sardinian  deserter  speedily  won  his  way 
into  Uie  most  exclusive  circles  of  faahionable  Paris, 
both  by  the  genuine,  manly  stamp  of  his  nature, 
and  the  charm  of  bis  exquisite  voice.  Having 
contracted  debts,  however,  he  accepted  the  appoint- 
meot  of  first-tenor  of  the  Opera,  with  a  salary  of 
1500  francs  per  month  ;  at  the  same  time  he  changed 
his  name  from  Marquis  of  Candia  to  Itlario.  ARer 
a  term  of  two  years'  study  at  the  Conservatoire, 
M.  made  his  debut,  on  the  2d  December  183S,  in 
Hobert  It  DiaiU,  and  achieved  the  first  of  a  long 
series  of  operatic  triumphs.  At  the  Th£&tre  Itahcn, 
he  took  rank  with  Rubini,  I^blache,  Mahbran,  Son- 
tag,  and  Grisi ;  and  by  none  of  these  great  artists 
was  he  excelled  in  purity,  sweetness,  method, 
and  taste.  Front  1845  to  1850,  ha  fulfilled  an 
engsgement  in  Russia,  and  on  his  return  appeared 
in  London,  where  his  success  was  immense.  M.'s 
operatie    career    waa    a    succession    of    briUiaat 


artists.  His  repertoire  embraced  all  the  great 
works  of  Bossiui,  Bellini,  Donizetti,  and  VerdL  M, 
died  at  Borne,  11th  December  1883. 

MARIO'IiATRT  (Gr.  Maria,  and  latraa,  adora- 
tion), a  name  given  by  polemical  writers  to  the 
worship  paid  by  Roman  Catholics  to  the  Virgin 
Mary.  This  name  is  intended  to  imply  that  ma 
Catholic  worship  of  the  Virgin  is  the  supreme 
worship  of  laiiiia  or  adoration,  which  Catholics 
earnestly  disclaim,  although,  from  her  relation  to 
our  Lord,  they  hold  her  worship,  which  they  style 
ht/ptrdutia,  to  be  hi^er  than  that  of  all  other 
saints.  See  InvocATios  or  Saints-  Many  example* 
of  prayers  addressed  to  Mary,  of  acta  of  worship 
done  ia  her  honour,  and  of  eipreaalons  employed 
regarding  her,  are  alleged  by  controvertdalists,  for 
the  purpose  of  shewing  that  the  worship  of  Maiy  in 
the  Roman  Church  is  in  effect  '  adoration.'  Such 
are  (see  Farrar's  Ecdaiaelical  Didionary,  p.  372) 
the  '  Litany  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary ; '  tha 
adaptation  of  the  Athacasian  Creed  as  a  profea- 
lion  of  faith  regarding  her ;  addresses  to  her  as  tha 
hope  of  the  desponding,  and  refuge  of  the  desti- 
:uto ; '  professions  that  '  her  sun  has  given  hei 
such  power  that  whatever  she  wills  is  immediately 
done  j  knealings  and  prostrations  before  her  image  ; 
pilgrimages  in  ner  honour.  To  these  and  gimUar 
allegations,  Roman  Catholics  reply,  that  many  of 
the  objected  prayers  and  devotional  practices  are 
entirely  unauthorised  by  the  church,  and  that  soma 
of  them  are  undoubtedly  liable  to  misinterpretation ; 
but  they  further  insist  that  all  inch  prayers,  how- 
ever worded,  are  to  be  understood,  aud  are,  ia  fact, 
nnderstood  by  all  Eoraan  Catholics,  even  ordinarily 
acquainted  with  the  principles  oE  theic  faith,  solely 
as  petitious  for  the  intercession  of  Mary,  and  as 
expressions  of  reliance,  not  on  her  own  power,  but 
the  efficacy  of  her  prayers  to  her  Son.  It  would 
out  of  place  in  this  work  to  enter  into  such 
controversies,  and  we  shall  content  ourselves  with 
a  brief  account  of  tha  origin  and  nature  of  the 
worship  of  the  Virgin  Maiy  m  the  church,  and  of  ita 
iresent  condition,  as  it  is  professed  by  those  religious 
>odiee  among  which  the  practice  now  prevails. 

Although  no  trace  is  found  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment of  any  actual  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
yet  Roman  Catholic  interpreters  regard   the  Ian- 

Xof  the  angel  Gabriel,  who  sduted   her  as 
>f  grace,'  or  highly  '  favoured,'  and  as  blessed 
mong  women,'  and  her  own   prediction  in  the 
nticte  of  the  Maniifica^  that  *  all  nations  should 
11  her  blessed  '  (Luke  L  48),  as   a   foreshadow* 
ing   of   the   practice   of   their  church ;    and  they 
rely  equally  on   the   language   employed    by  the 
riy  Fathers,  as,  for  instance,  Trenieus,  regarding 
the  Virgin,  although  Frotestanta    consider   it   as 
having  reference  to  the  inoamatior      ""^  "■  -"■». 


have  held  a  subordinate  place  in  Christian  worship ; 

"- woa  for  which,  according  to  Roman  Catho- 

as  probably  tJie  fear  wluch  was  entertained 
itroducing  among  the  recent  converts  from 
paganism  the  polytheistio  notioos  of  their  former 
cr^d.  But  from  the  time  of  the  triumph  of 
Christianity  in  the  4th.  c.  the  traces  of  it  become 
more  apparent.  St  Gregory  Nazianzen,  in  his  pane- 
gyric of  the  virgin  mzutjT  Justina,  tells,  that  in 
her  honr  of  peril  she  '  implored  Mary  the  Virgin  to 
come  to  the  aid  of  a  virgin  in  her  danger '  (0pp. 
pp.  278,  279).     St  Ephraim,  the  Syrian,  in 

e  age,  uses  language  which  is  held  by  Roman 

Catholics  to  be  eqaally  favourable  to  their  view ; 
and  the  fact  that  about  this  time  there  arose  a  sect^ 
the  CoUyridians,  who  Wttv  eondemned  for  the  aotoal 
adoration  of  the  Virgin,  seems  to  them  to  prove 


..Googl' 


HABIONZTTES—MAKina 


tiixt  nmie  vonliip  of  ber  matt  hare  eiistad  in 
the  chnroli,  oat  of  which  thia  eiceasive  vorahip  of 
the  Colhridiuu  grew.  But  it  wsa  only  after  the 
heresy  of  Neetoriiu  that  the  wonhip  of  Mair  seema 
to  h&ve  obtained  ita  fall  derelopment.  Hia  denial  to 
her  of  the  character  of  mother  of  God,  and  the  solemn 


of  quickening  the  devotion  of  the  people,  and  drawine 
forth  a  more  marked  mamfeatation  on  the  part  oi 
the  chnrch  of  the  belief  which  had  been  called  into 
cnuitjoa.  The  Cth  and  6th  centnrie*,  both  in  th< 
East  and  in  tbe  West,  exhibit  clear  evidence  of  thi 
practice ;  and  the  writen  of  «ach  succeeding  age 
till  the  Keformation  apeak  with  gradually  increas- 
ing enthuaiaim  of  the  privilege*  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
ana  of  the  efficacy  of  her  functions  aa  a  mediator 
yriitl  her  Son.  St  Bernard,  and,  still  more,  St  Bona- 
Tentora,  carried  this  devotional  eothusiasm  to  its 
greatert  heicht;  and  the  popular  feeling  foond  a 
atronger  and  still  more  strong  monifestatioD  in  the 
public  worship  of  the  cburcOi  Frotn  a  very  early 
period,  we  find  several  feativala  of  the  '  blesaed 
Virgin;'  but  in  the  centtuiea  to  which  we  refer, 
the  number  received  large  additions.  The  insti- 
tutioit  of  the  '  Rosary  of  the  Virgin  Mary,'  the 
appointment  of  a  special  ofBce  in  ner  honour,  and 

which  were  held  to  be  especially  sacred  to  her 
worship,  gave  a  prominence  to  the  devotion  which 
Protenanta  find  it  difficult  to  reconcile  with  the 
honour  which  they  hold  due  to  Ood  alone. 

The  chief  featirala  of  the  Vir^n,  common  to  the 
Western  and  Eastern  Churches,  are  the  Conception, 

the  Nativity,  the  Purification,  the  ' --^—  ■>-- 

Vimbrtion,  ai  '  ■■■     ' "- 

are  retained 

Church  has  aavenJ  special  feativala,  with  appro- 
priate offices    all,  however,  of  minor  solenmi^. 

MABIONE^TES.  httle  jointed  pnppeta  of  wood 
or  cardboard,  representing  men  and  women,  and 
moved  by  means  of  cords  or  apringa  by  a  concealed 
agent.  Tbey  v«  exhibited  in  what  are  called 
marionette  theatres,  the  ezhibiter  varying  hia  voice, 
ao  that  a  sort  of  dramatic  perfonnanca  is  accom- 

C"  ■  ed.  This  entertainment  was  known  to  the 
ks,  and  from  them  pasted  to  the  Bomana.  Id 
modem  times,  it  has  tdiiefly  prevailed  in  Fnmce 
and  Italy,  and  has  there  reached  a  very  respectable 
degree  of  artistio  perfection. 

MABIOTTB,  EctfE,  a  distingaished  French 
natural  philosopher,  waa  bom  in  Kireandf  during 
the  Jirat  halt  of  the  17th  c,  and  was  ^e  pnor  of  St 
Martin-aous-Beaune,  when  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
admitted  him  within  its  pale  in  IQCO.  His  life  is 
devoid  of  particular  interest,  having  been  almost 
wholly  spent  in  his  cabinet,  among  his  books  and 
instruments.  He  died  in  16S4.  M.^  forte  cooaisted 
in  on  extroordinorv  power  of  drawing  concloaiona 
from  experiment.  He  repeated  Faacal's  experiments 
on  gravitation,  and  detected  some  peculiaritiea 
which  had  escaped  that  iogeiuoas  philosopher ; 
confirmed  Qolileo's  theory  of  motioil ;  enriched 
hydraulics  with  a  mnltitnde  of  discoveries,  and 
finally  made  a  thorough  inventigation  into  the  sub- 
ject of  the  conduction  of  water,  and  calculated  the 
strength  necessDry  for  pipes  under  i^Qerent  circum- 
stances. His  collcctea  works  were  published  at 
Leyden  in  1717,  aod  at  the  Hague  (2  vols.  4to) 
in  1740.  His  Traitt  du  MouvemetU  det  Bata  was 
published  by  La  Hire  (Paris,  1786,  12mo). 

MABIOTTE,  Law  or,  an  empirical  law  deduced 
by  Boyle  (q.v.)  and  Manotta  (q.v.)  from  two  inde- 
pendent  experiments,   though    Boyle's    disoovc 


330 


:   experiments,   though    Boylea    discovery 
a  have  preceded  M.'a  by  several  yean.    It 


ia  generally  ezpreased  aa  lotlowi :  The  len^aamra 
remaining  the  tame,  iht  txJumt  nf  a  ^ven  moM  nf 

C't  in  itaert  nUio  to  thtprtuure  vtuekit  mtttaiiu. 
law  may  be  held  to  ba  substantially  oorrect 
within  a  considerable  range  of  preBBnr&  But  tha 
labours  of  Reguault  have  made  it  evident  that 
atmospheric  air  and  most  other  gases,  especiaUy 
under  very  high  pressures,  are  rwlly  more  eom< 
pressed  than  if  they  followed  the  law.  This  devi>> 
tion  is  moat  marked  in  the  caae  of  gaaes  which  ore 
in  course  of  being  liquefied,  as  they  approach  tli» 
point  of  liquefaction. 

MABI'TZA  (tha  one.  HAnu),  a  river  of  Gniopeaa 
Turkey,  risea  in  the  Balkans,  and  Hows  eMt40Dth- 
eaat  through  the  province  of  Eastern  BonmeliA 
to  Adrianople,  where  it  bend*  aonth,  and  fall*  into 
the  Mgeaaa  by  the  Gulf  of  Enoe.  It  is  upwards  of 
300  milea  in  leogth,  and  ia  navigable  to  Adrianoide, 
abont  100  miles  &om  its  mouth. 

MARIU'POL,  or  MAKIAMFOL,  a  amporii  in 
the  government  of  Ekaterinoslav,  Bussia,  is  situated 
near  the  place  where  the  Kalmius  falls  into  the  Sea 
of  Azov,  60  miles  west  of  Taganrog.  It  waa  fonnded 
in  1779  by  Greek  emigrants  from  the  Crimea,  and 
the  port  wss  opened  to  foreign  vessela  in  ISSS,  whea 
20  ships  entered  it ;  hot  anerwarda  their  number 
increased  to  more  thaa  300.  The  articles  of  export 
are  wheat,  linseed,  wool,  and  hides  from  the  adjaoent 
provinces,  the  value  being  abont  £500,000.  The  im- 
ports are  insignificant,  ships  most  commonly  arriving 
mballasL  Pop.  (1878)  9037, ■whospeakaeormpt  jar- 
gon derived  from  the  Turkish  and  Greek  languages. 

MA'BIUS,  C,  a  Boman  general,  was  bom  of 
an  obscure  family,  at  the  vi]^i;e  of  Cereatie,  near 
Arpinum,  167  B.a  In  the  I^imantine  war  (134 
B.O.),  he  served  with  great  distinction  under  the 
younger  Scipio  Airicanua,  who  treated  him  with 
nigh  consideration,  aod  even  indicated  that  be 
thought  him  a  fit  successor  to  himself.  In  119  B-a, 
he  was  elected  tribune  of  the  plebs,  and  signalisea 
himself  by  his  vigorous  opposition  to  the  nobles,  by 
whom  he  was  intensely  hated.  In  114  B.C.,  he  went 
to  Spun  as  propnetor,  and  cleared  the  country  of 
the  robbers  who  infested  iL  He  now  married  Julia, 
the  aunt  of  Julius  Uesar.  He  accompanied  Q. 
CfficiliuB  Metellua  to  Africa  in  100  B.  a.,  was  elected 


>  a  successful  close  ii 

mately  productive  of  so  many  horrora.  Meanwhile, 
an  immense  horde  of  Cimbri,  Teutones,  and  other 
northern  barbarians,  had  burst  into  Gaul,  and 
repeatedly  defeated  the  Roman  forces  with  great 
slaughter.  M.  was  again  called  to  the  consulate  for 
the  year  ID4  e.c,  and  for  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth 
time  in  the  following  years,  103-— 101  E.a,  for  it 
felt  that  he  alone  could  save  the  republic;  Tha 
against  the  Teutones  in  Transalpine  Gaul  occu- 
pied >iiTn  for  more  than  two  yean ;  but  he  finally 
annihilated  them  in  a  battle  of  two  days'  duration 
at  Aqme  Sextiu,  now  Aix,  in  Provence,  where 
200,000~according   to    others,    100,000— Teutonea 

ilaio.    After  this,  he  assumed  the  chief  com- 

..  in  the  north  at  Italy  against    the  Cimbri 

a.  T.),  whom  he  also  overthrew,  near  Vecelln  to 
e  vresl  of  Wilun,  with  a  like  destruction  (101 
B.U.).  Tha  people  of  Rome  knew  no  bounds 
to  their  joy.  M.  was  declared  the  saviour  of  tha 
,  the  third  founder  of  Borne,  and  his  name 
mentioned  along  with  those  of  the  gods  at 
banquets.  He  waa  made  consul  for  the  sixth  time 
in  100  B.O.  It  haa  often  been  remarked,  that,  had 
he  died  at  this  period,  he  would  have  left  bdtind 


,,  Google 


UABJORAU— UAREjrr  OVERT. 


I   of   1 


t  rapntstio: 


history.  When  SoUk,  u  ooniul,  wu  intnited 
with  the  conduct  of  the  MithriditiD  war,  M.,  who 
had  long  Duuifcsted  mn  iiuuie  jealoDi7  of  his 
paCrioi&a  rirkl,  attempted  to  depnve  him  ot  the 
oonuDuid,  ajid  a  civil  war  began  (88  B.a).  M. 
wM  acwn  forced  to  flee,  and  after  endorinf;  tha 
moot  fHghtJol  hardihipe,  and  malfiYig  Duneroua 
hairbre&dth  eaoapea,  he  reached  Africa,  where 
be  remained  until  a  riling  of  hii  friend*  took 
place  luider  Ciuna.  He  then  hurried  back  to  Italy, 
and,  (long  with  Cinna,  marched  against  Borne, 
which  was  obliged  to  yield.  M.  waa  deliriona  io 
hit  revenge  upon  the  ariatocncy;  a  band  of  4000 
•lave*  carried  on  tha  work  of  murder  for  five  days 
and  mghta.  M.  and  Ciima  were  elected  conxala 
tweiber  for  the  year  86  B.  o.,  but  Ilie  f onner  died 
after  he  had  held  the  office  aeveateen  dapk 

MAIUrORAM  {OngaH%m),  a  genu*  of  plant 
the  natnral  order  LabialtB,  having  a  ten-ribbed,  five- 
toothed  calyx,  looea  epikea,  and  broad  bracta.  Tha 
■peciei  are  »nTm«1,  perennial,  and  ahrubby  plants, 
nativea  chiefly  of  the  Eait^  and  of  the  oonntriea 
bordering  on  the  Mediternnean.  They  abound 
in  a  y^low  enantial  oil— OiJ  qf  M.  or  OH  of 
Origamaa — which  is  obtained  from  some  of  the 
■peciea  by  distillation.  The  GoMHOtr  M.  (0.  voir 
gcart)  ia  the  only  apecica  found  in  Britain,  and  il 


not  nnfrequent  in  drjr  hilly  and  bnahy  plaoaa.  It 
ia  a  perennial  plant,  has  a  item  <Hie  foot  nigh,  ovate 
leaves,  and  nnudiBh,  panioled,  crowded  heads  of 
purple  flowem,  with  hiiga  bracts.  It  is  oied,  as  are 
also  other  apeciea.  as  a  aeasoning  in  oookery,  and 
an  infotion  of  it  is  a  rtimnUnt,  tonic,  and  remedy 
for  nervonsDeea.  The  powder  i*  an  trrhine.  The 
eeseDbsJ  oil  is  used  as  a  pBUiative  of  toothache,  and 
ia  mixed  with  olive  oil,  to  nu^e  a  atimulatiag  lini- 
ment^ whioh  is  used  as  a  ruoedy  for  baUdcea*  and 

braiies.— The  Swxn  M.  of  our  gardens  ^.  Major- 
mut)  is  an  annnal  plant,  a  native  of  Qieece  and  the 
£a*ti  with  orate  grayiah-green  leaves,  covered  on 
both  aides  with  a  thin  down,  about  three  roundish 
heads  of  flowen  growing  elose  together,  wrinkled 
baota,  and  small  white  flowen.  Its  uses  are  siniilar 
to  those  of  the  common  marjoram. 

MARK,  the    standard    weiRht   of   tha  money 
■ysteni  of  various  oountiiea  of  Europe.  In  Gvmony, 


the  mark  varied  at  different  time*  and  places ;  but 
ultimately  Vita  Cologne  mark  was  half  a  Cologne 
pound,' or  233'8123  grammes.  This  was  the  standard 
till  1857.  Since  ISTl,  a  new  mark  is  the  basis  of  the 
new  imperial  money  system:  it  is  0-358023  grammes 
of  gold,  oad  in  silver  there  are  100  to  the  pound, 
or  240  to  the  kilogramme.  The  one-mark  piece  is 
silver,  equal  to  a  uiilling,  and  is  divided  into  100 
pfennigs :  there  are  gold  5,  10,  and  20  mark  pieces. 
The  Lubeck  mart,  a  ooiu  formerly  current  at  Ham- 
burg, was  worth  Ia  2^d. ;  the  mark  banco  there,  a. 
money  of  account,  was  \t-  ^d.  In  the  old  French 
system,  the  mare  (=  192  deniers  or  pennyweights) 
was  half  of  the  livrt  poidi  de  mare,  and  the  latter- 
was  0-4895  of  a  kilogramme.  Id  England,  marks 
are  first  heard  of  in  Uie  treaty  between  Al^^  and 
Outhram  the  Done,  and  are  supposed  to  have  been 
then  a  Danish  reckoning.  The  mark  was  not  » 
coin,  but  only  a  money  of  account,  or  rather  * 
weight.  In  1194  the  mark  hod  the  nominal  value 
it  ever  after  retained,  160  pennies  or  13&  4il,  }  of 
the  nominal 'poood.'  The  gold  noble,  first  struck 
by  Edward  ni.  was  worth  half  a  mark— 6a.  8ii  In 
Scotland,  the  mark  or  merk  wo*  a  weight  for  gold 
aod  silver,  or  common  money  reckoning,  and  also  a 
coin.  The  coin,  hke  the  other  Scotch  corns,  had  only 
it  of  the  English  value ;  nominally  I3i;  id.,  it 
was  worth  U.  l\d.  English.  'Diere  were  two-merk, 
one-merk  (4|  to  the  oz.),  half,  and  quartet  merk 
pieces.    The  marc,  till  lately  a  standard  weight  for 

Sid  and  silver  in  most  Enropean  countries,  ^vt 
ED  generally  snpersaded  by  the  metric  system. 
MARK,  a  German  geographical  tenn,  signified 
primarily  the   mark   of   a   country's    limibl   (thr 


empire,  oonqnered  from  ueighbonriug  natioos.  Thus, 
we  Mad  ol  the  marks  ^  Austrisi,  ot  Northern 
Saxony  or  Brandenburg,  Lauiatia,  Moravia,  Steier- 
mark,  fto.  The  governors  intrusted  with  the- 
charge  of  (iese  border  districts,  or  markt,  wers 
Dolled  marlc-grafi,  corresponding  to  the  English 
and  Scottish  franfnuo/fMJfarcAea.  See  M^BijniB. 

MASK,  the  Evangelist,  is  probably  the  same 
who,  in  the  Acts  ol  (he  Apostles,  is  called  John 
Mark.  He  came  origiaaUy  from  Jerusalem,  was  a 
nephew  of  Barnabas,  and  aoeompanied  the  Apostle 
Paul  and  him  to  Antioch.  Cyprus,  and  Perga  iu 
Pamphylia,  returned  to  Jerusalem,  and  went  alter- 
~".nui  to  Cyprus,  and  thence  to  lioine  (lee  Acta  Tiii. ; 

L  iv.  10 ;  2  Tim.  iv.  II).  Ecolesiastieal  tradition 
speaks  of  a  mismoniiy  eipaditioa  of  M.  to  Egypt 
and  the  west  ot  Africa,  of  his  suSering  martviSom 
about  the  year  62  Or  66  (the  Coptic  church  stiil 

if  the  transmiasion  of  his  Corpse  to  Venice,  which 
ity  has  chosen  him  for  its  patroa  saint.  The 
festival  (April  23)  which  the  Roman  Catholio 
Church  holds  in  his  honour  is  no  older  than  the 
close  of  the  7th  oentury.  The  canonical  gospel 
hich  passes  under  his  name  is  believed  ' 


scholars  to  have  sprung  from  a  primitiv 
of  natices  of  the  life  of  Christ,  dniwn  up  b_ 
worked  up  into  its  present  fonn  by  a  later  writer. 


Griesbttch,  Baur,  Strauss,  Zellec,  held  it  to  be  simply 
an  abridgTDeut  from  the  gospels  ot  Matthew  and 
Luke.  Wilkf,  Weisse,  and  Bruno  Bauer,  on  the 
other  hand,  held  Mark  to  be  the  primitive  evangelist; 
and  most  recent  scholars  take  this  view,  as  Heuss; 
Bitschl,  Ewald,  Holtzmano,  and  in  England,  Abbott,. 
Rnshworth,  and  others.    See  GoapzLS. 

MARKET  OVERT,   a  teim  in   Englisfa  Lain 

led  to  denote  an  open  market.     If  stolen  goods- 

__e  sold  in  open  marltet  without  fraud  ou  the  iiart 

of  the  buyer,  the  real  owner  cannot  ledaim  them. 


jtroagtr 


MAEKBTS-MABLBOHOtlGH. 


fiom  BDch  pOTcbAger,  till  he  hM  proMcutod  the 
thief. — Id  Scotland,  the  re^l  owner  can  recloini  the 
good*  >t  any  time,  whether  in  the  meantime  told 
in  open  muket  or  not. 

MABEETS.    SeeFAiBR 

MABKmOH.     See  S/a)m-MAsiB-AUZ-M»XB. 

HABL  (Qer.  MergeC),  a  mixtore,  natorall; 
wcUting,  of  olay  and  carb<mat«  of  lime.  Marli  are 
found  m  veiy  diffarant  geological  formationi,  but 
ererywhere  wem  to  owe  their  origin  to  depoutiOD 
hr  water.  The  name  ia  sometime!  applied  to  friable 
cUyi,  or  mirtnreB  of  day  and  aand,  in  which  there 
m  alutoat  no  trace  of  lime ;  bnt  the  preaeuca  of  a 
notable  proportion  of  carbonate  of  lima  is  ecuntial 
to  marli,  properly  so  oalled.  Tbia  i)roportioa  varie« 
from  6  to  20  per  oent.  Marly  Boili  are  in  general 
of  great  natanl  fertility.  Marl  ia  very  advantage- 
OQuy  mod  u  a  roannre,  acting  both  chemically  and 
meouanicaJiy ;  but  different  kinds  of  marl  &re  of 
tot;  different  Talae  in  this  reepect  The  use  of 
marl  aa  a  manure  has  been  known  from  ancient 
timcfl.  An  Engliah  aUtute  of  1225  (10  Henry  IIL> 
gave  eveiy  man  a  right  to  sink  a  marl-pit  on  hia 
own  ground,  and  there  ii  other  evidence  that  the 
application  of  marl  to  land  was  common  in  Eng- 
land in  the  I3th  century.  Old  marl-pita  are  very 
common  in  some  parts  of  Elagland.  The  qoicker 
action  and  greater  efficiency  of  lima  have  led  to  its 
nse  in  many  casaa  instead  of  marl,  altboogh  some 
kinds  of  marl  ore  extremely  osefiil  in  aome  soils. 
The  bnlkinesa  of  marl  coufiaee  its  use  to  the  neigh- 
bourhood in  which  it  ia  found. — Marl  ia  sometimes 
indorated  into  a  rock,  and  a  slaty  variety,  oontaiuiug 
much  Utumen  {SiUtinittov*  Marl-slate),  is  fouod  in 
Germany  and  other  countries. 

MA'BLBOBOUGH,  an  old  and  interesting  town 
of  England,  Wiltehire,  i»  a  municipal  borou^  and 
market'town,  pleasanUy  situated  in  the  valley  ot  the 
Kennet,  73  miles  west-aouth-weet  of  London.  It 
coQMBta  principally  of  one  street  of  pictureaqne 
houses.  As  early  as  the  days  of  Oxur-de-Lion, 
there  was  a  castle  at  M. ;  and  a  puliameut  whose 
enactments  were  called  the  '  Statutee  of  Marlbridge,' 
was  held  here  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IIL  M.  trades 
in  cosJ,  com,  and  malt  Till  1867,  M.  returned  two 
membu^  to  parliament,  and  till  1835  one.  PopL 
(18S1)  334a— M.  CoUege  was  incorporated  in  IS45, 
and  obtained  an  additumal  chart^  in  1853  ;  the 
nnmber  of  pupils  is. between  COO  and  600,  of  whom 
about  70,  sona  of  clergymen,  are  on  the  foundation. 
There  are  numerous  sckolarshipB  worth  from  £15 
to  £!iO  OQaually ;  and  several  exhibitions  for  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  Dniversities. 

MAKLBOROUGH,  John  Cecckchiu,  Ddkb  op, 
the  greatest  general  and  statesman  of  bis  timc^  was 
born  24th  Jane  16S0,  at  Aah^  in  Devoiuihir&  of  an 
old  family  impoverished  by  the  civil  wsra.  Withoat 
haviog  raoeived  much  education,  he  became  a  page 
in  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  York,  who  gave  him  a 
commiaiion  as  an  ensign  of  Guards  in  his  I6th  year. 
He  was  present  at  the  relief  of  Tangiers,  and  a 
nombet  of  eogsgementa  with  the  Moors,  and  after 
his  retUTD  to  England,  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain  in 
a  regiment  which  was  sent  to  the  Netherlands  to 
the  support  of  the  Preuch,  In  the  campaign  from 
1672  to  1G77,  his  brilliant  courage  and  ability  gained 
him  the  praise  of  tlie  celebratfd  Turenne,  On  the 
conclusion  of  the  war  by  the  peace  of  Nimeguen, 
Churchill,  now  a  colonel,  returned  to  EnMaod. 
His  advBDoement  had  been  obtained,  not  merely  on 
■ocount  of  his  own  merit,  bat  through  the  influence 
of  hia  sister,  Arabella,  mistress  o?  the  Duke  of 
York.  His  prosperity  was  afterwards  still  further 
secured  by  his  marriage  with  Sarah  Jennings,  a 
lady  as  remarkable  for  her  talents  and  imperious 


dispositioa  as  for  her  beauty.  When  James  H, 
ascended  the  throne,  Churchill  was  made  Baron  of 
Sundridge,  and  was  raised  to  the  military  rank  of 
generaL  He  took  an  activs  part  in  snpprpsaingMon- 
mouth's  rebellion,  bnt  on  the  laoding  of  the  Prince 
of  Orange,  be  passed  over  to  the  side  of  the  invader 
very  unscrupulously.  He  waa  rewarded  by  being 
made  Earl  of  Marloorongh.  He  aided  in  reducing 
Ireland  to  subjection;  and  having  received  from 
William  IIL  the  command  of  the  troopa  employed 
against  France  in  the  Netherlands,  displayed  great 
ability  as  a  general  in  the  campaigns  of.l689, 1690, and 
169L  But  in  1692  be  fell  into  disfavonr  with  the 
king,  and  was  dismisMd  from  all  his  office* ;  and 
shortly  after  be  waa  even  thrown  into  the  Tower  for 
a  few  days  on  the  charge  of  maintataing  treasonabla 
corTelpoudence  with  the  exiled  king.  On  th« 
commencement  of  the  War  of  tbe  Spanish  Succession, 
he  was  intrusted  with  the  oommand  of  the  British 
army  in  the  Netherlands.  The  death  of  William, 
and  tbe  accessioa  of  Anne  to  the  throne  in  March 
1702,  made  M.  virtually  r^ent,  although  without 
the  title.  His  wife  governed  the  queen,  and  he 
himself  directed  the  minister  Godolphin,  whose  son 
had  married  his  daughter.  A  constant  succession  of 
victories  strengthened  his  political  power.  In  the 
camjMugn  of  1702,  he  drove  the  French  out  of 
Spanish  Guelders,  in  reward  for  which  service  tho 
queen  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  duke ;  and  in  1703, 
he  campaigned  again  in  the  Low  Countries.  In  1701 
he  went  to  the  support  of  the  Emperor  in  Garmany, 
and  joined  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy ;  in  July  I7ik, 
he  stormed  the  French  and  Bavarian  linesat  Donan- 
wOrth,  and  on  I3th  August  overthrew  a  stronger 
French  and  Bavarian  arn^  in  the  memorable  uid 


queen  caused  Blenheim  Palace  to  be  built  for  him, 
thoueh  it  had  to  be  finished  at  his  own  expense. 
In  1705,  M.  waa  made  a  prinoe  of  the  Empire. 
During  the  year  1709,  M.  was  chiefly  occupied  with 
diplomatic  negotiations;  but  in  1706  he  resumed 
that  career  ot  victory  hj  which  Louis  XTV.  was  so 
completely  humbled.  In  May  of  that  year,  the 
battle  of  Bamilliea  was  fought,  which  compelled  the 
French  to  evacuate  the  whole  of  Spanish  Flanders. 
In  the  summer  of  1708,  an  attempt  made  by 
the  French,  under  Vendome,  to  recover  Flanders, 
brought  on  an  engssement  at  Oudenarde,  July  1 1, 
which  resnlted  in  tine  total  defeat  of  the  French. 
On  11th  September  1709.  be  fought  the  bloody 
and  unprofitable  battle  of  Malplaquet ;  in  1711,  his 


Eaj-l  of  Oxford  and  tbe  Tories  came  into  power. 
M.  was  accused  of  having  embeizled  the  public 
money,  and  on  1st  January  1712  he  was  depnved  of 
his  offices,  but  the  cha^a  ogunst  him  was  not 
prosecuted.  On  the  secession  of  Qeorge  I.,  he  was 
treated  with  distinction,  and  made  Captain  .general 
and  Master  of  the  Ordnance.  But  oo  28tb  May 
1716,  he  had  a  stroke  of  apoplexy.  This,  though  it 
slightly  impaired  his  speech,  did  not  prevent  bim 
from  continuing  to  sit  in  parliament,  and  attending 
to  his  other  duties  till  six  months  before  bis  death, 
which  happened  oo  tbe  16tb  June  172Z  He  left  an 
immense  fortune.^M.  waa  unqneitionably  guilty  of 
political  dissimnlstion,  waa  inordinately  fond  of 
money,  and  may  have  been  parsimonioua.  But  his 
oboracter  hod  many  elements  of  singular  excellence. 
He  was  generous  in  action,  gentle  in  tvmper,  a 
devoted  husband,  and  a  pious  Christian. 


,.  Ciooi;ilc 


MABLHTB-SPIEE-MABMOKTEL. 


HiB  wife,  Sakah  Jsmmroe,  wm  bom  on  29th 
Hay  1G60,  aod  when  aboiit  12  Jtiat  of  aj 
into  the  Bervicc  of  tlis  Dachen  of  York,  and 
the  chosen  and  most  intimate  friend  of  the  Prinoeea 
Anoe,  over  whom,  after  her  aooeuion  to  the  throne, 
Bhe  eioroised  the  influence  doe  to  a  mperior  and 
eitremelj  active  mind.  Ber  power  waa  almost 
boundless  ;  the  Whig  miniaby  depended 
support,  and  she  disposed  of  jdaces  and 
her  pleaaum,  and  is  even  said  to  have  accomalated 
money  bj  the  sale  of  them.  Her  rule  became, 
however,  at  last  intolerable  to  the  queen,  in  whoae 
faronr  her  own  oonain.  Lady  Masham,  whom  ahe 
herself  had  brought  to  court,  suppUnted  her.  3he 
retired  from  the  ooaii  in  Jannary  1711.  She  long 
anrvived  ber  hnsband,  living  in  ootnplete  retire- 
ment, and  died  on  29th  October  1744,  leaving  a 
fortune  of  £3,000,000  tterliug.— The  only  aon  of  the 
Dnke  and  DncheM  ot  Mulborondi  died  yoang,  and 
the  title  hat  been  inherited  by  Uie  descendants  of 
one  of  their  daDghter& 

HAXLINE-SFIKE,  a  ponderous  iron  pin,  with 
a  large  head  and  taper  punt,  used  on  stupboard 
for  Bepanting  the  strands  cd  rope  preparatoiy  to 
splicing  or  Imottins ;  also  employed  aa  a  lever  in 
tightening  rigging,  ac 

MABLOW,  Grut.    See  Qkut  Maiilow. 

MABLOWE,  CHsmopHiEt,  famiharly  Kit,  u> 
English  dramatic  writer,  was  bom  at  Canterburyia 
Feb.  1S64.  Little  is  known  of  the  events  of  bis 
life.  He  studied  at  Corpus  Christi  Collie,  Cam- 
bridge, and  took  the  degree  of  Uaater  of  Arts  in 
153^  After  leavins  the  univenitry,  be  came  np  to 
l4>udon,  and  wrote  for  the  stage.  His  chief  works 
ore  DrFaustua,  Edteard  II.,  TavAnrlaine  tht  Ortat, 
and  two  oaotoe  of  Hero  and  Laoider,  a  narratJTe 
poeu  which  was  afterwards  completed  by  Chapman. 
He  appears  to  have  ted  a  rachlesa  life;  and  an  the 
1st  June  1693,  he  perished  in  a  tavern  brawl,  it  is 
supposed  by  the  huid  of  a  jealous  rival 

Of  all  the  dramatic  writers  before  Shakspeare,  he 
was  the  greatest  genius ;  indeed,  his  BdmaTd  II. 
may  be  considered  a  foreshadow  of  Shahspeare's 
historical  dramas.    His  '  mighty  line '  has  been  the 


hie  delicacy  and  sweetness  in  Hero  aitd  Leander. 
An  edition  of  his  works,  with  a  Life  and  a  literary- 
historical  Introduction,  was  published  by  Dyco  in 
1350  ;  another  by  Colonel  Cnmungham  io  1872, 

MAHMALADB  (Port,  marmelada,  tram  marmdo, 
a  quince ;  which,  again,  is  from  Mid.  I^t.  ma^cnuUuin, 
Or.  iMKmdoB,  honey-apple  or  sweet  apple)  is  a 
temi-liiiDid  preserve,  made  by  boiling  the  palp  of 
thic^  nnded  fruits,  such  as  oranges,  pine-apples, 
qoinoes,  kc,  with  portion*  of  the  rind.  The  most 
common  kind  of  marmaUde  is  made  from  the  bitter 
or  Seville  oranges,  the  common  or  sweet  sorts  being 
considered  inferior  for  this  purpose,  though  also 
occasionally  used.  The  mode  of  preparing  it  is 
generally  as  follows :  the  rind  is  boiled  by  itself, 
and  the  whit«  woolly  coating  on  the  interior  being 
then  removed,  the  rind  is  cut  up  into  thin  strips, 
and  boiled  along  with  the  expressed  juice  of  tbe 
pulp  and  a  quantity  of  su^r  equal  in  weight  to 
the  other  ingredients.  Aner  the  mixture  has 
attiined  the  proper  consistence,  it  is  treated  in  a 
similar  manner  to  jam,  jelly,  and  other  preserves. 
A  species  of  marmalade  is  commonly  made  in 
France  from  apricots,  peaches,  plums,  pears,  A& 

MAKMANDE,  an  old  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Lot-et-Oaronne,  on  the  li^t  bank 
of  the  Oaronne,  50  miles  above  Bordeanx.  An 
important  general  bade  is  carried  on  with 


with  which  M.  is  in  daily  ci 

boat     Fop   (ISSl)  66M,  who  manofactiue  hats, 

woollen  stufis,  brandy,  Ac. 

MAEMONT,  AtrocTTK  FnfefiRic  Lotus  Tihbb 
HE,  Duke  of  Kagnta  and  Marshal  of  France,  was 
bom  20th  July  1774,  at  ChitiUon.sur.Seine,  entered 
the  army  at  an  early  age,  served  as  a  brigadier- 
general  in  Egypt,  returned  with  Bonaparte  to 
France,  supported  him  in  the  revolntion  of  the  ISth 
Brumaire,  and  afterwards  continued  in  active  mili- 
tary service.  Having  defended  the  Kagosan  terri* 
tory  against  the  Kussians  and  MonteneKrins,  hs 
was  made  Duke  of  Bsgosa.  He  joined  ui«  great 
army  in  1809,  the  day  b^ore  the  battle  ot  Wagram, 
was  intrusted  with  Uie  nnnnit  of  tlie  enemv,  won 
the  battle  of  Zuaym,  and  was  made  a  manhaJ.  Ha 
was  thereafter  for  eighteen  months  governor  of  the 
lUyrian  provinces;  and  in  181 1  succeeded  Massena 
in  the  chief  oommand  in  Portugal,  where  ha 
assumed  the  oCTeiiBive,  caused  the  siege  of  Badajoz 
to  be  raised,  and  kept  Wellington  in  check  for 
fifteen  months.  A  wound  compelled  bim  to  retire 
to  France.  In  1813,  he  commanded  a  corps  ifarmte, 
and  fought  at  Lutzen,  Bautzen,  and  Dresden.  Ee 
maintained  the  contest  with  great  spirit  in  France 
in  the  beginning  of  1814 ;  and  it  waa  not  until  further 
reaistanoe  was  nc^eleaa,  that  he  concluded  a  truce 
wi^  Barclay  de  Tolly,  on  which  Napoleon  found 
himself  compelled  to  abdicate.  The  Bourbons 
loaded  M,  wiui  honooia.  On  the  retnm  of  Napoleon 
from  Elba,  he  was  obliged  to  flee.  After  tha 
second  restoration,  be  spent  much  of  his  time  in 
agricultural  pursuits,  till  tha  revolntion  of  JS30, 
when,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  troope,  he  endeav- 
oured to  reduce  Paris  to  enbmiaaion,  and  Anally 
retreating  with  6000  Swiss,  and  a  few  battalions 
that  bad  continued  faithful  to  Charles  X, conducted 
him  across  the  frontier.  From  that  time,  he  resided 
chiefly  in  Vienna,  In  1862,  he  engaged  in  an  effort 
for  the  fusion  of  the  French  Legitimists  and  Orlean- 
ists,  but  died  at  Venice  on  2d  March  of  that  vear, 
Ee  waa  the  last  survivor  of  the  marshals  of  the 
first  French  Empire. 

MARMONTEL,  Jean  Francis,  an  elwant 
French  writer,  horn  of  an  obscure  fainily  at  Bort, 
in  the  Limouain,  11th  July  1723.  Be  studied  for 
the  church,  but  turned  aside  to  literature,  and  after 
obtaining  some  reputation  in  Toulouaa  as  a  poet,  he 
went  to  Paris  on  an  invitation  from  Voltaire  in 
1746.  Hei«  be  wrote  tragedies  and  operas  without 
any  great  success,  but  was  fortunate  enough  to  get 


received  a  more  lucratave  appointment,  the  Mercure 
being  intrusted  to  his  charge^  His  ConUe  Moravx 
[2  vda.  Par.  1761),  part  of  which  originally  appeared 
in  the  Heratre,  have  been  translated  mto  many 
languages,  but  are  in  some  measure  liable  to  the 
chwge  of  monotony.  He  wrote  other  works,  the 
most  celebrated  of  which  is  his  BtUiaire,  a  political 
romance,  containing  a  chapter  on  toiertUion,  which 
excited  the  moat  furious  hostility  on  the  part  of  tha 
doctors  of  the  Sorbonne.  The  book  was  condemned 
as 'heretical  and  blasphemous.'  The  clergy  declaimed 
gainst  it  from  tho  jmlpita ;  the  city  waa  in  a 
ferment ;  even  the  wise  Tnrgot  was  borne  away 
by  the  current  Pamohleta,  epigrams,  caricatores 
appeared  in  groat  numbers.  There  was  a  dead  aet- 
to  between  the  philosophers  and  wits  on  tha  one 
hand,  and  Uie  theologians  on  the  other ;  bnt  tha 
latter  were  defeated,  and  M.  was  named  historio- 
iher  <rf  Fmnoe.  In  1787,  appeared  his  SUmenis 
JAtUrature,  conaistiiw  of  his  oontributions  to  the 
Sneydopldie,  in  which  he  had  charge  of  the  depart- 
mento  of  poetry  and  general  literature.    It  is  reoUy 


i.Googl 


MARMORA— MABjm 


fat*  beat  book,  uid  the  one  on  which  his  repatetioii 
most  Becorelj  nets.  After  the  Rtrralntion,  he 
retired  to  the  Tillage  of  Ablorille,  oear  Brreiiz, 
yriuKe  he  died,  31it  December  1790.  An  editioa 
of  hii  (Eiwn4  CampWet  vu  publijhed  by  himself 
in  IT  Toll,  i  uiother,  18  Toli.  (Par.  ISIS) ;  ft  third, 
7  Tola.  (Par.  1819—1820). 

MAIUMORA,  TsK  Su  or,  tbe  Prop<md»  of  the 
ancient*,  a  (mall  >ea  between  EoropeaTi  and  Aoatio 
Tuikey.  commiuiicating  with  the  £eeui  Sea  by  the 
Strait  of  the  Dantanelle*  (anciently //«ileip<»ll),  and 
with  the  BhK^  3ea  by  the  Strait  at  ConaUutinople 
(uunently  Botporiu).  It  is  of  an  oval  form,  and , 
about  I3S  miles  in  len^h  by  46  in  breadth,  bnt  has 
bendea  a  huve  gulf,  t^  Oull  of  Isnikmid  or  lamid, 
which  extendi  aboot  30  milea  eastwarda  into  '  ~  ~ 
The  depth  ia  great.  There  ia  a  current  fron 
Boapoma  through  it  and  the  Helleipont  tc 
ArchipelaKi ;  bat  ita  navigation  ia  by  no  n 
difficnlt.  It  oontaioa  many  ialanda,  of  which  the 
largeat  ia  Mannon  or  Marmara,  famoua  for  ita 
quarriea  of  marble  and  alabaster.  The  acenerj 
sronnd  the  S«a  of  M.  i«  soft  and  beaatifuL 

MA'BMOSET,  a  name  often  given  to  a  nnmber 
of  amall  and  beautiful  spedei  of  American  monkeyi 
of  the  genera  HapaU  aed  Jaedau,  also  called  Oma- 
Tm,  and  eometiroea  also  to  spedes  of  the  pnua 
Midai  of  naturalists.  They  are  all  diatingmahed 
from  the  other  Amcrioan  monkeyH  by  the  smaller 
number  of  their  eriDders,  resembling  in  thti  " 
monkeys  of  the  Old  World,  ^»o  bv  the  Bhar[ 
and  cnxikedness  of  their  nails.  They  depart  from 
the  true  quadramanoai  character  in  having  the 
thnmb  not  opjKieable.  The  tail  is  Tsiy  long,  and 
thickly  cov^^  with  hair,  but  not  jirahenaile. 
They  exhibit  a  very  affectionate  dispontion ;  bnt 


tildim,  althoogh  in  their  form  and  habits  they  mora 
reacDihla  nts  and  mice.  They  have  two  inoiBoia 
and  two  pmmolaja  in  each  jaw,  four  molan  oa 
each  aide  aboTS,  and  three  below. — The  CouKON  iL, 
or  AuiHS  M.  {A,  alpintu},  ia  a  native  of  the  Alfa, 
the  Pyreneea,  and  the  more  northern  monntaini  o( 
Qntvpe,  ap  to  the  limit*  of  perpetual  mow,    Ii 


Mannoset,  or  Striated  Honkey  {Sapale  Jacchut). 

inhappily  all  of  them  prove  v 

T«inoTed  from  a  warm  climate. 

»  leetiicted  to  the  ipeoiea  ijso  oalled  the 
)  MoiiKET,  or  SisuixD  OtriRin  {HapaU 
JwAu*,  or  Jacehat  mlf/arit),  a  native  of  Ouana 
and  Biul,  a  apedea  often  brought  to  Ennpe,  and 
a  faTOOrite  pet  whenever  it  oan  be  obtained.  It  is 
■bout  attven  or  eight  inchea  long,  ^cluiive  of  the 
tail,  which  meaanreii  a  foot  Its  for  is  long  and 
Boft,  of  a  fine  dark  gray  or  reddiah-yelloir  colour, 
banded  with  black  ;  a  lani;  toft  of  white  haira  on 
aaeh  side  of  the  black  hea£ 

MATtMOT  {AreUimyt),  a  genua  of  rodeolB, 
vmally  ranked  among  the  MwridiE,  but  renrded 
■B  farming  a  connecting  link  between  that  laniily 


Uaimot  [Arclomgi  o^njuu). 

feeds  on  roots,  leaves,  insects,  to.  It  19  gregaiiona, 
and  often  live*  in  larn  aooietiee.  It  diga  laige 
borrows  with  several  ohamben  and  two  enb-aacea, 
generally  on  the  alopea  of  the  mountaina,  where  the 
marmata  may  be  seen  sporting  and  basking  in  the 
■unshine  dunng  the  fine  weather  of  nunmar.  They 
spend  the  winter  in  their  burrowa,  in  one  ohambcr 
ot  whioh  ia  a  atore  of  dried  graaa  ;  bat  the  greater 
part  ot  the  winter  is  paaaed  in  torpidity.  The 
Alpine  M.  ia  eaaily  tamed— The  QirEBw  1£  {A. 
empdra),  found  in  Canada  and  the  mon  northern 
parta  of  America,  in  woody  distriota,  ia  a  bunowing 
but  not  a  grt^arioua  »"itwI 

MABNE,  a  river  of  Prance,  the  MatrSna  of  the 
ancients,  the  most  cODSidenble  tributary  of  the 
Seine,  on  the  right.  It  risea  in  the  plateau  of 
Langres,  flows  through  the  departmenta  of  Hante- 
Mame,  Mama,  Aiane,  and  Seiue-et-Mame,  in  a 
course  at  Brat  to  the  north-west,  and  then  to  the 
west,  with  many  windinm  ;  paasea  Chanmont,  Join- 
ville,  St  Dizier,  Vitry,  Chllons,  Epemay,  Cliteaa- 
Thierry,  and  Meaui^  and  joins  the  Seine  at  Char- 
enton,  about  four  mUea  above  Paria.  Its  length  is 
abont  205  miles,  and  it  is  navigable  for  140  milea. 
It  is  rather  a  rapid  stream,  and  m  moet  plaoM  with 
a  wide  bed.  The  commerce  carried  on  upon  tJiia 
river  has  been  extended  by  means  of  canals,  of 
which  .the  moat  important  ia  one  completed  in  I8S1, 
conneetiiig  it  with  the  lihina. 

MARNE,  an  inland  department  in  the  north- 
east ot  France,  formed  out  <rf  the  old  proTim» 
of  ChampMpe,  is  travened  by  the  river  Mame, 
and  ertenda  southward  from  the  frontier  depart- 
ment of  Ardennes.  Area,  2,021,488  Engjiah  acres, 
of  whioh  1,515,320  acrea  are  cultivable  and  45,704 
«  in  Tineyarda.  Pop.  (1881)  421,800.  The  soil 
very  fertue  in  the  aouti,  bnt  chalky  and  arid  in 
the  north.  It  is  in  the  diy  and  chalky  aoil  of  the 
north  of  this  department  where  the  best  Ttrieties 
of  the  famons  Champagne  Wine  (q.v.)  are  irrown. 
In  1ST5,  16,318,345  botQc*  of  champagne  w^  ex- 
ported. Ot  wine*  of  all  kinds,  about  15,400,000 
gallons  are  produced  aannally.  The  rearing  of  a 
Spanish  breed  of  sheep  is  a  chief  iudustry,  andwool- 
lenmannfacturea  are  lai^ely  earned  on.  The  depart- 
ment ia  divided  into  the  5  arrondiaementa  of  ChUona- 
sur-Mame,  Epemay,  Reims,  S^ts  -  Mdnihonld, 
Vitry-le-Ftanjoia.     Capital,  ChAIauMUE-Uania. 


i.C.OO'jle 


UAKNE— UABQCE. 


Mome.  Araft,  1,S45>60  Mm ;  pop.  (1881)  264^76. 
The  maUo«  ta  gtoKraUf  hilljr,  ud  ia  nHmnUuDoai 
in  tlie  MiDtli  Mtd  tmA  Hon  Uum  on»-haU  of  it 
ia  oultivablei  and  mboat  iMo-tliird  ii  in  forasta. 
The  principal  liveTa  are  the  Mame,  vith  iti  triba- 
taries,  wid  the  Meuae.  About  13,000,000  eallona 
of  wine  of  on  ordinary  quality  are  prodnoeiL  The 
departmeat  ia  rich  in  iron  ore  :  there  ore  numerouB 
fumaMa,  and  the  prodnctioa  of  iron  is  the  principal 
branch  of  industry.  There  are  three  arrondisae- 
ment*  of  Chaomout,  Langrea,  and  Yaaay ;  coital, 
Ghanmont-en-Baaaigny, 

MABOOOO.    8m  Monoooo. 

MASOOHBTTI,  Ruio:(,  C/lolo,  Chevalier  of 
the  Legjion  of  Honour,  an  Italian  aculptor  ol  merit, 
born  at  Turin  in  1806.  Having  completed  hii 
primary  studies  at  the  Lyceum  NapolSon,  ne  entered 
Boaio's  atudy.  On  the  completion  of  a  tour  through 
Italy,  be  took  ap  his  abode  in  France  in  1827, 


to  London,  where  he  continued  to  reside,  having  met 
with  iplendid  encouragement  both  from  the  pubtio 
and  a  boat  of  royal  and  noble  patrons.  Among  his 
best  woiha  are  an  equestrian  statue  of  Emmanuel 
Fhilibert,  eiacnted  gratnitoiudy  for  the  city  of 
Turin ;  the  tomb  of  BeUini,  in  F^  la  Chaise  ;  the 

rd  altar  in  the  Madeleine  at  Paris ;  statues  of 
Emperor,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  Queen 
Victoria;  tba  coloeaal  fignre  of  Bichard  C<Fur-de- 
IJon,  eiMbiled  at  the  pmal  of  the  Crystal  Palace. 
One  of  his  last  works  was  a  statue  of  Lord  Clyde 
in  Waterloo  Place,  London.    He  died  in  1867- 

MA'EONITES,  a  Christiaii  tribe  of  Syria,  of  very 
andeat  origin,  regarding  which  considerable  contro- 
versy has  arisen.  The  most  probable  account  repre- 
•ents  them  as  descendaots  of  a  remnant  of  the  Mono- 
thelite  sect  (see  Monothilum)  who,  fleeing  from 
the  rei^essive  meosuvs  of  the  Emperor  AnsBtaaiua 
IL,  in  the  eorlv  port  of  the  Sth  c,  settled  on  the 
alopea  of  the  Lebuion,  their  chief  seats  being  around 
the  monastery  of  Maran,  a  saint  of  the  Sth  c,  whose 
life  ia  found  in  Theodoret's  Bdigioua  Ilutoria  (iiL 
p.  1222).  The  emigrants  ore  said  to  have  elected  as 
their  chief  and  patriarch  a  monk  of  the  same  name, 
with  the  title  of  Patriarch  of  Antiooh,  and,  throughout 
the  political  vicisntndee  of  the  sncceeding  centuries, 
to  have  maintained  themselves  in  a  certom  indepen- 
dence among  the  Moslem  oonquerora.  In  the  I2th 
c,  on  the  eBtablishmenl  of  the  lAtin  kingdom  of 
Jenisalein,  the  M.  abandoned  their  distinctive  mono- 
Ihelite  opiniont,  and  recoEnieed  the  authority  of  the 
BranoD  Church.  Again,  m  the  Council  of  Florence, 
I44fi,  they  entered  loto  a  formal  act  of  union  with 
Rome.  In  1584,  a  college  was  founded  in  Home  for 
the  education  of  the  Maronite  clergy ;  and  in  1736, 
they  formally  sabsciibed  the  decrees  of  the  Council 
of  Trent.  Neverthelees,  although  united  with  Rome, 
they  are  permitted  to  retain  their  distinctive  national 
rites  and  usages.  They  administer  communion  in 
both  kinds ;  they  use  the  ancient  Syriac  language 
in  their  liturgy ;  their  clergy,  if  married  before 
ordination,  are  permitted  to  retain  their  wives ; 
and  they  have  many  festivals  and  saints  not  recog- 
nised in  the  Roman  calendar.  Tha  M.  at  present 
are  about  160,000  in  number,  distributed  into  150 
parishes.  Their  patrioioh  ia  still  stylad  Patriarch  of 
Antioch,  and  reaidea  in  the  convent  of  Canobin  on 
the  Lelunon.  He  acknowledges  the  supremacy  of 
the  pope,  and  is  bound  \a  lay  before  him  eveiy  tenth 
y«*r»reportofthart»teof  bis  patriarchate.  Under 


him  are  17  biahopa,  to  whran  are  subject  tha  ''^''"'t- 
iug  clergy  of  the  160  districta  alluded  to  abovet 
The  nveniua  of  all  orden  of  eoolceiastioa,  howerer, 
are  wrf  narrow,  and  th*  inferior  dern  live  in 
great  mcMur*  by  the  labour  of  their  handa.  Very 
many  oooTflnta  for  both  ua.tt  are  niread  over  tlw 
country,  containing  in  tha  whole,  £rom  20,000  to 
25,000  memhers,  who  aU  wear  a  distinctive  coi 
but  follow  the  rule  of  St  Anthony.  The  chief 
of  the  M.  is  the  district  called  Eesrawan,  on  uia 
westflm  declivity  of  Mount  Lebanon  ;  but  they  ac« 
to  be  found  acattered  over  tha  whole  territOTy  of 
the  Lebanon,  and  in  all  the  towns  and  luger 
villages  towards  the  north  in  the  direction  o( 
Aleppo,  and  southwards  aa  far  aa  Nazareth.  Hiw 
political  constitution  is  a  kind  of  n^iilitary  republit 
regulated  for  the  moot  port  by  ancient  uaan*  and 
by  unwritten,  hut  well-recognised  laws.  Like  the 
Arabs  of  Syria,  they  have  a  political  hierarchy, 
partly  hereditary,  partly  elective.  The  chief  admin- 
istraBon  is  vested  in  four  superior  sheiks,  who 
poneaa  a  sort  of  patriarohal  authority,  and  nndar 
these  an  subordinate  chiefs,  with  whom,  as  in  the 
feudal  syitem,  the  people  hold  a  mihtaty  tenure. 
They  retun  evoo  soil  a  custom  similar  to  that  of 
the  Sardinian  smdsUo,  by  which  the  kiodred  of  the 
slain  are  bound  to  avenge  his  death.  The  relationa 
of  the  M.  with  the  ]>nuea  have  been  already 
detailed.  See  Dnims.  By  an  arrangonent  adopted 
ainoe  the  recent  aangninary  conflicta,  both  popula- 
tions alike  are  subject  to  one  governor,  who  ia 
appointed  by  the  Portfl  aa  governor  of  the  LebMion. 
MAKOO'NS,  a  name  given  in  Jamaica  and  Dntoh 
Guiana  to  runaway  nwo  slaves.  The  tenn  was 
Srst  applied  to  those  staves  who  were  deserted  by 
their  mssteiSj  the  Spaniards,  when  the  British  con- 
quered Jamaica  (1666),  and  who  took  refuge  in  the 
uplands,  where  for  140  years  they  maintained  a 
constant  warfare  with  the  British  colonista;  but 
in  1795  they  were  subdued,  and  a  portion  of  them 
removed  to  Nova  Scotia,  and  afterwards  to  Sierra 
Leone.  The  remnant  fraternised  with  their  manu- 
mitted brethren  in  1834~18.'i5.  The  M.  of  Dutch 
Quiana  form  a  number  of  small  independent  com- 

MARO  B-TABARHE'LY,  a  market-town  bf 
Austria,  in  Tran^Ivania,  in  a  fruitful  district,  on 
the  Moroi,  69  tnues  Dorth-north-east  of  Herman- 
■tadt  It  contains  a  strong  castle,  a  beantifnl 
Oothic  chnrch  (Reformed),  and  a  public  library  of 
60,000  volumes.  Tobacco,  wine,  and  fmit  are 
extensively  grown.    Pop.  (1880)  12,883. 

MABOZIA,  a  Eoman  lady  of  noble  birth,  but 
of  infamous  reputation  in  the  scaudalons  chronidcs 
of  her  age,  daughter  of  the  equally  notorious  Theo- 
dora, was  bom  in  the  close  of  the  9th  cmitury. 
On  the  dissoIntioD  of  all  the  moral  ties  of  publlo 
and  private  life  which  the  war  of  factions  occaaioned 
in  Borne  in  the  10th  a.,  M.,  b^  her  beauty  and 
her  intrigues,  contrived  to  exercise  great  influence 
She  was  married  three  times,  and,  if  we  may  eitdit 
the  narrative  of  Luitprand,  had  skill  and  address 
enough  to  procure  the  deposition  and  death  of  the 
pope,  John  X.,  and  the  devatiou  of  her  son,  the 
fruit,  it  is  alleged,  of  adulterous  intercourse,  to  the 
pontiScate,  under  the  name  of  John  XL  This, 
however,  rests  ou  the  teetiraonj  of  Luitprand,  who 
wrote   some   time   after   the    period,    and   whosa 


unbiassed  a  writer  aa  Dr  Pertz.  M.'s  latter  years 
brought  on  her  the  pnuiahmeut  of  her  orimea.  She 
died  m  prison  at  Bome  in  ^S. 

HARQUX,    Lkttkbb  of.      Sea  Lnnss  or 
Masquk 


»Coog[( 


UARQVESAS  ISLES— marriage. 


lURQUB'SAS  ISLBB  (bIso  Mendam  IbUuicIs  ; 
Franoh  Let  Margulift)  sre  ■  ({roup  in  PoIyneeU 
touched  by  the  mendian  of  140°  W.  The  name  itrictl; 
applies  to  four  or  five  iiltuda  discovered  hj  MendAaa 
in  1595,  uid  called  Marqneua  after  the  Yiceroy  of 
Pern;  bat  niniLlly  includes  now  the  WB«liiiiKt<>D 
gronp  of  aeven  islands,  to  the  north-west.  The 
whole  archjpelaf^  is  volcanic,  and  covered  with 
verdure.  The  climate  is  hot  and  moist,  but  healthy. 
The  natives  are  a  handsome  race,  belonging  to 
the  brown  Polynesian  stock,  and  are  comieona, 
lazy,  eTcitable,  and  revengeful.  The  popnlatioa  is 
««id  to  have  been  20,000,  but  hai  fallen  to  about 
6000.  Since  1842  the  ialandg  have  been  under  a 
[Yeuoh  protectorate  little  more  than  nominaL 

MA'RQUBTRT  (Ft.  Tnarqaeia-U),  the  art  of 
inlaying  wood  with  wood  of  other  colours,  or  with 
various  otiiet  materialii,  as  metal,  ivory,  shell,  &o. 

UAItQDlS,  or  MARQUESS,  the  decree  of 
Debility  which  in  the  peerage  of  Enalanil  ranks 
next  to  duke.  Marqnisea  were  originally  cem- 
mandeis  on  the  borders  or  frontiers  of  countries, 
or  on  the  sea-coast,  which  they  were  bound  to 
protect.  In  England,  the  title  of  margQis  was 
nsed  in  this  sense  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry 
IIL,  when  there  were  narqaiaes  or  lords-marchers 
of  tiie  borders  of  Scotland  and  Watee ;  and  the 
foreien  equivalent  of  Marigraf  vt^  common  on  the 
coutinecb  The  first  English  marquis  in  the  modern 
sense  was  Robert  de  Vere,  Earl  ik  Oxford,  who  was 
created  Maiqais  of  Dublin  by  Bichard  II.,  to  the  no 
small  offence  of  the  earls  who  had  to  yield  him  pre- 
oedenoe.  The  oldest  existing  marqnisate  is  that  of 
Wiaoheater,  created  by  Edward  VL  in  1561.  The 
title  was  first  introduced  into  Scotland  in  1599, 
when  the  Marquises  of  Hnntly  and  Hamilton  were 

The  cortmet  of  a  marquis,  as  worn  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  is  a  circle  of  gold,  with  four  strawberry 
leaves  (or  oak  leaves),  ai^  as  many  pearls  alternat- 
ing witii  them,  and  placed  on  pyramidal  poinfa  of 
^  Muue  height  with  the  leaves.  The  mantle  ia 
fyj^  scarlet,  with  three  and  a  half 

doublings  of  ermine.  A  marqius 
is  styled 'The  Most  Honourable;' 
his  wife  ia  a  marchioaeas ;  his 
eldest  son  takes  by  courtesy  the 
next  lower  title  in  the  peerage, 
except  where  that  is  identical 
Uarqnis's  ComnBt.  with  the  title  of  the  marquisata, 
in  which  oase  he  must  take  the 
next  lower  still,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Marquis 
and  Earl  of  Salisbury,  whose  eldest  son  bears  the 
courteay-title  of  Viscount  Craohonie.  The  yonager 
■ons  of  a  marquis  ate  styled '  Lord,'  and  daughters 
'  Lady,'  with  the  addition  of  Christian  name  and 


MABRIAGE,  the  union  of  a  man  and  woman 
in  the  legal  relation  of  husband  and  vife.  This  in 
one  form  or  another  is  the  oldest  institution  of 
Rodety  and  the  source  of  its  moat  ancient  laws. 
Socie^  indeed  could  not  loufj  exist  without  some 
rules  being  imposed  by  necessity  for  the  appropria- 
tion of  men  and  women  to  one  another,  securing 
them  in  the  enjoyment  of  one  another's  society, 
and  defining  their  obligations  to  their  children. 
According  to  the  law  or  practice  of  the  greater 
part  of  vie  civilised  world,  one  man  mames  one 
woman  at  a  time.  The  Monuoa  heresy  on  this 
subject  is  now  being  suppressed  by  force.  But 
this  funiilrar  system  of  monogamy  is  a  compara- 
tively recent  development  of  marriage.  A  great 
diversi^  of  opioiou   exists    as    to    t^e_  particular 


potyandiia — one  man  with  many  wives,  one  wife 
with  many  husbands;  these  have  certainly  existed. 
By  the  most  recent  writer  on  the  subject  (Moi^an, 
Sytlemt  of  Cmaangmnitti  and  AffinUy,  1871 ;  and 
Anaent  Sotxiy,  1877)  ,it  is  asserted  that  inter- 
course was  originally  promiscnons.  TTus  negation 
of  marriage  is  vehemently  dispnted.  Morton  also 
affirms  a  primitive  custom  of  intermamage  be- 
tween brothers  and  sisters ;  the  consanguine  family 
of  the  Malay  civilisation  ;  and  a  custom  of  inter- 
marriage of  several  sisters  with  each  other's  hus- 
bands, and  of  several  brotlien  with  each  other's 
wives.  This  custom  ia  said  to  result  in  the  for- 
mation of  a  gem,  governed  in  its  marriage  rela- 
tions by  the  principle  of  exogamy — viz.,  selection 
of  wives  outside  the  geiu.  After  this  oomea  the 
marriage  of  single  pairs  with  or  without  exclusive 
habitation.  The  patriarchal  family  was  largely 
polygamoua ;  and  true  monogamy  does  not  appear 
before  the  rise  of  private  property,  lineal  succesuon, 
and  alaverr.  [See  on  this  sabject,  M'Lennan, 
PrimUive  Marriage,  2d  od. ;  Tylor,  Early  Bitlorg 
qf  ifanimd ;  Lubbock's  Origin  of  GivHixalion ; 
Bachofen,  Dai  MutterrechL)  The  primitive  cere- 
monies of  marriage  are  of  immense  number,  and 
some  of  striking  oeauty.  Those  which  have  left 
tiie  most  distinct  survivals  in  modem  custom  are 
sale  and  capture.  As  rcwds  Christian  Europe,  in 
1085  Hildebnmd  declared  marriage  to  ba  a  sacra- 
ment of  the  Church  ;  and  at  the  Kelormation,  Calvin 
declared  it  to  be  an  institotion  of  God.  The  school 
of  Grotius  described  it  as  a  contract  of  partDenfailk 
Throughout  Christendom,  marriage  is  generally  ac- 
companied by  a  religious  ceremony.  In  the  eya 
of  the  law,  even  where  the  intervention  of  a  pri^ 
is  on  public  grounds  declared  essential,  marriage  ia 
a  contract,  but  differs  from  other  contracts  bccanse 
its  incidents  are  fixed  by  public  law,  and  becanse 
it  affects  the  jtfatus  of  the  contracting  parties.  The 
varieties  of  marriage  as  a  modem  legal  institution 
are  well  summarised  in  Bergson's  Introduction  to 
fesCodej^CTfa  (Paris,  1856).  We 


E^glandj  ScoUand,  and  Ireland, 
rights  connected  with  the  dissolution  of  marriage^ 
see  BiTOBCS.  For  the  effects  of  marriage  on  pro- 
perty, see  HnaBAND  amd  Wub. 

England. — To  insure  dehljoration  and  to  preserve 
indisputable  evidence  of  so  important  a  fact,  the 
Engliah  law  makes  certain  forms  essential  to  mar- 
riage. A  breach  of  the  contract  to  marry  gives 
rise  to  an  action  of  damages  (though  this  remedy  is 
being  gradually  condemned  by  public  opbiou) ;  but 
mamago  itself  will  not  be  set  aside  and  treated 
as  noil  merely  because  either  party  procured  it  by 
fraudulent  refreaentations.  Hoinage  cannot  b« 
resciaded  by  either  party  or  both  at  pleasure,  though 
that  effect  is  brought  about  in  anouier  way  by  cer- 
tain kinds  of  misconduct,  whether  studied  or  not, 
ofeitherparty.  SeeDiTOEC^  Jiniiciii.SEPAitiTio(f. 
Another  circumstance  in  which  marriage  differs 
frem  other  contracts  is,  that  it  cannot  be  entered 
into  in  a  moment,  but  certain  preliminary  notices 
must  be  j;iven.  and  forms  gone  througlL  From 
the  year  1753  (the  date  of  Lord  Hordwicke's  Ao^ 
26  Geo.  II.  c.  33)  to  1836  (the  date  of  Lord  RuaseU'a 
Act,  6  and  7  Will,  IV.  a  85,  which  Brat  authorised 
marrioees  in  registered  buildings  and  before  a  r^is- 
trar),  the  power  of  solemnising  lawful  marriages, 
when  the  parties  were  neither  Quakers  nor  Jews, 
was  conferred  by  the  legislature  on  the  clerOT  of 
the  established  church  only.  Since  the  latter  date, 
persons  have  the  option  of  two  forma  of  contracting 
marriage :  it  may  be  with  or  without  a  religious 
ceremony ;  and  if  with  a  religions  ceremony,  it  may 
be  either  in  the  established  ckureh  or  in  a  dissent- 


wGoo^li! 


MARRIAGE. 


iog  chapd.  If  the  mairikge  is  to  take  place  in  on 
catabliahed  church,  there  moet  be  pabtioatioii  of 
buiaB  of  marriage  for  three  preceding  saoceuire 
Siutda^,  either  after  the  Second  Lemon  or  daring 
the  oommonion  office ;  but  a  mania^  licence  ob- 
tained from  the  ordinary^  of  the  diatiict,  or  a  special 
licence  from  the  archbishop  will  digpenae  with 
bouas ;  fifteen  daya'  previous  residence  in  the 
pariah  by  one  of  Uie  pities  being  necessary.  A 
registrars  certiticate,  obtained  on  seven  days' 
residence  and  twenty-one  daya'  notice,  will  alio 
dispense  with  banns,  but  an  established  church 
clergyman  is  not  bound  to  many  on  this.  The 
WArriige  must  take  place  in  the  church,  the  mar- 
liage  lerrioe  of  the  Chnrch  of  England  being  read 
over,  and  this  must  be  done  in  o«nonical  hours — 
L  e.,  between  8  and  12  a-m.,  in  presence  of  two 
witnesses.  If  the  marriage  is  celeblated  In  a  dis- 
senting chapel  (and  for  Uiat  purpose  such  cbapel 
must  be  doty  licensed  and  resutered  under  Lord 
Hussell's  Act),  a  certificate  or  licence  mnst  be  got 
after  notice  from  the  registrar ;  and  there  must  be 
present  the  registrar  of  the  district  as  one  of  the 
witnesses,  except  in  Qoaker  and  Jewish  marriages. 
H  lie  marriage  is  not  with  any  religious  ceremony, 
it  must  take  place  in  the  ofBoe  of  the  auperinteDd- 
ent-registrar,  and  in  presence  of  witnesses  ;  both 
parties  in  the  presence  of  witnesses  there  excliBDg- 
ms  a  declaration  that  they  take  each  other  for  man 
and  wife.  The  canonical  hours  most  be  attended 
to  in  all  caaea.  The  omission  of  any  of  these  requia- 
ites  with  the  knowledee  of  the  parties,  makes  a 
marriage  void.  It  is  felony  to  oeleLirate  a  marriage 
in  a  private  bouse,  unless  by  spedsl  licence  from  tHe 
archbishop.  And  in  all  cases  the  fact  of  the  mar- 
riage must  be  entered  in  a  chnrch,  and  also  in  a 
civil,  register ;  the  latter  being  ultimately  filed  and  . 
kept  in  SomeiHat  House,  London,  where  a  copy  of  | 
the  certificate  of  registration  i .  i  i. .   .  .      n 


B  of. the  royal  family  (except  t 
es  married  into  foreign  families), 


n  be  had  for  a 


i  the 


officer.  When  one  of  the  parties  to  a  ms 
celebrated  under  the  Act  6  and  7  Will  IV.  c.  «>, 
resides  in  Scotland  or  Ireland,  a  certificate  by  the 
session-clerk  in  Scotland  of  due  proclamation  of 
banns  there,  or  a  certificate  bom  an  Irish  registrar, 
is  eqnivalent  to  a  certificate  by  an  English  district 
registrar.  In  the  case  of  the  marriage  of  an  infant 
— 1.  e.,  a  person  under  21  years  of  age — evidence  of 
the  consent  of  parents  or  guardians  hM  to  be  pro- 
duced to  the  registrar  or  other  officer.  I(  one  of 
the  parties  applying  for  licence  or  banns  fraudulently 
represent  that  such  consent  has  been  obtained,  he 


of  Chancery  to  be  settled  on  the  innocent  party, 
or,  if  both  parties  concurred  in  the  fraud,  on  the 
children  of  tbe  marriage.  The  absence  of  consent 
of  parents  or  Kuardiana,  howerer,  does  not  make 
a  marriage  null  It  may  sometimes  happen  that 
persona  go  through  the  form  of  muriage,  and  yet 
are  not  married ;  as  where  one  of  the  parties  is 
already  married,  the  sponse  being  alive.  In  such 
case,  it  is  quite  immaterial  whether  the  party 
BO  re-marrying  is  really  ignorant  that  his  or  her 
snoose  is  alive,  provided  such  is  the  fact;  for 
tnongb,  after  seven  yeaiB,  if  nothing  has  been  heard 
of  one  of  two  married  parties,  tite  other  will  escape 
the  penalties  of  bigamy  on  marrying  i^ain,  yet  it 
depends  entirely  on  whether  the  first  spouse  ia  really 
d^d  at  tbe  time,  whether  the  second  marriage  is 
valid.  Other  instances  where  the  marriage  is  void, 
though  the  ceremony  is  complete,  are  where  the 
persons  are  related  to  each  oUler  within  the  for- 
bidden degrees  of  consanguinity  and  affinity ;  where 
either  of  them  is  imdei  ag^  or  of  muound  mind,  or 


members 

<),  tbey  must 
eiuier  geL  me  sovereign  s  consent,  or  give  twelve 
monthr  notice  to  tbe  Privy  Council,  subject  to 
objection  from  both  Hoaies  of  Parliameat,  in  terms 
of  12  Geo.  in,  c  11.  Marriage  betwiit  a  divorced 
partv  and  the  adulterer  is  lai^ul  in  England.  But 
no  cWgjraian  of  tbe  established  church  can  be  com- 

elled  to  marry  any  person  whose  previous  marriage 
B  been  dissolved  on  the  ground  of  adultery. 

The  marriages  of  Quakers  and  Jews  were  excepted 
from  the  Acts  prior  to  6  and  7  WiU.  IV.  c.  85,  and 
arenowsubject  to  a  peculiar  legislation.  They  need 
not  be  in  a  registered  building,  and  the  registering 
officer  of  the  Quakers,  or  the  secretary  of  tbe  syna- 
go^ns,  is  authorised  bo  be  present  instead  of  the 
registrar.  (For  mixed  Quaker  marriages,  see  23  and 
24  VioL,  18  and  35  VlCt  0.  10.) 

The  marriageB  of  Euro[>ean  British  subjects  in 
India  ore  r^ulated  hy  the  imperial  Act  14  and  15 
Vict,  c  40,  and  the  Indian  Marriage  Act  of  1865. 
As  regards  the  colonies,  tbe  chief  imperial  statute 
is  28  and  29  Vict.  c.  64,  which,  however,  leaves  the 
matter  of  registration  to  local  Acta.  Genei^y, 
marriages  celebrated  in  foreign  countries  aocording 
to  the  lex  loci  are  recognised  as  valid  if  the  parties 
are  capable  of  morriat^  Marriages  abroad  witiiin 
the  lines  of  the  British  army  are  sanctioned  by 
4  Geo.  IV.  0.  91 ;  and  marriages  may  take  place 
before  British  consuls  under  12  and  13  Vict.  c.  68, 
and  31  and  33  Vict,  c  61. 

ScollatuL — In  Scotland,  the  principle  of  the  civil 
law,  ctMMMut  turn  eoneubiltu  fadt  matrimoaiuTa, 
has  been  adopted ;  and  this  consent  can  be  proved 
either  by  a  regular  ceremony  in  fade  eecUiiw  pnb- 
licly  recorded,  or  in  three  other  modes  known 
to  the  law.  The  chief  im|>ediments  to  this  con- 
sent are  nonage,  insanity,  uapotency,  relationship 
within  the  prohibited  degrees,  subsisting  marriage, 
adultery  in  the  case  of  the  adulterers,  and,  since 
Lord  Brougham's  Act  (19  and  20  Vict,  c  96),  non- 
residence  m  Scotland.  There  are  many  notorious 
cases  of  sbam  marriages,  where  a  form  has  been 

EDne  through  to  prevent  scandal  or  by  way  of  joke, 
ut  no  serious  intention  to  marry  was  present. 
Also,  if  force  has  been  used ;  or  where  an  etror  as  to 
tbe  woman's  chastity  has  been  caused  by  ber  mis- 
representation or  concealment;  or  a  mistake  of  per- 
sonal identity  occurs ;  or  where  a  fraudulent  con- 
spiracy has  been  farmed,  tbe  marriage  is  nnIL  In 
Scotland,  as  elsewhere,  down  to  the  Council  of 
Trent,  a  sacerdotal  benediction  was  essential  to 
marriage  ;  and  the  Scotch  clandestine  or  iuorderly 
marriage  was  one  celebrated  with  an  improper  reh- 
gioos  ceremony,  and  quite  different  from  the  irre- 
gular marriage  (without  religious  ceremony)  pun- 
ishable under  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  96.  By  10  Anne,  c  7, 
Episcopalian  ministers,  and  by  4  and  5  Will  IV.  c  28, 
all  other  priests  or  ministers  not  of  the  established 
church  were  permitted  to  celebrate  marriage.  This 
hod  previously  been  tbe  privil^e  of  the  esublished 
church.  Proclamation  of  banns  takes  place  in  the 
parish  church,  whether  civil  or  quoad  sacra,  in 
which  at  least  one  of  the  parties  bos  redded  for  nx 
weeks.  Irregular  marriages  are  coostituted  by  con- 
sent, and  proved  by  a  written  or  verbal  declara- 
tion of  interchange  of  oooseut  per  verba  de  pratenti; 
or  by  ■  promise  to  marry,  on  the  faith  of  which 
intercoune  has  followed  (Uiese  facts,  according  to 
one  opinion,  requiring  to  be  proved  by  a  decree  ot 
declarator);  or  by  cohahitation  ana  habit  and 
repute,  liie  consent  which  makes  an  irregular 
marriage  may,  of  course,  be  given  before  the 
registrar,  or  may  be  proved  by  a  conviction  before 


..Googl' 


MAERIED  WOMAN— MAEROW  CONTROVERSY. 


Uie  jiuticea  of  the  x>eace,  tmder  17  aJid  18  Vict  c 
SO,  the  BegiitratioD  Act.  An  order  appointiuig 
r^tEtratioa  c&n  be  obtsisad  on  proof  before  the 
■heriS',  under  Lord  BroDghun's  Act,  19  and  20  Vict 
0.96. 

Mach  discontent  vu  felt  in  SooUand  wiUi  the 
cormpt  pnctice  ia  procUiauDg  banns.  The  pro- 
clamation WM  generally  not  made  on  three  succeo- 


the  habit  of  charging  higher  fees  than  would 
otherwise  have  been  exigible  according  to  custom. 
Indeed,  the  fees  charged  rkried  laigely  over  the 
country,  and  in  some  places  were  so  ezorbitvit, 
that  in  the  opinion  oE  many  authorities  they  were 
a  direct  occaiioa  to  coacubmage  and  iiregul^  mar- 
riage. The  diBsenten  too,  r^tly  or  wrongly  felt 
aggrieved  by  the  neoesiitv  of  having  reoourae  to  the 


in  Scotland  wish  to  marry  regularly,  but  without 
banns,  each  of  them  gives  notioe,  in  a  form  provided 
by  the  Act,  to  the  registrar  of  the  parish  or  district 
in  which  be  or  she  naa  lived  for  fifteen  davs  im- 
mediately before  ;  and  this  notice  is  entered  by  the 
registrar  in  '  The  Marriage  Notioe  Book,'  which 
anybody  can  inspect  for  one  shilling ;  and  for  seven 
consecutive  days  after  receiving  the  notice,  the 
registrar  is  bound  to  keep  posted  op  in  a  conspicu- 
ous and  accessible  place  on  the  door  or  outer  wall 
of  his  office,  »  public  notice  of  the  marriage,  in 
another  form  provided  by  the  Act.  Where  both 
persons  Uve  in  the  same  parish  or  district,  one 
notice  is  enough.  After  the  seven  dayt,  if  no  objeo- 
tiou  to  the  marriage  appears  on  t^  face  of  the 
notiot^  and  if  no  objection  is  stated  by  a  third 
parly  in  a  writing  snbHCribed  by  him  and  supported 
by  a  declaration  taken  before  the  registrar,  the 
latter  must  nant  to  the  person  giving  notice  a 
certificate  of  due  publication ;  sod  this  certificate  is 
sufficient  authority  for  a  miaieter,  clergyman,  or 
priest  to  celebrate  a  regular  marriage,  iust  as  if  it 
were  a  certificate  of  proclamation  of  banns.  The 
wrtificate  must  be  used  within  three  months  of  its 
date ;  and  no  minister  of  the  Church  of  ScotUnd  is 
obliged  to  celebrate  a  marriage  not  preceded  by 
prouamation  of  banns.  One  party  to  the  marriage 
may  produce  a  registrar's  certificate,  and  the  other 
a  certificate  of  banns.  The  Act  imposes  severe 
penalties  on  those  who  celebrate  a  marriage  with  a 
religious  ceremony  but  without  a  certificMe  of  t^e 
one  kind  or  the  other ,-  on  registrars  granting  cer- 
tificates not  authorised  by  the  Act ;  and  on  per- 
sons guilty  of  wilful  falsehood  in  a  notice,  a  declar- 
ation, or  an  objectioa.  The  registrars  keep  a  supply 
of  forms  for  use  under  the  Act  As  regards  the 
treatment  of  objections  made  to  the  renstrar ; 
where  these  relate  merely  to  some  formality  or 
statutoiy  requirement,  the  registrar  must  make 
inquiry,  and  report  to  the  sheriff,  who  may  direct 
the  notice  to  be  either  amended  or  cancelled;  bnt 
where  t^e  objectioti  relates  to  a  legal  incapacity 
to  many  or  a  le)^  impediment  to  marriage,  the 
registrar  is  forbidden  to  ieane  a  certificate  nntjl  he 
tees  the  judgment  of  a  court  of  law  disposing  of  the 
objection. 

Ireland. — As  regards  marriages  celebrated  in 
what  was  once  the  established  church  of  Ireland, 
not  much  difference  existed  between  Engrtand  and 
Ireland,  except  that  banns,  being  under  the  canons 
and  rubrics  of  the  Church,  were  more  easily  pro- 
claimed, and  the  use  of  licences  (which  were  mnch 
cheaper)  was  more  common.  Roman  Catholic  mar- 
riages were  under  the  common  law,  and  if  celebrated 


by  a  priest  vrere  valid  without  banns,  licence,  notice^ 
residence,  or  consent  Mr  Monsell's  Act,  2G  and  27 
Vict  c  90,  duwjts  them  to  be  rMisterei  Presby- 
terian marriages  were  regulated  by  tlie  Irish  Mar- 
riage Act  7  and  8  Vict  a  81,  passed  in  consequene* 
of  the  famous  case  of  Queen  and  MiUii,  invalidating 
all  celebration  of  mixed  marriages  by  Protestant 
Noncooformiats.  ThisAotand.the  Act  of  26and  27 
Vict  c.  27,  relating  to  the  registration  of  places  of 
public  worship  for  the  solemnisation  of  marriage,  are 
extended  b^  the  Act  36  Vict  c  16  to  meet  the  OM 
of  communities  '  who  are  not  Roman  Catholio,  and 
who  do  not  describe  themselves  as  Protestant' 
Other  Nonconformist  marriages  were  by  registrar's 
certificato  or  licence.  For  a  long  time,  mixed  mar- 
riages by  the  Catholic  clergy  were  forbidden  by  19 
Geo.  U.  a  II 

Considemble  changes  hava  been  made  in  the 
details  of  the  miarriage  law  of  Ireland  by  the  Acta 
of  ISTO  and  1871,  viz^  33  and  34  Vict  c  110^  and 
34  and  35  Vict  a  49.  The  first  of  these  Acts  waa 
required  partly  as  a  readjustment  after  the  dis- 
establishment of  the  Anghcan  Chnrch  in  Ireland ; 
but  it  also  provides  a  form  of  licence  to  be  issued 
bv  Episcopalian  bishops  or  their  nominees,  and  by 
the  heads  of  the  Non-Episcopalian  Protestjuit  com- 
munions; and  it  contains  important  provisions  relat- 
ing to  ijie  legalisation  of  marriages  of  different 
religions  persusaiona.  Such  marria^  must  be 
performed  by  a  clergyman  in  a  bnildjng  set  apart 
for  the  celebration  of  divine  service,  with  open 
doors,  between  6  am.  and  2  p.u.,  and  in  the 
presence  of  two  or  more  credible  witnesses.  A 
certificate  from  the  local  registrar  is  also  required, 
under  p«un  oE  nullity.  The  Act  of  1871  gives  the 
form  <^  certificate  required  for  a  marriage  by 
special  licence  ;  it  enables  Roman  Catbolie  bishops 
to  issue  licences  for  mixed  mairiages,  and  it  extends 
to  Inch  marriages  the  power  of  Uoensing  previously 
givm  to  other  church  ofBcials. 

HARRIED  WOMAN.  See Hiibbajid ahd 
WiPB. 

MARROW  is  a  substance  of  low  specifio  cmvity, 
filling  the  cells  and  cavities  of  the  bones  <»  mam- 
mals. There  are  two  varieties,  which  are  known  as 
vnUtry  marrotn  and  otfy  ntarroa.  In  some  of  the 
short  bones,  as  the  bodies  of  the  vertobrs  and  the 
Btemum,  the  marrow  has  a  reddish  colour,  and 
is  found  on  analysis  to  contain  76  per  cent  of 
water,  the  remainder  consisting  of  albumfnons  and 
Ghrinoas  matter  with  salts  and  a  ti-ace  of  oil. 
In  the  long  bones  of  a  healthy  adult  rn»Tnmttl 
the  marrow  occurs  as  a  yellow,  oily  fluid,  contained 
in  vesicles  like  thcee  of  common  fat  which  ai« 
imbedded  in  the  inteisDOoes  d  the  medullary  mem< 
brane,  which  is  a  highly  vascular  membrane  lining 
the  interior  of  the  bones.  This  marrow  consists  <3 
96  per  cent  of  oil,  and  4  of  water,  connective  tiAne, 
and  vessels. 

The  oily  matter  of  the  moitow  is  oompooed  of  tha 
same  materials  as  common  fat^  with  the  oleine  (or 
finid  portion)  in  greater  abundance.  Being  of  low 
specific  gravity,  it  is  well  suited  to  fill  the  cavities 
ot  the  bones,  and  forms  an  advantageous  subsrituto 
for  the  bony  matter  which  preceded  it  in  the 
yooDg  animoL  Its  special  usee  are  not  very  clearly 
known,  but  the  fact  that  it  loses  much  of  iU  oil 
when  the  general  nutritive  powers  fail,  or  when 
certain  forms  of  disease  attack  the  bone,  shews  Uiat 
it  plays  some  definite  part  in  the  economy. 

MARROW  CONTROVERSY,  one  of  the  most 
strenuous  and  memorable  sbnggles  in  the  religioiis 
histoiy  of  Scotland,  took  its  name  from  a  book 
entitled  the  Marrtne  of  Modem  Divinity,  written  by 
a  Puritan  soldier  in  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth, 


ii.,,;  Xioogle 


MAEBUM— MABSALA. 


,  iTUigelicol'  cbaiMter  of  tliii  vo[k,aiid 
[j  He  dot^rine  of  tha  fnw  grace  of  0(kI  in 
the  ledem^ou  of  siimeiB,  liad  mode  it  »  ^re*t 
f&Tourite  with  Uie  few  Eeslooi  and  pioat  misuten 
then  to  be  foond  in  the  Chorch  of  SootUnd,  imd 
in  1718,  an  edition  wu  publiBbed  by  the  B«v. 
Jamea  Hog  of  Carnock,  foUowed,  in  1719,  bv  an 
ezjdan&toiy  pamphlet.  The  Oenend  Asaembr^  of 
the  BMue  year  appointed  a  oommisEiDn  to  look 
after  booka  and  panphleta  promoting  anch  opinioni 
a*  are  ooota^ea  in  the  Murow,  ani'   ' 


Father.  His  fictions  are  full  of  adventuro  and 
broad  hnmonr.  His  dauEhtar  Florence  (Mrs  Rou- 
Chcrch)  has  pablisliod  a  loDg  Baries  of  novels,  and 
the  Lift  and  LtUen  of  her  father  (1870). 

MAK3,  a  contraction  of  KAVEsa  or  Mavobs  ;  in 
the  Otoan  or  Sabine  langtiage,  Maioxs,  the  name  of 
an  ancient  Itftlian  divinity,  identified  Ira  the  Gi** 
ciaing  Romana  with  the  Thiacian-Hellenio  Are*. 
It  vul,  howcTer,  be  better  to  treat  the  two  oonoep- 


before  them  the  anthort  and  reoommenden  dl 
such  publications.  The  committee,  after  an  exami- 
nation, drew  ap  a  report,  which  waa  presented  to 
the  next  Anemhly — that  of  1720 — and  the  resolt 
was  the  formal  condemnation  of  the  doctrines 
cA  tiie  Mamnp,  a  prohibition  to  teach  of  preach 
them  for  the  fatoK,  and  an  exhortation  (strong, 
but  vunlto  the  jieople  of  Scotland  not  to  road 
ihem.  This  act  of  the  Assembly  was  imme- 
diately brought  by  the  oelebrated  Tliomas  Boston 
(q.  V.)  before  the  presbytery  of  Selkirk,  who  laid 
it  before  the  synod  of  Mens  and  Teviotdale. 
The  'evangelical'  ministers  in  the  chnrch,  few 
in  number,  but  supported  by  a  very  considerable 
amonnt  of  popular  sympathy  ((or  the  Marrtyie  by 
this  tune  Tanked  next  to  the  Bible  in  the  i^ards 
of  the  religions  portion  of  the  Scottish  peaaantry), 
readved  to  present  a  repreaentation  to  the  next 
General  Assembly  (1721),  complaining  of  the  late 
ad^andvindicatingthe 'truths' which  it  condemned. 
TwbItb  nuniitera  signed  the  representation — James 
"Roa,  Thomas  Boston,  John  Bonnar,  Junn  Kid, 
Ga^iel  Wilson,  Ebenezer  Ermine,  Balph  Erakine, 
Jamee  Wardlaw,  Jamea  Bathnite,  Henry  Davidson, 
William  Hunter,  and  John  WilliamsoD.  Theae  are 
the  &uturas  *  MuTow-men  ^^^t^Bo  known  as  the 
'Twelve  Bnthren'  uad  the  'Bepreaenters' — whose 
Asmea  were  long  held  in  gteat  veneration  by  the 
lovon  of  'evangelical'  religion-  A  conamission  o£ 
the  Assemblyrt  1721  was  appointed  to  deal  with 
the  twelve,  and  a  series  ot  questions  was  put  to 
thfon,  to  v^dch  answers  were  drawn  up  by  Hbenezer 
Erskino  and  Gabriel  Wilson.  These  replitB  did 
not  prove  quite  satisfactory,  and  the  '  Marrow- 
men^  were  called  before  the  bar  of  the  Amambly 
(1722),  and  solemnly  rebuked.  Neverthele**,  as  the 
Assembly  was  not  supported  in  tlie  posit' 

awomed  by  the  n^igions  Bentim«ntoi  the  _ _.  _. 

fnrtfaer  rt«pa  were  taken  in  the  matter,  and  thai  the 
victory  virtnally  lay  with  the  evaogelioal  reciuants. 
It  was,  hcnrever,  nibatantiaUy  the  same  controveny 
— thoogh  it  did  not  go  by  the  name— whidh,  eleven 
yean  later,  resulted  in  the  deposition  of  Ebenezei 
lkakine,and  the  origination  of  ue'Seceaaim*  body. 
Sea  Boston,  TaoiUfl,  and  Ebskikb,  ^ — 

BURRTTM.    See  AiaiopEii.a. 

MABBYAT,  F&kderick,  an  ^iglith  sailer  and 
ntrvdist,  was  ths  son  of  a  West  India  merehan^and 
was  bom  in  London  on  the  10th  Jnly  1792.  On 
leaving  sohooLbe  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman 
voder  Lord  Coobrana.  In  181^  he  attained  his 
tientenancy,  aad  wia  made  oanmander  in  181& 
While  afloat,  he  saw  moi^  active  service,  established 
A  high  character  for  bisvery,  and  waa  made  a  C.& 
in  Jane  182S.  Abont  1830,  he  vrrote  his  first  novel, 
entitled  Frank  Mildmay,  and  this  was  followed  in 
rapid  Boccesaian  by  those  graphic  and  humorous 
pictorta  of  sea-life  which  have  taken  a  permsneDt 
[iace  in  eveiy  EncUsh  circulating  library.  He  died 
at  Langham,  in  Norfolk,  on  the  2d  Augnst  1948. 
He  was  married,  Mid  left  six  cbildren.  M.'s  works 
are  too  numerous  to  be  enumerated  here , 
most  popular  are  perhaps  Midshipman  Eaty,  Piter 
SimpU,  Jawb  Fatthftd,  and  JaphA  ia  Stardi  qf 


kL,  who  as  a  war-god  is  snmamed 
Qradimu  (=  grandit  divua,  the  great  goi^,  alao  bora 
tiie  surname  of  SUvamu,  and  appears  to  have  been 
originally  an  agricultural  deif^ ;  and  propitiatory 
offerings  were  presented  to  mm  as  t£e  gDM^dian 
of  fields  and  flocks ;  bnt  as  the  fierce  shepherds 
who  founded  the  <nly  of  Rome  were  even  mors 
addicted  to  martial  than  to  pastoral  pursuits,  one 
can  eaoly  nnderstand  how  M.  Sitatniu  should 
have,  in  the  course  of  time,  become  the  'God  of 
War.'  H.,  who  was  a  perfect  personification  of  the 
stem,  relentless,  and  even  cruel  valour  of  tiie  old 
Romans,  waa  held  in  the  highest  honour.  He 
ranked  next  to  Jupiter  ;  like  him  he  bora  the 
venerable  epiUiet  of  Fatiurr  (Man-jrittr) ;  he  was 
of  the  three  tutelary  divinities  of  the  city,  to 
L  of  whom  Nnma  appointed  a  flamen ;  nay,  he 
waa  said  to  be  the  father  of  Romulna  himself  (by 
Rhea  Silvio,  the  priestess  of  Vesta),  and  was  thus 
believed  to  be  the  real  progenitor  of  the  Roman 
people.  He  had  a  sanctuary  <ni  the  Qoirinal ; 
and  the  bill  received  its  name  from  his 


t  he  waa  invoked  as  the  protector  of  the 
jus) — in    other   words,    of    the 


pnnoi| 


kl  animals  sacred  t 


the  wolf  and 


most  celebrated  of  whic  .    

Porta  Capata,  on  the  Appian  Road.  The  Campui 
Martiiu,  where  the  Romans  practised  athletic  and 
military  exercises,  was  named  after  him;  so  waa  the 
month  of  March  {Martiu»\,  the  first  month  of  the 
Roman  year.  The  Ludi  Martiultt  (games  held  in 
his  honour)  were  celebrated  every  year  in  the  circus 
on  the  1st  of  August. 

AsBH,  tlie  Greek  god  of  war,  was  the  son  of 
Zeus  and  Hera,  and  the  favourite  of  Aphrodite, 
who  bore  him  several  children.  He  is  represented 
in  Greek  poetry  as  a  most  sangtdnaiy  divinity, 
delighting  m  war  for  its  own  sake,  and  in  tils 
destruction  of  men.  Before  him  into  battie  nxs  his 
sister  Erit  (Strife) ;  along  vith  him  aro  his  sons 
and  oompaniona,  Dtimo*  (Horror)  and  Pliobot  (Foar). 
He  does  not  always  adhere  to  the  same  side,  like 
the  great  AUuna,  but  inspires  now  the  one,  now 
the  cither.  He  is  not  always  victorious.  Dinmede 
woondcd  him,  and  in  his  fall,  says  Homer,  'he 
roared  like  nine  or  ten  thonsand  warriors  together.' 
Such  B  repreeentation  would  have  been  deemed 
blaspbemons  by  the  ancient  Roman  mind,  imbued 
as  it  was  with  a  solemn  Hebrew-like  revereoca  for 
its  god*.  The  worship  of  Ares  was  never  very  preva. 
lent  in  Greece;  itianelievedtohavebeen  miported 
from  Thrace.  There,  and  in  Sc^ihia,  wera  its  great 
teats,  and  there  An*  was  believed  to  have  his 
chief  home.  He  had,  however,  temples  or  stuines 
at  Athena,  Sputa,  Oljrmpa,  and  other  placee.  On 
statnea  and  reliefs,  he  is  represented  as  a  peraon  of 
great  moscolar  power,  and  either  naked  or  clothed 
with  the  chlamys. 

MARS,  one  of  the  planets.     See  Pukeib. 

MARSA'LA,  a  large  fortified  seaport  on  the  west 
coast  of  Sicily.  Pop.  of  town  (1881)  19,760  ;  of  com- 
mune,  40,250  (31,200  in  1871).    It  ataads  in  a  fruit- 


■^ 


UAItSEILLAISE— UABSH-MALLOW. 


ful  and  well-cultiT&tad  diEtricts  sad  ia  ■  r^ularlv 

built  Uld  plsMAnt  town,  with  a  college,  a  c&tbedral, 
a  gyjUDaaiiun,  and  sevei^  conventual  ealnbliahtnenta. 
It  occupies  the  site  of  LiJjbKum,  the  ancient 
capital  of  tha  CarthiwiDian  BettlementB  In  Sicily, 
anil  waa  aelected  by  Giaribaldi  as  the  Ian  ding- point 
of  hii  volunteers  in  his  famana  Sicilian  campaign, 
1S60.    It  obtained  its  prsBcnt  name  from  the  ' 


Its  hBrbour  ia  encumbered  vith  Band,  but      .   

brated  winea  form  an  export  trade  of  great  import- 
ance, chiefly  since  1802,  when  they  were  adopted  by 
Lord  Nebon  for  the  use  of  the  Bntish  fleet  30  """ 
pipes  of  M.  wine,  which  resembles  shorry,  ... . 
annually  manufactured,  two-thirda  beiji;^  exported. 
M.  haa  alao  a  large  export  trade  in  gram,  ou,  salt, 
and  soda. 

UABSEILL  AI'SB.  the  name  by  which  the  gtand 
•ong  of  the  finit  French  Revolution  ia  known.  The 
circamitances  which  led 
followB.  In  the  beginning  of  1792,  when  a  column 
of  volunteers  wa«  about  to  leave  Straeboorg,  the 
mayor  of  the  city,  who  gave  a  banquet  on  the  ocoi' 
■ion,  asked  an  ofBcer  of  artillery,  named  liouget  de 
Lisle,  to  compooa  a  long  in  their  honoor.  His 
request  w«8  complied  wiu,  and  the  result  wa4  the 
MaTteHiaiie — boui  verse  and  music  being  the  work 
of  a  single  night  I  De  Lisle  entitled  the  piece 
Chant  dt  BuerTt  dt  VArmfe  du  Shin.  Next  day, 
it  was  song  with  that  rapturous  enthoaiasm  that 
only  Freu^meii  can  exhibit,  and  instead  of  6O0 
volunteers,  1000  maivhed  out  of  Strasbourg;  Soon 
from  the  whole  army  of  the  North  resoimded  the 
thrilling  and  fiery  words  A^ix  armea,  Avx  armt4  ; 
nevertheless,  the  song  was  still  unknown  at  Paris, 
and  was  first  introduced  there  by  Sarbaronx,  when 
he  Bummoned  tiie  youth  of  Maraeille  to  the  capital 

July  1792.    It  was  received  with  transporta  by 


MAESEILLE,  the  first  seaport  of  France  and 
of  the  Mediterranean,  in  the  department  of  Bouehes- 
du-Rhone,  is  situated  on  the  Gulf  of  Lyon,  410  miles 
in  a  direct  line  Bouth-soath-east  of  Paris,  and  in  lat. 
43*  17'  N.,  long,  5°  22'  E.  M,  is  a  military  place  of 
the  fourth  dosa,  and  ia  defended  by  a  citadel  and 
other  works ;  the  roada  are  protected  by  the  fortified 
isles  of  If  (crowned  by  a  coatle,  once  a  state-prison), 
Pomegue,  and  Ratonneau.  Itfl  harbour  ia  formed  by 
an  inlet  of  the  sea  running  eastward  into  the  heart 
o!  the  city,  and  from  its  eitent  (nearly  70  acresj, 
and  ita  great  natural  and  artificial  advantageB,  it  is 
capable  of  accommodating  1200  vesaels.  The  new 
harbour  consista  of  a  series  of  docks  or  boMina  (de  la 
JolUite,  de  rSnirepii,  Napollon,  Imperial),  upwards 
of  a  mile  long,  with  an  area  of  about  100  acres. 
Alongside  the  Baasina  de  I'EntrepAt  acd  Napoleon 
■re  the  bonded  warehouaea,  erected  at  an  outUv  of 
a  million  sterling,  and  the  finest  of  the  kind  ia 
Europe.  From  the  margin  of  the  old  harbour,  the 
{nvund  rises  on  all  aidei,  forming  a  kind  of  amphi- 
theatre ;  and  beyond  Uie  city  proper  the  encircling 
hills,  covered  with  vineyarda  and  olive-gardens,  are 
dotted  with  white  country-houses.  Immediately 
north  of  the  harbour  is  the  old  town,  with  ita  nar- 
row streets,  lined  with  high  closely  piled  houaes  ; 
but  through  it  a  wide  avenue,  wiUi  branches,  haa 
recently  been  driven.  Souti  of  the  old  harbour 
is  the  diorch  of  St  Victor,  the  most  ancient  of  M. ; 
and  farther  to  tlie  south  rises  the  rocky  hill  of 
Nctrt  Dame  de  la  Qardt,  with  ita  church,  held 


it  of  tike  hiU  ia  the  wide  promen- 


ade, CouiH  Bonaparte.  Other  fine  promenades  are 
Le  Couia  and  Le  Frado.  The  principal  public  build- 
inga  are  the  Hdtel  de  Ville^  the  museum,  the  publio 
library  with  its  78,000  vols,,  and  the  exchange.  The 
r.ajtt  and  shops  of  M.  rival  those  of  Paris  m  splen- 
dour. ]ld.  ia  the  first  commeixual  emporium  of 
France.  It  has  many  aoap-worka,  iron-manufac- 
tories, sugar  refineries,  La.  The  large  veasels  and 
steamers  annually  entering  its  harbour  number 
upwards  of  8G0O,  and  measure  above  2,600,000 
tons.  U.  is  directly  connected  by  rail  with  Lyon, 
Toulouse,  and  Nice  ;  and  is  the  packet  station  for 
Italy  and  the  East  It  is  in  point  of  population  the 
third  town  of  France,  having  had,  in  ISSI,  269,340 
inhabitants.  (Total  pop,  of  commune,  including 
military,  300,099.)  The  formerly  barren  country 
round  al.  haa  been  of  late  greatly  fertilised  by  meana 
of  the  canal  which  supplies  M.  with  water  from  Uia 
Durance;  Dunne  a  portion  of  the  year,  the  climate 
of  M.  is  delightfi^  but  in  summer  and  autumn  tha 
heat  is  often  intense.  Cold,  dry,  and  cutting  winds 
from  the  north-east  render  tiie  climate  at  times 
exceedingly  trying.  In  the  environs  of  tha  town 
are  about  6000  haatida,  or  country  villoB. 

M.  was  founded  by  a  Greek  colofly  from  Fhooea, 
in  Alia  Minor,  about  600  years  B.C.  Its  ancient 
name  wai  MaaaLia,  written  by  the  Romans  JUai- 
lilia.  It  was  an  important  member  of  the  ancient 
Greek  oommunity,  planted  numerous  colonies  along 
the  North  Mediterranean  shores,  and  introdnced 
the  germs  of  Greek  civiliaatlm  into  GauL  The 
Massaliota  were  Ions  in  intimate  alliance  with  the 
Romans  ;  but  the  city  was  at  last  taken  by  Juliiu 
CiBBar.  IntheEth  o.,itwa8  destroyed  by  the  Arah^ 
and  the  maritime  republics  of  Italy  inherited  tie 
commerce  of  the  Mediterranean,  which  formerly  had 
been  centred  in  Maiseille.  It  was  united,  witii  the 
whole  of  Provence,  t«  France  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
VllL  In  1720,  when  it  had  again  risen  to  great 
importance,  it  was  ravaged  by  a  fearful  epidemic, 
!Uid  40,000  of  its  inhabitants  awept  away.  Since 
1S30,  the  commerce  and  industry  of  the  city  have 
increased  vastly.  The  conquest  of  Algeria  haa 
brought  increasmg  prosperity  to  ML,  and  ita  North 
African  trade   is  now  an   unportant  part  of   its 


MARSH,  GsoBaB  Perkhts,  LL.D.,  an  American 

philologist,  was  bom  at  Woodstock,  Vermont,  March 
17,  1801;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College,  New 
Hampshire,  1820 ;  studied  law  at  Burlington,  Ver- 
mont ;  was  elected  to  the  Supreme  Executive  Council 
of  the  BUte  in  1835,  and  to  Congress  in  1S42 
and  1349.  He  was  for  several  years  afterwards 
United  States  minister  reddent  at  Constantinople, 
and  in  1852  was  charged  with  a  special  mission  to 
Greece.  He  travelled  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and 
became  an  adept  in  tha  Scandinavian  langoagee. 
In  1861,  he  was  appointed  U.  S.  minister  at  Rome, 
and  there  he  died  in  July  18S2.  His  most  im- 
portant works  are  a  OrammaT  of  Hit  Icdandie  Laa- 
gvage ;  The  Camel,  hit  Organiaation  and  Uatt; 
Lectarea  on  the  EngliaJi  Language  ;  Tht  Orioin  and 
Hiatory  of  the  English  Language;  ItanandNalvre,- 
The  Earth  ae  modified  by  Jluman  Action. 

MARSH-MALLOW  {AUhrea),  a  geana  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  MalBaceiB,  differing  from  the 
true  rualiowB  chiefly  in  the  6— 9-eleft  outer  calyx. 
The  species,  which  are  not  numerous,  are  annual 
and  perennial  plants,  with  show;  flowers,  natives 
of  Europe  and  Asia.  Only  one,  the  Common  M. 
(.i.  opiantUia),  is  an  undoubted  native  of  Britain, 
and  IS  common  only  in  the  south,  growing  in 
meadows  and  marshes,  eBpeciaUy  near  the  sea.  It 
has  a  stem  2  to  3  feet  higtC  entire  or  3-lobed  leaves, 
both  leaves  and  stem  densely  clothed  with   soft. 


■  Coo^ijlc 


MABSH-MAILIQOLD— UABSHALLINO  OF  ARU9. 


itanr  down,  lod  brge,  pale,  row-colonrcd  flowera 
on  ahoit  3~--4-flowerad  kxilluy  ttalki.  Loxenges 
nude  from  it  [PiUe«  de  OuimmoK)  m«  in  — 
The  whole  pUat  i«  wholesome,  and  in  hmoi._  __ 

scwcilT,  th«  inhabitauta  of  lome  eMtem  oountriea 


Huih-MttUoir  {Ailkaa  ogcinulii). 

oftatt  hare  noontse  to  it  w  »  prindp*!  Mticle  of 
food.  It  i«  (aid  to  be  palatable  when  boiled,  and 
afterwaida  fried  with  oniooB  and  butter.  The 
Holljhook  (q.  T.)  i»  coQUnool;  referred  to  this  genua. 
MAIlSH-MA'BTOOLD(CaUAa),aRenni  of  plant! 
of  the  natural  order  Jlamtncviacem,  nuving  about 
S  petal-like  Bepals,  no  petals,  and  the  fruit  coiuiat. 
ing  of  several  spreading  compreaaed,  maajr-aeeded 
foUiolei.     C.  patualrU  a  a  very  common  Britisli 


Mush-Marigold  {CalOia  paluitrit), 

plon^  with  Iddney-ahafied  shining  leaves,  and 
large  yellow  flowers,  a  principal  ornament  of  wet 
meodowi  and  the  gidee  of  itreama  in  epring.  It 
portakeB  of  the  acridity  common  in  the  order;  but 
the  flower-huda,  preserved  in  vinegar  and  eal^  are 
aaid  to  be  a  good  aubatitnte  for  oapen. 

HAHSHAL  fFr.  martdtal.  Tent  mare,  hone, 
and  teeaia  or  tchalt,  servant),  a  term,  in  its  origin, 
meaning  a  groom  or  manager  of  the  horse,  though 
erentnatly  the  Ung**  matohal  became  one  of  the 
princtpal  officers  of  state  in  England.  The  royal 
tanier  row  in  di^ty  with  tile  increaaing  importance 

of  the  eSCTflfer-'-  *"'  ^~  ^ '■■■-^' ="•  "•- 

Constabla  (q.  v 


or  courts  of  cliivBlry.  An  earldom  i«  attached 
to  the  dianity,  and  the  office  of  earl-manhol  is 
now  hemcutary  in  the  family  of  the  Duke  of  Nor- 
folk. When  the  king  headed  his  amy  in  feudal 
times,  the  assembled  troops  were  inspected  by  the 
constable  and  marshal,  who  flzed  the  epot  fur  the 
encampment  of  eaoh  noble,  and  examioed  the 
numb^i  arms,  and  condition  of  bis  retainera.  With 
the«e  duties  was  naturally  combined  the  regulation 
of  all  matters  connected  vith  armorial  teorings, 
gtnndards,  and  ens^ca.  The  constable's  functions 
were  virtually  aboiiahed  in  the  time  ot  Henry 
VIIL,  and  the  marshal  became  thenceforth  tlie  sola 
judge  in  qneations  of  hononr  and  arms.  The  earl- 
marsha]  is  president  of  the  English  College  of  Arms, 
and  appointa  the  kings -at-arms,  heralds,  and  pur- 
suivants. The  marshal's  functions  were  formerly 
exercised  in  time  of  peace  in  the  Aula  Sfgitot  Kings 
Qreat  Court,  and  on  the  division  of  the  Auia  Jleijii, 
he  ^>pointed  deputiee  iu  the  new  coorts ;  beuco 
arose  the  offices  of  Marshal  of  the  King's  (Queen's) 
Bench  and  of  Exchequer,  whose  principal  duty  is  to 
take  charge  of  persona  committed  to  their  custody 
by  the  court.  Beaidea  the  eorl-monhal,  there  is  a 
knight-marahal,  or  marBhol  of  the  kin^  [queen's) 
hooaehold.  The  Uoiabol  of  the  King's  Bench  helcl 
two  different  conrta,  which  have  been  altogether 
diacoutinued  since  1849.  The  marshal  or  provost- 
marshal  of  the  Admiralty  is  on  officer  whose  duty 
it  is  to  act  ministerially  under  the  orders  of  the 
Court  of  Admiralty  in  securing  prizes,  executing 
vrarrants,  arresting  criminals,  ^d  attending  their 


The  dignity  of  marshal  existed  formerly  in  Scot- 
land, where  a  different  orthography  wae  adopted, 
and  the  office  of  monachal  was  hereditary  in  the 
family  of  Keith.    Sir  Kobert  Keith,  the  marischal, 
iS  one  of  the  most  distinguishad  warriors  in  the 
ny  of  Kobert  the  Bruce ;  and  Ua  deacendont,  tiie 
inaehal,  in  1456,  had  the  dignity  of  earl  conferred 
.    him  with  no  other  title  but  that  of  Earl  MorischaL 
There  ia  little  doubt  that  the  lyon  king-at-arms 
like  Uia  En^liab  hinga-at-arma,  origiiially  sub- 
to  the  mariachol,  bat  hit  dependiuice  ceased 
at  a  very  early  period,   and  the  heraldic  functions 
diachorsed  by  Uie  eari-maiahal  in  England  devolved 
in   Scouand   on   the   lord   lyon,   who   held   offios 
directly  from  the  crown.    Scotland  had  no  knight- 
marischal  till  1633,  when  Chorlea  L,  at  hia  coron- 
ation, created  the  office.    In  1T16,  Oeorge,  tenth 
Earl  Mariachal,  was  attainted  in  conaeqoenoe  of  his 
the  rebellion  of  the  previous  year,  and  the 
.  - —  >- —   '-   abeyance.     In  France,  the 


was  at  Grat  only  one  Jliarfdial  de  Fnmce,  and  there 
were  but  two  till  the  time  of  Francis  L  Their 
number  afterwards  became  unlimited.  Orinnally, 
the  marshal  waa  the  esquire  of  the  king,  aim  oom- 
monded  the  vanguard  m  war ;  in  later  times,  the 
command  became  sapremev  and  tlie  rank  of  the 
hig^ieat  miUtarr  importance.  From  the  title  of  this 
cloaa  of  general  officers,  the  Oomans  have  borrowed 
their  F^d-nuusohall,  and  we  our  Field-marshal, 
a  dignity  bestowed  On  commanders  distinguished 
either  by  elevated  rank  or  saperior  talents. 

MAItSHALLINQ  OF  ASMS  ia  the  combining 
of  different  coats-of-arms  in  one  esentcheon,  for  the 
purpose  of  indicating  taimly  alliance  or  offlcei.  In 
the  earlier  heraldry,  it  waa  not  the  practice  to 
exhibit  rnore  than  one  coat  in  a  shield,  but  the  arms 
of  husband  and  wife  were  sometimes  placed  aeoMt, 
or  aide  by  aide,  in  separate  escntcheona;  or  the 
princi^ial  shield  was  aurrounded  by  imalleT  ones, 
eontaming  the  arms  of  mat«mal  anoestora  ;  and  we 
not  unfreqnenUy  find  maternal  descent 


^ 


HABSH'S  TEST— MAIt^UPIALIA. 


indicated  by  the  addition  of  (ome  bearing  from  tha 
wiltfi  or  mothat'a  Bhiold.  Tltaii  followed  dimidia- 
tion,  vh«re  the  shield  vw  ported  pet  pale,  and  the 
two  coats  placed  aide  by  nde,  half  of  ewb  being 
•hewn.  By  the  more  modeni  ciutom  of  impaling 
(fig.  1),  the  whole  of  each  coat  is  exhibited,  a 
reminiscence  of  the  older  practice  behig  retained  ' 
the  omiiaios  of  bordurea,  orlee,  and  treaBuree  on  t 
Bide  bonoded  bj'  the  line  of  impalement  The  meet 
commoa  case  of  impalemeat  is  where  the  coata  of 
huaband  and  wife  are  conjoined,  the  hujabuid'a  arms 
ocCDpying  the  dexter  side  of  the  shield,  or  place  of 
honour,  and  the  wife's,  the  sinisber  side.  Bishops, 
deans,  heads  of  colleges,  and  kings-of-arms,  impale 
their  anna  of  office  with  their  fuEiily  coat^  giving 
the  dexter  side  to  the  former. 

A  man  who  marriea  an  heiress  (in  heraldic  Benie) 
is  entitled  to  place  her  atns  on  a  «m^  ahield  called 


achierement,  instead  ol  impaling^  as  in  fig.  2. 

QKoriermif  (fie-  3),  or  the  exhibiting  different 
eoali  on  a  shield  dlTidied  at  once  perpendicularly  and 
horizontally,  is  the  most  common  mode  of  marshal- 
line  arms,  a  practice  which,  however,  was  unknowa 
tdlTths  midiSe  of  the  14th  centm?.  The  divisions 
of  the  shield  are  called  qusrten,  and  are  numbered 
horizontally,  begiiuung  at  the  dextez  ohiel  The 
most  common  object  of  quartering  is  to  indicate 
descent.  The  coa^  quartered  in  an  escutcheon  must 
bU  haTe  been  brought  in  by  BoccessiTe  heiresses,  who 
have  intennamed  into  the  family.  In  the  case  of 
B  rinslB  quartwing,  the  pat«nial  arma  are  placed  ' 
the  fiist  and  fonrth  quarters,  and  the  maternal 
the  second  and  third.  The  thud  and  fourth  qoartt 
may,  in  aftar-gBneralions,  be  occupied  by  the  an  . 
of  a  saoond  aid  third  hmnaa.  Somatbnca  an  already 
qnartered  coat  im  pUcad  in  one  of  the  four  quartos 
M  tba  eacnteheon,  than  tanned  a  grand  quarter. 
Wa  oocaabnally  fiiid  the  shield  dJTided  by  perpendi- 
eolar  and  horizootal  Unas  into  six,  oina,  <w  aran  moM 
pvts,  (Mh  ooonped  by  a  ooat  brooght  in  by  an 
heiraa*{  and  in  case  M  aa  odd  anmber  of  coats, 
the  last  dirision  is  filled  by  a  repetition  of  the  first. 
In  the  course  of  generations,  a  shield  may  thus  be 
inoooveniently  crowded  by  the  aoonmolatton  of 
coal%  including  the  asreial  coata  to  which  each 
heiress  may,  in  a  similar  way,  have  become  entitled, 
and  in  Oermany,  sometimca  twenty  or  thirty  coata 
are  fonnd  mszshalled  in  one  escutcheon;  but  in 
British  heraldry,  families  entitled  to  a  Dnmber  of 
^uarteriDgs,  nnarally  saleot  aome  of  the  most 
nnportant.  Qoarterings,  at  It 
not  allowed  to  ba  addadto  tli«  pab 
the  unction  of  the  heraldic  antnoritiea. 

Soverei^  quarter  the  ensigns  of  their  several 
fltates,  giving  preoedoioe  to  the  moat  ancient,  nnlesa 
it  be  infuior  to  the  others  in  importanoe.  Iq  the 
royal  escutche(»t  oC  the  United  Kingdom,  England 
is  placed  in  the  first  aud  fourth  quarters,  Scotland 
in  the  secaod,  and  Ireland  in  the  third;  the  relative 
poeitiiHis  of  Scotland  snd  England  being,  however, 
reversed  oa  the  official  seals  of  Scotland.  Spain 
bears  the  anas  of  Leon  in  the  first  and  fourth 
quarters,  and  Castile  in  the  second  and  third.  An 
elected  king  generally  places  his  arm*  surtout  on 
an  aacutchaon  of  mMtuwe, 
Ml 


UABSH'S  TEST,    See  Abbkkioub  Acid. 

UAltSICO  NVtyVO,  a  town  in  the  Italian 
province  of  Fotenzs,  18  nules  south  of  tha  town  of 
PotaDEa,  built  on  a  height  and  axpoaed  to  vidlenb' 

wind&    Pop.  (1872)  6125. 

MAKSILEA'CE.^,  I ,  _ 

natural  order  of  Acotyledonous  plants,  nearly  allied 
to  Lyeopodiaeea,  but  differing  in  the  want  of  a  sten 
and  in  the  usually  stalked  leavee.  The  speciea  ar 
all  inhabitants  m  ditches  and  pools,  chiefly  u 
temperate  regions,  and  two  of  thetn  occur  in  vanou 
parts  of  Qreat  Britain.  No  speciea  was  known  t 
be  of  any  importanoe  till  the  disoovery  of  tha 
Nardoo  [q.  v.]  of  Australia. 

MABSUPIAXIA,  or  UABStJFIA'TA, 
extensiva  order  or  group  of  mamm^,  differing 
eaBentiany  from  all  others  in  their  organiMtioii, 
and  especially  in  their  geoeratava  system.  The 
^nim^ln  of  this  aberrant  group  origii^y  t«e^ved 
le  of  Animaiia  Onaaatata,  or  Pune-betuing 

•;  aud  tiie  oamBs  now  employed  have  a 

similar  signiflcation,  bain^  deriTed  torn  fnomt' 
pium,  a  pouch  or  bag.  This  marsainiim,  or  pouch 
which  is  situated  on  the  abdomen  of  t&e  female 
contains  the  teats,  and  serves  for  the  [o^teotdoD  oL 
tiie  immature  young  j  kbA  is  nnqueetionably  the 
most  marked  (maracteristia  of  these  «.htih^1«  Afl 
the  different  genera  of  this  order  live  upon  var' 
kinds  of  food — some  being  becbivorooB,  others  in 
tivorouB,  and  others,  again,  purely  aamivoroi_ 
we  And  various  modifications  of  their  organs  of 
progression,  prehension,  and  digestjon ;  bat  aa  the 
most  important  of  these  modincationa  are  noticed 
in  the  articles  on  the  principal  genara,  we  ahaH 
confine  ourselvea  to  tha  charactns  oranmon  to  the 
group. 

The  leading  peculiarity  presented  by  the  akeleton 
is  tha  presence  of  the  morstipial  boii««  (gee  Mak- 
lULu),  which  are  attached  to  the  pubis,  and  are 
ibedded  in  the  abdominal  muscles.  Another  con- 
stant but  less  striking  peculiarity  is  a  greater  or  less 
inversion  of  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  olgans 
of  digeation,  indiming  the  teeth,  vary  extremely, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  food;  a  oompleic 
stomach  and  a  ciacum  of  considerable  siie  being 
present  in  some,  while  others  (the  osmivorous 
genera)  have  a  simple  stomach  and  no  cracnm.  The 
brain  is  constmcted  on  a  simpler  type  than  in  the 
placental  tniLmiiialB,  The  size  of  the  h  '  ' 
(flg-  I,  A)  is  BO  small  that 
they  leave  exposed  the  olfac- 
tory ganglion  (a),  tha  ( 
bellnm  (C),  and  mora  or  less 
of  the  optio  lobes  (B),  and 
they  are  but  partiallf  oon- 
□ected  together  by  tiia 
ad  'anterior  com 
he  great   cerebral  a^ 

known  as  the  Vffi;  "i  £" 
corpus  calloeum '  being  ^^-_^ 
absent.  In  acoordanoa  with 
this  condition  of  the  brain, 
these  ^^TliY^|*^^  are  all  charac- 
terised by  a  low  dc^reo  ol 
intelligeuce,  and  are  said 
(when  in  captivity)  not  to 
manifest  any  sign  of  reoi^- 
nition  of  their  feeders.  It  i^ 
however,  in  the  organs  of 
generation  and  mode  of  reproduction  that  thaM 
animals  especially  differ  from  all  the  ordinary 
mammals.  Professor  Owen,  who  has  done  more  to 
elucidate  this  subject,  and  indeed  the  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  marsupiata  generollv,  than  any  other 
anatomist,  obsarvea  that  m  all  the  genera  of  this 


,,  Google 


MAETABAN— UAATBN. 


ctiet  tlia  ntenu  if  double,  And  tiw  introdaotarv 
raaHtige  more  or  lea  (Hometiiiia  wholly)  upAnted 
mto  two  Uteral  cuiali.  Both  the  digea^Te  uid 
mnentlTe  tabes  termiiutte  within  k  ooimaoii  Clo«ce 
(q.  v.],  and  there  an  mnooM  other  pcrintt  in  which 
thete  aniniAli  manifeet  th«ir  •ffinit;  to  the  oriperans 
TertebmteB.  The  maianptl  booea  Mrre  important 
pnrpoaea  in  oonnection  with  their  genetative 
economj.  'Id  the  female,'  he  obaerves,  'tlie;  aaaiat 
in  piodneiag  a  compreaDoii  of  the  Mamnuuy  ^land 
noceaaary  for  the  ahmm- 
tation  of  a  peculiarly 
feeble  offipiing,  and  they 

Tiacera  from  thepreamre 
of  the  young  aa  theee 
increaae  in  aize  during 
thfnr  minrupial  eziatenoe, 
and  atill  more  when  they 
retam  to  the  pouch  for 
temporary  shelter,'  while 
in  the  malea  they  are 
auhaerrient  to  the  repro- 
^  ductive  proceaa.  The 
manrnpiala  belong  to  the 
ipiaemtal  divtairai  of  the 


T.).     The  p 


ia  short  (26  ^ji  in  the  Wginian  opoemun^  and 
dayi  in  the  kangaroo),  and  the  yoimg  are  prodacad 
in  lo  immatnre  a  at^  that  the  earlier  obaervera 
believed  that  they  were  produced  like  buds  from 
the  nipplea  to  which  they  aaw  them  attached. 
The  appearance  presoited  by  a  yoong  kangaroo  of 
one  of  the  largest  apedee,  withm  twelve  hours  of 
its  being  depoaited  in  the  pouch,  ia  deacribed  by 
ProfMBor  Owen  (from  periMiaJ  observation  in  the 
Zoological  GardenB)  as  ftdlows :  '  It  resembled  an 
earthworm  in  the  colonr  and  semi-transpareiicy  of 
ito  intwameot,  adhered  firmly  to  the  point  of  the 
nipple,  breathed  atrongly  but  slowly,  and  moved 
iti  fore-legs  when  distorbed.  The  body  was  bent 
noon  the  abdomen,  its  short  tail  tacked  m  between 
the  hind-legH,  which  were  one-third  ahortec  than  the 
fore-legs.  The  whole  length  from  the  nose  to  the 
end  of  the  tail,  nhea  stretohed  ont,  did  not  exceed 
one  inch  and  two  linea.'     The  mother  apparently 


one  men  and  two  linea.  The  mother  apparently 
employ!  her  month  in  placing  the  jonng  at  the  nipple, 
where  it  remain*  tnspeaded,  involuntu41y  absorbmg 
-  -""-  'or  a  coaiiderBble  time  (probably  about  two 
I  on  an  average),  after  which,  it  sncki  apon- 
sly  for  lome  montha.  Although  able  from 
it,  by  the  mnacnlar  power  of  its  lips,  to  adhere 
to  ue  nip^e,  it  doea  not  posaeas  the  strength 


milk  for  a  cooiideTable  time  (probably  about  two 
-      ■■<  aa  average),  after  which,  it  sncki  apon- 

for  aome  montha.    Although  able  from 
thefint^; 

firmly  *°  ^.    . 

to  obtun  the  milk  by  the  ordinary  proccas  of  sack' 
ing.  In  the  process,  it  is  assisted  by  the  adaptation 
of  a  mnscle  to  the  mammary  gbuu^  which,  by  con- 
Izactiiig,  injects  the  milk  from  the  nipple  into  the 
month  of  the  adherent  ftetus ;  and  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  mUk  into  the  air-passage,  the  larynx 
ia  prolonged  upwards  to  the  aperture  of  the  pos- 
tenor  tmrea,  where  it  is  closely  embraced  by 
Uie  mnadea  of  the  aoft  palate.  The  air-poswue 
is  thns  entirely  separated  from  the  throat,  and  ^e 
milk  paasea  on  uther  aide  of  the  larynx  into  tlks 
{BBophagna. 

F¥of  eaaoT  Owen  has  propo«ed  that  these  animals 
■boold    be,  divided    into    five   tribM    or    primary 
.  EiUomophaga,  Carpophaga, 


MABTABA'N,  the  name  of  a  amall  town  in 
the  province  of  Pegu,  in  British  Burmah,  on  the 
Kinln  <^  the  Martabau  or  Salwen,  and  near  ita 
mouth  in  the  Gnlt  of  M.,  in  tat.  IS*  32*  N.,  long.  ffT 
36'  E.,  was  the  first  that  fell  into  the  handa  St  the 
British  in  the  Bormese  war  in  1302. 

MABTEL,  Cbahles.    See  CouiLBa  Mabtel. 

UAItTB'LLO  TOWEKS  are  round  towers  for 
coast  defence,  about  40  feet  high,  built  most 
solidly,  and  situated  on  the  beach.  They  occur  in 
several  places  round  the  ooaat  of  the  Umted  King- 
dom; but  — '~~ — " '""  ""'  "*  '"' *" ■ 


wherc^for  many  miles, )__.  ..__  . — „ 

each  other.    Iliey  wore  mostly  erected  during  the 
M  against  invasion.    Each 


y  are  within  easy  nnge  oE 


itey 
French  war,  as  a  defence  against 
had  walls  of  SI  feet  thickness,  and  was  supposed 
to  be  bomb-proof.  The  base  formed  the  magazine  ; 
above  were  two  rooms  tor  the  garrison,  and  over 
the  upper  of  these  the  fiat  roof,  with  a  44-feet 
brick  parapet  all  ronnd.  On  this  roof  a  swivel 
heavy  gnn  was  to  be  placed  to  command  shipping 
while  howitiers  on  each  aide  were  to  form  a  flu  A  ing 
defence  in  connection  with  the  neighbouring  towers. 
Although  the  cost  of  these  little  forts  was  very 
great,  ffiey  ore  generally  considered  to  have  been  a 
failure ;  their  ormamenta  have  mostly  been  removed, 
and  their  carTisona  of  six  to  twelve  penmoner-soldiera 
replooed  by  coast-guard  men,  or  m  some  cases  by 
old  master-gunners. 

The  name  is  said  to  be  taken  from  Italian  towers 
built  near  the  sea,  during  the  period  when  piracy 
was  common  in  the  Uedlterranean,  for  the  purpose 
of  keeping  watch  and  giving  warning  if  a  pirate- 
ship  was  seen  approachine.  This  warning  was 
given  by  striking  on  a  bell  with  a  hammer  (ItaL 
marteUo),  and  hence  theae  towara  were  called  Torn 
da  MarteUo. 

MARTaN  (Marie*),  a  Kenns  of  digitierBde  cami* 
vorous  quadrupeds  of  the  family  iftigtelida,  difleting 
from  weasels  in  having  an  additional  false  molar  on 
each  side  above  and  below,  a  small  tubercle  on  tbe 
inner  side  of  tiie  lower  camlvorons  cheek-teeth,  and 
the  tongue  not  rough— characters  which  are  regarded 
as  Indicating  a  somewhat  less  extreme  camlvorous 
propensity.  The  body  is  elongsted  and  supple,  aa 
in  weasels,  the  legs  short,  and  the  toca  aeparate,  with 
sharp  long  daws.  The  ears  are  larger  than  in 
weasels,  and  the  t^  is  bushy.  The  martens  exhibit 
great  t^ility  and  gracefulness  in  their  movements, 
and  are  very  expert  in  climbing  trees,  amoag  which 
they  generally  live.  Two  species  are  natives  of 
Britain,  the  CoMUOK  M..  Beech  M.,  or  Stone  U, 
(Jf./ouid),  and  the  PiNB  M.  (Jf.  abUlura),  inhabiting 
chiefiy  tlie  more  rocky  and  wooded  ports  ot  the 
island ;  the  former  in  the  south,  and  the  latter  in 
the  north.  Both  were  once  much  more  oommon 
than  they  now  ore,  being  songht  after  on  account 
of  their  f  m*,  and  killed  on  every  opportunity,  becaose 
of  their  excessive  depredations  among  game  and  in 
poultry-yards.  The  nead  and  body  are  about  IS 
inches  long,  the  tail  nearly  10  inches.  Both  spemea 
are  of  a  dark  tawny  colour,  the  Common  M.  having 
a  white  throat,  and  the  Pine  M.  a  yellow  throat. 
Many  naturalists  r^ard  them  as  varieties  of  one 
apociea,  of  which  also  they  reckon  the  Sabla  (q.  v.) 
to  be  another  variety.  The  fur  of  the  martens  ts  ol 
two  sorts:  an  inner  for,  short,  soft,  and  eopioui^ 
and  long  outer  hair,  from  wluch  the  whole  for 
derives  its  oolour.  The  Common  M.  is  mmji  lesa 
valuable  for  its  fur  than  the  Pine  M.,  whilst  the 
Fine  M.  is  mnch  less  valuable  than  the  sable ;  bnt 
skins  of  the  Common  M-  are  imported  in  gr«»t 
numbers  from  the  north  of  Etmpes  and  they  are 
often  dyed,  and  told  as  ao  inferior  kind  of  sable. 


wGuu^le 


MARTHA'S}  VHiETABI)— MAETIAL  LAW. 


Fine  M.  skini  m  imported  from  tiia  north  of 
Europe,  Siberia,  uid  North  America. — The  martens 
genenlly  have  their  retreat!  in  the  hollow  tmnlcs 


a  magpie  or  other  bird, 
.  The;  are  capable  of 
leatication. 

BfABTHA'S  TINBVARD,  an  iiland  on  the  S. 
coast  of  Mauachnietta,  21  m.  Iodz,  6  m.  in  average! 
width.  EdBartowii,«ettlediDlfr42bjemigTantifrom, 
Southampton  io  England,  is  the  largest  town.  The 
ialand  ia  noted  for  great  oamp-meetings,  and  aa  a 
health-tMort.     Pop.  abont  4000. 

BIA'KTIAL  (Mabcub  ViLBWUi  Mahthlib),  the 
first  of  epigrammatists,  was  bora  at  Bilbilis,  in 
Spain,  43  a.i>.  In  66,  he  came  to  Borne,  where  he 
Tesided  till  100,  when  he  returned  to  his  native 
town.  There  he  married  a  lady  called  Marcella,  on 
whose  property  he  lived  til]  Ms  death  (about  104). 
When  at  Kome,  ha  soon  became  famous  as  a  wit 
and  poet ;  received  the  patronage  of  the  Emperora 
Titus  and  Domitian,  and  obtained  from  them  the 
privilege*  of  those  who  were  fatheia  of  three 
children,  and,  in  addition,  the  rank  of  tribnne, 
and  the  rights  of  the  equestrian  order-  He  lived, 
seemiaglv,  in  affluence,  in  a  mansion  in  the  city, 
and  in  Nomentnm,  a  aabarban  villa,  to  both  of 
which  be  makM  freqnent  reference.  From  Rome,  hia 
wputation  rajtidly  extended  to  the  provinces ;  and 
even  in  Britain  his  BpigraTnmala,  which,  divided 
into  14  books,  now  form  his  extant  works,  were 
familiarly  read.  These  books,  which  were  arranged 
by  fatiDself  for  publication,  were  written  in  the 
fnlowing  order :  the  first  eleven  (iDcluding  the  Liba- 
J.  f — i._.i.j  ^g^  composed  at  Rome,  with  the 
..le  third,  which  was  written  during 
in  Gallis  Togata;  the  12th  waa  written 
w  ouuilis;  and  the  13th  and  14th  at  Rome, 
under  Domitian.  The  last  two,  entitled  X«aia  and 
ApophorOa,  describe,  in  disticha,  the  variona  kinds 
of   toiiveniri  presented   by  the  Romans   to    each 


other  on  holidays.  To  the  other  books,  we  are 
also  indebted  for  much  of  our  knowledge  of  the 
manners  and  cnitoms  which  prevailed  under  tha 
Emperors  Nero,  Golba,  Otho,  YespiaiaB,  Titn«^ 
Domitian,  Nervo,  and  Trajan,  under  whose  collec- 
tive reigns  he  spent  35  years  i^  his  life.  His  works 
have  aUo  a  great  literary  value,  as  embodpng  tha 
first  specimeBS  of  what  we  now  nnderetwud  by 
epigram — not  a  mere  inscription,  but  ft  poem  <tf 
*.«.  .jj  more  lines,  oont*'"'""  *■*■"  fco-*™  «*  ■« 
eais.  which  Eoea  off  w 

displayed  by  M.  in  tliit  species  of  compositia 
have  always  received  the  higbeet  admiration,  only 
qualified  by  his  disgusting  grossneas,  which,  Uame- 
worthy  in  him,  was  even  mor^  so  in  the  age  by 
which  it  was  demanded  and  relished.  The  best 
edition  of  M.  is  that  of  Schneidewin.  He  has  new 
found  an  adequate  tranalator. 

MARTIAL  LAW  is  a  collective  name  for  those 
taws  to  which  the  individuals  composing  the  mili- 
tary and  naval  forcos  of  a  country  are  subject,  bat 
which  do  not  apply  to  dviliaos.  Aa,  however,  the 
soldier  remains  a  dtizen,  he  is  governed  by  the 
common  law  in  all  matters  not  coming  imd^  the 
cogoizanoe  of  the  martial  law^  ILe  degree  to  which 
the  latter  is  applicable  to  bis  actions  varying  in 
different  coontnea,  and  in  times  of  peace  and  war. 
In  France  and  Austria,  a  soldier's  oSencee  ogunst 
the  civil  code  are  dealt  with  by  a,  court-martial ; 
while  among  British  troops — unless  serving  against 
an  enemy— uie  civil  tribunals  deal  with  non-military 

The  maintenance  of  discipline  and  other  obvion* 
causes  necessitate,  for  a  body  of  armed  men,  ■  code 
of  laws  and  regnlationa  much  more  strict  and  severe 
in  their  penalties,  as  well  as  more  prompt  in  their 
execution,  than  suffices  for  ordinary  society.  Accord- 
ingly there  have  always  been  martial  laws,  more  or 
less  clearly  defined,  where  there  have  been  armies. 
For  the  natore  of  the  rules  under  which  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  British  army  is  kept  up,  see  Akticles 
o»  Win  and  MunsT  Act". 

There  is  yet  another  phase  of  martial  law,  and 
that  is  the  degree  of  severity  which  may  ba 
applied  to  an  enemy.  All  authorities  agree  that 
the  life  of  an  enemy  taken  in  arms  is  forfeit  to 
his  captor ;  bnt  modem  ideas  preclude  his  being 
pat  to  death,  unless  in  open  resistance ;  and  tha 
massacre  of  prisoners  in  cold  blood,  once  thoi^jht 
lightly  of,  is  now  esteemed  a  bubarity,  which 
nothing  but  the  most  urgent  circumstances,  sach 
as  their  □prising,  or  their  attempted  rescue  by 
their  countrymen,  could  justify.  The  slaiuhter 
of  the  captive  Mamelukes  at  Jaffa  has  leK  an 
indelible  stain  on  Napoleon's  memory.  As  regards 
civil  popnlatioD  and  propertr,  much  amelioration 
has  taken  place  with  advancing  civilisation.  Foi^ 
merly,  the  devastation  of  the  country,  and  the 
destruction,  accompanied  even  by  torture,  of  the 
inhabitants,  was  deemed  a  legitimate  feature  of 
war.  Now,  the  role  is  to  spare  private  property, 
to  respect  personal  liberty,  unless  the  inhabitants 
directly  or  mdlrectly  aid  tne  enemy,  and  onl^  to  lay 
waste  so  much  ground  as  military  necessities  may 
require.  Such  at  least  is  the  principle  professed ; 
but  few  commanders  ore  able  to  prevent  their  troops 
from  deeds  of  violence.  A  province  occupied  by 
a  hostile  army  is  usually  considered  '  nnder  martial 
law.'  This  means  that  civil  law  is  defauct,  and  all 
government  under  military  regimen ;  but  it  is  im- 
possible to  define  the  bounds  of  this  martial  law ; 
nor  is  any  more  correct  dictum  on  the  subject  likely 
to  be  arrived  at  than  that  celebrated  saymg  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  when  he  described  it  M  '  the 
wiU  of  the  comnundar-in-chief.' 


„  Google 


MAETIGNY— MABTrNHiU. 


HARTIGNT,  or  UABTINACH  (tbe  Ododttrut 
of  the  Romaiu),  s  BcaaH  town  of  Switzerluid,  in 
tbs  cantoa  of  ValAii,  ii  Bitiutad  an  the  Drance,  an 
affluent  of  the  Rhone,  about  24  mitee  touth-iouth- 
east  fnnu  the  eaat  end  of  the  Jjika  of  Qenera. 
The  tro  noted  lontea,  one  to  the  vale  of  Chamouui 
by  the  Tfite  Noire  or  the  Col  de  Balme,  and  another 
to  the  Great  St  Bernard,  branch  off  here.  " 
the  Simplon  road  into  Italy.  It  it  a  great  resort 
for  touristi,  and  haa  a  population  of  about  120(L 

MARTIGUE3,  a  nuaU  town  of  Franca,  in 
department  of  Boachei  dn  Ehone,  ia  situated  ._ 
tbree  islands.  Doited  by  bridges,  in  the  entraocs 
to  the  Etang  de  Berre,  16  miles  aortb-irest  of 
Marseille.  From  the  peculiarity  of  its  positioo,  it 
lias  been  called  the  Provenjal  Venice.  Pop.  (1881) 
46S2,  engaged  in  the  tunny  and  pilchard  fisLeriea. 

MAKTIN.    SeeSvAUOW. 

HABTIN,  Bishop  of  Tours,  and  ft  saint  of  the 
Koman  Catholic  Church,  was  bom  in  Pannonia 
about  the  year  316.  He  was  educated  at  Pavia, 
aud  at  the  desire  of  his  father,  who  iras  a  military 
tribune,  entered  the  army,  fii«t  under  Constantine, 
and  afterwards  under  Julian  the  Apostate.  The 
virtues  of  his  life  as  a  soldier  are  the  theme  of 
more  than  one  interesting  legend.  On  obtaining 
his  discharge  from  milituy  service,  M.  became 
disciple  of  Hilatj,  Bishop  of  Poitiers  [q.  v.).  1 
returned  to  his  native  Ponnonia,  and  converted  his 
mother  to  Christianity,  but  he  himself  endured 
much  persecution  from  the  Axiaa  party,  who  were 
at  that  time  dominant:  and  in  consequence  of 
the  firmness  of  his  profession  ot  ortiiodozy,  he 
is  the  tint  who.  without  suffering  death  for  the 
troth,  has  been  honoored  in  the  Latin  Church  as 
a  coniessar  of  the  futh.  On  his  return  to  Gaul, 
abont  360,  he  founded  a  convent  of  monks  near 
Poitiers,   where   he   himself  led  a   life    of   great 

ansterity  and  seclusion;  but  in  371  he  was  •' 

by  force  from  his  retreat,  and  ordained  Bii 
Tonn.  The  fame  of  his  sanctity,  and  his  _.^.... 
as  a  woricer  of  miracles,  atb'acted  crowds  of  visit- 
anta  from  all  parts  of  Oaul ;  and  in  order  to  avdd 
the  distraction  of  their  importunity,  he  established 
a  monastery  near  Tours,  in  whioh  be  himself  resided. 
His  life  by  his  contemporary,  Sulpicius  Sevems, 
is  a  very  curious  spedmea  of  the  Qtrlstian  litera- 
ture of  the  age,  *and  in  the  profusion  of  miraculous 
legends  with  which  it  abounds,  might  take  its 
^ace  among  the  lives  of  the  medieval  or  modem 
Koman  Church.  The  only  eitant  literary  relio 
of  M.  is  a  short  Cot^femum  </  Fmlh  on  Ott  Holy 
Triniti/,  which  is  published  by  Galland,  voi  viL  5S9. 
In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  festival  of  his 
birth  is  celebrated  on  the  11th  November.  In  Scot- 
land, this  day  still  marks  the  winter-term,  whioh  is 
called  Mariinmai  (the  mass  of  St  Martin}.  For- 
merly, people  used  to  be^n  St  Martin's  Day  with 
feasting  and  drinking;  b^oe  the  fVench  expreaaions 
martiner  mi/ain  la  St  JftaUji,  'to  feast' 

MARTIN,  the  name  of  five  popes,  ot  whom 
the  fourth  and  fifdi  deserve  a  brief  notice.-^ 
Habtut  IV.  (Nicholas  de  la  Brie),  a  Frenchman, 
was  elected  in  12S1.  His  name  is  beat  known  in 
connection  with  the  memorable  tragedy  of  the 
'  Sicilian  Vespers.'  Having  been  from  the  time  of 
his  election  a  devoted  adherent  of  Charles  of  Anjou, 
he  supported  that  monarch  with  all  his  inffoenc^ 
and  even  by  the  spiritual  censure*  which  he  had  at 
his  command,  in  his  effort  to  ""■'"*«'■'  French  domi- 
nation in  Sicily ;  and  it  is  to  his  use  of  the  censuTe* 
of  the  church  in  that  cause  that  many  Catholic 
historians  ascribe  the  decline  and  ultimate  extinc- 
tion of  the  authority  in  temporal*  which  the  Mpacy 
had  exercised  under  tbe  distingoished  postim  who 


repute 


preceded  him.  He  died  at  Perugia  in  I2SS. — MuilH 
V.  must  be  noticed  as  the  pontiff  in  whose  elactioi) 
was  finally  extinguished  the  great  Wmuour  Schism 

a,  v.).  He  was  originally  named  Otho  Colonna,  ot 
e  great  Roman  family  of  that  name.  On  the  depo- 
sition of  John  XXUI.,  and  the  two  rival  popes 
Gr^ry  XIL  and  Benedict  XIII.,  in  the  council 
of  Constance,  Cardinal  Colonna  was  elected.  He 
presided  in  all  the  subsequent  sessions  of  the  conucil, 
and  the  Fathers  having  separated  without  discuss- 
ing the  questions  of  reform,  at  that  period  eatnestl* 
called  tor  in  tbe  church,  Martin  undertook  to  eta 
a  new  council  for  the  purpose.  It  was  summoned  to 
meet  at  Siena,  and  ultimately  assembled  at  Basel  ia 
1431.  Martin  died  in  the  same  year. 
MARTIN,  Henry.  See  Scpp.,  VoL  X. 
MARTIN,  JoEH,  an  English  painter,  was  bom 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Heibam,  Northumberland, 
igth  July  17S9,  went  to  London  in  1306,  and  made 
hi*  tir*t  appeanmoe  as  an  exhibitor  at  the  Roval 
Academy  in  1812.  His  picture  was  entitled '  S*aak 
in  Search  of  the  Waters  of  Oblivion,'  and  attnwted 
much  ootioe.  It  wsa  followed  within  two  yean  by 
the '  Expulsion  from  Paradise,'  'Clyt^e,'  and 'Joshua 
commanding  the  Snn  to  stand  Still.'  This  hut, 
though  poDuIarly  successful,  was  the  cause  of  a 
quarrel  with  the  Academy,  which  cnt  him  off  from 
any  of  its  honours.  Till  near  the  close  of  his  life, 
be  painted  pictures  in  a  style  whioh  was  considered 
'  sublime,'  by  the  sort  of  people  who  thought  Mont- 
gomery's Solan  and  Pollok's  Count  of  Time  ojoal 
to  Foradite  Lett.  The  prindMl  of  these  '  sublime ' 
prodootions  are '  Belshazzar's  Feast '  (1S21) ;  '  Crea- 
tion' (1824) ;  'The  Deluge '  (1S26) ;  'The  FaU  of 
Nineveh'  (1S28) ;  'Pandemomum'  (1841)  ;  'Mim- 
ing' and  'Evening'  (1844);  'The  Last  Man' 
(I^).    M  died  February  9,  1854 

MARTIN,  Sa  Thbodorb,  waa  bom  in  Edinbnrgh 
in  ISIS,  was  educated  at  the  High  School,  and 
studied  law  at  the  university  of  that  city.  In  1846 
he  became  a  parliaoientary  aolicitor  in  London. 
His  first  literary  undertaking  was  editing  Sir 
Thomas  Urquhart's  translation  of  Rabclals's  Oargan' 
ftca  and  Pantagrutl  (1838).  In  1845  appeu^  the 
Bon  Qat^titr  BaJiada,  tiie  joint  production  ot  M.  and 
Professor  Aytonn;  his  translation  ot  Poena  tmd 
BaUad»  ofQoeOie  (1868) ;  ZhutitA  Dratma  (1857)  ; 
Oifsf  of  Hora/x  (I860;  enlarged  edition,  2  vols. 
188S)  :  Poems,  originsi  and  tranaiated  (1S62) ; 
Dante's  VUa  N'wt>a  (1362) ;  Favl  (1366) ;  L\fe  of 
Profetor  Ayiom  (1867) ;  L\fe  of  H.R.H.  OuPrince 
Contort,  5  vols.  (1374-80) ;  Memoir  of  Lord  Lynd- 
hvnt  (1333).  M.  in  1831  married  Miss  H.  Faucit, 
the  actress ;  in  187S  he  was  made  a  C.B.  (afterwards 
K.C3,),  and  on  LL.D.  of  Edinburgh. 

MATRTIN,  St  one  ot  the  Lesser  Antilles,  West 
India  Island*.  It  belongs  partiy  to  France,  and 
partly  to  the  Netherlands.  Area  abont  30  square 
miles.  Its  products  are  sugar,  cotton,  tobacco, 
maiz^  &c,  and  large  quantitiea  ot  salt.  Slavery 
IS  abolished  in  18^.  Pop.  (1876)  about  6500. 
MABTI'NA,  a  town  of  the  Italian  province  of 
Lecce,  situated  on  a  hill  18  miles  N.N.E.  of  Taranto. 
Pop.  (1881)  14,600.    It  has  a  fine  palace. 

MARTINEAU,  Habbiet,  an  English  outhorew, 
was  bom  at  Norwich  12th  June  1802.  Her  educa- 
tion was  conducted  for  the  moat  part  at  home ; 
from  an  early  age  she  was  a  lover  of  books,  and 


,  Google 


MAETIITE4U— MABTLBT. 


naton  lost  their  ranmll  fbitiiiiea  bj  the  faflnre  ( 


...  ..under  the  nev  necessty  of  euning  a  livelihood. 
The  mbjcoti  npon  which  her  pen  waa  ezeiciied 
are  of  tM  matt  Twied  kind,  inclDding  some— auch 
M  politin — vhioh  hATS  niely  been  before  attempted 
K-  ™„™—     Har  flrrt  volnme,  entitled  Detiotioti4 


bjThejyia%d,&K/i\xd,  Uie  year  after.  Id  1826;  the 
published  PrmdpU  and  Pradice,  and  The  Rioter*; 
and  for  two  years  thereafter  ahe  was  buiily  engaged 
writina  stories  and  a  leius  of  tracti  on  social  mat- 
ten,  adapted  mainly  for  the  perusal  of  the  working- 
dauet.  Id  1S30,  uie  produced  hw  Traditioiu  of 
PaiaGne.  Dniiiig  the  eame  Tear,  the  Atsociation  of 
Unitarian  Diuentera  awarded  herprizes  tor  essays  on 
the  foUowins  sabjeds  :  The  Faith  a»  vT\fdUUd  hy 
many  Propkett,  Providence  oi  mta^feded  through 
Isratl,  and  The  Euentiai  Fmth  of  the  Unmenai 
CXureA,  Her  next  important  literary  venture  was 
unique,  and  in  one  of  the  softer  sei  almost  auda- 
cious, The  lUtittration*  <ff  Political  Ecoiwmy,  a.  ten^ 
of  tales,  which  met  with  great  and  deserved  ancceea, 
and  was  followed  by  others  illustratiTe  of  Tax- 
tttion,  and  Poor-Laui  and  Patiperi.  In  1834, 
slie  crossed  the  AtUntio,  aDd  published  her  Saatty 
in  America  in  1837-  In  1839,  she  published  Dter- 
broiA,KaAia\»^,The_EowandtheMan.  Sheafter- 
wards  produced  a  series  of  tales  for  the  youns,  the 
best  known  of  which  are  Feat*  on  tht  Fiord,  and  The 
OrqfUm  Boyi.  During  the  pniod  I83d— IS4^  when 
she  waa  more  or  leas  an  invalid,  ahe  wrote  L\/e  in  the 
Bidc-room.  Her  reooveiy  she  attributed  to  mesmer- 
ivn,  an  avowal  which  waa  the  cause  oEs  fierce  discus- 
stOQ  in  the  scientific  world,  and  exposed  herself  to 
mndi  iDSolt  and  ridicnle.  On  her  leooveif  she  pub- 
lished Foreit  ami  Oanie-LatB  Talu.  In  1846,  she 
visited  Palestine,  and  collected  matenalt  for  Eatitrn 
J^e,  Pretenl  and  Patt,  which  she  pnllished  on  her 
retuni.  Afterwards,  she  completed  Mr  Knight's 
Mittory  Cf  England  during  the  TMr^  Teari  Peaee. 
In  ISM,  in  conjuactioD  with  Mr  H.  O.  Atkinson, 
■he  published  a  series  of  i'dters  on  fAe  £«M  o/' Jfon's 
Bocud  Kature  and  Deedopment,  and  in  1869,  Bio- 
graphietd  Bketdiet  (collected  from  the  Daiiy  Jyaai). 
Tha  long  catalogue  of  her  literary  labours  (she  wrote 
more  than  100  booka)  inclades  her  translation  tk 
Oomte's  Po»iUve  PMlMOph^  ;  Eoaiehold  EdueaOon 
Btaith,Butbmdry,tmd  HandieTaJi;  lee,  M.  waai 
constant  contributor  to  the  largv  reviews,  and  the 
daily  and  weekly  prtMi  She  died  27th  June  1876 ; 
and  h«t  Avloiiiograjih]/,  written  and  printed  many 
ye^ra  before,  waa  published  with  an  additional 
editorial  volume  in  1877< 

MARTINEAU,  Jahis,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
waa  bora  at  Norwich,  21st  April  180S.  He  waa 
educated  for  the  ministry  in  connection  with  the 
tJnitariaa  body  of  Christians,  and  was  pastor 
congregations  in  Dublin  and  LirerpooL  He 
for  many  vears  ■  professor  in  Manchester  New 
College,  and  removed  to  Loudon  when  that  insti- 
tution was  transferred  thither  in  186S,  becoming 
one  of  the  pMtors  of  the  chapel  in  little  Portland 
Street.  He  became  principAl  of  the  College  in 
18AS ;  and  retired  from  the  pastorate  of  the  diapel 
in  1874.  He  was  one  of  the  fonndeis  of  Uie 
ifaOonai  Beeieio,  and  haa  been  a  irsqaent  contri- 
butor to  its  pages.  This  periodical  may  be  taken  as 
genaraUv  icprsMoting  his  theolof^cal  views.  M.  is 
one  of  the  moat  eamnt  and  lofty  ot  living  relinous 
writtn.  He  is  deeply  read  in  Qennan  theology 
and  [Aiilosophy,  and  ia  remarkable  for  strong 
grasp  of  thought  and  power  of  subtle  analysis.    He 


Is  a  master  of  English  style,  and  in  elucidating  tha 
most  abstract  thought  he  has  seldom  beeo  surpassed. 
His  principal  worlu  are  the  Bationale  of  Rkigiimt 
Inquiry  (1836),  Endeaimtrt  after  the  Ola^ian  lAfe 
(18*3),  MUceOaniee  (1652),  Studies  of  ChrUtiamtj/ 
(1868),  Etsaya,  Philoiophieal  and  Theohgieal  (1869), 
and  Hours  of  Thtmghl  on  Swpiure  Things  (1877). 

MABTINI'QtTB,  or  MARTIJTICO,  oaUed  by 
the  natives  Madianj,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  i» 
40  miles  long,  about  12  miles  broad,  and  has  an  area 
of  about  380  square  miles,  and  (1881)  167,181  in- 
habitants, of  whom  about  90,000  are  black.  Th» 
isWd  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1493^ 
coloidsed  by  the  French  m  1635,  and  now  beIon»( 
to  that  uatiOD.  It  ia  of  an  oval  form,  with  ma^ 
indented  coasts,  and  is  everywhera  mountainous  ;. 
the  highest  pe^  Moont  Pel£e,  being  ocmaiderably 
more  3aa  4000  feet  above  sea-levd.  Tbav  are  oix 
extinct  volcanoes  on  the  island,  one  of  them  with  an 
■acamons  oater.  The  cultivated  portion  of  M.  (about 
one-third  of  the  whole)  li«a  chiefly  along  the  coast. 
The  climate  is  moist,  but,  except  during  the  runy 
season,  ia  not  unhealthy,  and  the  soil  ia  very 
productiva.  Of  the  land  id  cultivation,  about  three- 
fifths  are  occupied  with  sugar-cane.  Slavery  waa 
alsolished  in  1843.  The  island  is  liable  to  dreadful 
hurricance.  A  floating  dock  was  opened  in  3867, 
at  Fort-la-France,  the  capital  (formerly  Fort  Boyal) ; 
a  teWraph  line  thence  to  St  Pierre  (q.  v.)  was  at 
work  m  I860 ;  and  since  then  a  railway  has  been 


MAItTINHAS,  in  Swtland,  ia  one  of  the  four 
quarter-days  for  paying  rent — viz.,  11th  November. 

MASTIUS,  Caio.  FBiKcauM  Pbujpp  von',  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  of  modem  traveileis  and 
naturalists,  bom  at  Erlangen  1794.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Erlangen,  and  had  published  two 
botanical  worka,  when  he  was  induced  to  proceed 
to  Brazil  as  a  member  ot  a  scientific  expedition  sent 
out  by  the  Austrian  and  Bavarian  govemmeuta,  and 
t^  bis  researchee  in  that  country  acquired  a  reputa- 
tion inferior  perhaps  to  that  of  no  scientifio  traveller 
ezoept  Humboldt.  He  waa  specially  inbusted 
with  the  botanical  department,  but  hia  reaearchea 
extended  to  ethnography,  statisticB,  geography,  and 
natural  scienoe  in  general ;  and  his-works  published 
after  his  return  e]^bit  a  poet's  love  of  nature  and 
great  powers  of  descriptioD.  These  works  are:  Aom 
naeh  Brastiien  (3  vols.  Munich,  1824—1831) ;  ^ova 
Qeaera  et  Spteia  PlaiUamm  (3  vols.  Mumoh,  1824 
— 1832);  and  Icoaet  Ptaniarwm  Cryptogamiearum 
(Muoidi,  1828—1834).  Ha  also  publiahed  a  moat 
valuable  monograph  of  palms,  Qavera  tk  Species 
Faliaanim  (3  vols.  Munich,  1823— 184C).  He  la  the 
author  of  a  number  of  other  botanical  woriu,  aoma 
of  which  are  monographa  of  orders  and  general 
also  ol  works  relative  to  tropical  America,  a* 
Die  PJUaaen  tmd  Thiert  da  Iropischen  AmeriJxi 
(Munich,  1831) ;  Dot  XamrtU,  die  Kraniheiten, 
das  ArzOhum  und  die  HeilraiUel  der  Urheiaohntr 
BratUiais  (Mnnich,  1843) ;  Syatema  Material  Media* 
VtgetahOis  Bnuilirmis  (Leip.  1843). 
He  also  contributed  largely  to  the 
Flora  Braeilieniis ;  and  wrote  Beit- 
rOge  sur  Ethnographte  u.  Sprachen- 
ttinde  Aineritas  zamalt  Brasilien 
(1867),  &a.  He  was  Professor  of 
Botany  and  Director  of  the  Botanic 
Garden  at  Munich.  HediediulSCS. 


long  wings,  vetj  short  beak  and  thiols,  and  no 
visible  legs^  given  as  a  mark  of  cadency  to  Uia 


D,a,i,.=..,  Google' 


UABTOS— MART. 


fooith  •on.    It  il  also  otbenr 
The  nuuilet  was  origmallf  ni 

ita  feat. 


HI  OMd  u  s  ohaTK 
mat  for  the  ourtm, 
ii  not  depriTsd  of 


HA'BTOS,  ■  town  ot  Andahiria,  Spun,  16  milea 
sonth'Weat  ol  the  dtv  of  Jmd,  on  a  iteep  hQl 
crowned  by  an  old  CMtle.  It  ia  resorted  to  for  ita 
mineml  watera.    Fop.  atated  at  11,000. 

HARTYB  (Qr.  manh/r,  a  witDMs),  tlie  name 
given  in  ecolesiaatical  history  to  thoee  who,  bj  their 
laul«M  profettioa  of  Chrittiaa  troth,  and  eaptdillj 
by  their  fortitude  in  mbmitting  to  death  itaeU 
mther  Uutn  alNUidonthcdi'  faith,  tnie  tba  'witneaa' 
of  thdr  blood  to  ila  (operhDmaii  oiigin.  Of  Qie  lanie 
DM  of  the  word,  there  are  rane  ezamplei  also  in 
tbe  N«w  Tatament,  aa  in  Acta  zzii.  S»,  Apoc.  ii 
13,  and  xTJi.  &,  Bnt  tUi  maaning,  aa  rta  technical 
and  catabliahed  aignificstion,  ia  denved  maiiJj  from 
•ocleaaatical  writraa.  I>nriilg  llie  PHMonticma  (q.  v) 
of  the  Chnstuna  in  the  firat  thraa  oaktnriea,  oon- 
teniponrjwTiteiB,aawdtiann  aa  Chriatian,  record 
that  many  Chriatiana  jirefemng  death  to  apaataay, , 
became  marlTn  or  wtbi«aaea  in  blood  to  toe  futh, 
often  in  drcnnutancea  of  the  ntmoat  beroUm.  The  > 
oonrage  and  oooataocT  of  tha  aufferers  woo  the 
highest  admiratdou  from  the  bnthren.  It  «*a  held 
a  special  privilege  to  receive  the  mutyr'i  benedic* ' 
tioo,  to  kiaa  Mb  chaioa,  to  vitit  bim  in  priaon,  or  to 
converse  with  Mm ;  and,  M  it  waa  held  that  their 
great  and  aaperabaiidant  merit  might,  in  the  e;  ea 
ot  the  eburcb,  compenaate  tor  the  Uzi^  and  wuk- 
Deaa  ot  leu  perfect  brethren,  a  praoboe  arose  by 
which  the  martTra  gave  to  thoee  ainneia  who  were 
nndei^oing  a  course  of  public  penance,  lettera  of 
^-'^ —  '-  *^-'-  K.-i.««  ;^  order  t^at  their 


martyrs'  eDterine  into  eternal  life,  was  called  tha 
*natu'  or  'bIrtS'  day,  and  a*  anch  waa  cele- 
brated with  peouliar  honour,  and  with  special  reli- 
gioiia  aervices-  Their  bodies,  cloQiea,  booka,  and 
the  other  object*  which  they  had  poaaeaaed  were 
hononred  as  RJUOB  (q.  v.),  and  their  tombs  were 
viiited  for  the  poipoae  of  asking  their  interoea' 
aioQ.  3ee  Invocation.  The  nmnber  of  martyra 
who  snffOTed  death  duri^  the  first  agea  of  Chriati- 
anity  has  been  a  aabject  of  great  controverav. 
The  eccIeaiaBtical  writers,  with  the  natoral  pride 
of  partiaaoaMp,  have,  it  can  hardly  be  donbted, 
leaned  to  the  uda  of  eiaggeratioti.  Soma  of  their 
itatementa  are  palpably  excessive;  and  Gibbon, 
hia  well-known  16th  ch^ter,  throwi  great  doubt 


of  t 


thonj^ 


of  the  church  hiatoriana.  Bat  It 
briefly  ahewn  by  Quiiot  in  hii 
celebrated  chapter  (ae«  MUman'a  OibboPt'l  Dtdint 
and  fall,  I  fiSS),  that  Gibbon'a  criticiama  are 
founded  on  unfair  and  partial  data,  and  that  even 
tha  very  authorities  on  wMch  he  relies  demon- 
atrate  the  fallacioiuneaa  of  his  conoluaionB.  Thoee 
who  an  inteteated  in  the  aubject  will  find  it 
dascusaed  with  much  leamine  and  oonaiderable 
moderation  in  Rninarfs  Ada  Primitiva  it  Sincera 
MaTtynan,  Conaiderahla  difference  of  opinion  also 
baa  eiiat^  a*  to  what,  in  the  exploration  of  the 
ancient  Christian  tombs  in  the  lUmian  oataoomba, 
are  to  be  considered  a«  signs  of  martyrdom.  Tha 
cMef  aimia,  in  the  opinion  of  older  critioa,  were 
(1),  tha  Tetters  B.  M. ;  (2),  the  figure  of  a  pahn- 
trea ;  and  (3),  a  phial  wiUl  the  remains  of  a  red 
liquor  believed  to  be  blood.     Each  of  thue  baa 


anity,  called  the  *  ptota-nartyr,*  was  the  deaoon- 
Stephen,  whoa*  death  ia  leoorded  Acts  vi  and  vii. 
The  proto-mattyr  of  Britain  waa  Alban  of  Vemlam, 
who  suffered  under  Diocletian  in  2S6  or  S03L 

HABTTBOXOOY,  a  calendar  of  martyn  anA 
other  saints  arranged  in  the  order  of  montha  and 
days,  and  iotendea  partly  to  be  read  in  the  pnblio 
ierrieea  of  the  ohnrcb,  partly  for  ^m  goidanoe  of 
tha  devotion  of  the  faitunl  towarda  the  aunfa  and 
mar^r^a.  The  nae  of  the  martyrolo^  i*  common 
both  to  the  Latin  and  to  the  Greek  ^nrch,  in  tha 
'  "er  of  wMch  it  ia  called  Matologion  (from  JfAl, 
lonth],  or  '  month-calendar.'  The  earliest  extani 
Greek  martyrology  or'  menology  dates  from  the  9th 
century.  It  waa  published  m  1727  by  Cardinal 
Drbini.  The  oldwt  Latin  martyrology  ia  that 
attributed  to  St  Jerome,  published  in  the  llth 
volume  of  the  collected  edition  tA  hia  works  by 
Vallara ;  but  the  genuineneaa  at  least  of  aomo  por< 
tions  of  it  is  more  than  donbtfoL  In  the  medieval 
period,  martrrologiea  wen  issned  in  Enfflaod  by 
Venerable  Bade ;  in  iVance  by  Flonu,  Ado,  and 
TTanard ;  and  in  Oermany  1^  St  Oall,  Nolter,  and 
Rabanoa  MaQm&  Ta«  so-called  'Bmnan  Martyr- 
obgy '  ia  designed  foe  the  entire  chnroh,  and  was 
published  by  anthority  of  Gregory  XIIL,  wiUi 
a  critical  commentary  \ij  the  ouemated  Cardinal 
Baronina  in  168&  A  still  m<H^  critical  edition  waa 
isaned  by  the  learned  Jesuit,  Eerebert  Boeweid. 

HASITT  is,  in  Hindn  Mythology,  the  god  of 
wind ;  his  wife  ia  Anjanft,  and  hia  son  "ffannrntr^ 
(q.  v.).  Bhtma,  the  second  of  the  F&n'd'n  princaa 
(see  MiElBnj)ni.TA},  ia  Ukewisa  oonndared  aa  an 
offspring  of  this  god. 

MABVEL  OF  PERU.    SeeJAi-iP. 

MARVJSLL,   Akdksw,  an  FngHah  writer  and 

politician,  was  bom  3I«t  Man;h  1621  at  WinestMd, 

~   Yorkahire,  his  father   being   master   of   Boll 

mmar-school  and   lecturer   of  Trinity  Chntch. 

.  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  after- 
warda  spent  several  yeara  in  various  parts  of  the 
oontinen^  'to  very  good  pnrpoae,'  according  to 
MiltuL  He  returned  to  England  in  1646  ;  in  166^ 
waa  emfJoyed  by  Oliver  C^mwell  aa  tutor  to  a 
Mr  Datum  1  in  1667i  became  aaaistant-aecretaiy 
Milton ;  and  in  165^  waa  choaan  by  Hull 
represent  it  in  parliament.  M.  a  parliamentsry 
eer  waa  both  singular  and  honourabla.  Without 
fortune  or  infiuence,  poaaesaing  no  commanding 
talent  as  a  speaker,  nor,  indeed,  brilliant  intellectuu 
Qualities  of  any  kind,  he  maintained  a  character  for 
mtegrity,  ao  genuine  and  high  that  hi*  oonstituencj 
felt  itself  honoored  by  his  condnot,  and  allowed  him 
to  the  end  of  his  life  '  a  handsome  pension.'  Other- 
wise, it  would  have  occBsionally  fared  ill  with  this 
inconraptible  patriot,  for  be  was  often  reduced  ta 
great  pecuniary  straits.  Charles  IL  made  many  bnt 
fruitless  efforts  to  win  him  over  to  the  court-par^. 
The  story  of  the  interview  between  M.  and  the 
Lord  Treasurer  Danby,  who  had  found  out  the 
patriot's  lod^gs  (with  difficulty) '  up  two  pair  of 
stairs,  in  one  of  the  little  courte  in  tha  Strand,'  is 
betieied  to  be  essentially  tnu^  and  indicates  » 
certain  noble  republican  umplici^  of  nature,  which 
cannot  be  too  higMy  admired.  M.  died  IStll 
August  1678,  not  without  suspicion  of  poison.  Hia 
writings^  partly  in  verse,  and  partly  m  proae,  ars 
aatiiical,  uiarp,  honest,  and  pithy  (like  hia  talk),  but 
they  relate  to  matters  of  temporary  interest,  and  arg 
now  well-nigh  forgotten.  The  best  edition  ia  the 
Eev.  A.  B.  Orosart'a  (4  vols.  1872-75). 
MABX,  Kasl.  See  Scpp.,  Vol  X. 
MASV,  Thk  BLXaaxD  Tibobi  (Heb.  Miriam,  Gr. 
Maria  or  ilariam),  called  in  the  New  Teatament 
'the  mother  of  Jesos'  (Matt  iL  11,  Acta  i.  14)^aa  the 


Uinm^PcnyCiOO^Il 


UABT— HAUT  I. 


mother  of  our  I/iTd  according  to  the  flesh, 
hi{^  hoDOOT  by  all  Chhitum  ;  and  her  in 
!■  invoked  with  a  higher  reUgioiii  wonhip  and  a 
firmer  confidence  than  that  ot  ail  the  other  saints, 
not  only  in  the  Roman  Church,  but  in  all  the  dms- 
tiao  churchca  of  the  Eaat—the  Greek,  the  Syrian, 
the  Coptic,  the  Abyssinian,  aad  the  Armenian.  Of 
herp^onal  history,  but  few  particulars  are  recorded 
in  ScriptuiSL  Some  details  are  filled  up  from  the 
works  of  the  early  Fathers,  especially  their  commen- 
taries or  deductiont  from  the  acnpCiual  narrative ; 
some  from  Om  apocryphal  writings  of  the  first  cen- 
turies, and  some  from  medieval  or  modem  legend- 
aries. The  twofold  genealogy  of  our  Lord  (Matt. 
L  1—16,  and  Luke  uL  23-^  coataiiu  the  only 
statement  regardiog  the  family  of  U.  which  the 
sacred  writers  have  left  The  genealogy  of  oar 
Lord  in  St  Matthew  is  traced  through  Joseph  ;  and 
M  it  is  plainly  assumed  that  M.  was  of  the  same 
family  with  her  husband  Joseph,  the  evidence  of  the 
descent  of  the  latter  from  David  is  equivslentfy  an 
evidence  of  the  origin  of  M.  from  the  same  rt^al 
house.  Bat  the  genealogy  of  Christ  as  traced  in 
8t  Luke  is  oommonlyheldto  be  the  proper  genealogy 
of  his  moUier  in  the  flesh,  Mary.  Hence  it  is  inferred 
that  the  Heli  of  this  genealogy  (Luke  iiL  23)  was 
the  father  of  M. ;  and  it  may  be  added,  in  coiifimia- 
tioQ  of  this  inference,  that  M.  is  called  in  the  Talmud 
the  ■  daughter  of  Heli,'  and  that  Epiphanius  (Hor. 
IzxriiL  n.  IT)  aays  her  parents  were  Anna  and 
'  Joachim,'  a  name  interoiansed  in  Scripture  (as 
S  Chron.  zzzvL  4}  with  BHiaM^im  of  which  name 
131  or  Heli  is  an  abridgment.  The  incidents  in  her 
personal  historr  recorded  tn  Scripture  are  few  in 
number,  and  amioat  entirely  refer  to  her  relatlona 
with  our  Lord.  They  will  be  found  in  Matt.  L, 
jL,  xiL ;  Luke  L,  a.;  John  iL,  xix. ;  and  Acta  L, 
where  the  last  notice  of  her  is  ol  her  '  persevering  in 
vrayer'  with  the  diadples  and  the  holy  women  at 
Jemgalem  aiter  one  Lord's  '       ' ' 


Bejmnd  the  few  leading  facts  which  will  be  found 
under  these  references,  the  Scripture  is  silent  as 
to  the  life  of  M.  during  the  presence  of  oar  Lord  on 
earth ;  nor  of  her  later  life  is  there  any  record  in  the 
canonical  Scriptures.  The  apocryphal  gospels,  en- 
titled 'The  Gospel  of  the  Nativity  of  Mi^,'and  the 
'  Protevangelioa  of  the  Birth  of  Christ,'  contain  some 
additional,  out,  of  course,  unauthentic  particulars  aa 
to  the  lineage,  birth,  and  early  years  of  M. ;  among 
which  is  the  miracoloua  gtory  of  her  betrothal  vith 
Joseph,  immortalised  by  the  pencil  of  Raphael, 
according  to  which  narrative  Joseph  was  selected 
from  among  all  who  had  been  proposed  as  euiton 
for  the  hand  of  M.  by  the  supernatural  sign  of  a 
dove  issuing  from  hia  rod  and  alighting  upon  his 
head.  See  Protevangelion,  cap.  viii  As  to  her 
history  after  the  ascension  of  her  son,  the  traditions 
differ  widely.  A  letter  ascribed  to  tlie  Council  of 
Ephesas  speaks  of  her  as  having  Uved  with  John  at 
that  city,  where  she  died,  and  wsa  buried.  Another 
^istle,  nearly  contemporaneous,  tells  that  she  died 
and  was  buried  at  Jerusalem,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Mount  of  Olives.  Connected  vrith  this  tradition  is 
the  incident  which  has  so  often  formed  a  subject  of 
sacred  art,  of  the  apostles  coming  to  her  tomb  on 
the  third  day  after  her  interment,  and  finding  the 
tomb  empty,  but  exhaling  an  '  exceeding  sweet 
fragrance.  On  this  tradition  is  founded  the  belief 
of  her  having  been  assumed  into  heaven,  which  is 
celebrated  in  the  festival  of  the  Assumption.  The 
date  of  her  death  is  commonly  fixed  at  the  year  of 
our  Lord  63,  or,  according  to  another  account,  the 
yew  48,  Another  tradition  makes  her  survive  the 
crndfiiion  only  II  years. 

Many  theological  qneetions  regarding  the  Virgin 
M.  have  been  raised  among  Christians  m  the  various 


of  place  her& 
present  interest,  has 
head.    See  Imicu- 


chnrches,  which  would  be  quite 
One  of  these,  which  possesses  ~ 
been  treated  onder  a  separate 

"asczpTios     "^- 

explicitly  at 
even  certain  phn 
im^y  that  childTen  were  bom 
of  Jesus,  as  &At  of  his  being  called  (Matt.  i.  25,  Luk« 
ii.  7)  her  'Jirtlhom  son,'  and  that  of  James  and  others 
being  more  than  once  called  '  brothers  of  the  Lord.' 
On  the  latter  argnment,  no  critic  acquainted  witb 
the  wide  scripturd  use  of  th«  word  'brother'  would 
ever  rely.  The  former,  whirji  was  urged  anciently 
by  Hetvidins  and  others,  but  was  rejected  by  the 
unanimous  voice  of  tradition,  is  founded  on  a  phrasa 
susceptible  of  equal  latitude  of  interpretation.  The 
pettietnal  virginity  of  M.  is  held  as  a  Arm  u±icle  of 
belief  in  the  Roman  and  Eastern  ohurche*.  Pro- 
teataute  hold  nothing  positively  on  the  subject 
The  contreversies  regB^lng  the  Virgin  M-  have 
reference  to  the  lawfulaess  of  the  worship  which  is 
rendered  to  her  in  xnne  Christian  communities.    See 

MlSIOLATTtr. 

HART  I.,  qaeen  of  England,  daughter  of  Henry 
VllL  by  his  first  wife,  Catharine  m  Aragon,  wu 
bom  at  Greenwich  on  the  18th  of  February  1S17. 
She  was  in  her  early  years  a  great  favourite  with 
her  father,  who  had  her  carefully  educated  after  the 
masculine  fashion  of  her  time.  Erasmus  praises 
particularly  the  style  of  her  Latin  letters.  At  the 
age  of  seven,  she  was  betrothed  to  the  Emperor 
Charles  V. ;  but  when  Henry  soaght  a  divorce  from 
Queen  Catharine,  the  Sponii^  monarch  broke  off  the 
engagement  Her  father  then  tried  to  marry  her  to 
Francis  L  of  France,  but  his  design  did  not  succeed. 
Francis,  however,  asked  her  far  ms  second  son,  the 
Duke  of  OrleoQS,  bnt  Henry  in  turn  refused.  After 
tie  birth  of  EliEabelh,  Henry's  affections  were 
diverted  to  that  princess ;  and  when  James  V.  of 
Scotland  sought  the  hand  of  M.,  it  was  refused,  on 
the  ground  that  the  issue  of  such  anion  might 
imperil  the  right  of  Anne  Boleyn's  children  to  the 
crown.    This  was  virtually  condemning  M. 


on  account  of  her  training,  her  natural  tendencies, 
and  the  wrongs  of  her  mother,  she  was  already 
closely  allied.  Several  other  matrimonial  negoti^ 
tions,  with  the  Prince  of  Portugal,  the  Duke  of 
Cleves,  and  the  Duke  of  Bavana,  also  came  to 
nothing.  About  this  time,  she  was  in  great  danger 
of  losing  her  life,  on  account  of  her  st^ng  attach- 
ment to  her  moiliar's  interests.  Towards  the  close 
of  Henry's  reign,  better  proapecla  opened  ont  for 
her ;  in  1544,  she  was  restored  to  her  place  in  the 
line  of  succession,  of  which  she  had  been  deprived, 
and  she  lived  on  very  good  terms  with  Catharine 
Parr,  the  lost  of  her  father's  numerous  wives.  Dur- 
ing the  reipi  of  her  half-brother,  Edward  VL,  she 
lived  in  retirement,  but  had  three  more  ofTeiB  of 
marriage—from  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  the  Mark- 
graf  of  Brandenburg,  and  the  Infante  ot  Portugal 
— none  of  which  was  accepted.  On  the  death  of 
Edward  in  15S3,  she  was  proclaimed  queen  ;  and 
after  a  brief  and  imbecile  struggle  on  the  part  of 
those  who  advocated  the  claims  of  Lady  Jane  Grey, 
was  crowned  in  October  of  the  same  year  by  Stepbeo 
Gardiner,  Bishop  of  Winchester.  A  fierce  spirit  to 
favour  of  the  papacy  soon  b^an  to  shew  itself, 
although  it  does  not  appear  that  M.  herself  was  at 
first  disposed  to  be  severe;  she  even  occasioDBlly 
interfered  to  mitigate  the  cruelties  of  Gardiner  and 
Boruier ;  bat  after  her  marriage  with  Philip  of 
Spun  (July  25,  1564),  to  whose  fatber  she  hod 
been  betrothed  many  years  before,  a  worse  spirit 
took  possession  of  her,  or  at  least  worse  counsel! 


,,  Google 


MABT  (St)  AND  ALL  SAINTS-MAET  8TBWAET,  QUBEN  OF  SCOTS. 


prevailed;  and  thote  bloody  penecutioiw  begao 
wlikh  have  given  her  ui  odiona  name  in  hiitoiy. 
Her  domestic  life  ww  wretched ;  Philin,  whom 
■ba  loved  with  a  morbid  pawiaa,  proved  a  soar, 
■elfidi,  and  heartless  husband.  She  Had  no  children, 
and  exaaperation  and  lonelinew  working  upon  a 
temper  naturally  obstioate  and  sollen,  without 
doabt  rendered  her  more  compliant  to  the  laa- 
giiinaiy  policy  of  the  reactionary  bishopa.  Fortu- 
nately for  England,  her  reign  wai  brief.  She  died 
— after  much  snSTeriDE  from  dropsy  and  nervooi 
debility— November  17,  1659.  She  has  been  made 
the  subject  of  a  tragedy  by  Alfred  Tennyton. 

MART  (St)  AND  ALL  SAINTS,  LINCOLN, 
commonly  called  LINCOLN  COLLEGE,  Oxford, 
was  founded  for  a  rector  and  seven  fellows,  in  142T| 
by  Kichard  Fleming,  Bishop  of  Lincoln.  In  1475, 
Gliomas  Scot,  commonly  called  Eothenun,  from  the 
place  of  his  birth,  then  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  after- 
wards Arehbishop  of  York,  fioisbed  the  building, 
added  five  feUoHsbips,  and  K*ve  statutes  *-  "-- 
society.  The  object  of  both  founder*  ' 
ertirpato  the  WycUffito  heresy,  bjf  training  up 
theologians  for  that  purpose.  The  fellowshipe 
were  restricted  to  the  diocesea  of  Lincoln,  York,  and 
Wells.  By  tiie  ordinances  nnder  17  and  18  Vict  o. 
61,  they  are  thrown  open,  the  rector  and  fellow* 
are  empowered  to  redace  the  nnmber  to  ten,  aa 
vacanoie*  occur,  should  this  seent  expedient,  and 
their  Talne  ia  not  to  exceed  £300.  Varions  bene- 
{aotors  have  bestowed  scholarahips  on  the  college 
to  the  number  of  S4.  By  the  ordiaancea,  IB  of 
theaa  are  thrown  open,  of  about  £80  per  annnm, 
and  tenable  for  10  years  from  matrioulation,  which 
may  be  extended  to  20  if  the  rector  and  fellows 
think  fit.    This  college  preaents  to  10  benefices. 

MART  HALL  (Sfl,  Oxford.  In  1239,  Hi_, 
Eelpe,  a  citizen  of  Oxford,  presented  a  tenement, 
~i  the  site  of  the  present  St  Mary  Hall,  to  the 


lege  converted  the  parsonage  into  a  place 
luallygrewin'         '   ' 
Bcbolanihipa  0 
tenable  for  four  years,  aud  1  exhibition. 

MABT  STEWART,  QUEEN  OV  800TS. 
This  beantiful  and  accomplidied,  but  most  unhappy 
princess,  was  the  daughter  of  King  James  V.  of 
«"'>*i«nd  by  his  aaoond  wife,  1 
ter  of  Claude,  Duke  of  Oi 
of  Orleans,  Ihike  of  Longnevill^ 
bom  at  Linlithgow,  on  the  8th  of  December  1M2. 
Har  misfortunes  may  be  said  to  have  b^nn  with 
her  birth.  Its  tidings  reached  her  father  on  hit 
deathbed  at  Falkland,  bnt  brought  him  no  oonsola- 
tion.  'The  devil  go  with  iti'  he  muttered,  as  his 
tiioughts  wandered  riack  to  the  marriage  with  BruM'i 
daa^ter,  which  brought  the  crown  of  Scotland  to 
the  Stewarts — '  it  cane  from  a  woman,  and  it  will 
end  in  a  woman  I '  hlory  became  a  queen  befora 
she  was  a  week  old.  Before  ahe  was  a  twelvemonib 
old,  the  Beeent  Arran  hod  premised  her  in  marriage 
to  Prince  Edward  ot  England,  and  the  Scottiin 
parliament  had  declared  the  promise  nulL  War 
with  En^and  followed,  and  at  Pinkie  Clench  the 
Scots  met  a  defeat  only  leas  diaostraus  than  Floddeo. 
But  their  avendon  to  an  £lngliah  match  waa  uncon- 
querable; they  hastened  to  place  the  young  queen 
beyond  the  reach  of  English  arms,  in  the  island  ot 
Inchmahome,  in  the  Lake  of  Monteitb^and  to  oETer 
her  ID  inarTiBKe  to  the  eldest  son  of  Henry  IL  of 
France,  and  Catharine  de'  Medici  The  offer  waa 
accepted ;  and  in  July  1S48  a  French  fleet  carried 
Mary  fnun  Dumbarton,  on  the  Oyd^  to  RoacoS^ 


in  Brittanj,  whence  ahe  wa«  at  once  conveyed  to 
St  Geimaiu-en-Laye,  and  there   affianced  to  the 

Dauphin. 

Her  next  ten  yean  were  passed  at  the  French 
oourt.  where  she  waa  carefully  educated  along  with 
the  king's  family,  receiving  instmction)  in  t£e  art 
of  making  verses  from  the  famous  Boosard.  At  a 
somewhat  later  period,  she  had  the  great  Scottiah 
scholar  Buchanan  for  her  XAtin  master.  On  the 
24th  of  April  1658.  her  marriage  with  the  Dauphin, 
who  waa  aboot  two  years  j^onnger  than  herself 
was  celebrated,  with  every  iarcain»t»nco  of  pomp 
and  splendour,  in  the  Church  of  Notre-Dame,  at 
Paris.  It  was  agreed,  on  the  part  of  Scotland, 
that  her  husband  ahoold  have  the  title  of  Kin^  of 
ticabl ;  but  this  was  not  enough  for  the  graaning 
ambition  of  France,  and  M.iry  was  betrayed  into 
the  airnatiire  of  a  secret  deed,  by  which,  if  she 
died  childless,  both  her  Scottish  realm  and  her 
right  of  suoceision  to  the  English  crown  {she  was 
the  great-grand'danghter  of  King  Henry  YIL)  wero 
conveyed  to  France.  On  the  10th  of  July  1£59, 
the  death  al  the  French  king  called  her  hnaband 
to  the  throne  by  the  titls  of  Francis  U.  The 
soverument  paased  into  the  hands  of  the  qaeen'a 
kinsfolks,  the  Duke  of  Ouise  and  the  Cardinal  of 
Lorraine ;  hut  their  rule  was  short-lived.  The  feebls 
and  sickly  king  died  on  the  6th  of  December  15G0, 
when  the  reina  of  power  were  grasped  by  the  queen- 
mother,  Catharine  de'  Medici,  as  regent  for  her  son, 
Charlea  IX.  Maiy  most  have  been  prepared,  nnder 
almost  any  oircumstsnce*,  to  quit  a  court  which  waa 
now  swayed  by  one  whom,  during  her  brief  reign, 
she  had  taunted  witb  being  '  a  merchant's  daughter* 
But  there  were  other  reasons  for  her  deiNuture 
frem  France.  Her  presence  was  ui^etly  needed 
in  Scotland,  which  the  death  of  her  mother,  a  few 
months  before,  hod  left  without  a  government,  at  m 
moment  when  it  was  convulsed  by  the  throes  of  the 
Befonnation.  Her  kinsmen  of  Lorraine  bad  ambi- 
tious projects  for  her  marriage ;  great  schemes  were 
baaed  on  her  nearness  of  sucoesaion  to  the  English 
crown;  and  both  these,  it  was  thought,  might  be 
more  eucceasfully  followed  out  when  she  was  seated 
on  her  native  throne. 

She  sailed  from  Calais  on  the  15th,  and  arrived  at 
Leitb  on  the  19th  of  Auguit  1561,  having  escaped 
theEii^ish  ships-of-warmiich  Elizabeth  despatched 
to  intercept  her.  She  wept  as  the  shores  of  France 
faded  from  her  suh^  anil  her  tears  Sowed  anew 
when  she  beheld  the  mdenes*  and  poverty  of  Scot- 
land. Her  government  b^an  auspiciously.  Hie 
Reformation  claimed  to  have  received  the  sanction 
of  the  Scottish  parliament,  and  if  Mary  did  not 
formally  acknowledge  the  claim,  aha  was  at  least 
content  to  leave  afiairs  as  she  found  them,  stipu- 
lating only  for  liberty  to  use  her  own  religion 

a  liberty  which  Knox  and  a  few  of  the  more 
~~'^ema  Refoimera  denounced  as  a  sin  against 
law  of  Qod.  She  is  said  to  have  rejected  the 
-riolent  counsel*  of  the  Soman  Catholics ;  it  is 
cerbuu  that  ahe  surrounded  herself  with  Pretestant 
advisen,  her  chief  minister  being  her  illegitimata 
brother,  James  Stewart,  an  able  if  ambitious  Btat«a- 
man,  whom  she  soon  afterwards  created  Earl  of 
Murray.  Under  his  guidance,  in  the  autumn  lA 
1562,  she  made  a  progress  to  the  north,  whioh,  what- 
ever was  its  deugn,  ended  in  the  defeat  and  death 
of  the  Earl  of  Hontly,  the  uowerM  chief  ot  the 
Roman  Catholic  party  in  Scotland. 

Meanwhile,  the  coarts  of  Europe  were  busy  with 
schemes  for  Mary's  niarriaae.  The  king  ot  Sweden, 
the  ki^E  of  Denmaik,  the  king  of  France,  the  Arch- 
duke Charles  of  Austria,  Don  Carlos  ot  Spain,  the 
Duke  of  Ferrara,  the  Duke  of  Nemours,  tne  Duke 
of  AnJoD,  the  Scottish  Earl   of   Arran,  and  the 


,.  Cookie 


MAEY  STEWABT,  QUEEN  OF  30018. 


Engliah  Eirl  of  Leicester  irera 
'd*tM  for  her  hmod.  Her  own  , 
I)Ml  Culoa,  the  heir  of  -vhat  wna  then  tiie  greiteet 
monarchy  in  Chriitendom ;  and  it  waa  not  nntil 
all  bopea  of  obtaining  him  were  quenched,  that  she 
thon^t  aeriooaly  of  any  other.  Her  chaioe  fell, 
■omewhat  sndduily,  on  her  connn,  Beniy  Stewart, 
Lord  Daraley,  son  of  the  Earl  d{  Lennox,  by  hia 
•tnairiaEa  with  a  cranddiiaKhter  of  King  Huuy 
TIL  of  England.  He  wai  thus  among  the  nearect 
liein  to  the  Engliah  crown,  and  bia  claum  to  the 
-•occeaaion  were  believed  to  hare  the  aqpport  of 
the  gTMt  body  of  Englijih  Roman  Catbolioa.  Bat 
•xcept  thia,  and  his  good-looks,  he  bad  no  other 
TCOommendation.  Ha  wai  weak,  needy,  insolent, 
-•nd  vidoni ;  bit  religion,  anch  as  it  waa,  was  Bomau 
CaUiolio  1  bil  hoilM  had  few  friends  and  many 
enemies  in  Scotland ;  and  ha  waa  two  or  three 
years  youuKer  than  Mary.  Her  best  frienda,  both 
Boman  Ca^olio  and  Protestant,  warned  ber  against 
him,  but  in  Tain.  The  nuuriage  was  eelebnted  at 
Holyrood  on  the  29tb  July  15GS.  It  ws«  the  signal 
{or  an  insorreotion  by  Murray  and  the  Hamiltooa, 
who  hoped  to  bo  joined  by  the  whole  Protestant 
party.  Bat  their  taope  was  disappointed ;  and  the 
qaeen,  taking  the  field  in  person,  at  onoe  quelled 
tiie  revolt,  and  chased  the  rebels  beyond  the  Tweed. 

Her  triumph  was  acarcely  over,  when  her  eyes 
b^an  to  open  to  the  great  mistake  of  her  marriage. 
Eer  hosbaod's  worthleSEaesS  and  folly  became  only 
-too  apparent ;  she  was  disgusted  liy  his  debanchery, 
And  sJartned  by  hi*  arrogance  and  ambition.  She  had 
eiytn  Mm  the  title  of  King,  but  he  now  demanded 
that  the  crowa  ahoold  be  secured  to  ^™  for  life, 
And  that  if  the  queen  died  without  issue,  it  should 
deacend  to  his  beira.  Uarv  hesitated  to  comply 
with  a  demand  which  would  have  set  aside  the  settled 
order  of  aaccession ;  and  what  she  refused  to  grant 
1>y  favoQT,  the  king  prepared  to  extort  by  force. 

Maiy*!  chief  minister,  since  Murray's  rebellion, 
had  been  David  Riccio,  a  mean-looking  Italian,  of 
great  ability  and  many  accomplishments ;  bat  gener^ 
ally  bated  beyond  the  palace  walls  as  a  base-bom 
foreigner,  a  court  favoorite,  and  a  Boman  Catholic 
Ilie  king  and  Eicdo  had  been  sworn  friends,  shar- 
ing the  same  table,  and  even  sleeping  in  the  same 
bM. ;  bat  the  king  was  now  persnadM  that  it  was 
Bicdo  who  waa  the  real  obstacle  to  his  deaigos  upon 
-the  crown.  In  thia  belief,  ha  entered  into  a  formal 
compact  witli  Murray,  Kuthven,  Morton,  and  other 
cht^  of  the  Protestant  party,  undertaking,  on  his 
part,  to  prevent  their  attainder,  or  procure  their 
pardon,  and  to  support  and  advance  the  Protest- 
ant religion;  while  they,  on  the  other  part,  bound 
themaelvea  to  procure  the  settlement  of  the  crown 
upon  him  and  nis  heir%  and  to  take  and  slay,  if 
need  were,  even  in  the  queen's  palace  and  presence, 
every  one  who  opposed  iL  The  result  of  this 
oonspirocy  was  the  murder  of  Riccio  on  the  0th 
«t  March  1566,  the  king  leading  the  way  into  liie 
-queen's  cabinet,  and  holding  her  in  his  jjiasp,  while 
uie  mnrderers  dragged  the  poor  Italian  into  an 


and  Knox  pronounced  to  he,  'a  just  act,  and 
worthy  of  all  prMse.'  When  Iii^uy  learned  what 
had  been  done,  she  broke  out  in  reproaches  against 
the  king,  as  to  btune  for  alL  '  I  shall  be  your  wife 
no  longer,'  ahe  told  him,  *  and  shall  never  like  well 
-tiU  I  cause  you  have  as  sorrowful  a  heart  as  I  have 
at  this  present.'  As  had  been  agreed  beforehand 
amono  the  conspirators,  Mary  was  Kept  prisoner  in 
rhiie  t^  king,  of  his  own  authority. 


Holyrood . 

dismissed  the  parliament  wl 

Mnrray  and  hia  anociatet 


I  thua  far  successful;  but  Mary  n 


sooner  pereeived  its  objects,  than  ahe  set  herself  at 
woi^  to  defeat  tbesn.  Dissembling  her  indignation 
at  her  hnsband'a  treachary  and  the  aavage  onbags 
in  which  he  was  the  rin^eader,  she  ancceeded  by 

spiratora,  and  in  pwinading  him  not  only  to  escape 
-with  her  from  their  power  by  a  midnimt  flight  to 
Dunbar,  but  to  iasne  a  pmuamation  m  which  he 
denied  all  complicitT  m  their  deaigoa.  The  con- 
spiracy- was  now  at  an  end;  Bnthvan  and  M<nt<i« 
fled  to  England,  irtiile  Murray,  by  renouncing  their 


and  the  ktog,  hated  by  both  sides,  because 
betrayed  botn  aides,  became  an  object  of  mingled 
abboireuoe  and  oinitempt. 

It  waa  an  aggravation  of  the  murder  of  Bicdo 
tiatitwas  coomiitted,  if  not  in  theqoeen'a  presence 
at  least  within  a  few  yards  of  her  person,  only  three 
months  before  ahe  gave  birth  (on  the  19th  June 
1666)  to  the  prince  who  became  King  James  TL 
As  that  event  drew  near,  the  queen's  aflecticai 
for  her  husband  seemed  to  revive ;  but  the  chongg 
was  only  momentary ;  and  before  liie  boy's  baptism, 
in  December,  her  estrangement  from  the  kii^  was 
greater  than  ever.  Divorce  waa  openly  diacossed 
m  her  presence,  and  darker  designs  weie  not 
obaeorely  hinted  at  among  her  friends.  The  king, 
on  bis  port,  qjoke  of  iMving  the  coontry;  bat 
before  bis  prepontions  were  completed,  he  fell  iU 
of  the  small-poi  at  Olasgow.  This  whs  about  the 
9th  of  January  IfiGT.  _  On  the  2Sth,  Mary  went  to 
see  him,  and  travelling  by  easy  stages,  brought 
him  to  Edinbargh  on  the  31st  He  was  lodged  in 
a  small  mansion  beside  the  Kirk  of  the  Field,  nearly 
on  the  spot  where  the  soatb-eaat  comer  of  the 
University  now  stands.  There  Mary  visited  him 
daily,  and  slept  for  two  nights  in  a  room  below  his 
bedchamber.  She  passed  the  evening  of  Sunday 
the  0th  of  February  by  his  bedside,  talking  cheer- 
fully and  affectionately  with  him,  although  she  is 
said  to  have  dropped  one  remark  which  gave  him 
uneasy  forebodings — that  it  was  much  aboat  that 
time  twelvemonth  that  Riccio  wsa  mnrdeted.  She 
left  liiru  between  ten  and  eleven  o'clock  to  take 


cesaed  In  the  palace,  when,  about  two  hours  after 
midnight,  the  bouse  in  which  the  king  slept  was 
blown  ap  by  gunpowder ;  and  hia  lif el^  body  waa 
found  in  the  neighbouring  gaiden. 

The  chief  actor  in  this  tragedy  was  undoubtedly 
James  Hepburn,  Earl  Bothwell,  a  needy,  reckless, 
vainglorious,  profligato  Doble,  who,  since  Murray's 
revolt,  and  still  more  mnoe  Ricdo's  mnrder,  had 
enjoyed  a  large  shore  of  the  queen's  favour.  But 
there  were  suspicions  that  the  queen  hendf  was 
not  wholly  ignorant  of  the  plot,  and  these  tnspi- 
cious  oould  not  but  be  strengthened  by  what 
followed.  On  the  12th  of  April,  Bothwell  was 
bron^t  to  a  mock-trial,  and  acquitted ;  on  the 
24tli,  he  intercepted  the  qneen  on  her  -way  from 
Linlithgow  to  Edinburgh,  and  carried  her,  witii 
scarcely  a  show  of  resistance,  to  Dunbar.  On  the 
7th  of  May,  he  was  divorced  from  Uie  young  and 
comely  wife  whom  he  had  married  Lttle  more  than 
a  twelvemonth  before ;  on  the  12th,  Maiy  pnUicly 
^rdoned  his  seizure  of  her  person,  and  created  him 
bnke  of  Orkney ;  and  on  the  IGth— only  three 
months  after  her  husiund's  murder— ahe  married 
the  man  whom  every  one  regarded  as  his  murderer. 

This  fatal  step  at  once  arrayed  her  noblas  in  arms 
•tfainst  her.  She  was  able  to  lead  an  army  against 
them,  but  it  melted  away  without  striking  a  blow 
on  the  field  of  Carbetry  {IGth  June),  when  nothing 
was  left  to  her  but  to  abandon  Bothwell,  and  sor- 
render  herself  to  t^e  Confederated  Lords.     They 


,,  Google 


MABY  STEWAET,  QUEEN  OP  SCOTS. 


led  h«r  to  Ediabargh,  where  the  iiuiilti  of  the 
rabbla  and  grief  at  partiog  with  Bothwell  threw 
her  into  mou  m  franzy,  that  ahe  lefoaed  all  nonriih- 
fnent,  Mtd  mihing  to  the  window  of  the  room  in 
which  she  wu  kept  prisoner,  called  for  help,  aod 
flhewed  beneU  to  the  people  haU-oaked,  with  her 
hair  hanging  aboot  her  ears. 

From  Eduibnreh,  ehe  wu  homed  to  Loch  Leven, 
where,  on  the  24tQ  of  Julf,  ehe  woi  prevailed  opoD 
to  mgD  an  act  of  abdication  in  faronr  of  her  eon, 
who,  five  daj^  afterwards,  was  crowned  at  Stirling. 
Escaping  bma  her  island-prison  on  the  2d  of  Uay 
1668,  she  found  heieelf  in  a  few  davs  at  the  head  of 
an  anay  of  6000  men.  On  the  12tii,  it  waa  met  and 
defeated  1^  the  Begent  Morrar  at  T-angiride,  near 
Olaagow.  Fear  days  afterwards,  in  spite  of  the 
«ntr«ddeB  of  her  best  friends,  Mary  crossed  the  Sol- 
way,  and  threw  herself  on  the  protecfeioD  of  Qoeen 
Elizabeth,  only  to  find  herself  a  prisoner  for  life. 
From  Carlisle,  her  first  plaoe  of  captivity,  she  waa 
taken,  in  July,  to  Bolton ;  from  Bolton,  she  was 
canieo,  in  Febrnary  1569,  to  Tatbury ;  from  Tutbuty, 
ahe  paved  in  ■nooesaion  to  WingQeld,  to  Coventry,  to 

™ th,  to  Sheffield  *- " — ' j  ._  .-.l._.i._ 

removed,  lait 

IT  15SS,  there  to  be  triad  on  a  cjuuve  oi 
complicity  in  a  plot  against  the  life  of  Eliabeth. 
Sentence  of  death  was  pronounced  against  hec  on 
tiie  26th  of  October ;  bnt  it  was  not  until  the  lat  of 
February  1037  that  Elizabeth  took  courage  to  sign 
Ihe  warrant  of  execution.  It  waa  carried  into 
«ffecl  on  the  8th,  when  Mary  laid  her  head  upon 
the  block  with  the  dignitr  of  a  qneen  and  the  con- 
•tancy  and  resignation  <d  a  martyr.  Five  months 
afterwards,  her  body  waa  boried  with  great  pomp 
at  PeterbiRMugh,  wheuce,  in  1612,  it  was  removed 
to  King  Henry  VIL'a  Chapel  at  Weatminster,  where 
it  still  lies  in  a  sumptuous  tomb  elected  by  King 
James  VL 

The  cbaracfer  of  Mary  was  long  one  of  the  most 
fiercely-vexed  questions  of  history,  and  is  still  in 
debate,  althoueh  the  gi'eat  preponderance  oF  authority 
•eenu  now  to  be  on  the  side  of  those  who  believe  in 
her  criminal  love  for  Bothwell  and  her  guilty  know- 
ledge of  bis  oonspiracy  i^ainst  her  husband's  life. 
Her  beauty  and  accomplishments  have  never  been 
disputed.  '  She  was  ocnfessed  by  every  one ' — aaya 
Mr  Joseph  Robertson,  one  of  tiie  latest  writers  on  her 
lifo— 'she  was  confessed  by  every  one  to  be  the  most 
<:hamiiiig  princess  of  her  time.  Her  large  sharp 
features  might  perhaps  have  been  thougbt  handaome 
rather  than  beautifiu,  bat  for  the  winning  vivacity 
and  high  joyoos  spirit  which  beamed  through  them. 
It  has  beeo  qnestianed  whether  her  eyes  were  hazel 
or  dark  gray,  bat  there  is  no  queation  as  to  their  star- 
Uke  brightness.  Her  complexion,  altboagh  freah  and 
clear,  woald  seem  to  have  been  without  the  brillianoe 
«o  common  among  oar  island  beauties.     Her  hair 

brown  or  black,  turning  gray  long  before 
Her  bust  waa  full  and  6nay  shaped,  and  she  carried 
her  laive  stately  figure  with  majeatv  and  grace.  She 
shewed  to  advantage  on  horeebacK,  and  still  more 
in  the  danoe.  The  charm  of  ber  soft,  aweet  voice 
is  described  as  irresistible;  and  she  aang  well, 
accompanying  herself  on  the  hani,  the  viriinala, 
and  still  oft^sr  on  the  late,  trbich  set  off  the 
beauty  of  her  long,  delicate,  white  hand.  The 
u-».,«.;,^_  hg:^   that  hand  waa  admired  may 

'ng  and  in 

slled.     Her 

r  was  sprightly,  a&ble,  kindly,  frank  per- 
il if  jocUBd  by  the  '    * 


guagea,  waa  well  and  variously  informed,  talked 
admuabiy,  and  wrote  both  in  proas  and  in  venS) 
always  with  ease,  and  scanetimea  with  gr«c«  or 
vigour.  In  the  ring  of  which  ahe  waa  the  oentre, 
wei«  atateameu  like  Murray  and  Lethington,  sol- 
dier* like  Eyrkoaldy  of  Grange,  man  of  I^ten  like 
Buchanan,  Lesley,  Sir  Ricbsra  Maltland,  and  Sir 
James  Mdville.  The  first  poet  of  France  pnUished 
verses  deploring  his  abs^ice  from  hw  briUiaDt 
court;  Damville,  the  flower  of  French  chivaliy, 
repined  at  the  fate  which  called  him  away  fnun 
it  so  soon ;  BrantAme  and  the  younger  Scaliger 
delighted  to  speak,  in  old  age,  of  the  days  which  tC^ 

J  >-— -efli  ita  root' 

raae-writiii0i  I 

devotion  ot  P. _, 

1  his  Reciuil  de»  Lellre*  dt  Marie  Btiuai.  Setting 
aide  the  twelve  sooneta  which  she  is  said  to  have 


less  than  300  lines,  an 
no  remarkable  merit, 
eleven  stanzas  on  the  < 
Franci*  U.,  printed  t 


now  known.  I&j  have 
The  beat  is  the  poem  ot 
Leath  of  her  first  husband, 
Brantdme.  The  longest  is 
a  Mtdilatiaa  ot  a  hundred  lines,  written  in  1S7!^ 
and  published  two  yean  afterwarda  by  her  ever 
faithful  foUower,  Bidiop  Lesley  of  Eoaa.  AQ  are 
in  French,  except  one  sonnet,  which  is  in  Italian. 
The  sweetly  simpls  lines  beginning  '  Adieu,  ploisant 
pays  de  France,  so  often  ascribed  to  her,  are  the 
work  of  A.  O.  Meuanier  de  Quarlon,  a  French 
journalist,  who  died  in  1780.  A  volume  of  French 
verse  on  the  Iiulitution  <if  a  Prirux,  which  she 
wrote  for  the  use  of  her  son,  has  been  lost  since 
1627,  along  with  a  Latin  speech  in  vindication  <rf 
learned  women,  which,  when  no  more  than  thirteen, 
she  delivered  tn  the  ball  of  the  Louvre,  in  preseBoa 
of  the  French  court. 

To  enumerate  all  that  has  been  written  on  Mary 
would  fill  a  volume.  Among  the  chief  works  are 
S.  Jebb's  De  Vita  e(  S^na  Oatis  Maria  Scotorum 
Regiwx  (Lend  I7ZS,  2  vols.  foL) ;  J.  Anderson's 
CoUectioia  Rdating  to  the  Hilary  of  Mary,  Queen 
0/;  BooOand  (Lond.  1727—1728,  4  vols.  4to]; 
Bishop  Keith's  Hitiory  of  lite  Affairt  of  Chmh 
and,  SiaU  in  ScotloTtd  (Edm.  1734,  foL ;  1844— 1850^ 
3  vol*.  8vo};  W.  Goodall's  Examination  tjf  Ae 
LeUert  said  to bt  loriilen  buMary,  Quun of  SmU,  to 
Jamt»,  Earl  o/"  Bothiedi  (Edio.  1764,  2  vols.  8v^ 
Principal  Kobertson's  Hittory  of  Scotland;  W. 
Tjrtlers  Inquiry  bUo  Oit  JSnidatee  againtl  Mary, 
Qua»o/S(»(s(Edin.l75B,8vQ;  Lond.  17«),2vols. 
8vo);  M.  Imh^b  Bittory  of  ScoOanil;  G.  Chalmers's 
lAfe  of  Mary,  Qattn  of  SeoU  (1818,  2  vols.;  1322, 
3vo1b.);  T.S.Tyilec'a  History  tfBcoUaitd;  Prince 
Labonoff"s  Bfcueii  da  LfUrta  de  Marie  Stuart 
(1844);  David  Laing's  edition  of  John  £noi'* 
Hilary  of  IM  Riformation  (1846—1848);  Mia* 
Agnea  Stnckland's  Lioa  rf  the  Qaeena  of  Scotland 
(Bdin.  13G0— 1S59, 8  vols.  8to)  ;  A  de  Monta^don's 
Latin  TJianet  of  Mary  Stuart  (Lond.  1865,  8vo) ; 
Prince  Labtmoff's  Notice  tur  la  CoUufion  dtt 
PoTtraite  de  Marie  Stuart  (1856) ;  M.  Migaef  * 
Sigloire  de  Marie  Stuart  (1S52) ;  H.  Teutef  s  Lettres 
de  Marie  Stuart  (1869) ;  M.  Cheruel's  Marie  Stwart 
€t  Catheritie  de  Medici*  (1858) ;  Robertson's  Cala- 
loguee  qfihe  JemeU,  Dretiex,  Furniture,  Boota,  and 
Fainting*  t^ Mary,  e^neen  qf  ScoU  {1BG3) ;  Hosaek'a 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  and  lierAeauert(lb70~'13H\; 
bietonea  by  Petit  and  De  FLmdre  (1374),  Chonte- 
UuM  (1876),  Leader  (18S0),  and  the  interesting 
document  by  [Claude  Nan,  her  aecretary  (ed.  by 
Father  Stevenson,  1883). 

The  best  repreaentations  of  Moiy  are  the  contem- 
porary portiaita  by  the  French  painter,  Francis 


,Googl( 


MAETLAND— MASK. 


Clonet.  more  conunoidjr  called  JebuiDet  or  Juiet, 
aod  th«  rtatne,  by  tm  nnknown  tculptor,  on  ber 
tomb  at  Wsrtnuiutei'.  All  portraiU  which  c&ouot 
bereoonciladiTiththeie  typea  may  Htfely  be  rejected 
ns  iporioiu. 

MAltYIiAIfD,  one  of  the  ongitml  13  American 
etatei,  liea  immediately  (outh  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  is  bounded  on  the  east  fay  Del&wat-e  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  between  lat  ST  Cy— 39°  44'  K. 
and  long.  la^-W  33'  W.  Area,  12,210  BQuan. 
miles;  pop.  (18701  780^004 ;  (1880)  934,943.  Debt 
in  1880,  111,277,000.  The  fine  of  Atlantic  coast  i- 
bnt  33  nulei,  bat  inclnding  Chesapeake  Bay,  it  41 
mile*.  This  bay,  ISmiles  wide  at  itsmouth,  expands 
to  a  breadth  of  30  miles,  with  nnmeroi^s  islands,  and 
reaches  nearly  acrom  the  state.  The  crfuotry  rises 
gradoally  from  the  oosst  to  the  top$  ot  the  Alle- 

Shanies,  with  great  varieties  of  formation,  inclnding 
eposits  of  coal,  iron,  copper,  cbromate  of  iron, 
silicates  and  hydrates  of  magnesia,  marl,  &c  The 
climate  is  temperate,  and  the  soil  fertile,  producing 
wheat,  Indian  com,  cotton,  tobacco,  apples,  ^lums, 
peaches,  grapes.  Its  chief  towns  are  Baltimore, 
Annapolis,  Fredericktown,  Cumberland.  Vast  guaa- 
taties  of  fruit  and  of  oysters  are  exported  from 
Malyland.  The  annual  produce  of  coal  is  valned 
at  about  $2,000,000.  M.  has  upwards  of  1000 
miles  of  railway.  It  ranks  sixth  among  the  states 
in  the  value  of  its  foreign  commerce.  The  value  of 
its  manufacturing  products  in  1870  was  (7S,60O,0OO. 
There  were  13S  newspapers  and  periodicals  published 
in  1880.  In  1880,  there  were  some  2000  schools 
in  the  state,  and  nine  colleges.  M.  was  settled 
by  a  colony  o(  Bomao  Catholic  sentry  from 
England,  under  a  grant  to  the  aecontT  Lord  Balti- 
more, 1632,  when  it  received  ita  nreseot  name  in 
honour  of  the  English  queen,  Eennetta  Maria.  In 
1M9  it  was  made,  as  has  been  well  said,  '  a  land  of 
saDctuary,'  by  the  toleration  of  all  religions  denomi- 
nations, but  the  Puritans,  expelled  from  Virginia, 
made  great  trouble  in  the  colony.  Organised  as  a 
state  m  17T6,  M.  took  a  promioent  part  in  the  revo- 
lution, Iq  the  war  of  1861.  its  sympathies  were 
with  the  South,  and  the  flrat  blood  ot  the  war  was 
■hed  in  Baltimore,  several  Massachusetts  volunteers 
having  been  killed  on  their  way  to  Washington. 
Daring  the  war  it  was  invaded  uom  Vtr^ia,  and 
made  the  scene  of  bloody  conflicts. 

MAIIYPORT,  a  seaport  of  Cumberland,  Eng- 
land, at  the  mouth  of  the  Bllen,  28  miles  south- 
weat  of  Carlisle  by  railway.  Its  origin  dates  from 
17S0.  Shipbuilding  and  its  kindred  employments 
are  carried  on  extensively,  and  there  are  in  opera- 
tioa  iron-foundries,  saw-mills,  flour-mills,  tanneries, 
breweries,  &a.  A  very  large  quonldty  of  coal  and 
coke  is  shipped,  especially  to  Ireland.  M.  has 
abunduit  railway  oonnection,  and  possesses  a  float- 
ing dock  and  two  patent  slips.  It  is  a  place  of  resort 
for  sea-bathing.  Id  18S0,  1884  vess^s,  measuring 
243,700  tons,  entered  the  port,  and  1007,  measuring 
247,255 tons, cleared.  Pop.  (1871)  7443;  (1881)  8177. 

MAHYSVILLB,  a  city  of  California,  United 
States  of  America,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Yuba 
lUver,  100  miles  north-north-east  of  Benicia,  and  50 
miles  north  of  Sacramento,  having  steam-boat  com- 
mumcation  with  Sac  Francisco.  It  is  a  great  resort 
of  gold-miners,  and  has  a  variable  population,  given 
in  the  census  ot  1870  at  4738 ;  in  1880,  4300. 

MASAITIELLO  {properly.  Toumaso  Aniello),  a 
fisherman  of  Amalfi,  was  the  leader  of  the  revolt 
which  took  place  in  Naples  in  July  1647  gainst  the 
Spanish  viceroy,  the  Duke  of  Arcos.  '^e  people 
bad  been   exasperated   by  oppression,   and    great 


treatment  which  bis  wife  had  received  when  she 
WB*  detected  in  the  attempt  to  smuggle  a  littlo 
flour.  He  entered  into  a  conspiracy  with  some 
others  who  cherished  feelings  similar  to  his  own ; 
and  an  opportunity  being  afforded  them  by  a  tumult 
at  the  Customs'  Houses  on  7th  July  1647,  when  tho 
new  tax  on  fruit  was  to  be  levied,  they  stirred  up 
the  multitude  to  a  revolt.  Thur  triumph  was  com- 
plete ;  palace*  and  public  buildings  were  destroyed, 
a  bloody  popular  justice  waa  executed,  and  tha 
viceroy  was  terrified  into  the  greatest  conceasiona, 
and  entered  into  a  regular  tr^^  with  M.  in  tha 
church  of  the  Carmelites  on  13th  July.  But  succeaa 
and  the  flatteries  of  the  viceroy  tamed  the  fisher- 
man's head ;  he  gave  himaeU  up  to  drunkenness 
and  every  excess,  and  his  capriciooa  despotism 
immediately  became  terrible  to  his  own  associates, 
who  assassinated  him  on  ICth  July.  See  An^o 
Saavedra,  Dnke  of  Rivas,  Inturreaoa  de  ITapoU  at 
1647  (2  vols.,  Madr.  1849). 

MASCARE'SS  ISLES,  or  MASCAKENHA^ 
the  collective  name  given  to  islands  of  Bonrbon 
(q.  v.),  and  of  Isle-d^France  or  Mauritius  {q.  v.), 
Ine  island  of  Rodriguez,  360  miles  further  ea«t, 
is  sometime*  reckoned  as  one  of  them. 

MA'SCLE  (from  macula,  the  mesh  ot  a  net),  in 
Heraldry,  a  lozei^e-shaped  figure  perforated  and 
shewing  a  narrow  border.  The  term 
mascalTi)  is  applied  to  a  field  divided 
by  diagonal  Imes  into  lozenge-shaped 
compartments  of  alternate  tinctures, 
each  having  its  centre  voided  of  tha 
opposite  tinotnro.  Lotmss-mcucdUy 
is  a  field  composed  of  lozenges  and 
masclea  alternately.  In  the  earlier 
heraldry,  mascally  waa  used  for 
what  was  afterwards  called  lozengy. 
Crosses  and  other  ordinaries  may  be  formed  of 
mascles,  in  which  case  tbey  should  b^in  witb  half 
a  mascle. 

MAS-SkA,  a  town  of  Negrwland,  Africa,  catatal 
of  the  country  of  Bagirmi,  in  lat.  1 1°  35'  N.,  long. 
16°  'E.,  about  100  mi&  south-east  of  Lake  Tchad. 
It  covers  an  area  seven  miles  in  circumference,  and 
was  formerly  much  larger.  Its  present  reduced 
condition  has  been  induced  1^  disastrous  civil  and 

Lwars.  Only  about  half  the  area  of  the  town 
bited.  The  palace  of  the  sultan,  who  is 
reported  to  have  from  300  to  400  wives,  consists  of 
irregular  clusters  of  clay  building^  and  huts  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  built  of  baked  bricks.  The  town 
walled,  and  has  nine  gates.  It  has  on  the  whole 
dilapidated  appearance.  Berth's  Tracdi  in  Ceu- 
trai  Africa. 

MASK  (Med.  Latin,  vKUCa ;  Fr.  mamt),  a 
disguise  or  covering  of  the  face,  the  use  of  which 
perhaps  originated  in  the  harvest  festivities  of 
the  Grecian  peasantry  of  the  most  ancient  times, 
and  appears  subsequently  to  have  been  associated 
with  the  representation  of  Satyra,  Silenus,  and 
Bacchus  in  the  orgies  of  Bacchus.  Greek  tragedy 
having  originated  in  close  connection  with  the 
worship  of  Bacchus,  masks  were  employed  in  it 
from  the  first ;  but  it  is  imaertain  when  they  were 
introduced  in  comedy.  The  masks  need  by  actors 
were  of  very  various  form  and  charaotar.  They 
were  often  provided  with  metallic  mouthpieces,  for 
the  purpose  of  increasing  the  power  of  the  voice, 
this  being  rendered  requisite  by  the  immense  size  of 
the  ancient  theatres ;  their  whole  use  being  indeed 
adapted  to  such  vast  buildings,  and  to  a  style  of 
dramatic  representation  in  which  the  ideal  prevailed, 
and  the  reality  of  individual  impersonation  was  far 
less  thought  of  than  in  modem  times.  Much  infor- 
' — "^in  on  the  subject  of  ancient  masks  may  be 


wGuu^le 


MASK,  MASKED— MASONRY. 


found  in  Ficoroni,  De  Larva  Seenic!*  (1754) ;  Sand, 
Mcuques  et  Bmiffims  {IS60) ;  Altnmnn,  Die  Matkeit 
(1876) ;  and  in  worka  on  the  Drama  (q.t.)-  For  the 
kind  of  dramaldi:  perfonnonce  called  MT,  see  MiaQca ; 
for  Masked  Boll,  sea  Masqcebade.  (For  the  Man 
with  the  Iron  Mask,  aee  Iron  Mask.) 

The  use  of  maiks  in  the  modem  theatre  originated 
in  the  Italian  commedia  delT  arte,  which  may  itaelf 
be  traced  back  to  the  ancient  Koman  mimea  and 
pantominiei,  and  has  always  been  conSned  to  that 
claas  of  entertainmenta  in  which  the  veiy  names  of 
the  characteis,  ParUalotm,  ffariequia,  &c,  have  been 
borrowed  from  Italy. 

MASK,  MASKED,  a  military  expreauon  used 
in  •«veral  aeoaes.  A  HKiatai  batttjy  ia  one  bo 
cnnatmcted,  with  grswy  glads,  &c,  aa  to  be  hidden 
from  the  view  of  the  enemy,  until,  to  his  surprise,  it 
■uddeoly  opena  fire  upon  lum — on  hia  flank,  perhaps. 
The  fire  oF  a  batteiy  ia  moited  when  some  obhor 
work,  oc  a  body  of  fnendly  troops,  intervenes  in  the 
line  of  Sre,  and  precludes  the  use  of  the  guns.  A 
fortress  Or  aa  amiy  is  masked  when  a  superior  force 
of  the  enemy  holds  it  in  check,  while  some  hostile 
evolution  is  being  carried  out 

MA8KF.LYME,  Nxm,  an  English  astronomer 
and  phyaicdst,  was  bom  in  London,  6th  October 
1732.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster  Schod, 
whence  he  was  removed  to  Catherine  Hall,  and 
aubaequently  to  Trinity  CoUeae,  Cambridiie,  where 
he  obtained  a  fellowship  in  IToC  In  I75S,  he  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  tbeSoyal  Sodety,  and  resolved 
to  devote  himaelf  to  astronomy.  In  1763,  be  mode 
a  voyage  to  Barbadoes,  to  teat  the  newly-Invented 
Harriaoa  chronometeis,  and,  after  his  return,  was 
{17G5)  appointed  satronomer-royaL  During  the  46 
years  ttuit  be  held  this  situation,  he  acquired  uoi- 
veraal  respect  by  hia  diligence  and  the  accuracy  of 
Ilia  inveatigationB,  made  several  improvements  in  the 
arnuigements  and  employinent  of  the  inatruments, 
and  was  the  first  to  mark  ^e  time  to  tenths  of  a 
second.  In  1744— 174S,  he  made  his  expedition 
to  Schehalhon,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the 
density  of  the  ciirtb.  See  Eabte.  U.  was  Ute 
means  of  originatlns  the  Nauikat  Almanae  Iq.v.), 
and  also  obtained  leave  to  have  his  observatiDns 
printed  at  the  expense  of  EOyemment.  He  published 
very  few  works  out  of  his  official  capacity,  but  of 
the  others,  no  fewer  than  tbirty-five  appeared,  many 
of  which  have  been  found  of  immense  service  (espe- 
cially hia  Attronomioal  Oheenationa)  to  aabseonent 
aatronomera.    M.  died  9th  February  1811. 

MASKS,  in  Anhitectore,  are  earved  as  deom»- 
tjona  on  keyatonea  and  other  prominent  poaitions. 

MASON  AND  DIXON'S  LINE,  a  line  mn- 
ning  along  the  parallel  of  latitude  39°  43*  Se-S*,  and 
se^mting  Pennsylvania  from  Maryland,  drawn  by 
two  diatrngniahed  T'!"giiT>'  astronomers  aiid  msthe- 
maticiana,  Charles  Maaon  and  Jeremiah  Dixon.  For 
about  SO  yean  after  1681,  there  were  constant  dia- 
aenaiona  between  the  Lords  Baltiruoro  and  the  Penn 
family,  tbe  rival  proprietors  in  Pennaylvania  and 
Maryland,  in  regard  to  the  position  of  the  boundary- 
line  between  their  colonial  possessions.  An  agree- 
ment was  come  to  in  1760,  in  aocordonoe  with  ^ieh 
a  party  of  surveyors  commenced  to  make  out  the 
real  boundary.  The  propriet«T«  in  London,  not 
nnderstaading  the  length  of  time  required  for 
snch  an  midertaking,  and  growing  impatient,  sent 
oat  Mason  and  Dixon  to  complete  Uie  sorveya, 
who  oommenoed  the  work  in  December  1763. 
The^  concluded  Uieir  taak  towards  the  end  of  1767, 
having  maAed  ont  a  line  of  244  miles  in  length, 
paumg  through  foreeta,  over  mountain  ridges,  tc 
At  the  end  of  every  fifth  mile  a  atone  was  planted, 
on  which  was  engraved  on  one  side  Vba  amu  of 


Lord  Baltimore,  on  the  other  those  of  tbe  Penn& 
The  intermediate  miles  were  marked  by  amaller 
atones  with  an  M  on  one  aide  and  a  P  on  the  other. 
All  the  atones  came  from  England.  The  sorveyi 
were    revised   in   J849,   and   foand   snbatantijJly 

This  line  must  be  distinguiahed  from  that  of  36* 
30*,  which  separated  the  free  and  dave  statM  of 
the  original  confederation.  The  latter  is  also  the 
compromm  Use,  which  in  1820  waa  fixed  as  tbe 
most  northern  limit  of  such  alave  states  as  ahonld 
be  admitted  into  the  Union. 

MASON  BEE,  a  name  given  to  those  species  of 
bee  which  build  tboir  nesta  of  agglutinated  earth  or 
rasins  of  sand.  See  Bes.  MegachSe  muraria  is  a 
British  species,  black,  the  wings  tinted  with  violet. 
The  nest  is  attached  to  walla  or  atenes  in  sonny 
places.  The  interior  contoiiiB  abont  a  dozen  cells, 
m  each  of  which  ta  deposited  an  egg,  with  a  piece 
of  paste  for  the  food  of  the  larva.  These  bees 
sometimes  repair  old  nests,  and  have  fierce  combats 
for  the  possession  of  them. 

MABON  WASP  lOdijaenu  murariiu),  a  species 
of  wasp,  which  makes  its  nest  by  boring  a  cylindrical 
bole  in  hard  sand,  or  even  in  the  plaster  of  walls,  on 
which  on  exudation  from  the  moath  seems  to  net 


Solitary  Msaon  Waap  [Odfpitnit 
ot  Nests  and  Jj 


i},  and  Oionp 


BO  as  to  soften  it  snffidently.  At  the  orifice,  an 
outer  tube  is  constructed,  sometimes  two  or  three 
inches  in  length,  of  pelleta  formed  in  the  excavsi- 
tion.  In  tbe  interior,  an  egg  ia  deposited,  with  a 
number  of  little  caterpillara  ready  for  food  of  the 
larva  when  hat^ihed. 

MASONED,  in  Heraldry,  a  term  need  to  describe 
the  lines  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  stance  in 
building. 

MA'SONRT,  the  art  of  construction  in  stones 
The  earlieat  eiiatinfj  examplea  are  among  tha 
most  magnificent  specimens  of  the  art.  No  nation 
has  excelled  Uie  ancient  !i^yptians  in  stonework, 
whether  we  consider  the  size  of  the  materials,  or 
the  nnequalled  exactness  with  which  they  are  fitted 
together.  Tbe  S^yptiana  did  not  use  mortar  in 
their  important  stnictnres  such  as  the  pyramids,  the 
joints  being  all  carefully  polished  and  fitted.  Cydo- 
pean  masonry,  of  which  remains  exist  in  many  parts 
of  Greece  and  Italy,  also  exhibits  stones  of  great 
size  and  with  carefully-adjusted  joints  (fig.  1).  The 
walls  of  Mycenm  are  among  the  earliest  examples. 
Thew  are  buUt  with  huge  irregular  blo^,  the  q«ces 


iiCoogli 


MABONRT-MASONa 


betireen  bein^  filled  up  witb  muJlec  itouea.  The 
Etniaou)  ipecuneiu  aie  mora  earafnllj  exeonted; 
the  itonca  bis  not  iqnuod,  bat  tliey  tu«  all  cara- 


I^  J. — Wall  in  Felopoimsaiu. 

fnUr  fitted  together.  In  aome  caws,  the  beda  or 
honzonttl  joints  are  made  level,  and  tiie  upright 
joint*  left  nuBquared.  No  mortar  is  owd  in  ojolo. 
pean  taaaomy. 

The  moBontv  of  the  Greeks  and  Eomans  nay 
cIoBely  reaembled  that  of  the  present  day  :  SvlibU- 
work  (opu4  ineeriam),  in  whidi  the  etonea  are  not 
regiJajlV  ooureed  j  Courted'iooTh,  wliera  the  joints 
ate  all  level,  and  the  atones  of  equal  hdght;  AihUa; 
resemlilinE  the  latter,  but  built  with  larger  stones 
all  carefully  dreesed  on  the  joints.  Many  of 
the  Roman  building  in  the  Eastern  Empite  were 
constmcted  with  Uocks  of  enormous  nza,  as  at 
Baalbeo,  where  some  of  the  itonee  are  sixty  feet  in 
length.  Aablat-work  is  frequently  used  for  the 
exterior  surface  of  walls,  the  Inside  being  <  backed 
up'  with  mbble-work.  This  kind  of  work  is 
Euffioient  for  ordinary  purposes ;  but  where  great 
strength,  is  required,  the  whole  thiokness  must  be 
bnilt  with  BoM  blocks.  Ashlar-work  is  generally 
bedded  in  fine  mortar,  witii  one  inch  of  <ul-put^  on 
the  onteredgA 

lIliB  early  jnediersl  masonry  was  of  very  bad 
Oonstractdon,  being,  in  fact,  little  better  than  common 
rubble,  with  an  occasional  nsa  of  Herring-bone 
Work,  The  Normans  improred  upon  this  kmd  of 
work,  but  their  masonry  was  also  so  bad,  Qiat  most 
of  the  towers  built  by  them  either  fell  or  had  to  be 
taken  down.  The  fall  of  the  tower  of  Chichester 
Cathedral,  a  few  yeara  tga,  was  occamoned  by 
defective  Nonoan  masonry.  The  art  gradually 
improTed  with  the  advanoe  of  Gothic  arehitectare, 
and  aahlarwat  reintroduced  for  all  important  works. 
The  a«hlar-wotk  eo  constantly  nied  m  Benaissanoe 
buildings  has  lately  given  place  to  a  tnore  pictor- 
etque  style  oi  masonry  called  hammer-dressed  and 
squared  work — the  money  eaved  upon  this  oheaper 
work  being  applied  with  good  effeiA  in  impronng 
the  appearance  <A  the  doors,  windows,  and  otlier 


least  when  stratified,  should  be  laid  on  their 
naturai  led,  tor  if  set  on  edirs,  thev  are  sure  to 
scale  oS  snd  decay  nndar  the  influence  of  the 
weather. 

Special  materials  sometimeeproduoe  spedal  kinds 
.  J  work ;  thus,  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  where  lar^ 
flints  abound,  the  walls  are  often  faced  with  thewL 
split  so  as  to  form  a  clean  face  and  good  joints,  and 
arran^  in  bands  or  panels  between  stonework 
or  brickwork  (fig.  2).  In  Aberdeenshire,  whu^ 
^nite  is  the  nsiul  building  material,  aahlar-work 
IS  almost  universal,  large  blocks  being  more  easily 
obtuned  and  dressed  *h»ii  smaller  oaeaL  Agun, 
where  rag4tone  onl^  can  be  got^  it  is  fteqnentJy 
neatly  need  in  a  mnular  manner  to  the  flint  above 
descnbed. 

MASONS,  Free.  The  mason  brotherhoods  of 
the  middle  aces  were  oi^cised  incorporaUons,  not 
substantially  different  in  their  nature  &om  the  other 
Eoilds,  goTOTned  by  rules  of  their  own,  and  recruited 
from  a  body  of  apprentices  who  had  undergone  a 
period  of  probationary  servitude.  Fable  and  imagin- 
ation have  traced  ba^  the  origin  of  freemasomy  to 
the  old  Koman  Empire,  the  Pl^raohs,  the  Temple  of 
Solomon,  or  even  the  times  of  the  Tower  of  Babel 
and  of  the  Ark  of  Noah.  The  masomo  craft  in 
reality  sprang  into  being  about  the  same  tame,  and 
from  the  same  set  of  eaosee,  aa  other  inoor[Kirated 
crafts  ;  bnt  a  variety  of  oircumstanoea  combmed  to 

S*  ;e  it  an  importance  and  infiuenoe  beyond  the  rest, 
en  skilled  in  the  hewing  and  settmg  of  stonea 
were  naturally  prized  in  an  eminently  charch-buildiaa 
age.  Their  vocation  necessarily  involved  travet 
Img  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  employmenl^ 
Wherever  a  great  church  or  cathedral  was  built, 
the  local  masons  had  to  be  reinforced  by  a  largs 
accession  of  craftsmen  from  other  parts ;  and  the 
masons  from  neighbonring  towns  and  districts 
fiocked  to  the  spot,  and  took  part  in  Hm  work, 
living  in  a  camp  of  huts  reared  beside  the  building 
on  which  they  were  engaged.  A  master  presided 
over  the  whole,  and  every  tenth  man  was  a  warden 
haviag  surveillance  of  the  rest.  A  mason,  therefore, 
after  going  through  his  apprenidcesbip  and  proba- 
tions, could  not  settle  down,  like  another  craftsman, 
among  his  neighbouia  and  acquaintances,  but  must 
travel  from  ^ace  to  place  to  find  employment ; 
hence  it  became  desirable  or  necessary  to  devise 
means  by  which  a  person  once  a  member  of  the 
fraternity  might  be  universally  accepted  as  sncb, 
without  requiring,  wherever  he  went,  to  give  fresh 
evidence  of  his  skill,  or  having  to  nndto^  a  renewed 
examination  on  his  qualifications.  In  order  to 
accomplish  this  end,  uid  to  enable  a  mason  travel- 
ling to  his  work  to  claim  the  hoqdtality  <^  his 
brotheomasons  on  his  way,  a  system  of  symbols 
waa  deviaed,  in  which  eveiy  mason  was  imtiated, 
and  which  he  was  bound  to  keep  secret  This 
Bymholism,  invented  for  the  convenience  of  inter- 
cooise  between  members  of  the  same  craft,  is  the 
sole  shadow  of  foundation  for  the  popular  notion 
that  the  maaonio  brethren  were  in  possession  of 
secrets  of  vital  importonoe,  the  knowledge  of  which 
had  been  from  generation  to  generatton  confined  to 
thdr  own  order.    It  has  been  sumMSod  that  the 

to  design  the  great  cathedrals  of  the  13th  and  14th 
oentones,  whereas  it  is  now  certain  that  dnring  the 
purest  ages  of  Gothic  architecture,  both  in  France 
and  in  England,  the  architects  were  not  members  <d 
the  masonio  fraternity  at  aU,  but  other  lavmen  of 
skill  and  taste,  uninitiated  in  the  myateriei  of  mason- 
craft,  or  oftener  bishops  and  abbot*.  The  masons 
who  worked  from  the  architeof  s  dedgn  were,  at 
the  sune  time,  not  tiie  mere  human  machines  that 
modem  workmen  too  generally  an,  bat  man  wbo, 

P 


in  canTing  out  an  idek  imparted  to  Ouan,  oonld 

■tamp  an  individuality  of  their  own  on  every  itaae. 
Architeoture  was  then  a  prognniTe  art,  and  tha 
arohitect  of  every  great  chnnih  of  cathedral  had 
made  himself  acqoamted  'with  the  works  of  Ina 
predecessoia,  and  profited  by  eiparienea,  adopting 
their  beantiM,  and  thnnoing  tLeir  defect*.  The 
natore  o{  the  advance  which  architecture  woa  then 
making,  has  b«rai  compared  by  Mr  Fergnuon  to 
the  advance  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  the 
present  day  in  thip-building  and  other  tiKefol  arts. 
'  Neither  to  the  masons  nor  to  their  employers,  nor 
to  the  Abb6  Sneer.  Manrioe  de  Sullf,  Kobert  de 
Snsarches,  nor  Fidbert  de  Chartres,  is  the  whole 
merit  to  be  ascribed,  but  to  all  olaasea  of  the  French 
community  carrying  on  steadily  a  combined  move- 
ment towardu  a  well-defined  end.'  In  Qermany, 
however,  ibe  mascot  of  the  I4tli  a,  who  had  attained 
*  wonderful  skill  in  carving  and  in  conitnictins 
arches,  overstepping  their  original  functions,  took 
a  great  extent  the  office  of  an^hitect  into  their  01 
hands ;  and  it  is  undeniable  that  the  churches 
designed  by  Oeiman  masons,  though  rich  in  the 
most  ezqniaite  workmanship,  are  not  comparable, 
in  the  higher  elements  of  Deaaty,  to  the  '^rorka  of 
non-masonio  BTcbitecb). 

The  epithet  'Free'  waa  applied  to  the  craft  of 
masons  m  conBeqnence  of  their  being  exempted  by 
Kveral  papal  bulls  from  the  laws  which  regoloted 
common  labaarera,  and  exonerated  from  varioui 
burdens  thrown  on  the  woTking-olasBCB  at  large 
both  in  England  and  on  the  continent.  Like  all  the 
other  guilds,  the  maoons  were  bound  by  their  ralea 
to  the  performance  of  specific  religious  duties ;  but 
a  craft  one  of  whose  principal  functions  was  chnnih- 
biuldiua,  was  natm^y  under  the  more  especial 
prot«<rtion  of  the  clergy,  Tet  a  considerable  time 
before  the  Reformation,  we  find  the  jealoniy  of  the 
church  excited  from  time  to  tima  by  the  masonic 
brethren,  partly  in  consequence  of  their  asEumiug 
other  fnndions  bemdes  those  of  mere  buildeM.  In 
England,  an  act,  passed  in  the  minority  of  Hairy 
VL,  at  the  inatigatioll  of  Henry  of  Beaufort^  Cardinal 
of  Winchester,  prohibited  the  masons  from  holding 
their  wonted  chapters  and  assemblies.  Bat  this  act 
— a  never  enforced;  and  Henry  TL,  on  ooming  of 
^^1,  himself  countenanced  the  masons,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  fraternity.  Eemy  VIL  became  their 
grand  master  in  England. 

The  histoiy  of  freemasonry  has  been  overlud 
with  Action  and  absurdity,  partly  from  an  exag- 
gerated estimate  of  its  importance  in  the  develop- 
ment of  architecture,  and  portly  from  a  wish  to 
connect  medieval  masonry  with  the  institution  that 

eases  nnder  the  same  name  in  the  present  daf. 
odem  (or  so  caDed  '  speculative ") ,  freemaaomy  11 
an  innocent  mystification  unconnected  either  with 
the  building  craft  or  with  architecture.  It  ii  of 
Brilrah  origin,  and  dat«  from  the  17th  century. 
According  to  tiie  pecoliar  phraseology  of  the  masonie 
brethren,  it  ia  founded  in  the  '  practice  of  moral  and 
social  virtue ; '  its  distinguishmg  characteristie  is 
charity,  in  its  most  extended  sense ;  and  brotheriy 
love,  mief,  and  truth  arc  inculcated  by  its  precepts- 
Its  real  fomiders  were  Elias  Ashmole  and  some  of 
his  Uterary  friends,  who  amused  themselves  by 
devising  a  set  of  symbols,  borrowed  in  part  from 
the  Enights  Templars,  between  whom  and  the  old 
ons  an  intimate  relation  ia  said  to  have  subsisted, 

in  part  trom  the  Rosicrucians  (q.v.).    These 

symbols,  which  have  since  been  adopted  as  the 
^stingmshing  badge  of  the  brotherhood  of  '  Free 
and  Accepted  Masons,'  include  the  sun,  the  moon, 
the  compassce,  square,  and  triangle.  A  number  of 
so-collad  degrees  or  grade*  of  masonry  with  fantastio 
lea  were  established  and  conferred  on  the  mem* 


bera.*  Charles  H  and  William  III  wen  masons; 
and  the  appearanoe  of  a  connection  with  operative 
masonry  was  kept  up  by  the  amKiintmeut  of  Sir 
Christi^her  Wren  to  the  office  of  Grand  Master. 
The  '  Lodses '  of  Scotland  profess  to  trace  their 
origin  to  Uie  foreign  masons  who  oame  to  Scotland 
in  1150  to  build  Kilwinning  Abbey;  those  U 
England  go  still  further  back,  to  an  assemblage  of 
masons  held  by  St  Alban,  the  proto-martyr,  at 
York  in  92fi;  and  the  mother-lodges  of  York  and 
Kilwinning  were,  with  insignificant  exceptions, 
the  parents  of  alt  the  several  lodges  erected  in 
different  parts  of  Great  Britain.  Towards  the  close 
of  last  centiuy,  it  was  in  acme  quarters  made  a 
charge  against  freemasoniy,  that  nnder  ita  sym- 
bolism was  concealed  a  dangerous  oonspiraoy 
against  all  government  and  religion.  The  accusa- 
tion was  probably  groundless  enough  as  regorda 
British  freemasonry,  and  so  little  ^ect  waa  pro- 
duced by  it,  that,  m  an  act  passed  in  1799  for  the 
suppreesion  of  secret  sooieties,  an  exception  waa 
made  in  favonr  of  freemasona.  On  tiis  continent; 
political  intrignera  may  sometuues  have  avuled 
tbenuelves  of  the  secrecy  afforded  by  freemasonry 
to  further  their  sobemei.  In  1717,  a  Orand  Lodge 
was  formed  in  London,  with  power  to  grant  char- 
ters to  other  lodges.  IJnder  its  sanction,  the  first 
edition  of  the  oonstitutiona  of  the  fraternity  was 
published.  The  Orand  Lodge  was  for  a  leneth 
of  time  on  an  nnfriendly  footing  with  the  lodge 
of  York,  in  coDsequence  of  having  introduced 
various  innoTAtJooa  not  approved  of  oy  the  older 
lodge,  and  of  having  granted  chartem  within 
the  district  whioh  York  claimed  oi  its  own, 
Iq  1742,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  was  elected 
Grand  Master  of  the  Orand  Lodge ;  and  on  his 
death,  Oeorge  IV.,  then  Prince  of  Walee,  suoceeded 
to  the  office,  which  he  continued  to  hold  till  he 
was  appointed  Begeet,  when,  it  being  considered 
unsuitable  that  he  should  longer  exercise  any  pei- 
sodbI  superintendeuoe,  he  took  the  title  of  Grand 
Patron.  In  1313,  on  understanding  and  a  union 
was  brought  about  between  the  two  rival  lodges  by 
their  respective  Grand  Masters,  the  Dukes  of  Kent 
and  Sussex.  The  fraternity  has  since  been  managed 
by  the  '  United  Grand  Lodge  of  Ancient  Free  and 
Accepted  Masons  of  England,'  oonsisting  of  the 
Grand  Master,  with  his  Deputy,  Orand  Wardrau, 
and  other  officers,  the  provincial  Orand  Hasten,  and 


year  for  the  despatch  r 
besides  which  there  is  an  annual  masonic  festival 
at  which  every  mason  is  entitled  to  attend.  The 
Orand  Lodge  of  England  has  at  present  above  a 
thousand  lodges  under  ita  protection,  and  has 
H.R.H.  the  Prince  of  Wales  as  its  Grand  Master. 

In  Scotland,  the  masons,  when  they  wera  a  real 
company  of  artificers,  were,  like  other  handicrafts, 
governed  by  wardens  of  districts  appointed  by  the 
king.  In  159S,  a  re-organisation  of  Uie  maaon  loduea 
was  elTccted  under  William  Schaw,  principal  warden 
and  diief  master  of  masons,  who  in  Qie  follow- 
ing year  confirmed  the  three  '  heid  lodgpa  '  in  tbeir 
ancient  order  of  priority — Edinburgh  first,  Kil- 
winning second,  and  Stirling  third.  In  1730,  the 
operative  element  in  mason  lodges  having  become 
absorbed  in  speculative  masonry,  the  Grand  Lodge 
of  Scotland  waa  instituted  by  the  representatives  of 
thirty-four  lodges,  by  whom  also  William  St  Claii 
of  Roslin  was  Sticiei  Grand  Master,  on  account  of 

■  The  three  principal  grades  are  apprentios,  fellow- 
craft,  and  mutcr-maBon ;  there  being  peculiar  («re- 
momes  at  the  making  of  each ;  and  it  is  onl;  on 
attaining  to  the  d^ne  of  mastei-nuscn,  that  ■  brother 
enjoys  the  full  benefits  and  privileges  of  the  craft. 


:,.,Gooq\' 


UASQUE-MASa 


hie  anoaetara'  alleged  uioient  comieotion  witli  tha 


(Mory'i  C3iitpel)  waa  pUced  fint, 
■econd.    The  Lod)-      '   "-'— ■ 

mally  object  to  t , 

from  the  Grand  Lodge  and  reeniDCd  its 
eoce.  On  reliiiqiiiiliiiig  this  poeitioa  in  1807,  it  waa 
le-admitted  into  ths  Gnnd  Lodge  hj  the  title  of 
Uother  Eilwinning  with,  preoedenee  over  tiie  other 
lodgM,  aod  the  FrDTiDoial  Grand  Maatenhip  of 
Ajrrabiie  reodeied  hei^djtaiy  in  its  Maater.  For  the 
foregoing  infonnation,  vn  are  indebted  to  Icon's 
JVeenuMottry  in  BcolUatd,  pnbliehed  by  Mesan 
Uaokmod  ft  Son*  (1873)—^  work  of  acknowledged 
hiitorioal  Talne  on  tha  anbjeot  of  wUch  it  treats. 

Beudea  granting  chaiteti  of  afFiliation,  the  ohief 
nae  of  the  GnuuT  Lodge^  whether  of  England  or 
Scotland,  oouilta  in  ita  aoknowledged  anUiority  to 
enforce  nmfonnity  of  ceremonial  and  other  obeerr- 
ancea,  and  to  aettle  all  dispntea  that  may  arise 
within  the  lodges  under  its  charge.  3^  c^cen  of 
the  Grand  L^e  are  to  a  laive  ^eot  delwates 
from  the  respeotivo  lodges ;  tD«  delegation  being 
in  tha  form  of  proxy  mastens  and  traideos.  As 
a  aource  of  rerenae,  tor  each  member  made  by  a 
lodge,  a  fee  must  be  remitted  to  the  Grand  Lodge, 
irbereapon  a  diploma  of  brotherhood  will  be  issned. 

Modem  freemasonry  spread  from  Britain  to  t}ie 
continent,  to  America,  and  to  India.  It  woe  intro- 
daoed  into  France  in  1725,  Rnsaia  in  1731,  and  6er~ 
many  in  1740.  Grand  Ijodges  now  exist  in  Franca, 
Belgium,  Netheriands,  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way, Prussia,  Saxony,  Hamborg,  Switzerland,  Italy, 
Portagal,  Greece,  Cfanada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New 
"-         ■  ■.    ■    ^     .    ■.  jjjj^  South  Amenoa,  and  in 


PolyiMua,  1 
traUa,  and 


,  and  New  Zealand.     Then  are  about  forty 

Grand  Lodges  in  the  United  States.  I^«emaBonry 
is  prohibited  in  Austria,  Poland,  Rtuia,  and  Spain, 
and  by  the  Popa 

The  deep  symbolical  meaning  sappoeed  to  be 
ooucbed  onder  tha  jareon  of  the  maeomo  fraternity 
is  probably  as  apocryphal  as  the  duigers  of  masonry 
to  goremmant  and  OMer.  A  set  of  pass-words,  and 
a  peculiar  grip  oC  the  band,  anabta  tha  initiated 
to  raoDgnise  eaoh  other,  and  give  a  zeet  to  their 
conviviu  meetings ;  and  il  the  institntion  poeseasea 
any  ]«actical  ntifity,  it  is  in  its  ensbliog  a  mason, 
in  a  place  where  he  is  a  stranger,  to  tn^e  himself 
known  to  his  brother-maRons,  and  clum  their  pro- 
tection and  astistanoe. 

MAHQTJB,  a  species  of  dramatic  performance, 
vogue  in  I^igland  towards  t^e  close  of  the 


16th  and  the  beginninB  of  the  17th  centuiy.  It  was, 
in  fact,  the  fayourite  form  ot  private  thestrioali  at 
the  time.  The  masgoe  appeOT  to  have  originated 
in  tie  practice  of  mtrodiioing,  in  any  solemn  or 
festive  processions,  men  wearing  maaka,  who  repre- 
sented eitho'  imaginary  or  aUe^rical  peraonagea. 
At  firat,  it  waa  simply  an '  acted  pageant,'  as  in  the 
weU-known  progreaaea  ot  Qneen  Elizabeth;  but 
gwidaally  it  expanded  into  a  regular  dramatic  enter- 
Uinment,  and  m  the  hands  of  men  like  Fletcher  and 
Ben  Jonaon  attained  a  high  degree  of  literary  beanty. 
Jonson's  maaqnei  were  represented  at  court,  and 
were  greatly  reliabed.  The  taste  for  this  kind  of 
amusement,  however,  died  away  in  tha  reign  of 
Charles  L ;  nevertheless,  to  the  tune  of  that  monarch 
belongs  the  finest  nia»qqe,  and  one  of  the  meat 
iplentUd  poenu  ever  written— the  Comus  ot  Milton 
(1634).  See  Mawon's  Ufi  o/umn  (voL  L  page  5^^, 


llASQUEBA'DB,  or-MASEED  BALL,  a  festive 
in  which  the  host  and  guests  assume  Gcti- 
and  disguise  themselves  more  or 

_:__  »ij  name  being  derived  from 
ine  use  ui  uia  maoK.  Tha  public  mummeries  of 
former  limefl,  Easter  plays,  Festivals  of  Fools,  Ac, 
which  weca  frequent  m  most  parts  of  Europe,  bnt 
somewhat  various  in  different  countries,  probably 
suggested  the  idea  of  tha  masquerade,  which,  how- 
ever, WM  not  open  to  all,  according  to  the  well 
understood  rules  of  these  ancient  amnaementa,  but 
waa  limited  to  aome  select  cUsa,  or  to  thoae  who 
paid  a  certain  aum  for  admisaiao.  Catharine  da' 
Medici  introduced  the  regular  masquerade  at  the 
French  court.  It  found  Ita  way  to  England  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  YIIL,  but  did  not  reacb  any  of  the 
courts  of  Germany  till  the  end  of  the  17th  century. 
The  hal  eoatvmi  is  a  very  modi&ed  and  much  leaa 
objectionable  form  of  the  masquerade.  Dnrins  the 
Carnival,  public  masquerades  are  held  in  oil  the 
theatres  and  daaciag-aaloona  of  Paris,  and  on 
these  occaaioua  scenes  of  the  most  diagracsfiil  pro- 
fligacy ore  aaid  to  be  enacted,  in  spite  of  the  strict 
eupervidou  of  the  police. 

MASS  (Lat  Jf ism),  the  name  given  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  to  Uie  Euchanstio  service  which 
in  that  church,  as  well  as  in  the  Greek  and  other 
oriental  churches,  is  held  to  be  the  sacriflce  of 
the  new  law,  a  real  thoDgh  unbloody  offering,  in 
wMch  Christ  is  the  victim,  in  snbatance  the  same 
with  the  sacrifica  of  the  croaa,  and  instituted  as  a 
oommemonttion  of  that  socrifioe,  and  as  a  means  of 
applying  its  merits,  through  all  agea,  for  the  soncti- 
ficadon  of  men.  The  doctrine  of  the  Mass,  as 
undar«tood  by  Eomon  Catholics,  preaopposai  the 
Encharist,  although  the  latter  doctrine  does  not 
necessarily  involve  the  notion  of  a  sacrifice,  and 
may  even  be  held  by  thoae  who  deny  the  aacri- 
ticiol  choncter  of  the  Euoharistio  rite.  The  arni- 
menta  for  and  against  this  behef,  on  which  the 
Maaa  ia  founded,  do  not  fall  within  our  province 
which  limits  us  to  a  brief  history  and  explanation 
of  the  rite,  as  it  is  found  among  Cathohcs  and 
the  members  of  other  communions  in  which  it  is 
observed.  Without  entering  into  diacusaions  as  to 
the  primitive  character  of  the  Euchariatic  rite,  it 
will  ba  anoiufh  to  observe  that  the  very  earlieat 
records  of  CoHstian  history,  whether  in  the  Acta 
of  the  Apoatles,  the  canonical  EpiaUee,  or  the 
writings  of  the  moat  ancient  of  the  Fatheis,  plainly 
evince  the  existence  from  the  beginnii^  of  a  rite, 
which  it  ia  impoaaible  not  to  reeara.  as  in  its  general 
character  identical  with  that  whi<^  still  constitutes 
in  most  Christian  communities  the  chiefest  uid  moat 


have  been  partly 
a  sacrifice,  partly  a  communion  and  participation 
thereof  by  ma  faithful ;  and  of  the  names  by  which 
it  ia  called  in  the  works  of  the  early  Fatbers,  aome — 
as,  for  example,  oiiape,  and  Aiitna  miMxu,  refer  to  the 
latter,  while  others— as  (Auia,  proipKorl,  hierdon 
—indicate  tha  former  signification.  The  e^mology 
of  the  name  now  in  use  is  somewhat  obscure, 
bnt  it  ia  comi^only  referred  to  the  proclamation 
mode  by  the  deacon  at  tha  close  of  the  service — 
'It«;  tniuattt'  ('Go;  the  assembly  ia  diamisaed'). 
By  primitive  use,  the  communioa  of  the  foitMiil 
appears  always,  uidess  in  exceptional  cases,  to  have 
formed  part  of  the  Euchariatic  service ;  but  after- 
wards it  came  to  pass  that  the  officiatiog  priest 
only  communicated,  whence  arose,  eepociolly  in  the 
Western  Church,  the  practice  of  'private  masses,' 
which  has  been  in  later  times  a  ground  of  com> 
plaint  with  dissentients  from  Borne,  even  thoae  who 
m  other  respects  approach  closely  to  the  Roman 
dootrina    In  the  ancient  writer^  a  distinction  is 


„CiUL)^Il 


MASSA  DUCALfi-MASSACHUSETTS. 


Blade  betweeu  the  '  hub  of  the  «*t«oliQineiu'  and 
the  '  mua  of  the  faithful ;'  tba  former  iuoluding  all 
the  preparatoiy  pnyen,  tiie  latter  all  that  dirrctly 
legards  the  cotMeoraUon  of  the  elements  and  the 
commoDion,  ftt  which  the  *  diwupline  of  the  oecret' 
fort>ade  the  preeraice  of  the  citechDmeiii.  Witii 
the  cewotiaii  of  thia  diicipline,  the  diitinotion  of 
c&mee  hu  oeoaed,  but  the  diitinctioii  of  parte  is 


BtiU 


*  of  tl 


priaitig  all  the  fiist  part  of  the  Maae  ••  for  aa  the 
■  prefu».'  The  Mass  is  now  in  eenetal  denontinatod 
Acoordin^  to  the  aolemnitj  of  the  Mcompanying 
ceremonial,  a  '  Low  Mau,'  a  '  Chanted  Mass,'  or  a 
•Hifh  UaBi.'  In  the  fint,  a  KOgfe  pieet  aimplf 
nadi  Hm  Berrice,  attended  by  one  or  tnoK  acolytes 
or  cleil&  The  second  form  differa  only  in  this, 
that  the  service  is  iJumted,  instead  of  being  nod 
by  the  prieetL  In  the  High  Uses,  the  service  is 
chanted  in  part  by  tlie  jpriest,  in  part  by  the  deacon 
and  cub-deacon,  by  whom,  as  well  as  by  several 
nmuBten  of  inferior  rank,  the  priest  is  assisted. 
In  all  tJiese,  however,  the  ssrvice,  as  regards  the 
form  of  prayer,  is  the  samch    It  coniiBts  of  (1) 


Introit,  which  is  followed  by  the  thrioe-repeated 
petdtion, '  Lord,  have  meroy,'  '  Christ,  have  mercy,' 
and  the  hymn,  'Olory  to  Qod  on  lugh;'  (3),  tne 
collect,  or  public  and  joint  prayers  of  priest  and 
people,  followed  by  a  lesson  either  from  ^e  Epistles 
or  some  book  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  by  the 
Gradual  (q.v.) ;  (4),  the  gospel,  which  is  oommonly 
fallowed  by  the  Nicene  Creed ;  (5),  the  Oitkbtobt 
{q.  v.),  after  the  reading  of  which  comes  the  pre- 
paratory oETering  of  the  bread  and  wine,  and  the 
washing  of  tJio  priest's  hands,  in  token  of  purity  at 
heart,  and  the  '  secret,'  a  prayer  read  in  a  low  voice 
by  the  prieat ;  (6)_,  the  pr^ace,  concluding  with  the 
trisagion,  or  'thnoe  holy' — at  which  poiot,  by  the 
primitive  use,  the  cateohiuaasji  and  peDiteata  retired 
from  the  ohoroh  ;  (7),  the  '  canon,'  which  is  always 
the  same,  and  wbich  contains  all  the  piayeis  con> 
neoted  with  the  consecratiou,  the  elevatdoo,  the 
and  the  communion  of  the  Host  and  of 


breaking,  and 
thechotice,  ai 


living  and  of  the  dead ;  (8),  the '  communion,'  which 
is  a  abort  sariptuial  pisyer,  usually  appropriate  to 
the  particular  festival ;  (9),  the  '  post-communion,' 
which,  like  the  collect,  was  a  joint  prayer  of  priest 
and  people,  and  is  read  or  sung  aloud;  (10),  the 
iliitiniiTULf  with  the  benediction,  and,  finally,  the 
first  chapter  of  8t  John's  gospeL  Ore&t  ^tit  of 
the  above  prayers  are  fixed,  and  form  what  ia  called 
the  'ordo  or  'ordinary'  of  the  Mass.  The  rest, 
which  is  called  the  '  proper  of  the  Mass,'  differs  for 

season,'  as  of  Llnkt^  Advent,  Faaaion-tide, '  Quarter- 
time,'  kc  i  others,  of  '  Mystariee,'  as  of  the  Nativity, 
the  Circumcision,  Hie  lUsairectioa ;  otheis,  oeun, 
of  sunts,  as  of  an  Apostle,  a  Mart^,  or  a  Con- 
fessor ;  othen,  again,  '  votivcL*  as  '  of  the  Passion,' 
'of  the  Dead,'  'for  Peace,'  &c.  In  all  these 
various  classes,  as  wall  as  in  the  individual  masses 
under  each,  the  '  proper '  portions  of  the  Mass  differ 
according  to  the  occasion,  and  in  some  of  them 
certain  portions  of  the  '  ordinaiy,'  as  the  '  Olory 
to  God  on  high,'  the  'Gradual,'  or  the  '  Nicene 
creed,'  a»  omitted.  On  one  day  in  the  year,  Good- 
Friday,  i*  celebrated  what  ia  called  the '  Mass  of  the 
Preeancti£ed,'  in  which  no  consecration  takes  place, 
but  in  which  Uie  prieet  communicates  of  the  Host 
which  was  consecrated  on  the  preceding  day.  This 
usage  is  found  also  in  the  Greek  Church,  not  alone 
on  Good-Friday,  bat  on  every  day  during  the  Lent, 
except  Saturday  and  Sunday.  In  the  celebration 
ot  Mobs,  tjie  priest  wears  peculiar  vestmeuts,  five 


in  number— two  of  liuen,  called  'amice'  and  'alb;' 
and  three  of  silk  or  precious  stuffi^  called '  maniple,' 
'stolen'  and  'chasuble,'  the  olb  being  girt  witii  a 
mnctiu«  of  flaxen  or  silken  cord.  The  colour  of 
these  vestments  varies  with  the  occasion,  five 
colours  being  employed  on  different  occasimg — 
white,  red,  green,  punile  or  violet,  and  black ; 
and  they  are  often  nchly  embroidered  with  silk  or 
thread  of  the  precious  metals,  and  occasionally  with 
precious  stones.  The  priest  is  required  to  celebrate 
the  Mass  fasting,  and,  unless  by  special  dispen- 
sation, is  only  permitted  to  offer  it  once  in  the  dsy, 
eioept  on  Chnstmaa-day,  when  three  masses  may 
be  celebrated. 

In  the  Greek  and  Oriental  churches,  the  Euchor- 
istic  servioe,  called  in  Greek  Thau  Leitourgia  (The 
Divine  Liturgy),  differs  in  the  order  of  its  parts, 
in  the  wording  of  moat  of  its  prayers,  and  m  its 
aooompanying  ceremonial,  from  the  moss  of  the 
lAtin  Church  (see  Lrnmav) ;  but  the  only  differ- 
ences wiiioh  have  any  importance  as  bearins  upon 
doctrine,  are  their  use  oi  leavened  bread  instead 
o£  unleavened ;  their  more  frequent  celebratiou  of 
the  '  Mass  of  the  Fresanctified,'  to  which  refer- 
ence has  already  been  made ;  the  Latin  use  of 
private  masses,  m  which  the  priest  alone  commu- 
nicates i  and,  in  general,  the  much  more  frequent 
celebration  of  the  Mass  in  the  Latin  Church.  The 
sacred  vestments,  too,  of  the  Greek  and  Eastern 
rites  differ  notably  from  those  of  the  latin ;  and 
in  some  of  the  former — as,  for  example,  the  Arme- 
nian— a  veil  is  drawn  before  the  altar  duriug  that 
part  of  the  service  in  which  the  coDaecratiou  takes 
place,  which  ia  only  withdrawn  at  the  time  of  the 
communion.  The  service  eometinie*  used  on  ship- 
board, and  imjiroperly  called  Mima  Sicca  (Dry 
Mass),  consists  simply  of  the  reading  of  the  prayers 
of  the  mass,  but  without  any  consecration  of  the 
elements.  It  was  reeorted  to  with  a  view  to  avoiding 
the  danger  of  spilling  the  sacred  elements,  owing  to 

.1. .__j 1:__  _r.i._  _!.-_      It  is  sometime* 

ass). 

MA'SSA  DUCA'LE,  or  DI  CABRA'BA,  so 
oalled  to  dietiiiguish  it  from  the  many  towns  of  the 
some  name,  is  a  small  city  of  Northern  Italy,  S8 
milee  south-waA  of  Modena,  and  formerly  capital 
of  the  duchy  of  Maasa- Carrara.  Pop.  5000.  It  is  a 
bishop's  see,  has  a  public  library,  a  hterory  institute, 
a  cathedral,  and  a  ducal  palace.  M.  stands  in  a 
beautiful  situation,  sheltered  by  a  background  of 
mountains,  and  suixounded  by  a  district  productive 
in  oranges,  citrons,  and  vast  olive-grovea. — In  the 
middle  ages,  the  duchy  of  M.  was  held  by  a 
succeesioo  of  feudal  lords,  and  passed  to  the 
House  of  Este,  Dukes  of  Modena,  towards  the 
close  of  the  ISth  century.  Bonaparte  invested  his 
sister,  the  Princess  Elii»,  wiUl  the  princip^ty  of 
M.  and  Carrara;  but  m  1839  it  was  reunited  to 
Modena,  and  in  1860  became  a  crovince  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy.     Pop.  (1881)  169,469, 

MA'SSA  LUBRE'NSE,  a  pleasant  ItaUsn  town, 
IT  miles  u>uth  of  Naples  by  sea.  Po^  3600;  M. 
stands  amidst  the  loveliest  scene^  of  Italy,  and  is 
built  on  a  cliff  projecting  into  the  sea,  and  com- 
manding a  fine  view  of  the  Ba^  of  Naples.  It 
dates  Gaai  the  early  Greek  period,  aod  cont^na 

any  remains  of  Itoman  antiquitiea.    It  is  famed 

r  the  beauty  of  its  woman. 

MASSACHU'SBTIS,  one  of  the  thirteen  otigiDal 
states  of  the  American  nnion,  and  oldest  of  the 
New  EngUnd  States,  Ilea  between  lat.  41°  Iff— 
42°  6?  N.,  and  long.  69'  66'— 73°  Sif  W,  being 
miles  from  east  to  west,  and  from  4?  to  110 
from  north  to  south,  with  an  area  of  S31S  square 
miles ;  it  Uea  south  of  Vermont  »nd  New  Hampshire^ 


^,  Google 


HASBACHtrsirnis  bat— massillon. 


MpitaL  Lowall,  Lawrence,  Salem,  New  Bedford, 
Fall  Biver,  I-Tim,  Springfield,  Oambridga,  and  Wor- 
ceEter.  On  the  south-eutem  coast  bi«  the  islands 
ol  Nantnoket  and  Martha'a  Vineyard.  The  prin- 
dpal  nrera  are  the  Connecticat,  Menimoc,  and 
HouBatonio,  which  afford  water-power  to  man^ 
manufacturing  cities  aud  Tillagea.  l^e  oooaby  la 
hilly,  and  much  ot  the  Knl  rterila,  but  in  the  river- 
vttlleyB  it  ia  tertila  The  moet  important  mineral 
prodoota  are  n-aiiita  and  syenite,  sand  for  glass,  and 
iroQ.  The  i3iief  agricultural  iroducta  are  Indian 
corn,  apples  and  pears,  grasa  and  hay ;  but  aw 
important  oom)MiTCd  with  its  mannfacturea.  In 
M.  was  the  tHrd  state  in  the  Union  for  the  valne 
ot  ita  manufacttuta,  the  total  being  then  $631,611,50a 
There  ore  cotton  and  waoUen  railis,  oarjiet' 
mills,  iron-fonndriea,  rolling-mills,  nail  faotoried, 
and  machine-shops.  The  manufacture  of  ahoea 
is  very  important.  In  IBSO,  the  cotton-milla  of  M. 
had  at  work  94,800  looms,  with  4,500,000  apindlea. 
Inl880,»bove2200raileaofTailwaywepBopen.  The 
flsheries  ot  M.  have  long  been  one  ot  its  leading 
industries.  There  are  over  200  national  banks,  abont 
ISO  navings-hanka,  numerona  asylums,  ta>.  M.  has 
about  6000  schools,  a  university,  and  7  colleges  ;  and 
in  1878  there  were  345  itewspapera  and  periodicals. 
The  atata  inooma  for  1877-8was  $7,244,900  ( the  debt 
in  1878  was  }33,020,000.  M.  was  discovered  by  the 
Cabots  in  1497.  In  1614,  it  waa  visited  by  Captain 
John  Smith.  In  1620,  the  MayHotcer,  180  tons,  sailed 
from  Southampton  witli  102  Puritan  settlers,  and 
landed  at  Plymouth,  M.,  December  22.  Half  died 
from  cold  and  hardship  the  first  year.  In  1637,  the 
colony  suffered  from  Indian  maasacres ;  and  in 
King  Philip's  war,  1675,  12  towna  and  600  houses 
were  homed.  The  war  of  Uie  BevohitioD  of  1776 
began  in  M.  with  the  battles  of  Lexington  and  Bunker 
BiU  P(Ri.  (1810)  472,0401  (1860)1,231,066;  (1370) 
1,4S0,351;  (1880)1,783.082. 

MASSAOHUSETTS  BAY,  an  indentation  ._ 
the  aaatem  oottst  ot  Massachusetts,  between  Cape 
Cod  and  Cape  Ann,  70  miles  long  and  35  mifes 
vide,  bat  including  in  its  irregnlar  torn  Plymouth 
Bay,  Cape  Cod  Bay,  and  sevaral  others,  with 
Dumerona  small  islands. 


in  a  plain  m  the  midst  of  hilla  more  prodactive  Uum 
Bolubrions.  Pop.  9100:  Its  site  is  partly  that  of 
the  ancient  Maiapia,  from  which  Uie  whole  dis- 
trict takes  its  name. 

MASSA'QET.^,  a  nomadic  people,  who 
inhabited  the  broad  steppes  on  the  norUi-east  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  to  the  northward  of  the  river 
Araxea  cr  Jaxartes.  Herodotus  says  that  they 
had  a  community  of  wives;  that  toey  sacrifloed 
and  devoured  their  aged  people ;  that  they  wor- 
shipped the  suu,  and  offered  horses  to  him;  that 
ih^  lived  on  the  milk  and  fieah  of  tht^  herds, 
and  on  flah;  and  fought  on  horseback  and  on  foot 
with  lance,  bow,  and  double-edged  axe.  Cyrus  is 
said  to  have  lost  his  life  in  fighting  agtunst  them, 
B30  B.a  Niebuhr  and  BOckh  are  of  opinion  that 
they  belonged  to  the  Mongolian,  but  Humboldt  and 
otliers,  to  the  Indo-Oermanio  or  Aryan  family. 

MASSEXA,  AiiDRfi,  Duke  of  lUvoli,  Prince  of 
Essliiw,  and  a  marshal  of  France,  was  bom  at  Ifice, 
6th  May  17S8.  In  his  youth,  he  served  as  a  ahip- 
boy  in  a  small  vessel,  and  afterwards  14  years  in  the 
Sardinian  army,  but  left  it  because  bia  plebeian 
birth  precluded  him  from  promotion.  Earhr  in  the 
Freaoh  Revolution,  ha  joined  a  battalion  of  Tolon- 
t«eis,  and  soon  rose  to  high  militar;  rank.    la 


December  I7S3,  ha  was  made  a  genenJ  ot  division. 
He  greatly  distmguished  himselt  ui  the  campugns  in 
Upper  Italy.  .Mter  Jonrdan'a  defeat  at  Stockach 
on  26th  March  1799,  the  chief  oommand  ct  the  army 
in  Switzerlsjid  devolved  on  him  in  oironmstanoes  Ol 

Ct  difficulty,  but  he  kept  his  eronnd  against 
Archduke  Charles,  and  finally,  by  his  victory 
over  the  Russians  at  Zfirich,  25th  September  1799, 
freedFrancafromthedonger  of  invasion.   Aftertha 


a  nuvshal  of  the  empire.  In  1805,  he  „ 
manded  in  Italy;  and  subsequently  be  signalised 
himself  in  the  temble  contest  for  the  viUage  ofAspern 
(q.  v.).  In  1810,  he  waa  intrusted  with  the  chief 
command  in  Spain,  and  compelled  the  British  and 
their  allies  to  mil  bai^  to  Lisbon ;  bnt  being  unable 
to  make  any  impressioii  on  Welliiu^n'a  strwig  posi* 
tion  at  Torres  Tedras,  he  resigned  Ss  command,  B» 
offa«d  his  serrices,  however,  again,  whan  'Supoitca 
was  preparing  for  the  Bussian  oampoign,  but  wm 
only  intmated  with  the  oommand  in  Provence,  and 
in  this  positdaa  ha  remained  till  the  Bestoration, 
when  he  gave  in  his  adheoion  to  the  Bourbons, 
and  waa  nuide  a  peer.  On  Napoleon's  return  from 
Elba,  he  invited  M.  to  follow  nim,  but  received  no 
response.  After  the  second  Bestoration,  M.  retired 
into  private  life.  Ho  died  4th  April  1817.  " 
was  one  of  the  ablest  o(  Nopole""'* 
he  was  as  extortionate  as  a  Boi 
master  called  him  a  robber,  and  is  said  to  have 
offered  him  a  present  of  1,000,000  fnnoa  if  he  woold 
give  np  peculation  I 

MA'SSICOT,  A  minend,  occurring  in  shapeless 
maases  of  a  yellow  colour,  brittle,  wifli  earthy  frac- 
ture.   Chemically,  it  is  protoxide  of  lead.   It  is  used 


B  generals,  but 


MASSILLON,  Jbak  BiPTiFrB,  one  of  tlie  mosi 
distinguished  of  modern  pulpit  oraton,  was  bom  at 
HiBras  in  Prance,  June  34,  1663.  His  father,  a 
notary,  deaigned  the  boy  tor  his  own  profession ;  and 
it  was  only  after  repeated  and  persistent  efibrts, 
that  M.  obtained  his  father's  permission  to  enter 
the  Dongregation  of  ihe  Oratory  in  1681.  It 
was  whue  he  was  eng^ed  in  teaching  theology  in 
one  ot  ihe  houses  of  we  oonmgatimi  m  the  dioceae 
of  Meaux,  that  he  made  his  first  ess^  in  the  pulpit 
at  Vienne.  TTi»  fnneral  oration  on  U.  Villara,  the 
Archbishop  of  Vienna,  was  eminently  successful,  and 
led  to  his  being  called  by  the  snperioni  of  the  (h%- 
tory  to  Paris,  where  he  first  had  the  opportnnity  of 
hearing  Bonrdaloue,  whose  style  and  manner,  with- 
out being  exactly  tsiken  by  M.  as  a  model,  had  great 
influence  in  forming  the  tsste  ot  the  yonng  aspirant. 
Like  Bourdalone,  ho  avoided  the  deolomatoiy  manner 
and  theatrical  action  then  popular  in  the  French 

'  "  but  the  earnest  impressiveness  ot  his  look 
«  more  than  supplied  the  vigonr  and  energy 
which  other  speakers  sought  from  these  adventi- 
tious aids.  Bjb  course  of  ecclesisstical  oonfereuoes^ 
delivered  in  the  Bemioary  of  St  Msgloire,  estab- 
lished his  reriutation.  The  criticism  of  Lonis  XIV., 
after  his  Advent  course  at  Tersullea,  that  '  when 
he  heard  other  great  preachers,  he  felt  satisfied 
with  them,  but  when  he  heard  M.,  ha  felt  dia- 
Batisfied  with  himself,'  well  expresses  the  character- 
■-*■'•"  of  the  eloquence  of  thia  great  orator,  who, 
tlian  any  ^  his  oontempororiea,  was  able  to 
lay  bare  the  secret  springs  of  human  action,  and 
the  feeling  uid  -Qia  passions  of  his  andi- 
I  arms  agamat  themselvee.  He  waa  ^ain 
appointed  to  pr^oh  tb»  Lent  at  Versailles  in  1704; 
but  although  the  king  waa  asain  equally  warm 
in  his  admiration  of  we  prewSer,  l£  was  never 
afterwards  invited  to  preach  in  the  preMDce  (d 


Cioilgli.' 


1CA83INOE&— ICASrZB. 


tiiii  monuch ;  yet  hii  ftmeral  oratiaii  on  the  I^ince 
da  Couti,  in  ItM,  tu  one  of  tha  gre&teat  triomphi 
of  bii  orato^.  Soon  after  tha  death  of  Loois 
XIV.,  M.,  in  1717,  wu  named  Biahop  ol  Clormont, 
and  in  ilia  Kama  year,  was  appointed  to  preaoh 
before  tha  yoon^  king,  Lonii  X  v.,  for  which  oocaaian 
he  compoaed  his  celebtated  Petit  Oartma — a  aeriea 
of  ten  lermont.  It  na«  not  till  1719  that  he  waa 
coneecRkted  Bidiop  of  Clennont,  in  which  year 
ftlio  ho  «M  elected  a  melnber  of  the  Academy  ;  and 
in  1723,  he  preaohed  Qie  fnneral  oration  ol  tha 
Ducheaa  of  Orleana,  his  last  pnblio  diaoonree  in 
Faria.  From  thia  time  he  lived  almost  entirely 
for  hia  dioceae,  where  hia  charity.  gentlen««a,  and 
amiable  diapontion  gained  him  the  afTeotiona  o{ 
all  He  died  ol  apo^axy  in  1742,  at  the  age  of  79 
yeanL  TTja  irorka,  ooncistiike  tnainiy  of  aennona 
and  other  aimnar  compoaitionB,  were  oollected,  in 
12  Tola.,  by  hia  nephew,  and  pnUiahed  in  1746— 
1746;  later  editiona  are  those  of  Beauc£  (4  voU. 
1817),  MeqmgnoQ  (IS  rola.  1818),  and  Chalandre 
(3  Tola.  1847). 

If  ASSINGER,  Philip,  an  En^lui'i  dramatiit, 
waa  bom  in  15S4,  at  ta  neai  WOton,  it  is  auppoaed, 
the  Beat  of  the  Earla  of  Pembroke,  of  whiob  family 
hia  father  wsa  a  retainer.  Of  hia  bo^iah  dava,  and 
of  the  place  o{  hia  edncation,  nothmz  ia  known. 
From  hia  playa,  we  are,  however,  certmed  that  he 
waa  a  claaaical  scholar.  He  entered  St  Alban'a  Hall 
M  a  Commoner  in  1603,  and  c^nitted  the  unireraity 
anddenly,  and  withont  obtolnics  a  desree,  on  the 
oocodon,  it  ia  anrmised,  of  hia  father's  death. 
After  leaving  Oxford,  hia  career  cannot  be  clearly 
baced.  He  came  to  London,  and  wrote  for  the 
stage,  Bometimea  on  his  own  account,  freqnently 
— as  waa  the  fashion  of  the  time — in  conjiinctian 
with  others.  Be  produced  many  plays,  the  dates 
of  which  are  obscure.  He  aeema  to  have  lived  In 
atraitened  cizcmnstanoe*,  and  to  have  been  of  a 
melancholy  turn  of  mind.  On  the  mormna  of  the 
16th  March  1640,  be  was  found  dead  in  hia  bed. 
He  waa  buried  in  the  ohurohrod  of  St  Savionr'a,  by 
the  hands  of  the  aotors.  In  the  parish  register 
stands  the  pathetio  entry:  ■March  SO,  1639— IMO, 
buried  Phihp  Massioger,  a  stroDger.' 

Taken  as  wholes,  H.'a  playa  do  not  atrike  one 
much ;  their  merits  conaist  in  detached  poMages. 
He  was  of  a  grave  and  serioua  mood,  and  lii> 
reflective  passages  rise  into  a  rich  elaborate  music 
Hia  fineat  writing  is  contained  in  The  Virgin 
Martyr,  but  his  beat  plays  are  The  City  Madam, 
and  the  Nob  Way  to  Pay  Old  Dei!*— the  last  of 
which  has  even  yet  aome  alight  hold  on  the  atage. 
Gifford's  edition  of  M.  (1S06)  ia  an  admiiable  one; 
more  recent  ia  Cunningham's  (1870). 

MASSOHAH.  variously  derived  from  mauar 
(to  hand  down  to  poaterity- tradition),  and  aaar 
(to  bind,  to  Gz  withm  strict  limits],  denotes  chieSy 
a,  certain  collection  of  critical  notea  on  the  text  of 
the  Old  Testament,  ita  divisions,  accents,  towels, 
grammatical  forma,  letters,  &o.;  all  the  more  neces- 
sary for  the  more  accurate  preservation  of  the 
aacrcd  docnments,  as,  according  to  the  early  mode 
of  Shemitio  writiog,  only  the  oonsonants,  and  theoe 
without  an^  stop  or  break,  were  put  down  ;  »  pro- 
ceeding which,  in  the  course  of  time,  must  natomly 
have  produced  a  vast  number  of  variants,  or  rather 
different  ways  of  reading  and  interpreting  the  tamo 
letters,  by  dividing  them  into  different  words  with 
different  vowels  and  ocoents.  The  origin  of  the 
M.,  which,  by  fixing  an  immutable  reading  apon  each 
verse,  word,  and  letter,  pat  an  end  to  the  exercise 
of  unbounded  individual  fanoy — which,  for  homi- 
letical  porposea  alone,  waa  henoeforth  free  to  take 
ibi  own  views — ia  ihronded  in  deep  myatery.    The 


first  traces  of  it  ore  foond  in  oertain  Ealachistio 
works  treating  of  the  qrnaftogne  rolli  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, and  the  mode  of  wntlu;  then.  Some  of  the 
earliest  woA>  on  th*  subject  We  ■nTrired  in  their 
titles  only,  anch  u  3^  Book  </  the  Oromti,  TU 
£oMt  <j^Me&nuKb,Ao.,  attributed  to  tbeSoferim,  or 
Mastera  of  the  Miahna  (q.  v.).  'Thece  can  hardly 
be  a  doubt  that  the  Massorah,  like  the  Halmh» 
and  Ea^ada,  was  the  work,  not  o(  one  age  or 
century,  Dut  of  many  ages  and  oentories,  as,  indeed, 
we  find  in  ancient  authorities  mention  made  of 
different  aystema  of  accentuation  oaed  in  Tiberias, 
Babylon  (Assyria),  and  Palestine.  It  was  in 
Xiboios  also  that  the  M.  was  first  committed  to 
writing  )>etweeQ  the  6th  and  &th  c.  a.  n.  Mono* 
graphs,  memorial  veieea,  finally,  gloases  on  the 
morgina  of  the  text,  seem  to  have  been  the  earliest 
forms  of  the  written  M,  which  gradoolly  expanded 
into  one  of  the  most  elaborate  and  minnte  systems, 
laid  down  in  the  'Great  Musoroh'  (about  tha 
11th  a),  whence  on  extract  was  loade  known 
nnder  the  name  of  the '  Small  Moasorah.'  A  farther 
distinction  ia  mode  between  U.  Uxiuaiil  tadfinaiit, 
the  former  containing  all  the  marginal  notea ; 
the  latter,  larger  annotation*,  which,  for  want  of 
space,  hod  to  be  placed  at  tiie  end  of  the  para- 
graph. The  final  arrangement  of  the  M,  which 
was  fiist  printed  in  Branberg'a  Babbinical  Bible 
(Ven.  1026),  is  dne  to  Jacob  ben  Chajim  of  Tnnia, 
and  to  FeUx  Pratenms.  The  language  of  the  M. 
is  Chiddee,  and  beaidea  the  difficoll^  of  thia  idiom, 
the  obaetire  abbreviationa,  oontraobona,  symbolical 
rigns,  Sm,  with  which  the  work  abonnda,  render  its 
stndy  exoaedingly  hard.  Nor  are  all  ita  dicta  of 
the  same  sterling  vtdne ;  tliey  ore  not  only  some- 
times  utterly  auperflnool,  but  downright  emmeoua. 
Of  ita  'countings,'  we  may  odduoe  t&t  it  enumer- 
ates in  the  Pentateuch  16  greater  and  43  snuUler 
portions,  1534  verses,  63,467  words,  70,100  letters, 
ao. — a  ctdcalatioa  which  is,  however,  to  a  certain 
degree  at  variance  with  the  Talmud. — An  explana* 
tion  of  the  M.  is  fonnd  in  EUjah  Lovita's  (q.  v.) 
MaiarelA  Hammemrdh  (transL  into  German  by 
Semler,  Halle,  1772),  and  BuxtorTa  Ttberiat  (1620), 
a  work  abounding  with  exceediogly  eurions  infor- 
mation on  the  test  of  the  Old  Testament; 

MA'SSOWAH.     Sea  Sxmr.,  Vol  X. 

MAST,  on  npright,  or  nearly  npright  ajyar, 
resting  on  the  Keelaon  (q.v.)  of  a  ship,  and  rising 
through  the  decks  to  a  considerable  heif^t,  for 
the  pnrpoae  of  sustaining  the  yards  on  which  the 
Btuls  are  spread  to  the  wmd.  U  ia  nsnally  in  joints 
or  lengths,  one  above  the  other,  the  lowest  and 
strongest  being  the  matt  proper,  diatinguished  by 
its  position  as  lae  fore,  omD,  or  mizzen  mast.  Above 
this  come  sncoessiTely  the  top-matt,  the  top-gaUant- 
mast,  the  royal-iruut,  and — Uioueh  very  rardy  used 
—the  tiy-ta-aper.  The  full  height  of  all  the  maata 
together,  in  a  first-rate  ship  of  war,  was  about  250 
feet,  iji,  when  a  strong  wind  is  blowing,  the 
pressnte  upon  the  canvas  carried  by  a  Kiost  amounts 
to  many  tons,  the  moat  itaelf  must  be  of  great 
strength.  In  some  modern  vessel^  hollow  iron 
masta  are  used,  with  great  success,  oa  being  much 
lighter  than  those  of  wood ;  but  the  majority  are  of 
Norway  fir  of  the  best  quohty.  In  small  vessels 
the  must  is  made  of  one  tree ;  bat  it  is  considered 
stronger  when  'a  made  mas^'  that  is,  when  con- 
structed of  several  pieoea  riveted  together,  and 
strengthened  by  iron  boopa.  The  msat  is  anatoined, 
when  Axed,  by  the  shronda,  as  aupporta  on  each 
sidc^  by  tha  Stay  (q.v.)  in  front,  and  the  bock-stays 
behind.    See  UzsTS  in  SOPr.,  vol  X. 

MASTBB,  in  the  Boyal  Navy,  wh  an  offioer 
ranking  with,  but  innitwb^  HenteiMnti,  and  charged 


nGooglc' 


UASTKR— UAETTEB  AKt>  SBKVANT. 


with  the  details  of  aailin^  the  vesssl,  under  the 
geoeT*!  orden  of  the  captain.  In  recent  years  tbe 
title  haa  been  ohanged  to  '  naTiguting  lieatenaat :  * 
the  change  of  name  oarr^K,  in  several  purticnlara, 
an  imwoved  (tatm.  It  ii  hit  duty  to  take  charge 
of  men  of  the  «hip'i  atore«  aa  are  not  nnder  the  pay- 
master; in  ahoii,  he  ia  the  navieator  and  atore- 
keeper  for  the  Teasel ;  as  snch,  noldine  a  most 
leeponuble  and  cneroua  positian.  For  his  assist- 
ant), he  has  the  jonior  offioera  in  his  own  depart- 
ment — the  navintin^  snb-lientenanta,  navigating 
midshipmen,  ana  navigating  oadeta— and  the  ship's 

Snartermastera.  The  full  pay  of  a  navigating 
eutenant,  axcIoiiTe  of  atote  and  other  allowanops, 
nnges  from  12«.  to  22f;  a  day;  of  a  navigating 
snb-lieatenaat,  from  St.  to  7».  Bd.;  and  of  a  navi- 
gating midshipman,  from  3«.  to  <&  a  day  ;  while  oa 
alpha  and  omega,  the  staff-captain  haa  22>.  a  day ; 
and  the  navigating  cadet,  la.  a  day  (which  ts,  of 
conrae,  meant  meruy  for  pocket-money). 

In  the  Mercluuit  Navy,  the  master  of  a  vesad, 
ntnally,  by  courteay.  denominated  the  o^ttain,  is  the 
officer  oomnUHidiDg  her.     His  dutiea  oompriae  tho 


the  charge  of  her  cafgo,  uid  many  o< 


functions.  Hia  renxmaibilitisa  to  the  ship's  owners 
a  of  coarse  •eittladbydiBl3Dctaeraement,u>plicable 
the  apeoial  caaa.    Towarda  ue  pablio,  however. 


nany  acta  of  pariiament  determine 
bOily.  Tho  master  ia  bound  to  come  «>  a  wninen 
agreement  with  each  of  hia  men,  before  aailing,  aa 
to  the  wagea  to  be  paid.  He  ia  bound  to  bnng 
home  and  snbaiat  (to  the  number  of  four  for  every 
ten  tons),  seafaring  persona — British  subjects — who 
may  have  been  cast  away,  captured  by  the  enemy, 
or  by  other  unavoidable  accident  left  upon  a  foreign 
■hare ;  for  theae  be  ia  granted  head-money  by  the 
Admiralty.  The  master  ia  compelled  to  keep  a 
proper  log-book,  and  mnet  produoe  it,  witii  hia 
•hip's  papers,  on  the  requisition  of  the  commander 
of  a  uiip-of-war  of  hia  own  nation.  Masten  of 
vessels  A  a  certain  size  are  required  to  obtain 
oertificatea  of  qualifioation  from  the  Board  of  Trade, 
Certificated  masten  are  eli^bla  for  the  Botal 
Naval  Bjbbbti  (q.v.),  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant. 

MASTER  (Qer.  Mdila;  Lat  magister,  from 
viagii),  one  who  r^es,  govenis,  haa  servanta  nnder 
him.  Aa  a  oomplimentarf  appellation  of  raspect, 
it  is  prefixed  to  the  Christian  name  and  surname,  or 
mrname  aimply,  contracted  into  Ur  in  writing,  and 
prooonncad  *  Mbter.'  The  eldest  aon  of  a  biu^  ' 
the  peOTage 
title  of  the ' 
title  of  peen 

MASTEB  AND  SERTAST.  The  relation  of 
moater  aod  servant  is  constitutod  in  Great  Britain 
entirely  by  contract ;  for  there  being  no  status  of 
slavery  recognised  in  taw,  one  person  can  only 
serve  aikother  with  hia  or  her  own  free  consent. 
Being  a  mere  contrsct,  it  may,  like  other  contracts, 
be  broken  at  w^  subject  only  to  the  uaoal  conae- 

Suence,  that  the  party  in  the  wrong  is  liable  to  pay 
amagea  for  the  breacL  In  Engbind  and  Ireliuid, 
the  engagement  or  hiring  of  a  servant  may  be  either 
verbal  or  ia  writing ;  but  if  the  engagement  is  tor 
more  tlutn  one  year,  it  must  be  in  writing.  If  for 
an  indeSnito  time,  no  writing  ia  necesaary.  Wlien 
a  aervant  oontiniiea  in  the  service  after  the  first 
year,  a  renewal  of  the  contract  is  presumed  on  the 
same  terms.  Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  aay  whether 
an  engwemect  of  an  indefinite  hind  ia  by  the  year, 
or  by  the  moniji  or  week ;  in  such  casea,  a  mate- 
rial fact  ia  how  the  wases  were  to  be  paid,  for  if 
ttu^  an  paid  weeklv,  the  presomption  will  be  that 
the  hiring  was  by  the  week,  nnlesa  there  are  other 


land  ia  mnarally  known  by  the 
of ,  prefixed  to  hia  fafher'a 


circuniatanccs  to  shew  that  a  yearly  hiring  was 
meant  The  difference  between  a  yearly  oontract 
and  a  weekly  one  is,  that  if  the  servant  ia  diacharged 
without  canaa  during  the  year,  he  is  entitled  to 
wagea  np  to  tho  end  of  the  year ;  and  on  the  other 
hand,  if  he  le*ve  withont  oanse  during  the  aerrioe, 
he  is  entitled  to  no  wages  at  all. 

A  aervant  undertakes  to  have  competent  skill 
for  the  duties  of  the  service,  and  ia  bound  to  use 
due  diligence,  and  to  conduct  himself  reapectfuliy. 
He  is  bound  to  obey  all  lawful  orders  of  hia  master 
during  Uia  engagement,  if  they  are  within  the  acopa 
of  the  paj-tioiJar  aervice  for  which  he  waa  eociged. 
Thna,  a  coachmmi  is  not  bound  to  do  the  dntiea 
of  a  cook,  and  vice  v^td.  Every  servant  ia  bound 
to  take  due  care  of  his  master's  pn^eriy,  and  h 
is  liable  to  an  action  at  the  suit  oi  bis  master  ic 
groBs  negligence,  and  also  for  fraud  and  misfeasance. 
A  master  is  not  entitled  to  chastise  a  servant, 
whatever  tbe  age  of  the  servant  may  be,  thou^ 
in  tie  case  of  an  apprentice  mider  age,  a  moderate 
chastisement  ia  justifiBble.  The  grounds  on  which 
a  servant  may  be  lawfully  diackuged  are  wilful 
disobedience,  gross  immor^ty,  habitnial  negligence, 
and  incompetence.  If  any  person  entice  away  a 
servant,  and  thereby  cause  loss  to  the  master,  the 
latter  may  sue  saoh  person  for  the  injury.  If  the 
servant  is  a  female,  and  ia  seduced,  and  thereby 
ia  unable  to  continue  her  service,  tho  master 
may  also  bring  an  octiotL  agwnat  the  aodncer  for 
any  loss  of  service  cauaed  tnereby  j  and  on  the 
same  principle  a  master  may  bnng  an  action 
uaiiust  a  third  party  who  cauaes  personal  injury  to 
the  aervant.  In  the  cose  of  the  bankmptcy  of  tho 
maater,  a  preference  is  given  to  tbe  servaoVs  wagea 
if  due  and  unpaid,  but  this  extends  only  to^  two 
months'  wagea,  and  the  servant  is  an  ordinary 
creditor  for  the  balance  beyond  that  snm.  The 
death  of  the  master  is  a  discharge  of  the  contract ; 
and  in  many  cases,  the  aervant  ia  not  entitled  to 
recover  wages  for  the  time  actually  served,  though 
there  is  an  exception  as  to  domestic  servante.  If  a 
servant  ia  righttnlly  discharged,  he  is  not  entitled 
to  wages  for  iJie  broken  time  aince  the  prerioiis 
periodical  payment  of  wages  j  and  so  in  the  case 
of  the  servant's  death  dtinng  the  currency  of  the 
term,  the  servant's  enecntors  cannot  recover  j- 
ment  for  the  broken  time ;  but  it  is  otherwise  in 
case  of  domestic  servants.  When  a  servant  1 
sick,  the  master  is  not  bound  to  provide  medical 
attendance  whetber  the  servant  uves  under  hia 
roof  or  not ;  but  aa  in  such  cases  a  doctor  is  often 
sent  for  by  tbe  master  without  any  express  imder- 
standing  between  the  parties,  tbe  master  is  fre- 
quently made  liable  on  the  nound  that  tbe  doctor 
waa  aent  for  by  and  gave  cnSit  to  the  master.  As 
a  general  rule,  the  servant  takes  the  risk  of  all  the 
otdinary  accidents  attending  the  particular  service  ; 
if  he  suffered  from  an  accident  met  with  in  the 
course  of  the  service,  the  master  was  not  till  lately 
hable  for  the  oonaequences,  unless  there  waa  some 
personal  negligence  on  hia  parL  Tbe  law  in  such 
cases  has  been  much  changed  by  the  passing  of  tbe 
Employers'  liability  Act  of  1S80.  How  tbe  work- 
man or,  if  tbe  injury  rcBults  in  death,  his  local 
personal  reprcsantatives,  shall  have  the  some  right 
''  compensation  and  remedies  against  tbe  employer 
if  he  had  not  been  in  tbe  employer's  service,  in 
the  following  oases :  If  tbe  workman  suffer  injury 
by  reason  of  defect  ia  tbe  employer's  works  or 
machinery  or  plant ;  by  the  negligence  of  any  other 
snperior  workman  ;  by  tiie  negligence  of  any  otber 
servant  in  charge  of  locomotives  or  signal- points. 
Where  a  servant  injnraa  a  third  parity,  Uie  rule  ro- 
maina,  that  the  maaber  is  liable,  if  the  servant  at  tbe 
tame  was  acting  within  the  aoope  of  the  master's 


;7t;t 


MASTER-At-ABMS-MAaTER  07  THE  HORSE. 


orders,  expressed  or  implied.  Umce,  if  a  coftchman 
careleselj  mii  down  a  penon  on  the  highway,  or  do 
injury  to  another,  the  master  iji  liable  ;  bat  if  the 
ooachman  wai  driving  the  maiter's  carriage  without 
or  coatnkiy  to  the  oiden  of  the  master,  the  aerrant 
alonB  is  Imble.  So  the  master  is  not  in  any  way 
respon^ble  for  the  crimes  or  oriminal  offences  com- 
mitted  by  his  lerrant;  yet  sometimee  he  is  ia- 
TolTed  in  fines.  The  above  are  the  general  roles 
as  regards  lerrantB  generally;  but  ia  England 
th^v  la  a  distinction  in  many  instancea  observed 
between  domestio  servants  and  other  servanti.  The 
leading  distinction  is,  that  if  nothing  is  sud  ai  to 
the  length  of  service,  it  is  presumed  that  the 
service  can  be  terminated  at  any  time,  on  giving  a 
month's  notice  on  either  aide,  or  in  case  of  the  dis- 
charge of  a  domegtic  servant  withont  notice,  then 
on  payment  of  a  month's  wages.  It  ia  often  popa- 
larly  thought  that  a  domestic  servant  cannot  be 
tnrned  ont  of  the  maatei's  house  at  a  moment's 
notice,  even  on  paying  a  month's  wages,  but  this  can 
always  be  done  with  or  without  cause.  In  case  of 
discharge  without  cause,  the  servant  ia  entitled 
to  a  month's  wages,  but  not  board  wages ;  she  also 
gets  wages  only  up  to  the  naater'H  dea'UL  He  is  not 
compelled  to  give  a  eharvcter  to  the  servant;  it  is 
entirely  optional ;  but  if  he  does  so,  then  it  must 
be  a  trae  one,  otherwise  an  action  will  lie  for  defa- 
mation. Eat  if  a  master  withont  malice,  and  acting 
hmdSde,  gives  an  ontrne  cbaiacter,  he  is  not  liable, 
for  the  oommimiattion  is  held  to  be  privileged.  H 
a  master  knowingly  gire  a  false  cbaraeter  to  a 
servant  who  ia  en^iged  bjr  a  tJiinl  pari 
faith  of  it,  and  roha  such  third  par^,  the 

100  the  former  Tnmi»r  for  the  dam 

personating  masters,  and  giving  false 

servants  using  such  false  characters,  ate  liable  to 

be  eummarily  convicted,  and  fined  £20. 

In  general,  a  servant,  if  he  refuse  to  enter  the 
service,  or  leave  it  without  cause,  ia  merely  liable 
to  an  action  of  damages  for  breach  of  contract, 
which  is  no  remedy  at  iJl,  aa  few  servants  are  worth 
the  expense  ot  a  suib  As  this  conduct,  however, 
might  often  cause  great  hardship  to  masters,  espe- 
cially  where  they  are  employed  u  trade  or  mana- 
lactorea,  statutea  have  been  paased  which  give  a 
power  to  justices  of  the  peace  to  compel  the  servant 
to  remain  in  the  service  until  he  give  the  legal 
notice  to  leave.  This  was  formerly  done  by  ponish- 
ing  the  servant  who  left  the  service  without  tost 
cause  by  imprisonment.  This  law,  complained  of 
by  workmen  as  one-sided,  was  modified  by  the 
Employers  and  Workmen  Act  (1875),  which  givea 
County  Courts  enlargped  powers  in  regard  to  pay- 
ment of  money,  reociasion  of  contract,  and  taking  of 
eecorily  aa  between  employers  and  workmen ;  and 
by  the  Conspiracy  Act  (1876),  which,  while  decidmg 
that  in  trade  disputes  no  combination  shall  be  in- 
dictable if  the  act  contemplated  dona  by  one  person 
would  not  be  so,  makes  special  criminal  proviaioa  in 
case  ofpersons  employed  by  ms  and  water  conqianies, 

In  (Scotland,  the  law  as  to  master  and  servant 
differs  from  the  above  in  several  particulars,  of 
which  the  following  are  the  most  important  With 
regard  to  domeetio  servants,  in  towns,  if  nothing  ia 
said,  then  the  hiring  is  for  hnlf  a  year,  and  cannot 
be  put  an  end  to  without  forty  days'  warning  before 
tha  end  of  the  half  year ;  and  if  the  servant  U  dis- 
missed  without  just  cause,  he  or  she  can  claim  not 
only  wagea  but  board-wages  till  the  end  of  the  term. 
In  case  of  the  master's  death,  the  servant  can  claim 
wages  for  the  whole  of  the  current  term,  but  is  bound 
in  chat  case  to  serve  the  executors,  or  look  out  for 
another  situation.  In  case  of  the  master's  bank> 
niptcy,  the  serraat  ia  a  privileged  debtor  for  the 
wages  of  the  current  term.    In  most  other  respects, 


the  law  as  to  servants  is  the  same  as  in  England. 
The  statutes  enabling  justices  ot  the  peace  to  im- 
prison defaulting  workmen  and  artificers,  have  been 
modilied.   See  Mastbr*  Sbbvajjt  in  StJPP.,  VoLX. 

MASTER- AT- ASMS  Js  a  petty  officer  on  board 
a  ship-of-war,  chaiged  with  the  care  and  instmction 
in  the  use  of  simtU-arms,  except  as  re^srds  the 
marinefl.  He  is  also  employed  in  maintainmg  disci- 
pline, order,  and  cleanliness  among  the  crew.  His 
assistants  in  his  duties  are  the  '  ship's  corporals.' 

MASTER  OF  ARTS  (abbreviated  M^,  and 
sometimes,  particularly  in  Scotland,  A.M.,)  ia  a 
degree  conferred  by  universities  or  colleges.  In  the 
umversities  of  England,  this  titie  follows  that  of 
Badielor  (q.  v.).  It  is  the  hidiest  in  the  faculty  of 
Arts,  but  subordinate  to  that  of  Bachelor  of  Divinity, 
A  Master  becomes  a  Regent  shortly  after  obtaining 
his  degree,  and  thereby  obtuna  the  privilege  01 
voting  in  congregation  or  convocation  at  Oxford, 
and  in  the.senate  at  Cambridge ;  and  in  the  Scotch 
uoivetsities,  of  becoming  a  member  of  the  Qeneral 
Council    See  DtaKzA. 

MASTER  OF  COURT  is  Uie  title  ^ven  in 
England  to  the  chief  officers  under  the  judges, 
their  duty  being  to  attend  the  dttings  of  the 
coorta  daring  term,  and  make  miuntes  of  their 
proceedings.  They  also  tax  al!  the  bills  of  coats  of 
the  parties  aiising  ont  of  the  suits  and  matter* 
before  the  oonrts.  They  are  appointed  by  the  chief 
judge  of  the  coorl^  and  hold  their  offices  for  life 
during  good-behaviour.  Uasteni  in  Chancery  were 
similar  offioeia  in  the  Coort  of  Cbaacery,  but  wero 
abolished,  and  the  duties  are  now  performed  partly 
by  the  judge,  and  partly  by  the  registrars. 

MASTER  or  THE  BUCKHODKDS,  an 
officer  in  the  Master  of  the  Horse's  department  of 
the  royal  hoosebold,  who  has  the  control  of  all 
matters  relating  to  the  royal  hunts.  A  salary  of 
£1600  is  attached  to  the  office,  which  is  regwded 
as  one  of  considerable  politick  importance.  The 
Master  of  the  Buckhoands  goes  ont  of  office  on 
a  chaoge  of  ministry. 

MASTER  OF  THE  CEREMONIES,  an  office 
instituted  at  the  court  of  England  in  1603,  for  the 
more  honourable  reception  of  ambassadors  and  per- 
sona of  distinction.    The  same  term  was  afterwards 


,  .  president  of  the  amusements  at  Batb, 
and  then  to  other  persons  eierdsing  the  same 
function  in  ordinary  assemblies. 

MASTER  OF  THE  GREAT  WARDROBE, 
an  officer  at  the  court  of  Eo^and,  who  bad,  in 
former  times,  tiie  saperintendence  of  the  royal 
wardrobe.  'The  office  existed  from  a  very  early 
period  down  to  1782,  and  was  considered  a  poattion 
of  great  honour.  Its  duties  are  now  transferred  to 
the  Lord  Chamberlain. 

MASTER  OF  THE  HORSE,  the  third  great 
officer  of  the  court,  who  has  the  superintendeace 
of  the  royal  stables,  and  of  all  horses  and  breeda 
of  horses  oelon^ng  to  the  Queen.  He  exercises 
aathority  over  all  the  eqaeiries  and  paees,  grooms, 
coaohmeo,  saddlers,  and  farriers,  and  lus  the 
appointment  and  control  of  all  artificers  working 
for  the  Queen's  stables.  He  is  answerable  for  the 
disbursement  of  all  revenues  appropriated  to  defray 
the  expenses  of  his  department ;  but  his  acconnU 
are  aadited  aod  examined  by  the  Board  ot  Oreen 
Cloth.  He  has  the  privilege  of  maUng  use  of  the 
rc^  horses,  pages,  and  servants,  and  ndes  utact  to 
Her  Majesty  on  all  state  occasions.  The  office  is 
one  of  great  antiquity,  aod  is  oooridered  to  be  a 


.Google 


MASTER  OV  tHt  H0USEH0L1>— MATAHO. 


I   ii    nnder   the 


appointed  dnring  pleocure,  bj  letten-patent ;  but 
hu  t«aiire  of  office  depend*  on  the  eziitenca  of  the 
poUtio*!  pMtf  ^  power.    The  u^ary  i*  £2600  ft 

MASTER  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD,  aa  officer 
in  tiie  Lord  Steward's  department  of  the  loj&l 
hoQMhold,  whose  specifio  autiea  ooniut  in  suiter- 
intendise  tiie  teleotioii,  qqalificatioii,  and 
of  the  bootehold  servniita.  " 
treMnmr,  and  eiominea  a  portit 
"Hie  awointment  a  dnriag  plesaons  and 
dependent  on  political  party.  The  aaUrj  ia  abore 
£1100  per  annnm. 

MASTER  OF  THE  BOLLS,  the  third  in  rank 
of  the  judg«B  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature, 
next  after  the  Lord  Cbaacellor  and  the  Lord  Chief- 
JuBtice  1  he  ia  one  of  the  Lords  of  AppeaL  For- 
merly tile  principal  cleric  of  the  Chancery,  he  had 
charge  of  ttie  records,  including  the  register  of  grants, 
wrib^  and  patents.  Gradually  he  came  to  have 
judicial  powers,  and  ultimately  was  the  chief  Judge 
in  Chancery,  and  next  the  Lora  Chancellor.  Mean- 
while, his  original  function  of  keeping  tiie  records 
{NMed  from  him,  hut  was  restored  in  IS38.  The 
Act  changed  the  position  of  the  Master 
la ;  removnig.  Sot  example,  the  privilege. 


till  then  nijoyed  by  hmi  alone  ot  supreme  judges, 
of  being  eligible  foraaaabinthe  House  of  Conunons. 
MASTERWORT  [Peiuxdanvm  (Mmt/iium,),  a 
perennial  plant  of  the  natural  order  Umbetlifene, 
bavins  a  stem  from  one  foot  to  two  feet  high, 
broad  Di-temate  leaves,  large  flat  umbels  of  whitish 
flowera,  and  flat,  orbicular,  Droadly  margined  trait. 
It  {*  a  native  of  the  north  of  Europe  and  the 
north  of  America,  and  is  found  in  nunat  pastures 
some  parts  of  Britain,  but  apparently  naturalised 
ther  than  indigenoiu,  its  n»t  havinf  formerly 
en  much  cultivated  as  a  potherb,  and  hud  in  great 
stomachio,  sudorific,  diuretic,  Ac  j  its 

K  was  cauea  dto^nm  raMdima.  It  still  retains 
a  ^^  in  the  medical  practice  of  fame  oonntries 
of  Europe,  although,  mobahlv,  it  is  nothing  more 
than  an  aromatic  stiiniilanL  The  root  has  a  pungent 
taste,  causes  a  flow  of  saliva,  and  a  sensation  of 
warmth  in  the  month,  and  often  affords  relief  in 
toothache. 

IIASTIC,  a  species  of  gum-resin  fielded  by  the 
Mastic  or  Lentisk  tree  [Putacia  laUiacus,  natural 
order  Ter^intAacea).  It  oozes  from  cuts  made  in 
the  bark,  and  hardens  on  the  stem  in  small  round 
tear-like  lumps  of  a  straw-colour,  or  if  not  collected 
in  time,  it  falls 


aftiable.    The 


the  ground  :  in  the  latter  i 

it  colourless  vamim  for  vamishinc 


prints,"  maps,  drawings,  kc  It  is  slso  used  by  den- 
tists for  stopping  hallow  teeth,  and  was  formerly 
used  in  medicine.  It  is  imparted  in  small  qnan- 
tdties,  chiefly  from  the  Morocco  coast,  but  some  is 
occaoonolly  bron^t  from  the  south  of  Europe. — The 
name  of  mastio  is  also  ffvea  to  oles^nont  oements, 
oomposed  ot  about  7  pa^  of  Uthaige  and  93  of 
burned  clav,  reduced  to  floe  powder,  made  into  a 
paste  with  linseed  oiL 

JlABTtFP,  a  bind  of  dog,  of  which  one  variety 
has  been  known  from  ancient  times  aa  peculiarly 
Ttnglinh,  and  tuothsF  is  found  in  Hbet,  No  kind 
of  domestio  dog  has  more  appearance  of  being  a 
distinct  species  than  this,  sjid  it  shews  little 
inclination  to  mix  with  other  races,  although  the 
B"gH»K  M.  ha*  been  in  part  crossed  wiui  the 
■tag-hound  and  blood-hound.  The  GNeuEH  M. 
is  hu«B  and  powerful,  with  a  large  head,  broad 


muole,  large,  *T''''^i 
of  moderate  size,  smooth  hair, 
bushy  tail.  It  is  generally  from  25  to  28  inches 
high  at  lie  shoulder,  but  a  still  greater  size  is 
sometimee  attained.  The  M.  is  Yefy  courageous, 
and  does  not  flee  even  from  the  lion,  for  which 
three  or  four  of  these  does  are  said  to  be  a  match. 
The  Qauls  trained  British  manHHj^  and  employed 
them  in  their  wars.  The  M.  is  now  chiefly 
valued  as  a  watch-do&  for  which  no  dog  eicels 
it ;  and  whilst  it  fatthhdly  protects  the  property 
iatrtuted  to  it,  it  has  the  additional  merit  id 
refraining  from  the  infliction  of  personal  injury  on 
the  invMer.  It  becomes  much  attached  to  its 
master,  although  not  very  demonstratively  aflfec- 
tionate ;  it  is  excelled  by  many  kinds  of  dtw  in 
sagaciW.  The  T-^];'">'  M.  is  usually  of  some  shade 
of  bua  colour,  with  dark  muzzle  and  eara.  The 
ancient  Wngli.li  breed  was  brindled  yellow  and 
black—The  M  or  Turr  is  still  larger  than  the 
English ;  the  head  is  mote  elevated  at  the  back ; 
the  skin,  from  the  eyebrow,  'forms  a  fold  which 
descends  on  the  ^^lyng  lip  ;  the  hair  is  very 
rough,  and  t^e  tail  buuy ;  the  ccJour  mosUy  a 
deep  black. 

MASTODON,  a  mmif  of  fosnl  probowddian 
pachyderms,  nearly  dlied  to  the  elephant,  but 
with  simpler  grinding  teeth,  ad^ted  for  bruising 
coarser  v^etable  substanoes,  or  perhaps  fitted  for 
an  animal  of  a  more  onmivonms  character  than  its 
modem  representative.  The  teeth  were  ronghly 
aammillated,  henoe  the  name,  meaning  teat-tooth. 
Eleven  or  twelve  species  have  been  described  from 
the  Miooene,  Fleiocene,  and  Fleistooene  strata  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America. 

MASULIPATA'U,  also  called  KISTNA  or 
KRISHNA,  a  maritime  district  of  British  India, 
in  the  government  of  Madras.  Area,  8471  square 
miles ;  pop.  (1381)  l,M8,4Sa  Along  the  shore  to  a 
distance  ot  40  or  60  miles  inland,  die  surface  is 
exceedingly  low,  lower  in  some  places  than  the 
shore  itmlf  and  the  beds  of  the  Kistnah  and  the 
Gedavery,  the  chief  rivers.  Chief  town,  Mabuu- 
FATAH  or  Bandar,  on  a  vride  bay,  decaying  of  lata 
The  storm  wave  of  18M  swept  over^e  entire 
town,  and  destroyed  30,000  lives  here.  PopL  (1881) 
36,006,  who  weave  cottons. 

MATABELE,  a  Kaffir  people,  speaking  one  of 
the  Bantu  tongues,  whose  territory  hes  between  the 
Zambesi  and  Limpopo  Rivets  in  3.E.  Africa.  See 
M.  Load,  by  Gates  (1881). 

MA'TAD0R(Sptuii8h, 'slayer').  See  BUL1>nOHT. 

MATAGO'BDA,  a  seaport  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexici^ 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  River,  Taxa^  U.S,, 
80  mile*  W.aW.  of  Galveston.    Fop.  200a 

MATAMO'RAS,  a  river-port  of  Mexico,  in  tha 
department  of  Tamaulipas,  is  situated  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  40  miles  from  the  month 
ot  that  river  in  tlie  GnU  of  Mexico.  Fop.  20,00a 
The  chief  exports  are  specie,  hides,  wool,  and 
horses ;  the  chief  imports,  mannfaotnted  goods  from 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

MATA'HZAS,  a  fortified  town  and  seaport  on 
the  north  coast  of  the  island  ot  Cuba,  66  milea 
east  of  Havana,  with  which  it  ia  connected  by  rail- 
way. It  is  situated  in  an  exceedinely  nch  and  fertile 
diatriot,  has  an  excellent,  waU-^eltered  barbonr, 
and  a  pop.  of  36,000.  After  Havana,  it  is  the  most 
imjiortant  trading-place  on  the  island. 

HATAPAN,  Caps;  the  aouthemmost  point  of 
the  Motea  in  Greece,  lat  26°  33'  K. 


oottoD-^inniiig  nilJa,  sailcloth  factories  tainwrie^ 


HATCHBS— MATE. 


And  several  iroD-foiindriss.     Fopi  17,500.   At  tlte 
harbour,  there  aK  docks,  at  whioh  ship-building  it 


brimstone  match,  made  by  cntting  verj 
thin  strips  of  highly  resinous  or  veiy  dry  pine-wood, 
sbout  sii  inches  long,  with  pointed  ends  dipped  in 
melted  aolphur ;  thus  prepared,  the  sulphar  points 
instantly  ignited  when  applied  to  a  spark  obtained 
by  stri^D^  fire  into  tinder  from  a  ffint  and  steeL 
tW  was  m  almost  nniversal  use  np  to  the  end 
of  the  first  quarter  of  the  present  century,  when 
■everal  ingemous  inventions  followed  each  other  in 
rapid  snccessioo,  and  displaced  it  so  completely  that 
it  would  be  noir  very  diffionlt  to  purchase  a  nnnch 
□f  brimstone  matches.  The  first  ot  these  ioTeutiana 
was  the  '  Instontaoeous-lieht  Box,'  which  consisted 
of  a  small  tin  box  oontainmg  a  bottle,  in  irtiich  waa 
placed  some  lulphmia  acid  with  sufficient  fibroiu 
asbestos  to  soak  it  np  and  prevent  its  ipilling  out 
of  the  bottle,  and  a  supply  of  properly  prepared 
matches.  These  consisted  of  small  splinta  .of  wood 
about  two  inches  long,  one  end  of  which  was  coated 
with  a  chemical  mixture  prepared  by  mixing  chlorate 
of  potash,  six  parta ;  powdtved  toaf-augor,  two 
parts;  powdered  gum-ambic,  one  part;  the  whole 
coloured  with  a  little  Termilion,  and  made  into 
a  thin  paste  with  water.  The  splints  were  first 
dipped  into  melted  sulphur,  and  afterwards  into  the 

S 'Spared  paste.  They  were  readily  inflamed  bv 
pping  the  prepared  ends  into  th»  nilphurio  adcL 
There  were  sever^  disadvantages  in  this  invention, 
espeoially  those  arising  from  the  use  of  so  deetrac- 
tive  a  material  as  sulphuric  acid,  which  alio  had 
another  drawbaclc  t  its  great  power  of  absorbing 
moisture  soon  rendered  it  inert  by  the  absorptiou  of 
mcnstnre  from  the  atmosphere.  The  Lucifer  mat«h 
■ncceeded  the  above,  and  differed  materially :  the 
bottle  of  sulphuric  acid  and  oil  its  inconvenieuces 
were  dispensed  with ;  the  match  was  either  of  sniall 
strips  of  pasteboard  or  wood,  and  the  infiatnmable 
mixture  was  a  compound  of  chlorate  of  potash  and 
flolphnret  of  antiioony,  with  enough  of  powderad 
gutn  to  render  it  adhesive  when  mixed  with  water,  and 
applied  over  ttie  end  ot  the  match,  dipped  as  before 
in  melted  brimstone.  These  matches  were  ignited 
fay  the  friction  oansed  by  drawing  them  through  a 
piece  of  bent  sand-paper.      So  very  popular   did 

these  become,  that  althou^ '" — * —  "' — ' 

»way  like  their  pred 

name  behind,  -which  -     -» 

kinds  since  invented.    Next  to  the  Lucifer 

portonce  was  the  Congreve,  a  modification  of  which 
IS  still  commonly  nted.  The  body  of  the  match 
is  usually  of  wood,  but  some^  called  Vestas,  are  of 
very  thin  wax-taper.  The  composition  consists  of 
phoephoms  and  nitre,  or  phosphmiB,  BDlj^Qr,  and 
chlOTato  ol  potaah,  mixed  with  melted  gum  or  glne, 
and  ooloiued  with  venoilion,  red-lead,  umber,  loot, 
or  other  colouring  material  The  proportions  are 
almost  as  varied  as  the  nutanfactuien  are  numerooa. 
The  Congreve  match  requires  only  a  slight  friction 
to  ignite  it,  for  which  purpose  the  bottom  or  some 
other  part  of  the  In>x  is  made  rough  by  attaching  a 
piece  ot  sand-paper,  or  covering  it,  after  wettiDg  it 
with  glue,  with  sand.  Amadou,  or  Oermoa  tinder, 
is  largely  made  into  Congreve  matches  or  fusees,  as 
they  are  often  called,  for  the  use  of  smokers,  to 
light  t^eir  pipes  or  cigars.  One  of  the  latest  and  best 
introductions  is  that  of  Bryant  and  May,  which  is 
properly  called  the  'Speoial  Safety  Matdu'  With 
every  variety  of  Luciler  and  Congreve,  there  are 
certain  dangers  attending  the  use,  for  in  both  a 
■light  MotiM  wfll  i^te  them,  sod  as.  &«m  the 


veiy  nature  of  their  application,  they  are  apt  to 


doubtless  been  the  cause  of       

confiagrationa.  The  Congreves  are  exposed  to  further 
risks  ot  accidental  ignition  arising  from  the  employ- 
meub  of  phosphorus,  which,  from  its  very  inn  am  ■ 
mable  natnre,  will  ignite  spontaneously  it  the  tem- 
peratiu^  is  a  little  higher  than  ordinary.  The 
match  of  Messrs  Bryant  and  May,  althougti  patented 
by  them  here,  was  invented  in  Sweden,  under  the 
name  of  the  Swedish  Safety  Match,  by  a  Swede 
named  Lundstrom,  a  maanuctnrer  of  matches  at 
Jiink0ping,inl85Sor  18S6.  There  is  no  phosphorus 
in  the  safety  match  itself ;  instead,  the  other 
elements  in  the  mateb  are  brought  into  contact 
with  the  phosphorus  [toI  phosphorus)  only  on  the 
Mction-surfac^  which  contains  also  sulphide  of 
antimony.  la  ^ite  ot  this  precaution,  satetv 
matches  will,  with  sharp  friction,  light  on  smootn 
— iper,  wood,  dry  gloss,  and  other  substances  ;  but 

ey  light  readily  '  only  on  their  own  box.'  Fa»ua 
and  Vemvictna  ore  matches  patronised  by  smokers, 
and  expressly  designed  for  lighting  pipes  and  cigars. 

Many  ingenious  inventions  have  been  introduced 
for  mating  the  wooden  splints.  The  square  ones, 
which  have  always  proved  to  be  the  beet,  are  out 
very  simply  by  two  sets  of  knives  acting  trans- 
versely to  each  other.  The  round  ones,  wluch  always 
have  the  fault  ot  weakness,  are  cut  by  a  perforated 
steel  plate  invented  in  1842  by  Mr  Partridge.  The 
perforations  are  the  same  size  aa  the  splints ;  and 
their  edges  are  sufficiently  sharp,  when  pressed  on 
the  transverse  section  of  the  wood,  to  out  down 
throngh  it.  The  various  ornamental  forms  of  the 
Oennon  match-makers,  who  excel  in  this  manu- 
facture, are  produced  by  planes,  tiie  irons  of  whioti 
ore  so  constructed  as  to  plough  up  splints  of  the 
form  required.  These  are  usually  mode  of  a  soft 
kind  ot  piue-wood— that  of  Sbiet  ptcUnala  is  pre- 
ferrod  in  Austria  and  Oermany — of  which  vast 
quantitieB  ore  yielded  by  the  forests  of  Dpper 
Austria.  Until  theintroductionof  redoramorphous 
-L — 1. ,.,-  Tj 1   (jjg  trada  of  match- 


used,  gave  rise  to  necrosis,  or  mortification  of  the 
bones,  and  fatal  effeota  often  followed.  Too  many 
manufacturers  are  still  using  the  common  kind 
for  cheapness,  but  others  avoS  the  injury  to  their 
work.people  by  employing  the   amorphous   kind. 

legislative  interference. 

The  trade  in  matches  has  assumed  enormous 
dimensions  in  Oermany  and  Austria,  one  of  the 
largest  mannfaoteries  being  at  SchUttenhoten  in 
Bohemia  From  Sweden  19  millions  of  pounds  were 
shipped  in  1830,  and  one  Swedish  firm  employs 
nearly  900  hand&  More  than  one  firm  in  England 
produces  ten  million  Congreve  matches  per  day ; 
uid  a  Birmingham  firm  manufactures  d^y  eight 
miles  of  tbin  wax-taper,  and  converts  it  into  Con- 
greve matches.  In  England  and  France  together, 
aboat  250,000  miltions  »  year  are  turned  out  In 
the  United  States,  about  40,000  miUions.  Some  of 
the  most  modem  kinds  of  matches  contain  no  phos- 
phoma  eitberonthematchoronthestrikiogsnrfMM. 

MATCULOOK.    See  Lock. 

MATE  (aUied  to  me^  measured,  suitable,  eon- 
formable,  equal,  companionable)  is  an  assistant,  a 
depu^,  or  a  seoond  m  any  work ;  in  this  sense,  it 
is  a  conunon  word  in  nautical  afiairs.  Li  the  navy, 
its  use  is  now  confined  to  petty  ofGcers,  such  as 
boatswain's-mate,  gunner's-mate,  &&  ;  but  formerly, 
several    officers   bore  the  titl^  as  master'a-mate. 


^iniizooov  Google 


UAT^MATBtttALTSU. 


now  Hcond  moater,  inrgeoD's-miLte,  : 
Burgeon.  Until  within  a  few  yeaia,  the  distinctive 
term  note  tnrviTed,  uid  was  applied  to  a  grade 
between  lieatentnt  mad  midihipmiui :  the  title  iji 
now  oliBDged  to  SiJ>-lieaimant  (q,  v.). 

In  the  merohaut'aervice,  the  mates  are  important 
officers,  holding  fnnctioiis  not  greatly  inferior  to 
those  of  lientenants  in  the  roTsI  navy.  The  first 
mate  Tanks  next  to  the  master  or  captain,  com- 
macdB  in  hia  absence,  and  is  immediately  respons- 
ible for  the  atat«  of  tlie  vessel ;  the  second  and 
third  (and  fourth  in  large  well-found  vessels)  have 
varions  analogons  dnties,  the  jnnior  mate  generally 
haTing  the  enperintendeDce  of  the  ctowoge  of  the 
cargo. 

MATfi,  or  PAKAGUAY  TEA,  a  frabstitula  for 
tea,  extensively  used  in  South  America,  and  almost 
Duiversallv  tmvngti  BrodL  It  consists  of  the 
leaves  ana  green  HAoots  of  certain  species  of  Holly 
(q.  r.),  mora  espedoUy  Ilac  PaTOffuaj/enna,  dried  and 
rou^Jy  ground;  the  leafy  portion  being  reduced 
to  a  coarse  powder,  and  the  twigs  b^ng  in  a 
more  or  less  broken  state,  sometimes,  however,  aa 
much  as  an  inch  in  length.  The  term  mtUi,  which 
has  by  usage  attached  to  this  material,  belonged 
originally  to  the  vessels  in  which  it  was  infused  for 
drinking ;  these  were  usually  made  of  gourda  or 
calabosJiea,  often  trained  into  canon*  forms  dnring 
their  growth.  Into  the  hollow  veesels  thus  formed, 
a  smidl  quantity  of  the  material,  more  properly 
called  Tata  de  JUaii,  is  put,  and  boiling  water 
is  added;  it  is  then  handed  round  to  those  who 
are  to  partake  of  it ;  and  each  being  provided  with 
a  small  tube  about  ei^t  inches  m  length,  with 
a  small  bulb  at  one  end,  made,  either  of  ba^et-work 
of  wonderful  fineness,  or  of  perforated  metal,  to  act 
aa  a  itnuner,  and  prevent  the  fine  particles  from 
being  drawn  up  into  the  mouth,  dips  in  this  instru- 
ment, which  IS  called  a  bontbilla,  and  sucks  up  a 
small  portion  of  the  infusion,  and  paasea  the  matf- 
bowl  on  to  the  next  person.  It  is  usual  to  drtalc  it 
exceedingly  hot,  so  much  so  as  to  be  extremely 
unpleasant  to  Europeana.  Its  effect  is  much  the 
■ame  as  tea,  stimukiting  and  restorative ;  and  it 
derivea  thie  property  from  the  presence  of  a  large 
proportioa  of  the  same  principle  which  is  found  m 
tea  and  coffee — viz.,  Theirie.  The  collection  and 
preparation  of  mati  is  a  large  industrial  occupa- 
tion in  Paraguay  and  Brazil ;  and  the  learned  and 
aooorato  botamat,  Mr  John  Uiers,  has  proved  that 
not  only  Ilex  Paraguayeiuu,  but  also  I.  curitiieniis. 
/.  gigaTilea,  I.  ovai^folia,  I.  Hrtmbi^dtiana,  and  /. 
mgropunctida,  bemdea  several  varietiea  of  these 
species  are  in  g«uieral  use.  It  is  very  remukable 
that  when  cafiaia  acid,  to  which  coffee  owes  ita 
agreeable  flavour,  independently  of  the  theine,  ia 
treated  with  aolphnrio  add  and  binoxide  of  man- 
ganese, it  forms  kinone;  and  by  tieatmg  the 
mate  with  the  same  agents,  kinone  has  also  been 
obt^ned. 

Upwards  of  6,000,000  lbs.  of  M.  are  annually 
exptuted  from  Paraguay  to  other  parts  of  SouUi 
America ;  but  it  is  not  yet  an  article  of  export  to 
other  quarters  of  the  wori4. 

lUx  Paraguayenau  is  a  large  ahnb  or  small  ti«e ; 
with  smooth,  wedge-shaped,  remotely  lemted  leaves, 
and  umbels  of  small  flowers  Jn  the  *-'il"  of  the 
leaves.  The  leaves  of  many  apedea  of  holly  possess 
propertieB  very  different  fnnn  those  of  tho  M.  trees. 
Some  are  emetic 

MATEHA,  a  city  of  the  Italian  province 
Potenza,  situated  between  lovely  valleys,  37  miles 
west-north-weat  of  Taisnto.  Pop.  15,225.  It  boa 
an  episcopal  palace,  a  caUiedral,  and  a  college,  but 
ita  lower  classes  are  reputed  the  most  uncivilised 


of  Southern  Italy ;  they  dwell  chiefly  in  ancient 
caverns,  excavated  in  the  side  of  the  deep  valley 
Borrounding  the  town,  and  are  much  afflicted  wim 
cretioinn.  M.  has  manufactures  of  leather  and 
arms,  and  a  trade  in  nitre  and  agricoltural  produoe. 

MATEltIA  METDICA  is  that  department  of  the 
science  of  medicine  which  treats  of  the  materials 
employed  for  the  alleviation  and  cure  of  disease^ 
Some  writera,  oa  Pereii^  divide  the  subject  into  the 
inorganic  and  the  organic,  while  othera,  aa  Christi* 
son,  adopt  an  alphabetical  arrangement.  In  tho 
description  of  an  inorganic  compound,  as,  for  example, 
iodide  of  potassium  or  calomel,  the  writer  on  materia 
medica  notices  (1),  its  physical  propertjos;  (2),  its 
various  modes  of  preparation  ;  (3),  ite  chemical  com- 
position and  relations,  including  the  testa  for  ita 
purity,  and  the  means  of  delating  ita  probaUo 
adnlterationa ;  (4),  ita  phyuolocical  action  on  man 
and  animala  in  large  and  small  doses  ;  (6),  ita  thera- 
peutio  actions  and  uses,  and  the  average  doses  in 
which  it  should  be  prescribed  ;  and  {G),  the  officinal 
preparations  containing  the  substance  in  question, 
and  their  uses  and  dosca  :  while  in  the  notice  of  an 
article  belonging  to  the  organic  department,  the 
natural  history  of  the  source  from  whence  it  is 
obtained,  and  the  mode  of  collecting  or  extracting  it, 
must  also  be  given. 

MATETBIALISM.  This  is  the  name  for  a  certain 
mode  of  viewing  the  nature  of  mind,  namely,  to 
regard  it  either  as  mere  matter,  or  as  a  product  of 
the  material  orgonisataon.  The  ontoaite  view  ia 
called  Spiritualism,  and  meana  that  the  mind, 
although  united  with  the  body,  is  not  essentially 
dependent  on  bodily  organs,  but  may  have  an 
existence  apart  from  these.  There  has  been  much 
oontrovers^r  on  this  question ;  and  although  in  later 
times  Uie  immateriality  of  the  mind  has  been  the 
favourite  view,  and  been  treated  by  man^  as  a 
supposition  eeaential  to  the  doctrine  of  man'a  immor- 
tahty ;  yet,  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  Christian 
Church,  the  materialistio  view  was  considered  th« 
most  in  unison  with  revelation,  and  was  upheld 
af  ainst  the  excessive  spiritualising  tendencies  of  the 
^atonic  schools.  Tertullisn  contended  that  the 
Scriptures  prove,  in  opposition  to  Plato,  that  the 
soul  has  a  beginning,  and  is  corporeal  Be  ascribes 
to  it  a  peculiar  chuscter  or  constitution,  and  even 


See  Mutd.)  To  him,  incoi^oreity  was  another 
name  for  nonentity  (thA^I  ett  tncorporak,  nut  guod 
non  eil) ;  and  he  ext^ded  the  some  princifde  to  the 
Deity,  who,  he  conceived,  must  have  a  oodj.  He 
could  not  comprehend  either  the  action  of  ontward 
things  on  the  mind,  or  the  power  of  the  mind  to 
crigmate  movement*  jn  ontward  things,  unleM  it 
~ere  corporeaL 

The  state  of  our  knowled^  at  the  present  lime 
shews  us  more  and  more  the  intimacy  of  the  olliancs 
between  our  mental  functions  and  our  bodily  organi- 
sation. It  would  appear  that  feeling,  will,  and 
thought  are  in  all  cases  accompanied  with  phyaical 
changes ;  no  valid  exception  to  this  rule  has  ever 
been  established.  Mind,  as  known  to  us,  therefore, 
must  be  considered  aa  reposing  upon  a  series  of 
material  organs,  although  it  be  totally  unlik^  and 

^damental  contrast  to,  any  of  those  properties 
functions  that  we  usually  term  material — exten- 
sion, inertia,  colour,  ko.  We  never  can  resolve  mind 
into  matter ;  that  would  be  a  confounding  of  the 
greatest  contiaat  that  exists  in  the  entire  compass 
of  our  knowledge  (see  Mikd)  ;  hot  we  are  driven  to 
admit,  &om  the  whole  tenor  of  modem  inveatiga> 
tion,  that  the  two  are  inseparably  nnited  within  tiie 
aphere  of  the animsl kingdom     '" 


.iDgk. 


UATEEUATIOAIi  mSTBUMKNTS-UATHEW. 


wayi,  fa 
bodily  0 


In  this  lifB  i>  *n  etnbodUi  coaicioasntH.    Eunun 
Viidentaiuliiig  and  Belief  v«  nikted,  in  •  Tarietjr  oF 

1,  to  the  originkl  and  anccawive  itateg  of  the 

ly  organiim  &om  birth  to  deatii.  Obaervatioa 
ana  experimant  prove  the  importaiit  practical  fact 
that  tbe  consdoDS  life  oa  eartb  of  every  indiTidnal 
i*  dependent  on  hii  organifua  and  its  biatoiy '  (Fro- 
feoaor  Vnaeft  Baiicnai  Phiiotopfai).  See  Iiaoge's 
*ble  et»Mau  da  Materiaiimius  (Eng.  tnual.  1S77). 

MATHEBIATIOAL  IN 8TRITMENTS  inolnde 
all  tiuM  iartmmeiita  anployed  in  the  datennination 
of  the  length  of  linea  or  the  «i2e  of  angle*.  Pain  of 
eompaasea,  Borvs^ng-chaiita,  &o.,  am  examd«a  ol  Om 
former  clue ;  wlule  the  oompaM,  eeztaut,  theodolite, 
and  the  namerons  list  of  Mtronomioal  inrtnunente 
generallT  denominated  telescopea,  including  the 
equatonal,  transit  initnmiGnt,  moral  diole,  Ao.  from 
the  lattei  olaaa.  I3ie  more  important  of  theaa  in 
mental  will  be  treated  of  ondor  separate  heads. 

liATHEMATI'CIANS  (Lat  TnaOemaiit^,  tbe 
name  given  by  the  Komans  to  the  profeason  of 
aatrology,  from  the  fact  that,  in  all  cases,  thoM  who 
{awTtised  astrolo^  also  to  aome  extent  cnltlTBted 
mathematical  science.  The  Bomans,  unlike  the 
Greeks,  appeared  not  to  comprehend  the  attractions 
possessed  by  mathematical  stadies,  and  being  con- 
seqnently  nnable  to  distingnish  betireen  the  strident 
of  pore  adence  and  the  fanatio  enthusiast  who 
attempted  to  derive  a  knowledge  of  fntnre  erenta 
on  this  earth  from  the  position  of  the  stan,  joined 
them  together  in  a  common  oondemnation,  under 
the  name  of '  mathematicL' 

MATHEUATIC5  (Gr.  Tnathana,  leanung],  the 
science  which  has  for  its  subject-matter  the  pro- 
perties of  magnitude  and  number.  It  is  usually 
divided  into  pure  and  mixal ;  the  Sist  including  all 
deductions  Uom  the  abstract,  self-evident  relations 
of  mosnitude  and  number;  tJie  second,  the  results 
arrived  at  by  applying  the  principles  so  established 
to  certain  relation!  lound  by  observation  to  exist 
among  the  pbeDomena  of  nature.  The  branches  of 
pure  mailimiiatics  which  were  first  developed  were, 
naturally,  Ariihmeiie,  or  tiie  taieiice  of  number,  aud 
Oeometry,  or  the  science  of  quantity  (in  extension). 
The  latter  of  these  was  the  only  branch  of  mathe- 
matics cultivated  by  the  Greeks,  their  cumbrous 
notation  oppoeing  a  harrier  to  any  effective  pro- 
fness  in  the  former  scieace.  Algebra  (q.  v.),  or 
the  (cience  of  numbers  in  its  most  general  form, 
is  of  much  later  growth,  and  was  at  &«t  merely 
a  kind  of  universal  arithmetio,  general  aymbols 
taking  the  place  of  numbers ;  but  its  extraordi- 
nary development  within  the  last  two  centuries 
baa  established  for  it  a  right  to  be  considered  as  a 
distinct  science,  tbe  tdenee  qf  operatioju.  Combina- 
tions of  thrae  three  have  given  rise  to  Trigoaaiatlry 
(q.v.)  and  Analytical  Geometry.  The  Differentid 
and  Integral  Calculus  (q-  V-)  males  nse  of  Uie  opera- 
tions or  prooeasea  of  geometry,  algebra,  and  analfsU 
indifferently  ;  the  colcidm  of  finilt  difftrenca  is 
in  part  indnded  under  algebra,  and  may  be  con- 
sidered as  an  extension  of  that  sdence ;  and  the 
eaiadtu  of  variatiotu  is  baaed  upon  the  differential 
calculus.  The  term '  mixed  mathematics '  is  calcu- 
lated to  lead  to  error ;  '  applied  mathematics '  is  a 
more  appropriate  name.  This  portion  of  mathe- 
matics mcludea  all  those  sciences  in  which  a  few 
aimple  axioms  are  mathematicaUy  shewn  to  be 
•uffident  for  the  deduction  of  the  most  importaat 
natural  phenomena.  This  definition  includea  those 
aciences  which  treat  of  pressure,  motion.  Light,  heat, 
•oimd,  electricity  and  magnetism— usually  called 
Phggiit — and  excludes  chemistry,  geology,  political 
economy,  and  the  other  branches  <3  seieniM,  which, 
however,   receive  more   or  len   aid  from  mathe- 


matics. For  a  notice  ot  the  teparate  sdences,  sea 
AsTBOHOUY,  OracB,  MscHaKica,  Hydbosiaths, 
HiDBosYKAMics,  EuT,  AcoDsno8,  SLBCTucnr, 

blAGNEnSU,  to. 

MATKBK,  InoBUjn,  an  American  eolonial  divine, 
son  of  Bichaid  Mather,  an  English  nonoonfoimist 
ministeF,  who  emimted  to  Massachusetts  in  1639, 
was  bom  at  Dorcnaster,  Maaachnsetts,  January 
21,  1039.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard  College, 
Msssachosetts,  and  Trinity  Collie,  Dublin,  and 
settled  for  62  yean  as  pastor  of  the  North  Chnrch, 
Boston.  In  1684,  ha  was  also  chosen  president  of 
Harvard  College,  for  which  he  obtained  the  right 
to  confer  the  d^rees  of  RD.  and  D.D.  An  indiis- 
triona  student,  he  spent  16  hours  a  day  in  his  study, 
and  published  92  separate  works,  moat  of  which  are 
now  very  scarce.  One  ot  theae,  entitled  Stfaark- 
ablt  Providenai,  waa  republished  in  t^e  Library  of 
Old  Authors  (London.  18fi6).  His  influence  waa  so 
great  in  the  ooloay,  that  he  waa  sent  to  England 
m  16SS  to  secure  a  now  charter,  and  had  tbe 
appointment  of  all  the  ofBcen  under  it.  M.  died  at 
Boston,  August  23,  1723. 

MATHER,  CoTiOH,  an  American  colonial  divine, 
aon  of  tbe  above,  was  bom  at  Boston,  February  12, 
1663.  He  entered  Harvard  College  when  12  years 
old,  and  his  preeodty  and  piety  excited  great  expec- 
tations. He  entered  upon  a  course  of  lasting  and 
v^pls,  cured  a  habit  of  stammering  by  sp^ikiDg 
with  '  dilated  deliberation,'  studied  thedogy,  oecame 
the  colleague  ot  his  father  in  the  ministry,  and 
wrote  in  favour  of  the  pohtical  ascendency  of  the 
cler^.  The  phenomenon  termed  '  Salem  Witchcraft' 
having  appeared  in  the  colony,  he  investigated  it, 
and  wrote,  in  16811,  his  Memorable  Providences  relai- 
iag  to  WilcAcrqft  and  Pot»e»»ion».  He  found  that 
devils  or  possessed  persons  were  familiar  with  dead 
~   ' lagcB,  tf     "    '  1- .  . .-1 

aperala  i 

ifknowi 


to  which  a  reply  appeared  at  London  in  1700  by 
Robert  Calet — the  effect  of  which  waa  to  dissimte 
the  sombre  and  superstitions  influence  of  the  New 
England  divine.  With  a  remarkable  industry,  he 
wrote  392  works.  TTi«  Bi»aya  to  do  Good  have 
been  highly  commended  by  Franklin ;  and  when  we 
think  m  his  misdeeds,  which  were  serious,  it  ought 
also  to  be  remembered  that  he  helped  to  introduoe 
into  tbe  States  inoculation  for  the  Bmallpox.  He 
died  Febmaty  13,  1728.  His  hfe  was  written  by  hia 
son,  Samuel  Mather  (1729). 


bom  at  Thookastown  in  Tipperary,  Ireland,  October 
10,  ITSa  On  the  death  of  his  father,  while  M. 
was  still  very  young,  the  kindness  of  the  Llandaff 
family  enabled  the  boy  to  enter  the  Catholic  college 
of  Killrflnny,  whence  ho  was  transferred,  as  a 
candidate  for  the  Bumon  Catholic  priesthood,  to  tbe 
college  of  Maynooth,  in  1807.  He  left  thot  college, 
however,  iu  tJie  next  year.  He  relinquished  Uie 
secular  priesthood  for  that  of  the  religious  order 
of  the  Capuchins,  in  which  he  took  prieet's  orders 
iu  1614,  and  waa  sent  to  the  church  ot  his  order 
iu  the  city  of  Cork.  His  singularly  charitable  and 
benevolent  dinHMition,  his  gentleness  and  affabihty, 
his  simple  and  effective  eloquence,  and  the  zeal  and 
oniduit?  with  which  he  discharged  all  the  duties 
of  hia  ministry,  won  for  him  the  universal  love  and 
respect  alike  ot  rich  and  of  poor.  To  him  was  doe 
the  introductiott  of  the  religious  brothsriiood  of 


,,  Google 


MATHEWS-MATHIA8  COKVUTOS. 


8t  Vmoant  i>t  PaoL  He  foouded  vohooli  for  (Mdres 
of  both  iexes,  and  oontriboted,  Ln  a  veiy  marked 
degne,  to  the  correction  of  nuuiy  abnies  and 
indBCODdee  coanected  with  the  burial  of  the  dead, 
tnr  eltabliibing  a  Dew  oemeterj  on  the  model  of 
tbat  of  Fin  la  CIuum,  althongh,  of  oonrsa,  of  a  far 
lea  pretsatloiu  oharacter.  But  the  great  work  of 
Father  M.'b  life  ii  the  marrelloai  reformatiou  whioh 
he  effected  in  the  habita  of  bi«  feUow-conntrymen, 
■cd  whkh  hai  won  for  him  tlie  title  ot  Apobilz 
or  TxHPCBANOi.  In  1888,  he  eatabliihed  aa  b«bo- 
dation  on  the  prlndpla  of  total  abetinenoe,  at  first 
oonfined  to  the  oity  of  Cork,  but  afterwardi  ddiu- 
berinc  160,000  memben  in  tiie  dty  alone,  and 
•zteudio^  to  tbe  county  and  the  adjacent  diatricta 
<d  Limenck  and  Kerry,  The  marvellona  Buccees 
which  attended  this  mvt  local  effort,  led  to  the 
anggeation  that  Father  M.  hinuelf  ilioald  repair 
the  leTeral  ^eat  centrei  of  population,  especiaUy  _ 
the  South.  Theaoe  he  gnduollv  exteaded  the  field 
of  hii  laboniB  to  Dahlia,  to  the  North,  and  even  to 
Liverpool,  Maacheator,  Loudon,  Olugow,  sod  the 
oUier  chief  Meate  of  the  Irish  popnlation,  even  in 
the  New  World  itielL  Hi>  saooess  had  aamething 
almost  of  the  marrelloaE  in  its  character.  The 
form  of  engagement  partook  of  the  religious,  and 
was  aooompanied  by  the  prtsentation  of  a  madal,  to 
which  the  atmoat  reverence  was  attached  bj  the 
recipient ;  and  an  opinion  prevuled  among  the  poor, 
that  the  miasion  of  the  '  Apoatle  of  Temperance ' 
was  marked  bj  maay  mitaoolous  maaifeatatiool  ot 
the  assistance  of  Heaveu.  It  is  difficult  to  form 
an  exact  estimate  of  the  niunber  of  his  aasociatioa ; 
but  it  included  a  large  proportion  of  the  adult  popu- 
latioti  of  Ireland,  without  distinctioa  oE  rank,  creed, 
or  sex ;  and  lo  complete  was  the  revolution  in  the 
hat»t«  of  the  Irish  people  that  very  many  distil- 
leries and  breweries  ceased  from  workins.  Among 
the  aufferers  from  this  great  moral  revolution,  the 
meiq^Kn  of  Father  M.  a  own  family,  who  were 
largely  engaged  in  the  diatalliug  tnd^  were  tome  of 
the  earliest  and  moat  severely  viidted ;  and  it  is 
painful  to  have  to  add,  that  the  latter  yean  of  this 
great  benefactor  of  his  ootmti^  were  imhittered  by 
pecuikiaiy  embarrassments  arising  oat  of  the  ennse- 
ments  into  which  he  entered  in  the  course  ot  his 
philanthro|do  labours.  Although  veiy  large  sums  of 
money  passed  through  his  band^  in  payment  for 
the  medals  which  were  distributed  to  the  members 
of  the  association,  yet  the  exoeoding  munificence  of 
his  charities,  and  Uie  enormous  expenses  oonuect«d 
with  his  various  miaaions,  and  perhaps  his  own 
improvident  and  nnworldly  habits,  involved  him  in 
painful  difficulties.  A  pension  of  £300  waa  granted 
to  him  by  the  crown,  in  acknowledgment  of  his 
eminent  public  services,  and  a  private  subscription 
was  also  entered  into  for  the  purpose  of  releasing 
him  from  embarrassment.  He  died  in  1868 ;  but 
the  fmit  of  his  labours  is  still  viuble  in  Ireland. 
Very  many,  it  is  true,  of  those  who  were  enrolled 
in  tua  association  ceased  after  some  years  to  obaerve 
the  pledie  of  total  abstinence :  but  very  many  also 
contmm^  faithful ;  and  while  iDut  few  of  those  who 
abandoned  the  somety  rdapeed  into  the  extreme  of 
drunkenness,  t^e  general  tone  of  the  public  mind  in 
Ireland,  as  regar£  the  use  of  intoxioating  drinks, 
may  he  truly  said  to  havs  undergone  a  complete 
revolntion,  which  endures  to  the  present  day. 

MATHEWS,  CiUBLEs,  an  Knglinh  comedian, 
was  bom  on  the  28th  Jane  I7T6,  anil  was  edacated 
in  London.  His  father  was  a  bookseller,  and 
intended  his  son  to  foUow  the  same  profession ; 
but  his  early  inclination  for  the  stage  overcame 
parental  couimI,  and  be  mads  his  first  appearance 
•a  an  amatour — curiously  enough,  in  the  part  of 
mahsrd  m.— at  the  Eicbmond  Theatre  in  1793, 


and  as  a  professional  oomedian  in  the  Theatre  Royal, 
Dublin,  the  fcjlowing  year.  He  first  appeared  in 
Lraidcn  at  the  Haymarket,  and  subsequently  he 
transferred  his  services  to  Draiy  Lsne.  In  ISIE^ 
he  gave  hia '  At  Home '  in  London,  and  achieved  an 
immense  snocess.  He  visited  America  twice.  In 
the  autumn  of  IS2S,  he  became  joint-proprietor  ot 
the  Adelphj  Theabe.  He  died  at  Flymonth  on  the 
SSth  June  163S,  and  was  bnried  in  that  town. 
M.  was  a  wonderful  master  ot  peiBonifiostion  and 


mimioiy ;  ami  while  imitating  every  one,  he  n 
lost   a   friend,  or  hurt   the  feelings  ot  the  i 


old  playgoet*.    His  son  CaAKUta  also  achieved  a 
brilliant    reputation  in  the   same  depwtment   of 
hiatrionio  art.    Bom  26th  December  1803,  he  died 
24th  June  187a 
MATHIAS    OORVINUBj   Idng    of   Hnngaiy, 


from  the  hands  of  the  treacherous  Frederick  TIT. 
of  Germany  by  Podiebrad,  king  of  Boheniia,  he 
returned  to  Hungary,  and  was  elected  king  in  1458. 
Bis  accession  was  hailed  with  the  utmixt  enthu- 
siasm over  the  whole  country.  But  the  Hungarian 
crown  at  this  time  was  no  chaplet  of  roses ;  two 
sovereigns,  alike  formidable,  the  cue,  Mohammed  IL, 
from  hia  military  talents  and  immense  resources,  the 
other,  Frederic  TTT.,  from  his  intriguing  policy,  yien 
busily  conspiring  against  the  boy-king.  To  meet 
these  dangers,  M.  rapidly  carried  out  hu  measures 
of  defenoe,  the  most  important  of  which  was  the 
formation  of  a  regular  force  of  cavalry,  to  fonn 
which,  one  man  was  enrolled  out  of  every  twenty 
families.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  term  '  Hussar,' 
which  means  in  Hungarian  'the  price  or  due  M 
twenty.'  M.  fell  on  ^e  Turks,  who  had  iKvaged 
the  country  as  far  as  Temesvar,  inflicted  upon  them 
a  bloody  defeat,  pursued  them  as  far  as  Bosnia,  took 
the  stronghold  Jaieza,  where  he  libetated  10,000 
Christian  prisoners,  and  thence  rotomed  to  Webea< 
berg,  where  he  was  crowned  with  the  sacred  crown 
of  St  Stephen  in  1464.  He  next  supprMsed  the 
disorders  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia ;  nut  feeling 
that  his  plana  were  conutoraoted  by  the  intrigues 
of  Frederick  IIL  to  gain  possession  of  Hungary, 
M.  besought  the  assistance  of  Fope  Pius  IL,  but 
to  no  purpose.  After  a  second  sucoessfnl  campaign 
against  the  Tnrks,  he  turned  his  attention  to  t£a 
encouragemeDt  of  arts  and  letters,  and  adorned  his 
CKiital  with  the  worka  of  renowned  sectors,  in 
addition  to  a  librory  of  60,000  volumes.  He  sent  a 
large  staff  of  literary  men  to  Italy  for  the  purposs 
ot  obtaining  copies  of  valuable  manuscripts,*  and 
adorned  his  court  by  thepresence  of  the  most  emi* 
t  men  of  Italy  and  Germany.  He  was  himaelf 
author  of  no  mean  ability,  and  he  possessed 
a  delicate  appreciation  of  the  fine  arts.  At  the  same 
time,  the  affairs  of  govemmeot  were  not  neglected. 
The  finances  were  brongbt  into  a  flourishing  condi- 
tion, industry  and  commerce  were  promoted  Ire-  wise 
legislation,  and  justice  was  strictly  administered 
to  peasant  and  noble  alike.  But  the  promptings  of 
hia  ambition,  and  the  pressure  exennsed  by  the 
Catholio  party,  cast  an  indelible  blot  on  M.'s  other- 
wise spotless  escuteheon  ;  he  wantonly  attacked 
Podiebrad,  his  father-in-law,  the  Hnsnto  king  of 
Bohemia,  and  after  a  bloody  contest  ot  seven  years' 
duration  between  these  kings,  the  greatest  generals 
of  the  age,  the  Hungarian  power  prevailed,  and 
Moravia,  Silesia,  and  Lnsatia  were  wrested  from 


...Cooglc 


MATHILDA— MATTER. 


Boheinift.  ImmediatelT'  after  the  ooncliuioa  of  thU 
war,  M.  went  to  meet  his  old  enemies  the  Turks, 
Hid  inflicted  npon  them,  at  EenyGrmeEB  (1479),  mch 
s  defeat  03  kept  them  quiet  for  the  neri  46  yean. 
After  defeating;  an  invading  anny  of  Folea,  he  had 
at  length  a  fair  o^poTtunil?  for  wtUing  bu  differ- 
encea  with  Fredenck,  and  taking  revenge  on  the 
inaidioua  plotter  who  had  imbitCered  hie  whole  life. 
The  Austrian  fortreesea  fell  befora  him  in  rapid  sue- 
ceasion.  Aiter  an  obstinate  d^enoe,  Vienna  shared 
the  same  fate  11465),  and  the  emperor  was  reduced 

to  heg  his  bi^ul  from  Tillage  to  village.    H. 

took  op  his  lesidenoe  in  Tieona,  bnt  while  on  

pinnacle  of  kIoiTi  he  WM  etrack  down  by  a  fit  of 
apoplerj,  and  died  at  Vienna  in  1490. 

MATHILDA,  CoonteM  of  Tiuoany,  well  known 
in  history  tbrondi  her  close  political  coDnection  with 
Pope  Gregoly  VH.,  was  a  daughter  of  Boniface, 
Count  of  Tuscany^  and  was  bom  in  1046.  She  is 
Bud  to  have  married  Qod&ey  (sumamed  II  Qobbo, 
or  the  '  Hnnchbaok ')  Bake  of  Lorraine,  in  J069, 
by  ptocuration.  Qodfray  soon  went  back  to  his 
duchy,  and  became  a  supporter  of  the  Emperor 
Henry  IV.,  while  M.  made  hanelf  couxpiououi  by 
the  zeal  with  which  she  espoused  the  cause  of 
Gregory  TIL  She  became  his  inseparable  a«to- 
ciate^  was  ever  teady  to  assist  him  in  all  he 
nndertook,  and  to  share  every  danger  from  which 
she  could  not  protect  him.  In  lOTT  or  1079,  she 
made  a  ^ft  of  all  her  goode  and  posseeiions  to  the 
chnroh.  In  1081,  she  alone  stood  by  the  pope,  when 
Henry  poured  hie  troops  into  Italy,  burning  to 
aveuge  his  hmniliation  at  Canoasa;  file  '   ' 

him  with  money  when  ho  was  bosi^ed , 

and  after  his  death  at  Saletno,  boldly  carried  on  the 
ainst  the  m      ■■   .    ^  .,     ■.. 

UATHUBA.    See  HunsA,  in  8u?p,  ToL  X. 

MATICO  {ArtaiiAe  ebmgala),  a  ahrnb  of  the 
natural  order  Pxperacea,  a  native  of  Pern,  tea»A' 
"'lie  for  the  styptic  propert      •  ■  ■     ■  ■  ■  - 

e  used  for  stajiching  wounc 

MATINS.    See  CANO^noAi.  Houbs. 

MATLOCK,  a  town  m  Derbyshire,  IB  nules  N. 
by  W.  from  Berby,  mtnated  in  the  vale  of  the 
Derwent ;  pop.  (1881)  4396,  many  of  whom  are 
eimjloyed  in  the  lead  mines  and  cotton  manufacture. 
— MA.TLOCK  Bath,  1}  miles  distant,  which 

at  the  southern  ei           ,   . . 
d  for  its  hot  springs  of  68°  P., 
lam  naucis  of  wMch  are  largely  charged  with  car- 
bonic acid.    There  are  interoating  limestone 


near  Matbck  Bridge,  in  the  nei^bourhood,  is  noted 


MATBICA'BIA.    See  CaAMOUILE. 

MATSUMAL    See  Stto.,  Vol  X. 

MATTEB.  From  a  physical  ptnni  of  view, 
matter  is  anyibiiig  that  can  aSect  the  senses,  or  that 
can  exert,  or  be  acted  on  by,  force.  The  existence 
of  matter,  in  the  sense  of  mMonoe,  has  been  doubted 
by  many  philosophers,  inning  ing  some  of  the  greatest 
U  enterimentera.  Indeed,  as  we  can  know  matter 
only  by  the  torcea  it  exerta,  it  is  obvious  that  the 


■nppoBitioQ  of  mere  geometrio  pointa,  capable  of 
exerting  force  (technically  called  Centra  of  Force), 
"'  ea  satistactOTily  account  for  all  observed  pheno- 
a  at  ^y  other  idea  of  the  ultiniate  nature  of 
Here,  however,  we   are  dealing  with  « 
,  oonfessedly  beyond  the  reach  oi  experi- 


Altliongh  experiment  oamiot  lead  to  a  knowledge 
of  the  nMimate  nature  of  matter,  it  may  lead  to 
important  discoveries  a*  to  the  arrangement  of  the 
moleotdes  of  diSerent  bodist,  and  their  aimilaiity 
or  disumilarity.  Some  of  the  questions  to  whi<£ 
we  may  expect  an  answer,  though  not  a  ipeedy  one, 
have  already  been  mentioned  in  the  artide  Fdbor, 
ComauvATTON  or ;  but  in  order  to  render  intelligible 
the  short  aooonnt  which  we  intend  to  give  of  some 
very  intereeting  ideaa  reoently  propounded  by 
Graham  (q.  v.),  it  will  be  neoessaiy  to  repeat  some 
oftl 


D  that 


all  kindjs  of  matter  are  ultimately  one.  'Far  from 
being  a  startling  assumption,  this  is  the  simpleat 
and  moat  eamly  conceived,  notion  we  oan  entertain 
on  the  sabjeot ;  and  it  offert  a  remarkably  simple 
explanation  of  that  extraor^nary  property  of  maHer 
which  Newton  proved  1^  earefal  axpaimenta,  that 
the  weight  of  a  body  depends  only  on  the  qnanti^, 
not  on  the  quality  of  the  matter  that  composes 
it.  One  idea,  then,  of  matter  is;  that  the  atoms 
(or  liiallest  parti,  whatever  tbeee  roaj  be)  of  all 
bodiea  are  identaoal,  bnt  that  the  tnoleeoles  (each 
of  which  is  a  single  atom,  or  a  definitely  arranged 
cmiup  of  atoms)  dWw  from  one  body  to  another. 
Thn*  (to  take  u  instaaoe  merely  for  erolanaJion, 
not  as  at  all  likely  to  be  correct),  if  hydrogen  be 
supposed  to  oonsist  of  tlie  simple  atoms  of  matter ; 
oxygen,  WMh  molecule  of  whloh  is  eight  timee  aa 
heav7  aa  one  of  hydrogen,  may  have  eaoh  molecule 
formed  of  eight  dementuy  atom^  arranged  in  a 
ip  snah  as  the  eomers  of  a  die ;  oarbon,  ux 
»  as  heavy  par  molecule,  might  be  composed  of 
sim[de  stems  grouped  as  at  the  comers  of  an 
ootohedron ;  and  so  on.  It  is  obvious  that  here  each 
atom  most  be  supposed  capable  of  exerting  force  on 
every  other.  Tlue  leads  oa  naturallv  te  speoulntiona 
—  '-  •^^'  — -'ium  through  which  this  foroe^  if  it  be 

_-   ..  distance,  is   propagated  (see  PoRC^ 

Co:f8XRTATio]<  op]  ;  and  theu  we  have  inta>duced 
r^ned  charaoter  than  our  supposed 

IS.      This  difficulty  has  suggested 

philoeophers  the  idea,  that  there  is  no 
ttaru,  that  all  preesnre,  for  inrtjmi-,  in 
dae  to  inoeMant  impacta  of  its  particles 


upon  each  other  and  upon  tiie  oo 
But  from  vatious  experimmtal  results,  we  know  that 
lAit  species  of  motion  ia  citable  of  being  trans- 
ferred from  one  body  te  another,  of  being  increased 
diminished  by  change  of  temperature,  and  is, 
in  fact,  Heat  itself  one  foRn  of  kinetic  energy. 
This,  if  there  be  no  ultiniate  difference  between 
'  I  of  matter,  conld  never  be  the  cause  of  their 
apparent  difCerence.  Hence,  in  Graham's  view, 
though  all  ultimate  atoms  are  identical  in  substance, 
they  have  special  motions  of  tlieir  own,  b^  wiiich 

being  oapabu  of  transfer  from  one  atom  or  group  of 
'  >ma  to  another.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  energy 
__  aitch  a  form  aa  not  to  be  toanafetable,  so  that  we 
refer  the  reader  to  Graham's  own  papers  for  the 
further  development  of  his  theory — remarking,  in 
"-ilusion,  that  no  theory  of  the  nature  of  matter 

be  considered  aa  at  all  complete  till  it  account 

for  ihe  mutual  action  of  separate  atoms ;  for  this 
the  existonoe  of  a  continuous  matprial  medium  in 
space  would  seem  te  be  necessary  j  and  this,  in 
its  tum,  would,  if  accepted,  enable  ua  to  dispense 
with  the  idea  of  atoms.  In  connection  with  this, 
may  mention  that  Sir  'William  Thomaon  haa 
shewn  that  mere  heterogeneity  (which  we  know 
exists  in  matter),  tofrel£er  with  gravitation,  is 
BufSdent  to  explain  *II  the  apparently  disoordant 
laws  of  molecular  action ;  matter  being  sqipoaed,  in 


ogk 


MATTEEHOEN-MADPERTUia 


thu  tbeory,  to  be  oontmaaaB  but  of  vaiying  deniity 
Iron  point  to  poinL 

MATTERHORN.    See  Csbtin,  Most. 

UATTHBW,  Saiht,  an  apostle  and  enngelisfc, 
WM  •  pnblicwi  or  tax-^tliBrer  at  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 
It  is  aoomed  by  dirmea  generally,  that  he  i*  the 
nine  penon  that  Mark  and  Lnka  rofer  to  under 
the  name  of  '  Leri ;'  but  ameni  wdghtf  namM  are 

3ainit  thia  view,  as,  foe  example,  Otigen,  OrotiDs, 
ichaelia,  and  Ewald.  After  tlw  aKjenaioa  of 
Qiriit,  M.  M  found  at  Jenualem ;  he  than  dia- 
appean  from  Scripture. — M.'a  Gospkl  ia  beliered 
to  be  the  fint  in  point  of  time.  Irensns  places 
ita  oompositton  in  the  year  61  A.D. ;  aome  of  the 
later  Fathera,  as  early  aa  41  A.  s.  The  obvious 
dMign  of  the  work  ia  to  prove  the  Meaaiabship  of 


be  fulfilled  which  was  apoken  by  the  prophet' 
Unch  coutroveiay  baa  been  carried  on  resuding 
the  langoage  in  which  St  M.  wrote  lui  goapd.  The 
opinion  of  the  ancient  ohnndi  generally  (founded  on 
a  paaaage  in  FajHsa,  Biahop  of  Hierapolia  in  llie 
2d  oentary)  was,  that  H.  wrote  it  m  Hebrew, 
or  rather  m  that  mixture  of  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and 
Byriao  apoken  in  Palestine  in  Chriat'a  time,  and 
known  aa  Aramaia  Ei«amas  donbted  this,  and 
held  that  H.  only  wrote  the  one  we  now  poaaeae. 
Hia  view  was  anpported  b;  Calvin,  Beu,  and  others 
of  the  refonnen ;  and  more  recently,  in  some  form 
<it  other,  by  the  gre«t  majority  of  scholius,  both 
orthodox  and  heterodox.  Still  more  recenUy,  the 
opinioD  of  Bengel,  that  M.  wrote  hist  a  Hebrew 
goapel,  and  then  tnnslated  it  into  Greek,  haa  been 
advocated  by  aeveral  able  writers.  The  passiwe  in 
Papiaa  ia  by  no  meana  clear  ;  and  some  of  the 
greatest  grammariana  and  biblicLata,  auch  aa  Lach- 
mann,  Swald,  Meyer,  Keuas,  and  Credoer,  nader- 
atand  it  to  mean  that  M.  only  drew  up  a  aeries 
ni  notices  of  Chriaf  a  life  and  aeimons,  which  were 
afterwards  ananged  in  aome  wrt  of  order  by 
another  writer.  Sveo  yet,  however,  the  order  is 
but  dimly  peroeptible,  aiid  little  or  no  attention  is 
paid  to  ehronoloQCal  sequeace.  On  thia  view,  the 
present  sn)el  ia  M.'s  in  aubatance  only,  and  not  in 
form.  The  style  is  comparatively  tame,  and  even 
the  conception  of  Christ  which  is  predominant  is 
earthly  ratho'  than  divine.  Henoe,  the  Fathers 
called  it  the  Somatie  or  *  bodily '  gospel,  aa  distin- 
guiahed  from  the  inoi«  apritool  gospels  of  Luke  and 

MATTHEW  OF  WESTMINSTER,  an  early 
Xbgliah  chronicler,  who  fiourished  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  II,,  bat  of  whom  nothing  whatever  ia 
known,  except  that  he  was  a  monk  of  the  Bencdic- 


,   per   Matlhaiaa    Wannonatteriauevi   coliecti, 

jiracipue  dt  Srfnia  BriUanniea,  ah  Exordio  Hundi, 
tujiM  ad  annum  1307  (Flowers  of  History  gathered 
by  Matthew  of  Weatminster,  chiefly  ooncerning  the 
affaiis  of  Britain,  from  the  Beginning  of  the  World 
down  to  the  year  1307).  That  part  which  treats 
of  Bngliah  history  from  the  Conqnest  to  the  close 
of  Edward  L's  reign  ia  conaidered  valuable,  on 
account  of  the  mamfest  diligence,  accuracy,  and 
honesty  of  the  writer.  The  work  woa  first  printed 
at  London  in  1667,  and  again  (with  additional  at 
Fraakfnrtin  1601.  Bohn haa publiahed a tranalation 
into  Eagllsh  (2  vola.  1S03). 

MATTO  or  MATO  GBO'SSO  {dam  fort^,  a 
province  of  Brazil,  bordering  on  Bolivia.  Ai«a, 
650,000  square  miles ;  population  estimated  at 
100,000,  mortJy  Indiaojk  Chief  rivers,  the  Madeira, 
juiuenu,    and    Pamgusy,    with    theii 


affluents.  Ita  soil  ia  fertile,  but  there  ia  almost  no 
cultivation.  Denae  forests  cover  immense  trocta 
of  the  country.  Gold  and  diamonds  abound,  and 
indeed  the  nuneral  riches  of  the  province  havo 
hitherto  formed  the  chief  barrier  to  ita  progress. 
Diamonds,  gold,  hidea,  balsams,  ipecocu&iiha,  and 
other  drugs,  are  the  eiporta.  Manufactured  goods 
are  imported. 

MATJCHIilNB,  a  town  in  the  county  of  Ayr, 
Scotland,  is  pleasantly  situated,  and  is  surrounded 
by  a  pictoreaqae  country.  M.  has  long  been  noted 
for  the  making  of  a  beautiful  description  of  snuff- 
boxes, dear-coaes,  and  other  articles  of  that  kind 
of  manu^ture.  The  buildings  of  the  town  are 
neat,  and  possess  a  pleasing  variety.  Standing, 
as  M.  does,  on  the  nver  Ayr,  the  bridges  in  the 
neighbourhood  attract  attention,  one  of  which,  at 
Barskimmine,  is  a  structure  of  considerable  elegance, 
consisting  oF  a  nngle  arch  100  feet  wide,  and  90 
feet  high.  In  the  vicinity  ia  Manchline  Castle, 
former^  possessed  by  the  Loudon  family,  who  had 
a  right  to  the  title  Viscount  Mauchlice ;  there  is 
also  the  green  on  which  a  stone  commemorates  the 
death  of  five  Covenanters  in  IGSG.  Robert  Burns 
peat  nine  yeara  of  hia  life  at  the  farm  oE  Mossgiel, 
ibout  half  a  mile  to  the  north  of  M  The  cottage  of 
Pooaie  Nancy,'  theatre  of  the  '  Jolly  Begnra,'  and 
Mauchline  Kuk,  the  scene  of  the  '  HolyFoir,'  are 
in  the  town.     The  population  in  1881  was  I6I6. 

MAUL     See  Sanhwich  IsLUma. 

MAITLMAI'N.    See  Modlmeh. 

MAUNDY-THURSDAY,  the  Thursday  of 
Holy  Week  (q.  v.}.  The  name  is  derived  from  nuui- 
datum,  the  first  word  of  the  service  chanted  at  the 
washing  the  feet  of  pilgrims  on  that  day,  which  ia 
taken  ^m  John  xiil  34  The  washing  of  the  pil- 
grims' feet  is  of  very  ancient  usage,  being  refcired  to 
by  St  Augustine  ;  and,  both  in  ancient  and  modem 
times,  it  was  accompanied  by  a  distribution  of '  doles,' 
which  were  banded  to  the  pilgrims  in  small  boskets, 
thence  called  *  mannda.'  In  the  roval  usage  of  the 
maund  in  Enfdand,  the  number  of  doles  distributed 
waa  reckoned  by  the  years  of  the  monarch.  They 
are  nanally  given  by  the  Lord  High  Almoner ;  but 
Jamea  IL  performed  the  ceremony  in  peison.  Tbe 
distribution  oE  dolea  was  retained  till  the  year  1838, 
since  which  period  the  '  Maundy '  men  and  women 
receive  a  money-payment  from  the  Clerk  of  the 
Almonry  Office,  instead  of  the  dole.  In  most  medi- 
eval countries,  the  maund  waa  held  in  all  the  great 
housea  ;  and  in  Ulngland,  in  the  Household  Book  of 
the  Earl  of  Northumberland,  which  begins  in  1512, 
there  are  entries  of  '  al  manor  of  things  yerly  yevio 
by  my  lorde  of  his  Maaiidy  and  my  loidis  and  bis 
lordshippis  childereiu' 

MAUPERTUIS,   PiKBRE  LOOIS  MORUV   DE,  a 

French  mathematician,  was  bom  at  St  Malo  in 
169S.  He  early  displayed  a  love  of  mathematics, 
and  after  serving  in  tbe  army  for  five  years,  with- 
drew from  it  to  pursue  his  favourite  studies.  His 
able  advocacy  of  Newton's  physical  theory,  in 
opposition  to  that  of  Descartes,  gained  him  general 
favour  in  Britain,  and  he  was  admitted  to  the 
Iloyal  Society  of  London  in  1727.    In  1736,  he  woa 

evied  at  the  head  of  the  Academicians  whom 
mis  XV.  sent  to  Lapland,  to  obtain  the  exact 
meoaurement  of  a  degree  of  lon^tude,  whilst  tbe 
same  thing  was  also  bciug  done  in  Peru  by  Condo- 
mine.  This  operation  he  described  in  his  work.  Da 
la  Figure  dt  la  Tern,  dUanainie  par  la  Ohtervaliona 
dt  MM.  Ctairaut,  Camus,  to.  (Par.  1738).  In  1740, 
he  went  to  Berlin,  on  the  invitation  of  Frederick  II., 
to  be  President  of  the  Academy  there  ;  but  having 
accompanied  the  Prussian  army  to  tbe  field,  was 
token  prisoner  at  UoUwita  by  toe  Austrian  buaaan. 


.(',i-i,-,a[c 


HADEICEUMAUEITANIA. 


and  sent  to  Vienna  in  1741.  He  Tetmned  to  Berlin 
■liDrtlyafterwwdBimndrMQnied  his  fbmieT  office;  but 
1.! l:i  .propre  and  ^rmnical  dispodtioo 


Ilia  morbid  oi 


latter  ^iplied  th«  ladi  o[  aatire  -. 
▼igorooaly,  that  M.  was  p«rtoroe  compelled  to  retnni 
to  France  in  1756.  In  1758.  he  went  to  BawJ,  for 
the  a^e  of  bia  health,  and  to  enjoy  the  aodeiv  of 
the  Bemonillia,  bat  died  soon  after,  27th  July  17G9. 
M.  waa  a  mathematician  of  ordituty  abihty.  but  a 
Tsry  inferior  pbiloeopher,  and  owed  hi*  celebrity 
more  to  the  idioByocnuies  oC  his  nuumen  and  dispo- 
aitioii  than  to  hia  merit. 

MAURIOB,  PRiircB  or  Orahqb  and  Corar  or 
If'ASsm,  one  of  the  moat  skilful  and  distinzuiahed 
generals  of  his  age,  was  the  son  of  William  I., 
Prince  of  Orange,  and  was  bom  at  DiUenburg,  I4bh 
NoTember  156^  After  bin  father's  aasasaination  in 
ICS4,  tbe  provinces  of  Holland  and  Zealand,  and 
afterwards  Utrecht,  elected  him  their  stadtholder. 
A  great  portion  of  the  Netherlands  was  still  in 
the  oands  of  the  Spaniards ;  but  under  the  admir- 
able leaderahip  of  M.,  the  Dutch  rapidly  wrested 
cities  and  fortresses  from  their  enemies.  In  1591, 
Zutphen,  Deventer,  Niinemieii,  and  other  places  fell 
into  their  bonds ;  in  1693,  Gertmydenberg ;  and 
in  1694,  GrBningen.  In  1597.  with  the  help  of 
some  English  auxiliaries,  he  defeated  the  SpamardB 
at  Tamhout  in  Brabant,  and  in  1600  won  a  splendid 
Tictory  at  NieuporL  Finally,  in  1609,  Spain  was 
compelled  to  acknowledge  the  United  ProTinces  u 
a  free  republic  The  ambition  of  M^  however,  was 
excited  to  the  demre  of  sovereignty ;  bat  in  this, 
notwithstanding  the  love  and  respect  with  whioh  he 
waa  regarded  by  the  people,  he  finally  foiled.  See 
BABNBVEUrr.   He  died  at  the  Hague,  S^  April  1625. 

MAURICE  OF  SAXONY.    See  Sdpp.,  VoL  X. 

MAURICE,  Rev.  Johit  Febdbbiok  Dbnisoij, 
DJJ.,  a  distinguished  divine  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  one  of  the  moat  influential  thinkers  of  bis 
age,  waa  the  son  of  a  Unitarian 
bom  29th  Angust  ISOS.  His  repi 
Tersity  for  acholatship  stood  high,  bat  being  at  this 
time  a  dissenter,  and  otherwise  not  in  a  poeitic  ^ 
■i^  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  he  left  Cambi  „ 
witboat  taking  a  degree,  and  commenced  a  literary 
career  in  London.  He  wrote  a  novel,  Sutlaee 
Coayeri,  and  for  a  time  edited  the  Atheaaum,  then 
recently  etarted.  Soon  a  change  came  over  his 
rolisions  sentiments  and  opinions ;  his  spirit  was 
protoondty  stirred  and  influenced  by  the  speculations 
of  Coleridge,  and  he  resolved  to  become  a  clergyman 
of  the  Church  of  England.  He  proceeded  to  (Sford, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.A.,  and  waa  ordained 
a  priest  in  1S34.  He  became  chaplain  to  Guy'. 
Hoepitol  in  1637  ;  Profeasor  of  Literatnre  at  King'. 
College,  London,  in  1840;  and  was  Professor  of  Theo- 
logy there  from  1S4«  till  1853.  The  aim  of  his  li' 
was  the  interpretation  of  Chmtianity  in  accordas 
with  the  moat  pUM  and  nnritiul  conoeptioD*  of  c 
nature;  nor  have  hia  labonrs  been  without  nn 
At  the  time  of  hia  deaOi,  there  was  probably  . 
olergyman  in  the  United  Kingdom  more  deeply 
reverenced  and  loved  than  he  waa  by  a  Isrge  body  of 
the  thoughtful  and  cultivated  portion  of  the  religi- 
ona  laitv.  He  also  ■oooeeded  in  nthering  round 
him,  toiMtit  the  church,  a  large  nnmMt  of  adherents, 
specially  among  the  younger  olerKf.  ^lio  consti- 
ute  what  is  oonunonly  called  the  'Brood  Church ' 


carrying  out  any  sectional  schemes,  like  the  '  Evan- 
gelidds^  and  Tractariont.  M.'a  tbeologieal  opinions, 
especially  on  the  question  of  tbe  atonement,  are  not 
considered  ■  ■onno'  by  tbe  '  orthodox'  portion  of  the 


clergy ;  •id  the  publication  of  a  volmne  of  Th40- 
hgieal  Emayi,  in  which,  amoi^  other  heresies,  he 
took  the  charitable  view  of  ratnre  punishmenta, 
lost  bira  the  Profeeaorehip  of  Theology  in  Ein^s 
College,  London.  For  many  years,  M.  was  chajdam 
of  Lincoln's  Inn,  bnt  in  I860  he  was  appomted 
incmnbent  of  tbe  district  church  of  Vere  Street, 
~  "ary-le-bone.  He  was  always  a  warm  and  enlight- 
led  friend  of  tbe  working-classes,  and  founded  the 
first  Working-man's  CoUege  in  LondoD.  M.  became 
professor  of  moral  philosomiy  at  Cambridge  in  1866, 
and  died  April  1,  1872.  He  wrote  lar^y.  All  his 
works  are  written  in  the  most  exquisite  Englisb, 
and  display  a  beauty  and  tenderneae  of  Cnris- 
tian  sentiment  that  are  nearly  fanltlen,  but 
united    with    a    sublety    lA    thought    that    fre- 

Soently  passes  into  mysticiam.  His  principal  pro- 
actions  ore  his  Mmtal  and  Moral  PhihMpAu, 
Bttigkmt  of  Iht  World,  ProplieU  and  Kiagi  of  (As 
Old  TUUmoA,  Pairiareha  and  LatBgiatrt  ofOt^Oid 
TtOomeat,  The  Kingdom  (/  CAi-M,  Tht  Doctrine  qf 
Sacrifice,  Theological  Emayt,  Leetiatt  on  the  Eaien- 
oMicai  HiitoTy  of  Iht  Fvtl  and  Second  CeiUuries, 
Gotptl  of  81  John,  and  Saciai  Morality.  M.  strenu- 
ously cootroverted  Mr  Mansel's  views  on  our  know- 
ledge of  God  (see  Bahpton  LsTTiTKBa).  He  was 
tbe  moinsprioe  of  the  movement  known  as  Christian 
Socialism;  helped  to  promote  the  Working  Man's 
Coll»o  ;  and  was  the  founder  and  guiding  spirit  of 
the  ^leen's  CoUege  for  Women,  in  which  he  taught. 
See  the  Life  qf  F.  D.  UoMaiix,  based  mainly  on  his 
own  tetters,by  his  son.  Colonel  Maurice  (2  volt.  1884). 
MATJRI'CITJS,  one  of  the  grestest  of  the  Byzan- 
le  emperots,  was  of  Soman  descent,  but  was  bom 
at  Arabissns,  in  Cappodocia,  about  539  a.d.,  and 
executed  November  27,  602.  In  678,  M.  was 
appointed  by  Tiberias  to  the  command  of  the  army 
against  the  Persians.  In  682,  he  obtained  the  tare 
honour  of  a  triumph  at  Constantinople,  and  the 
some  year  succeeded  Tiberius  on  the  throne. 
Imme£ately  after  his  accession,  the  Peniona 
invaded  the  Byzantine  territories ;   a   fierce   con- 


reeulted  in  favour  of  the  Bj 

Persia,  Ehnsru  II.,  driven  from  bis  throne, 

Hierapolis,  whence  be  sent  to  M  a  letter  bes 

shdter  and  aid.      The  emperor's  generons 

was  not  proof  against  sadi  on  appeal  i  an  srmy 
was  immediately  assembled,  to  which  the  l^nl 
Persians  flocked  from  all  quarters ;  and  in  691, 
Kbusra  was  restored  to  his  throne,  giving  up  to  M, 
in  evidence  of  bis  gratitude,  the  fortresses  of  Dara 
and  Martyropolis,  the  bulwarks  of  Mesopotamia. 
Some  time  after  these  erenta,  ■  war  broke  oot  with 
the  Avars ;  and  after  two  years  of  Uoody  oonfliot, 
with  littie  gain  to  mtiier  side,  the  Byzantines 
suB'ered  a  savere  defeat,  and  12,000  vetcnna  were 
taken  prisoners.  M.  refused  to  ransom  them,  and 
they  were  consequently  put  to  death.  M.'s  oondoot 
has  been  satisfactorily  accounted  for  (see  Qibboa's 
Deviate  and  Faltj,  but  it  excited  a  deep  and  lastins 
resentment  amongst  the  people  and  the  army  ;  and 
in  602,  when  tlm  emperor  ordered  bts  troops  to 
take  np  their  winter-quartets  on  the  north  (oc 
Avarian)  side  of  the  Danube,  they  broke  out  into 
open  revolt,  elected  Phocos  for  their  chie^  and 
marching  upon  Constantinople,  raised  bin  to  the 
throne.  M.,  with  all  his  family  and  many  of  his 
friends,  was  put  to  death.  He  was  a  general  ol 
rare  aMlity,  and  little  inferior  as  a  ruler. 

MAURITA'NIA.  or  MAURETANIA,  the  andent 
name  of  tbe  most  oortb-westem  port  of  Airica, 
corresponding  in  its  limits  to  the  present  sultanate 
I  of  Morocco  ud  the  western  portion  of  Alpeis.    II 


,,  Google 


JtATTEITIA,— MADEOCOHDATOa. 


dH3*ed  tti  name  from  iti  inlubitanta,  tlia  Maori  ( 
Maurutii.  3m  Uooaa.  It  raaohed  oo  the  south  t 
the  Dawat,  wid  wm  separated  from  Nninidu  on  tl 
SMt  t^  tbe  river  Malauha  or  Molochath,  now  tl: 

HAUkITIA,  >  geniu  of  palms,  h&Ting  male 
floweta  and  female  or  hermapliTodita  floirers  on 
diatinot  treea,  imperfect  ipawea,  and  fan-sbaped 
leavee.  Th^  are  all  nativea  of  the  hottest  parts  of 
Amerioa.  Some  of  then,  hke  the  Buriti  (q.  y.) 
Palm  (Jf.  vinifera),  hare  lof^  colnmnac  smooUk 
■temi ;  othen  ara  ilendaF,  and  aimed  with  strong 
oonical  spam.  The  Mntin  PaliD  (JT.  jfemo^o) 
BTova  to  the  height  of  100  feet ;  it  hae  verr  largo 
leaTeB  on  long  atajW  The  stem  aad  leaf-stalka  are 
nied  for  varioos  pnrposea.  A  beTcrace  is  mode  from 
the  fmit,  as  from  that  of  the  Boriti  Falm  and  several 
other  speciea. 

MAURITIUS,  or  ISLE  0?  FRANCE,  an  island 
of  the  Indian  Ooean,  belonging  to  Great  Britain, 
lies  in  Ut  19*  68-  to  20*  SJ  S,  and  long.  E.  from 
ffT*  46'.      It  contains  aboat 


713  st^nare  miles  ;  pop.  (13S1),  inolnding  the  small 
'ohelles,  Rodriguez,  to.,  and 
lilitary,    359,8^    giving   the 


s   of   Se;oh 


dependeni 
eiclnsive 

very  high  averaire  of  S04  to  the  square  mile. 
Of  the  total  population,  349,000  were,  in  the  same 
year,  eetimated  to  be  Indian  ooolies.  The  surface 
H  ot  varied  formation,  a  great  portion  being  vol- 
eanio;  while  its  coast  is  fringed  by  extensive 
eoni  reeb,  pierced  in  several  puu>ee  by  the  eatn- 
ariM  of  small  atraam*.  Its  mountains,  although 
of  no  great  height,  are  marked  by  the  nnial  irregU' 
lititdea  observed  in  volcanic  formationa.  Ot  these, 
the  most  oelebrated  is  the  Peter  Botte,  sitnated  in 
the  rear  of  the  town  of  Fort  Lonis,  and  forming  a 
remarkable  cone,  sustaining  on  its  tjitu  a  ragantio 
pieoe  of  rook,  which  has  uie  appeanooe  M  being 

KLsed  npon  its  summit  with  the  nicest  precision, 
the  island  are  the  renuuna  of  sevenl  small  C9»t«ia, 
and  the  b«oe«  of  lava  an  Dninercin&  like  principal 
towna  an  Port  Looii,  the  capital,  and  Qiaode  Port, 
or  UahAMnirg,  the  soatheni  port,  the  latter  difSoolt 
of  aooeu  for  shippiog,  and  nuwh  encumbered  with 
coral  reefa.  Port  Lams  camprioei  a  spadoua  harbour, 
and  is  provided  with  an  inner  bum,  denominated 
the  FauUron,  wherein  vessehi  oan  take  refuge  durii^ 
tlM  hnrrioanes,  which  oocaaiaoally  ooour  hen  wi£ 
ex«seding  violuute.  Then  is  also  a  slip  npon  which 
lar^  vessels  can  be  raised  for  the  purpose  of  ezami- 
uatmi  and  repair. 

M.  [nwlnoea  annoally  a  luve  amount  of  sunr, 
whioh  it  axporta  to  Endand,  Franoe,  and  Austruiai 
The  nature  of  the  soil,  nowevcr,  in  many  parte  pis- 
renta  a  man  nnivenai  development  of  the  onltun 
of  this  artiolB  of  oommeroe.  In  some  districta, 
oonriderabla  baots  of  oane-growing  land  are  encnm- 
bsred  with  larse  bonldeiw ;  in  many  plaoes,  these 
have  been  colkcted  into  roogh  waUi,  between 
iriiieli  the  oane*  an  planted,  while  in  other*  their 


adiqited  in  the  Wert  Indies ;  hut  the  balk  of  the 
sugar  is  ultimately  shipped  in  b«f^  oompoaed  ot  the 
ha  of  tiie  Vooooa  palm,  nte  olimata  u  thia  island 
is  remarkabtj'  flns>  Tt^Ect  an  loot  mmom,  as  in 
England;  but  the  tamperatnn  in  the  months  of 
November,  Deoember,  and  Januaty  is  veiy  hi^ 
Throughout  the  year,  the  theimonieter  nngsa  ban 
76*  to  90'  in  the  shade.  In  some  of^«  mon 
elevated  districts,  however,  the  climate  Tcsemblss 
that  of  the  hills  of  India,  and  the  thennometer 
nsnally  stands  7*  or  8°  lower  than  in  Port  Looisb 
7%e  sonthem  portion  of  the  island,  called  La 
Savaonc^  ii  eioeedinglj  beatttifol,  and  direnrified 


with  mountain  and  ravine,  clothed  with  loxuriaot 
wood.  The  monntaina  tfaemaelve*  are  Ixdd  and 
fantastic,  and  preeent  every  poaaible  fenn  of 
ontliost  Few  communities  present  so  varied  on 
adnjiitore  as  that  of  Manritins.  The  desctodants 
of  the  oiiginal  Fnnoh  inhabitants  represent  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  influential  claasM ; 
government  officials  and  merchants,  or  {danters 
of  Euelish  birth  or  extraction,  make  up  the 
remainder.  la  Port  Lonis  may  be  seen  representa- 
tives of  olmcet  every  eastern  nation.  Many  ChtneM 
find  thcdr  way  hen,  and  then  is  now  scane^  a 
hamlet  that  has  not  its  Chinese  storekeMter.  The 
Creoles,  or  native  coloured  poptdation,  who  derive 
their  colour  from  the  African  and  Malaseali  slaves, 
form  a  very  considerable  portion  of  tlie  inhabitants. 
Emicmtion  of  coolies  from  British  India,  for  tba 
supply  of  the  engar  plantations,  still  continuea. 
There  are  two  linee  of  railway,  accompanied  bj 
telegraph  lines.  Some  much-needed  sanitary  meas- 
ures have  been  carried  out.  Roods  have  been 
made,  bridges  built,  and  a  light-hoose  has  been 
erected  off  Grande  Port.  At  8t  Lonis  an  spacious 
docks.  HoepltoU  have  been  founded,  and  the 
establishment  of  savings-banks  has  proved  bene- 
ficial In  March  18GS,  the  island  experienced  a 
most  calamitous  hurricane;  and  during  three  or 
tour  years  previoos  to  1870,  a  fearfoE  epidemic 
— ged.  The  governor  oE  M  is  assisted  by  an  eiecu- 
7e  council  of  6  members,  and  a  legislative  council 

17.  The  revenue  for  ISSO  amounted  to  £782,109, 
the  expenditure  to  £757,396.  The  imports  for  1S80 
(chieSy  live-stock,  rice,  guano,  groin,  wine,  machin- 
ery) were  valued  at  £2,210,114  ;  the  exports  (mainly 
BUMU",  with  some  rum  and  copper),  at  £3,656,65& 

aL  was  disoovered  in  the  year  1606,  by  the  Por- 
tuguese commander,  Don  Pedro  Mascaregnhas,  and 
was  subsequently  visited  by  the  Dutch  under  Yan 
Neck  in  1698,  who  gave  the  island  its  present  name 
in  honour  of  Priuoe  Maoriaa.  He  Dutch  tonned 
a  settlesnent  here  in  1644,  but  subsequently  abwi- 
doned  it.  A  new  and  mon  lueaoMful  attranpt  to 
form  a  permanent  estoblishmeDt  was  made  bv  the 
French  in  17S1,  already  in  poMsasion  of  the 
adjaoent  island  of  Bonrbon,  who  re-named  it  *  I'De- 
de-Fronoe.'  M.  remained  in  French  hands  until 
near  the  close  of  the  year  1810,  trtien  it  was  taken 
by  the  British  In  an  expedltstm  under  General 
Abercromby,  and  has  since  remained  a  British 
possenioD.     M.  was  the  home  of  the  Dodo  (q.  v.). 

MAUROOOBDATOS,  also  MAVBOCAR- 
DATO,  a  Fanoriote  family,  distangotshed  for 
abihty  and  political  influence,  and  desoeuded  from 
merchants  of  Chioa  of  the  Genoeae  family  of  Scar- 
laH — Alkzuiskb  M.  was  ptofesst  '  —-'-'--- 
and  philoaophy  in  Padua,  and  bsi 
or  interpreter  to  the  Porte  in  1681,  in  wnicn  o^ib- 
dty  he  did  much  to  promote  the  Euteresti  of 
his  oonntrymen.  In  1609,  he  displayed  great  dipli>- 
matio  talents  as  [denlpotentian  of  the  Forte  in 
the  u^otiationa  for  peace  at  Carlovicz. — His  son, 
NiooLis,  was  the  firvt  Greek  who  was  Eospodar  of 
Moldavia  and  Wallaohio.— CoNmUrrDtl,  bnAher 
of  Nicolas,  who  became  Hospodar  ot  Wallaohia  in 
1736,  abolished  slawy  in  that  oountry,  and  inb«- 
duosd  the  onltnre  of  maize.— His  grandson,  Alec- 
AiTDDt,  Prince  M,  bom  at  OonstsotiD^ile  in  1787, 
took  an  active  part  in  the  Greek  oonteat  for  inde- 
pendeneet  prepwed  the  dedatstum  of  independenoe 
and  the  plui  M  a  proviaioaal  Mvemnent,  was  eUoted 
I««sident<rf  the  exeontivB  body;  and  being  aroointed 
■'wsin-dnef,  nndertorft,  in  1822,"  «- 

hMiTtd'.....  _ 

by  his  bold  and  __  _ .„_ 

(1823).  Notwitbrtanding  the  c^iposition  ot  the  party 


,v  Google 


MATOY— MAJCmnJAW  L 


Gredu  In 


«oiintry — wi,  for  initance,  by  the  hsraio  defence  ol 
KawiDO  and  Splutctecu ;  but  became  very  mooli 
involTcd  in  political  itrife.     Ha  wai  a  steadfast 


admirer  of  £^li«h 


liih  policy 
of  wiB  p™ 


and  inititntioiu,  and 


of 
Capo  D'fstriss.  After  £he  aooosiDn  of  King  Otho, 
lie  was  at  diffei«at  tame*  a  oabinet  miniater  and 
ambasndor  at  different  court*.  Tlie  leading  featore 
of  bis  poUcy^vit.,  hi*  end««Tonr  to  promote  Britash 
influence  —  made  him  at  tinm  very  mipopular 
tanoag  hi*  conntrymea.  Yet,  at  the  ontbreok  of  the 
-Crimean  War,  it  was  found  necccaary  to  place  him 
onoe  mora  at  the  head  of  the  govemmnDt~t,  di^ty, 
hmreTer,  which  he  soon  rodgned  ;  bat  he  contmoed 
to  intareit  himaelf  in  the  canse  of  education,  and  ai 
late  aa  1661  held  the  office  of  minister  of  public 
instmction.    He  died  Augost  1866. 

aiAUKT,  Mattqxw  Fohtaihb,  LLD.,  an  AuMiri- 
-can  naval  officer,  astronomer,  and  hydrographer, 
was  bom  in  Yireinio,  Januat?  14,  1S06.  Ci  1825, 
bo  was  appointed  midshi(anaD  in  the  United  State* 
Aavy,  and  during  a  voyage  round  the  world  in  the 
VincentKi  frigate,  commenced  a  treatise  on  navigo' 
tion,  which  is  adopted  as  a  text-book  in  the  navy. 
lDl836,hewa9madelieatenant;  but  being  lamed  by 
an  aocident,  and  unfitted  for  senice  afiaat,  be  was 
appointed  to  the  H^drograplilcal  Office  at  Wuhing- 
ton.  Here  he  earned  out  a  system  of  obaervationB 
which  enabled  bim  to  write  his  Fhyiicai  Qeagraphy 
t(f  Iba  San,  and  to  prodnce  in  1S14  his 
the  Gnlf  Stream,  Ocean  Correuta,  and  Great  Circle 


British  goreroment,  and  the  assistance  of  naval 
ofGcei*  and  the  learned,  completed  his  sailing  charts, 
to  Uia  great  advantage  of^  the  commerce  of  the 
worid.  In  1855,  he  was  promoted  l«  the  rank  of 
-oonunander,  and  published  Lellert  on  the  Amazon 
■omI  Atiantie  Stove*  of  Srralh  America.  At  the  ont- 
break  of  the  civil  war  in  1861,  M.  took  a  oommand 
in  the  Confederate  navy,  and  afterwards  came  aa 
commissioQeT  to  Europe.  After  the  war,  he  returned 
to  the  United  States.    He  died  Teb.  1,  1873. 


I  the   subject*  of  which  invariably  are 

I I  conflict  with  Amaiona,  have  also  been  di„  _,. 
The  plan  of  the  bMement  baa  been  traced,  Uie 

area  being  126  feet  by  100  feet;  and  from  tha 
fragments  of  columns,  looio  capitals,  Jic,  which 
have  been  found,  the  description  of  Pliny  has  been 
verifled.  The  Mausoleom  consisted  of  a  basement 
65  feet  high,  on  which  stood  on  lonto  colonnade 
231  feet  high,  surmounted  by  a  pyramid,  rising  in 
steps  to  a  smulac  height,  and  on  the  apex  of  which 
stood  a  colossal  group,  about  14  feet  in  height,  of 
Mauaolus  and  hts  wife  in  the  Qnadriga;  theaa 
statnes  are  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  the  oele- 
brated  Soopaa.  The  above  dimensions  are  from  Mr 
Newton's  restoration,  but  they  are  disputed  by  lb 
Fecgnsaoa,  and  others.  All  agree  that  the  total 
height  ot  140  feet  givem  by  Pliny  is  probably 
aocnrate. 

MAUVE.    See  DTV-amriB. 

MAW-SEED,  a  name  by  which  Poppy-saed 
IPapaxer  K>mn\fenim)  is  sold  as  food  for  cag«- 
bird*.  It  i*  given  to  tham  especially  whan  they 
are  moulting. 

MAXIHILIAIT  I.,  one  of  the  most  distingoished 
of  the  Gkrman  emperor^  the  ion  and  succefnor  <4 
Frederick  HL,  was  bom  at  Neustadt,  near  Vienna, 
22d  Uarch  1469.  In  his  I9th  year,  hs  married 
Maria,  the  only  child  and  hdress  of  Charles  the 
Bold,  Dnke  of  Borgnady,  and  was  soon  involved 
in  war  with  Louis  XL  of  France,  who  attempted 
to  seize  some  of  her  possessions.  M.,  although 
successful  in  the  fleli^  was  oompelled,  by  the 
intrigue*  of  Louis  in  the  Nethedands,  and  dis> 
affection  stirred  up  there  to  bebt>th  liis  daughter, 
Margaret,  a  child  of  four  years  old,  to  the  Dauphin, 
afCenvards  Chaiiea  VllL,  and  to  give  Artois,  Flan- 


H  AUSOLEITM,  a  sepulchral  monnment  of  lat^e 
size,  oontiuiiing  a  chamber  in  which  nms  or  coEGns 
are  deposited.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  tomb , 
erect^  at  Halicamaasns  to  MansoluB,  king  of  Carta, 
by  his  disconsolate  widow,  Attemiiia,  353  b.o.  It 
was  one  of  Uie  most  magnificent  monuments  of  tiio 
kind,  and  was  esteemed  one  of  the  seven  wonden 
of  tiis  worid.  It  was  described  by  Pliny  and  other 
ancient  writera,  aa  late  as  tlie  12th  o.,  and  mnst 
have  bean  overthrown,  probably  b^  an  earthquake, 
dnnoa  the  following  two  centonea,  lor  all  trace 
of  it  nad  disappeared,  except  some  marble  steps, 
whcm  tha  Krughta  of  8t  John  of  Jerusalem,  in 
140^  took  pnnnrtminn  of  the  site  of  Halicamassus, 
then  oocapied  by  a  small  village  called  Cleeay. 
While  exoavating  among  the  ruins  for  building 
material*,  the  kmghts  discovered  a  large  chamber 
-decorated  with  marble  pilasteni,  and  with  richly 
inlaid  panels,  The  saroopbagns  of  the  fonnder  was 
also  diieovered  in  anolher  grmt  halL 

ExcavatiDD*  have  been  reoently  made  by  Mr 
Newton,  assisted  by  the  British  gcrvermnenl,  and 
he  has  tuceeeded  in  briupng  to  Iwht  many  <A  Uia 
beautiful  •colptnre*  <A  the  MansoIeanL  Amongst 
others,  the  fr^menta  of  the  statue  of  King  Mansclns 
{now  pieced  togetfaec  in  the  Britisk  Hnseum),  and  a 
pcotion  of  the  Qoadriga  which  crowned  the  monu- 
meot.  Many  fntgmeDU  of  lioni.  dog^  ko.,  and  a 
bMutifnl  Bcnlptore  of  a  horaa,  have  been  found. 
Portiona  (rf  friesBB,  of  fine  dwign  and  workmanship. 


._  the  Netharland*,  encouraged  and  snpported 

by  Fnnce,  occnpied  much  of  his  time,  and  again 

involved  him  in  war  with  Louis  XL    He  afterwards 

ipelled  the  Hungarian*,  who  had  seised  great  part 

of  the  Anstrian  territories  on  the  Dannbe ;  and  tha 

Turku,  who  in  1492  invaded  Carinthia,  Camiola,  and 

Steiermark.    He  wain  took  up  arms  antinst  France, 

because  Charles  VIIL  sent  back  his  danghter,  and 

married  Anne  of  Bretagne,  in  order  to  acquire  that 

great  province.  A  peaoe  was,  however,  soon  concluded 

at  Senlis  in  1493j  M.  receiving  back  the  provinces 

which  he  had  given  with  his  daughter.      On  the 

death  of  his  father  in  1493,  he  became  emperor,  and 

joently  married  Bianca  Sforea,  daughter  of 

the  Duke  of  Milan.  He  applied  himaelf  with  wisdtsn 

d  vigour  to  the  internal  adminisbation  of  tha 

ipire,  took  meaanra*  for  Uia  preaervation  of  peaoe 

Qcrmonj,  and  encouraged  the  cultivation  <n  the 

t*  and  •cienoe*.    But  he  wa*  aoon  again  involved 

wars  again*tthe  8wi**,  the  VauBtians,  andPranoe. 

He  sought  to  pat  a  stop  to  French  oonqnesta  in 

Italy,  and  was  at  first  sncceaaful ;  but  after  various 

changea  of  fortune,  and  years  of  war,  mingled  wiUi 

olitical  complications,  he  was  compelled  to 

Milan  to  Pranoe,  aod  Verona  to  Hie  Vene- 

Nor  was   U.  more  soccessful  against  the 

Swiss,  who  in  1499  completely  separated  thcmuelve* 

from  the  German  emjxre.    The  hereditary  dominiaa* 

of  hi*  Hou*e,  however,  were  increased  during  hi* 


reign  bj 


son  Philip  with  the  Infanta  i 
dan^ter  Margaret  with  the  Infant  Juan  of  Spun, 
'  '  '  '      '      of  Spain  with  Austria; 


„Gou^Il' 


MAXIMILIAN  IL— MAYENSK 


imediatol^ 


Anstru,  12th  Jonuarj  1019.  He  ma  of  ft  chival- 
rouB  character.  Ho  wrota  TftriouB  worki  on  war, 
ftardecing,  hunting,  and  architectare,  Bome  poemt, 
and  an  aatobiography  foil  of  marreli, 

MAXIMILIAN  II.,  JosBPK,  kinz  of  Bavaria, 
■on  of  Lndvis  L,  was  born  28th  Ifovember  1811.  He 
married  in  1842  the  Princeea  Maria  Hedwi^  conain 
to  the  present  king  of  Pruaiia.  Until  1S48  ne  took 
no  pat^  in  political  affaini,  bat  devoted  himaelf  to 
agncaltnral  and  other  improvementa,  and  to  the 
punuite  of  literature  and  science.  In  that  year  of 
the  revolutionary  excitement,  he  was  suddenly  called 
to  the  throne,  on  his  father's  abdication,  and  adopted 
a  policy  accordant  with  the  liberal  tendencies  of 
the  time.  Readaonarv  measures  were  afterwards 
to  soma  extent  adopted ;  but  M.'»  reign  was  chiefly 
signalised  by  the  encounwemcnt  of  science.  He  was 
regarded  with  no  favoor  by  the  nltramontane  party, 
but  withoat  respect  to  thrar  oppomtaoo,  he  bitjoght 
to  Munich  men  of  liberal  opinions,  eminent  in 
literature  and  science.     He  died  March  1364. 

MAXIMILIAN*,  Bmpsboa  of  Mzxico.  See 
aopp.,  VoL  X. 

MA'XIMUM,  LD  Mathematios,  the  greatest  valae 
of  a  variable  qoaatity  or  msgnitoda,  jn  opposition  to 

minimum,  the  least    More  strictlv,  a  "•"-■ •- 

■noh  a  value  as  is  greater  than  tiiose 

preceding  and  following  it  in  a  series;  .._  .  .. 

mum  is  a  value  which  is  leas  than  those  immediately 
preoediog  and  following  it,  so  that  a  function  may 
hare  many  marima  and  minima  unequal  among 
themselves,  as  in  the  case  of  a  curre  alternately 
aiiproachiog  and  receding  from  on  axis.  Traces  of 
the  doctrine  of  maxima  and  minima  are  to  be  found 
ill  the  works  of  ApoUonins  on  Conic  Sections.  The 
thoron^  iDVestigation  of  tham  requires  the  ud  of 
the  diaertmtial  calcnloB,  and  even  of  the  oalcnlua 
of  variationE.  The  brothers  Bemonilli,  Vewlon, 
Maolaurin,  Eoler,  and  LMrange,  have  greatly  dia- 
fingni«har1  themselves  in  this  department  of  mathe- 
T"»tii»«  The  Hindus  have  displayed  great  ingenuity 
in  solving,  by  ordinary  algebra,  problems  of  nia-rfTiin 
and  iiimim«.j  for  which,  in  Europe,  tiie  calculus  was 
ooniidered  to  be  necessary. 

HAJCWELL,  Professor  Jams  Clerk-.  See 
Stop.,  VoL  X. 

MAY  [Lat.  Maiat,  is  frma  a  root  mag,  or  (3ans.) 
mah,  to  grow],  the  fifth  month  of  our  ^ear,  coDsists 
of  31  days.  The  common  notion,  that  it  was  named 
Mains  by  the  Romans  in  honour  of  Maia,  the  mother 
of  Mercaiy,  is  quite  erroneous,  (or  tbe  name  was 
in  use  among  them  long  before  they  knew  ^y- 
thing  either  of  Mercui;  or  his  mother  I  The 
outbreak  into  new  life  and  beauty  whioh  marks 
nature  at  this  time,  instinctively  exdteB  feelings  of 
gladness  and  delight ;  hence  it  is  not  wonderfol  that 
Uie  event  shoold  nave  at  all  times  been  oelebrstod 
The  fint  emotion  is  a  deore  to  seize  some  part  of 
that  profnaion  of  flower  or  blossom  which  spreads 
aromid  ns,  to  set  it  up  in  decorative  fashion, 
pay  it  a  sort  of  homage,  and  to  let  the  pleasure  it 
excites  find  expression  in  dance  and  song.  Among 
the  Romans,  the  feeling  of  the  time  hmnd  vent 
in  their  FUrnUia,  or  Floral  Games,  which  b^m 
on  the  28th  of  April,  and  lasted  a  few  days.  The 
flrtt  of  May — Mat-dat — was  the  chief  festival  both 
in  aacient  and  more  modem  times.  Among  the 
old  Celtic  people^  a  festival  called  SeUeirt  {<i.t.) 
was  also  held  on  this  day,  but  it  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  connected  with  flowers.  In  England,  as 
we  learn  from  Chancer  and  other  writers,  it  was 
oustomary,  during  the  middle  a«^  for  all,  both 
high  and  low — even  the  court  itself — to  go  out  on 
the  first  May  moruins  at  an  early  hour  *  to  fetch  the 
Aowa«  frM.'    Hswihom  (q.  t.J  branchea  were  also 

m 


gathered ;  i 
with  accompaniments  o 
possible  signs  of  jw  ""id  merrinient.  The  people 
then  pro<»Bded  to  decorate  the  doors  and  windows 
of  their  houses  with  the  spoils.  By  a  natural  ti 
tion  lit  ideas,  they  gave  the  hawthorn  bloom  the 
name  of  the  '  May  ; '  they  called  the  ceremimy  '  the 
bringing  home  the  May ;  they  spoke  of  the  expedi- 
tion to  the  woods  as  '  going  a-Maying.'  The  fairest 
maid  of  the  village  was  crowned  with  flowers  as  the 
'  Queen  of  the  May ; '  placed  in  a  little  bower  or 
arbour,  where  she  sat  in  state,  receiving  the  homage 
and  admiration  of  the  youthful  revellers,  who  danced 
and  sang  around  her.  This  custom  of  having  a  May 
queen  looks  like  a  relio  of  tiie  old  Boman  oelebration 
of  the  d^  when  the  goddess  flora  was  qieoially 
worshipped.  How  thoroa^y  reconiised  the  custom 
had  boiwme  in  England,  may  be  ulnstrated  by  the 
fact,  that  in  the  reun  of  Henry  VHL  the  heads  of 


the  corporation 


London  went  out  into  the  high 


palace  of  Oreenvrich,  and  meeting  these  respected 
dignitaries  on  Shooter's  TTill.  But  perhaps  the  moat 
conspicuous  feature  of  these  festive  proceedings  was 
the  erection  in  every  town  and  village  of  a  fixed 
pole — called  the  Ma^)ole— as  high  as  Uie  mast  of 


'essel  of  100  tons,  on  which,  each  May  morning, 

'  ipended  wreaths  of  flowera,  and  round  whicfi 

lie  danced  in  rings  pretty  nearly  the  whole 


they 


doy.  A  severe  blow  was  given  to  these  merry 
customs  by  the  Puritans,  who  caused  Maypolea  to 
be  uprooted,  and  a  stop  put  to  all  Uieir  jollities. 
They  were,  however,  revived  after  the  Restoration, 
and  held  their  groniid  for  a  long  time;  bat  they 
have  now  almost  disappeared,  hi  Pnmoe  and 
Oermany  too.  Maypoles  were  commou,  and  in  some 
places  are  still  to  be  seen,  and  feative  sports  are 
even  yet  observed. — See  Cluunben's  Book  of  lyeaa, 
pp.  S69— 682,  voL  i. 

MAT-FLY.    See  Efbxhx&a. 

UAYa  is,  in  the  Pnrftnic  mythology  of  the 
Hindus,  the  personified  will  or  energy  of  the 
Supreme  Bain^  who.  by  her,  created  the  universe ; 
and  as,  in  tbisuter  doctrine,  the  world  is  unreal  or 
illusory,  M  asBumes  the  character  U  Qluaion  per- 
sonified. In  this  sense,  M  also  ooeoiu  in  the  kUer 
VedAnta  phiksoph^,  and  in  some  id  the  sectaiiaa 


MA'YBOLB,  ft  burgh  of  regality,  in  the  county  of 
Ayr,  fiootland,  9  miles  south  of  the  town  of  that 
name,  and  on  the  line  of  the  Ayr  and  Girvao  Bail- 
way.  Pop.  (1881)  4474,  who  are  mostly  shoemakers 
and  weavers.  In  feudal  times  it  was  considered  the 
capita]  of  Carrick,  and  was  the  seat  of  the  courts  of 
justice  of  the  Carrick  bailiery.  In  the  vicinity  of 
M.  are  the  ruins  of  the  famooa  Abbey  of  Croas- 
raguel,  the  head  of  which,  at  the  tmie  of  the 
Reformation,  was  Qnentin  Kennedy,  who  held  a 
public  disputation  with  John  Knox  m  the  town  of 
Maybole. 

MAYENCK    SeeMAiFz. 

MAYENNB  (Lat  ifadvana),  a  river  ia  the 
north-west  of  Frajice,  which  rises  in  the  deportment 
of  Ome,  and  after  bong  joined  on  the  right  by  the 
Yarenne,  Calmont,  Ernie,  and  Oudon,  and  on  the 
left  by  the  Jouanne  and  Onette,  debouches  at 
Font  de  C6  into  the  Loire,  under  the  name  of  the 
Maine,  having  become  navigable  50  miles  south  of 
Mayenne. — This  river  gives  its  name  to  the  depart- 
ment of  MATKiim,  which  has  been  formed  bom 
the  western  part  of  the  old  province  of  Maine  and 
the  north  of  Anjou.  Ana,  1990  square  miles ;  pop>. 
(ISSl)  314,891.     Mayenne^  whioh  is  included  almost 


,v  Google 


MATENMB-MAYO. 


entirely  within  the  baain  of  the  Lcrire,  boa  «  mild 
climate^  but  only  a  partial]j  prodactive  Boil,  being 
occapied  in  many  OLstricts  by  exteiunTe  Mutdy 
heaUis.  Tha  chief  branches  of  industry  are  the 
breeding  of  cattle  and  sheep,  and  the  rearing  of 
bees ;  while  the  iron  mines  and  marble  qnarries 
of  the  diatriot  yield  employment  to  the  poorec 
<ilasBes.  The  linen,  hemp,  and  paper  maoufaotores 
are  of  some  imjwrtance.  Mayenna  ia  dinded  into 
the  three  arrondiaaementa  of  Larot,  ChUeau-Oontier, 
and  Mayenne. 

MAYEKITB,  chief  town  of  the  French  depart- 
ment of  the  Mine  name,  is  sitnated  on  the  Loire,  on 
the  right  bank  of  which  rises,  on  a  steep  and  rocky 
height  the  ancient  fortress  of  the  dukea  of  Mayenr 
lit.  48'   14'  N„   long.  0°  S5'   W,     The  town 
pleasantly  sitnated,  lui  several  good  tqaares,  a 
•ome  fine  fountains ;  but  it  ia  specially  remarkable 
for  the  extreme  steepnesi  of  it«  narrow  and  winding 
streets.     Manofactureil  of  calico  and  linen.    Pop. 
10,000. 

MA'YHOOTH,  a  village  of  the  connlry  Eildare, 
Ireland,  15  miles  north-west  from  Dablin  by  the 
Midland  Great  WeBtem  Railway;  pop.,  including  the 
«aUege(18Sl)  1174.  It  is  of  some  historical  interest 
us  the  seat  of  the  powerful  family  of  the  Qeraldinss, 
of  whose  castle  Urge  and  very  striking  rains  still 
remain ;  and  oa  the  acene  of  more  than  one  strumile 
with  the  English  (Kiwer,  especially  the  'lUb^Em 
*f  Silken  Thomas,'  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VUL,  and 
in  the  war  of  the  Coafederatea  (IWl— 16S0).  But 
its  chief  modem  interest  arisea  from  the  well-known 
Roman  Catholic  college,  which  supplied  for  many 
yeais  material  for  sti^e  to  the  leolots  of  the 
rival  relicioua  parties  in  Oreat  Britain.  Thia  colli^ 
was  eatablished  during  the  ministry  of  Mr  Pitt,  in 
the  year  1795,  by  an  act  of  the  Irish  parliament, 
in  order  to  meet  a  necessity  created  by  the  utter 
destruction,  throngh  the  Fr^ch  Revotntion,  of  the 
places  of  edncation  in  France  upon  which  the  Irish 
Catholic  clerj^,  excluded  by  the  penal  laws  from 
the  opportunity  of  domestic  education,  had  hitherto 
been  driven  to  rely.  The  original  endowment,  an 
aiiDiial  vote  of  £8928,  was  continued,  although 


Robert  Feel  carried  a  bill  for  a  permanent  endow- 
ment  of  £28,000  a  year,  to  which  was  added  a  grant  of 
iSftOOO  for  building  pnrposes.  The  budding  erected 
under  the  original  endowment  is  a  plain  quadrangle. 
The  new  college  ia  a  very  striking  Giothia  quadrangle 
by  Pugin,  contuning  professors'  and  students'  apart- 
ments, lecture-halla,  and  a  nngidarly  Una  library 
and  refectory.  Pngin's  doiign  included  a  chapel  and 
eommon-hall,  which,  owing  to  insnffleieni^  of  funds, 
have  been  postponed.  Under  the  act  of  lS4Et,  the 
eolleae  was  to  receive  500  students,  all  dettmed 
for  the  priesthood.  The  patronage  of  the  SOO 
stndentships  waa  divided  in  the  ratio  of  population 
among  the  biahopa  of  the  several  aeea  of  Ireland ; 
but  the  candidates  thus  named  were  aubjeoted, 
before  matriculation,  to  examiEiation  in  a,  eompre- 
henaive  entrance  conrtb  The  full  collegiate  courae 
was  of  eight  years,  two  of  which  were  given  to 
clasaicB,  two  to  philosophy,  and  the  remainmg  four 
to  tbe  more  directly  professional  studies  of  divinity, 
scripture,  church  history,  canon  law,  and  the  Hebrew 
and  Irish  languages.  'The  divinity  student*,  260  in 
number,  received  a  money  stipend  of  £20  armoally  ; 
and  at  tbe  close  of  the  ordinary  conrse,  20  scholar- 
shipa,  colled  from  the  founder,  Lord  Donboyne, 'Dun- 
boyne  Scholanhips,'  were  assigned  by  competition 
to  the  most  distinguished  students,  and  mt^ht  be 
held  for  three  years.  The  legislative  authority  was 
vested  in  a  btnuil  of  17  trustees,  and  the  internal 
adminisbation  in  an  academical  body,  oonsisting  of 


numerous  body  of  professors  and  doana,  A  visitorial 
power  was  vested  in  a  board  of  8  visitors,  of  whom 
fl  were  named  by  the  crown,  and  three  elected  by 
the  trustees.  In  1869,  by  the  Irish  Church  Art  m 
and^  Vict  C.38— *l),the  Maynooth endowment  waa 
withdrawn — a  capital  sum,  fourteen  times  its  amount 
■xang  granted  to  the  trustees  for  the  discharee  of 
eiisting  interests.  The  college,  however,  is  still 
maintamed  on  the  same  footing  The  educotional 
arrangements  are  unaltered,  and  although  the  num- 
ber of  pupils,  owing  to  the  suspension  of  free 
atudentahipa  and  eihibitionB,  has  somewhat  fallea 
off,  the  diminution  ia  remirded  as  temporary.  'Oib 
visitorial  powers  created  under  the  act  of  parlia- 
ment are  now  eiercised  by  visitors  appointed  by 
the  trustees,  and  aU  state  connectiou  is  at  an  end. 
The  college  also  possesses  some  landed  and  funded 
property,  the  result  of  donations  and  bequests, 
the  most  considerable  of  which  is  that  M  Lord 
Unnboyne,  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of  Cork,  who 
bad  for  a  time  conformed  to  the  Protestant  faith, 
great  part  of  the  college  buildings  was  burned  in 


November  1878, 


, — — .J   ^-  ...-J  province  of 

Connaught,  Ireland,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  W.  by 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  E.  by  Sligo  and  Roscommon, 
and  S.  by  Galway.  Area,  1,363,382  acres,  of  which 
497,687  are  arable;  pop.,  which  in  1861  wia 
254,769,  had  fallen  in  1871  to  244,768,  In  1881 
there  waa  still  a  decrease,  thongh  smaller ;  the  total 
was  245,212,  of  whom  236,207  were  Roman  Catholic^ 
and  0507  Frot«stant  Episcopalians.  The  nnmber  of 
ppils  attending  school  during  1880  waa  61,242— an 

, ,gg  of  about  10,000  since  1871.     The  number  of 

under  crop  in  1881  was  179,317.  The  rearing 
of  cattle  f  onus  in  most  parts  of  the  county  the  more 
ordinary  pursuit  of  the  agricultural  popolatton.  In 
1881,  the  number  of  cattle  was  166,B27 ;  of  sheep, 
251,108 ;  and  of  pigs,  48,246.  The  boU  of  the  plam 
is  fertile,  and  for  the  most  part  suitable  either  for 
tillage  or  for  pasture,  although  the  prevalence  of 
rain  and  nngemal  winds  render  tillage,  especially  of 
wheat  and  potatoes,  precarious  and  unremunenLtive. 
The  surface  of  tbe  county  is  very  irregular,  the 
interior  being  a  plain  bordered  by  two  ranges  of 
mountains.  Of  tnese  ranges  the  highest  points  are 
CriM^h  Patrick,  2610  feet,  and  Neplun,  2646  feet  in 
height  Ironstone  abounds  in  some  districts,  bu^ 
->wmg  to  wont  of  fuel,  no  attempt  is  made  to  work 
t.  An  excellent  marble  is  found  in  the  north- 
western district,  and  there  are  several  places  in 
which  slates  are  successfully  quarried,  ^e  chief 
towns  are  Castlebar,  Westport,  Ballino,  and  Ballin- 
robe.  The  coast-line  of  H.  is  about  250  niiln. 
Almost  the  only  occupations  of  the  population  are 
agriculture  and  fishing.  A  valuable  ssJmon -fishery 
exists  in  the  river  Moy  ;  and  thesmalllake  of  Lough 
Mask  is  the  habitation  of  the  well-known  'giUaroo' 
trout  The  Irish  language  ia  atill  spoken  in  a  large 
part  of  Mayo. 

M.  formedpart  of  the extennve  tenritot; granted 
t^  Henry  IL  to  William  de  Bnrgho ;  but  in  the 
middle  of  the  14th  c.,  one  of  the  younger  branches 
of  the  family,  seizing  on  the  counties  of  Galway 
and  M.,  threw  off  the  English  allegiance,  adopted 
the  *  customs  of  the  Irishry,'  together  with  the 
Celtic  name  of  MacWilliam.  In  the  year  157S 
the  MaoWilliam  made  hii  lubmission  at  Oalway ; 
but  bavins  subsequently  revolted,  the  district  waa 
finally  subdued  by  Sir  Richard  Bingham  in  1688. 
Tlie  antiquities  of  M.  are  chiefly  eedesiaitiaaL  Four 
round  towers  are  atill  in  exisbence,  and  there  are 
at  Cong  the  remains  of  a  s^ndid  abbey,  which 
dates  from  the  12th  century.  I^e  celebrated' Cross 
of  Cong,'  now  in  tbe  Muaeom  of  itte  Boyal  Irish 


HI        [ 

-  ^.oo;;lc 


MATOH— MAZAEIN. 


if  Tnain, 


HATOR  (Ft.  nuure,  I^  mc^or;  tee  Maob), 
origmkUy  ft  stswud,  baili^  or  oranaer,  tbence  tha 
ohief  sufpatnte  of  a  city  or  oorponte  tows  in 
EDglaad  or  Irel&iul  The  mmyoi  is  the  head  of  the 
loo&l  jndkatitn^  and  the  executive  officer  of  the 
muniiiipality ;  he  ia  elected  by  the  council  from  the 
■Idvmeu  or  oonnoiUon^  end  holda  office  for  > 
only.  Si  dutiea  include  thoee  of  returnicig  o 
in  aQ  bnr^  azoept  those  citiea  and  towni  « 
being  countiet  of  theiiKalTea,  hare  aherifla  oE  their 
own.  The  Qnt  Mayor  of  Lcndoa  waa  appointed 
In  1189,  the  fint  Mayor  ot  Dublin  in  1409.  The 
mayora  of  London,  York,  and  I>ill)Iin  are  called 
'Lord  Mayor.'  Ite  lord  MaTor  of  London  haa 
the  title  at  '  Eight  Houoorable,  wUcJi,  along  with 
the  title  ■Lord.'^waa  fint  allowed  by  Edward  HL 
in  J3M ;  ia  the  repvaentatiTe  of  royaltry  in  "~ 
dril  government  <a  the  city,  the  obief  com 
aioDBr  of  lieutenant^,  the  oonaervatoT  of  tlie  t 


beoomei,  pro  tempore,  a  member  of  the  Privy 
Counefl.  To  anatain  tha  hoapitality  of  the  city, 
be  reoeivea  an  allowance  of  £8000  a  year,  with 
the  nae  of  the  Manaion-hona^  furmtore,  corriagea, 
ka.  He  il  ohoaeo  by  the  Livery  (q.  v.)  on  the  29tb 
September,  being  commonly  the  aenior  alderman, 
woo  haa  baCQ  fh-^'A'.  but  not  Lord  Mayor.  In 
fonuar  timea,  it  waa  the  ambition  of  the  firet 
merohant*  tuA  bankers  of  the  City  to  become  Lord 
Ifayoi ;  but  aince  the  diatrict  within  the  metropoli- 
tan bonndaiiei  baa  oome  to  be  but  a  amall  Eradiiou 
of  what  ia  miieraUy  known  aa  London,  thia  haa 
eoaaed  to  be  the  oaae ;  and  it  it  only  in  the  eye  of 
foreignen  that  the  Lord  Mayoi  of  I/mdon  ia  one  of 
the  moat  important  public  fnnctionariea  of  the 
realm.  The  Mayor  ol  Dablin  waa  flnt  ityled  Lord 
Mayor  by  Oharlee  IL  in  1665. 

MATOTTA.    See  Sdpp.,  Vol  X. 

MATBTILLE,  a  oity  of  Eentaoky,  United  States 
of  America,  on  the  Ohio  Siver,  63  nulea  aoath-eaat 
ot  CinoinnatL  It  ia  finely  aituated,  ia  the  river- 
port  of  a  rich  territory,  and  one  of  the  largeat 
hemp^marti  in  Amoiuk  It  haa  extendve  mann- 
faotoriee  <d  ootton,  bemp,  tobaooc^  iron,  and  ooal-oil. 
It  oonbuM  tlie  oonnty  boildinga,  dty  hall,  marbt, 
Sbuk^lSoharchea.    Fop.  (1880)  ima 

iSAZASBERAnS,  a  province  of  Persia,  bounded 


u  len;^  by  SO  in 


Along  the  ahore 


becomea  elev^ed.  The  climate 
eannot  be  called  aalubrioita,  althou^  it  ia  more 
healthy  than  that  of  the  nelghbounng  province  of 
Ghilan.  The  toil  ia  fertile ;  rioe,  cotton,  mulberry, 
augar-cancL  and  a  variety  of  fruita,  are  produced.  It 
eiporta  ailk,  cotton,  and  rice  to  Ruaaia,  aod  importa 
woollen  gooda,  cuijery,  tobacco^  fto.  Throngtiout 
the  whole  province,  parallel  witt  the  ahoree  d  the 
Caapian,  ezteoda  a  caoseway,  conatmcted  by  Shah 
Abbaa  the  Great  in  the  17th  a.,  and  itill  in  gooif 
repur.    Pop.  about  150,000  ;  capital,  Sari  (q.  tI). 

HAZABUr,  Juua  (ItaL  OiuHo  JToaaHni),  cardi- 
nal and  ohief  mioiater  of  France  dt 


I  during  tt 
JolyiaOl 


^  d  ooonpation  of  hia  btther  are  point* 

m  diapnta.  M  atndied  law  at  Bome  and  at  the 
Spaniah  nniveiaitiea,  where  ka  contrived  to  unite 
indnatry  with  amorona  gaiety.  Aftarwarda,  he 
fnterad  the  popa'a  military  aervice,  periiapa  about 
USA.    Having  aenotnpanied  a  papal  li^te  to  the 


court  of  IVanoa,  he  became  known  to  Eicheliea 
aboat  16Z8,  who  peroeived  hia  great  political 
talfintf,  and  engaged  bin  to  mfcif^^m  the  Frencb 
intererti  in  Italy,  whi6h  he  did  while  atill  em- 
ployed by  the  pope  aa  vice-legate  to  Avignoa 
(1632),  and  noncio  to  Uie  FremA  oonrt,  an  oEcu 
to  wtuch  he  waa  appointed  in  163i.  Tha  Spaniard* 
complained  of  his  partiality  for  Franoe,  and  the 
pope  waa  obUged  to  recall  him.  The  auUle  Italian 
waa  not  thiu  to  be  obeckmated.  In  1639,  lie 
openly  entered  the  aervice  of  Lonia  XIIL,  and  waa 
naturaliMid  a  Frenchman ;  and  in  1641  received  a 
cardinal'a  hat.  throngh  the  influence  of  Biohelien, 
who,  when  dying,  recommended  M.  to  the  kin{[  aa 
the  only  person  capable  ol  carryiiu  on  hia  polibcal 
ayitem.  M.'b  position  waa  one  of  great  difficulty 
amidat  the  intrignea,  jealousiea,  and  atrifea  of  the 
earlier  yeara  M  Looia  XTV.'a  minority.  The 
queen-mother,  Anna  of  Anatria,  waa  at  nmt  par- 
tumlarly  hdatile  to  him  ;  bat  although  ahe  waa 
deelared  aole  rraent  and  guardian  of  the  young 
It  ill  g,  M.  kept  hia  place  aa  miniater,  and  aoon 
made  bi'm^lf  indiapenaable  to  her,  partly  by  hia- 
wonderful  boaineaa  qualitiee,  and  atill  more  by  the 
ezqniaito  chatm  of  nia  manner,  ao  that,  althoogh 
with  greater  amoothneaa,  he  ruled  with  almoat  aa 
unlimited  a  awB}^  aa  Richelieu.  The  parliament, 
thinking  to  r<%ain  political  power,  reuated  the 
i^iatration  of  ediote  of  taxation  ;  but  M.  oanaad 
the  leaden  of  the  oppontion  to  be  arrested,  npon 
which  the  diaturbanoea  of  the  Fronde  (q.  v.) 
began.  The  ooort  retired  to  St  Qeimain ;  M  waa 
outlawed  by  the  parliameot ;  but  by  the  truce  of 
Buel,  he  still  remained  miniater.  The  feeling 
against  Iiim,  however,  became  atill  more  inflamed, 
when,  at  hia  inati^tion,  the  qaeen-r»ent  cauaed 
the  Princea  of  Coi^6  and  Conti  and  tue  Duke  of 
Longueville  to  be  arreated  in  Jauoaty  1660.  M. 
went  in  peraou  at  the  head  of  the  court  boope  to 
the  inanrgent  provincea ;  and  after  the  victory  at 
Bethel,  shewed  ao  mnoh  inaolence,  that  the  noble» 
and  tlie  people  of  the  capital  made  common  canae 
agijnat  him,  and  he  thought  it  neoeaaary  to  secure 
hia  safety  by  flJKbt  to  the  Netherlands,  whilst  the 
preaa  teemed  wi£^ violent  pnbUcationa  aaainat  him, 
known  aa  Macarirtadu.  After  the  rebellion  of  the 
Prince  of  Condi,  he  ventured  to  return  to  Franco  ; 
bat  Faria  making  hia  removal  a  condition  of  ita 
anlimiaBion,  he  retired  again  from  the  coort,  and 
it  waa  not  till  February  3,  1SG3,  that  he  made  a 
triumphant  en^  into  the  oapital,  frhere  he 
waa  received  wiUi  aigniflcaat  silence.  Yet  in  a 
short  time  he  was  popular,  and  Iiad  aoqoired  hia 
former  power.  Under  nim,  the  inflnenoe  of  Franoe 
amongst  the  nationa  waa  increaaed,  and  in  the 
internal  government  of  the  country  thoee  prin- 
ciples of  deapotiim  were  eatoblished  on  vrhich 
Louis  XIV.  afterwards  acted.  The  adminiatratioa 
of  jnstioe,  however,  became  veiy  cornipt,  and  the 
commoce  and  **■"""—  of  the  oonnby  rank  into 
deep  depieadon.  It  ia  admitted  that  aa  a  financial 
adminiabativ  he  waa  far  inferior  to  Bicheliea.  M. 
died  at  Vinoenncs,  9lh  Maroh  1S61.  He  waa  very 
niggardly  and  very  avaricioos,  and  bad  acquired 
~  vsriooa  ways,  fair  and  fool,  an  immenae  fortune, 
unmtii^  to  12,000,000  livrea,  which  he  offered 
to  the  king  aliortly  before  he  died ;  afraid,  it  ia 
thought,  that  it  might  be  rudely  aeized  from  hia 
heira.  Lonia  declined  the  reetitution,  which  waa 
perhapa  what  the  wily  miidster  expected.  He  waa 
privately  married  to  Anne  of  Austria.  See  the 
Memoirt  of  M.'a  oontemporariea,  Betz,  Madams 
Motteville,  La  Bochefoueaolt,  Tuienne,  Qrammont, 
ha.;  Sitdt  <U  Louit  XIY^  by  Volture;  Afmfv  da 
LcnguanlU,  fton  by  Viotor  Couain ;  and  A.  BenCe'* 
Let  l^iieta  dt  Mamriik 


aClOOgllJ 


MAZATLAIT— UAZZHn. 


HAZAIXA'N,  >  mport  lA  Moxioa,  at 
of  *  rirer  of  its  own  name,  which  falls  into  the 
entiaiiM  to  the  GnU  of  California,  lat  23*  Iff  N., 
long.  106°  21'  W.  It  is  a  w^-bniit  and  piotuieeqne 
ton.    The  olimata  ia  healthy,  bnt  yerj  hot  (StT  *~ 


silver  dollan, 
or  lima  wood,  and  ooi^er ;  importa,  proTiiioM, 
machinery,  Britiah  hardware  and  orockery,  end  dij 
gooda  frun  Franea  wtd  Germany.  In  IB6^  the 
Siwn  waa  ben»ed  by  the  EVenoh  and  imporial  trot^ 
liie  barboni  m  M.,  thaogh  mnoh  ezpoaed  to  windi 
from  the  aoath-west,  U  tne  most  in^poriaitt  on  the 


HAZBPPA,  Jak  CJobv'),  betman  of  the 
CoMaoka,  was  been  idMnt  1S45,  and  wm  deso«sided 
vi  a  poor  bnl  noble  family  of  Podolia.  He  became  a 
pagein  thenrrioeof  JohnOashiur,  kins  of  Pdaud. 
X  Foliah  noblemanj  having  soijprised  nim  in  ao 
intrinie  with  hie  wife,  oanaed  hnn  to  be  stripped 
nakd,  and  bound  npoii  his  own  hone,  Ijini  upon 
his  baok,  and  with  his  head  to  i(i  tail,  a^  sent 
tha  animal  o^  loving  M.  to  hii  fate.  The  hoita 
canied  him  to  his  own  distant  residnioe — not  to 
the  Dkiaine,  aa  haa  been  often  said ;  but  M.,  oat 
of  ihame.  Bed  to  the  Ukraine,  joined  the  Cosaaoka, 
and  by  hu  itrength,  oonraee,  and  aotivity,  rose  to 
high  dlatiuotion  amon^  them,  and  in  10S7  was 
elected  their  hetnuut.  He  won  tha  oonfldenoa  of 
Peter  the  Great,  who  loaded  him  with  htmonre, 
and  made  bim  Prinoe  of  the  Uknine ;  but  <m  the 
onrtailment  of  the  freedom  of  the  Cossacka  by 
Rnisia,  M.  oonoeived  the  idea  of  throwing  <£  the 


These  ud  other  treaaona  were  revealed  to  Peter 
the  Great,  who  did  not  credit  the  infonnanta  ;  but 
•ftenrards,  b^ng  coavinoad  of  M.'b  guilt,  caused  a 
nnmber  of  hia  aooomplioes  to  be  put  to  death.  M. 
joined  Charles  XIL,  and  took  part  in  the  batUe  of 
Pultowa,  after  which  he  Sed,  in  1709,  to  Bender, 
and  there  died  in  the  same  year.  Hi  a  story  has 
been  made  the  sabject  of  a  poem  by  Byron,  of  a 
novel  by  Bulgarin,  M  two  paintinra  by  Vemet,  and 
of  a  masterly  histoTtcal  work  by  Koitomaroff  (18S2), 
HAZU'BKA,  &  lively  Polish  duce  of  the 

Sique  kind,  the  mneio  of  which  is  sometimes  in 
e,  but  more  commonly  in  }.  The  peooliarity  of 
hythm,  which  has  a  pleasiiu;  effect,  ia  what 
chMBcterisea  the  mnsio  oi  the  Haznrka.  It  is 
danced  by  four  or  eight  pairs,  and  is  much  , 
in  tiie  north  of  Oermany,  as  well  as  in  Poland. 

HAZZA'BA,  a  city  of  the  island 

"       K)nth  of  '_.  .      . 
shore.    Fop.  13,000. 
ana  toM  a  cathedral,  i 
and  eeveral  convents. 
in    cotton,    which    is    extensively  grown   in   the 
neighboni^ood. 

MAZZABI'NO,  a  town  of  Sicily,  b  the  fertna 
province  of  Caltaniietta,  and  15  miles  aouth-eatt 
of  the  town  of  that  name.    Pop.  11,600. 

MAZZI1II,  OicsKPPK,  one  of  the  mo«t  Kmark- 
able  men  of  modem  Italy,  was  bom  in  1808  at 
Genoa,  his  father  being  a  physiciaa  of  note,  of 
■rood  private  meaDS._  In  youth,  U-  waa  noted  for 
the  warmlli  of  his  friendships,  the  Siity  of  hie  will, 
and  the  exaggerated  susceptibility  of  his  humane 
feeling!.  Frran  birth,  sentiments  of  social  equality 
were  engendered  in  him  by  the  exuaple  of  hii 
parents  ;  and  very  early  the  d^raded  political 
oondition  of  his  oonnfary  b^an  to  prey  npon  hia 
mind,  producing  ardent  aspiratimis  for  her  national 


nni^  and  delivenuice  from  foreign  domination, 
which  seemed  to  him  attainable  only  throuob  a 
return  to  the  repablican  gloriea  of  ancient  bmea. 
M.'b  patriotio  enthneiasm  speedily  gained  absolute 
sway  over  his  q>irit,  and  led  him  to  renonnoe  Ua 
cherished  idea  of  a  life  of  literature  and  contem- 
plative stody,  for  the  action  and  strife  of  the 
political  arena.  In  1627,  bis  maiden  enay  in 
liteistore,  'Dell'  Amor  Patario  di  Dante,'  ^ipored 
in  tlw  liberal  jonmal,  the  SvM^ao;  and  he  snbse- 
qnently  omtnbuted  critical,  literary,  and  political 
papera  to  the  Anlologia  of  florenoe  and  the  Indi- 
ealort  Qtnotete.   In  the  pages  of  this  latter  originally 

appeared  the  essay  sij " '-1--1--1  —.  =  ... 

t£e  title  of  SeriUi  if  un 
aooording  to  U.'s  own 
ployed  ^  the  liberal  ~ 
the  great      '    '  '^'^  - 


»d  ^  the  liberal  party  aolely  as  a  meant  for 
jreat  end  of  liberal  propagandism,  the  jouniaU 
esnofvessed,  and  the  writer*  disbanded.  InlSSOy 
affiliatioii  of  M.  to  the  seoiet  soatetr  of  the  Car- 
bonari waa  the  introdnctoty  step  to  nil  ptactioal 


connseli  and  n 


a  of  the  body.     Insnarnd  and 


ly- 
betnyed  by  a  PiedmonteM  ipy,  H. 
detained  ftu  ax  montlu  in  tiie  fortress  of  Savona, 

and  finally  liberated  on  condition  of  his  departors 
fr<Hn  Italy.  After  short  residences  in  several  places, 
he  took  up  his  abode  in  Mamille,  and  thence  he 
addressed  to  Charles  Albert  hii  fsmona  letter,  which 
drew  down  on  the  darinB  young  writer  a  decree  of 
perpetual  bauiahment.  The  organisation  of  a  new 
tib<xal  league,  '  Xoun^  Italy,'  was  M.'e  next  work. 
Bepublioan  and  unionist  to  the  core,  the  tendenciea 
of  this  great  body  were  more  hnmanitarian  and 
nniveraaf  than  ite  extinct  predeoessor,  Carbonarism. 
In  addition  to  the  paramonnt  aim  of  Italy's 
rejHiblican  union  mtder  one  common  law,  and  the 
extinction  of  for«ngn  rule,  tha  general  ptinciplee  of 
ttiU  new  association  enforced  tne  oniveisal  obliga. 
tion  to  labour  for  a  common  moral  regeneration, 
and  the  establishment  of  political  equality  over  the 
world.  Liber^,  equality,  and  fnananilu  were  the 
watchwords  of  tha  body ;  '  God  and  Qie  People ' 
their  motto ;  white,  red,  and  green  their  tricolored 
banner;  education  luid  insurrection  the  great 
agenciea  of  their  operations ;  aasaaainatioa  waa  erased 
from  their  dtatutea,  and  the  symbolic  dagger  of 
the  Carbonari  was  replaced  by  the  more  humans 
emblems  of  a  book  and  the  oyprtm.  M.  waa  the 
fniyii^fttnM  spirit  of  this  fomiidable  league,  which 
npeedily  enclosed  all  Europe  in  a  network  of 
Jimilat  aaso«utions,  modiGed  to  meet  the  individual 
reqoirements  of  the  various  European  nationalitiea. 
Banishment  from  Marseille,  in  consequence  of  the 
extensive  operations  of  the  society  having  been 
revesled  to  the  authorities,  compelled  M.  to  resiai 
to  oonoeslment  for  a  period  <n  several  montha. 
About  this  time,  a  charge  waa  brought  against 
him  of  advocating  assassination  as  a  legitunato 
weapon  in  the  wor^re  of  liberalism ;  but  the  charge 

iroved  in  the  public  tribunals  of  France  to 

se;  and  in  the  Britiah  pariiament  (1S45),  Sir 
James  Qraham  made  an  apology  to  M.  for  having 
ra.echoed  the  calumny.  The  fitst.frnitt  of  La 
Giovine  Italia  was  the  revolntdonary  expedition 
"  by  M.  at  Geneva,  bnt  which 
9  royal  txoope.  Sentence  of 
death,  par  cxiatumact,  was  recent  against  M.  in 
the  Sardinian  courts  for  bis  participation  in  tha 
afTair;  but  ho  soon  recommenced  with  increased 
vigour  his  rovulationarr  oparatianB.  A  new  aaso- 
dation,  entitled  *  New  Europe,'  and  based  on  prin- 
mplea  of  European  rights  and  enfranchisement,  was 
inaugurated  by  the  exertion*  of  M.  in  Switzerland. 
In  lB37i  M.  qiutted  Switzerland  for  England,  and 


ivCiOO^It! 


MEAD— BIEAL. 


finally  took  up  iin  abode  in  London.  From  thence, 
tii«  liLhnnm  in  the  Italian  revolntionar;  canse  have 
been  incensant.  To  trace  tlie  part  enacted  by  M. 
in  the  gi'eat  orisil  of  1648  votild  be  to  record 
the  hi«tonr  of  that  period,  ao  intimately  irere 
hia  indiTJdaal  acts  connected  with  the  course  of 
erenta.  The  reaolnte  oombatuit  of  partial  union 
and  monarchical  leadership  at  Milan,  M.  retired  to 
Switzeiiand  on  the  capitulation  of  Uilao  to  the 
Anetriana,  to  reappetU'  in  Florence  on  the  lising  of 
Tnacanj.and  finally  at  Bone,  where  he  waa  elated 
triumvir  amidat  the  triumphaJit  Tejoicinga  of  the 
cajntal  of  Italy.  His  tenai«  of  anptema  authority 
waa  marked  by  mch  wisdom,  moderation,  and 
Buccesa,  aa  to  elidt  a  public  tribute  of  approbation 
from  Lord  Palmenton.  On  the  Burrender  of  Rome 
by  M.'»  advice,  he  quitted  the  city,  and  proceeded 
to  LBOBBiuie  vid  Maraeille.  The  conduct  of  Franoe 
he  bitterly  stt«cked  in  public  letters  to  De  Tocque- 
Tille  and  othera.  He  Hubaoqueotly  returned  to 
London,  and  at  hie  instigation,  risingi  in  Milan 
(1863)  and  in  Piedmont  (1897)  were  attempted.  In 
18S9,  while  lending  thevhole  weight  of  hia  influence 
to  the  revolutionary  movementa  going  on  in  Italy, 
lie  combated  with  vigilant  foresight  the  threatened 
French  predominance,  and  refuted  to  accord  faith 
to  the  liberal  programme  of  Lonia  Napoleon.  The 
Siodian  expedition  of  I860  owed  as  mnch  to  tbs 
organisation  <^  M.  as  to  the  heroic  command  of 
Garibaldi  (q.v.).  In  1864,  he  was  expelled  from 
Switierland,  and  returned  aeain  to  England.    Next 

fear  he  waa  elected  by  Mewina  deputy  to  the 
balian  parliament ;  but  the  election,  to  which  he 
himself  aa  a  republican  woold  have  declined  to 
accede,  waa  cancelled  by  the  parliameat.  M.  is 
said  to  have  founded  in  1865  the  '  Univenal  Re- 
publican Alliance.'  In  1868,  he  fell  into  a  danger. 
ouB  illnwa,  from  Uie  effects  of  which  his  heidth 
never  recovered,  though  his  zeal  remained  ss  ardent 
aa  ever.  After  an  ineffective  scheme  for  a  republican 
rising,  M.  ventured  to  enter  Italy,  and  was  arretted 
at  Qaeta,  where  he  remained  a  prisoner  till  Borne 
was  taken  by  the  Italian  army.  Ha  condemned 
the  Parisian  Commune  of  March  1871.  On  his 
death  at  Pisa,  llth  March  1872.  the  Italian  govern- 
ment honoured  him  with  a  public  fuueroL 

M-'s  writings  are  various  and  extensive,  and 
include  dissertations  on  art,  literature,  and  musio. 
A  complete  edition  (Scritli,  £!dUi  e  Inedili)  waa  pub- 
lished in  1861  and  following  years.  Whatever  may 
be  thonght  of  M,'«  political  views,  few  will  refuse 
to  admire  the  ardeot  sincerity  of  his  patriotism,  or 
the  inflexibility  with  which  he  has  pursued  his  aim, 
unchecked  by  peraecation,  calumny,  and  defeat. 
M.  poaaesaed  in  the  highest  degree  that  personal 
fiscination  by  wliich  &iends  are  converted  into 
ardent  partiBant.  In  his  private  life,  ho  is  allowed 
to  have  been  a  model  of  purity  and  frii^  simplicity, 
as  in  his  pubbc  career  he  was  conspicuous  for  dia- 
interestedneas  and  self-abQegstioD  ;  and  to  these 
peisonal  virtues  of  M.,  aided  by  his  extraordinary 
iD&oeDce  and  eloquence,  those  who  know  Italy 
beet  ascribe  a  great  share  at  least  in  inspiring 
that  hif;her  tone  of  life  manifest  in  recent  years 
among  the  Italian  youth,  without  which  the  politi- 
oal  regeneration  of  the  country  would  have  been 
impoasible.  See  JTonotr,  by  £.  H.  ¥.  (London,  1874). 
MEAD,  a  fermented  liquor  mode  from  honey. 
The  honey  is  mixed  with  water,  and  fermeotation 
ii  induced  and  conducted  in  the  usual  manner. 
Cottagers  sometiniea  use  the  hooey  which  remains 
in  the  combe  after  the  usual  proceasea  of  dropping 
and  iqneeziiig,  for  "'Ung  mead,  which  is  a  thin  and 
very  brisk,  bat  at  the  same  time  luscious  beverage. 
Mead  faaa  been  in  nsa  from  very  ancient  times,  and 
waa  known   equally  to   the  polished   nationa    of 


Southern  Europe  and  the  baiboroas  tribes  of  more 
northern  regions.  Fliny  says  it  has  all  the  bad 
qualities  of  wine,  but  not  the  good  ones.  The  I^tin 
name  is  Hydronidi, 

MEADOW  GRASS  {Fca),  a  genus  ot  Qnssea, 
having  a  locee  Bpre«diiig  panicle,  tlie  s^elets 
nsnally  containing  a  number  of  florets,  and  with  two 
glumes  shorter  than  the  fiorets,  the  forets  each 
haviog  two  poleee,  which  are  blunlaah  and  awnless, 
Uie  fruit  free.  The  species  are  veir  nomerons, 
chiefly  natives  of  the  temperate  and  colder  parts  of 
the  world,  and  forming  m  these  a  very  important 
part  of  the  herbo^  of  pastures  and  me*aows.  Moat 
of  the  species  ore  of  a  slendor  and  delicate  appear- 
ance, with  small  spikdets  and  florets ;  and  the 
herbage  is  tender,  nntritiona,  and  rather  abundant. 
Of  the  British  spedea,  the  Rodob.staiabd  M. 
G.  {P.  to-niiafu)  and  tlie  SHooTB-mrAuxD  M. 
O.  [P.  pratemU)  are  among  the  most  common, 
and  are  esteemed  among  the  most  valoahle  for 
sowing  in  mixtures  of  grasses  for  posture. — Tba 
ABTSBiNlAn  M.  G.  (P.  Ab^a^ica),  an  annual  spedet, 
yields  immense  returns  of  herbage  in  its  native 
oonnby,  but  a  warmer  climate  than  that  of  Britain 
leems  to  be  reqoisite  for  its  suocessfnl  cultiva- 
tion. It  is  called  T<jf  in  Abyssinia,  and  its  seeds 
are  used  as  com  for  makjog  bread.  Beer  is  made 
by  putting  slices  of  this  bread  into  warm  water, 
the  temperature  of  which  is  kept  up  in  a  close 
vessel  for  some  days. — P.  annua  is  on  eitremely 
common  Britdsh  species,  springing  np  oontinually  as 
a  weed  in  cultivated  grounds,  and  abounding  on 
waysides  as  well  as  in  pastures,  It  is  often  to  be 
seen  in  flower,  even  in  winter,  and  in  summer  ia 
said  to  ripen  its  seeds  in  foar  or  five  weeks  from 
the  time  of  sowing.  It  is  employed  with  advan- 
tage for  sowing  on  greens  in  towns,  and  wherever 
frcon  any  cause  perennial  mssee  are  apt  to  be 
destroyed.  It  is  very  abundant  in  most  parts  of 
Europe,  and  Dr  Hooker  found  it  at  one  of  the  most 
elevated  passes  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains. — 
Manna  Grass  (q.  v.)  is  closely  allied,  to  tliis  genus. 

MEADOW  SAFFRON.    See  CouimCTM. 

MEADOWS,  a  term  somewhat  indefinitely 
appUed  te  moist  level  lands  covered  with  graas, 
which  is  usually  rich  in  consequence  of  the  moisture, 
and  often  also  from  advantages  of  soiL  The  grass 
is  either  used  for  pasture,  or  is  mown  and  carried 
away.  Water  Mtadoat  are  meadows  in  which  the 
supply  of  water  is  increased  and  r^ulated  by 
artificial  irrigation.  See  Irkioatioii.  The  herbage 
of  all  meadows  consists  generally  of  various  kinds 
of  grasses ;  meadow-grass,  lye-gracs,  timothy,  fox- 
tail, and  bent-grass  or  florin,  predominating, 

MEAL  (Sax.  mai,  a  part  or  portion  ;  Qer.  fRoAi), 


different  times  and  in  different  countries.  Among 
Uie  Greeks  and  Romans  of  the  classic  a^  it  was 
the  general  practice  to  have  the  principal  meal 
towards  evening,  a  light  meal  in  the  morning,  and 
another  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  The  akratiima, 
artMlon,  aud  deipnon  of  the  Greeks,  corresponded 
nearly  to  the  breakfast,  luncheon,  and  dinner  of  our 
own  country  at  the  present  time ;  the  first  was 
taken  immediately  after  rising  in  the  morning,  the 
second  about  mid-day,  and  the  ddpnon,  the  principal 
meal,  often  not  till  siter  sunset.  In  Rome  of  the 
Angustan  sge,  the  three  corresponding  meals  were 
jetuketdam,  praadium,  and  ertna.  The  two  former 
were  simple  and  hasty,  except  among  persons  of 
InxuriouB  habits,  with  whom  uie  mid-cEay  meal  was 
sometimet  of  an  elaborato  description.  The  at^a, 
taken  in  the  evening,  consisted  of  three  courses, 
with  often  a  great  variety  of  viaads.     Reclining 

I  I  =»  Google  ■ 


UEAL— MEASLES. 


ooiMWoiully  tiiree,  leolmed  oa  one  coach.    Before 
gnert  took  hia  [dace  at  table,  hia  aboes  were  taken 
off,  and  hia  feet  waahed  by  an  attendant. 

In  madiend  and  modem  Europe,  the.  prevailing 
practice,  down  nearly  to  the  middle  of  last  centiuy, 
waa  to  have  three  meali  in  the  day,  the  mid'day,  and 
not  the  eveoinA  meal,  lieing  the  principal  one.  The 
habita  of  all  cla^aee  were  early ;  four  waa  a  Olual 
honr  for  riling,  and  Hve  for  breakfoit.    Twelve  wM 

down  to  Queen  Elizabeth's  time  for  every  table, 
from  that  of  the  twenty-ahilling  freeholder,  to  the 
table  in  the  baron's  ball  and  abbey  refectory,  to 
be  open  to  oU-comen,  with  free  fare,  bread,  beef 
and  beer.  Supper  followed  iu  the  evening,  a  le« 
abundant  repetitiaa  of  dinner.  In  the  course  of  the 
last  120  yeaiB,  a  revolutioo  bsa  been  going  ou  in  the 
hour  of  dinner,  which  has  gradually  got  later  till 
it  hai  reached  the  present  usage  of  from  eii  to 
eight  in  the  evening  among  the  more  cultivated 
daasea.  The  introdaction  of  tea  and  coffee  haa,  to 
a  certain  extent,  changed  oar  habita  as  regai-da 
meals.  They  form  an  eaaential  part  of  our  brealc- 
faat,  which  is  later  than  that  of  our  anceators,  from 
nine  to  t«n.  The  meal  called  tea  is  but  a  port  of 
dinner,  and  aupper,  ai  a  regular  meal,  has  nearly 
disappeared.  A  tight  meal,  t^ed  loncheon,  is  often 
taken  between  breakfast  and  dinner.  Our  dinner 
has  therefore  come  nearly  to  correspond  with  the 
■upper  of  our  ancestors.  This  change  of  hours 
baa  brought  with  it  one  important  change  to  the 
better  in  social  habita ;  the  excessive  drinking,  so 
common  during  the  Geornon  era,  even  among 
people  of  refinement  hat  diaappewed ;  the  long 
carouHtla  of  that  period  have  been  abridged  to  an 
hour,  or  half  an  hour,  spent  over  wine  after  dinner. 
In  Britain,  dinner  is,  more  than  anywhero  else, 
made  a  sodal  meal,  and  an  occasion  of  meeting 
one's  friends ;  and  public  dinners,  with  toasts  and 
after-dinner  speechea,are  a  characteristically  British 
mode  of  oelebmting  any  public  event  or  anmversaiy. 
In  France  and  Italy,  the  gradual  advance  of  the 
dinner-hour  has  not  proceeded  further  than  four  or 
five  o'clock.  In  Clermany,  the  usage  still  obtains, 
to  a  large  extent,  of  on  early  dinner  and  •  sapper. 
One  o'clock  is  a  usual  dinner-hour,  and  even  the 
court  hour  has  hardly  advanced  beyond  throe  and 
four.  In  Vienna,  and  acme  other  parta  of  Ger- 
many, it  is  not  unoommon  t^i  have  five  meals  a  day 
— breakfast,  Inncheon,  dinner,  tea,  and  anppei. 

MEAL.    See  Bread. 

HEAL-WOBH,  the  larva  of  Tenebrio  molUor,  a 


odeoptcrooa  insect  of  a  eenns  allied  to  Slapt  (q.  . ... 
but  poMnsing  winga  and  wing-cover*.    Hie  pierfect 


about  half  an  inch  long,  with  short  Il-jmntad 
.  and  stout  legs.  It  is  a  common  iiueot  in 
Britain,  most  active  in  the  evening,  abounding  in 
granaries,  mills,  and  houses  in  which  considerable 
stores  of  meal  or  flour  are  kept ;  as  its  eggs  are 
deposited  among  these  substances,  on  wh^  tiie 
larva  feeds,  often  doing  considerable  injnry.  Stores 
of  ahip-biscoit  often  suffer  from  this  cause.  The 
larva  la  about  'On  inch  long,  thin  and  round,  of 
an  ochreous  colour,  witli  bnght  ms^  bands,  veiy 
smooth  and  glossy,  with  six  small  feet,  and  two 
very  short  antennai. — Another  species,  T.  obwurus, 
has  been  introduoed  with  American  flour,  and  has 
become  pretty  common  in  some  paria  of  Britain. 
The  insect  is  of  a  dull  bUck  colour  above ;  the 
under  parts,  legs,  and  antennie,  chestnut.  The  larva 
"  shining  and  pale  hrewn.^Dleanlines8  and  caro 
B  the  best  nreventivea  of  these  peats.  Mekl- 
inns  are  a  uvourite  and  excellent  food  of  caged 
nightingales. 

MBAIiY  BTTO  ICoeau  adoi^dam.),  ta  Insect 
naturalised  in  onr  hothonsea,  and  very  injurious  to 
pine-applea  and  other  plonta  It  is  reddish,  and 
covered  wit^   a  white   powdery  snbstance.      See 

MEAIT,  in  Mathematics,  is  a  term  interpolated 
between  two  terms  of  a  series,  and  consequently 
intermediate  in  magnitude.  The  Oeom^rie  Mean 
(q.  V.)  of  two  numbers  is  always  leas  than  their.Jril&- 
melie  Mean  (q.  v.),  and  great^  than  their  HarTBome 
Mean ;  and  the  geometric  mean  is  itself  a  geo- 
~~etrio  mean  between  the  two  other  'means.' 

MBABNa    See  EiHtuanOfmHiKt. 

HBASLES  (known  also  as  Edbeoli  and  Mob- 
[LLi)  is  one  of  the  groap  of  blood-diseases  termed 
&carUietnala{<i.  v.), although,  from  the  eruption  which 
appears  on  1^  surface  of  the  body,  it  is  sometimes 
classed  with  the  skin-diseases.  It  is  commnnicabla 
from  person  to  person,  and  seldom  occurs  mora  than 
once  m  the  same  individuaL  Its  period  of  incuba- 
tion— that  is  to  say,  ths  time  that  elapses  between 
exposure  to  the  contagion  and  the  first  appearance 
of  the  febrile  symptoms  which  precede  the  eruption 
— is  usually  about  a  fortnighti  then  come  lassitude 
and  shivering,  which  are  soon  followed  by  heat  of 
skin,  increased  rapidity  of  the  pulse,  loss  of  appetite^ 
and  thirst.  The  respiratory  mucous  memuane  is 
also  affected,  and  the  symptoms  are  very  much  the 
aame  as  those  of  a  severe  cold  in  the  head,  accom- 
panied with  a  dry  cough,  a  slight  sore  throat,  and 
aometimes  tightness  of  the  chest. 

The  eruption  which  is  characteristic  of  the  dis- 
ease usually  appears  upon  the  fourth  day  from  the 
commencement  of  the  febrile  symptoms  and  the 
catarrh — seldom  earlier,  but  not  onfrequently  tome 
davB  later.  It  is  a  rash,  consisting  at  first  ot  minnte 
red  papula,  which,  as  they  multiply,  coalesce  into 

■■--   -stches.      It  is  two  or  three  days   in 

bwinning  on  the  faoe  and  neck,  and 
aveDing  downwards.  The  rash  fades 
order  as  it  occura  ;  and  as.  it  bt^ina  to 
decline  three  days  after  its  appearance,  its  whole 
dnration  is  about  a  week,  llie  red  colour  gives 
way  to  a  somewhat  yeUowish  tint,  and  the  cuticle 
crumbles  away  in  a  fine  bran-like  powder ;  the  pro- 
ceea  being  often  attended  with  considerable  itching. 

There  are  two  important  points  in  wbidi  it  differs 
from  Smallpox  (q.  v.),  with  which  in  its  eariy  stage 
it  may  be  confounded :  these  are — 1.  That  the  fever 
does  not  cease  or  even  abate  when  ths  eruption 
appeals,  but  sometimes  increases  in  intensity ;  and 
(2),  that  the  disease  is  not  more  ■evars  or  mora 
dangerous  because  the  eruption  is  plentiful  or  early. 
The  character  of  tite  eruption,  after  the  first  day, 
will  terve  to  remove  all  doubt  regarding  theae  two 


hGoog[( 


MZASKEB— MECCA. 


rtinnum  ;  and  the  oompuatiTe  preralence  of  eitim 
tIwimih  in  tka  nsighboarliood  wiU  nutorully  Msiit  in 
forming  the  diagnoslB.  It  ii  distiiigtiiwicd  Emn 
Soarlat  fvnr  (q.  v.)  or  aurlAtina,  ()),  by  the  pre> 
■enoe  at  the  ontaet  of  caUirhal  iiymptoiii*,  whioh  do 
not  ooenr  in  the  latter  diaaue,  at  any  nie,  prior  to 
Uu  crnption ;  (3),  by  the  abaenoe  of  tha  throat- 
•fleetioD,  wbiob  alway*  acoompuuM  well-marked 
CM«a  of  icariBt  fsrer ;  (3),  bv  Cba  character  of  ttia 
nnh,  irbiob  in  meaala  is  aajd  to  prgeent  lomawhat 
the  tint  of  the  rupben?,  and  in  aoarlet  fsro',  that 
of  a  boiled  lobster ;  which  in  meaalea  appean  in 
oreioentia  patches,  and  in  scarlet  fever  ia  nniTenolly 
diSdaed ;  which  in  meaelea  uioally  appean  on  the 
fourth  ^;,  and  in  loaiiet  terar  <hi  the  aaoood  day 
of  tha  rtiifanit 

In  ordinary  nnDomplicated  meaalea,  the  prognoBi 
U  ahnoat  always  faTourable.     The  obM  dnngec  is 
"        *  of  the  textnrei  that 


compote  the  Innga;  and  in  acmifnloiu  childnti,  it 
often  leaTea  chrc«ic  [nlmonary  mischief  behind  it. 
No  age  ii  exempt  frcnn  tbe  disease,  bat  it  is  mnch 
more  oonunon  in  childhood  tJum  labseqaently.  The 
reason  probablj  U  that  most  persona  have  it  in 
early  life,  and  an  Urns  protected  from  an  attack  at 
ali^peHod. 

In  imld  fomu  of  the  disease,  nothing  mors  is 
requisite  than  to  keep  the  patient  on  a  low  diet, 
attend  to  the  state  of  the  bowels,  and  prevent  ezpo- 
anre  to  cold,  which  is  best  accomplished  by  keepmg 
him  in  bed  with  the  ordinaiy  warmth  to  which  he 
is  accustomed  in  health.  If  the  oheet-symptoms 
became  argent,  they  must  be  treated  aooordmg  to 
tiieir  nature.  Bronchitos  (q.  v.),  sometimes  extend- 
ing into  Pneumonia  (q.  v.),  is  most  to  be  feared. 


required,  but  mnat,  ol  ooorae,  <mly  be  given  by 
the  advice  of  the  physician.  The  patient  must  be 
carefully  protected  from  ezposnre  to  oold  for  a  week 
or  two  after  the  diaeaae  has  apparently  disappeu«d, 
as  t^e  lungs  and  muooos  coat  of  the  bowels  are  for 
some  tune  very  snBaeptible  to  inflammatory  attacks. 
HEASnUE,  in  Music,  is  a  term  applied  to  the 
qnantit?  of  notes  which  are  placed  in  the  bar,  and 
which  u  generally  called  the  time,  of  which  there 
are  bat  two  kinds,  viz.,  oonunon  time^  containing  on 
equal  quantity  of  notes  in  the  bar,  and  triple  tmie, 

generally  marked  with  a  C  at  the  beginning,  which 
means  that  every  bar  oontaina  foor  crob^to,  or 
their  vahie  in  other  notes.  There  ore  also  other 
kinds  of  oonmion  time,  which  ore  marked  ),  |,  J. 
Tnpk  tame  is  marked  |,  {,  },  f,  f  Sometimes,  in 
eoDunontim^ wehave  V- V-  ^e lower  figore indi- 
cates the  parts  of  the  Bemibreve,  and  the  ujiper  £eure 
shews  how  many  of  theee  ports  there  are  m  the  oar. 


HEATH,  a  maritime  oounty  of  the  province  of 
Leiiuter,  Ireland,  bounded  on  Uie  east  by  the  Irish 
Sea  and  the  ooonty  of  Dublin ;  area,  906  sqaare 
milea,  or  58O,0S3  acres,  of  which  547,391  are  arable, 
about  30,000  waste,  bo^  Ac.  Pop.  (1851)  140,748; 
(1861)  110,675;  (1871)  00,658;  (1^1)  87,469,  of 
whom  80,686  are  Roman  Catholics,  6198  Protestant 
E^>iBC<^>alians.  The  number  of  children  attending 
the  national  aohoola  in  1880  was  17,866.  The 
soil  is  a  rich  loam,  and  extremely  fertile;  but  it 
has  long  been  devoted  inmost  entirely  to  pasture ; 
the  total  extent  ondcr  crops  in  1S60  being  only 
138,169  acres.  In  the  same  year,  the  cattle 
amoonted  to  161,701,  the  sheep  to  174,67%  and  the 

pigs  to  9691.    The  surface  is  for  the  most  part  a: 

dmating  level,  forming  the  eastern  extremity  o_  . 
great  limeatone  plain  of  Ireland  and  rising  slightly 


towards  t^  nortli  and  nortli-weert.    No 

ly  importance  ore  found.  The  duef  riven  are 
the  Boyne  and  Blaekwater.  Hie  principal  town* 
Tnm,  Kavan,  and  Eells,  in  the  first  of  which 
■nizea  are  hdd.  M.  pcaasBsa  abondaot  BMana 
of  conmianication,  being  intersected  by  nanerons 
roads  and  several  rainrays,  also  by  the  Boyal 
Canal.  The  coast-line,  about  10  milea,  baa  no 
port  of  importance,  even  as  a  tiehing-station.  Hie 
oocapation  of  the  people  is  almost  iriwUy  agri' 
culturaL  Anciently,  M.,  which  ineltlded  Weot 
Meat^  and  probably  portions  of  several  other  adja- 
cent coontiee,  formed  one  of  the  kingdoms  into 
which  Ireland  was  divided,  the  royal  seat  being 
the  celebrated  Temor  or  '  Tara  of  the  Kings,'  the 
scene  of  the  first  preaching  of  Christianity  under 
St  Patiick.  After  the  English  invasion,  H.  wm 
early  occupied  by  Stro^bow,  and  was  erected  into 
a  coan^  palatine  by  Henry  IL,  who  conferred  it 
on  Hngh  de  Lacy.  From  this  time  forward,  it  was 
the  scene  of  many  conflicts.  In  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Hen^  VIIL,  it  was  separated  into  list 
and  West  Meath.  Few  Irish  oountiea  present 
BO  many  interesting  relics  of  Irish  antiqmties  of 
all  the  various  pmiods.  Celtio  remains  atmond 
along  the  Boyne  and  Blaekwater.  The  earthworiu 
of  tlia  ancient  roval  seat  at  Tara  are  still  disoemible, 
valuable  and  highly  characteristic  gold 
were  there  discovered.  John's  castle  at 
Trim  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  moniuoenta  of 
Ensjlish  rule  in  Ireland.  The  roand  tow«c  and 
sciUptnred  crosses  of  Eells  are  singalarly  interesting ; 
Bod  almost  eveiy  polish  in  the  oonnty  contains 

some  relic  of  the  feudal  or  oooleui 

which  formerly  covered  the  land- 
members  to  parliament. 

MEAUZ,  a  town  of  France,  in  tlis  department 
of  Seine-et-Mame,  on  the  river  Mome,  26  miles 

■       '  "     ■         '■    ■  "  '     n'a  «.    .n4 


east-north-ei 


:  of  Paris.    It  ii 


Oothio 


its  cathedral,  begun  in  tha  lltb  c,  is  a  ni^  6 
stractarst  BcMoet^  the  fanoos  preacher,  ..  __ 
bishop  liere^  and  ia  btuied  in  the  choir.  Corn  and 
floor  Iran  tiie  water-mills  on  tlie  Maine  are  sent  to 
Paris  in  laijta  qoantitiM,  andthei«  ate  manofaetoras 
of  cotton  md  other  cloOu,  pottery,  leather,  Balt> 
petK,  Ac    Pop.  (1881)  12,625. 

ME'CCA  (Ob*  Al  Kara,  Mother  of  Cities),  one 
of  the  oldest  towns  of  Aralna,  the  capital  of  the 
provinoeof  Hedjax,  and,  tlinnigh  being  the  birthplace 
of  Mohammed,  the  central  and  most  holy  city  in  all 
Islam.  It  is  sitnated  in  21°  30'  N.  latL,  and  40*  8'  E. 
long.,  24€  miles  south  of  Medina,  and  about  65  milea 
east  of  Jiddoh,  the  well-known  port  on  the  Red  Sea, 
in  a  narrow,  barren  valley,  sorrounded  by  bare  hills 
and  sandy  plains,  and  watered  by  the  brook  Wadi- 
Al-Tarafeyn.  The  city  is  about  1600  paces  long, 
and  about  6S0  brood,  and  is  divided  into  the  Upper 
and  Lower  City,  with  about  26  chief  qoartera.  The 
streets  are  bnukd  and  rather  regular,  bat  anpavad ; 
excessively  dos^  in  summer,  and  muddy  m  the 
rainy  season.  The  hoosea,  three  or  fonr  stcoiea 
high,  are  built  of  brick  or  stone,  ornamented  with 
paintings,  and  their  windows  open  on  the  streets. 
The  rooms  ore  much  mora  handsomely  fanned, 
and  altogether  in  a  better  atate  than  is  usoal  in 
the  East ;  the  inhabitants  of  M.  *"*ki'^g  their 
living  chiefly  by  letting  them  to  the  pilgrims  (see 
PUjj)  who  flock  hither  to  visit  the  Beit  Ullah 
(House  of  Ood),  or  chief 
Ka4ba  (q.  v.)      " 

about  36,000  .  .  ,         „ 

mmnonnted  by  seven  minarets,  and  contains  several 
rows  of  isllar*,  about  20  feet  high,  and  abaat  IS 
inobes  in  diameter,  of  maibl^  granite,  porphyty. 


1),  or  chief  mosque,  ooatainlnz  tha 

This  mosque,  capable  of  holding 

Mnona,  ia  surroonded  by  19  gatea 


wGuu^Il' 


MECEAMOAI.  FOWBBS;  UACHINES— MECHAjnca 


L 


■re  mrmoanted  by  mimll  domes.  A  gi'Mt  nniaber  of 
,  people  an  attaohcd  to  the  moaqiie  in  eome  kind  of 
eccleaiaatical  oapadtf ,  u  kntibt,  muftia,  mneddioi, 
&a.  No  other  publio  plue  or  building,  wcred  or 
pro&ne,  of  uiy  importuica,  ia  to  b«  fonnd  '  " 
citTi  'whi<di  abo  is  singobrly  dentate  o 
and  Terdnre  of  any  kind.  It  u  protected  by  three 
castellated  bnildiags,  and  i«  governed  by  a  aheril 
The  population  has,  in  cooaeqnence  ol  the  rapidly 
decreasing  number  of  pilgrima,  foUen  oS  conr'  ■'  ~~ 
ably  of  lat«,  from  above  100,000  to  hardly  « 
who  do  not  find  the  100,000  *"niiltl  [olgnnu 
dent  to  keep  tham  in  the  etate  of  prosperity  of 
former  yean,  The  trade  and  oommerce  of  M. 
hardly  deserve  mention;  the  ohief  ardclee  mann- 
factured  tfaere  are  chaplets  for  the  pious  pilgrima, 
The  townapeople  themselves  are  lively,  poQshed, 
and  frivolaoB,  and  growing  up  amid  an  mimeaaa 
coDconr»e  of  itrangers  from  all  ports  of  Asia,  are 
senerally  able  to  convene  in  three  or  four  eaatem 
ungnagea.  Respecting  the  history  of  M.,  it  was 
known  to  Ptolemy  already  as  Maooraba,  and  first 
belonged  to  the  tribe  of  die  Kosaite^  later  to  the 
Eoreiah.  Mohammed,  who  had  been  obliged  to 
leave  it  pt«cipitate1y  (aee  Hbdjuaji)  in  632,  returned 
to  it  and  conqaered  it  in  627.  Within  the  coorae  of 
the  present  ceatiuy,  M.  was  taken  by  the  Wahabites 
(ia03),  but  eiven  up  twain  to  the  Faaha  of  Egypt, 
Mehuned  All  (1S33)  whose  son,  Ibrahim,  was  nu^e 
SheikELEaram— 'of  the  Sacred  Phue.'  Atpreeent, 
however,  M.  is  directiy  dependent  on  the  sultan. — A 
certaia  balm,  called  &lm  of  Mecca,  ia  made  from  a 
plant  which  grows  in  abuedance  in  the  neighbour- 
hood  of  the  city,  called  Bttem. 

MECHA'NIOAL  POWBBS  — MAOHITIES. 
Machines  are  initroments  Inteipoaed  between  the 
moving  power  and  the  teastance,  with  a  view  of 
changing  the  dii«ction  of  the  force,  or  otherwise 
modiiyiag  it  Machines  are  of  various  degreai  of 
complexity ;  bat  the  simple  parts,  or  elements  of 
which  they  are  all  composed,  are  reducible  to  a 
very  few.  These  elementery  machines  are  called  the 
MxcaajnoAL  Powsbs,  and  are  usually  reckoned  as 
six  in  number,  three  being  primary — viz.,  the  lener, 
inclined  plant,  kaipuiley;  and  three  secondary,  or 
derived  from  the  others — vil,  the  tulied-rma-axle 
(derived  from  the  Isvar),  the  toedge,  and  the  stj^ew 
(both  derived  from  the  inclined  plane).  To  these 
some  add  tootlted- wheels.  What  is  special  to  eadi 
machine,  will  be  found  under  its  name ;  a  few 
observations  uplicabla  to  all  may  appropriately  be 
made  here.  1.  In  treating  of  the  theory  of  the  lever 
and  other  mechanical  powers,  the  question  really 
examined  is,  not  what  power  is  necessary  to  move 
a  certain  weight,  but  what  power  is  necessary  to 
balance  it ;  what  force  at  P,  for  instance  (see  Leteb, 
fig.  1),  will  just  keep  W  suspended.  This  once  done, 
it  ia  obvious  that  the  least  additional  force  to  P  will 
•office  to  begin  motion.  2.  In  pure  theoretical 
meahanicB,  it  is  aasomed  that  the  machinea  are 
withont  weight  A  lever,  foe  instance,  is  »uppo«ed 
to  be  a  mere  rigid  line ;  it  is  also  supposed  to  be 
perftcdy  rigid,  not  bacding  or  altering  its  form 
nnder  any  pressure.  The  motion  of  the  machine  is 
also  supposed  to  be  withont  friction.  In  practical 
mechanics,  the  weicht  of  the  maohine,  the  yielding 
of  ita  parts,  and  the  resistanoe  of  friction,  have  to 
be  taken  into  acoonnt  3.  When  the  effect  of  a 
machine  is  to  make  a  force 
greater  than  itself,  it  is  said 
advantagt,  A  mucbine,  however,  never  actually 
increases  power — for  that  would  be  to  create  woric 
or  energy,  a  thing  now-  known  to  be  as  impossible 
as  to  create  matter.  What  ii  gained  in  one  way 
by  a  maehine  is  always  lost  in  another.  One  ponnd 
at  tiie  long  end  of  a  lever  will  lift  ten  ponnds  at 


the  short  end,  it  the  arms  are  ri^tly  proportioaed  i 

but  to  lift  the  ten  ponnds  through  oiLe  foot,  it  mnib 
desoend  ten  feet  The  two  weights,  when  thn*  in 
motion,  have  e^ual  momenta ;  the  moving  maM 
moltiplied  into  its  velocity,  is  eqnal  to  the  rodattng 
mass  multiplied  into  its  velocity.  When  the  lever 
seems  to  multiply  force,  it  only  concentrates  or 
ooonmulates  the  exertions  of  the  iatoa,  T!tm 
descending  one-pound  weight,  in  the  case  above 
supposed,  may  be  conceivea  as  making  ten  distinct 
exertions  of  its  force,  each  tiirou^  a  space  of  a  foot ; 
and  all  these  are  concentrated  m  the  nusing  of  tiM 
ten-pound  weicht  through  one  foot  The  principle 
thus  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  lever  holds  good 
of  all  the  other  mechanical  powers.  4.  The  object 
of  a  machine  is  not  always  to  increaae  force  or  pres- 
sure ;  it  ia  as  often  to  «un  velocity  at  the  expense 
of  force.  See  Lbtbr.  In  a  spinning-factory,  e.  K-> 
the  object  of  the  train  of  machinery  is  to  diatribiAe 
the  slowly  working  force  of  a  powerful  water-wheel, 
or  other  prime  mover,  among  a  multitude  of  ter< 
minal  parts  moving  rapidly,  but  having  little  resist- 
ance to  overcome,  o.  The  meohani^  advantu;e 
of  a  compound  machine  is  theoretically  equal  to  t£e 
product  of  the  separate  mechanical  advantages  of 
the  simple  machines  composing  it ;  but  in  applying 
machines  to  do  work,  allowance  most  be  made  for 
the  inertia  of  the  materials  oomposiag  them,  the 
&exnre  of  parts  subjected  to  strains,  ana  the  friction 
which  inoreases  rapidly  with  the  complexity  of  the 
ports;  and  these  considerations  moke  it  dssiroble 
that  a  machine  should  consist  of  as  few  part>  as  are 
consistent  with  the  work  it  has  to  do.  6.  The 
forces  or  '  Moving  Powers '  by  which  machines  are 
driven,  are  the  muscular  strength  of  men  and 
""'"ifl'i  wind,  woter,  electrical  and  moenetio  attrao- 
tions,  steam,  ka. ;  and  the  grand  object  in  the 
coQstruotion  of  machines  is,  now,  with  a  given 
amount  of  impelling  power,  to  get  the  ereatast 
amount  of  work  of  the  kind  required.  See  WoBS, 
FooT-FOiTin).  This  gives  rise  to  a  multitude  of 
problems,  some  more  or  lua  general,  others  relating 
more  eai)ecially  to  particulor  caaea—problema,  the 
investigation  of  which  constitutes  the  science  of 
Applied  Mechanics.  One  of  the  queations  of  most 
general  application  ia  the  following :  If  the  resistanoe 
to  a  machine  were  gradually  nduced  to  zero,  its 
velocity  would  be  constontly  accelerated  until  it 
attained  a  mnirimiiiii,  wbich  would  be  when  the 
point  to  which  the  impelling  force  ia  applied  waa 
moving  at  the  same  rate  as  the  imptumig  force 
itself  {a.  g.,  the  piston-rod  of  a  steam-engine)  would 
move  if  unresisted.  If,  on  the  other  hani^  the  resist- 
once  were  increased  to  a  certain  point  tho  machine 
would  come  to  a  stand.  Now  the  problem  is,  between 
these  two  extremes  to  find  the  rate  at  which  the 
greatwt  effect  or  amount  of  work  is  pit  from  the 
same  omount  of  driving  power.  The  inveetigatiDn 
would  be  out  of  place  here,  but  the  result  ia,  that 
the  greoteat  effect  is  produced  when  the  velodty  of 
the  point  of  opplicotion  is  one-third  of  the  marimnm 
velocity  above  spoken  of.  The  movins  force  and 
the  reaiatanoe  should  therefore  be  so  adjusted  as  to 
''  uce  this  velocity. 
_  .EOSAKICS  is  the  sdence  which  treats  of  the 
nature  of  forces  and  of  their  action  on  bodies,  either 
directly  or  by  the  agency  of  machinery.  The  nature 
of  force  will  be  found  treated  of  under  FoRCX,  The 
action  of  forces  on  bodies  may  be  in  the  form  of 
pressure  or  of  impulse,  and  may  or  may  not  produce 
motion.  When  the  forces  are  so  balanced  aa  to 
preserve  the  body  affected  by  them  in  a  state  of 
equilibrium,  their  actions  are  investigated  in  that 
branch  of  mechanics  called  STa.Tiog  (q. v.);  when 
motion  i*  poduced,  they  are  considered  under 
the  head  of  DlMAiaca  (q.v,),  or  Kinttia.     The 


V;ClOOg[( 


UECHITABIST8— HECELENBUBO-SOU  W  EKIN. 


•qmlibrinin  Mid  motioii  of  floids  (uidudins  liqnidi 

md  gaaes)  U  trentad  in  the  >Qbor<!mate  branchea 
oi  HiTDROBTArrra  and  HifCBODTNAjncB ;  though  the 
ipecU]  term*  AKHOffriTrca  and  Abrodttamics  (for 
which  the  comprehensive  term  Pneumatics  ib  often 
used)  are  sometimea  employed  to  designate  those 
portions  of  the  science  of  mechanics  in  which  the 
action  oE  jgoaeooi  bodies  i>  treated  of. 

The  science  of  mechanics  owes  very  Uttle  to  the 
ancient  philosophers.  They  were  acquunted  with  the 
conditions  of  equilibrium  on  tlie  lever — diacavered 
hv  Archimedes — and  had  reduced  the  theory  of  all 
the  mechanical  powers,  except  the  pulley  uid  the 
inclined  plane  and  Its  derivatives,  to  that  of  the 
lever,  but  this  was  nearly  alL  Archimedes,  start- 
ing horn  the  principle  of^  cquilibiium  on  the  lever, 
strack  out  the  idea  of  a  centre  of  gravity  for  every 
body,  (md  investigated  the  position  of  that  point 
for  the  triaugle,  paraboU,  and  paraboloid.  Till 
the  16tb  c,  the  gciencs  remained  stationary.  Cardan, 
the  Marquis  IJbaldi,  and  Stevinna — who  vas  the 
first  to  cive  the  correct  theory  of  equilibrium  on  the 
leJl'  ■■  *        ■■  '■   ■ 

■ion  of   mechanical 
formulas,  discovered 

of  falling  bodies,  and  originated  investigati 
cerning  Uie  strength  of  materials,  placed  the  science 
on  a  broad  and  substantial  basis.  Toriicelli,  Des- 
cartes, Paaoal,  Fermat,  Roberval,  and  Huyghens,  on 
the  continent,  and  Wallis  and  Wren  in  England — the 
last  three  of  whom  simultaneously  discovered  the 
laws  which  regulate  the  collision  of  bodies — added 
each  his  quota  to  the  rnio  Kience,  as  mechanics 
was  then  called.  In  16S7,  appeared  Newton's 
Prindpia,  in  which  the  complete  experimental  basis 
ol  the  subject  was  first  laid  down  in  a  satisfac- 
toiy  manuer,  and  the  mechanical  principles  which 
bod  before  been  considered  to  act  only  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  were  shewn  to  rule  and  direct  the 
motions  of  the  planeta.  Contemporary  with  New- 
ton were  Leibnitz,  and  the  two  elder  Bemouillie, 
James  and  John,  who,  besides  contributing  greatly 
to  the  advancement  of  the  science,  apphed  to  it 
the  newly-invented  differential  calcnlus,  which  was 
found  to  be  a  weapon  of  immense  power.     From 


have  prosecuted  the  study  of  tJieoretical  mechanics, 
or  of  subjects  connected  with  it.  The  chief  names 
are  Daniel  Bemouilli,  Euler,  D'Alembert,  Clairant, 
Lagrange,  Laplace.  Lagrange's  Mfcaniqat  Aaaiy- 
tique  not  only  Bystematised  the  subject,  but  enor- 
inoualy  increased  its  power  and  the  range  of  its 
applications.  The  last  great  additions  to  the  science 
Are  thoea  made  by  Sir  W.  E.  Hamilton  (q.  v.)  under 
the  name  of  the  principle  of  Varymg  Aelioji.  The 
developments  which  this  has  received  from  Jacobi, 
Boole,  Caylcy,  liouville,  Donkin,  Boor,  &c,  form 
an  extensive  aad  difficult  branch  of  applied  mnthe- 
maticB,  chiefly  of  the  theory  of  gimoltaneous  differ- 
entjal  equations. 

UECHITABI3T3,  a  congregation  of  Armenian 
Christians,  who  reside  on  the  island  of  Son  I^zaio  at 
Venice,  but  who  have  also  obtained  a  footing  in 
France,  Austria,  Turkey,  Boasia,  4c.  They  derive 
their  name  from  MFCHiTiR  (i.  e,,  the  Comforter) 
BA  Pftbo  (bom  1676,  died  1749),  who,  in  1701, 
founded  at  Constantinople  a  religious  society  for 
the  purpose  of  diffusing  a  knowledge  of  the  old 
Armenian  language  and  literature.  Subsequently, 
the  M.  removed  to  the  Morea,  and  thence,  on  the 
conquest  of  that  portion  of  Greece  by  the  Turks 
in  1716,  to  Son  Lazaro,  which  was  granted  to  them 
by  the  VeneHan  government— The  M.  acknow- 
ledge the  supremacy  of  the  Bomaa  pontiff.  Their 
most   useful    occupation    is    printing   the   clas^ 


writings  of  Armenian  literature ;  their  editions  ar« 
univeiBally  admitted  to  be  the  best  and  most 
correct.  They  also  issue  a  joumof,  which  is  much 
read  thron^out  the  Levant. — Compare  Bon6,  Z« 
Concent  de  Sl-Ltaare  d  Vauie,  on  ffitUnrt  mceiiKU 
de  rOrdn  da  JffcAitaruCei  Armtnient  (Paris,  1837). 
HECHLIN.    Se«MAUirB. 


ME'CKLENBFKG-SOHWERI'N,  a  grand 

duchy  of  Northern  Germany,  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  the  Baltic,  K  by  Pomeronia,  S.  by  Branden- 
burg, and  W.  by  Lauenbnrg.  'The  area  is  about 
6136  square  miles,  and  the  pop.  (1S30)  677,055. 
M.-Sch»crin  is  watered  by  several  rivera,  tie  most 
important  of  which  are  the  Elbe  and  the  War- 
now,  and  has  a  ereat  many  lakes  and  ponds,  yield- 
ing an  abundant  supply  of  flsh.  The  country  is 
generally  flat,  ilthougb  here  and  there  intersected 
b^  low  ranges  of  hills,  and  its  surface  is  still  exten- 
sively covered  with  wood,  notwithstanding  the 
great  clearings  which  have  been  mode  in  the 
forests  during  the  present  century.  Near  tie  sea, 
tracts  of  fsand  and  morass  cover  large  areas ;  but 
on  the  whole,  the  soil  is  of  a  good  quality,  and  well 
adapted  for  the  growth  of  com,  or  the  rearing  of 
cattle,  which  constitute  the  principal  native  industry. 
There  is  considerable  commerce  tlirough  Wame- 
mOnde  (Bostock)  and  Wismar ;  there  were  in  187S, 
belonging  to  the  two  ports,  426  vessels,  with  a 
burden  of^  113,656  tons.  The  grand  duchy 
is  divided  into  the  circles  of  Schwerin,  Qiistrow, 
Rostock,  and  Wismar.  The  capital  is  Schwerin.  The 
control  and  south-east  districts  are  the  most  densely 
peopled.  The  people  of  both  the  Mecklenburg 
dudiies  (Schwerin  and  Strelitz)  are  for  the  most 
part  of  Slavonic  origin,  but  amalgamation  with 
their  Saxon  neighbours  has  largdy  Germanised 
the  original  race.  The  predommating  fonu  of 
religion  ut  the  Lutheran,  Bomsn  Catbolto  and  other 
churches  numbering  about  1100,  while  there  are 
upwards  of  3000  Jews.  Much  has  been  done  of 
late  years  in  extending  the  educational  organis- 
ation of  both  duchies,  although  the  lower  cUssea 
do  not  yet  enjoy  as  many  advantages  as  in  some 
other  districts  of  Oermony.  Besides  the  university 
at  Bostock  (q.v.),  there  are  five  gymnasia,  and 
numerous  burxher,  parochial,  and  other  schools. 
The  troops  of  M.-Schwerin  number  in  time  of 
peace  2700  men,  and  when  on  a  war-footine,  53S0 
men.  The  principal  towns  are  the  capital  Schwerin, 
Lndwieslust,  Bostock,  Gllstrow,  and  Wismar.  The 
ffrand-duke,  whose  powers  are  limited  by  a  mixed 
fendal  and  constitutional  form  of  government,  has 
the  title  of  Boyal  Highness,  and  is  styled  Prince 
of  the  Wends,  and  of  Schwerin  and  Ilatzeburg, 
Count  of  Schwerin,  and  Lord  of  Bostock,  Staigard, 
&c  The  two  Mecklenbnrg  duchies  have  provmcial 
estates  in  common,  which  meet  once  ayear,  altera 
nal«ly  at  Malchin  and  Sternberg.  Tiiia  united 
chamber  consists  of  664  landowners  and  the  repre- 
sentatives of  forty-seven  provincial  l>orougbs ;  while 
the  country  people  have  no  representation.  There 
is  no  genial  budget  for  M-S. ;  there  are  three 
entirely  distinct  systems  of  finance.  The  budget  of 
the  first  system,  called  the  administration  of  the 
sovereign,  is  estimated  at  about  12  million  marks ; 
the  second,  the  states  administration,  has  bat  small 
resources  to  dispose  of  :  the  ordinary  budget  of  the 
common  administration  of  the  sovereign  and  the 
states  is    somewhat  over  2,000,000  marks.      The 

Snblic  doU  was  in  1885  about  23  raitliou  marks. 
I.-S,  has  two  votes  in  the  Federal  Council,  and 
six  representatives  in  the  imperial  diet 

/fitrory.— The  Mecklenburg  territory,  anciently 
occupied  by  Germanic,  and  ajftemards  by  Slavonic 
trihra,  was  finally  subdued,  in  the  12th  o,  by  Henry 


z .Google 


MECKLENBtrR&.STRELITZ— MEDAL. 


the  lion,  Duke  of  Saxony,  who,  after  thoroDghlv 
devastating  the  ooanby,  and  compelling  th«  luiiall 
number  of  inhabitants  remoimng  after  the  war  to 
adopt  Christianity,  restored  the  greater  part  of  the 
terntoiT  to  Burewin,  the  heir  of  the  aloin  Slavonic 
wince,  Niklot,  and  gave  hini  hia  daughter  iu  marriage. 
The  country  at  toat  period  received  its  present 
dedgnation  from  its  principal  tettlement,  Mitilin- 
bn^  now  a  Tillage  between.  Wiamar  and  BmSL  In 
134^  it  wal  elevated  into  a  duchy  b;  the  Emperor 
Charles.  Duke  Johonn  Albrecht  introdnced  the 
Froteetant  doctrines  in  IStlO,  and  bis  gnndaooB, 
Wolt-Priedrich  and  Johann  Albrecht,  founded  the 
lines  of  Mecklenbuig-Schwerin  and  Mecklenbnrg- 
Gtlstrow,  which  were,  however,  deprived  of  the 
ducal  title  in  1627,  in  consequence  of  their  tdhftnoa 
to  the  Protestant  cause,  when  the  imperial  general 
WoIIenstein  wasprodumed  duke  of  all  Mecklenburg. 
In  163%  GnstaTDS  Adolphus  of  Sweden  restored 
hia  kinsmen,  the  deposed  dukes,  to  their  domaina, 
Aiter  varions  sabdiTuions  of  the  ducal  line  into  the 
branches  of  Schwerin,  Strelitz,  and  othem,  and  the 
sncceasiva  eitinciJOD  of  seversl  of  these  collateral 
homes,  the  Imperial  Commission,  which  met  at 
Hamburg  in  1701,  brought  about  the  settlement  of 
a  family  compact,  by  which  it  was  arranged  that 
Schwerm  and  OUstrow  should  form  one  duchy,  and 
Strelitz,  with  Ratzeburg  and  Stargord,  Mirow  and 
Nemerow,  another  independent  sovereignty.  After 
this,  very  tew  events  of  importance  ooonrred  till 
the  accession  in  Schwerin,  m  1785,  of  Friedrich 
Franz,  who  obtained  the  title  of  grand  duke  in  1816, 
and  died  in  1S3T,  after  a  long  reign,  which  he  hod 
made  highly  conducive  to  the  internal  welfare  and 
external  reputation  of  his  hereditaiv  dominions. 
The  reign  of  Friedrich  Franz  II.,  who  ancceeded 
his  father,  Paul  Friedrich,  in  1842,  was  disturbed 
by  a  contest  between  the  nobles  and  the  burgher 
and  equestrian  londowDeis,  the  former  arrogating  to 
themselves  the  eiclnsive  right  of  electing  members 
into  the  equestrian  order,  nominating  to  benefices, 
and  monopolising  other  prerogatives  of  the  ancient 
feudal  nobility.     The  revoluUonary  excitement  of 


of  the  north  German  Confederation  and  of  the 
empire,  the  two  duchies  have  maintained  their 
internal  constitution  very  much  on  the  old  footing. 
ME'CKLENBURG-STREXITZ,  a  grand  duchy 
of  GerTiuuiy,  composed  of  two  distinct  portions  of 
territory,  viz.,  Stargard  (by  far  the  larger  division, 
lying  to  the  east  of  Mecklenburg- Schwerin)  and 
the  principoEty  of  Ratzeburg  (between  Mecklenbnrg- 
Schwerin  and  Lauenburg),  and  comprising  an  area 
of  rather  more  than  1000  square  miles,  with  a  pop. 
(1S80)  of  100,269.  The  country  is  fiat,  and  similar 
in  its  physical  characters  to  Schwerin,  although, 
from  its  greater  distance  from  the  ssa,  the  climate 
is  less  humid  and  less  changeable.  Strelitz,  as 
already  obsarvBd,  has  one  joint  representative  cham- 
ber wiUl  Schwerin,  but  Oie  lordship  of  Ratzeburg 
is  not  iadnded  in  these  estates,  and  is  governed 
directly  by  the  grand  duke,  who  possesses  very 
'Je  private  domains,  from  which  hr  ' 


jnsiderable  private  domains,  from  which  he  draws 
large  rerennes.  The  grand  dnke  gave  Ratzeburg 
a  repreaentatjve  constitntion  in  1869.  M,-Strelitz 
has  one  vote  in  the  Federal  Council  of  the  empire, 
and  one  representative  in  the  diet.  M.-3trelitz  bos 
a  debt  of  about  six  million  marks.  For  Uie  history 
of  M.-Strelitz,  see  preceding  article. 

The  Mecklenburg  dnchies  ore  essentially  agricul- 
tural, 71  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  b^g  employed 
on  the  land.  In  M-.Schweri)t  3S49  square  miles, 
and  in  M.-3treIitz  670  square  miles,  ore  under  culti- 
vation.   The  cattle  of  tha  dnebiea  ore  considered 


the  best  in  Germany;  the  horses  especially  ore 
held  in  high  esteem.  The  principal  prodncbl  ore 
com  (which  is  exported  to  Scandinavian  and  British 
ports),  cattle  and  sheep  (which  are  tent  to  the 
markets  of  Hambu^  and  Berlin),  wool,  tobacco, 
batter,  cheese,  fish,  fruit,  hides,  Ac.  The  matrico- 
lar  contribution  of  both  dnohiet  towards  imperial 
expenditure  amounted  in  the  year  1880 — ISal  to 
97U,09S  marks,  the  share  of  M.-StTeIitz  being  144,233. 
MBCOITIC  ACID(C,iHO,  o,3HO  +  6Aq),  (from 


the  acid  and  its  salts  assume  a  characteristio  blood- 
red  tint  with  persaJts  of  iron,  and  this  teat,  whioh 
is  veiy  sensitive,  is  employed  by  the  toxicologist  in 
sean^ting  for  traces  of  opium.  As,  however,  the 
alkaline  sulpbocyanides  which  exist  normally  in  the 
saliva  give  a  precisely  similar  tint  with  the  persalla 
of  iron,  it  is  necessary  to  be  able  to  distinguish  the 
meconate  of  iron  from  the  snlphocyanide  of  iron. 
A  solution  of  terchloHde  of  gold  or  of  oonosive 
sublimate  removes  all  donbt,  oy  discharging  the 
colour  of  the  snlphocyanide,  but  not  affecting  the 
colour  of  the  meconate  of  iron. 

MBOO'NIUM.  This  term  U  apiOied  to  the 
earliest  matter  discharged  &om  the  bowels  of  a 
new-bom  infant.  It  is  of  a  brownish-green  or 
almost  block  colour,  add  to  test-paper,  but  devoid 
of  odour,  and  rapidly  patrefying  on  exposure  to  air. 
It  is  usually  regarded  as  a  product  of  the  fcetal  liver, 
but,  according  to  Lehmann,  it  contains  neither 
biliary  acids  nor  bile-pigment.  When  examined 
under  the  microscope,  it  is  found  to  consist  of  an 
abundance  oE  cylinder  epithelium  oE  a  beantifnl 

green  tint,  of '" 

which  there  is 

MEDAL  (Fr.  TuidaHle,  Lai  metaUum),  a  ^eea 
of  metal  in  the  form  of  a  coin,  not  issued  n'  circu- 
lated oa  money,  but  stomped  with  a  figure  or  device 
to  preserve  we  portrait  of  some  eminent  person, 
or  the  memory  oi  some  iUustrious  action  or  event. 
The  study  of  medals,  interesting  in  on  historical 
ond  ontiquorion  point  of  view,  is  also  important  as 
illustrating  the  contemporary  state  of  art.  Like 
coins,  me£ds  belong  to  two  periods,  ancient  and 
modern,  separated  by  a  wide  interval  To  the 
former  belong  those  piecee  issuing  from  the  mint 
of  ancient  Rome,  known  as  nudalliom,  of  the  site  of 
the  aureus  in  gold,  of  the  denarius  in  silver,  and  of 
the  first  or  la^  brass  in  copper.  They  are  gener- 
ally supposed  to  have  been  stmck  on  occasions 
similar  to  those  on  which  medoU  are  coined  in 
modem  times,  on  the  accession  of  an  emperor,  on  the 
achievement  of  an  important  victoiy,  or  as  specimens 
of  workmanship  ;  but  there  ore  drcumstoncee  which 
oountenance  the  belief  thot  they  were  circulated  as 
money.  Medallions  prior  to  the  time  of  Hodrion 
are  rare  and  of  great  valoe — one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful and  most  famous  being  a  gold  medallion  of 
Augustus  Ctesar — frem  Eadnan  t^  the  dose  of  the 
Empire  tJiey  ore  comparativdy  common.  Of  iha 
Romon  medollions,  some  were  struck  by  Dnler  of 
the  emperors,  some  by  the  senote ;  the  lotter  may  be 
known  by  being  inscribed  with  the  letters  S.  C. 
The  larger  bronze  medallions  are  of  admirable 
workmanship.  In  some  of  them,  a  ring  of  I»oiue 
surrounds  a  centre  of  copper,  and  we  inscrip- 
tion extends  over  both  metola.  No  portrait  of  a 
person  not  princdy  occurs  on  any  ancient  medal,  a 
remarkable  circumstance,  considering  the  numer- 
ous contemporuy  statues  of  poets,  historians,  and 
philosophers.  The  Cmttomiati  are  bronze  medals 
marked  with  furrows  (contomi),  distributed  at  the 
pubUo  games,  and  opparently  also  in  nse  as  money. 
Numerous  medals  and  medjuUoDS  were  struck  in  tne 


,,  Google 


wpm  A  T  J  Trnj—MnmT  a  . 


Qreek  pTDrincM  of  tbo  Romui  empire,  of  len  rob- 
■Unoa  uid  thicknen,  for  the  most  part,  than  those 
<if  Roma,  The  8icili«i  medals  are  of  veiy  fine  work- 
■nanahip,  putionliuijr  one  with  a  head  of  Ceres,  ud 
on  the  Tevene  a  Viotoiy  tzowniag  h  fignre  in  a  car. 
Uodeni  medals  begin  in  the  14th  c,  oat  few  were 
•track  prior  to  the  16th.  Portnute  of  noa-princelr 
penoiu  are  freely  introdaced  after  the  16th  cental?. 
Alt  affectation  of  the  HMnii^l  takes  from  their  value 
a*  illnitiationa  of  oontemporarj  life.  Moat  European 
countries  potseas  a  sncceanon  of  medala  from  the 
16th  e.  ODwardt.  The  beat  in  point  of  demgn  ol  the 
l&th  0.  medals  are  those  wroaeht  bj  Victor  Pisani 
of  Verona,  and  inscribed  '  OpoaPiaam  Pictoris.'  The 
medals  of  the  popes  form  an  unbroken  series  from 
th«  time  of  Paul  IL,  who  filled  the  papal  choir  from 
1464  to  1471.  Those  that  ^rpoit  to  be  of  earhet 
popei  are  all  known  to  be,  m  point  of  fact,  of  later 
d^e.  The  revene  geneially  bears  the  cross-keys 
and  mibe,  sod  the  obvene  the  head  of  the  reigning 

Sipe.  Some  of  the  medals  of  Julias  IL,  Leo  X.,  and 
lement  VIL  have  an  especial  value,  m  havina 
been  dedgned  by  Eaphael  and  Giulio  Bomano,  and 
angraTed  by  Bfflivenuto  Cellini,  A  16th  c  medal  o£ 
Sicily  is  probably  the  first  instance  in  modem  times 
of  the  use  of  a  medal  as  a  vehicle  of  political  satire ; 
it  is  directed  by  Frederick  11.  against  his  adveisuy, 
Ferdinand  of  Spain,  whose  betu  is  on  the  obverse. 
with  the  inscription,  'Perdinandus  R.  B.  Vetus  Vulpea 
Oibis ; '  and  on  the  reverse  a  wolf  carrying  off  a 
sheep,  with  '  Jngum  menm  suave  est  et  opus  ~ 

Invn/      RfLttrifUtl   mfliT   '  "    " "" ^~ 


fieubingen,  the  Dutch  ambsssador,  in  tlie  character 
of  Joshua  arresting  the  coune  of  the  snn,  is  said  to 
have  BO  exasperated  Louis  XIV.,  who  was  undei^ 
stood  to  be  typiSed  by  that  luminary,  as  to  cause 
the  whole  hostile  force  of  fVance  to  be  brought 
against  Holland.  Some  of  the  Dutch  medals  are 
noted  for  t^e  elaborate  views,  maps,  and  plans 
snsraved  on  them.  France  prodaoed  few  medals 
pior  to  the  time  of  Loois  XIV. ;  but  there  is  a  series 
lUuBtrative  of  the  chief  events  in  the  life  of  the 
Oiand  Monar□u^  and  another  devoted  to  the  career 
of  the  First  Napoleon.  The  Spanish  medob  be^ 
with  Qonsalvo  abont  1600.  Sootlsud  pnduoed  one 
of  the  earliest  of  modem  medals,  stniok  by  David 
IL,  perhaps  dnrins  his  captivi^  in  Ehuland,  and 
foiinad  oo  tiie  moiul  of  the  nobles  of  Edward  ITT. 
English  medals  only  begin  with  Hcory  VllL,  and 
from  Edward  VL  <Hiward^  there  is  an  unbroken 
imiiiiiliisi  of  coronation  medals.  The  Scottish  gold 
coronation  medal  of  Charles  L  is  the  first  medal 
rtmck  in  Britain  with  a  l^^d  on  the  edge.  The 
medal*  of  the  Commonwealth  and  Charles  U.  are  by 
Simon ;  those  of  Qneen  Anue  record  the  achieve- 
ments of  MorlboTOogh.  Medals,  in  connection  with 
NnofauTics  (q.  v.),  are  treated  of  by  the  various 
writara  on  Uiat  subject. 

Medals  in  the  present  day  are  conferred  by  the 
■overcdni  as  marlca  of  distinctioa  for  eminent  worth 
or  not^  conduct^  mive  psrticnlarly  for  naval  and 
militaly  servioes.  Snch  medals  of  hoDoor  are  seldom 
<rf  great  intrinaia  value,  their  worth  depending 
merely  on  the  associations  oonneoted  with  them. 
They  have  ribbons  attaohed,  with  clasps  or  small 
bars,  each  of  which  bears  the  name  of  a  particular 
action.  The  Waterloo  medal  is  of  silver,  with  the 
head  of  Qeorge  IV.  (Prinoe  Regent),  a  winged  Vic- 
tory, and  the  words  *  Waterloo,'  *  Wellington  ; '  it 
hanga  from  a  crimaon  ribbon,  with  a  namnr  stripe 
of  bine  near  each  edge.  The  Crimean  medal,  also  of 
silver,  is  attached  to  a  blue  ribbon  with  yellow 
adges  when  worn  for  service  ift  the  Crimea,  and  to 
-  fallow  ribbon  with  bins  edges  whsD  for  service  in 


the   Baltic     Good-s< 


I  medals  of  silver  i 


instituted  in  1830  and  1S31,  and  rule*  formed  for 
their  distribnticm  among  meritorioos  sailon,  soldien, 
and  marinea.  The  naval  medal  is  wom  suspended 
from  a  blue,  and  the  military  from  a  crimson  ribbon. 
There  are  also  various  British  medals  which  have 
beeo  confeired  for  services  in  the  Peninsnla,  India, 
&0.  On  every  medal  is  engraved  the  name,  rank, 
&c,  regiment  Or  ahip  of  the  redpient  of  it.  Medala 
and  deooraticuB  do  not  seem  to  have  been  aver 
conferred  as  revoids  in  the  army  or  navy  prior  to 
the  Commonwealth.  Xhe  French  military  medal 
and  the  Sardinian  war-medal  w«ce  some  time  ago 
bestowed  to  a  Urge  extoit  on  British  officer*, 
soldiers,  teamen,  and  marines;  The  former  exbibibi 
the  effigy  of  Napoleon  UL,  auRDonnted  by  ao  eagle, 
and  ia  wem  from  a  yellow  ribbon  with  green 
borders ;  the  Istter  is  charged  with  tha  erosa  of 
Savoy,  aind  auspended  from  a  sky-blue  ribbon.  No 
medal  of  h<monr  from  any  foreign  soveredgn  is 
allowed  to  be  wom  or  accepted  by  any  Kitiah 
subject  without  the  aancticm  ol  tha  Queen. 

MEDAXLIOK  (in  Arohiteotore),  acircolor  panel 
containing  a  bas-relief  of  a  head,  bnst^  figure^  Ac. 

MEDE'A,  ia  Grecian  legend,  a  famous  aorceress, 
the  daughter  oC  AStes,  king  of  Colchis,  and  of  the 
Oceanid  Idyia,  or  of  Hecate.  She  married  Jason, 
the  leader  of  the  Argonauts  [q.  v.j,  and  aided  him 
in  obtaining  the  Ooltten  Fleece.  Jason,  after  his 
return  home,  being  desirous  to  be  revenged  on 
PelioB  for  the  murder  of  his  parents  and  his  brother, 
M.  persuaded  the  daughter  of  Felias  to  cut  him  in 
pieces  and  boil  him,  in  order  to  make  him  young 
again.  Jason  and  she  fled  to  Corinth,  where,  after 
she  had  been  his  wife  for  ten  years,  he  repodi- 
ated  her,  to  many  Glauce  or  Creuso,  and  M.,  in 
revenge,  sent  by  her  aon  to  her  rival  a  poisoned 
robe  or  diadem,  the  virulence  of  which  destroyed 
both  her  sad  her  father.  U.  then  slew  the 
children  which  she  had  bora  to  Jason,  and  fled  to 
Athens  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  dragons,  which  she 
obtained  from  Helios.  There  she  was  received  by 
.^l^us,  to  whom  she  bore  Medoa  ;  but  afterwards 
being  compelled  to  flee  from  Athens,  she  took  Medos 
to  Aria,  the  inhabitants  of  which  were  thenceforth 
called  Medcs.  She  finally  became  immortal,  and 
the  spouse  of  Achilles  in  the  Elysian  Fields.  Such 
ia  the  classic  legend,  which  afforded  material  for 
many  productions  of  the  trafpc  muse,  and  subjects 
for  the  painter  and  aeolptor,  and  which  even  ia 
modern  bmes  has  been  ao  employed. 

MBDELLI'N,  a  city  of  the  United  SUtes  of 
Colombia  South  America,  in  the  praviuce  of  Antio- 
quia,  uid  60  miles  south-esst  of  the  city  of  that 
name,  between  the  ranges  of  Uie  Central  and  West- 
ern Cordilleras.  It  is  a  beautiful  town,  and,  placed 
at  an  elevation  of  about  6000  feet  above  sea-level, 
its  climate  is  exceedingly  pleasant  It  is  the  entre- 
pAt  of  trade  for  the  surrennding  district,  and  ooa> 
tains  a  population  estimated  at  16,00(X 

MEDIA,  in  ancient  Idmes,  the  name  of  the 
nort^-weat^n  part  of  Iran,  wluch  was  bounded  by 
the  Caspian  Sea  on  tiie  N.,  by  Persia  on  the  Sl, 
by  FsrOiia  on  the  Ss  uid  bv  Assyria  on  the  W. 
Tlie  northern  pwtion  of  the  country  is  vm 
mouutainous ;  the  south  is  a  rich  and  fertdla 
troot.  M.  at  present  forma  the  Persian  provinces 
of  AEerbiian,  Qhilan,  Mazanderan,  and  Irak* 
Ajemi,  and  the  northem  portion  of  Loristan.  !nia 
Mediaiis  wen  in  languwe,  religion,  and  manners 
very  nearly  aUied  to  the  Peniaos.  After  they  had 
shaken  off  the  yoke  of  the  Asa^ians,  thur  tribea 
united  abont  708  B.C.,  according  to  the  common 
aocoont,  chose  Dejocee  (Koi-Eobad)  for  thair  chief, 
and  mode  Bcbatana  their  copitaL  Hm  son  Phraortea, 
or  Arphuutd,  aubdoed  the  Penaana.  Cyaxares  (Kai> 


U z,»:,,  Google 


MEDIATE— MEDICAL  SCHOOL. 


=f 


Eaona),  the  ion  of  Phiaorta^  in  alliBiice  with  Na,ha- 
polassar,  king  of  Babylon,  OTvrtlirew  the  Arayrii 
anpiro  aboat  604  a.  a,  Bpread  the  teiTi«'  of  b 
arms  M  far  aa  Egypt  and  the  fvirtheat  boiuidB  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  vxoqaiabed  the  brigand  hordea 
of  Scylbia,  who  bad  earned  their  ravagee  as  far 
as  ijyria.  He  WM  aac«eeded  by  his  son  Astyage 
(Asdehak),  wbo  waa  depoeed  (660  B.a)  by  Iiia  ovn 
grandson  Cyras  (Kai-KhllBra),  king  of  Pereia;  and 
&om  this  time  the  two  nations  an  ipoken  of  aa  one 
]ieopIa.  Ecbataiia,  the  capital  of  M.,  became  the 
emnmer  reaidenoe  of  the  Patsian  kings.  After  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Qreat  (324  B.  o.),  the  north- 
w«at  porti<ui  {Alropateae)  of  M.  became  a  tepants 
kingdom,  and  eiieted  till  tbe  time  of  Aagnatiia ;  the 
other  portion,  nnder  tbe  name  of  QrvUM.,  Ion 
a  part  of  the  Syrian  monacchy.  M.  waB  on  Hi 
oocanoni  aepanited  from  Fenda.  In  152  b.  u., 
Mithridate*  I.  took  Great  M.  from  the  Syriana,  and 
annexed  it  to  the  Parthian  empire,  and  about  36 
B.  o.  it  hod  a  king  ot  tti  ovn,  named  ArtaTaadea, 
^ainit  whom  Mark  Antony  made  war.  Under 
the  Saeianian  dynaaty,  the  whole  of  M.  was  united 
to  Penria.  It  beoame,  dnring  the  I4tb  and  Ifith 
centuriea,  the  stranghold  of  the  Turkoman  tribei 
Eara-KolnlQ,  or  'BUdc  Sheep,'  and  Ak-KoinlU,  or 
•  White  Sheep.' 

In  early  tmiei,  the  Medea  were  a  warlike  race, 
liogseBsed  of  an  enthnaiutio  love  of  independence, 
and  diatingaiBbed  for  their  akill  ^tb  the  bow.  Th^ 
were  also  celebnted  for  their  bonwrnonahip,  and  it 
was  from  (hem  that  the  Feniana  adopted  this  and 
<ither  favoorite  exerciaei  and  aoquinunenta.  In  sub- 
aeqnent  times,  they  appear  to  have  become  eflemi- 
nated  by  Inznry.  {See  the  worka  of  Xanopbon, 
Gtrabo,  and  Ammianoa.) 

MEDIATE  in  the  old  Qerman  cminre,  a  tann 
Applied  to  those  lordships  or  poasesuoos  which  were 
held  by  feudal  tenure  under  one  of  the  greater  vas- 
■als,  and  so  only  mediai^y  nndar  the  emperoi  aa  the 
■upreme  feudal  lord.  ISanj  of  the  amaller  states  or 
lordships  were  gradually  reduced  to  this  condition 
as  the  neighbouring  greater  states  inoreosed  in 
power ;  and  amidst  the  chaogea  caused  by  tbe  won 
of  the  French  Eevolution  in  1803  and  1806,  many 
•mall  Btates  were  thus  tTudialiied,  in  which  tbe 
greater  atatea  found  a  sort  of  compensation  for  their 
Joases  in  other  qqarteta.  The  tann  continued  to  be 
employed  even  when  the  feodol  soverei^ty  of  the 
German  empire  did  not  exist  At  the  Congress  of 
Vienna,  furtW  mediatisationa  were  eSected;  and  at 
tbe  present  day  the  people  of  many  d  the  amaller 
existuig  states  tae  anjnoua  for  a  sitnil*!'  change. 
The  question  of  mediatisatiou  was  one  of  those 
aSecting  the  internal  welfare  of  Gennony  which 
were  most  keenly  agitated  in  1S48. 

HEIDIATOB,  a  term  applicable  to  any  penon 
who  endeavours  to  reooncile  partiee  at  varianoe.  In 
theology,  it  ta  employed  to  denote  Jesus  Christ,  both 
with  respect  to  his  saorifioe  of  Ai/Mement  {^.v.)— 
making  God  and  man  at  one  again,  by  satisfjring 
divine  justice,  which  otherwise  dcunands  Hie  punish- 
ment  of  sinners — and  with  reepect  to  bis  continual 
interoesaion  (q.  v.).  The  Soman  Catholic  Chorah 
reprtsenta  tamtt  as  mediators  of  interceasion, 
althon^  not  of  atonement ;  bnt  this  view  is 
lejected  by  Proteatanta. 

MEDIOAL  DEPARTMENT  of  an  Amy,  next 
to  the  eomnunariat,  ia  the  most  important  of  all 
the  non-OMubatMit  aeotions.  Tbe  surgical  treat- 
ment of  the  woundedinaetnal  fighting,  and  still  more 
the  combat  with  disease  engendered  by  crowding, 
unhealthy  stations^  and  tlia  reckless  habits  of  the 
Boldierj,  necessitate  a  large  medical  staff;  for,  on  an 
average  of  the  whole  army,  it  is  foond  that  the 


rate  of  sickness  is  at  least  triple  that  for  Uu  dvil 
population. 

In  the  British  army,  every  battalion,  when  at 
home  or  in  the  temperate  zone,  has  a  surgeon  and 
an  asBistant.«argeon  ;  when  in  ^dia  or  the  tropics, 
another  aasiatant-surgeon  i*  added.  In  addition 
to  these  officers,  there  are  uoinerous  staff  medical 
officers  at  all  stations,  who  have  charge  of  detach- 
ments, bospitala,  to.  The  active  Hat  of  the  medical 
offioera  comprised,  in  1879—1880,  530  aurgeona- 
general,  deputy  antgeocB-geaerid,  surgeons-major, 
and  surgeons.  Besides  these,  there  are  betneen  400 
and  500  medfcol  officers,  employed  with  the  army 
in  India.  The  total  estimate  for  medical  eatablish- 
ments  and  service  in  1879— 13S0,  was  £266,20a 

The  medical  department  is  governed  by  a  director- 

Sneral,  who  is  a  member  ot  the  War  Office,  and 
s  charge  of  the  surgical,  medical,  and  sanitai; 
arrangements  of  the  army.    See  ScBasON. 

MEDICAL  DEPAKTMEKT,  in  the  Navy,  is 
only  of  lets  importance  thou  the  same  department 
in  the  army,  in  that  the  sea-service  ia  vastly  more 
healthy  than  servioa  upon  land.  After  an  action, 
the  Burgeon,  of  course,  ia  in  equal  requiution  in 
eitlieT  caae.  In  the  British  navy,  the  medical 
officers  in  active  employ,  in  I8S0,  compriaed  2 
depnly-inapBct<»8-geDeral,  59  fleet  anigeona,  93  staff 


day. 

MEDIOAL  PRACTITIONEBS,  in  ^t  of 
law,  have  lately  been  put  oo  a  new  footing  in  many 
-  -  --  -ots.  The  statute  21  and  32  Vict,  a  90  (1868), 
later  onea,  gave  the  body  of  medical  praotl- 
is  powers  of  self-goTemmeut,  so  f ar  sa  r^ards 
qualification  and  training.  All  duly  qualified  per- 
sons are  now  registered,  and  tbe  register  is  pub- 
lished, though  it  IS  not  in  strict  law  oompolsory  on 
practitioners  to  register  themselves,  the  only  disad- 
vantage being  that  tiiose  who  are  not  rea;iBtered 
cannot  fill  certain  offices,  and  cannot  ane  for  their 
fees.  BeforetheaotofiaeS,  physicians  were  on  the 
same  footing  aa  barristers,  and  could  not  sua  for 
their  fees,  these  being  considered  an  honorwimn 
which  ought  to  be  paid  beiorehand,  and,  at  all 
events,  were  not  a  legal  debt  But  the  act  remedies 
this  defect  as  regards  qualified  registered  practi- 
tioners. (The  statute  39  and  40  Vict  cap,  41  removed 
reatrictiona  on  the  granting  of  qualifications  under 
the  Medical  Act  on  tiie  grooud  of  sex.)  Anotileff 
provision  of  the  Medical  Aot,  which  waa  intended 
to  put  down  quacks,  but  which  is  still  found 
"       *  extenti  waa 


pretend  to  be,  OT  take,  or  use  the  name  or  title  of  a 
physician,  docrtor  of  medidne,  licentiate  in  medicine 

'  surgery,  bachelor  of  madioine,  surgeon,  general 

-actitioncr  or  apothecary. 

MEDIOAL  SOHOOL,  Nxtlet,  on  establish- 
ment for  the  technical  education  of  medical  officers 
for  the  British  and  Tmlian  military  service.  Candi- 
dates are  examined  competitively  in  tha  ordinary 
■ubjecta  of  profasaional  knowlei^ ;  and,  paaaine 
tatisfactoiilv  tiirough  that  ordeal,  are  then  ragoired 
to  attend,  lor  auc  months,  at  the  Military  Medical 
School,  where  they  go  through  practical  courses 
of  military  hygiene,  military  and  clinicol-militsry 
surgery  and  medicine,  and  pathology  with  morbid 
imy.  As  the  school  is  attached  to  the  Koyol 
>na  Hospital,  which  is  tbe  great  invalid  dSpfit 
for  the  whole  anny,  the  students  have  ample  oppor- 
toniW  of  seeing  theory  exemplified  in  practice.  The 
adiool  comprisea  four  professoiB,  with  £809  a  year 
e«cb,  4  Msutant-prof  easoia  having  £450  each,  and 


rOtSgt 


nmaUyabont  40  medical  candidatea,  who 

each  fif.  a  day  and  lodging-money.    Tlie  amtluJ  coat 
of  the  whole  eitablishmeat  U  about  £6000. 

MKIJIOI,  Thb,  who  ranked  among  the  firrt 
and  moat  diatm^aiBhed  fsmiliea  of  the  FlorenCice 
republic,  owe  their  earliest  distinction  to  the  auccees 
with  which  they  had  puraaed  various  branchea  of 
aommerce,  and  the  liberal  aptrit  in  which  they 
devoted  their  wealth  to  purposes  of  general  utility. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  13th  c,  the  M.  took  part 
in  all  the  leading  events  of  the  tepabljc ;  and  &om 
the  period  when  Salveatro  de'  Medici  attained  the 
rank  of  gonfaloniere  in  I3T8,  the  family  n»e  rapidly 
to  ^iTe-enunence,  although  the  almost  regal  greatneas 
whiob  it  enjoyed  for  several  centunea  is  mr— 
especially  dae  to  Giovanni  de'  Medici,  who  died 
1^9,  leaving  to  his  sons,  Coimo  and  Lorenzo, 
heritage  of  wealth  and  honours  hitherto  nnparaUeled 
in  the  republic  With  Cosmo  (bom  13S9,  died  1464], 
on  whom  was  gratefully  bratowed  the  honoured 
title  of 'Father  of  Ms  country,'  began  the  irlnrinni 
epoch  of  the  M. ;  while  from  Lorenzo  ia  dt, 
the  collateral  branch  of  the  family,  which, 
""■'"    "      obtained   sbsolate   rule    over    Tuscany. 


.  .  opposition  agunst  the  policy  and  credit 
of  the  M.,  was  one  uninterrupted  comse  of  pm- 
perity  ;  at  once  a  munificent  patron  and  a  aacceas- 
fol  cultivator  of  art  and  literature,  he  did  more 
than  any  sovereign  in  Europe  to  revive  the  study 
of  the  ancient  cTassica,  and  to  foster  a  taste  for 
mental  culture.  He  assembled  oronad  him  learned 
men  of  every  nation,  and  gave  liberal  support  to 
nnmerooa  Oreek  scholars,  whom  the  aubjeotion  of 
Constantinople  l^  the  Torks  had  driven  into  exile; 
and  by  hia  foundation  of  an  academy  for  the  study 
of  the  philoBophy  of  Plato,  and  of  a  hbrary  of 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Oriental  MSS.,  he  inaugurated  a 
new  era  in  modem  learning  and  art.  But  although 
tbeoe  merits  must  be  conceded  to  him,  it  must  not 
be  for^tteu  that  while  he  retained  the  name    ' 

repnblican  form  of  government,  and  nominally 

fided  the  executive  authority  to  a  goofaloniere  and 
eight  priori  or  aenatora,  he  totally  exijnguiahed 
the  freedom  of  Florence.  His  grandson,  Lorenzo 
the  Munificent  (bom  lat  January  144S,  di   ~   ~  ~ 

April  1492),  who  anooeeded  to  nmfivicUd  an 

lute  power  in  the  state,  after  the  murder  of  his 
brother  Giuliano  in  1478,  pursued,  with  signal  suo- 
ceM,  the  policy  of  hia  faniily,  which  may  be  charac- 
terised as  tending  to  ennoble  individuals  and  debase 
the  nation  at  large.  He  enconnged  literature  and 
the  arts,  employed  learned  men  to  collect  choice 
books  and  antiquities  for  him  from  every  part  of  tiie 
known  world,  established   prmting-preeses    "    ''" 

dominions  as  soon  as  the  art  was  invented,  i 

academies  for  the  study  of  classical  learning,  and 
filled  his  gardens  with  coUectJORS  of  the  remains  of 
ancient  art ;  but  when  his  munificence  and  concili- 
atory manners  had  gained  for  him  the  affection  of 
the  higher  and  the  devotion  of  the  lower  classes,  he 
lost  no  time  in  breaking  down  the  forma  of  oonstita- 
tiooal  independence  tJut  he  and  his  predecessoia 
bad  hitherto  suOered  to  exist.  Some  few  Floren- 
tines, alarmed  at  the  progress  of  the  volnptaons 
refinement  which  was  smothering  every  spark  of 
personal  independence,  tried  to  stem  the  current  of 
oormption  by  an  ascetio  severity  of  morals,  which 
nined  for  them  the  name  of  piagjumi,  or  weepera. 
Foremoat  among  them  was  the  Dominican  triar 
Girotamo  Savonarola  (q.  v.),  whose  eloquent  appeala 
to  the  people  in  favonr  of  a  popular  and  democratic 
form  of  government,  threatened  for  a  time  the 
overthrow  of  the  M. ;  bat  the  Jealousy  of  the 
I^smdaoaus,  and  the  Tindictivenea   of  tiie  pq>al 


court,  averted  their  doom.    Savonarola's  mar^rdom 
restored  oatward  tranqoilli^  to  Florence,  and  left 
the  M.  in  undisturbed  poaaeMion  of  absolute  power. 
Ketro  (bom  1471),  who  succeeded  his  father  Lorenzo 
in  1492,  possessed  neither  capacity  nor  prudence ; 
and  in  the  faoubles  which  the  ambition   of  her 
prinoes   and  the  profligacy  of  her  popes  brought 
npon  Italy,  by  plunging  her  into  civil  and  foreign 
war,  be  shewed  himAlf  treacherona  and  vacillating 
alike  to  friends  and  foe«.     Ijodovico  Sfoita,  sur- 
named  the  '  Moor,'  relying  on  the  friendship  which, 
from  the   middle  of  the   16th   o^    had   prevailed 
between  the  Sforxa  family  of  Milan  and  the  M., 
applied  to   him  for  assistanoe   in  establishing  his 
claim  to  the  dndiy  of  Milan ;  but  seeing  that  no 
relianoe  could  be  plaoed  on  Pietro,  he  threw  himself 
into  the  arms  of^  Charles  YIIL  of  Franoe.      The 
resnlt   was   the   invasion   of   Italy  by  a   French 
army   of  32,000  men.      Pietro,   in   hopes  U  OOD- 
ciliating  the  powerful  invader,  hastened  to  meet 
the  troops   on  their  entrance  into  the  dominiona 
of    Florence,    and    surrendered    to    Charles    the 
fortresses  of  Leghorn  and  Fisa,  which  constituted 
the  keys    of  the  republic     The  magistrates  and 
people,  incensed  at  his  perfidy,  drove   him  from 
the  city,  and  formally  deposed  the  family  of  the 
M.  from  oil  participation  in  power.    Pietro,  who 
was  slain   in  1B03,  while  fighting   in   the   French 
ranks,  and  several  of  his  kinsmen,  made  ineETeotaal 
attempts  to  recover  their  dominions,  which  were 
not  restored  till  1612.    The  elevation  of  Giovanni  do' 
Medici  to  the  papal  chair,  under  the  title  of  Leo  X., 
completed  the  restoration  of  the  family  to  their 
former   splendoor,   while   the   accession,   in    1623, 
of  his  coosin  Oiulio  Medici  to  the  pontificate  aa 
Clement  VII.,  and  the  marriage  of  Cathsiine,  the 
granddaughter  of  Pietro,  to  Henry  IL  of  Fnnce, 
and  her  long  rule  over  that  country  aa  regent  for 
her  sons,  together  with  the  military  power  of  the 
cadet  branch  (descended  &om  a  younger  brotiier  of 
the  'Father  of  his  coontiy'),  threw  a  weight  of 
power  into  the  hands  of  the  M.,  which  rendered 
all  attempts  to  maintain  even  a  show  of  independ- 
ence futile  on  the  part  of  the  Florentinee.      The 
faintest    indication    of    republican    spirit   was    at 
once  crushed  by  the  combined  aid  of  the  pope  and 
Charles  V. ;  and  thon^  the  legitimate  rude  line  of 
Cosmo  was  extinct  (with  the  exception  ot  Pope 
Clement  VIL),  the  Utter  cave,  in  1629,  to  Ales- 
sandro.  natural  son  of  the  Ust  prince  Lorenzo  IL, 
the  rank  of  Duke  of  Florence  i  and  on  hia  death, 
by  assassination,   without   direct   heirs,   in    1637, 
raised  Cosmo  I.,  the   descendant   of   a  oollateral 
branch,  to  the  ducal  chair.    Cosmo,  known  as  the 
Great,  possessed  the  astutoneea  of  character,  the 
love  of  elegance,  and  taste  for  literature,  but  not 
the  frank   and  generous   spirit   that   had   distin- 
guished his  great  ancestors ;  and  while  he  founded 
tiie  acsdemiea  of  painting  and  of  fine  arts,  mods 
collections    of   paintings    and    statuary,   pmilished 
magnificent  editions  of  his  own  works  and  those 
of  others,  and  encouraged  trade,  for  the  protection 
of  which  he  instituted  the  ecclesiastical  oi^er  of 
Stephen,   he   was   implacable   in    his   enmity, 
1   scrupled   not  utterly   to   extirpate   the   race 
the  Stii>zzi,  the  hereditary  foes  of  his  House 
■  acquisition  of  Siena  gained  for  liim  the  title  of 
G;rand  Duke  of  Tuscany  from  Pins  V. ;  and  he 
died  in  1674,  leaving  enormous  wealth  and  regal 
power  to  his  descendants,  who,  throughout  the  next 
half  oentnry,  maintained  the  literary  and  artistio 
fame  of  their  family.      In  the   17Ui  c,  the  race 
rapidljr  deRonerated ;  and  after  aeveral  ^  its  repra- 
Bsntativealiad  suffered  themselves  to  be  made  the 
mere  tools  of  Spanish  and  Anatriao  ambition,  the 
last  male  repreaentative  of  the  line,  Giovanni  Gaaton, 


.GooqIcI 


MEDIdNA—MEDICINll 


msdr^Mteo  irith  a  stipuMioii  of  tha  Pe&oe  of  Vienna, 
the  gntnd  dneby  of  Tuaoany  paaaed  to  the  Houae  of 
Lor^ne. 

HEDIOI'NA,  a  town  ot  Italy,  in  the  prarince  of 
BoI<^na,  13  milea  east  of  the  city  of  Qiat  name. 


p.  3000. 


siderable 


a  theatre,  Mai  h  aarroimdad  by  walU.  It  occupies 
tha  ute  of  the  ancient  city  Claiema,  of  which  some 
remiuiiB  are  atill  viaible. 

MEDI'OINAL  PLANTS.  Those  plante  of  which 
aome  part  or  product  ia  used  in  medicine,  are  very 
numeroaa,  and  belong  to  the  most  widely  different 
orders.  In  some  orders,  portioular  properiiea  are 
preraleiit ;  other  medicinaJ  apecies  are  exceptional 
as  to  their  properties  in  the  orders  to  which  Ihey 
belong.  Important  properties  and  products  are 
■ometmtea  characteristic  of  a  particular  very  limited 
group  of  speciea,  sa  in  the  case  of  the  Ondtoaiu. 
Manr  medicinal  planta  are  merely  used  by  the 
people  of  the  countries  in  which  they  grow,  others— 
Known_  as  ^EdnoJ  planlt — have  a  place  accorded 
them  in  pharmacopteias  and  in  Uie  practice  of 
educated  medical  practitioners.  Mooy  pWts,  how- 
ever, are  in  high  repute  among  the  natiTe  phynciana 
of  India,  which  have  not  yet  found  a  place  in  ai 
western  pharmacopceia,  although  a  few  of  the  mo 

Taluahle  have  recently  been  introduced  to  notice 

Europe,  Of  the  plants  which  have  been  rejected 
from  the  pharmacopiBias,  but  retain  tjieir  place  in 
nutic  practice,  aome  ore  really  useful,  and  would  be 
held  in  greatts  esteem  if  there  were  not  preferable 
medicines  of  similar  quality ;  others  have  owed 
their  reputation  merely  to  ridiculous  fancies.  Some 
medicinal  pUota  are  always  gathered  where  they 
0DW  wild,  others  arc  cultivated  in  order  to  have 


advanced  the  art  of  medicine,  we  arrive  at  the 
time  ot  Hippocrates  (a.  v.).  The  advance  which 
Hippocrates  made  in  Om  practice  of  medicine  waa 
•0  great,  that  no  attem]]^  were  made  for  aome 
centuries  to  improve  upon  his  vlewi  and  preoepta. 
His  sons,  Thessalus  and  Draco,  and  his  son-in-law, 
PoIybiuB,  are  regarded  as  the  founders  of  the 
ledical  sect  which  was  called  the  Hippocratean 
because  it  professed  to  set 


near  London,  than  in  any  other  part  of  Britain.  A 
great  boon  haa  very  ncentljr  been  oonferred  on 
maiddnd — so  recently  that  it  has  scarcely  yet  begun 


commenced  with  every 
prospect  of  aucceas,  a  continued  supply  of  Pemvian 
Bark  and  of  Quinine,  their  inornised  abundance, 
and  a  diminutioD  of  their  price,  being  thus  aecnred. 
Ajnong  the  most  valuable  books  on  medidiwl 
plants  are  Hayne's  AescAreibunir  d«r  in  .kratMiiunds 
gebraachliclien  GtaaAn  (1805— 18W) ;  Nees  von 
Esenbeck,  Weihe,  Walter,  and  Funke,  Sammluno 
oS^iadla-  P/lanxat  (1821—1833);  Bentl^  and 
"nimen.  Medicinal  PtaiUt  (4  vols,  London,  1877). 
Works  on  Materia  Medici^  suck  as  Faeira'g  (new 
ed,  1872),  are  also  valuable. 

UBDIOINE,  HiSTOBT  at.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  Egypt  was  the  coimtry  in  wUch  the 
Mt  of  medicine,  as  well  as  the  other  arts  of  civilised 
life,  was  first  cultivated  with  anv  dezree  of  snccess, 
tiie  offices  of  the  priest  and  the  ^ysician  being 
probably  combined  in  the  same  person.  In  tie 
writinga  of  Hoses,  there  are  various  aUusions  to  the 
practice  of  medione  amongst  the  Jews,  especially 
with  reference  to  the  treatment  of  leprosy.  The 
priests  ware  tha  physiciaas^  and  their  treatment 
mainly  aimed  at  promoting  deanlinesa  and  prevent- 
ing contt^fion.  Cbiron  (q.  t.),  the  oentaur,  is  said 
to  have  mtrodaeed  the  art  of  medicine  amongst 
the  Greeka;  but  the  early  history  id  the  art  is 
entirely  leirendary.  See  .SatJUi-^rnis. 
Witi  a         


Dogmatio  School,  ,     ,. 

out  with  certain  theoretical  principles  which  were 
derived  from  the  generalisation  of  facts  and  obser- 
vations, and  to  nuke  these  principles  the  baate  of 

The  next  droumstaaoe  requiring  notice  in  the 
history  of  medicine  is  the  estaUishment  of  the 
school  of  Alexandria,  which  was  effected  bv  the 
munificence  of  the  Ptolemies,  about  300  years  before 
the  Christian  era.  Amongst  the  moat  umona  of  its 
medical  professors  are  Eraaistratus  and  Herophilua. 
The  former  was  the  jtupil  of  Chrysippus,  and  prob- 
ably imbibed  frem  his  master  his  prejudice  against 
bleeding,  and  against  the  use  of  active  renwdles, 
preferring  to  trust  mainly  to  diet  and  to  the  <  via 
medicatnt  nalutw.  It  was  about  Uiis  time  that  the 
Empirics  formed  themselves  into  a  distinct  sect,  and 
became  the  declared  opponenta  of  the  l>ogniatista. 
The  contreversy,  says  Bostock,  in  his  Htttoiy  qf 
Medicine,  really  conaisted  in  the  question — bow  far 
we  are  to  suffer  theory  to  influence  our  practice. 
While  the  Dogrnatists,  or,  as  they  were  sometimea 
styled,  the  Bationalista,  asserted,  that  before  attempt- 
ing to  treat  any  disease,  we  ong^  to  make  oniaalves 
fully  acquunted  with  the  nature  and  functions  of 
the  body  generally,  with  the  operation  of  medical 
agent8nponit,andwith  the  ohangea  which  it  under- 
goes when  under  the  operation  of  any  morbid  cause  j 
the  Empirics,  on  the  contrary,  contended  that  this 
knowledge  is  impossible  to  be  obtained,  and,  if 
possible,  is  not  necessary ;  that  our  sole  guide 
must  be  experience,  and  tjiat  if  we  step  beyond 
this,  either  as  learned  from  our  own  observation, 
or  tjiat  of  others  on  whose  testimony  we  can  rely, 
we  are  always  liable  to  fall  into  dangerous,  and 
often  fatal  errors.  According  to  Celsus,  who  haa 
given  an  excellent  account  of  the  leading  opinions 
of  both  secfaB,  the  founder  of  the  Empirics  waa  Sera- 

Son  of  Alexandria,  who  waa  said  to  be  a  pniril  ot 
erophilus.  At  Una  period,  and  for  some  centories 
ubsequent  to  it,  all  physicians  were  included  in  one 
ir  other  of  these  rival  sects,  and,  apparently,  t^ 
numbers  of  the  two  schools  were  about  equaL 

We  learn  from  Pliny  that  medicine  waa  intro- 
daoed  into  Borne  at  a  later  period  than  the  other 
arts  and  soienoes.  The  first  peiaon  who  seems  to 
have  made  it  a  distinct  profession  was  Archogathus, 
a  Peloponnesian,  who  settled  at  Rome  about  21)0  B.C. 
"■-  ' — '—"it  was  BO  severe  and  nnsucoessful  that 
ly  banished ;  and  we  hear  of  no  other 
Boman  physician  for  about  a  oentucy,  when  Ascle- 
piadea,  <n  Bithynia,  acquired  a  great  reputation.  TTi» 
popultoi^  depended  upon  his  allowing  bis  patients 
the  liberal  naa  of  wine  and  of  their  favourite  dishes, 
and  in  all  respects  consulting  their  inclinations  and 
flattering  their  prejudices ;  and  hence  it  is  eaxv 
to  understand  the  eminence  at  which  he  arrived. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  pupil  Themison  of  Lao- 
dicca,  the  founder  of  a  sect  called  Uetltodics,  who 
adopted  a  middle  course  between  the  Dogmatists 

'■•^--■-^—     " — !--.i-  — . '  of  9ie  first 

■»  were  the 

preponderating  medical  sect,  and  they  included  in 
their  ranks  C-  Aureliauus,  some  of  wtkose  writings 


Wiw  a  pasnng  allowon  to  the  names  of  ^rtha- 
las,  Democritos,  and   Eeiaclitua,  who  in  their 
I  dspartmenti   may  be  regarded  aa  having 


,,  Google 


of  wliom  Arckigenes  of  Apamea  wbi  the  most 
ealebnted.  Bat  the  most  remarkable  writer  of 
this  Bge  ia  Celsiu  (q.  ▼.).  whose  work  D«  Medidna 
gives  A  aketoh  of  the  hiitoiy  of  medicine  op  to  Ms 
time,  ijid  the  state  in  which  it  than  existed.  He 
is  Temuk&ble  as  being  the  first  natirs  Romsm 
phjsiciaa  whose  name  has  been  trtuumitted  to  ns. 
The  names  of  Andromachus,  the  inventor  of  the 
Theriaea,  a  preparatioa  which  was  retained  in  onr 
phannacopcBias  until  the  cloea  of  the  last  oentmy — 
of  Pliny  tne  naturalist — and  of  Dioecorideg,  cannot 
be  altogether  omitted  in  even  the  briefest  aketoh  of 
the  eany  history  of  medicine  ;  bnt  their  emtri- 
bntioDB  to  its  prooreM  dwarf  into  inrngnificance 
when  compared  wil£  those  of  Otlen  (a.  v.),  whose 
writing  were  oniTarsally  ackBOwledgea  M  ^tiinate 
authontv,  until  they  wen  attacked  and  pnbliely 
burned  in  the  16th  a  by  the  Mch-quaok,  Para- 
oelsDi  (q.  v.)>  A  learned  and  impartial  critic,  the 
late  Dr  A  ikin,  after  giving  fall  credit  to  Oalen  for 
talent  and  aoqnirements,  vm»  condndea ;  '  His  own 
moss  and  modem  improvementt  have  now  in  a 
great  measuK  consigned  his  writings  to  neglect,  bat 
his  fame  can  only  perish  with  the  ecienoe  itself.' 
As  in  Uie  ease  of  Hippooratea,  bi«  immeasurable 
(nperiorit;  over  his  contemporaries  seem*  to  have 
acted  u  a  check  to  sll  attempts  at  fnrthec  improve- 


Thefintft 


l>.)a. 


!)D*e  of  Oribaaina,  Alaxaoder  of  Trailea,  j£tia*,  and 
Paulo*  .^j^neta,  who  flonrished  between  the  fourth 
and  seventh  ceaturiea.  They  were  all  lealous 
Galenista,  and  thoae  (d  their  writing  which  are 
extant,  are,  for  the  moat  part,  oompilationa  ftvan 
their  pradeeesion,  and  eapemalh  frtm  their  sreat 
master.  With  the  death  of  Paalna,  the  Greek 
school  of  medicine  may  be  oonaidend  to  have  oome 
to  an  end,  for  after  his  time  DO  woAa  of  any  merit 
ware  written  in  thia  language.  The  Arabian  school 
waa  now  beginning  to  rise  into  notice.  The  earliest 
Arabic  writer  on  medidne  of  whom  we  have  any 
certain  account  is  Ahmm,  who  was  contemporary 
with  I^ulna.  The  most  cdehratcd  physiciaiks  of  this 
•chool  were  lUkaies  (who  floumhed  in  the  9th  c, 
and  was  the  first  to  describe  the  small-pox),  Avieenoa 
(q-  v.),  (who  flourished  in  the  11th  c.,  and  whose 
Canon  AfedialMt  may  be  n^orded  as  a  cyolouedia 
of  all  that  waa  then  known  of  medicine  and  the 
oollataral  aoiGoceB),  Albooaais  (whose  woi^  on  the 
practice  of  surgery  were  for  Several  agea  regarded 
■a  standard  authorities),  Avenioar,  and  Averrhoes 
4q.v.),  (who  flourished  in  the  12th  e.,  and  waa  equally 
celeturated  as  a  physician  and  a  philosopher).  The 
works  of  Hippocrates  and  Galen,  which,  together 
witi)  those  of  Aristotle,  Plato,  and  Euclid,  were 
tnuulated  into  Arabia  in  the  Mh  c.,  formed  the 
basis  of  their  medical  knowledge ;  bnt  the  Aiabiau 
physiciana  did  good  aervica  to  mediaite  in  iatro- 
aucingiMnrartiueaCram  the  East  into  the  Enropaan 
materia  medico— as,  for  example,  rfa&barb,  cassia, 
senna,  camphor — and  in  making  known  what  may 
be  termed  the  fitat  elementa  of  idiamuuentioal 
chemistry,  such  a*  a  knowledge  of  oistillalion,  and 
of  the  nwaos  ol  obtaining  Toriou*  nietalUo  oxides 
and  salts. 

Upon  the  decline  ol  the 


to  be  found  in  Italy,  wh^  ttie  school  of  Salerno 
aci]Dired  a  considerabk  celebrity,  which  it  main- 
tained for  *orae  time,  till  it  wsa  gradually  eolipeed  by 
the  riling  fame  of  other  medical  schools  at  Bologna 
— where  Mondini  publicly  dissected  two  human 
bodies  in  IRIS— Vienna,  Paris,  Padoa,  ia.  Contem- 
peta^witb  Mondini,  lived  Gilbert,  the  first  £^ig^ 


writer  on  medicine  who  acquired  any  repute  ;  and 
the  next  century  gave  birth  to  Linacre,  who,  aft^ 
studying  at  Oxford,  spent  a  considerable  time  at 
Bologna,  Florenoe^  Borne,  Venice,  and  Padua,  and 


'hyaicians.  It  was  in  this  (the  ISth) 
that  "ihe  soct  of  Chemical  Pbysicians  arose,  who 
maintained  tiiat  all  the  phenomena  of  the  living 
body  may  be  explained  by  the  same  chemical  laws 
as  those  which  rule  inorganic  matter.  Altboufb  the 
illustrations  and  proof*  which  they  adducea  were 
completely  onsatisfactory,  a  distinguished  physio- 
logical school  of  the  present  day  is  mailing  into  a 
very  shnilar  view,  with,  however,  far  more  cogent 
arguments  in   its  support    The  chemists  of  that 

S,  with  ParaceUoB  at  their  head,  did  nothing  to 
anoe  medicine,   except  to   introduce   into  the 
materia  medica  several  valuable  metallic  ptvptin- 

Thia  period  teem*  to  have  been  prolillo  in  ori^o- 
ating  new  diseasea.  It  is  in  the  13th,  14th,  and 
IGth  centuries  that  we  hear  most  of  lepro^  and  ol 
the  visttatioDB  of  the  pIsgMS  in  Europe.  TTntil  the 
ISth  c,  hooping-cough  and  scurvy  were  unknown, 
or,  at  all  evente,  not  accurately  described ;  and  it 
was  towards  the  close  of  that  century  that  syphilis 
was  first  recOKnised  in  Italy  (from  which  oountry  it 
rapidly  extended  over  the  whole  of  Europe),  and 
that  the  Sweattng-sicknees  {Sudor  AngUeantu)  mad* 
its  first  appearance  in  this  country. 

In  the  16th  c.,  the  study  of  human  anatomy  may 
be  said  to  have  been  first  fairly  established  by  Ihs 
Eeal  and  labours  of  Vesalius  (q.  v.) ;  and  in  this  and 
the  succeeding  century  we  meet  vrith  the  names  of 
many  physicians  who«e  anatomical  and  phniolcgical 
investigations  materially  tended,  either  director  or 
indirectly,  to  advance  the  sciance  tA  medicine,  l^kia 
waa  the  epoch  of  Eurtachina,  Fallo^u^  Aselliua, 
Harvey,  Budbeck,  Bartholin,  Molpghi,  Glisson, 
Sylvius  Willis,  Bellini,  ko.  Chemis^  was  now 
separating  itself  from  alchemy,  and  waa  advancing 
into  the  state  of  a  tdence,  and  a  combination  wai 
DOW  formed  between  its  principles  and  those  of 
.  ^  rise  to  a   new  sect   of 

IphysicianB,  qnite  distinct  from  the  sect 
rcpiKBHuted  two  centuries  previously  by  Paracelsus. 
They  considered  that  diseases  were  referrible  to 
certain  fermentations  which  took  place  in  the  blood, 
and  that  certnin  Aiiniour#  were  noturaUr  acid, 
and  other*  naturally  alkaline,  and  according  as 
one  or  other  of  theee  predominated,  so  certain 
specitio  diseases  were  the  result,  which  were  to 
be  removed  by  the  exhibition  of  remedies  of  an 
opposite  nature  to  that  of  the  dtseose.  They  were 
soou  anccceded  by  the  Mathematical  Physicians, 
or  the  latro-mathematioal  school,  of  which  BorelU, 
Sauvages,  Keill,  Jntin,  Mead,  and  Fiwnd  were 
amon^  the  most  celebrated.  In  proportion  as  this 
•eot  gained  ground,  that  of  the  chemists  dadined, 
while  1^  old  Galanists  were  East  disappeaiinz.  To 
these  rival  sects  must  be  added  that  <tttlisVitaliat% 
which  ftriffinatod  witb  Van  Helmont  (q-v.),  ana 
which,  wildi  some  modifications,  was  adopted  by 
Stahl  and  Hoffmann.  The  greatest  pbyucian  of  the 
I7th  a  was,  however,  unquestionably  Sydenham 
(q.v.),  who,  though  inclining  towards  the  chemical 
school,  did  not  allow  his  speculative  opinions  regard- 
ing the  nature  of  tlimiisii  to  interfere  with  his 
treatment. 

The  moat  eminent  teacher  of  medicine  in  the 
eariy  part  of  the  18th  o.  was  Boeriiaave,  who  waa 
elected  to  the  chair  of  medicine  at  Leydsn  in  1709. 
Amongst  the  pupils  of  Boerhaave  must  be  espe- 
cially mentioned  Van  Swieten,  whose  oomnisntaries 
on  the  aphorisms  of  bis  mastai  contain  a  large  ood 
vabiable  coUectson  of  practical  obswvatwDs;  and 


MEDICK— MEDINA. 


Haller  (q.  r.),  ttw  father  of  modem  phyiKdcgy . 
whilst  vnocgft  the  matt  eelebntted  oppooenta  of 
the  Halleriou  theory,  Uut  initabilitr  and  aemiibility 
•re  opeoilio  proparttei  of  Uie  miUDiuar  and  nerroui 
■yatemi,  matt  be  mentiinKd  Wh^  and  Porterfiald, 
physioiBnB  of  high  repatatkin  in  Edinboii^  ud 
the  former  Professor  ol  Medicine  in  the  nniveni^. 

In  the  artiole  upon  CuUeu  (q.  v.),  to  fall  an 
aeooQQt  it  iriven  of  the  doctrines  oE  that  celebrated 
phytician,  Uiat  it  ia  nnneceBiiuy  to  add  more  than 
that  most  of  the  distingnished  physiciana  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  ISth  a  belonged  to  what  may 
be  termed  the  Cullenian  aobool  of  medicine.  Hu 
views  were  attacked  with  great  acrimony  by  his 
former  assistant.  John  Brown,  the  founder  oi  the 
Brononian  gystem  of  medicine.  In  this  countiy, 
the  views  ot  Brown  were  regiuded  as  too  pnrQiy 
theoretical,  and  did  not  acquire  any  great  popu^ty ; 
but  on  some  parts  of  the  continent,  and  eapeoiallj  m 
Italy,  they  were  very  generally  adopted,  and  became 
for  a  considerSible  tmie  the  prevuling  doctrine  in 
aeveral  of  the  leading  medical  achools.  To  supple- 
ment this  meagre  ouuine  of  the  progress  of  medidne 
in  the  18th  c,  the  reader  is  reconmieDded  to  oonsult 
the  biographical  aketchea  of  Monrc^  Blane,  the 
Hnnten,  Jenner,  tc 

If  we  eidnda  certain  popular  quackeries,  we  may 
legard  the  Brunonian  aa  the  lost  of  medical  sectSL 
Tlw  prcKOt  century  may  be  considered  as  the  epoch 
of  i^yiiologioal  experiment  and  clinical  observation. 
The  efficient  labourera  in  the  field  of  medicine, 
during  the  Ust  tizty  yeara,  have  been  so  numerous, 
that  it  would  be  impoesibla  to  notice,  in  this  article, 
even  those  whom  we  deemed  the  moat  celebrated, 
while  it  would  be  invidious  to  attempt  such  a 
■eleetiou. 

Our  mat»i»  medioa  hu  reoeived  a  large  number 
of  HUMt  important  additions,  amoncst  Mich  may 
be  especially  noticed  quinine,  morpnia,  strychnine, 
iodine  and  the  iodides,  the  bromidee,  hydiocyanic 
acid,  cod-liver  oil,  and  chlorofonn.  Tl^  phytioal 
diagnosis  of  disease  has  been  facilitated  to  an  extent 
far  beyond  what  the  moat  sanguine  pbyaician  of 
last  century  oould  have  deemed  possible,  by  the  dis- 


covery and  practical  application  of  the  stetboicope, 
the  pleximetcr,  the  ipeculum,  the  ophthalmoecope, 
and  the  laryngoscope;  while  chemistry  and  the 
microsoopa  kive  been  snocesafuliy  applied  to  the 
investigation  of  the  various  excretions,  and  espe- 
eially  m  tha  nrine  and  its  deposits. 

The  discovery  of  vaccination  oa  a  meana  of  pre- 
Tutting  small-pox,  althon^  made  (sea  Jxhksb)  at 
the  close  of  last  oentury,  may  be  tegarded  prac- 
tically as  belon^ng  to  the  present,  since  a  consider- 
able time   da[«eir  before  its  value  waa  generally 


cians  ;  and  the  discoverers  of  Bright'a  rUsi^ssn  of  the 
kidneys,  and  of  Addison's  disease  of  the  aapra-renal 
capsulea,  have  only  recently  been  lost  to  science. 

The  treatment  of  many  diseases,  especially  those 
nf  an  inflaounatoiy  natnre,  has  been  much  modified, 
and  in  matt  cases  improved,  especially  dniing  the 
bst  qnarler  of  a  oentn^.  The  victims  to  tite  unoet 
are  far' fewer  than  they  were ;  and  there  is  less  chance 
of  patients  perishing  from  the  too  eo[uons  adminis- 
tration of  brandy.  Observation  of  the  depleting 
and  the  stimnlatuig  modes  of  treating  inflammatory 
diseases  such  as  pneumonia  and  pericarditis,  suggetta 
that  nature  will  often  effect  a  cure  even  in  spite  of 
the  interference  of  t«o  energetic  phyEiciaue. 

The  pathological  anatomy  of  Bokitonsky  and 
Virchow  (q.  v.  m  SoFP.,  Vol.  X.) ;  the  development 
of  the  methods  of  anscultation  and  percussion 
srtabUthed  by  Laanneo  (q.  v.) ;  tlw  antiseptic  method 


of  litttf  (see  OiRBOLio  Aoid,  Girm  Tueobv,  and 
Pastbiix,  all  in  8aee.,  VoL  X,),  deserve  notice  b 
this  coneluding  paragraph.  See  the  histories  of 
medicine  by  Sprengel,  Ueoker,  DarembeK,  Meryon, 
and  Hiser  (3d  ed.  1S7S). 

HEDIOK  [MeXeago],  a  genns  of  rJonta  of  the 
natural  order  Lrgumincia,  tub-order  Papilioaaaa, 
nearly  allied  to  Clover  {q.  v.,  Trifdium),  but 
distinguished  from  that  and  other  kindred  genera 
by  the  sickle-shaped,  or,  in  most  species,  spirally 
twisted  l^uma.  "Hie  species,  which  are  very 
numerous,  are  mostly  aimual  and  pereaniol  herba- 
ceous plants,  with  leaves  of  three  leaflets  like  those 
of  clover,  natives  of  temperate  and  warm  climat«B. 
A  number  of  them  are  found  in  Britain,  and  many 
more  in  the  south  of  Europe.  They  generally 
aSbrd  good  green  food  for  cattle,  and  oome  of  them 
are  cultivated  like  the  clovers  for  this  use,  amongst 
which  the  most  important  is  the  Puhplb  M.  or 
Ldckrnk  (q.  v.,  M,  tatim).  Besides  tliis,  the  Biack 
M.,  HouaucH,  or  Lcpitlinb  (if.  lupvliaa),  is  one  of 
the  most  generally  cultivated.  It  receives  the  name 
Black  M.  from  the  block  colour  of  the  ripe  pods, 
which  are  short,  black,  twisted,  and  arraQged  in 
oblong  heads,  and  is  often  called  Yellow  Lucerne, 
■"ollow  Clover,  from  the  oolour  of  its  fiowera. 
_ .  . .  a  oommon  native  ot  Britain.  In  habit  and 
general  appearance,  it  is  very  similar  to  Tr^otiam 
proaimbau,  or  T.  JVIj/brnM.  In  British  husbandry, 
it  is  now  very  genenjly  sown  in  mixture  with  Red 
Clover  and  Kye-grass,  and  ia  useful  where  a  close 
tmf  is  de«ired. 


UEDIITAI 
AL  NASI    (I    ,  ... 

Xabah,  Ttbab,  ia.  (the  Good,  Sweet,  fto.],  and  men- 
tioned by  Ptolemy  as  Jathrippa:  the  holiest  cit? 
'      '   "  '  '     ■  ■    ■     "lecoa,  and 

situated  about  ETO  miles'  N.  of  Mecca,  and  140 
N.  by  E.  ot  the  port  ot  Jembo  oa  the  Red  Sea, 
and  contains  about  16,000  inhabitants  (Burton). 
It  connLBts  ot  three  principal  ports — a  town,  a  fort, 
and  soburbs,  of  about  the  some  extent  as  the  town 
itself  from  which  they  are  separated  by  a  wide 
ipaoe  (the  Munnkha).  M.  is  about  half  the  size  of 
Eoecca,  and  forms  an  irregular  oval  within  a  woUed 
enclosure  ot  35—40  feet  hi^  and  flanked  by  tliirty 
towers — a  fodJflcatioa  which  reuden  M.  the  chirf 
stronghold  of  Hedjaz.  Two  of  its  four  gates — vii., 
the  Bab  Al  Jumoh  {Friday  Gate,  in  the  eastern  wall) 
and  the  Bab  Al  Misri  lEffm!an)—aTe  maaaive  build- 
ings  with  double  towers.  The  streets,  between  fifty 
and  sixty  in  number,  are  deep  and  narrow,  paved 
only  in  a  few  places.  The  houses  are  flat-roofed  and 
double -storing  and  are  built  of  a  basoltio  scoria, 
burned  brick,  and  palm-wood.  Very  few  public  build- 
ings of  any  importance  are  to  be  uoticeil  beside  the 
Great  Mosque  Al  Horam  (the  Sacred),  supposed  to  be 
erected  on  the  spot  where  Mohammed  died,  and  to 
enclose  his  tomb.  It  is  of  smaller  dimensioni  than 
that  of  Mecca,  being  a  poiollelogium,  420  feet  long 
and  340  feet  brood,  with  a  spacious  central  area, 
called  El  Sohn,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  peristyle, 
with  numerooa  rows  of  pillara.  The  Mausoleum,  or 
Hnjrah,  itself  is  an  irr^;nlar  square,  50 — 66  feet  in 
extent,  situated  in  the  south-east  comer  of  the 
building,  and  seporated  from  the  woUs  of  the 
mosque  by  a  passage  about  2S  feet  broad.  A  lorge 
It  crescent  above  the  '  Green  Dome,'  sprin^ng 
im  a  series  of  globes,  surmoonts  the  Hnjrah,  a 
glimpse  into  which  is  only  attainable  throngh  a  little 
opening  called  the  Prophet's  Window ;  but  nothing 
is  visible  to  the  profane  eye  than  costly  caipeta 


MEDINA  8ID0NIA— MEDITEEBAJIEAN  SEA. 


or  h&Dgingi,  with  three  inscriptiaiii  in  large  gold 
letters,  itatiiur  that  behind  them  lie  the  bodies  oTthe 
Prophet  of  AllBb  ftod  the  two  califa — which  autaiiu, 
changed  whenever  worn  oat,  or  when  a  new  sultan 
Mcendi  the  throne,  are  lapposed  to  cover  a  square 
edifice  of  blatA  marble,  in  the  midst  of  which  s^nda 
MohMnmed's  tomb.  Its  eract  place  U  indicated  by 
a  lone  pesriy  rosarr  (Eaukab  Al  Dorri) — still  seen 
in  1^5 — suspended  to  the  anrtain.  The  Prophet^s 
body  is  supposed  to  he  (undecaysdj  stretched  at 
full  length  on  the  right  side,  with  the  right  palm 
•apportuig  the  right  cheek,  the  face  directed 
towards  Mecca.  Close  behind  him  is  placed,  in 
the  same  positioo,  Abnbekr,  and  behind  him  Omar. 
The  fact,  however,  is,  that  when  the  mosque,  which 
bsd  been  stmck  by  lightning,  woa  rebuilt  in  892, 
three  de«i  graves  were  found  in  the  interior,  filled 
ooly  with  rubbish.  Many  other  reasons,  bceidee, 
make  it  mors  than  problematic  whether  the  parti- 
cular spot  at  M.  really  contaiiis  the  Prophet's 
remains.  That  his  cofGri,  said  to  be  covered  with  a 
marble  slab,  and  cased  with  silver  (no  European  has 
ever  seen  it),  rests  siupended  in  the  air.  is  a  stupid 
story,  invented  by  Christians,  and  long  exploded. 
Of  the  fabnious  treasures  whit^  this  sanctoaiy  once 
contained,  little  now  remains.  As  in  Mecca,  a 
forest  ntunber  of  eccleaiaatical  officials  are  attached 


not  only  they,  but  the  townspeople  themselves 
live  to  a  great  extent  only  on  the  pilgrims'  alms- 
There  are  few  other  noteworthy  spots  to  be  nien- 
tioned  in  M..  save  the  minor  mosques  of  Abubekr, 
All,  Omar,  Balal,  tc  The  private  houses,  how- 
ever, snrroonded  by  gardens,  foimtains,  Ac,  have  a 
very  pleasing  appearance  ;  and  the  city,  although  in 
its  dec»',  is  yet  one  of  the  busiefit  and  most  agree- 


:  endowed  schools. 


able.    Thirty  Medresses,  o   , 
represent  what  learning  there  i 
oQoe  famed  for  ite  scholois. 

MEDINA  SIDO'NIA  (Arab.  Medmatu-Shida- 
nah,  '  City  of  Sidon,'  so  called  by  the  Moors  because 
they  conjectured  it  to  be  the  site  of  the  Phcenidan 
jiiiifon),  a  city  of  Spain,  20  miles  eaat-south-east 
of  Cadjs.  It  has  a  picturesque  and  splendid 
appearance  at  a  distance ;  bat  within,  it  ia  described 
as  *a  whitened  sepulchre  foU  of  decay.'  It  is  of 
Moorish  origin,  and  contains  a  beautiful  Gothia 
church,  and  ertensive  ruins  of  a  casUe.  The  town 
nves  the  title  of  doke  to  the  descendants  of  thefamons 
Guzman  the  Qood,  and  is  otherwise  noted  in  Spanish 
history.  Population  10,800,  who  carry  on  mona- 
facturea  oi  earthenware. 

MEDI'NBT-EL-FATU'M.  SeeFaxtliL 
MEDITA'TIO  FTT'O^  a  phrase  used  in  Scotch 
law  to  denote  an  intention  to  abscond  from  tbe 
juriBdiction  of  the  ordinary  courts.  It  is  used 
chiefiy  in  reference  to  debtors.  Wberever  a  creditor 
in  Scotland  believes — L  e.,  can  make  an  oath  or 
affidavit  that  he  has  reasonable  ground  to  believe- 
that  the  debtor  is  about  to  leave  the  country  in  order 
to  evade  payment  of  debts,  he  can  obtain  from  a 
justice  of  the  peace  a  warrant  to  apprehend  the 
debtor.  The  consequence  of  this  is,  that  the  debtor 
must  either  pay  or  give  security,  or  remain  in  prison 
till  the  canse  is  tned.  Hie  process  may  be  used 
either  against  natives  or  foreigners  who  have  lived 
forty  days  in  Scotland,  but  not  where  they  are  merely 
paaamg  through  the  country  on  buaiuees  or  pleasure. 
The  warrant  may  be  eiecuted  on  a  Sunday  as  well 
as  otbo'  days.  The  acta  abolishing  imjinaonment 
for  debt  in  general  eipressly  retain  it  m  the  ease 
of  Meditatio  Fugs.  See  Dzbt  (Ihpbisoidieiit 
FOB).  Creditors  are  liable  to  on  action,  if  they  mali- 
donsly,  and  irithoot  cons^  procure  the  debtor's 


arrest ;  and  if  the  debtor  can  shew  Out  he  never 
intended,  at  the  tima  in  qneation,  to  leave  the 
oDontry,  and  that  the  creditor  had  no  jnat  gtoond 
to  believe  ha  so  intended,  an  action  of  damages  will 
lie. — In  England  and  Ireland,  there  is  a  similac 
process.    See  DKBtona,  ABSCONSina. 

MEDITERRA'NEAN  SEA,  so  named  from  ila 
being  almost  entirely  enclosed  I^  the  oontinenta  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  one  of  the  greatest  inland 
seas  in  the  world,  extends  (iQcloslve  of  the  Sea  of 
Mannora,  but  exdosive  of  the  Black  Sea  and  Sea 
of  Azof)  to  about  1,000.000  square  miles.  Its  length 
from  east  to  west  is  about  2320  miles,  its  greatest 
breadth  about  lOSO,  but  it  is  divided  into  two  great 
basins  by  the  approach  of  the  Enropean  and  African 
coasts  in  its  middle.  It  is  connected  with  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  only  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar, 
through  which  a  sbvng  current  continually  flows 
into  Uie  Mediterranean.  Another  strong  current 
also  flows  into  it  from  tbe  Black  Sea,  which  receives 
large  sopplies  of  fresh  water,  whereas  the  great 
rivers  which  fall  into  the  M.  itself  are  comparatively 
few ;  the  prindpal  being  the  Ebro,  the  Khone,  and 
the  Po,  from  Europe ;  and  tbe  Nile,  from  Africa. 
It  receives  do  lorm  river  from  Asia.  "Die  evapora- 
tion from  the  suriooe  of  tbe  M  is,  on  the  contrary, 
greater  than  what  takes  place  in  the  ooean  gener- 
ally, owing  to  the  heat  which  proceeds  from  the 
Amcan  deserts,  and  tbe  ehelter  which  mountains 
afford  from  the  cold  winds  of  the  north.  The 
surface  temperature,  dependent  on  the  intensity  of 
solar  radiation,  is  in  summer  about  E^  above  that  of 
the  Mediterranean.     By  the  expeditionB   for  the 


thi3  surface  heating  are  limited  to  a  depUi  of  100 
fathoms  i  at  every  depth  beneath  this,  even  down 
to  1900  fathoma,  the  temperature  of  the  M.,  unlike 
that  of  the  Atlantic,  is  unt/brm,  and  stands  about 
04*  or  05°.  This  ia,  in  fact,  the  unnfer  temperature 
of  the  entire  contents  of  the  baain,  from  the  surfooe 
downwards,  and  also  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
crust  of  the  earth  in  that  region.  In  winter,  the 
temperature  of  the  M.  and  the  Atlantio  appnizunate 
very  closely.  In  consequence,  probably,  of  tiie 
greater  evaporation,  the  water  of  the  M.,  unlike 
that  of  inland  seas  in  general,  contains  about  iOi 
per  cent,  more  salt  than  the  Atlantio  Ocean.  Its 
Bpecifio  gravity  is  ahnoat  everywhere  greater  than 
tJut  of  tbe  Atlantic,  being  in  the  proportion  of 
1  '0386  to  1 -02S3.  Its  colour,  when  undisturbed,  ii 
a  bright  deep  blue ;  but  in  the  Adriatic  a  green, 
and  in  the  Levant  a  purple  tinge  prevails,  while  the 
dark  hue  of  the  Euxine  is  indicated  in  its  name  of 
'Black  Sea,'  Different  parts  of  tbe  M,  a  bear 
different  names— oa  the  iOReaa  Sea,  the  Ionian  Sei^ 
the  Adriatic  Sea  or  Oulf  of  Venice,  Ac  Its  north- 
em  coast  is  very  much  broken  with  bays  and 
peninsulas,  and  abounds  in  harbours,  affording  the 
mhabitants  of  the  south  of  Europe  great  advantages 
for  commerce,  of  which  the  M.  S.  was  the  chid 
seat  during  all  periods  of  history,  till  toward  the 
close  of  the  middle  ages,  when,  ^ter  the  inven- 
tion of  the  mariner's  compass,  a  spirit  of  maritime 
adventure  sprun/t  up,  and  the  discoveries  of  the 
Portuguese  and  of  Columbus  lad  to  the  extension  of 
commerce  over  the  whole  world.  The  commeroe 
of  the  Egyptians,  the  Phceoicians,  the  Qreeks,  and 
Romans  was  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  M.  S. 

The  depth  of  the  M.  S.  ia  generally  greatest  in 
its  western  baain.  In  many  plaoea  it  is  3000  feet 
deep.  Near  Nice,  it  is  4200  feet  deep  at  a  dis- 
tance of  only  a  few  yards  from  the  shore.  In  many 
places  it  is  0000  feet  deep  and  more.  The  depUi 
in  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  is  about  5G00  feet  It 
is  highly  proltable  that  the  oowrta  of  Eui«pe  and 


wLiOOglC 


ItEDjAtfi — MK^USCttAtm 


Atric»  won  mwe  united  ban,  and  have  beoi  lepar- 
kted  by  tome  graat  conTuIdon  j  it  u  also  niEmoaed 
that  luid  oaOB  utretabed  from  Sicily  to  Cuw  Bon  in 
Africa,  where  now  a  ridge  exiati  ^ong  which  there 
is  for  the  most  part  a  depth  of  (caroely  200  feet, 
and  in  aome  pUoea  of  little  more  than  40  feet, 
wbUst  on  eaoh  aide,  at  a  short  distance,  the  depth 
i«  more  than  6000  feet.  The  i£.  8.  ia  sabject  to 
the  weat,  north,  and  north -easterly  winda  for  more 
than  two-thiidi  of  the  year,  while  in  ipring  the 
tontb-eaat  and  aonth-west  windi  prevaiL  The  mo«t 
formidable  of  tliou  winda  whioh  are  pecniiar  to  the 
M.  S.  is  the  wlono  or  leoantar.  In  the  Onlf  of 
Tenioe^  tbe  greatest  tides  rise  sbont  three  feet, 
and  in  tbe  Breat  Syrtis,  five  feet,  but  in  moat 
pUc«e  tbe  tides  are  scarcely  obeeryable.  Aocoiding 
to  the  meanrementa  of  Napoleon's  E^ptian  expe- 
dition (1799),  Oia  surface  of  tbe  M.  3.  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Aleoindria  waa  from  24  to  30 
feet  lower  thaa  that  of  tbe  Red  Sea  at  Sues ;  but 
more  ncent  measuremeats  hare  shewn  that  the 
difference  of  level  is  inconsiderable,  and  that  the 
mean  lerel  of  the  Bed  Sea  is  at  moat  six  inohea 
higher  than  the  Mediterranean. 

Of  the  643  spcdea  of  Eoropean  Bea-£sbea,  444 
inhabit  tbe  M.  8.,  some  of  which  are  peculiar  to 
it.  It  has  a  greater  nnmber  of  species  than  tbe 
British  and  Scandinavian  seas,  but  doea  not  nearly 
to  much  abound  in  useful  kinds.  Tnnny-fishing  is 
eitenaiTely  prosecuted  on  some  part*  of  its  coasts. 
It  is  rich  in  T«d  coral,  which  is  procured  in  great 

auitity  on  the  coast*  of  Provence,  of  the  Bateario 
e^  and  of  SioQy,  but  partioolarly  on  the  coasts  of 
Bona  and  Barea  in  Africa. 

The  shores  of  the  M.  S.  are  in  many  parts  snbject 
to  frequent  earthquakes.  Besides  the  eziattng 
active  volcanoes  of  Etna,  Tnnvii]*,  and  Stromboli, 
there  are  many  evidences  of  reoent  volcamo  action, 
and  instances  have  oocnrred  of  illanda  suddenly 
npheavad  by  it,  where  voloanio  fires  have  appeared 
fi»  a  short  time. 

HBDJIDIE,  a  Turkish  order,  instituted  in  1SS2, 
and  conferred  after  the  Crimean  campaign,  to  a 
oonsiderable  extent,  on  Britiah  officera.  It  haa  five 
alasBet;  and  the  decoration,  which  diSere  in  ti>e 
for  the  different  classes,  is  a  silver  sun  of  seven 
triple  rays,  with  the  device  of  the  crescent  and  star 
alternating  with  the  rays.  The  first  three  olastea 
■nspend  the  badge  round  the  neck  from  a  red  ribbon 
baving  green  borders,  and  the  fourth  and  fifth  classes 
near  it  attached  to  a  similar  ribbon  on  the  left 

shnibi 

._   __ .  Pom«B, 

having  a  5-cleft  calyx  with  leafy  segments,  nearly 
lonud  petals,  a  large  boney-secreting  disk,  and  2 — 6 
styles,  united  together  in  tbe  flower,  but  widely 
separated  on  the  frojt,  the  upper  ends  of  the  bony 
cells  of  which  are  exposeA  The  Comkon  M. 
lit.  Oermanka),  a  large  shrub  or  small  tree,  spiny 
in  a  wild  state,  but  destitute  of  spines  in  cnltivation, 
i*  a  native  of  the  sonth  of  Europe,  and  of  the 
temperate  parts  of  Ana,  but  is  a  doubtful  native  of 
Britun,  although  it  is  to  be  seen  in  hedges  and 
thicket!  in  some  parts  of  England.  It  h«*  lanceolate 
leaves,  not  divided  nor  serrated,  solitary  large 
white  flowers  at  the  end  of  small  spun,  and  some- 
what top-shaped  fruit,  of  the  size  of  a  small  pear 
or  larger,  according  to  the  vanely.  The  M.  is 
much  mtltivated  in  aome  parts  of  Enrope,  and  is 
oommou  in  gardens  in  England,  but  it  does  not 
generally  ripen  well  in  Soo&nd  withont  a  wall  It 
" ""—  austere,  even  when  ripe,  and  is  not  eatcmtiU 

when  its  tough  pulp  has  become  soft  and 

by  incipient  decay. 


NtoJ,  w 


UtoOC,  a  district  in  the  French  department  of 
Qironde,  famed  tor  the  quantity  and  excellence  of 
the  wine  produced  hero— inclnding  the  most  famous 
growth*  of  Bordeaux  (q.  v. )  wine^  such  aa  ChAtean- 
Hamai.ChateaD-LafittcandChttean-I^tour.  The 
district  lie*  on  the  left  bank  of  the  eetnaiy  of  the 
Gironde,  is  40  milta  long,  is  ocoopied  by  low  ridoea  of 
bills,  and  has  for  a  port  the  small  town  of  Panulao. 

MBDUXLA  OBLONGATA.    See  Bbam. 

MBDTTLL ART  BATS.  SeeBxooBHOiTsPLAina 
and  Pith. 

MEDUXLABT  SAROO'HA  i*  one  of  the 
synonyms  tia  that  variety  of  Cancer  (q-  v.)  which 
is  also  known  as  eneephaloid,  cellular  cancer,  medul- 
lary cancer,  fungus  medullaris,  Ac  It  growl  mora 
quickly,  distributes  itself  more  rapidly,  and  attaina 
a  more  considerable  bulk  than  any  other  form  of 
cancer,  tamoors  of  this  nature  being  often  as  large 
as  a  man's  head,  or  even  larger.  Of  all  forms  of 
canoer,  it  runs  the  quickest  course,  soonest  ulcerates, 
is  the  most  malignant,  and  causes  death  in  by  for 
the  shortest  time,  often  destroying  life  in  a  few 
weeks,  or,  at  furthest,  in  a  few  months  after  its  first 
appearance,  unless  it  has  been  removed  by  an 
operation  at  an  early  stage. 

Wben  it  ulcerates,  fungoid  growths  form  noon  the 
surface ;  they  are  extremely  vascular,  and  bleed 
on  the  slightest  provocation.  In  this  state,  the 
disease  has  received  the  name  of  Fttngui  kamtUodea. 

MEDU'BA.  S«e  Aoaupsls,  and  OEHXRATiOKa, 
Altbrhatiok  or. 

UB'DWAT,  a  river  of  England,  riaa  near  the 
northern  border  of  the  county  of  Susaei,  and,  after 
a  north-east  course  of  npwiircls  of  SO  miles,  it  joins 
the  Thames  at  Sheemess.  At  Penshuiat,  40  mile* 
from  its  mouth,  it  becomes  navigable.  The  chief 
towns  on  its  banks  are  Maidstone,  Bochester, 
Chatham,  and  Sheemesa.  Lai^  veuela  do  not 
ascend  above  Boohcster  Bridge,  but  below  that  the 
river  widens  into  an  eatoaiy,  and  form*  an  import- 
ant harbour  for  the  navy. 

MEEANBE,  or  MIYANI,  a  vjUace  in  Sinde, 
Hindustan,  on  the  Indus,  six  miles  north  of  Hyder- 
abad, is  celebrated  as  ihe  scene  of  a  great  battle 
foudit  between  Sir  Charloi  Napier  and  the  Ameer* 
of  Sinde,  FebmaiT  IT,  1S43.  Sir  Charles's  force, 
composed  partly  of  Europeans,  and  partly  of  natives, 
amounted  to  only  2800  men ;  that  at  his  foes  to 
22,000,  yet  tbe  ktter  were  totally  routed,  losing  in 
killed  and  wounded  COOO  men.  Sir  Charles'*  losa 
was  only  256>  The  result  of  this  victory  was  the 
conquest  and  annexation  of  Sinde. 

MEEltSOHAUM,  a  mineral  existing  in  many 

<rta  of  the  world.  In  Europe,  it  is  found  chiefly 
at  Hmhschitz  in  Moravia,  and  at  Sebastopol  and 
Ka&  in  the  Crimea ;  and  in  Asia  it  occurs  abund- 
antly just  below  the  soil  in  the  alluvial  beds  at 
Eittisch  and  Buisa  in  Natolia ;  and  in  the  rocks  of 
Eski-Hissar  in  the  same  district,  it  is  mined  so 
extensively  as  to  give  employment  to  nearly  a 
thousand  men.  M.,  from  ita  having  been  found 
on  the  sea-shore  in  some  places,  in  peculiarly 
rounded  snow-white  lumps,  was  ignorantly  imagined 
to  be  tbe  petrified  £rotb  of  the  sea,  whicb  is 
tbe  meining  of  its  German  name.  Ita  composition 
is,  silica,  60'9 ;  magnesia,  26-1 ;  water,  12-0.  Alm(«t 
all  the  M.  found  is  tuade  into  tobacco-pipes,  in 
which  manufacture  tbe  Germans  have  been  for 
a  long  time  pre-eminent.  Vienna  contains  many 
manufactories,  in  which  some  very  artistic  produc- 
tions are  mode;  and  pipes  worth  a  hundred 
guineas,  from  Uie  beau^  of  their  designs,  are  by 
no  means  uncommon.  Tbe  Freoeh  iripe-makei« 
have  lately  used  M.,  and   have  displayedgreat 


jLtWteltiT'f — iJBOAtSJlltttttt 


tMte  in  their  works,  Wlien 
the  earth,  M.  i*  quite  loft  and  so^t-Uke  to  the 
toaoh,  and  u  it  latiien  wiUi  mter.  Mid  ramovM 
gnaao,  it  li  oDplc^red  hi' Iba  Tm^  ■■  a  lubatitiite 
for  Boap  in  waahing.  The  mate  in  onUilig  and 
toraing  the  pipe*  waa  tnmeTly  thnnrn  away,  but 
it  is  now  reduced  tr  ""■"'"-  — i~J  i~*"  -  ~.*- 
and  tmnpreaMd  into 
into  inf 811(7  pipes. 

UBBBUX  MEBUT,  or  UIRUT,  a  town,  dit- 
trict^  and  division,  of  !foitdah  India.  The  town  ia 
the  chief  town  of  the  diatrict  anil  pro vinoe,  and  is  on 
the  Ealli  Nuddi,  about  42  m.  N.E.  of  Delhi.  Ita 
moat  impartant  edifice  ia  the  F.ngliah  churoh,  a  fine 
building,  with  an  excellent  organ,  and  large  enough 
to  accommodate  3000  persona.  The  olimafe  of  M.  ia 
healthy.  Pop.  (ISSl)  09,560.  The  cantooment  is 
situated  2  m.  N.  of  the  town ;  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  stream  are  quarters  of  the  native  infantry. 
Here,  on  May  10,  1857,  the  native  troops  revolted, 
shooting  their  own  European  officers,  firing  the  '-■■ - 

—'—»»,  and  massacring  the  ^ '--    '-   - 

espect  to  age  or  sex. 

-west  Provinces; 
area,  10,iM7  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1831)  5,141,204. 

HEEIINQ,  an  aasemblage  of  people  oalled  wiUt 
a  view  to  deliberate  on  some  specified  subject^  of  to 
accomplish  some  specified  purpose.  The  prooeedin^ 
begin  with  the  choice  of  a  cliairman,  or  presiding 


meeting  ia  talien.  The  chairman,  in  addition  to  lus 
delibeiative  vote,  ia  often  entitled  to  give  a  second 
or  casting  vote,  in  caaa  of  eqnabty.  Anymunber  of 
persona  may  in  thia  eonnti^  assemble  for  any  pnr- 
poea  not  in  itself  illegal  |  bitt  the  ttse  of  force  or 
violenoe,  or  any  tendenoy  towards  it,  may  entitle 
the  anthoritka  to  interfere  with  a  meetiag,  as  an 


continent  aa  a  cbaracteriatiiially  English  institiitii 
in  most  parta  <i  ttna  contfawnt,  the  ri^t  of  holding 
such   UBBniblagea  is   mora   oz  Ism  resbrioted  by 


foaail  heterooeteal  ^ ,  — -—^ 

their  large  siie,  eompaied  with  the  other  £ah  of  the 
period.  Thty  were  mrered  with  larga  ttnug 
riunnboid  soalea,  eomptwed  externally  of  brilUantly 
polished  Icown  anamd,  ajmally  srutnlated,  aa  in 
the  sotrtes  of  the  raoent  crocodile  These  scalea  have 
been  found  aa  large  aa  Sve  inohea  in  diainater.  The 
head  waa  defeudra  by  dmilar  strong  plates,  and  the 
jawa  ware  furnished  with  immense  laniary  teeth,  of 
a  size  rarely  attained,  even  in  the  largest  modeia 
reptilea,  and  so  doaely  resembling  theo,  tiiat  thn- 
were  for  some  time  considered  aa  having  txdongea 
to  some  crocodilean  «"'"■»<,  Thaan  teeth — apeoimeu 
of  which  have  been  fonnd  measuring  four  inches 
long  and  two  broad  at  the  base— were  amooth  at  the 
|>oint,  had  a  long  furrowed  root,  and  a  hollow  baa^ 
in  which  the  new  tooth  wa*  jvcpored.  Hnmerona 
Bmaller  teeUi  were  scattered  over  the  jaw  among 
tiie  laij^  ones.  The  fiih  of  this  gcnns  must  have 
been  the  terror  of  the  seaa  they  inhabited.  Their 
atron^  skeleton,  larse  tail,  ^werful  head,  and 
farociona  jaws  mnaikably  suited  their  carnivorous 

Thre«  species  have  been  deacribed  from  the 
eaibonifeioas  sbata  td  Edinbnigh,  Ola^ow,  and 
the  centre  of  England. 

HEOALOSAU'KUS  (Or.  great  lizard),  a  genus 
of  fos^l  Dinnsanrians,  or  land-sanriaos,  of  gigantio 
"-'  — "■  — — -— —  habits,  whose  remains  occsr  in 


the  rocks  of  the  Oolite  period.  The  huge  body  of 
the  animal  wa*  supported  on  four  large  and  atrons 
nnguiculate  limbs ;  nwdmens  of  tlte  femur  and 
tibia  have  been  found  metanrinE  each  neariy  three 
feat,  dving  a  total  length  of  abiost  two  yudt  to 
the  hind  iSg;  and  a  metatarsal  bone  thirbem  inches 
lotw  shews  tiiat  the  foothadacorreepondingmuni* 
tnde.  Hie  sacrum  was  composed  ot  five  vertebrra, 
anchylcaed  together,  aa  in  the  other  Dinosants. 
Bucldand  calculated  that  the  megalDsaorus  must 
have  been  60  or  70  feet  long;  but  it  ia  not  likdy 
that  a  reptile  nused  so  h^h  above  the  ground 
would  hare  its  body  and  tail  ho  larve  in  proporticn 
to  its  limbe,  as  in  onr  modem  lisuds  or  crocodiles. 
There  seems  good  reason  for  rather  accepting  Owen's 
more  moderate  estimate  of  thirty  feet  as  its  whole 
loigth.  A  fta^gment  of  the  lower  jaw,  containino 
several  teeth  in  position,  tell*  of  "^- 
k.LU.      n-i_  .  -T 1. ; I... 


QraUjM,  but  more 
general^  to  the  Gallinaceous  order,  being  regarded 
as  allied  to  the  Ootassows,  &0.  The  feet  are  U^e 
and  have  la^  blunt  clawi.  To  this  order  belong 
the  genera  Megapodita  (see  JcmaLi-FOWL),  Leipoa 
(q.v!),  TalegaUa  (q.  v.),  ka.  The  order  is  peculiar 
to  New  HoUaod  snd  the  neighbouring  inlaniiti. 

MEOAIUO  SOHOOIi.    SeeErcLni. 

MBOABia,  a  small  mountainous  n^n  ot 
Hellaa,  or  Greece  Proper,  bounded  by  Attica, 
Corinth,  and  the  saik  It  formed  the  north-eastern 
part  frf  the  Isthmna  of  Corinth.  The  capital  waa 
Heoak^  famous  amongrt  the  andenb  for  its  white 
shell  marbta,  and  tat  a  white  kind  of  clay,  of  which 
pottery  waa  made. — From  Euclid,  the  philcaopher, 
who  waa  bora  at  Megara,  about  400  B.a,  tha 
Mboario  School  took  its  name. 

MEOATHE'RIUM  (Or.  gt«at  heart),  a  ^gantic 
eitiuct  quadruped  of  the  order  Edentata,  nearly 
allied  to  the  slirth.  found  in  the  superficial  stratum 
of  the  South  Amraican  Pampas.  Ui  stmctare,  it  ia 
very  near  its  modenk  representative,  except  Uuk- 


Bkeleton  of  the  M egatheilum, 

the  whole  skeleton  is  modified  to  suit  the  reqnire. 

*.aof  an  immense  heavy-boned  and  heavy-bodied 

lal,  some  IS  feet  In  length  and  8  feet  in  heiglit 
Tha  appellation  tardigrade,  which  Cuvier  aj"""     '" 


U,!IL,,,,,,jCOOglC 


kfiottiU-iteisd^. 


tba  aloflt,  cumot  be  given  to  the  M. :  ita  1 

wew  comparatively  short  and  very  atmng,  and  the 
feet  adapted  for  walking  on  the  gronnd,  approach- 
ing in  this  respect  nearer  to  the  allied  ant-eatera, 
bat  with  this  pecolioriW,  that  the  first  toe  of  each 
of  the  hind  feet  was  lumiBhed  with  a  large  and 

ewerfol  claw,  which  was  probably  used  as  a  digger 
loosen  roots  from  the  soil,  and  enable  the 
creature  the  more  easily  to  overturn  the  tree 
the  foliage  of  which  it  browsed.  The  enori 
devaloinnent  of  the  banes  of  the  petvis,  the  hind 
kgi,  and  the  ta3,  save  the  animal  great  power  when, 
Kaited  on  its  hind  legs  and  t^  as  on  a  tripod,  it 
raised  its  fore  legs  aeamHt  the  tninlr,  and  applied  its 
force  against  a  l^  ttiat  had  already  been  weakened 
by  havmg  its  roots  dug  up.  The  structure  of  the 
lower  jaw  seems  to  indicate  that  the  M.  was  fur- 
nished with  a  huge  prehensile  tongue  like  that  of 
the  giraffe,  wiUt  miicD  it  stripped  the  foliage  from 
the  xmeB. 

The  remains  of  several  allied  genera  of  huge 
Edentata  are  aasociated  with  the  iS.  in  Cbe  Pampas 
deposits.  They  .fotrn  the  family  Megatheriidie  of 
Owen,  which  includes  Mylodon,  Meg^onyx,  Scele- 
dotherinm,  tc,  genera  which  are  separated  from 
M.  chiefly  from  peculiarities  in  the  dentition. 

The  modem  sloth  is  a  native  of  South  America, 
and  the  fossil  lemains  of  these  immense  creatures, 
which  represented  it  in  the  newer  Tartiaries,  have 
been  found  only  in  this  contiiient,  the  past  and 
present  distribution  of  the  family  being  the  same. 

ME'QRIM  (Or.  hamcraaia,  the  migraine  of  the 
Trench)  is  the  popular  term  for  neuralgia  occupy- 
ing one  half  of  the  head,  or  more  commonly  only 
the  brow  and  forehead  of  one  side.  It  is  often 
periodusl,  coming  on  at  a  certain  hour,  lasting  a 
certain  time,  and  then  entirely  disajmearing  for  a 
fixed  intervaL  It  may  be  induced  by  any  cause 
tiiat  debihtates  the  system;  it  not  unfiequently 
attacks  women  who  nave  suckled  their  udldren 
too  long;  or  it  may  be  associated  with  hysteria: 
or  it  may  arise,  like  ague,  firoin  marsh  miAftma ;  and 
■ometimeB  no  exciting  cause  can  be  detected. 

When  it  is  associated  with  »"■"■"'»  (paleness  and 
general  debility),  it  should  be  treated  with  the 
preparations  <a  iron,  the  shower-bath,  nourishing 
food,  and  plenty  of  exercise  in  the  open  air.  When 
it  is  strictly  periodical,  quinine  in  full  doses  should 
be  tried  (the  bowels  bamg  previously  weU  cleared 
out) ;  and  if  the  quinine  uils,  Fowlers  solution  of 
arsenic,  given  iu  small  doses  (three  minims  in  a 
wine-gU^nl  of  water),  three  times  »  day,  after 
meals,  will  be  almost  sure  to  remove  iL 

MBOBIMB  and  TERTIGO  are  the  terms 
finally  ap^ed  when  a  horse  at  work  reels,  and 
then  dttwr  stands  for  a  minute  dnll  and  stupid, 
or  falls  to  tile  gronnd,  lying  for  a  time  partially 
iosensiblB.  llese  attacks  come  on  suddenly,  are 
often  periodical,  are  most  frequent  daring  hot 
weather,  and  when  the  animal  is  drawing  np  a 
hill,  or  exposed  during  heavy  work  to  the  full  rays 
of  a  hot  sun.  Liabihty  to  megrims  constitutes 
nnsoundness,  and  usually  depends  upon  the  cir- 
cnlatioD  throngh  the  brain  being  temporarily  dis- 
turbed by  the  presence  of  tnmonrs.  Horses  subject 
to  m^rims  are  ahravs  dangerous ;  if  driven  at  all, 
th^  &ould  be  used  with  a  breastplate  or  pipe- 
colJar,  so  as  to  prevent,  as  much  as  possible, 
preseiire  on  the  veins  carrying  the  blood  from  the 
bead ;  they  should  be  moderately  and  carefully  fed, 
»nd  during  hot  weather  have  an  occasional  laxative. 

MEHEMED  or  MEHEMET  ALI,  also  MO- 
HAMMED ALI,  Viceroy  of  Emrt,  was  bom  in 
1769  at  Eavala,  a  little  town  in  Macedonia,  entered 
the  ^irkiah  army  at  an  early  age^  and,  in  1709,  was 


sent  to  Egypt  at  the  head  of  a  contingent  of  .lOO 
troops  to  co-operate  with  the  British  against  the 
French  invaders.  Here  his  flue  military  qualities 
rapidly  developed  themselves,  and  he  at  length 
became  commander  of  the  Albanian  eorpi  iFann^a 
in  Egypt  In  1806,  he  was  recogniacd  by  the  Porte 
as  Viceroy_  of  Egypt,  and  Paaha  of  Three  Tails  ;  but 
was  soon  involved  in  disputes  with  the  Mamelukes, 
who  had  long  practically  ruled  Efeypt.  The  atmggle 
was  finally  tenninated  m  1811,  by  the  massacre  of 
the  greater  number  of  these  at  Cairo.  The  rest  fled 
to  Upper  Egypt,  but  were  expelled  t^  M,  in  the 
followm^  year.  They  then  took  refow  in  Nubia 
from  their  remorseless  foe,  but  in  1820  he  followed 
them  thither,  and  thev  were  nttcrly  exterminated. 

The  Forte  now  felt  alarm  at  his  Kirrwing  power, 
and  with  a  view  to  break  It,  Intrusted  him  witii  the 
command  of  an  expedition  against  the  Wahahis,  a 
religious  sect  of  Arabia.  But  the  victories  of  bis 
son,  Ibrahim  Paaha  (g,  v.),  only  rendered  him  more 
powerful,  and  his  authority  extended  itself  over 
a  great  part  of  the  Arabian  peninsula.  Shortly 
Bft»,  he  conquered  Kordofan,  added  it  to  his 
dominions,  and  opened  up  a  great  trade  in  black 
slaves  from  the  interior  of  Africa.  About  this 
be  began  to  reorganise  his  army  on  somethina 
like  European  principles,  boilC  a  fleet,  and  erected 
fortreoes,  military  workshops,  and  arsenals.  His 
ambition,  however,  received  a  severe  check  by  the 
total  destruction  of  his  new  navy  at  Navarino,  in 
1827.  In  1830,  the  Porte  Mnfeired  on  faim  tha 
government  of  Candia,  but  this  did  not  satisfy'  him  j 
and  in  the  followine  year,  on  a  frivolous  [oetext,  be 
sent  out  an  army  for  the  conquest  of  Syria-nnder 
Ibrahim  Pasha,  who,  by  his  victory  at  Kouieh 
(20th  December  1832),  brought  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment to  the  brink  of  ruin.  The  European  powers 
now  stepped  in,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded  (May 
4,  1833),  by  which  Syria  was  ceded  to  M,  on  con. 
dition  of  his  acknowledging  himself  a  vassal  of  the 
sultan.  Keither  of  me  belligerents  was  satis- 
fied, and  M.  continued  to  plot  m  his  usual  secret 
and  crafty  stylo,  till  SultMi  Mahmad  was  obliged 
'S39  to  declare  war  against  his  dangerous 
ct.  The  European  powers  again  interfered, 
M.  saw  himseli  compelled  to  give  up  all  his 
claims  to  the  possession  of  Syria,  and  to  content 
himself  with  getting  the  paahalio  of  Esypt  made 
hereditary  in  hia  family.  If  the  infirmities  of 
a^  had  not  now  beson  to  tell  npon  H.,  he 
might  have  become  what  many  in  fact  have  pro- 
nounced bim  to  be — the  regenerator  of  Egypt  I 
He  thoroughly  cleared  the  country  of  robbers  from 
Abyssinia  to  the  mouths  of  the  Nile;  he  may  almost 
\>o  said  to  have  introduced  the  cultivation  of  cotton, 
indigo,  and  sngar  into  the  countir.  While  Syria 
was  under  his  rule,  he  increased  to  an  immeoas 
extent  the  mulberry  plantations,  and  consequently 
the  cultivation  of  sUk  ;  and  to  crown  aU  his  eflbrts, 
he  established  in  Egypt  a  system  of  national 
education  I  In  his  last  years,  he  fell  into  a  sort 
of  religious  doti^e,  and  at  last,  in  1848,  resigned 
his  viccroyBhip  in  favour  of  his  son,  Ibtahim  Pasha 
(q.  v.).     M.  died  Angust  2, 1849. 

MEINAM,  the  great  river  of  Stam  (q.  v.). 

MEl'NINGEN,  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Saxe- 
Meiningen-Hildburghansen,  lies  in  a  narrow  valley 
on  the  banks  of  the  Werrs.  Pop.  (1880)  11,227.  The 
duoal  oastle,  built  in  1681,  contains  a  tine  library 
and  several  art  collections.  There  is  a  fine  '  Eogliah 
garden '  here.    M,  has  little  or  no  trade. 

MEFSSEK,  one  of  the  oldest  towns  fn  the  king- 
dom of  Saxony,  is  sitriated  on  the  left  bonk  of  the 
Elbe,  15  miles  below  Dresden.  Ita  chief  building  is 
the  cathedral,  the  finest  Oo&io  ohuroh  in  Saxony, 


MBKHONO— MBLANCHTHON. 


•nimonnted  hf  to  exqnimta  ipire  of  open  woA,  ud 
coDtaining  manj  monnioents  of  very  e&rly  timea. 
There  are  here  a  nmnber  of  brasaea,  Boma  of  them 
finer  than  any  in  Eiwland  or  Flanden.  M.  was 
founded  in  928  by  Henry  L  of  Oennluiy,  as  a 
bulwark  of  his  Oennan  territoriei  against  the  Sla- 
Toniana,  and  woa  long  the  capital  of  the  markgrai- 
dom  of  M.,  which  wsa  subseqaeotly  merged  in  the 
dacby  of  Saxony.  Otto  L  founded  the  cathedraL 
It  was,  however,  homed  down  at  the  beginning  of 
the  13th  0. ;  rebuilt,  1266—1293 ;  ainoe  which  time 
it  ha*  bem  twice  destroyed  hy  fire,  and  reatored. 
The  caatle,  built  on  a  precipitous  rock,  was  rebnilt  in 
1471 ;  and  in  1710,  was  converted  into  a  poreelain 
factoiT,  but  hit  recently  been  reatored  to  more 
dignified  uaea.  The  famous  porcelain  factory,  now 
provided  with  more  soitable  premises,  employs  abont 
400  hands.  Other  manufaotures  are  iron,  machinery, 
pottery,  and  ivory- carving.    Pop.  (1S80)  14,166. 

MEKHOHQ,  a  great  river  of  Cochin-Chma 
(q.  v.). 

MELA,  PoHFONnm,  a  Latin  writer— the  firtt 
who  composed  a  strictly  geographical  work — was 
a  native  of  Spain,  and  is  believed  to  have  lived  in 
tjie  time  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  bnt  nothing 
whatever  i*  known  conoeminfj  him.  M.'s  com- 
pend  is  in  three  books,  and  is  entitled  D«  Siiu 
Orbii.  The  text  ia  greatly  cormpted,  on  aooount 
td  the  abundance  of  proper  names ;  bat  the  style 
is  good,  and  the  anthoc  shews  a  very  creditable 
diligettoe  of  research  and  discrimination  in  the  nse 
of  Eia  anthoritiea.  The  tditio  pjincept  appeared 
at  Milan  in  1471  ;  there  are  editions  by  Tschacke 
(1807),  Weichert  (1816),  Parthey  (1867).  M.  was 
translated  into  English  as  long  ago  as  15SS. 

MELALEU'CA.    See  Cajbput. 

MELAKOHO'LIA,  as  a  disease,  is  the  exaggera- 
tion of  the  natural  and  leeitimato  feelings  of  grief, 
despondency,  and  appr^ension,  which  become 
morbid  where  the  emotion  is  without  a  cause,  dis- 
proportioned  to  the  actual  cause,  or  so  intense  as 
to  disturb  and  destroy  the  exercise  of  the  other 
mental   powers.     This   dejection  and  sufierin^  is 


nated  with  t 


ilted  sensations,  o 


certain  impressions,  in   fixiiu  the  attention  np< 

_._i_i_   ^._i   j^  wlii<£  1         " 

siy  ooncei  _ 

The  patient  Lvca  in  fear  o 


may  be  nnheoltuy, 
concentration  of  thought 
bestowed  upon  them,  ^e  patient  Lvca  in  fear  ' 
death,  in  the  conviction  that  he  is  difierentJy 
more  exquisitely  constructed  than  those  around; 
that  he  labours  under  some  foul  or  fatal  disease; 
that  he  is  destitute  of  strength  or  comeliness.  Tbia 
has  been  K^jarded  as  hypochondriacal  melancholia — 
tile  maladie  anfloiss,  and  affects  the  opening  of  life 
Similar  feelings  ore  called  forth  in  reference  to  the 
social  position.  There  arises  a  dread  of  poverty 
and  want.  The  victim  is  haunted  by  imaginary 
debts,  obligritions,  peculations.  He  feels  incapable 
of  extricating  himself.  Tho  poor,  as  well  as  the 
rich,  entertain  such  doubt  and  dread.  They  starve, 
in  order  to  husband  their  resources.  This  affection 
prevails  at  maturity— at  the  period  of  greatest 
activity  and  usefulness.  Towards  the  decline  of 
])fe-~although  encountered  at  every  age — morbid 
depression  assumes  the  form  of  religious  anxiety, 
despair,  remorse.  Moral  statintica  shew  that  among 
the  inhabitants  of  Northern  Europe  the  number  of 
cases  of  melancholia  exceeds  those  of  mania  ;  and  it 
has  been  supposed  that  the  rudiments  of  the  malady 
may  be  detected  in  the  original  character,  the  tem- 
perament and  the  habits  o?  the  race,  as  well  as  in 
Uie  climate,  domestlo  condition,  and  diet,  by  which 
these  are  modified.     Defective  blood  nutrition,  or 


amemlo,  appears  to  be  Hie  phyncal  state  with 
which  the  great  majority  of  cases  of  melaneholift 
are  connected,  and  to  which  all  modes  of  treatment 
are  directed.  Powerful  and  permanent  and  depr^- 
ing  moral  emotdons  act  as  effectively  in  airestinff 
healthy  digestion  and  alimentation,  as  the  nse  of 
injudicious  food,  or  the  nse  of  proper  nonrishmeut 
nnder  cireumstances  snch  as  the  reepiration  of 
impure  air,  or  indulgence  in  intemperate  or  degraded 
tendencieg,  which  render  assimilation  impossible. 
The  aspect  of  the  melancboliao  corroborates  the  view 
of  inanition  and  eihaustion.  The  surface  is  pole, 
dry,  cold,  attennated,  even  insensible ;  the  muscles 
are  rigid ;  the  frame  is  bent ;  the  eyes  snnk,  and 
fixed  or  flickering ;  the  lips  parched  and  colourless. 
Tbere  is  a  sense  of  exhaustion  or  pain,  or  impending 
dissolution.  It  has  been  remarked,  Uiat  in  propor- 
tion to  the  intensity  of  the  internal  agony  is  there 
an  obtuseness  or  amesthesia  to  wounds  or  external 
injuries.  Such  an  immunity  gives  in  lunatics  an 
indifierenoe  to  the  most  grievous  forms  of  suffering, 
and  may  explain  the  conduct  of  mon^  reput^ 
mar^rs  and  even  crinuDola  under  punishment.—.- 
Haalam,  Obitrvationa  on  Ataditets  ana  iitkmchobj ; 
f^nirol,  Maiadia  MenlaUs,  t  L  p.  398  j  Crichton, 
Inqiciry  ttUo  Ifaturt  and  Origin  of  Mental  Derange- 

HELANCHTHON,    Philip,    Luther'a    fellow 

labourer  in  the  BeTormation,  was  bom,  16th  Feb- 
mary  1497,  at  Bratten,  in  the  Palatinate  of  the 
Rhine,  now  in  the  gnuid  duchy  of  Baden.  Hia 
name  was  originally  Schwarzerd  (block  earth),  of 
which  M.  ia  a  Greek  translation.  He  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  Heidelberg,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Philnaophy  in  1511  In  the 
same  year  he  went  to  Tubingen,  studied  theology, 
took  the  degree  of  Master,  and  in  1G14,  ^ve  lectures 
on  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  and  Uie  daaaics. 
About  this  time,  he  published  a  Greek  grammar. 
On  his  relative  Beuchlin's  recommendation,  he  waa 
apuointed,  in  1618,  professor  of  the  Greek  languo^ 
and  literature  in  Wittenberg.  He  soon  decided  m 
favour  of  the  Reformation,  and  brought  to  the  aid 
of  Luther  great  attainments  in  learning,  great 
ncuteno^s  in  dialectics  and  exegesis,  a  remarkable 
power  both  of  clear  thinking  and  of  clearly  eniress- 
ing  his  thoughts  ;  and,  along  with  all,  a  gentlenesa 
and  moderation  that  moat  advantageously  tempered 
Luther's  vehemence.  In  1621,  he  pnblishea  hi* 
Loci  Comvranet  Benim  Tkeologicanini,  the  first 
great  Protestant  work  on  dogmatic  theology.  It 
passed  through  more  than  ffity  editions  m  the 
euurse  of  the  author's  life.  In  1G30,  he  made  it 
most  important  contribstion  to  the  cause  of  Pro- 
testantism in  the  Augsburg  Confession  (<]■  v.).  In 
1641,  he  went  to  Worms,  and  soon  after  to  Ratisbon, 
to  conduct  the  cause  of  the  Protestants  in  the 
conferences  there.  But  the  influence  of  the  papal 
legate  counteracted  aU  his  efforts  for  a  peaceful 
accommodation,  and  his  own  party  were  much 
dissatisfied  on  account  of  the  concessions  which  he 
made.  After  Lather's  death,  M.  lout  in  some 
measure  the  confidence  of  some  of  the  Protestante, 
by  those  concessions  to  the  Roman  Cathohcs  which 
hu  anxiety  for  peace  led  him  to  moke  ;  whilst  the 
zealous  Lutherans  were  no  Ices  displeased  because 
of  his  approximation  to  the  doctrine  of  Calvin 
on  the  lord's  Snj'per.  His  consent,  conditionally 
given,  to  the  introduction  of  the  Augahurg  Interim 
fq.  V.)  in  Saxony,  in  1649,  led  to  paioful  contro- 
versies; and  be  was  involved  in  various  contro- 
versies, which  filled  the  latter  yean  of  his  life  with 
disquietude.  He  died  at  Wittenberg,  19Ui  April 
1560-  M.,  although  gentle,  vaa  emotional  and 
excitable,  and  conciliatory  in  the  extreme.  As  a 
public  teacher,   he  was  exceedingly  admiiedi 


^ 


M£LAKOBBfl(£A~-MEt.fiOI;tR:% 


flocked  to  him  from  all  mrU  of  Europe 
He  wai  eneDtlally  t,  theoIogUn  and  RchoUr,  and  in 
hia  habita,  if  not  in  his  opinions,  wai  the  pracnnoi 
of  thoM  acate  and  laborious  divines  who  have  in 
modem  times  shed  so  much  Instre  on  the  Oerman 
church.  The  moat  complete  edition  of  hia  works 
(which  comprise  a  Greek  and  Latin  Orsnmu 
editions  of  and  commentaiies  on  sereral  clttsai  . 
•nd  the  Septusgint,  bibUcol  commestaiiea,  doctrinal 
and  ethical  works,  official  documeota,  declarations, 
diMCrtations,  reai>onfle»,  and  a  very  ertondTe  corres- 
pmdence  with  friends  and  the  leading  men  of  the 
age)  is  that  by  Bret«chneider  in  his  Corpv*  Rtjar- 
■noforum  (28  vols.  1834—1860).  M.'s  life  hu  been 
written  by  his  friend  Camarariua  (1S66),  and  fre- 
qneoUy  since,  as  l^  Matthes,  Nitzsch,  and  Schmidt. 
MELANESIA  is  a  division  of  the  South  Sea 
Wanda  inhabited  by  the  Papuan  race.    See  Poli- 

MBLAKORRHCB'A,  a  geniu  of  toeea  of  the 

natural  order  AiuKa-Tdiaixrt. — To  this  genos  beloan 
the  Bl&ce  VaitNiSH  Trbi  (Jf.  unfoAi)  of  Burmah 
aod  the  north-east  of  India,  colled  Thul-tmi 
Zitri  in  Burmah,  and  Khew  in  Manipoor.  It  i 
Tery  large  tree,  attaining  a  height  of  100  feet,  with 
lar^,  leathery,  simple,  entire,  decidiioua  leaves,  and 
aruWy  panicles  of  flowers.  It  yields  a  viscid  mst- 
oolonred  juice,  which  becomea  black  on  exposure  to 
the  atmosphere,  aod  is  excessively  acrid,  causing 
Bwellinffs  with  much  pain  and  fever  if  it  touches  the 
■kin.  It  is,  however,  much  valued  h  a  yamish  for 
painting  boats,  and  vessels  intended  to  contain 
Uqnids,  and  also  as  a  size-Klne  in  gilding.  This 
black  varnish  is  a  considerable  artide  of  bade  in 
India  and  Burmah. 

HBIjANTRA'CE^  a  natural  order  of  endo- 
senons  plants;  containing  bnlboos,  tuberous,  and 
fibrons'rooted  plants,  with  or  without  stems,  and 
having  parallel- veined  leave*  which  are  sheathing  at 
the  base.  The  fruit  ie  a  capsule,  generally  divieible 
into  three  pieces. — There  are  about  130  known 
specieB,  nativea  of  all  parts  of  the  world,  but  moat 
abundant  in  northern  countries.  Some  resemble 
orocnaes,  and  some  are  like  small  lilieo.  The  order 
is  chamcterised  by  a  great  prevalence  of  poisonous 
qnalitiee.  Some  of  the  species  are  cmplojied  in 
medicine,  particniarly  Cotchicum  {q.  v.).  White 
Hellebore  (Veratrum  aSmm,  see  Hkllibobe),  and 
Sababilla,  (q.  v.).  The  root  of  H^oniai  dioica  is 
nsed  in  North  America  as  an  anthelmintic  and 
tonic  bitter.  The  plant  grows  in  wet  places,  and  is 
called  Stanoort  and  Blaiang  Sbar,  also  Unicom't 
Born  and  Dt^>  BU. 

MBLASflOilA'CEM,  a  natural  order  of  exo- 
genous plants,  containing  about  1200  known  species ; 
&ees,  shrubs,  and  herbt^oua  plants,  mostly  natives 
of  warm  climates,  althoogh  a  few  are  found  in  the 
tempCTate  parts  of  NoiSi  America.  They  have 
opposite  undivided  leaves,  destitute  of  dots.  The 
flowers  are  r^ular. — None  of  the  M.  possess  poison- 
ona  propertiea ;  some  are  used  in  dyeing ;  the 
gratefnlly  acid  leavea  of  some  are  cooked  and  eaten 
—particularly  those  of  species  of  MtdinUla  and 
Attroiua  pajxtaria  in  the  Malay  Archipelago  ;  some 
yield  eatable  and  pleasant  fruits,  as  Blaiea  tripli- 
nenit  in  Guiana,  Ciidtmia  hirta  in  the  West  Indies, 
and  Mftaetylim  eduk  in  Coromandel.  The  wood  of 
■ome  i»  tough  and  hard. 

HEXBOURNE,  capital  of  the  Britiah  colony 
of  Victoria,  in  Australia,  is  situated  ohisfly  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Yarra-Yarra,  about  nine  miles 
by  water  and  two  milea  by  land  above  its  mouth, 
in  the  spacious  bay  of  Port-Phillip.  Lat.  37°  48' 
a,  long.  144°  58*  K  Its  streets  are  straight, 
ngular,  and  wide,  and  ore  paved,  maoadamised,  and 


plentifully  supplied  with  gas  and  fresh  water. 
Collins  Street,  one  of  the  leading  thoroughfares,  is 
one-third  wider  than  the  famous  Broadway  of  New 
York.  M.  is  built  of  brick  and  atone,  and  contains 
many  fine  churches.  Perhaps  nothing  gives  stronger 
testimony  to  the  wealth  and  enterprise  of  the  m- 
babitanta  of  M.,  than  the  rapidity  with  which  so 
many  noble  institutions  as  adorn  the  city  have 
apruns  np  among  them.  Among  Ihese,  one  of  the 
chief  IS  the  university,  with  an  annual  endowment 
horn  the  stale  of  £9000,  and  possessing  valuable 
scholarships  and  exhibitions.  It  is  a  large  building, 
in  the  shape  of  a  porallelograa,  tuid  is  surrounded 
by  extensive  grounds.  It  was  opened  in  April 
1856,  and  has  a  respectable  ataCT  of  profesaots,  with 
a  cooaiderable  attendance  of  students  in  arts,  lav, 
engineering,  &o.  The  post-office,  a  magnificent 
atruoture,  in  the  Italian  style,  elaborately  orna- 
mented with  sculpture,  waa  built  in  1359.  The 
Yan-Yean  water-works,  by  means  of  which  water 
ia  conveyed  by  iron  pip^  from  a  distance  of  18 
miles,  were  opened  in  18a7.  The  Parliament  House* 
were  erected  in  1S5S,  at  a  coat  of  £400,000.  The 
buildings  for  the  Exhibition  of  1880  cost  ahovs 
£70,O0CL  Besides  those  mentioned,  the  chief  inatitu- 
tions  are  the  Melbourne  Hospital,  the  Benevolent 
Asylum,  the  Immigrants'  Home,  the  Servants' 
Home,  the  Orphan  Aaylnma,  the  Lying-in-Hospital, 
Treaauiy,  Coantv  and  City  Courts,  Public  Library, 
C^natom-bouse,  Barracks,  Picture  Gallery,  the 
nomeroua  richly  ornamented  banks,  the  Qram- 
mar-Bchool,  Scotch  College,  besides  many  other 
educational  eetablishmenta,  and  nomeroos  literary 
and  scientific  institutions  and  societies.  Thers 
are  three  daily  newspapers,  two  evening  ioumals, 
and  several  weeklies  and  monthlies.  U.  is  the  centre 
of  about  a  doien  converging  lines  of  railway  j  several 
of  these  being,  however,  only  suburban  lines.  Here 
are  several  Uieatres  and  public  parka  The  tem- 
perature is  moderate ;  the  mean  of  the  year  being 
"1°,  and  the  variatLon  between  the  average  tempera- 
re  of  Jonuanr  (midanlnmer)  and  July  (winter),  19°. 
■Kio  annual  nunfoll  U  abont  32'33  inchea.  M.  ocou- 
piea  the  firat  rank  among  the  porta  of  the  Britiah 
colonies,  and  is  the  most  important  trading  town  of 
the  southern  hemisphere.  Pop,  inclnding  suburbs 
(1S81),  282,836;  of  the  city  proper,  06,860.  The 
chief  exports  are  gold,  silver,  wool,  hides,  cattle,  and 
sheep.  Six-sevenths  of  the  entire  commerce  of  the 
colony  is  carried  on  by  Melbourne.  For  further  infor- 
mation rq^arding  trade,  &0.,  see  Victobu.  Yeasela 
drawing  24  feet  can  come  up  to  the  month  of  tbo 
Yarra-Yarra,  but  are  unable  to  ascend  the  river, 
on  acooont  of  two  bars  which  obstruct  its  course. 
M.,  however,  is  connected  with  Sandndge  on  Port- 


tallow-boiling  works,  and  braas  and  iron  foundries. 
It  is  <iie  see  of  an  Episcopal  bishop  and  a  Koman 
Cathdho  archbisbopi. 

Pobt-Philuf,  on  which  M  is  situated,  is  a  spa> 
ous  and  beantiful  inlet  of  the  South  Pacific  Ocun, 
on  the  south  coast  of  Australia,  and  is  35  milea 
long,  by  about  25  miles  broad.  Its  eutrance,  which 
is  only  two  miles  in  width,  is  formed  by  two  project- 
ing promontories,  called  the  Head*;  and  on  these 
promontories  strong  fortifications  were  erected  in 
1861.  Navigation  at  the  entrance  of  the  port  is 
difficulty  on  account  of  the  foul  ground  on  either 
side,  and  the  violence  of  the  ebb  and  flood  tide^ 
which  is  caused  by  the  nnevenness  of  the  bottom. 

M  was  firat  ooloniaed  in  1836,  and  received  it* 
name  from  Lord  Melbourne,  then  the  Britiah  X|rime 
minister,  in  1837.  It  became  the  seat  of  a  bisbop 
in  1847,  nnd  in  18S1  the  capital  of  the  newly- 
formed  colony  of  Victoria    The  discovery  of  gold 


UELBOUBNE— UElio  OJtAS.^. 


in  Tictom  in  1831,  which  gave  luch  a  tnrprisinff 
impetiu  to  tbe  material  protpeiitf  of  M.,  la  treated 
of  imder  TitrroBU. 

MBLBOtTHNB,  Wiluam  Lahb,  Viscoiibt, 
English  Minister,  wu  tecond  md  of  Sir  Feniston 
Lamb,  of  Brocket  Hall,  Herta,  who  was  raised  to 
the  peerage.  M.  wae  bom  in  London  in  1779.  TTi" 
Tuitversi^  education  he  received  first  at  Trinity 
College,  CambriciKe,  and  next  at  Glasgow,  where  he 
studied  jnrisprudeDce  aod  ooUtioa  uoder  Professor 
Millar.  He  entered  the  Eonse  of  CommoDS  for 
Leominster  in  1805,  and  joinefl  the  Whig  o[mosi- 
tion,  ander  the  leadership  of  Charles  James  For. 
He  accepted  the  chief  secretaryahip  of  Ireland  in 
Mr  Oannin^a  government,  and  this  partial  aliena- 
tion from  the  ^Vhigs  was  iDorcasod  when  ha  not 
only  took  office  nndor  Lord  Qoderich,  hut  remained 
for  a  short  time  in  tbe  government  of  the  Duka 
of  WcUington.  In  1S2S,  the  death  of  his  father 
transferred  him  to  the  tipper  House.  In  1830, 
he  acoepted  the  seals  of  the  Hone  Office  in  the 
goremment  of  Eail  Grey,  but  his  administration 
was  bv  no  means  popolar  or  successful.  In  Jnly 
1834,  Earl  Grey  retired,  and  William  IV.  sent  for 
Melbcmrae.  In  November,  the  king  chose  to  con- 
sider the  removal  of  Lord  Althorp  to  the  Upper 
Honse  as  tbe  breaking  op  of  the  Melbourne 
Ministry,  and  sent  for  &r  Bobert  Peel,  to  form  a 
Conservative  administration.  But  the  House  of 
Cranmons  resented  the  interference  of  the  Crown; 
and  •  new  parliament  having  shattered  the  new 
Bovemment,  M.  again  became  First  Lord  of  the 
Tteasury.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Victoria  in 
1637,  it  became  the  duty  of  M.  to  instmct  the  yonng 
Kvcreiffn  in  the  various  duties  of  her  bigh  station. 
and  fit  net  to  perform  her  part  as  the  oonstitutional 
mramch  of  a  fiee  country.  In  1841,  his  govemmant 
was  ncoeeded  In  that  of  Sir  Bobert  PeeL  Eenoe- 
forwud,  M.  took  Uttle  part  in  public  affain.  He 
bad  littla  of  the  orrtorical  faculty,  and  was  inefTeo- 
tm  aa  a  spesker,  but  poHeawd  •  cheerful  temfier 
•nd  ooidial  {mtkneaa  of  manne^  which  made  hiai 


joined  vrith  an  easy  temper 

.         Sydney  Smith,  in  hxs  second 

letter  to  ArehdeMXMi  Singleton,  has  described  his 
with  an  exquisite  mixture  of  sarcasm  and 
nt.  He  married  (I80S)  a  daughter  of  the 
t£  Bsssbmoogli,  who,  under  the  title  of  Laut 
Oabolims  Lamb  (bom  1789,  died  1828),  attained 
MHue  oetebri^  aa  a  novel-writer  and  a  correspondent 
of  Lord  Bynm.    M.  died  November  84, 184S. 

HBLCHITBS,  the  name  given  to  Christians  in 
Syria  and  other  parts  of  the  Eaat^  who,  acknow- 
tedgiog  the  authority  of  the  pope,  and  the  doctrines 
si  tbe  CboKib  of  Rome,  adhere  to  the  liturgy  aud 
oeremoniea  of  the  Eastcra  Cbnreh.  tbey  conduct 
divine  servioe  in  the  vemacnlar  tongn&and  reeeive 
llie  Lord's  Snpper  in  both  kinds.  Their  priests 
msT  b«  married  before  ordination,  but  not  their 
bfanoM.  They  are  chiefljr  to  be  f  onnd  in  Aleppo 
and  Damascus.  Thar  patriarch  reudes  at  Damascus. 
The  name  H.  (ht.  Eoyalitts)  dates  from  the  5th  c, 
when  they  were  supported  by  tha  emperon  against 
the  MonophysitM  (q.  v.). 

ME'LCOMBE  REGIS  amb  WEYMOUTH. 
See  WsyMODra. 

MELEGN A'NO,  or  MALEGNANO,  fonnerly 
MABIGNAKO,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  10  miles 
■onth-east  of  Milan,  bos  a  population  of  fiSOO:  It 
is  famoos  as  the  scene  of  a  great  victoiy  won  by 
Fnmds  L  of  France  over  the  Swiga  and  Milanese  in 
the  month  of  Ssptembcr  1615 :  upwards  of  20,000 
men  were  slain.  This  conflict  has  been  termed  M« 
BaOUo/AtQiaiit*.    E^ancis  accepted  the  honour  of 


knighthood  on  the  field  from  the  Chevalier  Bayard. 
— A  second  battle  was  fought  here,  8th  June  1850, 
between  a  French  force  of  16,000  men,  under 
Marshal  Baraguay  d'Hilliers,  and  a  rather  larger 
body  of  Austrian  troops,  in  which  the  latter  were 
routed  with  a  loss  of  alwnt  1400  killed  and 
wounded. 

MEI^NDEZ  VALDES,  Dotr  Juur,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  of  the  modem  Spanish  poets, 
was  bom  March  11,  )7S4,  at  tha  village  of  Kibeta 
del  Fresno,  in  Estremaduia.    He  studiM  at  Madrid, 


poet  Cadalso,  and  acquired  a 
thorough  knowledm  of  1Siigli«h,  It  was  Looke,  he 
said,  who  first  tMignt  him  to  nsson,  and  his  writings 

contain  imitations  of  Pope,  Thomson,  and  Toung. 
In  hia  earlier  period,  he  wrote  admirable  Ana> 
oreonticB  in  praise  of  student-life ;  his  descriptive 
poetry  i*  also  excellent.  Hia  style  and  aentaiaent 
are  smiple  and  natural ;  and  the  national  idioms 
are  used  with  singular  grace  and  vigour.  Tha 
first  collection  of  his  verses  appeared  in  ITSSs  and 
soon  became  very  popular.  Four  years  before  this 
pubhcation,  M.  V.  waa  appointed  a  professor  at 
Salamanca,  and  high  political  honoors  e' 


wards  by  Joseph  Bonaparte  ;  a  weakness  which 
waa  aa  disastrous  to  his  proapects  aa  it  was 
discreditable  to  his  characf«r.  When  the  invaders 
were  driven  out  ot  the  Peninsula,  the  unhappy 
poet  was  forced  to  accompany  them.     He  died,  * 

Sroscribed  traitor,  at  Montpellier,  May  21,  1817. 
[.  V.'s  Anacreontics  are  the  writings  on  which  his 
fame  rests,  and  they  have  procured  tot  him  tbe  titla 
of  Rataiirador  del  Pamam. 


and  shrubs,  nativea  of  warm  olim«t«&  and  mostly 
tropical.  Many  of  the  spedw  possess  bitter,  astrin- 
gent, and  tonio  properties ;  some  we  used  in  medi- 
cine ;  the  seeds  of  some  yield  useful  oil ;  some  are 
poisonous ;  some  yield  pleasant  fruits ;  the  wood 
of  some  is  valuable.  See  Cabapa. — The  Lanseh 
is  the  most  eateemed  fruit  of  this  order;  and 
next  to  it  is  MUnea  edalit,  a  fruit  of  tbe  north- 
east of  India,  of  which  the  edible  part  is  Uto  large 
succulent  atiL — The  Capi  Aif  (Elceber^a  Capcatu] 
deaervai  notice  among  the  timber  b'ees  of  this  order. 
It  has  a  bunk  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  yields 
excellent  tough  timber,  useful  for  many  purposea. 
— Mdia  Azxdaraeh,  a  tree  about  forty  feet  iugh, 
with  large  bipinnate  leaves,  a  native  ^  Syria  and 
other  piuta  of  the  Eart,  baa  long  been  much  planted 
aa  an  ornamental  tree  in  the  south  of  Europe, 
and  is  now  common  in  the  soathero  states  of 
North  America.  Ita  tlowera  are  in  large  spikest 
and  very  fragrant.  The  fruit  is  of  the  size  of  a 
cherry,  somewhat  elongated,  pale  yellow,  containing 
a  brown  nut.  The  nuts  are  bored  and  atning  for 
beads  in  Boman  Catholio  countries,  whence  the  tree 
is  often  caCcd  Bead  Tbee.  It  is  also  known  as  tbe 
Pride  qf  India,  and  is  sometimes  erroneously  called 
Pertiaa  Litae.      The    fruit   is    sweetish,  and   not 

Eoiaonoos,  although  ve^y  generally  repute!  so.  The 
srk  of  the  root,  which  is  bitter  and  nauseous,  is 
used  as  an  anthelmintic  The  pulp  of  tbe  fruit  of 
the  Nssit  Tbex  or  Majloosa  Treb  (AzadiraeMa 
fndica)  yields  a  fixed  oil,  which  is  bitter,  atimnlant, 
and  anthelmintic  The  bark  ia  a  valuable  tonic 
The  leaves  are  nniTerBaliy  used  in  India  tor 
ponltices, 

MELIO  GRASS  (Melica),  a  genus  of  Grasse^ 
having  a  lax  panicle^  and  spikelets  of  2 — G  awnleaa 
florets,  of  which  one  is  generally  imp«afeot.    Jf. 


kfttttot-iifitoi*. 


ttni/Iora  la  a  oommon  grua  in  Britain,  growui!!  in 
the  abadv  of  woods.  It  ia  of  ■  sraceful  and  delicate 
appearance.  Cattla  are  fond  of  it.  M.  nutanM  is  a 
rarer  Britash  specieB.  M.  aUUiima,  a  Biberian  species, 
gmwina  to  the  height  of  3  or  4  tect,  baa  been  intro- 
doced  m  >ome  paria  of  Europe,  and  jielda  a  oon- 
mderahle  bulk  of  herbage.    It  is  peremual. 

MB'IiILOT  {Mdilotai),  a  geniw  of  doTer-like 
plant*  of  tha  natoisl  order  LtgaimnoiiB,  with 
temate  leaves,  differing  from  the  oloTer*  in  ♦*■- 
gsnerall]'  elongated  racemes  of  flowen,  the  (tol 
not  adhering  to  the  eonilla,  and  the  1 — 4-Beeded 
tnmid  pods.  All  the  tpecies  have  a  Btrong  peculiar 
aweetiah  nnell,  which  becoineB  more  agreeable  wheo 
they  an  dried,  and  ia  owing  to  the  preeenoe  of 

Conmaria  (q.  t.) The  Commos  Ykllow  M.   {M. 

oJjicinalM)  ia  f  onnd  in  bnahy  places  and  the  bordera 
of  flelda  in  BHtun  and  moat  parts  of  Encope.  It 
has  an  erect  stem,  two  or  three  feet  high,  and  long 
loose  axillary  tacemea  of  jellow  flowers.  A  water 
distilled  froin  the  flowera  ia  need  in  perfomery. 
The  hsrbags  is  relished  by  oattle,  but  the  produce 
is  not  laive.  It  is  an  annual,  bnt  if  freqaentlj 
mowed  wiUiont  being  permitted  to  flower,  lives  for 
•eTeral    yeaw.— The   Wbitb   M.   {it.  vulgarit    or 


parts  of  Europe,  has 
becoBM  natnraliied  in  man;  places  in  Britain.— 
The  Bliv  M.  (M,  earulm),  a  native  of  the  north 
of  Africa,  with  short  racemes  of  bine  flowers,  ia 
ooltrrated  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  psrticiilarly 
in  Switzerland  and  the  Tfrol,  and  has  the  pecu- 
liar M.  odour  in  a  high  degree^  It  was  formerly 
mnch  used  in  medicine  as  an  anodyne,  discutient, 
diuretic,  sudoriflc,  expectorant,  and  Tnlneniry ;  and 
to  the  many  good  qualitiei  supposed  to  belona  to  it 
may  be  ascribed  uie  high  estimation  in  wbidi  the 
Schabziega-  at  Chapatger  cheese  of  Switzerland  is 
held,  to  which  it  miparta  its  flaTonr.  Where  this 
eheese  is  made  in  considerable  quantities,  the  smell 
of  M.  can  be  discerned  even  at  a  distance. — Bok- 
hara ClOTXB  (M.  artoTRi)  has  attracted  attention 
on  accotut  of  the  fibre  of  its  stem,  which  is  used  for 


Heditemutean,  is  believed  to  be  one  of  Ihe  plants 
called  Lotus  by  the  ancients. 

M  ELI  ORATIONS,  the  name  used  in  Scotch 
law  to  denote  the  improvementa  made  by  a  tenant 
to  the  estate  oi  farm  which  he  occupied.    It  the 


lease  is  terminated  prematurely  and  abmptly,  h«  is 
entitled  to  compensation  from  the  landlord  for  the 
value  of  the  improvements  (see  Landlord  um 
Tebaht).  Similar  claims  exist  in  Scotland  in  case 
of  heirs  of  entail  or  liferenters  improving  the  estate. 

UBLIPHA'OID^     See  Hohzt-xathi. 

HELI'SSIO  AOID  AVK  MELISSIN.   See  Was; 

MELODBA'MA  (Or.  "niflot,  a  toog,  and  drama) 
strictly  denotes  a  half-musical  drama,  or  that  kind 
of  di^matic  performance  in  which  declamation 
is  interrupted  from  time  to  time  by  instrumental 
music  The  name,  however,  was  first  opnlicd  to  the 
opera  by  its  inventor,  Ottavio  Hinuccinl,  In  Get- 
many,  the  melodrama  retains  its  primitive  character; 
but  both  in  Fnmce  and  England  the  name  has 
come  to  designate  a  romantic  play,  generally  of  a 
nature,  in  which  great  prominence  is  given 


MELODY  (Gr.  sweet  song]  is  a  aoccesdon  of 
mosioa]  notes  regnlated  so  as  to  be  pleasing  to  aU 
mltivated  ean^  and  expressive  as  a  whole  ol  some 
particular  feeling.  It  u  opposed  to  Harmony,  in 
which  different  notes,  being  chords,  are  sounded 
together.  The  part  intended  for  the  leading  voice  in 
a  aanDonised  piece  of  music  is  often  called  the  mdodu 
or  Mr.  The  character  of  a  melody  depends  in  a  great 
degree  on  the  thythm  wad  measnre,  as  the  same 
■accession  of  sounds  may,  by  the  slightest  change 
in  tha  power  tA  the  notes,  be  so  altered  in  character 
M  to  piodace  a  different  effect. 

MELON  {Caeamit  mdo),  a  plant  ol  the  same 
genus  with  liie  Cucumber  (q.  v.),  much  cultivated 
tor  its  fruit,  which  Is  sweet,  with  a  delimons  though 
peculiar  flavour  and  smelL  llie  M.  is  an  annual, 
with  trailing  or  climbing  stems,  lateral  tendrils, 
rounded  angular  leaves,  small,  yellow,  momecious 
flowers,  and  large  round  or  somewhat  ovate  froit. 
It  ia  auppoaed  to  be  a  native  of  the  snb-bopical 
parts  of  Asia,  although  it  has  never  been  discovered 
m  a  wild  state,  and  it  waa  first  introduced  into 
Fpglvd  from  Jamaica  about  1570.    It  ia  laid  to 


Common  and  Water  Melon. 

derive  its  name  from  the  Grecian  island  Melot;  Its 
English  name  was  originally  Mutk  Jtdon.  Hie 
vanetiea  in  cultivation  are  very  ntuuerons,  some  of 
theiD  distinguished  by  a  thick  and  warty  nnd,  soma 
by  a  rind  crocked  in  a  net-like  manner,  some  by 
ribs  and  furrows,  tome  by  a  perfectly  smooth  and 
thin  rind ;  they  differ  also  in  the  colour  of  the  Jleth 
of  the  fruit,  which  ia  green,  red,  yellow,  Ac. ;  aud  In 
of  the  fruit,  which  vsriea  from  tluco  oi  four 


MELORIA— ICEtiVHitfL 


inolies  to  a  foot  or  mora  in  diuneter.  The  M. 
tttea  either  b7  itMlf,  or  with  tagar,  and  sometimea 
with  pepper  or  ginger.  The  M.  can  be  grown  in  the 
open  air  only  in  the  moat  ■outhem  parts  of  Britain, 
and  eves  thera  requirea  a  hot-bed  In  apting.  Ita 
onltavation  in  hot-beda  it  eiteniively  carried  on  io 
all  parts  of  Britain,  and  very  great  care  ia  bestowed 
Ml  it.  A  loamy  aoil  ia  beat  auited  to  it.  The 
aettmg  of  the  fruit  by  dnating  the  female  flower 
witii  the  pollen  of  the  male  flower,  is  constantly 
nactiaed  by  gardeuera.  Warmth  and  bright 
■hine  ara  reqiuaite  to  the  production  of  fruit  of 
qnalitv.— The  Watkb  M.  or  Citrot.  {Cucuna  alrul- 
Hu),  althon^  rarely  cnltiTated  in  Britain,  ia  highly 
(ataemed  and  mnch  cnltivated  in  almost  all  warm 
conntriea.  It  is  a  natiTe  cf  the  warm  parte  of  the 
old  world  It  baa  deeply  lobed  and  guhed  leaves, 
and  a  large  round  fniit  with  smooth  dark-green 
nratted  rind,  and  pink  or  white  fleah,  lea  aweet 
tnan  the  M.,  but  much  more  juicy  or  watery,  and 
tbcmfore  much  prized  in  many  warm  countries,  not 
merely  aa  an  article  of  food,  but  for  quenching  thirst 
and    allayus   lever. — Soath    Africa   has    auother 

riea  of  WATKB  M.  (O.  Cqffer),  very  valuable  to 
inhabitanta.— The  Chatk  {C.  Chaie)  a  a  native 
d  ^ypt  and  Arabia.  Its  taste  is  aweet,  and  as 
oool  aa  the  water  melon.— The  Eaukoob  {C.  tiCSit- 
fimus)  ia  a  native  of  India,  and  much  cultivated  ia 
aome  parts  of  that  country ;  it  haa  oval  fruit, 
smooth,  variegated  with  different  sbades  of  yellow, 
and  about  six  inches  lon^,  with  much  the  flavour  of 
tha  melon.  The  fruit  will  keep  for  several  months, 
and  ia  much  nsed  both  raw  and  in  cnrriea.  The 
lialf^rown  fruit  is  pickled.  Tha  seed*  contain 
maohfirinaatidoil,  and  are  ground  into  meal;  the 
oil  is  alao  ezpreeied,  and  used  both  for  food  and  in 
lamps.  Ths  seeds  of  othera  of  this  genus  nay  be 
used  in  the  same  way;  and  they  are  said  to  be 
nsefnl  as  a  dinretio  medicine,  and  for  relief  of 
■fcrangiiry. 

MELOVIA,  a  small  island  in  the  Mediterranean, 
about  five  miles  in  length  and  one  in  breadth,  four 
milea  from  Leghorn.  In  I2S4,  the  Genoese  gained  a 
bmons  naval  victory  over  the  Pisans  in  the  vicinity 
of  M.,  by  which  the  latter  were  deprived  of  tbeir 
maritiiae  supremacy.  An  ancient  Pisan  tower 
stands  on  a  rock  to  the  south  of  Ueloria. 

MGLPO'MENB  (the  Singiag  One),  one  of  the 
nine  Muses,  speciallr  invoked  as  the  mnse  of 
Tragedy. 

MELRO'SB,  a  pleasant  village  at  the  foot  of  the 
Eildon  Hills,  on  the  soath  bank  of  the  Tweed, 
havina  a  popolattonof  I5S0  at  the  census  of  I88L 
It  is  famous  for  the  rains  of  ita  noble  Cistercian 
abbey,  founded  by  King  David  L  in  1138.  The 
original  pile  having  b^n  destroyed  during  tha 
Wars  of  the  SacccBsiou,  the  monastery  b^an  to 
be  rebuilt  about  1326.  The  work  was  helped  by 
large  sranta  from  King  Robert  Bruce,  and  his  son 
Eing  David  II.,  but  proceeded  ao  elowly  that  it  was 
ncarcely  finished  at  uie  Reformation,  in  the  middle 
of  the  16th  century.  It  was  in  the  Second  Pointed 
style,  with  one  or  two  approaches  to  Third  Pointed, 
and  was  beyond  donbt  the  moat  beautiful  atmcture 
of  which  Scotland  could  boast  in  the  middle  ages. 
What  now  remains  are  the  chief  portions  of  tJie 
conventual  church,  measnring  261  feet  in  length, 
and  aome  fragmeDta  of  the  cloister,  which  would 
seem  to  have  been  a  square  150  feet  deep.  The 
tracery  and  carvinga,  cut  in  stone  of  aingular  excel- 
lence, are  icarcelv  surpassed  by  any  in   England, 


bia  sepulture  within  its  walls ;  Bruce  left  it  the 
Igjacy  of  his  heart ;  and  it  gave  tombs  to  that  flower 
of  Scottish  chivalry,  the  Knight  of  Ijiddesdale.  and 
to  his  kinsman,  the  heroic  Donglaa  who  fell  at 
Otterbum.  But  its  annala  have  little  else  to  record. 
As  a  seat  of  piety  and  leaniing,  ita  renown  is  eclipsed 
by  the  older  and  hmnblo'  monastery  foondea  by 
St  Aidan,  about  the  middle  of  the  7th  &,  md  com- 
memorated by  the  Venerable  Bede  aa  the  home  of 
Eata,  of  Boisil,  of  Cnthbert,  and  of  Diycthelm, 
■  Old  Meh-ose,'  as  it  waa  called  after  the  12th  a, 
stood  about  two  milea  below  the  modem  abbey,  on 
a  beautifol  promontoiT  almost  sneireled  by  the 
Tweed.  It  was  burned  t^  Kenneth,  kiiw  of  Soot)^ 
in  839,  and  seems  never  to  have  recovered  the  blow. 
After  it  had  lain  waste  for  many  yeais,  we  hear 
of  it  about  1073,  aa  giving  shelter,  for  a  short  season, 
to  a  few  fugitive  monks.  All  that  survived  the 
erection  of  t£e  later  abbey  waa  a  chapel  dedicated 
to  St  Cnthbert,  and  stilt  famous  about  the  middle 
of  the  ISth  c.  OS  a  reaort  of  pilgrims.  The  CArvnictt 
d:  Maiiros,  a  aeriea  of  brief  obita  and  annala  tnnn 
731  to  1276,  has  been  twice  printed,  fint  amoi^ 
the  QtiiniUcem  Senpttirtt  HUlorve  Aitf/^ceaut,  pnb> 
lisbed  V  R^op  Fell  at  Oxford  in  16S4;  and  wain 
by  Mr  Joseph  Stevenson,  for  the  Bannatyne  Clul^ 
at  Edinburgh  in  IS3&  The  charters  of  the  mora 
modem  abbey  were  printed  by  Mr  Coamo  Innea,  at 
Edinburch  in  1S37,  for  the  same  sodety,  at  the 
coat  of  Uie  Doke  til  Bncoleuoh,  in  two  sumptuous 

Suartos,  with  the  title  of  the  Libtr  8.  Marie  d» 
IdrtM. 

ME'LTON-MOW'BBAT,  a  maiket-towu  of  Eng- 
land, in  the  oounty  of  Leicester,  and  16  milea  nort£> 
east  of  the  town  of  that  name,  on  the  Eye  near 
its  junction  with  the  Wreak,  which  is  navigable 
to  tha  Soar-Navioatioii,  about  11  miles  above  the 
town.  Stilton  cheese  is  manufactured,  and  poik> 
pies  are  extensively  made,  chiefly  for  retail  in  the 
London,  Manchester,  and  Leeds  markets.  In  the 
vicinity  ara  numerons  honting-aeata,  and  the  towo, 
with  stabling  accommodation  for  800  horses,  is  the 
central  rendezvous  of  the  famoua  Meltoa  Hunt. 
There  are  breweries,  tanneries,  and  6  banka.  Pop. 
(1871)5011;  (1881)  e766. 

MBLUN,  an  ancient  town  of  France,  capital  ot 
the  departmeat  of  Seine-et-Mame,  bnilt  on  an  island 
and  on  both  banka  of  the  Seine,  28  miles  south-east 
of  Paris.  The  manufactures  are  cement^  bricka, 
tiles,  and  hats,  and  there  ia  a  trade  in  timber,  grain, 
and  floor.  M,,  the  M^odwixtm  of  the  Bomana,  was 
stormed  Ave  time*  during  the  9th  c  by  the  North- 
,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English  after  a 
siege  of  six  months,  in  1410,  and  waa  held  by  them 
for  ten  yean.  Pop.  ()8SI)  1Z,11& 
ME'LVILLB,  the  name  of  an  island,  a  sound, 
id  a  peninsiUa  in  the  north  polar  r^ons  of 
America.— The  Island  is  in  lat  between  74  3tf  and 
77°  N.,  hmg.  between  loe"  4*  and  lir  30"  W. 
Greatest  length,  200  miles ;  greatest  breadth,  130 
milea.  It  is  separated  on  Qxe  weat  bv  FittnriUiam 
and  Eellet  Straits  from  Prince  Patrick  Island,  the 
moat  western  island  of  these  regions.  In  1819, 
Lieutenant  Parry,  who  gave  ita  name  to  U.  laland, 
passed  the  winter  here  with  hia  crews,  in  the  vain 
hope  of  finding  in  snmmer  a  passage  westward  to 
the  Pacific— M.  Sound,  about  260  miles  long  by 
200  miles  bnad,  extends  immediately  south-east  cj 
M.  Island.  It  communicates  with  the  Arctic  Ocean 
on  the  weat  by  Banks'  Strait,  and  vrith  Baffin's  Bav 
on  the  east  by  Barrow  Stnut  and  Lancaster  Sonnd. 
— M  Peninaula,  abutting  from  the  continent  td 
British  North  America,  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Fury  and  Hecla  Strait,  and  connected  with 
the  mainland  by  Bae  Isthmus.    It  is  250  miles  in 


MELVILLE — MEMEL. 


length  by  about  100  milea  in  avenure  bietdtii.    Lat. 
65*  10"— 68"  BO"  K.,  long.  81°— 87*  W. 

MELVILLE,  Andrew,  ui  eminent  Scottish 
reformer,  wu  bom  1st  Augast  1545,  at  Baldovy, 
on  tho  banlu  of  the  Sonth  Esk,  near  Montrose. 
He  was  oducaled  at  the  grammar- a  chool  of  Mon- 
tnise,  whence  he  removed  in  his  fourteenth  ;ear  to 
ity  of  St  Andrews.      Here  he  remained 


four  years,  and  left  it  with  the  reput 
*  the  beat  phlloaopher,  poet,  and  G: 
yonng  master  in  Uie  land.'     He  then 


Grecian  of  any 
young  master  in  tbe  land.'  He  then  proceeded  to 
Paris,  where  he  oootiiiaed  his  stadies  for  two  yean. 
TTiM  repntatioD  must  have  been  already  considerable, 
for  in  hia  twenty-fint  year  he  was  chosen  R^ent  in 
the  collage  cf  St  Marceon,  Poitiers,  whither  he  had 
Done,  a  perfect  stranger,  to  acqiiire  a  knowledge  of 
uw.  Some  time  aftemards,  he  proceeded  to  Geneva, 
where  he  was  more  in  his  element,  both  politically 
and  religiously,  and  where,  by  the  mflnence  of  hie 
friend  Besa,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
Humanity  in  the  Academy.  He  returned  to  Scot- 
land in  1674,  and  was,  in  the  course  of  the  same 
year,  appointed  Principal  of  the  university  of  Glas- 
gow, wliere  his  st^olajship,  enei^tic  discipline,  and 
mtrepidity  of  character,  exercised  a  most  quick- 
ening and  elevating  influence.  When  the  Regent 
Mor&>n  exclaimed  oo  one  occasion :  *  There  will 
never  be  quietness  in  this  country  till  half  a  doxen 
ol  you  be  hanged  or  banished,'  H.  is  said  to  hare 
replied  :  '  Tusb,  roan ;  threaten  your  courtiers  so.  It 
is  tjie  same  to  me  whether  I  rot  in  the  air  or  in  the 
gtonod  1  and  I  have  lived  out  of  your  conntry  as 
well  as  in  it.  Let  God  be  praised,  you  oao  neither 
bong  nor  exile  Eis  truth  1 '  In  1580,  M.  was  chosen 
Principal  of  St  Mary's  College,  St  Andrews.  Here, 
■  besides  givinc  lectures  on  theology,  he  tsQght  the 
Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  Babbmical  lanKuagea.' 
In  1582,  he  preached  the  opening  sermon  before  the 
General  Assembly,  and  boldly  'inveighed  against 
the  bloody  knife  of  absolute  anthonty,  whereby 
men  intended  to  poll  the  crown  off  Christ'a  head, 
and  to  wring  the  sceptre  ont  of  bis  hand.'  The 
Assembly  applauded  his  intrepidity,  drew  ap  a 
remoDStnnce  m  a  similar  spirit,  and  appointed  AL 
and  others  to  present  it.  In  less  than  two  years, 
M.  was  sommoned  before  the  Privy  Council,  on 
Mconnt  of  a  termoo  preached  at  St  Andrews.  He 
declined  to  appear,  muntaioing  that  whatever  a 
preacher  might  say  in  the  pulpi^  even  if  it  should 
be  called  treason,  he  was  not  bomid  to  answer  for  it 
in  a  civil  court  until  he  had  been  Ont  tried  in  a 
ohurch  court  For  this  denial  of  secular  jorisdiction 
he  was  condemned  to  imprisonment,  but  escaped 
to  London,  where  he  remained  till  the  downfall  of 
Anon  in  the  following  year.  After  an  absence  of 
twenty  months,  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and 
resumed  his  office  at  St  Andrews.  He  was  repeat- 
edly elected  Moderator  of  the  General  Assembly, 
and  Rector  of  the  oniveraity.  A  remarkable  instance 
of  his  plun  speaking  took  place  at  Cupar  in  1596. 
M.  wsa  heading  a  deputation  to  'remonstrate'  with 
the  king.  James  reminded  the  zealous  remonstrant 
that  he  was  /at  vsasaL  '  Sirrah  ! '  retorted  H., '  ye 
ore  Oo(Fe  silly  vassal  ;  there  are  two  kings  and 
two  kingdoms  in  Scotland :  there  is  King  James, 
the  head  of  this  commonwealth ;  and  there  la  Christ 
Jesus,  the  King  of  the  church,  whose  subject 
James  the  Sixth  is,  and  of  whose  kingdom  he  is 
not  a  king,  nor  a  lord,  nor  a  head,  but  a  member.' 
In  1605,  M.  was  called  to  England  to  attend  the 
famous  conference  at  Hampton  Court.  Having 
ridiculed  the  service  in  the  chapel-royal  in  a  Latin 
«Hgiain,  be  waa  summoned  before  the  English 
Rivy  Council,  where  his  tem^r  gave  way,  and  he 
broke  out  into  a  torrent  of  mvective  against  tbe 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  for  enoonrogiag  popery 


and  tnperstition,  profaning  the  Sabbatii,  ft&    Hie 


than  four  years.  In  1611,  he  was  released,  .  . ._ 
solicitation  of  the  Duke  of  Bouillon,  who  wanted  his 
services  oa  a  professor  in  his  university  at  Sedan  in 
Fcanoe.  M.,  now  in  his  six^-siith  year,  would  fain 
have  gone  home  to  Scotland  to  lay  his  bones  there, 
bat  the  king  would  on  no  account  hear  of  such  a 
thing ;  and  he  was  farced  to  spend  his  old  age  in 
exile.  M.  died  about  1622,  but  neither  the  date  of 
his  death  nor  the  events  of  his  last  yean  are 
ascertained.  See  Life  of  AnArtm  if«Mtit  by  Dr 
M'Crie  (2  voU  1819). 

HELVILLE,  Hbbiuk,  on  American  author,  waa 
bom  in  New  York,  August  1,  ISIO.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen,  he  shipped  as  a  common  sailor  on  a  voyage 
to  Liverpool ;  and  in  1841,  ho  went  again  before  the 
mast  on  a  whaling  voyage  te  the  Pocmc  111  treated 
by  the  captain,  he  deserted  at  Nukaheva,Man^uesaa 
Islands,  and  was  kept  four  months  as  the  prisoner 
of  a  savage  tribe  in  the  Typee  Volley,  whence  be 
was  rescued  by  an  Australian  whaler,  and  taken  to 
Tahiti  After  visiting  the  Sandwidi  Islands,  he 
ship])ed  on  a  United  States'  frigate,  and  returned  to 
Boston  in  1843.  In  1846,  the  tirst  literary  reanlt  of 
his  adventures  was  published  in  Tj/pee,  a  spirited 
account  oE  his  residence  in  the  Marquesas.  Omoo,  a 
continuation  of  his  adventures  in  Oceania,  appeared 
in  1847,  in  which  year  he  morried  a  daughter  ol 
Chief-justice  Shaw  of  Mossachuaetta.  Mardi,  m 
strange  philosophical  romance,  in  184S,  was  followed 
hyEedimminl8i%;  White  Jadxl,  or  the  WotUvkx 
Man^f-  War,  1850 ;  Moby  i>iet,  or  the  WMe  (TfiaZt 
1861;  Pierre,  or  the  Av^i^UUt,  1862;  ItraA 
Potter,  1855;  The  Piazza  TaU»,  1856;  and  The 
Confidence  Man,  1867.  In  1860,  he  embarked  m  a 
whaling- vessel  for  a  new  teur  round  the  world. 
Baltle  PUix*  (1866)  appeared  after  his  return. 

MELVILLB,  VisconuT.    See  Dmnua 

HEMBKRED,  in  Heraldry.  When  a  bird  baa  its 
legs  of  a  different  oolonr  from  ite  body,  it  is  said  to 
be  membered  of  that  ooloor. 

MEMBRA'NA  FCrPILLATlIS,  tbe  name  given 
to  a  very  thin  membrane  which  closes  or  covers  the 
central  aperture  of  the  iris  in  the  fcetua  during  a 
certain  period  of  gestation,  but  which  disappears  in 
the  seventh  monu. 

MEMBRANE,  in  Anatomy.  This  term  is  api^ied 
to  designate  those  textures  of  the  animal  body, 
which  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  laminm,  and 
cover  organs,  or  line  the  interior  of  eavitiea,  or 
take  part  in  tjie  formation  of  the  walls  of  canals  or 
tubes.  The  structure  and  special  nses  of  soma  of 
the  most  important  of  the  animal  membranes  are 
noticed  in  separate  articles,  such  as  MucoDa  Mem- 
BttiNB,  SsBOira  MBMBR4HK,  Ao. ;  and  the  mem- 
branes in  which  the  fcetus  is  enclosed— commonly 
called  the  f<etal  membranes — ore  described  in  the 
article  Plackhta.  The  membi»nea  which  cover 
and  protect  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  are  commonly 
termed  Meninga,  from  the  Greek  word  maiinx,  a 
membrane. 


well-fortified,  ijtive  seaport  Pop.  (1880)  19,66a 
It  has  an  excellent  large  harbour,  and  is  the  centra 
of  an  active  trade  in  com,  wood,  hemp,  and  amber; 
the  produce  of  Lithuania  and  other  Russian  ^o- 
.  --- 1..? 1 1,^  ALi«L.».  <.»  ..*^uM<vt^nn     The 


M  bdng  brought  thitber  for  expwtatiDi 

D,ai,.s=:»GUlj(^lL 


MBUHINaBN— MEMORY. 


ttnm  itielt,  wUeh  i»  cnnoimdtd  by  an  auprodnotiTe 
BBndjr  pluD,  poBaeue*  teTenJ  good  maDnbctonai  for 
the  ptepMatiQii  of  bnudy,  Boap,  liuMed-ml,  &<L,iuid 
«iteiui*e  HW-nuUa,  iroD-fonndriea,  and  amber  and 
iioa  works,  the  lart  of  which  are  noted  alike  for 
tiieir  atrong  cable*  and  their  light  and  elennt  cii«t- 
iroa  goods,  ^lip-baildiag  ii  carried  on  at  M.,  which 
owns  about  100  ships,  and  haa  a  good  school  of 
navigation ;  in  one  year,  iiam  1200  to  ISOO  veucli 
--'--'hf        '     -^    " 

_  ,._s  founded  1^1253  by  the  Livo 
knights;  in  14M  it  was  fortified  by  the  Teutonio 
Knights.  In  cooseqneDoe  of  a  fite  in  1854,  it  baa 
of  late  yean  nndergone  an  almost  complete  renova- 
tion, and  is  now  udean  well-bnilt  town. 

HE'MUINGEN,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  near  the 
right  bank  of  the  lller,  42  miles  soath-west  of  Augs- 
bnrg.  It  has  handsome  streets,  corriefl  on  mana- 
faetures  of  woollen,  ootton,  and  linen  goods,  gun- 
powder, and  iron-ware  ;  the  chief  part  oT  tbe  trade 
isinhops,  wool,leather,andgrain.   Pop.  (1880)  S406. 

ME^Tf  OK,  »  oelebrated  hero,  the  son  of  l^ho- 
nns  and  Eos  or  Aurora,  who  led  to  Troy  a  host  of 
Ethiopians,  to  support  the  cause  of  Trojr  after  the 
fall  of  Hector.  He  was  said  to  be  clad  in  armour 
mode  by  Hephsstus  or  Vulcan,  and  killed  Antilo- 
chlUL  son  of  Nestor,  in  sinflle  combat.  He  was  killed 
bi  sm^e  combat  with  Aiai  or  Achilles.  Others 
suppose  be  was  ruler  of  tne  nations  between  Susa 
ana  Troy,  or  a  Tassal  of  the  Asspian  monarch 
Teutamua,  who  sent  bim  with  10,000  Ethiopians, 
And  as  many  Suaians,  to  the  Trojao  war.  After  his 
death,  bis  oorpee  waa  carried  by  Aurora  to  Sou, 
and  buried  in  the  acropolis  of  that  town,  Mem- 
noneia ;  or  his  ashes,  collected  in  a  silver  nm,  borne 
to  his  sister  Himera  at  Faphos,  and  thence  to  Fol- 
Hochia  or  toltoa ;  or  to  tbe  banks  of  the  Belos,  near 
Ptolemus.  The  river  Paphlsgonios  flowed  from  his 
blood,  and  his  companions  were  changed  into  birds. 
Bat  the  M.  of  the  older  writers  obtained  a  still 
sre«ter  renown  by  the  name  being  transfeir^  at  a 
later  period  by  the  Greeks  to  a  celebrated  colossus, 
seated  in  tbe  plains  of  Thebes,  on  the  left  or  vest 
bank  of  the  Nile;  while  the  name  of  Memnoneia 
was  applied  by  the  Egyptian  Greeks  to  the 
•cpulchnd  quarter  of  Thebes,  as  Diospolis 
the  right  or  east  bonk.  Memnoneia,  or  s:  ,, 
palaces  of  U.,  also  existed  at  Abydos.  I^e  two 
statues — one  of  which  is  the  celebrated  vocal  M., 
one  of  the  wonders  of  the  old  worid — are  at  a 
place  caUed  Koum-el-Snltan.  Both  are  seated  on 
thnmes,  and  represent  the  monarch  Amenophis  III., 
of  the  18th  dynasty,  wbose  name  and  btles  are 
inscribed  on  the  plinths  behind.  At  the  side*  of 
the  throne  are  sculptured  the  wife  and  mother  of 
tbe  monarch,  about  13  feet  high.  The  hcd^t  of 
each  of  these  colossi  appeara  to  have  origmally 
been  60  feet,  and  they  are  made  of  a  coarse  bard 

K'trtoua  or  breccia.  They  are  at  present  known 
tbe  sobriqaets  of  Tammy  and  Shammy,  and 
were  originally  placed  before  tbe  propylon  of  an 
Amenopheion  or  palace-temple  of  Amenophis  III. 
in  this  quarter  at  Thebes.  The  easternmost  of  these 
«alMfli  la  the  celebrated  vocal  statue,  distinWshed 
from  its  oompanion  by  having  been  anciently  broken 
jpairea  from  the  lap  upwards  with  blocks  of 
—  placed  borisontally,  in  five  Uyen.  The 
■Btue  was  either  injured  by  Cambyees,  to  whom 
the  Egyptian  priests  ascribed  moat  of  the  mutila- 
tions u  the  Ijiebao  temples,  or  else  thrown  down 
hy  an  evifaquake.  The  peculiar  cbaracteristio  of 
this  statue  was  its  giving  oat  at  various  times  a 
■onnd  resembling  'Qie  raeaking  of  a  harp-etring 
cc  »  metallic  ring;  and  oansidmble  diflenuce  (3 


opinion  has  pteruled  as  to  ths  reason  of  this 
sound,  which  ha*  been  heard  in  modem  times,  it 
beins  ascribed  to  the  artifice  of  the  priests,  who 
■tra%  tbe  sonorous  stone  of  which  the  statue  is 
composed,  the  posssge  of  light  dranghta  of  air 
throu^  the  cracks,  of  the  sudden  expansion  of 
aqaeous_particles  nnder  the  influence  of  the  sun's 
rays.  This  remarkable  quality  of  the  statue  is  first 
mentioned  by  Strabo,  who  visited  it  in  company  of 
Elius  GalluB,  about  IS  S.C.;  and  upward*  of  100 
inscriptions  of  Greek  and  Boman  visiton  incised  upon 
its  lees,  record  tbe  visits  of  ancient  travellers  to  wit- 
ness the  phenomenon,  from  tbe  9th  year  of  Nero,  63 
A.  D.,  to  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Severn*,  when  it 
became  ailenb  Amongst  other  visitois  whose  names 
are  recorded  are  those  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian  and 
his  wiie  Sabina ;  Septimioa  Ssrern*  also  visited  the 
statue,  and  is  conjectured  to  have  restored  it ;  for 
Juvenal  mention*  it  as  broken  in  half,  and  no  notice 
of  it  occura  under  the  Pharaohs  or  Ptolemies. 
The  identity  of  this  statoe  and  of  M.  is  mentioned 
in  the  gloss  upon  Manetho,  and  by  Fausanjas  and 
the  inscriptions. — Besides  the  mythical  M.,  two 
historical  p<^ouagea  of  this  name  are  known — 
one  a  Khodian  commander  of  tbe  mercenaries  of 
Artabazus  in  tbe  war  against  Artaierxes-Ochus, 
who  subsequently  fled  to  Mocedon,  and  afterwarda 
enterics  the  Persian  service,  defended  Persia  against 
Alexander,  330  B.  c. ;  but  finally  died  at  the  siege  of 
Mitylene,  333  B.a  :  the  other,  a  Greek  historian, 
who  wrote  a  history  of  Heraclea  Pontica,  in  16  books, 
which  have  been  epitomised  by  Photios. — Welcker, 
Epuch.  Cyd.  211 ;  Strabo,  xv.  728,  xviL  816;  .ffliaa, 
H.A.,  V.  1;  JacobB,i>isOrtuAer<fH^nnnon,-EuBe- 
bius,  Hieron,  p.  164 ;  Juvenal,  xv.  S ;  Letroune,  Svr 
k  Hon.  cCOeymcmdyat ;  Wilkinson,  Top.  qf  Th^m, 
p.  33;  VossiuB,Z)e.Biit  Qrac-  d  IFei<ennafM,p>228; 
Diodor.  xvi  62. 

MEMOBT.  This  is  one  name  for  tiio  great  and 
distinctive  fact  of  mind,  namely,  the  power  of 
retaining  impressions  made  throngh  tbe  senses,  and 
of  reviving  them  at  after-times  without  the  originals, 
and  by  mental  forces  alone.  The  conditions  of  this 
power  have  been  already  stated  [see  Assocution 
or  Ii>ua,  Hasit).  We  ehaU  advert  here  to  some  of 
tiie  arts  and  devices  that  have  been  propounded  from 
time  to  time,  for  aiding  our  recoUecboD  u  the  various 
kinds  of  knowledge. 

Perhaps  the  commonest  remark  on  this  subject 
is,  tliat  memoiy  depends  on  Attention,  or  that  the 
more  we  attend  to  a  thing,  tbe  better  we  remember 
it  This  is  true  with  reference  to  any  special  acqui- 
sition ;  if  we  direct  the  forces  of  the  mind  upon 
one  point,  we  shall  necessarily  give  that  point  the 
henefit  of  the  concentration,  but  this  does  not  affect 
memory  as  a  whole :  we  merely  take  power  from  one 
thing  to  give  it  to  another.  Memory  at  large  can 
be  miproved  only  by  increasing  the  vigour  and 
freshness  of  tbe  nervous  system,  and  by  avoiding 
all  occasion*  of  exhaustion,  undue  excitement,  and 
other  causes  of  nervous  waste.    We  may  do  this  by 

Sneral  constitutional  means,  or  by  stimulating  the 
ain  at  tbe  expense  of  tbe  other  functions ;  this  last 
method  is,  however,  no  economy  in  the  end.  Every 
man's  system  ha*  a  certain  fund  of  plastic  power, 
which  may  be  husbanded,  but  cannot  he  materially 
increased  on  the  whole ;  the  power  being  greatest  in 
early  life,  and  diminishing  with  advancmg  years. 
If  it  is  strongly  drawn  upon  for  one  class  <S  acqui- 
sition*, we  must  not  expect  it  to  be  of  eqnal  avul 
for  others. 

But  there  may  be  ways  and  means  of  mesenttng 
and  arranging  tbe  matters  of  —  ' '     —   "  " 


SUB  of  present! 

„    „  .    .  knowlMge,  so   . . 

make  them  retainral  at  a  smaller  coat  of  tha 

wer  of  tha  brain.    These  inclnde  the  aits 


plastic  power  of  tha  brain.    These  inclnde  the  arts 
of  teaching  expounding,  and  educating  in  general, 

U|irat:,,CjOOgl' 


MEMOBY— HEMORT,  DISEASES  OF. 


and  also  oertun  i 


The  oldest  method  of  artlHcuil  memory  u  said  to 
have  been  inTented  hj  the  Greek  poet  SimonJdefl, 
who  lived  in  the  0th  c  B.a  It  ii  named  the  lojAal, 
or  localitj'  memory,  from  the  employment  of  known 
^Bcea  as  the  medimn  of  racoUectioD.  Afl  given  by 
Quintilian,  it  ia  in  Eabstance  &■  folloira :  You  ehooae 
a  very  spacious  and  diveraely  arranged  plac»~a 
large  hoasa,  for  inataiice,  divided  into  several  apart- 
ment!. You  iTDpreBii  on  the  mind  with  care  what- 
ever is  remarkable  in  it ;  so  that  the  mind  may  run 
through  all  the  parts  without  hesitation  and  delay. 
Then,  if  you  have  to  remember  a  series  of  ideas,  yon 
place  the  first  in  the  boll,  the  second  in  the  parlour, 
and  so  on  with  the  rest,  going  over  the  wiodowa, 
the  chambera,  to  the  statues  and  several  objects. 
Then,  when  yon  wiah  to  recall  the  sacceasian,  yon 
commence  going  over  the  house  in  the  order  fixed, 
and  in  connection  with  each  apartment  yon  will  £nd 
the  idea  that  you  attached  to  it.  The  princifile  of 
the  method  is,  tliat  it  is  more  easy  for  the  nund  to 
associate  a  thought  with  a  well-known  place,  than  to 
associate  the  same  thought  with  the  neict  thought 
without  any  medium  whatever.  Orator*  are  said 
to  have  used  the  method  for  remembering  their 
speeches.  The  method  has  been  extensively  taught 
by  writers  on  mnemonica  in  modem  times.  Prob- 
ably, for  temporaiy  efforts  of  memory,  it  may  bo  of 
•ome  use ;  the  doubtful  point  always  is,  whether  the 
machinery  of  such  systems  is  not  more  combrous 
than  IidpfuL 

Much  labour  has  been  spent  on  mnemouie  devices 
for  assisting  In  the  recollection  of  nomben,  one  of 
the  hardest  efforts  of  memory.  The  principal  method 
for  this  purpose  is  to  reduce  the  numbers  to  words, 
by  assigning  a  tetter  for  each  of  the  ten  ciphen. 
^nds  method  was  reduced  to  aystem  by  Oregor  von 
Feinaigle,  a  German  monk,  and  was  taught  by  him 
in  vanouB  parts  of  Europe,  and  finally  published  in 
1812.  Hb  made  a  careful  choice  of  the  letters  for 
lepresenting  the  several  figures,  having  in  view  some 
aasociation  between  the  connected  couple,  for  mora 
easy  recollection.  For  the  figure  1,  be  used  the 
letter  l,  as  being  a  single  stroke ;  for  2,  n,  as  being 
two  strokes  combined ;  3,  tn,  three  strokes  i  4,  r, 
which  is  fonnd  in  the  word  denoting  '  four'  in  the 
European  looguaget ;  6, 1,  from  the  &man  numeral 
L,  signLfying  fifty,  oi  live  tens ;  6,  d,  because  the 
written  d  resembles  9  reversed ;  7,  it,  because  i; 
resemUes  two  7'i  joined  at  top ;  in  place  of  thia 
figure  is  also  used  on  occasion  g,  g,  c  (bard)  aa  aU 
belonging  to  tbe  enttural  class  of  i;  8,  b,  from  a 
certain  amount  of  similarity,  also  vi,  for  the  same 
reason,  and  sometimes  e,  or  the  half  te;  9  is  p,  from 
similarity,  and  also  /,  both  of  which  are  miited  in 
the  word  pu^,  which  proceeds  from  a  pipe,  like  a  S 
figure ;  0  is  «,  z,  or  z,  because  it  resembles  In  its 
roundness  a  grindstone,  which  gives  out  a  hissing 
noise  like  these  letters.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet 
mot  emriloyed  in  representing  figures  are  to  be  used 
in  combination  with  these,  but  with  the  under- 
standing that  they  have  no  meaning  of  themselvea. 
Suppose,  then,  that  a  number  is  given,  say  647 ;  S 
Ut,  4  is  r,  7  is  k;  which  makes  I,  r,  k;  among  these 
letters  we  insert  an  unmeaning  vowel,  at  u,to  make 
up  an  intelligible  word,  lqbs,  which  remains  in  the 
memory  far  more  easily  than  the  numerical  form- 
In  mnlring  up  the  words  by  the  insertion  of  the 
anmeaning  or  dumi  letters,  we  should  also  have 
regard  to  some  connection  with  the  subject  that  the 
number  refers  to,  as,  for  eiamplc,  in  obronology. 
Thus,  America  was  discovered  In  1493;  the  letters 
here  are  f,  r,  ji,  n  ;  tbey  may  be  made  mto  to  Barine, 
beoause  tliat  disooreiy  led  to  npine  by  the  first 


Spaniards.      There  is,  of   oonrse,  great   room  for 

ingenuity  in  the  formation  of  these  suggestive  ward& 

Also,  a  series  of  nnmben  may  be  jomed  together 

some  intelligible  sentence,  whioh  can  be  eaailv 

-^      d.    Su-"- >-:-';—   >■ >^     -^ 


be  formed  ones  for  all  in  the  case  of  any  important 
seriea  of  nnmben,  as  the  dates  of  onr  sovereigmi  and 
other  historical  epochs.  It  is  too  muob  to  expect 
tiapils  to  oonstmct  these  febcitous   oomlanatt — 


Dr  l.dward  Pick,  a  recent  leotnrer  on  mnsuonios. 


to  choose  out  snch  words  aa  have  some  kindof 
nection  wiUi  one  another,  and  to  arrange  them  in  m 
series,  so  that  each  shall  have  a  meaning  in  common 
with  the  next,  or  be  contrasted  with  it,  or  be  related 
to  it  by  any  other  bond  of  association.  Thus,  he 
takes  the  French  irregolar  verbs,  which  are  osiuUt 
arranged  in  the  alphabetioal  order  (which  is  itself 
however,  a  mnemomc  help),  and  puts  then  into  ths 
foUcwing  series,  where  a  obtain  connection  of  mean- 
iilg  exists  between  every  two:  a»  tew,  tit  dmim,  move, 
go,  go  eaeay,  tend,/oUoto,  run,  thm,  t^o.  In  a  case 
where  two  words  have  no  mutual  suggestivenees, 
be  proposes  to  find  out  some  intermediate  idea  that 
would  bring  about  a  connection.    Thua,  if  the  words 

zarden,  hair,  watchman,  philosophy,  he  would 

,    fate  other  words ;  thus — gardoi,  plont^  hair 
of  a  plant — /tair;  hair,  bonnet,  taatchman;  uatcA- 


the  new  words  are  to  a  certain  extent  a  burden 
totbemiud.  Dr  Pick  further  sug^sts  as  a  practical 
hint,  in  committing  to  memory,  Uiat  the  attention 
ahould  be  concentrated  snccessively  upon  each  two 
cutlvo  members  of  the  series ;  the  mind  should 
I  upon  the  first  and  the  second,  until  they  bava 

should  in  the  same  way  attend  to  the  second  and 
the  third,  the  third  and  the  fourth,  tc  Of  course^ 
if  every  successive  linlr  is  in  that  way  made  suffi- 
ciently strong,  the  whole  chain  ia  secure. 

There  are  various  examples  of  effective  mnenu 
combinations.  The  whole  doctrine  of  the  syllog 
(q.  V.)  is  contained  in  five  lines  of  I^tin  verse ;  as 
regards  amount  of  meaning  in  small  oompaas,  these 
lines  have  never  been  surpaaa^  if,  indeed,  they  have 
been  equalled.  The  veraification  of  the  rules  of  the 
Laldn  grammar  has  tho  same  end  ia  view,  but  nil 
that  is  gained  by  this  is  merely  the  help  from  tbo 
association  of  the  sounds  of  the  verse  in  tbe  ear  ;  in 
comparison  with  a  topical  memory,  this  might  be 
called  a  rhythmical  memory.  The  well-known  rule 
far  the  number  of  days  in  the  different  months  of 
the  year  C  Thirty  days  hath  September,'  &c)  is  on 


MEMORY,  DfflZAfiES  ov.  Memory,  or  the  power 
reproducing  mental  impressions,  ia  impaired  by 
-JO,  wounds,  or  injuries  to  the  head  or  nervous 
system,  fevers,  intWpenuice,  and  various  physical 
conditions.  It  ia  perhaps  affected  in  all  kinda  of 
mental  derangement,  but  ia  in  a  most  aigrkal  manner 
obliterated  or  enfeebled  in  DemetHia.  There  are, 
however,  examples  of  reoollection  sorviving  all  other 
faculties,  and  preserving  a  elear  and  extensive 
notion  of  long  and  complicated  series  of  events 
amid  the  general  dnrknesa  and  ruin  of  mind.  Inco- 
herence owes  some  of  its  features  to  defective 
or  irregular  memory.  Cases  of  so  marvellous  an 
exaltation  and  extension  of  this  capadty,  as  where 
a  whole  parliamentary  debate  could  be  recalled, 
~i*t  the  sospicion  of  nnbe^thy  aotioa.    There 


wGoogte 


qqraar,  liowerer,  to  be  trpeowl  kffectjoni  ot  Om 
Uevlty.  It  ma7  be  aiupeiiiled  while  the  inteUigence 
remBtna  inttct  Perioda  ol  personal  or  general 
ioBbary  majr  dude  the  F»*Pt  '^^  e^en  tliat  con- 
tiniut}  of  impr«««ioa(  wuich  goea  far  to  constitute 
the  feeling  of  personal  identity,  ia  broken  up,  ond 
ft  duality  or  multij^city  of  experiencoi  may  appear 
to  ba  eoDJoined.  The  converse  of  thie  may  happen, 
and  knowledge  that  had  oonmletely  faded  awajr 
may,  nnder  eidtement  or  cerehral  £sea«e,  return. 
There  are,  beddea,  states  in  which  this  poi 
partially  affected,  as  in  the  instances  whei 
nnmbera  S  and  1  were  lost,  and  where  a  highly 
educated  man  oould  not  retain  any  conceptioii  of 
the  letter  V ;  secondly,  when,  it  appeals  perverted, 
recalling  images  inappropriately,  and  in  an  erroneoua 
•equence  of  order  or  time,  and  different  from  what 
u«  deaired ;  and  thirdly,  where,  while  the  writt 
or  printed  ngna  of  ideas  con  be  uaed,  tiie  oral 
artumlate  ajgna  are  utterly  forgotten.  All  these 
deriatioiia  ama  health  appear  to  depend  apon 
chan^  generally  of  an  apoplectio  nature  in  the 
anterior  lobea  of  tiie  brain-— Crichton  on  ifeniai 
JDerangemaU  ;  Teni:htenlxibea,  Mtdkal  PayeAologyj 
Bibot,  Let  Maladia  de  la  Mimoira  (13S1). 

HB'MPHia,  a  celebrated  Egyptian  city,  cdtuated 
in  the  Delta,  or  Lower  Egypt,  the  ancient  capital 
of  the  country,  colled  b^  the  Ggyptiaua  jifen 
nf/'er,  or  '  the  Good  Station ; '  by  the  Hebrewa, 
Mo^  ;  and  by  the  Arabs,  Memf.  It  waa  fonnded 
by  Menes,  the  fint  monarch  of  the  first  dynasty, 
who,  according  to  Herodotus,  changed  the  bed  of 
the  Nile,  and  made  an  embankment,  100  stadia 
above  Jt.,  to  protect  the  new  city  against  inun- 
dations. The  remains  of  this  bank  still  eiist  at 
Kafr-el  Tyst,  about  14  miles  above  Metmhenny, 
which  is  the  centre  of  old  U.,  and  tbo  site  of  the 
temple  of  Ptah  or  Hephieiteuta.  Menes  fortified 
the  city,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  temple. 
UohMen^'  a  later  monarch,  is  alio  said  to  have 
fonnded  M.,  and  introduced  the  worship  of  Apia 
and  Epaphus.  The  site  of  the  city  woo  well  chosen, 
protected  alike  by  the  Libyan  and  Arabian  chains 
of  moontaina  adjomat  the  nver  and  the  incuraions 
of  the  aai^  defending  the  apjiroach  of  the  country 
from  the  incnrsioua  of  Asiabo  nomads,  and  com- 
mnnicatiug  with  the  Bed  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean. 
The  city  waa  composed  of  two  portions — one  bnilt 
<A  crtide  bricks ;  the  other,  on  which  was  the  citadel, 
of  calcareous  stone,  called  the  Letikoa  Tddtot,  or 
'White  Wall,'  which  held  some  of  the  principal 
bnildings.  The  poIaCB,  built  by  Menee,  was  enlarged 
In  hia  son  Athothis,  and  was  always  inhabited 
either  by  a  monarch  or  his  viceroy.  Under  the 
Persian  rtde,  it  was  occupied  by  the  satrap ;  and 
by  tiie  Oreek  mercenariee,  under  the  Saite  kings. 
Under  Uchoreua,  the  total  circumference  was  160 
stadia.  After  the  6th  dynasty,  the  city  declined 
in  importance,  and  waa  apparently  held  by  the 
HykahoB  after  the  13th  and  before  the  18th  (1500 
B.  Gt.  At  this  period,  M.  was  ruled  by  a  viceroy, 
a  prmce  of  liie  blood,  and  still  remained  the  religious 
capital  of  the  old  worship.  It  rose  again  to  great 
importanoe  under  the  Saite  monarchs,  about  GOO 
B.  a,  who  reatored  it,  became  the  seat  of  a  sepa- 
rate monatchy,  and  was  conquered  by  Sennacherib 
and  hia  taccesMn.  The  temples  of  this  city  were 
magnificent,  and  comprised  the  laeum,  a  large 
temple  of  lais,  completed  by  Amasis  II.  just  prior 
to  Combyses  {62S  B.O.);  a  temple  dedicated  to 
Proteus,  m  the  foreign  qnarter ;  the  temple  of  the 
Apis,  having  a  peristyle  and  court  ornamented  with 
flgurea,  opposite  Uie  south  propyheum  of  the  temple 
olPtab,  where  theaacred bull  resided;  the Serapeiun, 
or  temple  of  Oa  ot  Apia,  in  the  quarter  recently 
discovered  by  M.  Hanette  (aee  Sekajbdh);  the 


Nilometer,  removed  by  Cousl«&tdne  L  to  Constan- 
tinople, replaced  by  Julian  UL  or  the  Apostate ; 
a  temple  of  Ba ;  and  the  shrine  of  ilie  Cabili. 
Here  were  the  statues  of  Ramesea  IL,  one  of 
which  exists  as  the  fallen  colossus,  Metrobieuny, 
and  others  have  been  discovered  b^  Hekekyan  Bey 
in  hia  eicavritionB.  These  colossi,  abovs  75  feet 
high,  were  of  Syenitic  granite,  or  of  the  limestone  of 
Tourah  or  Mokattam.  These  temples  flourished  in 
all  their  glory  till  the  Peraian  conquest  Still  more 
ren^ackable  was  the  great  aecropolis  of  the  city,  in 
the  centre  of  which  towered  the  pyramids  (see 
PrBlHiDs).  During  the  attempta  of  the  native 
rulers  to  tllKiw  off  the  Pereian  rule.  M.  was  an 
important  strategic  point.  Ochus  inflicted  severe 
injury  on  this  town,  having  plundered  the  temples 
and  thrown  down  the  walla  after  he  had  driven  out 
Nectanebus.  Alexander  the  Great  here  worshipped 
the  Apis,  and  his  corpse  waa  brought  to  this  city  by 
Ptolemy  before  it  waa  finally  transferred  to  Alex- 
andria, The  first  Ptolemies  were  crowned  in  the 
Serapeum.  Ptolemy  VIIL  destroyed  the  city,  and 
it  had  eo  declined  after  his  time  as  to  become  a 
decayed  site.  It  fell  with  the  rest  of  Egypt  under 
the  Boman  rule,  and  afterwards  was  conquered  by 
Amm  Ben  Abas  (639—640  A.D.) ;  and  Fostat  and 
Cairo  were  built  out  of  its  ruins,  which  were  hu^ 
and  importaut  in  the  13tb  c,  when  they  were  seen 
by  Abd-alatif.  The  few  remains  of  the  ancient 
Koom-el-Axyzeh  to  tiie  north;  Metrahenny 
west;  and  Uie  canal  of  Bedrachin  on  the 
south ;  bnt  the  remains  here  ore  submerged  many 
feet  in  Uie  soil  of  the  Delta. 

Herod,  a.  97,  101,  147,  178;  Died.  iviiL  34.  i 
46,  Fragm.  t.  33.  Ivi  p.  1S4 ;  Thucyd.  L  104 ;  Hygio. 
xiv.  90  ;  HeUod.  ii.  S9,  Glj  Hosea  ii.  6 ;  Isaiah  xii. 
*"  Ezek.  XII.  13,  16 ;  Wilkinson,  Top.  Tlieba; 
sen,  Egypft  Place;  CliampollioD-Figeao, 
L'Ejgpte:  and  the  works  on  l^ypt  of  Lepeiiu, 
Brugsch-Bey,  Ebers,  Eawlinsaa,  Maspero,  and  other*. 

MEMPHIS,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  on  the  east 
tdde  of  the  Miasismppi  River,  in  the  south-west 
of  Tenneasee,  ITnited  States  of  America,  420 
miles  below  St  Louia.  It  is  handsomdy  built  on  a 
btu^  60  feet  above  tiie  highest  floods.  It  is  the 
outlet  of  a  large  cotton  region,  receiving  in  1873-4, 
429,327  boles.  It  has  fine  pablio  buildings  and 
hotels,  and  theatre,  43  churches,  3  oollegea,  100 
schools,  C  daily  and  10  other  newspapers,  10  banks 
and  several  insurance  companies  ;  railways  connect- 

„  with  New  Orleans,  Charieston,  Louisville, 
Little  Bock,  &c. ;  with  aeveml  foundries,  manufac- 
tories of  boilers,  machinery,  Ac  In  the  War  of  Secea- 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Federal  forces  in  136^ 
was  the  base  of  military  operations  for  the  cap- 
ture of  Vicksburg,  July  4,  186a  M.  was  desolated 
by   a   fearful    outbreak   of    yellow   fever    in  the 

mmer  of  1878.     Pop.  (1870)  40,226;  (1880)  33,593. 

MENA'DO,  an  important  posaesaion  of  the 
Netherlands,  on  the  north  of  Celebes,  is  under  the 
government  ol  the  Moluccas.  The  country  is  vol- 
canic, with  many  lofty  mountains.  The  mountainous 
grounds  of  the  province  of  Minahosaa  an  well 
adapted  for  the  growth  of  coffee,  which  was  first 
ilonted  in  1S20,  and  epeedily  became  favoimbly 
[nowu  in  the  market.  The  coffee-culture  is  oom- 
lulsoiy,  and  the  government  monopolises  the  pro- 
luce  at  a  filed  price.  In  1870-80,  there  were  about 
1,000,000  coffee-trees,  producing  more  than  1000 
tons  per  annum.  The  rice-crop  overages  47,880  tons. 
""  400,000  sago  and  800,000  cocuo-nut  trees, 

,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  cincliona  are  culti- 
vated. In  1876,  tbere  were  11,626  horees,  19,867 
cattle,  201,284  swine,  8641  buffaloes,  and  17,169 
■heep  and  goato.    In  this  lesidency,  civilisation  and 


,,  Google 


in  1880,  uconiing  to  an  offioial  e«tiinate^  amonnted 
to  217,377.  Twenty  ye»ra  ago,  the  pagsiu  were 
mort  namennm  in  tiie  Miaahana  diitriot,  bat 
77,184  are  now  Chrutian^  The  town  of  Menado  ii 
neatly  boilt,  baa  a  ohnrcli,  a  iohool  for  the  children 
o{  Eoropeana,  and  othen  for  those  of  nativea. 

MENAGE,  MaatWB,  or  GiLra  si,  a  Frpnoh 
lexioogra^er  and  lingout,  waa  bom  at  Angen  in 
1613L  Disliking  the  profession  of  an  advocate,  he 
renounced  it,  uons  with  an  office  itnder  govern- 
ment, which  his  &ther  bad  trantrfeired  to  him, 
entered  the  oborcb,  and  fixed  hii  residence  in  the 
convent  o(  Notre  Dome.  His  time  was  chiefly 
■pent  in  literary  pnranits,  in  wbicb  he  acquired  a 
great  reputation.  9a  waa  an  extreme  pedant,  full 
of  prejaaioaa  and  bitter  hottilitiei.  His  Dktioniuiire 
Btgnuio^qut  d»  la  LangM  FranroMe  (Far.  1650; 
bert  ed.  by  Jault,  2  vols.  Far.  17S0),  and  his  Origini 
d^la  Lingua  ItaUana,  are  entdite  and  valuable 
works,  althonah  they  contain  many  erroneous 
etymologies.  His  poems  (Latin,  Italian.  French, 
and  Greek)  are  of  little  worth.    He  died  in  1692. 

MB'NAI  STRAIT,  which  separates  the  island  of 
Anglesey  from  the  mainland,  runs  east -north-east 
from  its  loutlieTn  extremity  to  Bangor,  a  distance 
of  13  miles,  and  there  widena  ont  into  Beanmaris 
Bav.  Its  width  varies  from  abont  250  yai^  to  2 
mile*.  The  navigation  is  hazardous,  bnt  the  strait 
it  neverlheleM  mnch  naed  for  the  sake  of  expe- 
ditioa  by  vessela  under  100  tonx,  and  ocoasionsJly 
by  aome  of  larger  aizei  At  the  entrance  of  the  strait, 
the  tid««  sometimes  rise  to  a  height  of  30  feet,  and 
the  ordinary  neap-tide  nsee  frem  10  to  12  feet. 
Commnnicatum  between  An^^esey  and  the  mainland 
waa  fonnerly  maintained  by  ferry-boats  at  different 
points ;  bnt  a  Suspenaion  Bridge  was  conitnicted  by 
government  in  the  line  of  the  great  Holyhead  roa<^ 
and  anbaeqnently  railway  commnnication  waa  eatab- 
Uahed  by  means  of  the  Britannia  Bridge  (q.  v.). 
Hie  scenery  on  both  sidea  of  the  strait  ta  mildly 
beantifoL 

MENA'NDER,  the  most  celebnted  Greek  poet  of 
the  New  Comedy,  was  born  at  AUiens,  342  B.  c  His 
nncle  waa  the  oomio  poet  Alaiis;  he  had  Tbeo- 
pbrastus  for  bis  teacher,  and  E^icnroa  for  a  friend; 
and  the  inflaence  of  all  throe  u  discernible  in  bia 
style  of  thought  and  feeling.  U.  was  a  handsome, 
light-hearted,  and  elegant  Greek,  wmiewhat  luxn- 
rioua,  but  not  impure  in  his  manner*;  He  waa 
drowned  while  swimming  in  the  harboor  of  the 
FineuB.  M.  wrote  more  t&n  one  hnndred  oomedies, 
which  were  in  bigb  repute  among  his  oountrymen, 
at  leoat  after  deaui;  but  we  poesesa  mere  fragments 
of  tbem.  Wa  know  somethmg  of  their  character, 
however,  from  the  imitations  of  them  by  Terence. 
Pleasant  and  refined  wit,  clear,  aententioua  reflection, 
and  a  vein  of  real  eameatnest  at  times,  are  the 
qnalitiea  most  apparent  in  them.  The  best  edition 
al  the  extant  fr^ments  of  M.  ia  Meineke's  Frag- 
menia  Comiconim  Oracorum  (BerL  1841), 

HENCHIKOW,  or  MENCHIKOFF,  ALn< 
ANDKR  Danilotitoh,  a  Bnssian  field-manbal  and 
minister  of  state,  waa  bom  at  Moscow,  on  ^th 
November  1672i  He  vros  m  baker's  apprentice, 
when  hi*  iDtellicent  countenance  attracted  the 
notice  of  GeneraT  Lefort,  through  whose  patron- 

3[e  he  was  taken  into  the  servioe  of  Peter  the 
rest.  He  had  the  good  fortune  to  diaoarer  a 
oonspiraoy  among  the  czar's  guards,  and  his  rapid 
promotion  waa  secured.  He  aocompanied  Peter  iu 
bia  travels  to  Holland  and  England,  and  on  the 
death  of  Lefort,  was  raised  to  the  post  of  chief 
adviser.  11.  was  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  his 
time,  axoelliog  equally  as  a  g«nar«l  and  a  di[4oma- 
^ 


tist ;  and  although  totally  uneducated,  he  did  much 

to  promote  the  education  of  the  people,  and  waa  a 
libraal  patron  of  the  arts  and  soiences.  On  the  30th 
October  1706,  be  defeated  the  Swedes  at  Kalisch; 
he  contributed  to  some  of  the  czar's  other  victories  ; 
was  made  a  field-marshal  on  the  field  of  Fultawa  ; 
and  compelled  LBwenhaupt  to  capitulate  with  ereat 
port  of  the  Swedish  army.  In  1710,  he  took  siga  ; 
ID  1713,  be  led  the  Russian  troops  into  Pomerania 
and  Holsteio,  and  took  Stettin,  but  gave  it  up  to 
Frussia,  oontrarv  to  the  will  of  the  czar.  This  and 
bia  avarice  so  displeased  Feter,  tliat  he  subjected 
him  to  B  court-martiaL  Hs  waa  condemned  to 
death  by  a  majority  of  voices ;  bnt  was  pardoned 
on  payment  of  a  heavy  fine.  During  the  reign  ti 
Cattuuine  L,  he  regained  hit  inflnenoe  at  court,  and 
after  her  death,  governed  Russia  with  almost  abso- 
lute autbority  m  the  name  of  Feter  II.,  whose 
father-in-law  he  waa  just  aboat  to  become,  when  he 
waa  overthrown  by  Dolgorontd,  and  banildied  to 
Siberia  (September  1727}.  His  immense  estates  and 
treasures  were  confiscated.  He  died  22d  October 
(2d  November)  1729.^-His  great-grandson,  Pbincb 
ALEXaNDER  Skbokjivitoh  ML,  vrBs  bom  in  1789, 
and  after  being  long  an  attache  of  legation  at 
Vienna,  served  m  the  oampaiens  of  1812—1810, 
rose  to  the  rank  of  general,  and  after  the  accession 
of  the  E!mperor  Nicholas,  waa  employed  both  in 
diplomatic  and  miKtary  services.  In  the  Turkish 
campaign  of  1828,  he  took  Anapa  after  a  short  siege, 
bat  received  so  severe  a  wound  before  Vama  as 
compelled  his  retirement.  He  waa  afterwards  for  a 
time  at  the  head  of  the  Euaeian  navy,  and  raised  it 
to  a  high  state  of  efficiency.  In  Maroh  1853,  he  waa 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Constantinople,  where  bia 
overbearing  beliaviour  produced  a  speedy  rapture 
between  the  Porte  and  tile  czar,  and  brought  about 
the  Crimean  war.  In  this  war  he  commanded  both 
ttie  land  and  naval  foreea  of  Komiia,  and  displayed 
the  utmost  enet^  in  defending  Sebastopol  In 
March  1856  he  was  appointed  commander  of  Cron- 
stadt.  M.  waa  till  his  death  in  1869,  one  of  the 
oat  prominent  memben  of  the  old  Raaeion  party. 

MENGIUS.    See  MsNO-ias. 

MENDE,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Lozire,  on  the  Lot,  in  a  valley  sur- 
rounded by  high  hills,  about  70  milea  north-north- 
west of  Montpellier.  In  the  vicinity,  are  numerous 
villsa  and  gardens.  M.  has  a  cathedral  surmounted 
by  two  spires,  and  manufactnrea  sergca  and  other 
ooaise  cloths.    Fop.  700a 

MENDELSSOHN,  Mosm,  an  eminent  German 
^lilosopher,  was  born  on  the  7th  September  1729  at 
Dessau.  From  his  fatber,  a  Jewish  schoolmaster  and 
scribe,  he  received  his  first  education;  and  in  his 
13th  year  proceeded  to  Berlin,  where,  arrdd  very  indi- 
gent drcomstances,  he  contrived  to  learn  Latin  and 
mocUm  lansoages,  and  to  ^>ply  himself  to  the  study 
of  philotcmny,  into  which  early        "'  >-■  "     -• 


became  the  partner  of  a  rich  silk-mani 
whose  childrrai  he  had  educated.  The  intimate 
friend  of  men  like  LessinA  Sulzer,  Nicolai,  he, 
directly  and  indirectly,  contributed  in  a  vast  degree 
to  the  extermimiitiOD  of  the  brntal  prejudices  against 
the  Jews,  and  the  disgraceful  laws  with  reap^  to 
them.  On  the  other  hand,  he  acted  in  tlie  most 
beneficial  manner  on  bis  own  co-religionists,  by 
reusing  them  from  the  mental  apathy  with  wbicn 
they  regarded  in  his  day  all  tbat  bad  not  a  distinct 
reference  to  Religion,  and  by  waging  fierce  war 
ujainst  their  own  religious  and  other  prejudices. 
He  waa  also,  on  account  of  his  immense  influence 
Qpou  tttcoot  <»Ue4  WOtW  UofW     Bo  di^  tib 


MENDELaSOHN-BARTHOLDV— MENDOZA. 


Juraaty  17S6,  Kid  Ruoler  muta  the  folloviug 
epitaph  OD  hiia :  '  Tme  to  ths  TeligiOB  of  hit  fore- 
fkUiera,  wiie  u  Soontea,  teaebiug  uamortali^,  and 
beoommg  immortal  like  Socrates.'  Hia  minoipal 
works  1^—Fope,  tin  MttajAymttr  (with  XMnua;) 
(Dan.  175S) ;  BrieA  flA*r  die  Be^Mmgm  (BerL 
1764} )  UAtr  die  BMam  (far  flMtajAvflMAM  TTumd- 
M&ci/kii,  *  prise  essay  of  tbs  Berlin  AoadMn;,  which 
theMiipmi  oiuuumonsly  resolved  to  eleot  him  a 
mendrar  of  their  bodvi  Frederick  tiie  Qna,t,  lunr> 
ever,  generallv  nrejiuLosd  agaiiut  the  Jews,  struck 
hii  name  off  the  list  i  PhatiUm,  oder  Ubtr  Un^trblkA- 
ixit  dtr  8mU  (BerL  1767),  a  dialogue  in  the  nuumer 
of  FUto;  Jtnualeia,  oder  tJxr  nligiOts  MacAt  dm 
JudenUuMM  (BerL  17S3),  ohiefly  in  answer  to 
Lavatar's  obtrusive,  sometine*  even  ofTansivelj 
worded  aignmeobi,  by  whioh  he  Intended  to  oonvert 
M.  to  Christianity,  ta  to  prove  that  he  was  a 
Christian  alreadv.  Further,  Morgemtxaide^  (BerL 
17S5)  I  Homing  Convenatioiu  with  his  ahildren  and 
friends  ohiefly  in  refntatiou  of  Pantheism  and 
Spinoum.  Bendea  many  othv  smaller  Hebrew 
and  Qennan  Miajn,  eootnbntions  to  the  BOHotMe 
(J«r  tobinra  Wiuofekc^fie^,  edited  by  Leasing  (to 
whom,  in  a  manner,  ha  fmiiiahed  the  prototype  to 
his  Nathan  der  Wtm),  ko.,  his  tranalation  cd  the 
Pentateui^  and  the  Fsalms  deserves  a  nrominent 

{lace.  Hia  works  were  edited  in  1845,  and  again  in 
S80  (8  vols.). 

MEHDELSBOHir-BABTHOLDT,  Faux,  a 
Oennsii  musical  oomposer,  aoa  al  Abraham 
UeudelsM^'Bartlioldy,  the  eminent  banker,  and 
grandson  of  Moms  MendeUsohn,  the  philosopher, 
was  bom  at  Hamburg,  Sd  February  1809.  Hit 
lather  was  a  convert  to  OhristiBnity,  and  yoQng 
Felix  was  brought  up  in  the  Lutheran  faith.  The 
affluent  oiranmstauoe*  of  hia  patents  enabled  them 
to  bestow  a  most  liberal  and  cafefol  adnoation  on 
thdrsoniWhoMflneKeniDaaarlyBheweditself.  Zelter 
was  his  instmotoi  m  oompontion,  Lndwio  Beraer 
on  the  piano.  Id  hia  nintk  year,  be  gave  nil  &*t 
pnblio  ooDoert  in  Beriin,  and  in  the  following  year 
played  In  Patv.  Ftom  this  period,  ha  oommenced 
to  write  compositions  of  all  aorti,  some  of  them  of 
a  very  diffiaiilt  oharaoter.  tor  the  piano,  violin, 
rioloncdlo,  fto.  In  1824,  the  first  of  these— throe 
quartets  for  the  piano — wore  pnblishod.  In  1825,  ha 
went  a  second  bme  to  Fans— hli  fathsr,  on  the 
advice  of  Clierubini  and  other  eminent  artists, 
havin|[  ooaiented  that  he  should  devote  himself 
exclusively  to  raosio.  He  now  oave  ooncerta  both 
in  Paris  and  Berlin,  after  whicn  he  travelled  for 
three  years  in  Bngland,  Scotland,  France,  and 
Italy.  In  the  flrtt  of  these  oonntries,  he  obtuned 
enUiuslastio  apptaaae  by  his  overture  to  Shak- 
■pesre's  Midtumm^  NigMa  Drtam,  which,  in  ita 
Uending  of  the  fsnoifal,  the  delicate^  and  the 
grotesque,  ll  toid  to  have  caught  the  inspiration  cd 
Siakapeare  himseU.  He  afterwards  wrote  music 
to  acGonipany  the  whole  of  the  play.  His  /«Is>  q/' 
Pmgal  ue  a  fine  memorial  of  the  imprcasion  left 
npon  hhn  by  the  wild  scenery  of  tbe  Western 
BtighlandB.  His  lettJirs  from  ftoly  also  shew  how 
profoundly  he  was  affected  by  that  glorious  land — 
the  true  home  of  art.  M.  subsequently  attempted 
to  start  a  muaical  theatre  for  the  cultivation  of 
high  art,  at  Dttsseldorf ;  but  it  did  not  snoceed.  In 
1835,  he  accepted  the  direDtonihip  of  the  Lei|)!na 
oopcerta.  Here  he  wa*  in  the  oenfe^  of  the  musicat 
world  i4  Germany,  and  was  atjmnlated  to  his 
highest  and  meat  brilliant  efforts;  yet  it  was  in 
England  that  H.  first  met  with  a  reception  pro- 
portionate to  his  gaoiua.  Hjk  oratraio  of  St  PomI, 
after  being  performed  at  Dresden  and  Leipzig,  was 
produced  nnder  his  own  management  at  the 
Krmingham    Festival,    Sqitember   90,   li87,    and 


created  quite  a  furor.  It  and  hia  oth«i  oratorio  ot 
Slyah,  on  whioh  he  laboured  for  nine  yean,  and 
wlu(^  was  first  brought  out  at  the  Birmingham 
festival  of  1346,  are  reckoned  hia  two  grMtest 
works.  Ha  ^ed  at  Leipiig,  November  i,  1847. 
Among  his  best  known  oompoaitions  are  his  mnsio 
for  Ooethe's  W^pttrfim»ckt,  the  Antigone  and 
(SdijHU  of  So^todes,  AHuilie,  and  a  gi«at  nnm- 
ber  of  aplmdid  sonatsa^  aonoortos,  trios.  In  bis 
Lieda-  oW  Wori»  (Sonn  without  Words),  he 
baa  achieved  a  great  and  novel  triumph.  M.'s 
character,  which  was  even  finer  Hum  his  genius,  is 
charmindy  delioeated  in  his  Letiera,  translated  by- 
Lady  WoUace  (IS62).  See  also  Heosel'a  T!ie 
MauieUioha  Fairuly  (tntnsL  1881). 

ME'NDIOANT  OBDEB9,  certusreli^ona  asto- 
eiationa  in  the  Roman  Church,  which,  carrying  out 
the  principle  of  religioua  poverty  and  self-humilia- 
tion  to  its  fullest  extant,  make  it  a  part  of  their 
profesdon  to  denude  themselves  of  all  property, 
whether  real  or  peisonoL  and  to  subsist  upon  aim*. 
As  the  scriptural  foondation  of  this  practice,  the 
words  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  lix.  SI]  to  the  young  man 
who  sought  counsel  of  him,  and  again  (verse  27—30) 
to  his  own  disciples,  are  oommonty  alleged,  both  by 
the  mendioant  orders,  and  in  general  by  all  who 
proieat  what  is  oalted  evangeliul  poverty.  In  the 
mendioant  orden,  alnu  are  oomniinily  collected  by 
the  lay-brotiieiB|  in  some,  by  actual  solicitationi  in 
others,  by  the  ringing  of  the  convent  bell  when  the 
stock  of  provisions  ta  exhaoBted.  Formerly,  anoh 
oidera  were  numcrooa  in  the  ohnroh ;  but  by  a 
deorae  of  the  seoond  Council  of  Lyon  in  1274,  the 
mendicant  orders  were  limited  to  four— the  Dom- 
inicans,  Franciscans,  Carmelitea,  and  Aogustiniana 
or  Austin  Friait.  See  these  aiiiotei,  also  Frubb. 
"Bu  rule  by  which  individuals  are  denied  the  poa- 
•ession  of  even  personal  property,  ii  atriotly  nnder- 
stood  in  Catholic  countries.  In  Ilaiglund  and  Inland, 
it  waa  considerably  relaxed,  bat  of  late  years  has 
beoi  enforaed  with  increasing  exactneaa. 

ME'NDIP  HILLS,  a  range  in  the  northern 
port  of  Somersetshiie,  England,  extend  in  a  north- 
vest  and  Bonth-eaat  ditf^on,  and  are  aboat  SH 
miles  in  length,  by  from  3  to  6  miles  in  breadth. 
In  former  times,  the  moon  of  Mendip  were  attached 
to  the  crown  as  a  royal  forest,  and  were  frequently 
bunted  over  by  the  Saxon  and  Nonnan  kings.  A 
considerable  portion  of  the  range  is  now  nnder 
cnltivstion.  The  summit  is  Bhiok  Down,  1100  feet 
in  height.  The  lead  and  calamine  mines  of  Mendip 
(callett  grwtvei,  the  miners  being  called  jroopen) 
were  in  operation  before  the  davm  of  history. 

MEKDOZAiDoN  Dmo  Hijbtaso  se,  a  Spanish 
claane,diatiD(ndahedalso  as  a  statesman  and  agencral, 
waa  bom  at  Oranada  about  IG03,  studied  Uiere  and 
at  Salamanca ;  and  shortly  after  leaving  the  latter 
univerai^,  was  sent  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  as 
ambassador  to  Venice.  Later,  he  was  present  at  ths 
Council  of  Trent  as  imperial  plenipotentiary,  and 
in  1547  was  appointed  amba^ador  to  the  papal 
ooart.  Afl  a  generoL  he  waa  succeMful  in  subju- 
gatiag  Siena,  which  was  handed  over  to  Cosmo  L 
Medici,  as  a  fief  of  the  Spanish  crown.  TTiti  position, 
however,  was  a  difficult  one ;  he  waa  bated  both 
by  pope  and  people,  and  in  1564,  the  emperor 
recalled  him.  During  his  reaideuce  in  Italy,  he 
ahewed  the  greatest  aeol  in  collecting  literary 
treasures,  especially  ancient  M98.  He  sent  learned 
men  for  that  imrpoae  to  Mount  Athos,  and  also  took 
advantage  of  the  regard  entertained  for  him  t^ 
Soliman  the  Magnificent,  Saltan  of  Turkey.  In 
1S68,  an  affair  of  gallantry  t<;rminated  in  hia  banish- 
ment from  court.  He  withdrew  to  Granada,  where 
ha  spent  his  last  yean ~ 


n  writing kia  Svaraetmtn 


MBNDOZA— MENIHGrnB. 


Im  MoriKot  [Hiibot;  of  tlw  Wv  againit  Um  Hoon 
— flnt  publiihed  (with  parti  omitML)  in  KIQ,  and 
in  »  complats  form  in  177S,  I^  Portal^^  vIid 
preGied  a  Ufa  of  &6  anthor}.  This  work  ia 
regonled  by  H.'s  cooiitrpiieD  *■  >  nuoterpieoe. 
It  died  in  167&  HU  libmiy  is  now  one  of  the 
ornameula  of  ihe  EacuriaL  In  hia  poetical  eputtes, 
he  gave  faia  conntrj  the  flrat  good  model  for  that 
form  of  compodtdon.  Hia  soimeia  and  serionl  poems 
are  of  inf  aior  merit 

MENDO'ZA,  the  capita]  of  a  department  of  the 
game  name  in  the  Argentine  Sepablic  (q.T.),  ia 
situated  on  the  eaatem  base  of  the  Aadea,  110  taHei 
eaat-north-eMt  of  Santiago,  and  at  a  height  of 
2891  feet  above  8ea-1ev«L  It  waa  totallj  deatrojed 
by  an  euijiqnake  in  1861,  when  ita  buildinea  were 
demoliahed,  and  moat  of  ita  iDhftbitsnti,  16,000  in 
nnniber,  perithed ;  but  it  ia  rapidly  recovering. 

HENEIiAITS,  in  andeot  Greek  legend,  wa«  king 
of  Laoedemon,  the  younger  brother  of  Agomenmoo, 
and  bolband  of  the  famoua  Helen.  The  abdaotion 
of  hia  wife  by  Poril  is  repreiented  oa  the  cause 
of  the  Trojan  war.  After  the  fall  of  Troy,  he 
aailed  with  Helen  for  bis  own  land ;  bat  his  fleet 
waa  Mattered  by  a  atonn,  and  lie  waodered  for 
eight  ^eara  about  the  ooasta  of  Oyprm,  Fhisaieia, 
Ethiopia,  Egypt,  and  Libya.  After  hia  retim,  he 
lived  at  Sparta  with  hli  wife  Helen  in  great  a^le 
tuid  happioen. 


there  was  a  revolt  of  the  Libyans. 
marks  a  great  chronoloricol  epoch,  being  placed  b^ 
ohronologistB  3943,  38M  b.  a,  or  even  5702  B,  a 
Stricter  chronologists  moke  lus  accession  S717  b.0. 
This  name,  which  signifies  Uie  conductor,  has  been 
found  on  inscriptions,  but  no  oontemporafv  monn- 
ments  of  him  are  known. — Bansen,  Egj/pti  Piarx, 
ii.  p.  679:  Lepsiui,  KOnigtmch,  qutttmU^f.,  p.  6; 
Backh,  Manetha,  p.  388  ;  Poolo,  E,  8.,  Hot.  jBgypI, 
p.  219. 

MENG-TSE  {L  e.,  the  teacher  Meng;  earlier, 
Uemq-ko  ;  Latinised  by  the  Jesuits  into  MENcirs), 
k  Chinese  sage,  born  in  the  begianing  of  the  4th  c. 
B.C.,  in  the  vUJage  of  TsC'on,  in  the  p^ent  district 
of  8ban-tun&  He  died  abont  31?  b.0.  M.  is 
the  greatest  of  the  early  Confucians.  His  father 
died  while  M.  was  very  young ;  hut  he  was  edu- 
cated with  luoh  admuable  care  by  his  mother, 
that  tba  phrase  '  mother  of  Meng '  hw  become 
■  proverb  for  an  ezodlent  preaep&eaa.  At  this 
period,  China  wM  divided  into  a  number  of  states, 
all  acknowledging  the  sozeraiuty  of  the  emperor 
of  Tseo.  M.  travelled  to  several  oourts,  aeeking 
to  intndnoe  his  ioatrkam  of  'virtoa'  and  'jus- 
tioe ;'  but  nnfortamate^,  aa  too  frequently  happens, 
he  found  that  princea  and  great  men  did  not 
•dmite  these  thmga  so  mnoh  as  poor  echolaii. 
Hia  DonVBrsatianB  with  ralera  and  state-function- 
arias,  with  his  disciples  and  acqoaintoncea,  were 
taken  down  by  his  admirers.  They  form  the  Hi-tti, 
otherwise  called  the  Book  of  Meng-tse — the  fourth 
of  <Jia  Fonr  Etooki.  See  Ooswuocm.  Many  of  the 
thongbts  are  Bi^nisitely  ime,  suggestive,  and  subtle. 
Several  tnnslationa  of  it  have  oeen  published,  bat 
they  fall  far  short  of  the  ener^,  sententioasaeBa, 
freshness,  and  vivacity  of  the  original.  There  ia  a 
Latin  oaa  by  8.  Jnlien  (1S24),  au  English  one  by 
Collie  (1828),  and  a  French  one  by  Pauthier  (IS51). 
See  FaWi  Mind  of  Mataui  (tranaL  1881),  and  the 
works  of  Legge  and  Douglas. 

MBNGS,  Ahtoi*  Ratakl,  m  modem  German 
artist  and  irriter  on  art,  was  bom  at  Aosh^  in 


Bohemia,  March  12, 1728.    His  father,  Israel  Man^ 

was  himself  a  painter,  bat  possessed  of  very 
mediocre  talent,  and  from  him  young  Rafael  received 
his  first  instruction*  in  art  At  the  ace  of  thirteen, 
he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  renuuned  three  years, 
rigorously  devoting  his  whole  time  to  the  study  of 
the  works  of  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  and  othera 
of  the  old  maaterai  On  ms  return  to  Dresden  io 
1744,  he  was  appointed  coart-painter  to  Augustus 
IIL,  king  of  Poland  and  Saxony,  bat  received 
permission  at  the  some  time  to  go  back  to  Rome- 
Here  he  established  hia  reputation  by  a  picture  of 
the 'Holy  Family.'  The  young  peasant-girl  who 


for  the  Virgin  so  charmed  the  painter  by 
beauty,  that  he  subsequently  poued  ov  -  '- 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  married  her. 


In  175* 

he  accepted  the  presidency  of  the  newly  instituted 
Academy  of  Painting  at  Rome.  Withm  the  next 
few  years,  he  eieouted  the  frescoes  in  the  chnrch  of 
San  Busebio,  and  those  of  '  Apollo  and  the  Muses 
on  Parnassus'  tor  Cardinal  Albani;  besides  whiok 
he  copied  Raphael's  *  School  of  Atliens '  for  Lord 
Percy,  and  pamted  several  original  pictarea  in  oil, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  a  '  Cleopatra,'  a 
'Holy  Familyj'  and  a  'Magdalene.'  In  1761,  he 
went  to  Madrid,  on  on  invitation  from  Charles  IIL 
of  Spain,  and  while  there,  executed  a  great  variety 
of  works,  the  best  known  of  which  is  his  '  Aurora  g ' 
but  ill-health  and  the  intrigues  of  enemies  induced 
him  to  return  to  Italy.  Me  had  no  sooner  arrived, 
than  Clement  XIV.  employed  him  on  a  large  alle- 
Boricol  subject  for  the  Vatican  Library,  representing 
JanoB  dictating  to  History,  who  appears  in  the  act  m 
writing.  After  three  years,  ha  again  visited  Spain. 
To  this  period  belongs  his  most  celebrated  eSort; 
it  represents  the  Apouieosis  of  the  Emperor  Trajan, 
Ntd  IS  executed  on  the  dome  of  the  grand  saloon  in 
the  royal  palace  at  Madrid.  Ill-bealth,  however, 
again  mrced  >iim  to  leave  Spain.  On  hia  way  back 
to  Italy,  he  stopped  at  Monaco,  where  he  Rioted 
his  iriatnre  o(  the  '  Nativity,'  reckoned  b^  many  to 
be  his  finest  piece.  Shortly  after  reaching  Rome, 
he  died,  29th  June  1779-  M.'s  work*  ore  careful 
and  elaborate  Imitations  of  the  great  mastera.  He 
borrowed  the  technical  quolitlea  of  a  painter  in  high 
perfection,  but  the  living  soul  of  genius,  the  quick- 
ening and  oreative  power  of  imagination  was  not 
his.  Hi*  works,  therefore,  though  lofty  in  their 
subjects,  seldom  exhibit  more  tl^  s  correct  and 
cultivated  taste.  M.'a  writings  were  edited  in 
Italian  by  Axara  in  1780-  There  ia  an  Englidt 
translation  (Lond.  1790). 

MEHIN,  a  frontier  town  of  West  Flanders, 
Belgium,  on  ike  leftbankof  the  Lya,  which  separates 
it  from  France,  30  milee  south-south- west  of  Bruges. 
It  was  formerly  fortified,  but  its  works  have  feen 
demolished,  and  it  is  now  a  dismal  and  lifeless  town, 
with  some  manufactures-    Pop.  about  12,000. 

MENINGI'TIS  (Qr.  mlninx,  a  membrane)  is  the 
term  employed  in  medicine  to  designate  inflamma- 
tion of  the  arachnoid  and  pia  mater  {the  middle  and 
innermost  of  the  membranes  investing  the  brain). 

This  disease  haa  been  divided  into  three  stages — 
the  aymptoms  of  the  first  being  those  of  excitement, 
resulting  from  inflammation  ;  thoee  of  the  second 


while  those  of  the  third  stage  vary  aoeordmg  aa 
convalescence  or  death  is  the  result 

Meningitia  is  eapecially  apt  to  occur  in  children 
*'  -  tuberculoua  diathems,  -"  —.*■:«!.  ».-..  4.v«  .):......<.« 


blaod-pcasan,  may  induce  it  in  children.     In  adult 
life,  ths  diieiiM  may  often  be  traced  ^ibo  actioi 


id  toibo  action  of 

■  CoJ^c 


MENlfPUS— MENBUAATIOV. 


typhous  and  nunh  poUoni,  to  inteapeTHioe,  «nn- 
Btroke,  raeoiuuuoal  injnriei,  fta 

When  the  disease  is  due  to  any  of  the  abore- 
namad  blood-pouoiu,  or  to  any  coQBtitntional  cause, 
little  can  be  done  effectually  in  the  way  of  special 
ttoatment  When  it  arise*  from  mechanical  injuries, 
bleeding,  calomel,  active  purgatiTes,  and  cold  sppli- 
cations  to  the  h^d  ore  often  of  nse.  The  patient 
should  be  kept  on  low  diet,  and  aU  mental  excite- 
ment should  be  most  carefoUy  avoided. 

MEKI'PPTTfi,  one  of  the  moat  noted  of  tlie 
Cynio  philosophers,  and  a  pupil  of  Diof^es,  was 
bom  at  Gadua,  in  Syria,  and  flourished  in  the  lit 
o.  B.  a  He  was  originally  a  slave,  and  acquired 
considerable  wealth  by  usury,  but  lost  it  all  saain ; 
in  oonsequenoe  of  which  he  strangled  hiiuntf,  out 
of  mori^ncAtioii.  He  satirised  the  philosophers  of 
his  time  in  terms  so  aeveie,  that  tlie  most  biting 
satires   were   afterwords    desigoftted    Menippean. 


Lnoian  prouonnces  him  'the  greatest  a 
snapper   amoi^   all  the  old  don'   (thi       ,, 
iTis  works  were  thirteen  in  nomber,  acorading  to 


Diogenes ;  tbey  are  all  lost. 

MBNI8PERUA'CE.£,  a  natural  order  of  exo- 
genous plants,  mostiy  tropiosl  and  Bab-tro])ical ; 
creeping  and  twining  shmbe,  the  wood  of  which  is 
frequently  disposed  in  wedges,  and  without  tiie 
usual  in  exogenous  stems.     The  leaves  are 


There  are  about  200  k^own  species, 
inclndin^  those  which  by  some  botanista  have  been 
formed  mto  the  two  email  separate  orden  SMain- 
draetis  and  Lar^tabalatxix.  The  true  M.  are  gene- 
rally bitter  and  narcotic ;  some  of  them  are  very 
poisonous,  and  some  are  valuable  in  medicine.  Sea 
Caluxba,  CnsAMPiLoa,  and  CoccuLca 

UENNO,  Snoira,  the  founder  of  the  later 
school  of  Anabaptists  (q.v.)  in  Holland,  wss  bom 
at  Witmarsum,  in  Friealand,  in  1496 ;  took  orders 
in  1624,  and  offidated  for  some  years  as  a  priest, 
flrst  in  the  village  of  Pinjnm,  and  afterwards  in 
his  native  place.  The  study  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, however,  about  the  year  1630,  excited  grave 
doubts  in  his  mind  regarding  the  truth  both  of  the 
doctrine  and  constitution  «  the  church ;  and  in 
16.16,  he  withdrew  from  it  altogether.  He  now 
attached  himself  to  the  patty  of  the  Anabaptists, 
was  rebaptized  at  Leeuworden,  and  appointed  a 
teacher  and  bishop  at  Grijningen.  Henceforth,  his 
great  endeavour  was  to  organise  and  unite  the 
scattered  members  of  the  Anabaptist  sect  in 
Holland  and  Germany.  With  this  design,  he  spent 
much  time  in  travelling ;  bnt  Friealand  was  his 
chief  residence  notil  peraecDtioa  compelled  him  to 
flee  to  Wismar.  Finally,  he  settled  at  Oldealobe,  in 
Holstein,  where  he  found  not  only  protection,  but 
even  enoonragemeDt,  and  was  allowed  to  establish 
a  printing-^ess  for  the  diffusion  of  his  religious 
opmions.    Here  he  died 


His  book  of  docbine,  entitled 

eondon  redUM  CftritCitcAen  £'Iau5an, 
was  published  in  1039.    SesAvABunsra. 

MlfNOPOME  (ProUmopni  honida),  one  of  the 
largest  of  batrachians,  found  in  the  Ohio  and  other 
riven  of  the  same  region,  and  known  on  their  bonks 
by  many  names,  such  as  Hellbender,  Mud  Devil, 
Ground  Puppy,  Young  Alligator,  and  Tweeg.  In 
form,  it  resembles  the  newt  and  salamandor ;  the 
head  is  flat  and  brood ;  the  teeth  in  two  concentric 
rows  in  the  upper  jaw,  ond  one  row  in  the  lower, 
Dumeroua  and  small;  it  is  about  two  fe^  lon^ood 


of  *  slaty  graf  colour,  with  dailc  spots.  Notwitii* 
standing  ite  small  teeth,  it  is  flerce  and  voracious, 
feeding  chiefly  on  fl«^  mH  batrachians ;  and  partiy 


{ProianoftWhirrriic^ 


HENBTRUA'TION  is  the  term  appHed  to  the 
discharge  of  blood  which  tssaes  eveiy  month  from 
the  generative  organs  of  the  human  female  during 
theperiod  in  whi^  she  is  capable  of  procreation. 

The  flrst  appearance  of  this  discharge,  to  which  the 
terms  •meaia  and  cotomcnM  (each  having  reference 
to  the  moDtbly  period]  are  indiacriminotdy  applied, 
is  a  dedded  indication  of  the  arrival  of  tiie  period 
of  commencing  womanhood,  and  is  usually  accom- 
panied by  an  enlargement  tu  the  mammory  glands, 
and  other  less  important  changes.  In  tbis  country, 
menstruation  usually  commences  between  the  14Ui 
and  the  16th  years,  and  terminates  between  the 
4Sth  and  62d  years.  The  interval  which  most  com- 
monly elapses  between  the  successive  appearances  of 
the  discharge  is  about  four  weeks,  although  it  is 
often  shorter ;  and  the  duration  of  the  flow  is 
usually  three  or  four  days,  but  is  liable  to  great 
varistiaos.  The  flrst  appearance  of  tbe  discEaree 
is  usually  preceded  and  aooomponied  by  pain  in  ue 
loins  and  general  disturbance  of  the  svatem,  and  in 
many  women  these  symptoms  iovariably  accompany 
the  dischar^  As  a  general  role,  there  is  no  men- 
strual flow  during  pregnancy  and  lactation,  and  its 
cessation  is  one  M  the  first  signs  that  conception 
has  taken  pIao» 

HESSURATION,  the  name  of  that  Imnch  of 
the  application  of  arithmetic  to  geometry  which 
teaohes,  from  the  actual  measuremmt  of^  certain 
lines  of  a  figure,  how  to  find,  by  calculation,  the 
length  of  other  lines,  the  area  of  surfaoeo,  and  the 
volume  of  solids.  The  determination  of  lines  is, 
however,  generally  treated  of  under  'Higanometry 
(q.  v.),  and  surfaces  and  solids  ore  now  understood 
to  form  the  sole  subjects  of  mensuration.  As  the 
length  of  a  line  is  expressed  by  oomparing  it  wiUk 
some  well-known  vml  of  length,  such  aa  a  yard, 
a  foot,  an  inch,  and  saying  bow  many  such  units 
it  contains,  so  tiie  extent  <d  a  surfooe  is  expreaed 
by  saying  haw  often  it  contains  a  corresponding 
superfici^  unit,  that  is  a  square  whose  side  is  a 
yud,  a  foot,  an  inch ;  and  the  contents  of  solid 
bodies  are  similarly  expressed  in  cubes  or  rectangular 
solids  having  their  lei^th,  breadth,  and  depth,  o 
yord,  a  foot,  an  inch.  To  And  the  length  of  a  lino 
(except  in  cases  where  the  length  may  be  oalculated 
from  other  known  lines,  as  in  trigonometry)  w« 
have  to  ap^y  the  unit  (in  the  shape  of  a  fodtrnle, 
a  yard  measure,  a  chain),  and  diabover  by  actual 
trial  how  many  units  it  contains.  Butinnr  ~  --<-- 
a  qnifaoa  or  a,  solid,  we  4o  not'nqnin  to 


-^QQgli,: 


MEKTONK-MERCAimLE  LAW. 


utaal  aqiwre  board,  or  &  onUo  block,  or  oreo  to 
divide  it  into  sach  «q,nu-«a  or  blooka ;  ve  luve  only 
to  meaBore  certain  of  iU  bonndary-unes  or  dimm- 
fiofu  ;  and  from  them  we  oan  calculate  or  infer  the 
oontoitt.  To  illnitrata  how  thii  ii  done,  snppoM 
that  it  ii  required  to  determine  the  area  of  a  rect- 
aoKDlar  fisure  ABCD,  of  which  the  side  AB  ii  7 
indiei^  and  tiie  aide  AC  3  inoheB.  If  AC  be  divided 
at  the  pointa  F  and  &  into  3  portiona,  caoh  1  inch 
tons,  aad  panJlda  be  drawn  finm  F  and  B  to  AB 
or  CD ;  and  if  AB  be  dmilaily  divided  into  7  partt, 
of  1  inch  each,  and  paraUeJa  be  drawn  to  AC  or  BD 
through  the  pointa  of  tectiao,  then  the  figure  will  be 
divided  into  a  iiambei  of  equal  iquarea  or  rectan- 
Kolar  fignrea,  whose  length  and  breadth  are  each 
1  inch ;  and  as  there  are  3  rows  of  iquare*,  and 
7aquiTe«iD  each  row,  there  must  be  in  all  7x3,  or 
21  Maarea.  In  general  tenna,  if  a  and  b  be  the 
lengtha  of  two  adjacent  aidee,  there  are  a  row*  of 
littie  gqoaree,  and  b  squarea  in  each  low.  Hence 
Ihearea  (ff  a  rtdaitgle  "  lie  produa  tjf  loo  tu^aeait 

Tha  areas  <rf  otiier  flgnre*  are  found  from  thii,  by 
the  aid  of  oertun  Tftlationi  or  propertiea  of  those 
figurea  demonatrated  by  pure  geometry;  for  instance, 
the  area  of  a  panJlelogram  is  the  aame  h  the  area 
of  a  rectangle  haTins  the  aame  baie  and  altitude, 
and  ia  therefore  equS  to  the  baae  multiplied  by  the 
height.  Afl  a  triangle  is  half  of  a  parallelonam,  the 
rale  for  lbs  area  can  be  at  once  deduced.  Irregnlar 
qnadrilaterala    and    polygona    are    measured    by 


polygoi 
trianglei 


.Tiding  them  into  triangles,  the  area  of  eaoh 
which  u  aeparately  calculated.  For  the  area  of  the 
circle,  see  CmCLK.  By  reasoning  Eimilar  to  what 
haa  been  employed  in  the  case  of  area*,  it  is  shewn 
that  the  volame  of  a  rectangular  parallelopiped 
or  prism  is .  found  in  cabio  mches  oy  multiply- 
ing together  the  length,  breadth,  and  depth  m 
inohea ;  and  the  oblique  nu^llelopiped,  pnsm,  or 
nlinder,  by  multiplying  tlie  area  of  the  base  by 
the  heighL 

MBNTONB  (Fr.  MaUon),  a  town  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Alpes  Maritimea,  France.  It  is  pleasantly 
situated  on  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
from  its  southern  exposure,  as  well  as  a  high  shel- 
tering range  of  monnfauns  on  the  north,  it  enjoys  a 
aalulnious  and  agreeable  olimate.  In  its  environs 
are  groves  oi  orange,  lemon,  and  olive  trees. 
Latterly,  M.  has  become  a  favoorite  winter  resort 
of  invalids  and  health  lonngen  from  England, 
Oermany,  and  other  countries;  and  is  greatly 
improved  as  s  place  of  residence  by  the  addition  of 


the  inhabitants, 
principality  of  Monaco,  and  annexed  to  fVance ;  the 
nencA  government  paying  4,000,000  of  franca  to 
tiie  Priuoe  of  Monaco  (or  lelmqiiidiing  his  ri^ta, 
and  aomrding  to  hin  certain  mivil^es.  M.  is 
within  a  mile  and  a  halt  ei  Uie  Italian  frontier  on 
t^  railway  and  Oonuche  road  from  Ilioe  to  Qeooa. 
Pop.  (1876)  6891. 

HBNTOR,  the  son  of  Aldmna,  was  the  trusted 
friend  of  Ulyssea,  wfaoy  on  setting  out  t<tt  Troy,  left 
to  ^'"1  tJie  'charge  oi  his  household,  and  by  tiiuft 
Telemaohoi  was  ednoated.  W»  name  became  a  sort 
of  ^tpellative  tor  an  inatmetor  and  gnide  of  the 
young; 

UENU.    SeellAiru. 

BtBNU'BA.    See  Ltbi-BIsd. 

UENZATiEH,  Laxi,  a  lake  of  Bg^  extends 
east  from  the  Damietta branch  of  theNila,  and  is 
separated  bom  the  Mediterranean  by  a  narrow  strip 
of  land,  through  which,  however,  there  are  several 
openings.  It  receives  the  Pelusiac  and  Tanitio 
blanches  of  the  Nile,  and  is  3?  mile*  in  length,  by 


about  16  miles  in  aTerage  breadth.  Its  surfaoe  is 
stndded  with  islands,  the  moat  interesting  ot  wMoh  is 
Tenuees,  tiie  ancient  Tennean^  with  Roman  remains 
of  baths,  tombs,  Ac  An  erten^ve  fishery  is  oarried 
on  on  the  lake  ;  and  its  shorea  abound  in  wild-towL 
The  line  of  the  Snez  Canal  passes  t^uongh  the 
eastern  portion  of  Lelce  Menzalen. 

M  ENZELiWoLTaANO,  an  eminent Qerman  author, 
was  the  son  of  a  medioal  practitioner,  and  was  bom 
at  Waldanburg,  in  Silesia,  21st  June  1798.  Be 
studied  at  Jena  and  Bonn,  was  for  two  yean 
schoolmaster  at  Aargan  in  Switzerland,  and  in 
IS24  returned  to  Germany.  He  first  made  himself 
known  in  the  literary  world  by  his  StreiJcvent 
(Heidelb.  1823),  a  volume  replete  with  poetry  and 
wit,  and  opening  up  many  novel  and  ingenious 
views  ot  ut  and  hterature.  He  then  engaged 
with  several  coadjutors  in  a  periodical  called  lluro- 
pdiMhe  Blatter  (ZUr.  1824—1825},  io  which  war 
was  waged  against  the  prevalent  heartlessness  and 
formahty  of  German  literature,  in  which  he  was 
led  to  attack  vehemently  the  achool  of  Goethe. 
This  involved  him,  however,  ia  a  controversy  witi 
the  extreme  admiiets  ot  that  poet.  He  was  after- 
wards engaged  in  a  suooeaaion  ot  oontzoversies,  in 
consequence  of  opinions  expressed  by  him  in  h^ 


182S,  and  several  editions) ;  Dit  detittehe  LUeratvr 
{2  vols.  Stuttg.  1628,  and  several  editi<ms);  TiucAeif 
btuA  dec  noMrtm  OoeUebe  (6  vols.  Stuttg.  1629— 
1833) ;  JiylhotogM^  FonAvngai  wtd  Stxavmltatgen 
(1842,  ftc) ;  and  OtacJudOe  Euromu  von  1769—1815 
(1863).  As  a  poet,  he  acquired  a  high  reputation 
by  a  volume  entitled  RotiaM  (1829),  and  another 
eutjtled  NaroMiu  (1830).  HU  OeaOnge  dttr  VoOcer 
(lS51)iBaTalaable  lyrical  collection.  After  the  July 
revolution,  he  set  himself  to  conoteraot  the  French 
influence  that  aet  in  sbtmgly  among  tie  youth  of 
Gemany,  whence  Bilme  gave  him  the  nickname 
of  der  Fnuaoaaifre»»er  ('the  Frenchman-eater'). 
He  also  publiahed  Prtusaen  und  Ot»tamich  im  Jahre 
1666,  in  1866 ;  RimCt  Vnraht  in  1871 ;  a  history  of 
the  war  of  1870—1871  i  to.    He  died  m  1873. 

METPPEL,  an  important  trading  and  manufactur- 
ing town  in  the  Netherlands  province  of  Drenthe, 
ia  situated  near  the  northern  boundary  of  OverysaeL 
Population,  9000:  It  haa  &  trade  in  butter,  cattle,  rye, 
and  buckwheat.  In  some  years  the  butter  brought 
to  market  weighs  about  4,000,000  lbs.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  spinning  flax,  weaving  linens,  toil- 
dotJi,  and  coarse  striped  woollen  fs&ics.  There 
are  also  com,  saw,  and  oil  mills,  breweries,  Aio.  The 
union  of  several  important  water-vrays  vritb  the 
Meppeller  Diep,  through  which  they  flow  into  the 
Zuider  Zee,  brings  a  large  shipping-trade  to  the  town. 
Peat  is  manufaotored  extensively  in  the  moss- 
land  of  Oveiyssel,  the  greatest  part  of  whioh  is 
forwarded  from  M.  to  Amsterdam  and  other  cities 
of  the  Netherlands.  Butter,  cattle^  and  bark  are 
sent  to  England  and  Oenniuiy.  M.  is  about  nine 
oentnriea  old,  and  has  often  suOered  the  evils  of  war, 
being  favourably  situated  for  receiving  a  garrisco. 

HE'QUINEZ.     See  Hixnas. 

ME'BOANTILE  LAW.  This  is  the  only  braneh 
of  municipal  law  wluoh,  from  tlw  necessity  of  the 
oase,  is  similar,  and  in  many  leapects  identical,  in 
all  tiie  dviliaed  and  trading  counniea  of  the  Wld. 
In  determining  the  relabona  of  the  family,  the 
church,  and  the  st^e^  eaoh  nation  is  guided  by  its 
own  peculiaritiea  of  race,  of  historical  traditian,  of 
climate,  and  nnmberleas  other  circumatajiceB,  which 
are  almoet  whoUy  unaffected  by  the  conditions  of 
society  in  the  neiEhbouring  states.  But  when  the 
arrangement  for  buying,  selling,  and  toansmitting 

^■"'*''i-i," 


MfifiCAKTILB  SYBTaM-MERCOEY. 


oommoditieB  from  state  to  itate  alone  an  in  quetion, 
aU  men  are  very  mnch  in  the  tame  poeitioii.  lie 
■ingle  object  of  all  U  that  the  tranaaction  may  be 
affected  u  sach  a  manner  aa  to  avoid  what  in 
every  oase  moat  be  tooroes  of  loM  to  somebody, 
and  by  which  no  one  ultimately  ii  a  gaineF— viz., 
diapala  and  dday.  At  a  very  earl^  period  in 
the  tnding  hktory  of  modem  Europe,  it  won  found 
that  the  Mily  method  by  which  these  objeoti  oould 
be  attained  waa  by  eatabliahing  a  commoa  under- 
standing  on  all  the  leading  points  ol  merMntile, 
and  mora  partdcnlarly  of  mantime  law.  T^  waa 
effected  by  the  eetahlisbment  of  those  maritime 
oodea  of  which  the  moat  famxraa,  thongh  not  the 
rlieit,  waa  the  Omuolali)  dd  Mart. 


would  aeon  rather 
to  have  been  a  compilation  of  the  laws  and 
tntding  niatotna  of  various  Italian  oitiea— Venice, 
Pita,  Genoa,  and  Amslfi,  together  with  thoee  of  the 
cities  with  wliioh  they  chiafiy  traded — Baroelona, 
Marseille,  and  the  like.  That  it  was  pnUished  at 
Barcelona  towaida  Uie  end  of  the  13th  □.,  or  the 
beginning  of  the  lltb,  in  the  Catalonian  dialect, 
i*  no  [^of  that  it  raiginated  in  Spain,  and  the 
probability  is  Qai  it  ia  of  Italian  origin.  As  cran- 
merce  extended  iteelf  to  the  nodli-weateni  coasts 


nances  ot  the  great  Hsosefttio  Leagoa.  Aa  the 
central  people  of  Enrope,  the  French  early  became 
distingnished  as  onltivatan  of  maritime  law,  and 
one  M  the  most  important  contributiema  Uiat  ever 
was  made  to  it  waa  the  fsmmia  <vdonnanoe  of  1681, 
which  farmed  part  of  the  ambitions,  aod  in  many 
respects  succeBsfnl  legialation  and  eodifieatioii  ol 
Looia  XIV.  See  Coj>&  All  these  earlier  attempts 
at  genend  mercantile  legialslion  were  fbonded,  m  a 
matter  d  conrsa,  on  the  Boman  dvil  law,  or  rather 
on  what  that  system  hftd  borrowed  from  the  laws 
whioh  reftnlated  the  intercoiusB  <rf  the  tiftdine 
coDunnnitus  of  Greece,  peHu^  of  Fbcemtna  and 
Carthaoe,  and  wUsb  had  Wo  redaoed  to  a  aystem 
by  theBhodiaos. 

From  the  intimate  relation  irtiich  subsisted  between 
Sootland  and  tha  continent  of  Enrope,  the  lawyer* 
of  Scotland  beouue  early  aoqnainted  with  the  oom- 
mercial  tUTsngemanta  id  the  oantineotal  states ;  and 
to  this  oaDse  is  to  be  ascribed  the  fact  that  down 
to  the  period  wheo  the  affairs  of  Scotland  were 
thrown  into  ooufosion  by  the  rebellions  of  ITIS  and 
174fi,  mercftutile  law  waa  coltivated  in  SootUnd  with 
much  eare  and  socoeaa.  The  work  of  Lard  Stair, 
the  ^reateat  of  all  the  legal  writers  of  Scotland,  is 
particuluiy  valuable  in  this  deportment. 

In  En^and,  llie  case  wsa  very  difTorent.  After 
the  loss  of  her  French  provinoos,  the  legal  system  of 
England  becaioe  wholly  ioinlar,  aad  tiicre  was  no 
biwich  in  which  it  suffered  more  in  oonaeqnetiou  of 
being  thns  cut  off  from  the  general  stream  of  Euro- 
pean progicss  than  the  law-mercluuit.  It  was  Lord 
Manstield  who,  whether  guided  by  the  wider  toadi- 
tiona  of  his  original  country,  or  deriving  his  views 
from  the  soarce  from  which  these  traditioos  spmng, 
viz.,  the  Boman  law,  sa  modified  and  devdoped  by 
coatiaentsljuriapradGuce,  introduced  those  doctrines 
of  modem  commercial  law  which  English  lawyers 
have  since  developed  with  so  macK  acnteness  and 
logical  consistency.  Many  attempts  have  recently 
been  made  to  sssimilate  the  commercial  laws  of 
Ensland  and  Scotland,  and  a  commiadon  of  tawyeia 
of  Doth  countries  resulted  in  the  Mercantile  Law 
Amendment  Act,  19  and  20  Vict  c  80. 

MEBCAJiTILE  SYSTEM.  See  Balance  oir 
Tbade. 


MESCATOR'S  PBOJBOTION,  or  MERCA- 
TOE'S  CHART.    See  Map. 
MERCHANT  SHIPPING  ACT,  Stop.,VoI.  X 
HEBCHANTS'  MARKS.     In  the  middla  age^ 

it  was  the  practice  for  merchants,  traders,  and 
others  to  whom  the  proper  use  of  heraldry  was  not 
conceded,  to  be  allowed  by  the  heralds  to  bear 
devices  indicative  of  their  trades  or  occnpations. 
A  outler  might  bear  his  knife,  a  tailor  hia  aWrs,  a 
mason  his  trowel  and  compasses.  These  icsignia 
were  in  striotoess  ordered  to  be  borne  only  in 
'  taigete  hollow  at  the  chief  flankea,'  yet  we  often 
find  them  on  shields,  and  sometimes  even  impaled 
and  quartered  with  aims.  Merchants,  along  with 
a  mononam  of  their  initials,  often  bore  a  mark 
oomposM  of  a  cross  and  a  figure  resembling  the 
Arabio  nnmeral  4  tomod  backwards — perhans  * 
^mbol  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  though  it  hsa  also  been 
explained  to  represent  the  mast  ami  yard  of  a  ship. 
Tlu  insignia  of  their  companies  were  frequently 
borne  by  merchants  in  a  chief  above  their  marks, 
tuLd  oocasiohslly  quartered  with  tiiem.  These 
merchants'  marks  were  probably  the  origin  of  the 
trade  brands  and  TparVif  of  our  own  time.  Many  of 
them  are  to  be  seen  sculptured  on  the  walls  and 
roo^  of  tbe  chorobes  ot  the  I4th  c  and  15th  c.,  and 
engraved  on  monumental  brasses  both  in  England  and 
on  the  continent.  Seals  with  merchants'  marks  are 
oocisionAlIy  found  appended  to  conveyances  of  land. 

HBUCIA.    See  Hzftabobt. 

MEBCTTRT.    SeeHmm. 

MEBOUKY,  or  QUICKSILVER  (aymb.  Hg. 
equiv.  100— new  system,  200— sp.  gr.  13'G),  one  of  the 
to-called  Dobte  metola,  remarkable  as  being  the  only 
metal  that  ia  fluid  at  ordinary  temperaturea.  It  ia  of  a 
silvery  white  colour,  with  a  striking  metallic  lustre. 
When  pur&  it  mns  in  small  spherical  drops  over 
smooth  surtacea;  bat  when  not  perfectly  pure,  the 
drops  assume  an  elongated  or  tailed  form,  imd  often 
Wve  a  gray  stain  on  the  surface  of  glass  or  porcdain. 
Moreover,  the  pure  metal,  when  shaken  with  air, 
presents  oo  change  npon  its  sniface ;  while,  if  impure, 
jt  becomes  covered  with  a  gray  film.  It  ia  alightj^ 
volatile  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  at  662'  it 
boils,  and  tonus  a  colourless  vapour  of  sp.  gr.  6-970. 
Heoce  it  is  capable  of  being  distilled ;  and  the  fact 
of  its  being  somewhat  volatile  at  ordinary  tem^ier- 
atures,  helps  to  explain  its  psmicious  effects  npon 
those  whose  trades  require  them  to  come  mnch 
in  contact  wiOi  it— as,  for  example,  the  makera  U 
barometers,  looking-riassea,  &c  At  a  temperature 
of  —89°,  it  freezes,  when  it  oontraots  consueraUy, 
and  becomes  malleable.  In  consequence  of  ihe 
uniform  rate  at  which  it  expands  when  heated,  from 
considerably  below  0°  to  atwve  300*,  it  is  employed 
in  the  oonstruction  of  tiie  mercurial  thermometer. 

All  merourial  compounds  are  either  volatjlised  ot 
decompcaed  by  heat;  and  when  heated  with  car- 
bonate of  soda,  they  yield  metallic  meron^.  Native 
or  virgin  quicksilver  only  occurs  in  small  quantity, 
nsuaily  in  oavitiat  tt  mercurial  ore*.  Of  these 
ores,  by  far  the  moat  important  i*  Mnoior  (q.  v.). 
There  ai«  two  means  of  obtaining  the  metal  from 
tiia  unnabai;  the  ore  ma^  be  burned  in  a  fumaee, 
in  which  case  the  snlphnr  la  given  off  as  sulphurous 
add,  and  the  mercury  is  collected  in  a  condensing 
chamber ;  or  the  ore  may  be  distilled  with  some 
•ubatance  capable  of  combining  with  the  sulphur — 
as,  tor  example,  with  slaked  lime  or  iron  filings. 

The  M.  imported  into  this  country  is  usually 
almost  chemically  pure.  If  the  presence  of  other 
metals  is  suspected,  it  may  be  pressed  throng 
leatliGT,  re-distilled,  and  then  di^rted  for  a  few 
days  in  dilute  cold  nitric  add,  which  exerts  little 
action  on  the  M.,  it  non  oxidisable  metala  an 


U&Kcuny  Aiib  MfiRctJktAlfl. 


|E«aent.    The  M.,  after  bein^  freed  from  tha  nltrio 
acid  by  wuhing  witli  water,  ie  chemicallv  piir& 
There  are  ttTo  oxides  of  M.,  the  black  aubozide 


with  acida.  The  bTacl  tuboiide,  although  a  powerful 
boie,  ia  vatv  nuBtable  when  Isolated,  being  readil; 
converted  by  oentle  waimtb,  or  even  Df  mere 
eicpomce  to  light  into  red  oxide  and  the  metal 
<Hg,0  =  HgO  +  Hg),  The  mort  important  of  it« 
salts  ia  the  nitrate  {Hg,0,NO,  +  2Aq},  from  whose 
watery  eolatioii  ammoma  throws  down  a  block 
dpitate  known  in  pharmacy  ai  Mavurbu  mIu 
HaAaemanni,  from  its  diiooverer,  and  oomdating 
enentially  of  the  blatJc  anboiide  with  aoine  ammonia 
and  nitrio  acid,  which  are  apparently  in  comblno- 
Of  the  red  comU,  the  moat  imjxirtant  aalti 


of  corrosive  Eublimate ;  and  the  baslo  sulphate 
(3HgO,SO,),  which  ia  of  a  yellow  colour,  and  " 
known  ag  Ttirpelh  MinrraL 

The  haloid  salts  of  M.  coireapoad  in  their  oo: 
position  to  the  oiidea.    Of  the  most  important  of 
these — the    chloridea — there    are    the    anbchlorida 
(Hg,Cl),  well  known  as  Calomel   {q.  v.),  and,  the 
chloride  (HgCl),  or  corrosive  aublimata. 

The  Moride  {formerly  termed  the  biohloride, 
when  calomel  was  tegamed  as  the  protochloride, 
uid  the  equivalent  ol  Hg  was  regarded  as  200 
instead  of  100),  nhen  crystallised  &Yim  a  wateiy 
■olution,  occniB  in  long  white  gUsteniDg  prisms ; 
but  when  obtuned  by  mblimaUon,  it  occurs  in 
white  transparent  heavf  masses,  which  have  a  onrs- 
taUine  fracture,  and  chmk  with  a  peculiar  metauio 
sound  against  Uie  aides  of  the  botue  in  which  they 
are  contmned.  This  salt  melts  at  609*,  and  vola- 
tilisea  unchanged  at  about  070*.  It  has  an  acrid 
metallic  taste.  It  is  soluble  in  16  parts  of  cold,  and 
in  luSB  than  three  parts  of  boiling  water,  and  dis- 
solves very  freely  in  alcohol  and  in  ether.  Corrosive 
■iiblimata  enteiB  into  combination  with  tho  alkaline 
chlorides,  forming  numerous  distinct  compounds. 
(Adonble  chloride  of  ammoninm and M., represented 
by  the  formula  3H,NCa,HgCI  +  Aq,  has  been  long 
known  as  lai  alemhrolh.)  U  combine*  with  oxida  M 
ML  in  various  proportions,  forming  a  class  of  com- 
pounds  of  great  mtereat  in  tbeoretioal  chemisby, 
tenned  iay3iioridet  o/marury.  On  adding  a  soln- 
tioD  of  corrosive  sublimata  to  a  solatiat  of  ^Tnmnni* 
n  excess,  a  compound,  which,  from  its  phyrieal 
iharaotera,  ii  teimed  uAtto  prtcipUait,  ia  thrown 
down,  which  ia  generally  supposed  to  be  a  oompound 
of  chloride  with  amide  of  H^  HgCl,HgNH,  (Kane). 
Chlorida  of  ftL  cvagulatea  albunen,  and  combines 
with  the  albnminooa  tdssnea  generally,  forming 
siurin^ly  soluble  componnda.  Hence,  u  cases  of 
poisoning  with  the  salt,  the  white  of  raw  egga  is 
the  best  antidote ;  and  tor  the  aama  raaaim  oorro- 
ve  sublimate  ia  a  powerful  antiMptio,  and  ii 
oployed  to  preserve  anatomical  praparatioiuk 
Amonmt  the  moat  important  tests  for  this  snb- 
stanoe,  wMob  ia  not  onfreanently  used  aa  a  poiscm, 
may  be  ratotioiMd— 1,  lodida  of  potassium,  which, 
when  added  to  a  crystal  or  to  a  watery  Bolntion  of 
ohloride  of  M.,  give*  rise  to  tile  foimatioa  of  a  bright 
scarlet  iodide  of  mercury.  S.  The  galvanic  test, 
which  ma^  be  applied  in  vaiiona  ways,  ci  which  the 
dmnlest  la  the  '  Kuinek  and  key  test,'  devised  by 
Wollaston.  He  plooed  a  drop  of  the  fluid  inspected 
to  contain  corrosive  sublimate  on  a  gmnea,  and 
simultaneouily  touched  it  and  the  luilace  of  the 
guinea  with  an  iron  key ;  mebdlic  M.  was  deposited 
on  the  gold  in  a  bright  ^very  stain.  3.  Precipita- 
tion mi  copper,  and  reduction.  To  apply  this  test, 
we  aoidnlate  tbe  nupected  fluid  with  a  few  diopa  of 


hydrochloric  acid,  and  introduce  a  Uttle  fins  copper 
gauz^  which  sOoD  becmnes  coated  with  mercury. 
On  heating  the  gaute  in  a  rednotion  tube,  the  M.  is 
obtained  in  welTdefined  globules. 
With  iodine  and  broimne,  M.  fmms  two  iodides 


the  Imimides  are  of  no  prmctloal  importance.  Ths 
tvbiodide  (Hg,I)  ia  a  grssn  powdlsr  fonnsd  by 
triturating  0  parts  of  Iodine  with  8  of  M.,  and  w 
of  far  IfSB  interest  than  the  Mid«  {Hgl},  which  J* 
most  simply  obtained  by  precipitating  a  solution  of 
corrosive  sublimate  by  a  solution  of  lodids  ot  potaa- 
sinm.  The  precipitate  is  at  first  salmoo-oolouiad, 
but  soon  changes  into  a  iHrilliant  aoariet  orystallina 


powder  of  little 
Importance,  and  a  aulpblils  (HgS),  which  occurs 
natnr^y  aa  Cinnabar   (q.  v.).    .AttpUd)  <if  H.  li 


thrown   down  i 


ipls).   wWn 


salt  of  M.  (corrosive  sublimate,  for  eiampli 
dried  and  sublimed  in  vessels  from  whtoh 
excluded,  it  aaanmes  its  mdinary  rad  oobnr.  The 
w^-lmown  pigment  vermUon  Is  solphide  of  M.,  and 
ia  sometimes  obtained  from  pnie  nlnnahar,  but  ia 
more  frequently  an  artificial  prodoct. 

M.  unites  with  most  metals  to  form  Am^gims 
(q.  v.),  several  trf  which  are  employed  in  the  arta. 

Of  the  numerous  organic  compounds  of  M.,  it  ia 
nnuecessary  to  mention  more  than  the  fulminate 
(described  in  the  article  PttLMUiio  Acid,  q.  t.)  and 
the  cyanide  (HK^y),  whioh  may  ba  [uvpucd  by 
dissolving  the  rM  oxide  of  M.  in  hvdrocyaiuo  add, 
and  li^uie  beat  souroe  from  which  to  obtain 
cyanogen. 

The  uses  ot  H.  are  so  numeroni  that  a  very  brief 
allusion  to  the  most  important  of  these  mnat  suffice. 
It  is  employed  extensi^y  in  the  extraotian  of  gold 
and  sliver  from  their  ores  by  the  procsM  of  amal- 
lalgama  are  largely  employed  in 
v^4ng  and  gildmfb  and  some  (as 
'  -  ^^-im)  are  employed  by  f^ - 
It  is  indispensable 


dentist  for  stoppinj 


a  taken  from  the 


a  solution  of  tbia'salt  (i  part  to  60  or  80  of 
water],  are  better  able  to  resist  decay  when  ex- 
posed to  the  combined  destructive  infli 
and  moisture.  The  symbol  Ho  is  tak 
Latin  hydrargSm*,  originally  the  Grcei 

MEBOUBY  AND  MEROU'RIAIj8,M«DiODrAL 
—US  OF.  liquid  mercury  is  no  longer  need  in 
medicine,  although,  until  lately,  it  was  oocationallv 
given  with  the  view  of  overcoming,  by  its  weight, 
obstmetions  in  the  Inteatinal  cauaL  There  are, 
however,  many  preparations  which  owe  their  value 
to  a^n^itked  mercury ;  that  ia  to  say,  to  mercury 
tritnrated  with  chalk,  saodiaroid  matters,  oil,  &&, 
till  globules  can  no  longer  be  detected  in  it  It  ia 
possible  that,  in  these  cases,  the  metal  is  partly 
reduced  to  the  state  of  suboxide.  Amongst  these 
preparations  mnat  be  placed  Merairn  viil\  Chalk,  or 
Gray  Powder  {Hydrargyrum  eum  Ortld),  whioh  la 
the  mildest  and  best  metonrial  to  administer  to 
inbmts  and  childiien,  the  dose  varying  with  the 
age;  Blue  PUt  (q-v.);  and  the  ' 
"-- '-     and    plaatien     "'    ~ 


Calomd 


Ohloridtcm,  for 

rablimabv  *■  aliwdj  meutioiied,  ia  tenwd^ 


UEBOUBY  Ain>  lOiBOtnUAU — U1!R(U2TSE& 


umo  workf  Hydrargyri  SidJarvlmn)  it  perhaps 
mora  given  tluui  •nj'  other  medicine  of  thu  claK, 
snd  may  be  ragaided,  in  «o  far  u  its  action*  are 
ooncemed,  aa  a  trpe  of  mercmiola  generally.  Oiven 
in  nuall  dotat,  tne  first  effe<it8  of  theae  medioinea 
Bra  obserred  in  the  increaae  of  the  rarioua  aecre- 
tioni,  as,  for  initanoe,  of  the  mUva  (sea  EUu- 
vtTioii),  of  the  variona  fluids  poured  into  the  intefi- 
tinol  oaiial,*  aod  aometimea  of  the  mine.  When 
continued  in  email  doaei  for  some  time,  they  cause 
the  absorption  of  morbid  fluid*,  and  even  of  morbid 
OTodoota  that  have  assumed  a  partially  solid  form. 
The  fi^owing  ara  some  of  the  diseases  in  whioh 
^ey  are  of  most  importMice :  (1),  In  inUrnal  con- 
9ei(t(»M,aBof  theliver,  &A,to  incieaoe  the  secretiona, 
and  heoca  relieve  the  vemels  of  the  affected  organ ; 
(2),  in  various  aealt  wfiamma^oni,  especially  of 
■erons  Membranes  (q.  v.),  of  the  itructura  of  the 
liver  and  of  the  longs,  ko. ;  (3),  in  numeroa*  tratoa 
of  chronic  injlammation ;  (4),  in  dropsies,  dependent 
upon  inflammation  of  serous  membranes  or  tlinnann 
of  the  liver,  but  not  in  dropsy  from  disease  of  Uie 
kidneys,  where  they  are  geiierally  injuiious ;  (S),  in 
uomeroua  dtntnic  a^ction»  in  which  an  alterative 
action  is  required;  and  (6)  as  a  purgative  (to  be 
followed  bf  a  black  drau^t},  when  a  patient  is  in 
the  ccmdition  popularly  known  u  biliom  (in  this 
MLM,  blue  pill  w  nsn^^  as  efficacious  as  cbIoiubI). 

In  tj/}ASii,  mercuriMS  were  at  one  time  univer- 
sally prescnbed;  now  they  are  not  considered 
GBsential  to  the  cure  of  this  disease,  except  in  com- 
paratively few  cases. 

If  calomel,  blue  pill,  or  any  other  mercurial  be 
given  in  too  large  a  dose,  or  for  too  long  a  period, 
most  serious  consequences  may  result — such  as,  very 
profuse  salivation,  with  swelling  of  the  t«ngue  and 
gums,  and  looseninj;  of  the  teel£  i  purging  ;  certain 
shin  affections ;  disease  of  the  periosteum  and  of 
the  bones  (formerly  ascribed  to  syphilis,  but  in 
reality  oftener  due  to  the  suDposeil  remedy) ;  and 
a  low  febrile  condition  (termed  mercurial  erythisn^. 


adult  vary  from  3  to 
e  grains  when  taken  as  a  purgative.  If  the  object 
is  to  affect  the  system  generally,  as  In  a  case  of 
aoute  inflammation,  small  doses  ^lalf  a  grain  to  two 
gnius,  oombioed  with  a  little  opium)  should  be 
given  several  times  a  day ;  vhile  as  an  alterative, 
still  smaller  doses  (not  sufficient  at  all  to  affect  the 
month)  should  be  preai^bed.  The  Compound  Calo- 
mel PUl  popularly  known  as  Phimmer't  PiU  (in 
whieh  the  eolomd  is  Msociated  with  ozyeulphide 
of  antimony  and  guaiaoum)  is  •  most  valuable 
alterative  in  chronic  shin-diseases — a  five-grain  pill 
to  be  taken  every  night. 

Corrosive  ruUijnaie  (the  Bichloride  of  the  phor- 
macopiEias,  and  Oxymuriate  of  the  older  chemists), 
although  a  very  powerful  irritant  poison,  is  extremely 
useful  m  very  small  doses  aa  an  alterative  in  many 
chronic  affections  of  the  nervous  system,  the  skin, 
&e.  The  dose  varies  from  one-thirtieth  to  one- 
mghth  of  a  grain ;  the  average  dose  of  its  pharma- 
copoeial  st^ution,  -Uie  Liquor  HyiTaTgyri  Sidihridi, 
bemg  one  drachm,  which  contains  one-siiteenth  of 
a  grain  of  the  salt.  This  medicine  should  always 
be^VGD  on  a  full  stiHnacli. 

The  above  are  the  chief  meroorial  preparations 
given  internally.    Certain  external  applii 


tiona  require  a  few  remarka.  The  plasters,  ointxaents, 
and  liniments  ore  abeotbed  by  we  skin,  and  act  in 
the  same  manner  as  merourialB  token  internally, 

*  It  Is  very  doubtfnl  whether,  ss  is  generally  believed, 
merooriola  increua  tbe  ■esretion  of  t£e  esseotdal  aansti- 
toents  of  the  bile.  The  watery  portLon  is  nndooUedly, 
and  the  solonrinx  matter  probably,  inorwsed. 


WhUe  Pre^UaU  Ohutamt  is  thennivetml  remedy 
for  the  destruction  ot  Uoe,  and  is  a  useful  stimulot- 

7  application  in  chronio  ikin-disqpses.  Qtntaunl 
NitraU  of  Mtreary,  popularly  known  fran  iti 
yellow  colour  a«  Ctinut,  or  Qaidtn  OintmttU,  is, 
when  sufficiently  diluted,  a  most  wefnl  stimulating 
application  in  inflammation  of  the  eyelids,  in 
indolent  ulcers,  fto. ;  and  the  Ointmeni  qf  JfiMe 
Oxide  <if  Meraay  is  similar  in  its  action.  The 
precipitated  suboxide  that  oocnra  in  Blade  Waih, 
and  its  use  as  a  local  application,  are  described 
in  the  article  Ldhmkbtb. 

The  toxieological  relations  fA  the  mercurial  oom- 
pounda  must  be  briefly  glanced  at.  Hera  are  oases 
on  record  in  which,  probably  from  some  peoutiari^ 
of  constitutiDn,  ordinary  and  even  sffloU  doses  at 
iiat  milder  mercurials  have  caused  death ;  thus, 
ChiiatisoD  mentions  a  case  in  whioh  two  grains 
of  calomel  destroyed  life  by  severe  salivatdon  and 
by  uloeration  of  the  throat ;  and  similar  coses  in 
miioh  small  doses  of  gray  powder,  blue  pill,  and 
calomel  have  proved  fatal,  ore  recorded  by  Taylor 
hit  Medical  Jmritprvdence.  The  preporationa 
amploytd  for  the  purpose  of  poisoninf  ara  mainly 
"""""^  iublinate,  and  white  and  red  precipitates, 

sublimate  being  used  in  at  least  fonr-flfUu 

of  tile  coses.  The  symptoms  prc^uoed  by  a  poison- 
ous dose  of  this  salt  come  on  immediately,  there 
being  during  the  act  of  awallowing  an  inteose  feel- 
ing of  constriction,  and  a  bnmmg  heat  in  the 
tuoat,  while  a  metallic  toste  is  left  in  the  mouth. 
Violent  pain  in  the  stomach  and  abdomen  is  felt  in 
a  few  minutes,  and  vomiting  of  mucus  and  blood, 
and  purging,  follow.  The  pulse  becomes  small, 
frequent,  and  irregular,  the  tongue  white  and 
shovelled,  the  skin  cold  and  clammy,  the  respiration 
difficult,  and  death  is  preceded  by  fainting  or  con- 
vulsions. Any  dose  axceedina  two  grains  would 
rove  fatal  to  an  otfiJi^  unless  vomitina 
ed,  or  the  whites  oC  eggs  odminiBteredT 
Death  commonly  ensues  in  from  one  to  five  days, 
but  may  take  place  in  less  than  half  an  hour,  or 
not  for  three  weeks  or  more. 

MERCURY,  Boo'a  {MereuriaUt),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Eupiiorbiaeta,  having 
unisexual  flowers,  a  tripartite  perianth,  9 — 12 
stamens,  two  simple  styles,  and  a  dry  two-celled 
fruit  with  two  seeds.  The  species  ore  not  numer< 
""  "ouuoti  Doa  M  [M.  pertnnit)  is  ve^ 
woods  and  shady  places  in  Britain.  It 
perfectly  simple  stem,  about  a  foot  high, 
with  rough  ovate  leaves,  and  axillary  loose  spikes 
of  greenish  fiowers.  It  turns  a  glaucoua  black 
colour  in  drying,  and  the  root  contains  two  colour- 
ing substances,  one  blue,  and  the  other  carmine; 
so  that  it  may  probably  became  of  importance  in 
dyeing.  It  is  very  poisonous.  The  mercnry  which 
some  old  writeiB  mention  as  a  pot-herb  is  not  tlus 
>lant,  but  Cheaopodivm  Bortut  Hemieut. — AmcAL 
!)Da  M.  (M.  annua)  is  a  much  rarer  British  plant, 
and  less  pcusonons.  He  leaves  are  indeed  eaten 
in  Oermauy,  as  spinach. — A  half-shrubby  species 
(M.  tomentoxi),  found  in  the  countri^  near  the 
Mediterranean,  has  enjoyed  an  extraordinary  repn- 
tation  from  ancient  tunes ;  tbe  absiud  bdi^  men- 


tioned by  Pliny  beine  still  retained,  that  if  a  woman 
after  conoeption  drink  the  juice  of  the  male  plant, 
she  will  give  birth  to  a  boy,  and  if  of  the  ^mole 


Elont,  her  oKpring  will  be  a  girl— the  mole  plant, 
owEver,  being  mistaken  for  the  female,  and  the 
female  for  the  male. 

MERQAITSER  {Merga^),  a  genus  of  bMs  of 
the  family  Anaiidte, '  having  a  slender,  straight, 
mnch   compressed   bill,   hooked   at   the    tip,  and 


It  fornjibsd  with  te^ 


VEBOiCl—KESOtO. 


See  Bill,  The  ipeoiea  are  »U  inluilntuit*  of  Ute 
•CM  u>d  oouti  ot  lUHiilieni  i^ons,  but  mi^te 
ionthwMdi  in  winter.  The  Oooiuidei  (q.  t.)  is  the 
largest  and  beat  known  Britiah  speaiGa.  The  Exi>- 
XKKAsntD  M.  (Jf.  trraior)  ii  pJenWol  in  the 
northern  parta  of  Britain,  at  least  in  winter,  ood  ii 
fomid  in  tul  the  northani  parta  of  the  world.  It  i« 
not  mnch  amaller  thut  the  gooaandar,  which  it 
moch  reeemblee. — The  Hooded  M.  {M.  aiaiHatiu), 
a  mnaller  ipeciea,  only  about  18  inched  in  entire 
length,  it  a  vet;  rare  viiitant  of  Britain,  bat  is 
_ i__^i^i  jn  Uorth  Amarica. 


MEROni',  a  town  and  leaport  at  Uergni,  one  ol 
the  TenasBerim  Provinces,  Bntith  Bnnnah,  standi 
on  an  island  in  the  delta  of  the  Mergoi  BiTer.  I^t. 
12*  27*  N.,  hag.  9S°  42'  E.  It  ia  abont  three  miles 
in  circuit,  and  is  snrrouaded  by  a  stookaSsL  Its 
harbonr  is  spacuiaa  and  Becore.  Exporti :  sapan 
wood,  dried  fish,  ivoiy,  Ac    Fop.  lO.OOa 

MERGUI  ABOEIPBIjAaO,  a  group  of  ishuida 
in  the  Gulf  of  Benjnl,  lying  off  the  soaUieTn  shores 
of  the TenaaserimProvinces,  in  Ub  from  9*  to  13° N. 
The  ialonda  ore  mountainous,  some  of  them  rising 
to  3000  feet  above  sea-leveL  Pearls  are  foaad  on 
the  coasts  of  many  of  them ;  and  edible  birds'-nests, 
which  are  sold  to  the  Chineae  and  Malaya,  as  also 
timber  and  cool,  are  among  the  chief  artielM  of 

MEIttDA,  the  oa^tol  of  Tncatan,  Mexico,  i» 
situated  on  a  barren  tuain,  25  miles  from  the  Qulf  of 
Meiioo,  in  lat  20°  Sff  N..  lon^.  89"  4ff  W.  It 
occnpiea  the  site  of  a  former  native  city,  and  was 
foonded  by  the  Spaniards  in  1542:  M.  ha*  a  nni- 
Teraity,  a  catiiedra],  and  13  churches.  Its  port  it 
Sizal,  with  whiob  it  communicates  by  a  good  road. 
Its  trade  and  manofaoturea  are  not  ertemuve.  Fop. 
32,000,  almost  all  Indians  and  half-bloods. 

MERIDA  {anc  Atigusla  EmarUa.),  a  imall, 
decayed  town  of  Spun,  m  the  province  of  Eatrema- 
dura,  rises  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Onadiana,  32 
nules  eaot  of  Bodajoz.  It  is  oniqne  in  Spain,  and  is 
in  some  points  a  rival  of  Kome  itself,  on  account  of 
the  nnmber  and  magnitude  of  its  renuunt  of  Buman 
sntiqo)^.  The  Graadiana  is  here  crossed  by  a 
Roman  bridge  of  SI  arches,  and  with  a  len^(bh  of 
2ST6  feet,  and  a  breadth  of  26  feet.  It  was  erected 
by  Trajan.  Iliere  is  another  Bonutn  bridge  over 
the  Albarregaa,  4I>0  feet  lon^  and  25  feet  wide, 
stdll  quite  perfect^  ID  spite  of  the  tiaffio  of  17 
oentnnes.  There  are  also  remains  of  a  castle  built 
by  the  Romans ;  and  among  the  other  moat  note- 
worthy monumenta  of  antiquity  are  an  old  holf- 
Boman,  half-Moorish  palace,  the  Cosa  de  los  Corvos, 
eonttmcted  ont  of  a  temple  dedicated  to  Diana, 
•everal  aqueducts,  an  ancient  theatre,  and  a  circus. 
M.  waa  Inilt  23  years  b.c,  and  flourished  in  great 

StendouT,  until,  in  1229,  it  was  taken  from  the 
oora,  after  which  it  b^ui  to  decline.    Pop.  6G00. 

HETRIDEN,  township  and  villase  in  Conneoticat, 
United  State*  of  America,  18  miles  north-east  of 
New  Haven,  oontatning  the  state  reform  school  and 
several  manafaotories.    Pop.  in  1880,  18,340. 

MEBIDIAN  (LaL  mtridUt,  mid-day),  the  name 
^ven  to  the  great  circle  of  the  celestial  sphere 
which  passes  thnragh  both  poles  of  the  heavens,  and 
also  thniiu^  the  xenith  and  nadir  of  any  place  on 
the  esrili^  snrfiiae.  Every  place  on  the  earth's 
lorfaoe  has  consequently  its  own  meridian.  The 
meridian  is  divided  by  the  polar  axia  into  two  equal 
portions,  which  str^ch  from  pole  to  pole,  one  on 
each  nde  of  the  earth.  It  ia  mid-day  at  any  place 
on  the  earUi's  lurfaoe,  when  the  centre  of  the  sun 
comet  upon  the  meridian  of  that  place ;  at  t^  same 
instaiit  it  is  mid-day  at  all  jdaoes  under  the  same  half 


of  that  meridian,  and  midnight  at  all  places  under 
the  opposite  halt  All  places  under  the  same  meri- 
dian have  therefore  the  same  lon^tude  (see  Lati- 
tude aifit  LoNOiTUDx).  Stan  attain  their  greatest 
altitude  when  they  oome  upon  the  meridian ;  the 
some  thing  ia  true  approximately  of  tJie  son  and 
pUneta ;  and,  as  at  this  point  the  effect  of  refraction 
npon  these  bodies  is  at  a  minimnni,  and  their  appai^ 
ent  motion  is  also  more  uniform,  astronomers  prefer 
to  make  their  observations  when  the  body  is  on  the 
meridiao.  The  instruments  used  for  thu  parpoM 
are  called  moiditoi  eireU*.    See  CmcLx,  Muku. 

MERIDIAN  MEASUREMENT.  The  deter- 
mination of  the  form  and  size  of  the  earth  from 
the  measurement  of  an  aro  of  a  meridian,  has  been 
a  favourite  problem  with  nuthematidona  &om  the 
earliest  times,  bnt  ap  to  the  middle  of  latt  century, 
thMT  opnitiont  were  not  oarried  on  with  exaotneit 


.  ._. .  ._ .  .  render  their  oonclnsiont  of  much  valne. 
Since  that  time,  however,  geodesy  haa  to  rapidly 

progressed,  owiOK  to  the  invention  of  more  accurate 
instruments,  and  the  discovery  of  new  methods, 
that  the  measurement  of  the  meridian  can  now  be 
performed  with  the  utmost  accuracy  imaginable. 
The  modus  cperaiidi  ia  as  follows :  Two  nations, 
having  nearly  the  saine  longitude,  are  choien  ;  their 
latitude  and  longitude  ore  accurately  determined 
(the  error  of  a  second  in  latitude  introduces  a  con- 
siderable error  into  the  result),  and  the  direction  of 
the  meridian  to  be  measured  ascertained;  then  a 
base  line  ia  measured  witii  the  greatest  aconracy,  at 
an  error  here  generally  becomet  increased  at  every 
subsequent  step;  and  tiien,  by  the  method  known 
as  TriuiguIaUon  (q.  v.),  the  length  of  the  an  of  the 
meridian  eontaiued  between  the  parallels  of  latitude 
of  the  two  stations  is  ascertained.  At  the  pre- 
viously fonnd  latitudes  of  its  two  exb^mities  give 
the  nnmber  of  degrees  it  contains,  the  average 
length  of  a  degree  of  this  aro  coo  be  at  once 
determined ;  and  also — on  the  supposition  that  the 
length  of  a  degree  is  nniform — the  length  of  the 
whole  meridionu  circumference  of  the  euth.  Hue 
operation  of  meridian  measnrement  has  been  per- 
formed at  different  times  on  a  great  many  area  lying 
between  68°  N.  bt  and  38°  S.  lai,  and  the  results 
abew  a  steady  though  irregular  incroaae  in  the 
length  of  the  degree  of  latitude,  as  the  latitude 
increases.  On  the  suppoeition  that  this  law  of 
increase  holds  good  to  the  poles,  the  length  of  every 
tenth  degree  of  latitude  in  Bngliah  feet  is  as  in  the 
following  table ; 


'SSTJ^ 

"iXS^KT 

sxr-i 

■fflCiejc* 

w 

aa.m 

SSS:iI8 

70° 

9M,MI 

This  result  thews  that  the  earth  is  not  spherical, 
OS  in  Uiat  case  the  leneth  of  all  degrees  of  latitude 
would  be  i^ke,  but  ^  ipheroidol  form— its  cur- 
vature becomes  less  as  we  go  from  the  extremity 
of  its  greater  or  equatorial  diameter  to  the  pole- 
See  Eabtil  It  was  by  the  measurement  of  a 
meridional  are  in  1792—1799,  that  the  length  of  a 
quadrant  of  the  earth's  drcumference  wss  deter- 
mined, in  order  to  form  the  basis  at  the  French 
metrical  system  (sea  M^re). 
MERIMEE,  PsoBPBEt.    See  Sufp.,  YoL  X. 


constituting  a  great  port  of   Oie  wealth  of 
lalia.    The  M.  has  laise  limbs,  and  the  mala 


.CoilTi^lc 


wwitmft-MitBt.m, 


baa  largB  apiral  honiB,  whioh  do  not  rise  abore  the 
head  :  the  tkia  of  the  neok  ii  looea  and jiendaloDi ; 
the  oneek*  and  fotehead  beu  wt>o1  t  the  fleece  ia 
flue,  long,  loft,  and  twisted  in  silky  spiral  ringleta, 
aboamUng  in  oil,  whioh  attraots  diut,  w>  that  it  baa 


an  author  by  hii  FaU  i^  (Ae  Romans  Rtj^Vic  (1853), 
Hittory  of  fAa  Jloman*  uniicr  fAe  ifoipire,  8  volg. 
(1S69-66),  and  Boyle  Lectures  (JS64-65J,  4o.  Bt 
waa  ingtalled  Dean  of  EI7  in  1^09.— Another  son, 
HEKiuir,  bom  in  1805,  waa  appointed  Profeaaor  of 
Political  Economy  at  Oxford  in  1837,  and  pennanent 
Under  Seoretary  of  State  for  India  in  1859.  In  the 
same  year  he  was  made  C.B.  He  alao  wrote  on 
coloniaation.     He  died  oa  February  S,  1874. 

HBRLB  D'AUBiaiir^  Ju»  Hkhbi,  a  popolar 
?ocleaiaatical  historian,  waa  bom  at  Eauz-Vives, 
near  Geneva  in  SwitEwland,  10th  Auguit  17M, 
studied  there  and  at  Berlin^under  Neander — and 


of  five  years,  he  proceeded  \ 


Bruaeels,  t 


Harino  Sheep. 

genenDy  »  dingy  appearance.  The  Aomb  ia  • 
times  blAok,  and  black  apota  are  apt  to  q>TOai 
in  the  moat  carefully  bred  flocka.  The  U.  l_  .,. 
fattens  slowly,  and  owes  its  ralue  altogether  to  the 
aioellence  of  ita  wool  It  has  notbewi  foand  profit- 
able in  Britain,  where  the  produotkin  of  mntton )«  a 
great  part  of  the  object  of  the  sheep-fanner. 

MERINO.     See  Woollbi  HAKOTACnrBX. 

MBTtlONETH,  a  county  o(  Wale^  is  bounded 
on  the  W.  by  Cordigaa  Bay,  and  on  the  N.  by  the 
counties  of  Caernarvon  and  Denbigh.  Area,  3BC,Z91 
acres;  pop.  (1871)  46,598;  (1881)54,793.  The  coart 
■oath  of  the  town  of  Harlech  rises  into  clifik,  ia 
skirted  by  sands,  and  fringed  by  three  dangerous 
sandbanks  at  some  distanoe  out  t^i  sea.  M.  is  the 
most  mountainous  county  in  Wales,  although  its 
peaks  do  not  rise  to  the  height  of  some  of  those  in 
Caernarvonshire.  The  chain  comprising  the  highest 
peaks  runs  from  north-w^t  to  south-east,  and  its 
summits  are  Arran  Mowddy  (295S  feet)  and  Cader 
Idris  (□.  v.).  The  county  is  watered  by  tbo  Dee, 
which  flows  north-east,  and  by  the  Mowddaoh  and 
the  Dovey,  which  reach  the  sea  after  a  south-west 
course.  Tha  soil  of  H.  is  generally  poor,  and  targe 
tracts  are  unfit  for  profitable  oultivati<XL  Of  the 
total  acreage,  only  162,667  aores  were  nnder  crop  in 
1880 ;  and  of  this  portion  1 16,2Q1  acres  were  in  per- 
manent pasture.  There  were  413,473  sheep  in  the 
conucy.  Slate  and  limestone  are  largely  quarried  ; 
a  little  lead  and  copper  is  mined ;  and  of  late  gcJd 
has  been  foond  in  Merioneth.  In  1866,  there  were 
obtained  1^  Castell  Carndochon  629  ox.  of  gold,  and 
at  Vigra  and  Cl<wiii,  814  oe.  Woollens  and  flannels 
ore  lunnnfactnretC    Chief  town,  Dolgelley  (q.  v.), 

MEMVALE,  JoHH  Hkhmati,  an  Enriish  scholar 
and  translator,  was  bom  at  Gxeter  in  1779,  studied 
at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  waa  called  to 
the  bar  in  1805.  He  contributed  largely  to  Blanifs 
CoUeeliom  frinn  the  Qrak  AnSalogy,  published  in 
1813,  and  broiif;ht  out  a  second  e£tion  himself  in 
1833L  From  1831  to  bfs  death  in  1844,  he  held  the 
office  of  Commissioner  of  Bankruptcy.  Amons  bis 
other  literMy  performancea  may  bo  mentioned 
Poem*  Original  and  Tran^ahd  (1841),  and  Minor 
Poenu  of  Schiller  (IS44).— M.,  the  Rev.  Charles, 
son  of  the  mctdma^  was  bom  in  1800.  stodied  at 
8t  John's  CoIIi^  Cambridge,  where  be  took  bia 
degree  in  1830,  and  waa  suDcesgively  scholar,  fellow, 
■od  totor.    Hs  fas*  asqnired  a  great  reputation  as 


,  invited  him  to  Holland,  oa  tutor  to  the 

['rinoe  of  Oranfje,  M.,  however,  declined  tha 
lETer,  and  rctummg  to  Qeneva,  took  part  [n  tha 
natitntion  of  a  new  eollera  for  the  propagation  of 
orthodox  theology,  in  wnlch  ho  was  appointed 
Professor'  of  Church  Sstory.  With  tiie  exoeption 
of  some  visits  to  England  and  Scotland,  where  hs 
had  numerous  readers  and  admirers,  he  remained 
constantly  at  Geneva.  ■  The  work  which  has  givea 
him  so  nridespread  a  repntation  is  bis  Hutoire  de 
la  S^pnmllon  ou  SebUme  Siitie  <I83^  et  seq.).  It 
ia  written  with  the  utmost  vivacity,  and  is  some- 
times  doqoenb  Ita  popularity  has  been  immense. 
Among  M.  D.'s  other  tmtiuga  are—Zs  Lui/iiramsmd 
tt  laRtforme  (Par.  1844) ;  Oermany,  Endand,  and 
Scotland  (1848);  Le  ProUdeur,  ou  la  Sipvblipit 
d'Attgkterre  mix  Joan  dt  CromwtU  (1848) ;  Troia 
SiieU*  dt  LvUe  en.  Eoo»m  (1850);  Caraciire  da 
JitformaUar  tt  dt  la  Si/ormation  de  Ofnive,  and 
Hiitmre  de  la  Rfformaiion  en  Europe  aa  Tempt  de 
Calvin  (1862— 1S7T).  He  died  at  Geneva,  SOth 
October  1S72. 

HHULIN  ^Faloo  asalm  or  ffmolriorehU  amlon), 
the  smallest  oE  the  British  iitfconulic,  from  11 
inches  to  12^  tncJies  in  length,  but  very  bold  and 
powerful,  and  possessing  all  tbe  characters  of  the 
true  falcons,  with  tiie  dietinction  of  large  hexagonal 
scalea  cm  the  front  of  the  tarsL  It  ia  of  a  bluiah 
ash  colour  above ;  reddish  yellow  on  the  breast  and 


Merlin  {Fatot  aialon),  Hale. 

belly,  witii  longitudinal  dark  spots,  the  throat  of 
the  adult  male  white.  The  winss  reach  to  two-thirds 
of  the  lengtii  of  the  tail.    It  builds  its  nest  on  th* 


(lOO^Ic 


UEBUN— MEBOVmoUKS. 


pToimd,  knd  U  foDd  ol  looditie*  wber*  Urge 
are  pleatiful,  on  whioh  it  ii  often  to  be  lecn  perohed, 
and  it  tlmrafore  often  oaUed  the  Slant  fateoa. 
Is  oonunon  in  most  parti  of  Suropo^  I*  foonil 
Alia  uid  North  Ameriom,  and  extendji  aDatlnrudi 
in  AMoa,  evea  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  wai 
ot  great  rapnta  in  tlie  dayi  of  falooniy,  being  rety 
e»my  trained,  Mid  flyinK  readily  at  ita  qoarif.  It 
was  therefore  oftaa  uaed  for  taking  parbidgei  and 
irood-pigeona.  It  ia  a  va^  liYely  bird,  and  often 
ntten  a  lutrah  aoraam.  It  luiuuljr  flics  low  and 
rtry  rapidlr,  threading  ita  way,  if  neoesiatr,  throngh 
bnutohea  and  leavea,  bat  it  will  also  follow  its  prej 
in  mounting  apwarda  to  a  great  height. 

MEBLIDT,  the  nuae  of  an  uident  Welih  prophet 
and  enchanter,  who  ia  betieved  to  have  flourislied 
during  the  deoline  ot  the  native  British  power  in 
its  oonteat  with  the  Saxon  invaders.  Both  the 
Cambrian  and  the  Strathclyde  Britons  booked  of  a 
M.  who  was,  in  all  probabuitj,  the  same  persona™ 
decked  ont  in  different  legendaiy  guise. — The 
Ciunbiian  IS.,  called  M,  Etayra  or  Ambrotita,  Is 
said  by  Qeoffrey  ot  Monmouth,  in  hia  HitUaia 
firllfonum,  to  have  lived  in  the  Bth  &,  to  have 
sprung  bvEQ  the  intercourse  of  a  demon  with  a 
Welsh  priucasB,  and  to  have  displayed  tlie  posseesion 
of  miraculous  powers  from  infancy.  He  is  alleged 
to  have  been  the  adviser  of  Kit^  Vorijgem,  and 
mbsoquently  ot  Ambrositu,  Ut«rpendragon,  and  the 
great  King  Arthnr.  He  is  often  alluded  to  by  our 
older  poets,  eapeciallr  Spenser,  in  his  Fairy  Quan, 
uid  BUO  flgnrea  in  Teonyion'B  IdyUt  i^f  1/ie  King. 
He  has  been  made  thasnl^ect  of  a  metrical  romance, 
of  wliich  there  is  a  mannsortpt  oopy  in  the  Advo- 
cates' Libnuy  in  Edinburgh.  (For  an  analysis  of 
this  romance,  eee  Ellis's  Sp^^mat*  of  Early  EagliA 
Xttrieai  RoiTunKa.)  A  collection  of  prophecies 
attributed  to  him  appeared  in  French  (Paris,  149S}, 
in  English  (Loud.  1539  and  1S33),  and  in  Latin 
(Venice,  ISM);  and  their  eiiitenco  is  traceable  at 
least  as  far  back  aa  the  time  ot  the  ]ioet  Lawrence 
(drea  1360).— The  fitrathclyde,  ot— if  we  may  be 
allowed  an  expressioa  which  antioinntea  history — 
the  aeoUidi  MT,  colled  Merhn  the  WyUt,  ot-  Merlin 
Caledonius,  is  placed  in  (he  6th  c,  and  appente  as  a 
contemporary  of  St  Kentigem,  Bishop  of  QUsgow. 
TTii  nave  is  still  shewn  at  Drammclzier  on  the 
Twe^  where,  in  attemptang  to  escape  across  the 
river  from  a  band  of  hostile  rustics,  he  was  impaled 
on  a  hidden  staka.  A  metrical  life  of  him,  extend- 
ing to  more  than  1600  lines,  protessedly  baaed  on 
Armorio  materials,  and  incorrectly  ascribed  to 
Oeoffrey  ot  Monmouth,  wai  pnUiihed  by  the 
Boibnrahe  Clnb  in  183a  His  prophecies— published 
at  Edinburgh  in  161S— oontain  those  aaoribed  to  the 
Welsh  MerUn. 

ME'RLON,  in  PortificatJon,  is  the  portion  ot  the 
parapet  between  two  embrasures.  Ita  length  is 
usually  from  15  to  13  featk 

MERMAID  (L  e.,  oea-mud),  an  imafpnary  inhabi- 
tant of  the  sea,  The  upper  parts  of  mermaids  are 
represented  a*  reeemblins  those  of  a  human  being 
geaerally  of  a  female — olUiongh  the  Merman  is  also 
■ometimee  heard  of — whilst  Vie  body  terminates  in 
»  tail  like  that  of  a  fish.  There  is  an  evident 
AffinitT  between  the  itoriea 


and  those  concerning  the  «iiena  and  tritons,  perhaps 
alao  the  nereids,  of  the  andents.  The  probability 
is  that  these  stories  have  origioated  in  the  appcar- 
amee  of  seals,  walmses,  and  perfiaps  still  more  oi 
the  berbivomis  oetacea,  in  regitmB  wha«  thi 
rare,  or  to  persons  nnaccnsiEomed 
'  Large  tdlowanoe  most  be  made  for  the  workings  of 
an  ex<nted  imaginatioik,  in  situatioDS  of  aolitnde  and 
■ppnhennoD,  on  tiio  unexpected  Appearance  of  an 


they  are 


extraordinary  and  unknown  object'  Many  ot  the 
stories  concerning  mermaids  belong  to  the  northern 
parts  ot  the  world,  where  tiie  herbivorous  oetaoea 
are  of  rare  ooeurrence,  and  perhaps  some  of  the 
solitary  seals  have  often  given  occasion  to  them. 
Bnt  the  berbivoroos  oetaoeans  do  occasionally 
wander  into  the  British,  and  joobably  even  into  more 
Dortham  seas.  Sir  James  SmersoD  Tennent  says 
conoeming  the  Dn^ng  (q.  v.) :  '  The  mde  approach 
to  the  human  ontlme,  obaerved  in  the  shape  of  the 
head  of  this  creature,  and  the  attitude  of  the  mother 
while  suckling  her  ycong,  holding  it  to  her  breast 
with  one  flipper,  while  swimming  with  the  othisr, 
holding  tiie  heads  of  both  above  water ;  and  when 
distnr^d,  suddenly  diving  and  displaying  her  fish- 
like tail — these,  together  with  her  habit^  demoD- 
strations  of  strong  maternal  aJTection,  probably  gave 
rise  to  the  fable  of  the  mennaid  t  kud  Urns  that 
eaiiiest  invention  of  mythical  physioloKy  may  be 
traced  to  the  Arab  seamen  and  VLa  GreeGi,  who  had 
watched  the  movementa  of  the  dngong  in  Uie  watos  of 
Manaar.'  It  is  righl^  however,  tbat  we  should  bear 
in  mind  the  poMiUlttT  of  the  ezisteuos  in  the  ocean 
of  ostaceana  not  yet  known  to  natnralista. — The 
mermaid  is  a  not  unfremiant  heraldic  bearing.  Id 
the  bemldnr  of  Franoe,  die  is  called  »  Siren,  and  in 
Qermany  she  ia  oooasionaUv  fiunished  with  two 
fishy  taUs. 


MERMAICa  GLOVE  IBaHehondria  jxdmaia), 

a  sponge  pretty  commtm  in  toe  British  seas,  and  the 
largest  oi  British  sponges.     It  grows  in  deep  ^ 


ad  is  sometimea  two  ^et  in  height.     It  reoeives  it 


HenoBid'a  Olove  {BaCieAondria  patmala). 

Snger-lihe  arrangement  of 


its  branches.  It  is  not  sllm^,  and  has  a  very  porous 
surface;  rough,  with  toynads  ot  minnta  fragile 
spioulEC    Its  colour  is  yellowish. 


ME'B6£l    See  Ethiopia. 

MSROTIDJEl     See  Bse-HATBB. 

MEROVI'NGIAITB,  the  fitri:  dynasty  d  Fiankisb 
kings  in  Oanl,  The  name  is  derived  from  Merwig 
or  HerovaeiiB,  who  ruled  about  the  middle  of  the 
eth  c,  having  united  a  few  tribes  under  his  sway. 
His  grandson,  Ohiodwig  or  Clevis  (q.v,),  f(n«t]y 
extended  his  dominions,  and  on  his  death,  divided 
his  kingdom  among  his  tonr  sons,  one  of  whom, 
Chlotar  or  Clotaire  L,  reunited  them  under  his 
own  sway  in  658.  On  his  death,  in  561,  the  king- 
dom was  asun  divided  into  four  parts — Aqnitaine, 
BnrgundyTNeustria,  and  Austnudo.  His  grandson, 
Clotairs  IL,  again  united  them  in  613;  but  after 
his  death,  in  dSS,  two  kingdoms,  Nenatria  and 
Austnsia,  were  fonned,  in  both  of  which  the 
Uerovuipan  Ungs    tstained   »   nwn^   nominal 


kkBEiUAG-iiettxtuDJ!. 


power,  Uie  real  powar  having  pMwd 
hands  of  the  majors  of  the  vtdaoe. — The  d;past]' 
of  the  M.  tenninated  with  the  depocdtion  of 
Childcdo  IT.,  in  162,  and  gave  place  to  that  of  the 
CarloTmgians  (q.  v.)  or  Karlinga.     M.  ahould  be 


MEltRIMAC,  a  river  d  Sew  England,  U.S  . 
ricriag  in  New  EampBhire,  and  falliog  into  tile 
Atlantic  Ocean  at  Newbnrjport,  after  a  conrse 
of  about  120  milea.  It  receives  several  small  tribn- 
tariea,  and  lia*  nmneroni  falls,  affording  iromenee 
wster-power,  on  the  principal  of  which  are  the 
manufactnring  towns  of  Kasbna  and  Mandiester, 
m  New  Hampshire,  and  Lowell  and  Lawrenca.  in 
MawachoMttB.    Navigable  Ifi  milea  to  Haverhill 

UE'RaEBURO,  a  town  of  Fmudan  Sazonj, 
oapital  of  »  drole  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Stalsi  60  miles  touth-south-east  of  Magdebnrs. 
The  oathedral,  a  noble  specimen  of  medieval  anhi- 
teoture,  ia  snrmonnted  by  fonr  beantiful  towers,  and 
has  one  of  the  largeet  otgans  (with  4000  pipes)  in 
Oerouuiy.  It  contains  llie  moDument  of  Bnilolf  of 
Swabii^  an  wpirant  to  ths  imperial  title,  who  i 
here  defeated  and  slain  (1080)  by  Henry  IV. ,  _ 
bronze  plate  in  low  i^ef,  probably  tiie  oldjest 
medieval  effigy  extant  The  castle — a  pictoresque 
edifice,  moitly  of  the  IBth  -      .  -    ■> 


bleftching  and  brewing  are  carried  on.  The  beer 
of  M.  ia  famoni.  Pop.  (1880)  16,205.  It  was  near  this 
town  that  the  emperor  Haniy  the  Fowler  K»ined 
hia  famous  viotoiy  over  the  Hungarians  in  93i 

ME'RSEY,  an  important  river  of  England,  separ- 
ates, in  its  lower  course,  the  coantie«  of  Cheshire 
and  Lancashire,  and  has  its  origin  in  the  janctioD 
of  the  Thame  and  Ooyt,  on  the  borders  of  Derby- 
■hire,  east  of  Stockport.  It  flows  in  a  west-Roath- 
west  direction,  and  ia  joined  on  the  right  by  the 
Irwell  A'oin  Manchester,  at  which  point  it  becomes 
navigaUe  for  Urge  vessds.  Besides  the  Irwell,  the 
chief  affluents  are  the  Bollin  and  the  Weayer  from 
Cheshire.  At  its  jnnotioQ  with  the  Wenver,  the 
M.  expands  into  a  wide  estuary,  which  forms  the 
Liverpool  channeL  The  eatuary  is  about  16  miles 
long,  and  from  1  to  3  miles  broad ;  opposite  Liver- 
pool, it  is  a  mile  and  a  quarter  in  width,  with 
m  considerable  depth  at  low  water.  It  is  much 
obstnicted  by  sooabanks ;  but  the  excellent  system 
of  pilotage  in  practice  here  renders  the  navigation 
comparatively  secure.  Entire  length  with  the  estu. 
ory,  nearly  TO  miles.  Atunnel  to  connect  Liverpool 
and  Birkenhead  is  being  made  beneath  the  estuary. 

MBTtTHTB-TT'DTIL  is  a  market-town  of 
South  Wales,  with  apopolation,  in  1871,  of  61,9*9 
within  the  parish.  The  parliamentary  borough  em- 
braces Aberdare  and  two  other  outlying  districts ; 
pop.  (1871)  97,020;  (1881)  91,347.  It  is  on  the 
northern  bonier  of  the  county  of  Glamorgan,  abut- 
ting upon  the  county  of  Brecknock,  and  surrounded 
by  lofty  hills.  It  is  buUt  upon  the  river  Taff, ' 
BOO  feet  above  eea-level,  24  miles  from  its  mouth 
and  port  at  Cardiff;  and  it  includes  the  junc- 
tions of  the  greater  and  lesser  Ta^  the  Morlais, 
and  the  Dowlaia,  streams  which  Uaere  unite  to 
constitute  the  main  river.  M.  is  the  teat  of 
the  iron  trade  of  Glamorgan,  as  represented  by 
the  great  works  of  DovrUis,  Cyfarthfa,  and  Ply- 
non^  and  in  a  leaa  degree  hjf  that  of  Fenydorren. 
It  also  oontains  large  DOllienei,  and  is  oelebrated. 


wiOi  Aberdare.  for  the  excellence  of  its  st«am  coaL 
From  about  1836  the  manufacture  of  finished  iron, 
chiefly  in  the  shape  of  rails,  merchont-bsiv,  girders, 
and  ship-plates,  grew  rapidly ;  of  late,  steel  is  very 
largely  prodaced.  The  exports  of  coal  are  consider- 
able, but  the  chief  consumption  is  within  the  worits. 
The  population  are  all  directly  dependent  upon  the 
works,  there  being  no  other  trade  or  maniuacture. 
Railways  branoh  from  M.  to  Brecon,  to  Swansea, 
to  Caniiff  and  Penaith,  and  to  Newport  and 
Hereford.  The  borough  was  created  by  the  first 
Reform  Act,  and  now  returns  two  members.  Its 
chief  town-ofGcer  is  the  headborouch  of  the  lordship, 
called  the  '  High  Constable,'  and  its  government  is 
vested  in  a  Local  Board.  Dowlois  contaios  some 
tine  public  building,  bat  M.  is  deflcient  in  this 
respect.  Though  a  tiui^,  it  is  not  a  striking  place, 
having  risen  very  rapidly  with  the  local  tr^e,  and 
having  attained  nearly  its  present  dimensions  before 
it  was  under  any  but  the  ordinary  parochial  govern- 
ment. There  are,  however,  symptoma  of  improve- 
ment It  is  well  supplied  with  water,  and  the 
infantile  mortality,  long  extraordinary,  is  now 
reduced.    The  people,  chiefly  Welsh,  are  mdustrious, 

id,  on  the  whole,  very  orderly,  llie  place  is  said 
take  its  name  from  the  martyrdom  here  of  a 
female  British  soint^  Tydvil  ca-  TydfiL 

M3BBT0N  COLLEGE,  OxroRS.  The  Honse  of 
the  Scholars  of  Merton,  commonly  called  M.  C,  the 
model  of  all  the  secular  colleges,  was  first  founded 
in  Moldon  in  Surrey  by  Walter  de  Merton,  Bishop  of 
Bocheater,  and  Lord  Hich  Chancellor,  in  1264,  for  Hie 
maintenance  of  20  sohofars  in  the  schools  of  Oxford, 
and  of  a  warden  and  three  or  four  ministers  of  the 
altar,  who  were  te  manoge  the  property.  Before 
1274,  he  transferred  his  warden  and  ministers  to 
Oiford-^thereby  not  only  founding  his  own  college^ 
but  contributing  in  no  small  ^^^  to  fix  tite 
university  in  its  present  locality,  llie  fellows  were 
to  be  as  many  as  the  means  of  the  honse  could 
maintain,  and  after  some  changes,  thia  number 
was  fixed  by  Archbishop  Laud  at  24.  They  were 
to  be  elected  iint  and  chiefly  from  the  fouuder'a 
kin  ;  but  this  waa  from  an  early  period  eroded, 
and  the  commiBsionera  of  1852  speak  of  'a  oom- 
mon  belief  in  the  univeraily  that  the  elections  to 
fellowships  at  Merton  were  formerly  determined  by 
personal  mterest'  In  1380,  Dr  Wjrlliot,  Chancellor 
of  ExetfiT,  endowed  twelve  portitmUta,  or  poet, 
masters  as  they  are  now  called,  equivalent  to  tiie 
echolora  of  oUier  colleges;  and  in  1604,  John 
Chamber,  fellow  of  Etrai,  endowed  two  more — 
restricted,  however,  to  foundationers  from  EtoiL  By 
the  ordinances  under  17  and  18  Vict  c.  81,  con- 
siderable changes  were  made— six  fellowships  were 
suspended,  of  which  two  were  assigned  to  mcrease 
the  postmasterships,  &c,  and  four  to  the  endowment 
of  the  Linacre  profeasoiship  of  physiology,  of  value 
£800  per  annum.  The  remainmg  18  were  thrown 
— '.a,  and  not  to  exceed  £250  per  annum,  exclusive 
rooms,  nntil  the  original  number  of  24  was 
restored.  The  nnraber  now  being  completed,  they 
have  reached  their  limiting  value  of  £300.  Sixteen 
postmasterships,  and  four  scholarships,  each  of  the 
valne  of  £80  a  year,  are  open  without  restriction  : 
two  postmostcrtihips  are  thrown  open  in  default  of 
candidates  from  Eton,     This  college  poasesses  IS 


MERIT,  in  Hindu  Mythology,  a  fabulous  mono- 
tain  in  the  centre  of  the  worl<C80,000  leagues  high. 
It  is  the  most  sacred  of  oil  mythiool  mounbuDS,  Uis 
abode  of  Vishnu,  and  endowed  with  all  imaginable 


■  CooqIc 


jo;bv_he3illa. 


Terj  widely  diatrUtutod  OTer  the 
globe,  Kme  of  them  being  fouod  in  cold  and  soms 
in  irarm  climfttea.  Some  are  migratory ;  %  few 
■pedea  are  gregariont  at  all  leaiona,  manjr  are 
gregariouB  omy  in  winter.  They  generally  build 
Uteir  DBEta  in  tre«a.  They  feed  ^iefly  i 
aaimal  and  T^etable  mbetaaccA,  u  berries, 
and  worms.  Many  of  them  are  birdi  of  very  sweet 
■oDg;  aome  are  remarkable  for  tiieir  imitative 
powen.  To  thiq  family  belong  thrnihea  (among 
wbiok  are  reckoned  the  blackbird  redwing,  fieldfare, 
ring-muel,  fta),  oriolei,  mocking-bird*,  dippera,  Ao. 
MEBV,    »    territory    in    Western    TorkeBtan, 


EuBiian  a 


miles  east  of  the  Murghab  Hirer.     Accordii 
O'Donoran,  who  spent  irii  mantliB  there,  M.  'a  not  a 
city,  but  a  odleotion  of  small  Turkoman  settlements. 


The  laraest  settlement,  one  of  1000 

fort  oalled  Kala  Kanshid  Ehan.    See  Marvin'*  Jf., 

fA«  Queen  of  l!u!   World   (ISSO) ;  and  O'Donovan'a 

The  Merv  Oatis,  2  vols.  (1882). 

HBSA'GITA,  a  town  of  tbe  prorinoe  of  Lecce,  in 
Soathem  Italy,  27  miles  Dorth-weit  ot  Lecce.  The 
district  around  is  fmitfoL    Pop.  SWW. 

HE8EHBRTA'0EL£,  en  FICOIDE^  a  natural 
Older  of  eiogenona  planta,  both  herbaceoug  and 
ahmbl^,  but  all  aoccnlent.  As  defined  by  aame 
bataniati,  it  inolndea  the  orden  Teljagotuacea, 
Sttutiatat,  &o.,  of  othera.  Of  the  more  restricted 
U.,  abont  4W  apedes  are  known,  a  few  of  which  are 
natiTM  of  the  aoath  of  Boropek  but  none  are  Britiih; 
tlw  »eat«r  nomber  belong  to  South  AMc*  and  the 
SooUt  Sea  Isl«adi.~-The  loe  Plant  (q.  t.)  belong* 
to  this  order.  The  leavea  of  tome  awoie*,  when 
burned,  yield  aoda  in  great  abundance,  uuge  qomn- 
titiEs  of  barilla  are  made  from  them  in  the  Canary 
lalanda,  in  Spain,  and  in  Egypt.  The  aeeda  of  aonie, 
aa  JfewmimineAeniuni  OT/tlaUiimm  (the  Ice  Plant) 
tud  -if,  genloaiiftonaa,  are  gioond  into  flonr  to  make 
bread.  M.  gmieidifiorum  u  osed  aa  a  pot-herb  in 
Afiiea.  The  tnii  of  Jf.  ediijs  (Hottentot'a  Fig)  is 
eaten  in  Sooth  Africa,  and  that  tA  M.  ajailaUrais 
(Pig'a-faoea)  in  Anstialia. — M.  einanidvm  ia  called 
Aou  by  the  Hottcntota,  wbo  beat  and  twiat  op  the 
whole  jdant,  allow  it  to  ferment^  and  chew  it  like 
tobaocOi. — Someof  tlw  Jf.  am  now  oommon  in  Britiih 
garden*.  Thenameahooldbeapelled  Jfeseinirtafla^ 
aa  it  ia  fnnn  the  Greek  malmbria,  mid-day,  becanse 
the  flowen  bloom  nsaally  at  mid-day. 

MirSENTEBT,  MESENTE'RIO  DISEASE. 
The  mesentery  derive*  its  name  from  being  con- 
nected to  the  middle  portion  (Qr,  nteaon)  of  the 
■mall  intestine  (cnfaron).  It  ia  a  broad  fold  of 
peritonennt  (the  peat  aeroua  membrane  of  the 
abdomen),  aarronnWDg  the  jejunom  and  the  ilenm, 
and  attached  posteriorly  to  the  vertebral  oolnmn. 
Its  breadth  between  the  intestinal  and  vertebtnl 
borders  ia  about  four  inches;  its  attachment  to 
the  vertebral  column  is  about  six  inches  in  length, 


trtain  the  small  intestiuM  in  their  [dace,  while  it 
at  tlie  sBine  time  allows  the  nnnrannnr  amount  of 
movement,  and  it  eontaina  betweto  in  layen  tiie 
..  ..  _       .     Q^  lacteal  vtMela,  and  meeea- 


_  m  the  contents  of  the 

the  chyle  being  man  abnodant  in  fibrins 
and  in  oorpRuales  aftsr  it  ha*  pa*Md  through  than. 
Hence,  it  i*  obvion*  that  disMae  of  tbeaa  gland* 


mn*t  alwari  serioiuljr  affect  the  ^ocem  of  i 
latiott.     Tb«   moat   important   Section  of 


.-„ —  - .  -t  tabooolar  d^eneia- 

tion,  which  gives  riaa  to  tbe  diaeaae  known  aa  Tabei 
Jfiuente-ica,  a  diaeaie  mostoonunon  in  ahUdhood,  but 
oonAoed  to  no  period  of  life.  In  the  great  majori^ 
of  eaaee,  it  is  aasodated  with,  and  oHen  marked 
b^,  other  nsnita  of  the  tobeicolar  or  scrofolona 
diathena,  anoh  a*  pnlmonary  oouanrnption,  taber- 
onlar  peritoniti*,  sorofulont  diaeaae  <^  the  w^t, 
rickets,  tx. ;  bnt  aometinies  the  mesenteric  glands 
seem  almost  exclosively  affected,  in  which  case  the 
disease  becomea  sufficiently  distiDct  to  allow  of  eB«y 
detection.  The  leading  symptoms  are  accelsraldoQ 
of  the  poise,  occasioiuil  fever,  especially  toward* 
evening,  loaa  of  oolonr  and  fiesh,  derangement  of 
the  digeativa  organa  (conatipation  or  diairhcea,  and 
occasional  vomitmg),  a  steady  pain  in  the  region  of 
the  navel,  increased  by  prassnre;  but  perhaps  the 
most  oharaoteriatic  aymptom  ia  tnmefactaon  and 
hardnesa  of  tite  abdomen,  with  general  emaciation. 
The  enlarged  ^anda  can  sometimes  be  detected  by 
a  carefol  szaminatian  with  the  hand,  eepedalty  in 
advanced  cases.  The  piogte**  of  the  disease  ia 
inerally  slow,  bnt  at  length  hectic  fever  sets  in, 
le  emaciation  becomes  extreme,  dropsiosl  effnsion 
appears,  and  the  patient  dies  exhausted,  if  not  cut 
dfbytb  '  .        - 


The 


a  the 


tion  of  cod-liver  oil,   or.  if   the   stomaoh 
irritable  to  bear  that  medicine,  of  iodide  of  potas- 
dnm,    combined   with   some    bitter   infnaion,  the 
bowel*  being  at  the  same  time  oarrfaUy  attended 
to.    The  application  of  atimnUting  liniments,  or  irf 
iodine  ointment,  to  the  abdomen  is  often  of  great 
■errice.    When  the  disease  has  advanced  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  remedies  are  of  little  nse,  except 
to  palliate  aome  of  the  more  urgent  aymptam*. 
Independently  of  the  diaeaae  that  has  jnat  been 
itieed,  inflammation  of   these   gland*  u  by  no 
Bans  nnconuBon,  when  the  mucona  membrane  of 
a  Email  inteatins  ia  nlctiated,  as,  for  exampl(^  in 
typhoid  or  enterio  fever. 

ME'SHID,  an  important  dty  of  Persia,  capital  of 
e  province  of  Khorasaan,  in  a  fertile  and  well- 
cultivated  plain,  on  the  Tejend,  in  lat  36°  ir  N., 
long.  G9°  w  E.  It  is  by  l«f  the  moat  important 
town  of  the  north-east  ot  Persia,  being  the  centre 
imerous  converging  routes.  The  city  preeents 
rprinng  and  beautiful  view  from  a  distance 
Above  the  walls,  which  are  of  vast  circuit,  diine 
jlded  dome  of  one  of  tbe  most  splendid  mosques 
__  -_ie  East,  the  beautiful  minarets  of  the  tomb  of 
Imanm  Biza,  a  follower  of  Ali,  and  the  summita 
of  other  aacred  buOdiags.  M.,  aa  the  chief  aeat  of 
great  aect  of  the  Shiites,  is  of  nearly  equal 
importance  with  Mecca,  the  aaored  ci^  of  tbe 
oruiodox  Mohammedans,  and  henoe  it  abound*  in 
holy '  men,  arrayed  in  green  turbans  and  aashea^ 
who  instruct  the  pilerims  visiting  the  city.  The 
town  carries  on  manmactures  ot  woollen  goods  and 
<rf  metal-wares,  especially  sword-bladea,  gold  work, 
and  articles  of  jewellery.  It  is  a  famooa  plaoe  of 
pilgrimage,  and  a  centie,  to  some  extent,  of  educa- 
tion. Caravans  arrive  almost  daQ^.  Pm  70iOOI). 
In  the  neighbourhood  are  the  nuns  of  Thus,  the 
old  oapital  of  Khorasaan,  which  contains  ths  (amb 
of  the  celebrated  poet  FiiiiQaL 

MESIXLA,  a  town  and  vaUev  on  the  Rio 
Grande,  New  Mexico,  U.S.,  aoqoired  of  Mexico  in 
1834  by  purchaae,  under  the  Gadsden  treaty.  IM 
32°  17'  N.,  long.  106*  46'  W.  It  ia  a  narrow,  bnt 
fertile  valley,  on  the  southern  overland  route  to 
California.  The  town,  aettled  in  1850,  had  in  1S70 
a  population  of  1578. 


.vGoegIt 


MEHMER,  Frm*  (aooording  to  irtlien,  Piti 
rhub-Antox),  tiie  founder  of  the  dootrine  or  Anii 
Hagncrtinn  (q.  v.],  or  Mmrnetiaa,  wm  bom  _ 
1733  or  1734,  «t  a  viUage  near  the  BodeiuwB.  He 
■tndied  at  Vianna,  and  then  took  the  dwree  of 
Doctor  of  Uadidne  in  17S&  About  1772,  he 
began,  alcmg  with  Father  Hdl,  to  iaveitigate  the 
caratirt  powen  of  the  magnet,  and  iroi  led  to 
adopt  the  opinion,  that  there  ezista  a  pover  Bimilar 
to  nugaetisni,  whioh  azerciaes  an  extraordinary 
influence  on  the  hnmari  bodjr.  This  he  called 
Antroal  Magnetiam,  and  published  an  accotmt  of 
biB  diaoovery,  and  of  its  mMicinal  Talne,  in  1776^ 
Honours  were  oonferred  upon  him  in  Oennanj.  In 
1778,  he  went  to  Parii,  where  he  attracted  much 
attention.  Hia  qiiteia  obtuned  the  tupport  of 
ibeDibeTt  of  the  medical  profesaion,  an  well  aa  (rf 
other* ;  but  he  refused  an  offer  of  an  annual  pension 
of  20,000  livres  (abant  £S00)  to  rereat  bis  secret ; 
aod  this,  combined  wicb  other  circumstanoea,  gave 
ri<e  to  Biieplcion,  and  induced  the  govemment  to 
appoint  a  oomminion,  compoaed  of  phyncinnii  and 
natoraliita,  wboae  report  was  unfaTourable  to  biro. 
He  now  fell  into  disrepulfl,  and  ^ter  a  visit  to  Eng- 
land, retired  to  Meersburg,  where  he  gpent  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  complete  obacnritr.  He  died  Uaroh 
6,  181S. 

MB'SBIEKISU.    8cQ  Ahuul  Maonrtisu. 


paramount.  The  phrase  ia,  however,  not  dow  tited, 
l>ec«uae  subinfeudation  waa  aboliahed  in  the  time 
of  Edward  L — Mebnb  pRocma  waa  the  nama  given 
to  writs  which  iisued  in  respect  of  a  pending  action 
before  final  judgment  waa  given. — Miam  PsOriiB 
are  the  prenta  or  rents  drawn  bj  a  peraon  who  ia 
wrongfully  in  poBieuion  of  real  property,  and  who 
ia  afterwards  ejected,  in  which  case  ibe  mesne 
profits  are  recovaTabU^  along  with  the  estate  ttadf. 

MHBOPOTA'HIA  (Or.  mttoi,  middle,  and 
potamcn,  a  river),  the  region  between  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris;  but  the  name  is  generallj  apnlied 
to  the  northem  part  of  this  region,  which  is 
oilled  by  the  Arabs  Al-Jcaira  {the  Island).  The 
northernmost  districts  of  M.  are  mountainoua, 
being  penetrated  by  the  sonthem  spun  of  the 
mountains  of  Armeoia:  all  the  rest  is  a  plain, 
rarely  broken  by  rocky  bei^i  its.  This  plain  ia  dry 
steppe,  Kreen  with  vegetation  only  m  the  wet 
■eason j  but  wherever  it  is  natuially  watetedjOr 
artificially  irrigated,  it  displays  fertility.  The 
inhabitants  consist  chicSy  of  TiL'ks,  Kurds,  Turco- 
mans, and  Yeaids,  with  Armenians  in  the  north, 
and  Syrians  and  Arabs  in  the  plains.  The  chief 
ocoipation  of  the  people  is  the  teeding  of  cattle; 
Mid  of  the  dvilisation  of  ancient  times,  or  even  of 
that  which  prevailed  in  a  later  period  (during  the 
Ayubite  rale],  few  or  no  traces  now  exist.  Td. 
forms  a  part  of  the  Turkish  empire,  and  ia  divided 
into  several  eyolets  or  govemmenta.  For  the 
histoi7  of  the  ooontry,  see  Assyria,  Babilomu. 

MESOZCIO  (Gr.  middle-life),  a  term  introdnoed 
1^  Professor  Phillips  to  designate  tiie  groap  of  geo- 
logical periods,  the  fcasil  remains  of  which  differ 
equally  from  those  of  the  Palnoaoio  (anaent-life) 
and  CaiDDzoio  (newer-lilo)  epooha.  It  is  synonymous 
with  the  more  generally  employed  term  Secondary, 
and  inoladea  the  rocka  of  the  Iriassio,  OoUtii),  and 
Cretaceous  periods. 

UE'SPIIiUS.    See  MmuB. 

MB9B  (Tr.  mtt»,  Old  Vr.  met,  ItaL  mcsso,  a  dish, 
from  Lat.  minmm,  sent,  or  served  np)  originaUy 
signified  a  dish  or  portion  of  food ;  hut  is  used  in 
the  llritiah  army  and  navy  in  the  Sense  of  a  DnmbM 


OF  aMoeiation  of  offioet*  or  ti  m«n  takinf(  i 
m«aU  together.  In  societies  consisting  entirely  of 
the  mate  sex,  and  of  ono  set  of  men  contimuJly 
thrown  together,  it  ii  a  very  important  tocial  point 
that  the  mew  should  be  well  regulated.  There  an 
eonaeqoently  stringent  rules— l»th  of  Bio  * — '  " 
and  ot  mntnal  etiquette — laid  down  tor  it*  g 
ment.  One  officer  sots  aa  oaterer,  reoeivet  subscrip- 
tions from  the  several  membeis,  ohuves  the  wine 
to  those  who  drink  ii  && ;  a  stewud  baa  «hsm 
of  the  mora  meniid  departanent,  arranging  for  t£a 
cooking,  purebase  of  viands,  servanta,  rations,  &o. 

In  ue  navy,  the  Admiralty  lend  the  plate  an< 
glass ;  in  the  tnn^,  aaoh  expenses  are  met  b;  tba 
mess  fund,  which  is  kept  ap  by  a  contribution  not 
exceeding  thirty  days'  pay,  or  difierence  of  pay,  on 
the  appointment  or  promotion  of  on  officer,  and  an 
annual  subscription  from  each  officer  not  exceeding 
eight  days'  pay,  whic'h  subscription,  in  the  coae  of 
subalterns,  is,  siooe  1ST2,  paid  by  the  state.  Of 
course,  each  officer  has  to  pay  periodically  his  share 
of  the  aeneral  expense  for  provisions,  &c  In  the 
navy,  this  expense  is  limited  to  £3  a  month  per 
head  for  the  word-room  mesa,  and  £1,  10«.  in  Uie 

— annv.  thei 

commanding  o 

proper  economy.    Government  a    .        .   . 

regiments  servme  at  home,  and  on  certain  foreign 
stations  where  the  necessaries  of  life  are  expensive, 
with  an  annual  allowanoe  of  £35  for  each  troop 
or  company.  The  whole  of  this  allowanoe  is  to  be 
ajipUed  in  aid  ot  the  cost  of  the  first  allowance  o 
win^  and  towards  reducing  the  daily  expense  o 
the  mess,  &c  The  annual  vote  for  tola  aUowana 
is  about  £40,00a 

In  regiments,  there  is  the  officen'  mess,  to  which 
all  Oie  offioen  of  the  regiment  are  bound  to  sub- 
scribe their  regulated  entnnoe-fee;  but  it  is  optionsl' 
with  married  officers  to  use  it  or  not,  and  if  they 
eleot  not  to  do  so,  they  are  exempted  from  the 
annual  contribution,  and  only  my  for  their  share  of 
the  consumption  on  the  special  oooasions  when  they 
may  attend.  The  sergeanto  have  also  a  mesa, when  ths 
commandine  offioer  can  succeed  in  establishing  oae. 
It  is  oonsiftered  neceaury  for  diaoiplioe  that  these 
messes  should  be  quite  exclusive,  though,  in  oonti* 
nental  armies,  and  especially  the  French,  tiia  case  ia 
dJBerent,  the  utmost  familiarity  being  encouraged 
betireen  all  ranks  when  off  duty.  The  social 
equality  of  officers  and  men,  due  to  conscription  and 
promotion  from  the  ranks,  suffices  to  acoount  for 
tb)B  difference  of  system,  llie  sergeants  draw  theii 
Batian*  (q.  v.),  supplementing  them  at  their  ditora- 
tion ;  tiie  offioers  oan  draw  thsm  or  not  (throi^ 
their  messman),  but  on  for«gn  statioms  they  almost 
invariably  do  so. 

There  is  no  mess  for  staff-offioere  with  on  army, 
unless  they  form  private  arrangements  among  them- 

In  the  British  navy,  if  the  ship  l>e  small,  there  ia 
one  general  mesa — tiie  gun-room — to  which  all 
the  officers  must  belong.  If  the  vecsel  have  a  c<tt- 
siderable  complement,  there  is  the  ward-room  mm 
(<rf  which  the  captain  is  not  an  effective  member,  as 
hs  dines  in  his  own  eoite  of  eaMas),  for  the  com- 
mander, lieutenants,  master,  chajdi^  p«ymaster, 
marine  officers,  surgeon,  aBsiatant-surgeou.  and  chief 
engineer;  the  gun-room,  for  sub-lientenanta,  aeoond 
masters,  midshipmea,  cadets,  and  mastei^s  assist- 
ants 1  and  the  engineers'  mess  (governed  by  the 
rules  for  the  gun-room),  for  engineer  offioera  balow 
the  rank   of   chief-engineer.     Offioen  or  civiliaMi 

S aging  in  a  ship  of  war  as  passengera  are  ordin- 
^elected  honorary  members  of  the  meas  to  whioh 
tbeir  rank  would  entitle  them.     Battens  are  not 
'  to  ntembeis  of  *  meat;  bat  jaoh  is  gMotad, 


„,(^oOglc' 


MES8ALINA— MESalAH. 


In  lien  tiienof,  ui  kUowance  ot  £1  »  montii,  with 
the  powtr  of  pDioliaaiiig  ship'*  proruioiui  at  gorem- 
■nent  rate*. 

Common  iMmin  and  oonunon  Kildieia,  in  ths 
m-vy  and  wmr  leapectlretr,  omn  togetlier  in  tablM 
comprioDg  tk  certsin  nnmber,  aooordlag  ia  tbeir 
rating)  or  iqQads ;  but  thsa  hu  no  referenoe  to  the 
tecbniol  meSQiDg  of  messing  m  applied  to  ofSoerH, 
•od  is  meraly  foi  the  piupoee  of  economy  of  fael 
and  labour  in  the  cooking  of  their  mtkins. 

MESaALrSA,  ViLXRU,  the  daughter  of 
Mbtoiu  Valeriu*  Mes«»lk  B«rbatu«,  and  v2e  of  the 
BMDaa  emperor  Claudius,  a  woman  infamoos  for 
her  laBdnonaneei,  her  avarice,  and  the  atrocities 
which  ahe  perpetrated.  Taking  advaatMS  of  Uie 
weakoeM  uid  stupidity  of  the  emperor,  ^e  played 
the  adulterem  without  restraint,  and  unrelectiDgly 


of  Borne  flowed  at  ber  pleasure.  Among 
her  viotims  were  the  daughters  of  Germaniuus 
aod  DruiuB,  Justus  Catonius,  M.  Yincius,  Volcr' 

AsiatieuB,  and  her  confederate  Polybins.    8ho  W' 

•0  far  in  vice  as  to  offer  her  charma  for  sale  like  a 
oommoD  prostitute ;  and  at  last,  during  a  temporary 
abaeuoe  of  the  emperor,  she  publicly  marrtecl  ooe 
of  ber  favourites,  C.  Siliua,  upon  wmch  Narcissus, 
one  of  tbe  emperor's  freedmen,  represented  to  him 
that  M.  was  ouniiig  at  bl*  destrucuon,  and  received 
orden  for  her  execution.  She  was  pnt  to  death  by 
EnoduB,  a  tribone  of  the  guards,  in  the  gardens  of 
liuoollni^  48  A.  D.  Her  name  baa  become  a  bye. 
word  bx  crime  and  but 
HESSENGEB3,  Kino'b  {Qitxen's),  officers  em 
^ed  by  secretaries  of  state  to  convey  dispatcbe 
lome  and  abroad.  In  former  days,  their  occu 
patioD  oonmsted,  to  a  considerable  extent,  in  serving 
tbe  secretaries'  warrant!  for  the  appreheDsion  of 
persons  aoonsed  of  high  treason  and  other  grave 
offence*  agaioit  the  state,  nor  wu  it  anasuid  for 
ttiem  to  ke^  the  priaoDer*  wtiom  they  api^ebended 
ftt  their  own  bousei.  Th^  are  now  principally 
employed  in  toreign  aervice^ 
HBSSBNOeKS-AT-ABMa,    the   <^cer8    who 


{Joyed 
at  hon 


appointed  by,  and  are  under  the  conb«t  of  the  Lyon 
King-at- Ann*(q.  v.).  Act  1587,  o-  46,  contains  vanons 
jaanaiooB  regaiding  these  offloen^  which  shew  that, 
pritO'  t«  that  period^the  Lyon  exercised  junsdiiition 
over  them,  botit  a*  to  their  admiadon  and  the  trial 
of  oomplainti  ^ainat  them.  There  are  a  certain 
Bomber  (rf  meMengeis-at-aima  in  every  county  of 
Scotland,  amountiDg  in  all,  at  present,  to  aboat  one 


HBsaB^tA,  a  district  In  the  south-wert  of  the 
PelopannCBas,  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Laoonia,  on 
the  K.  by  Arcadia  and  Elis,  and  on  the  8.  and  W. 

¥b^  the  sea.  It  was  composed  ohiefly  of  exteneive 
ains,  watered  by  the  Pamaut  and  other  streams, 
hose  ptaina  were  famous  for  tbeir  fertility,  and 
particularly  for  their  wheat-harvests.  At  an  early 
period,  after  the  Doric  conquest,  it  rose  to  power 
and  opulence.  Its  chief  cities  were  Hesseue, 
Methone,  and  Pylos.  It  is  chiefly  noted  for  its 
two  wars  with  Sparta,  known  as  the  Messenian 
Wars,  the  first  of  which  (according  to  the  oommon 
chroDoIoey)  lasted  from  743  to  724  B.C.;  and  tbe 
second  Gitm  OSS  to  668  B.O.  In  both  instances, 
the  Messenians  were  defeated,  and  in  consequence, 
ft  great  part  of  them  emigrated  to  Sicily,  where 
they  took  poasession  of  Zaocle,  which  then  received 
the  name  (^  Messana,  tbe  present  Messina.  After 
the  lapse  of  300  years,  Epaminondas  invited  tbeir 
descendants   baek  to   Oreeos,   and    tiuy  ji^uUy 


MEfiSI'AH  (Heb.  Mathtaeh),  eqnivaUnt  to  the 
Qraek  Chritlo*,  tbe  Ajiointed,  designates,  in  the 
Old  Testament,  Hie  great  deliverer  and  Saviour, 
whom  tbe  Jews  exited  to  be  seat  by  Clod,  not 
only  to  restore  tboir  country  to  the  power  and 
splendour  which  it  exhibited  m  the  days  of  David, 
but  even,  by  compelling  the  Gentiles  to  acknowledge 
tbe  supremacy  of  tbe  theocratic  people,  to  raise  it 
to  the  summit  of  universal  domuilon.  This  large 
conception,  however,  flnt  begins  to  develop  itadf 
after  the  time  of  Solomon;  for  the  oldest  biblical 
records  in  their  Messianic  indications  refer  rather  to 
the  high  degree  of  prosperity  which  the  chosen 
people  were  to  expect  for  C/ientaclva.  This  expec- 
tation, already  visible  in  the  Abrahamidn,  appeared 
for  a  moment  to  have  realised  itself  in  the  conquest 
of  Canaan  ;  but  the  subsequent,  and  often  disaitrons 
wars  (in  the  period  of  the  '  Judges  '  and  of  Saul),  aa 
well  as  the  mtemol  feuds  and  dissensions  of  the 
Hebrews  tbemselves — left  it,  in  point  of  fact,  unful- 
Med.  Nevertheless,  the  hope  of  tbe  appearance  of 
the  M.  bad  rooted  itself  strongly  in  the  people,  and 
during  tbe  gloriooa  and  peaceful  reigns  of  David 
and  Solomon,  had  so  grown  and  enlarged,  that 
even  after  the  secession  of  Israel,  and  during  the 
momentoni  ages  that  elapsed  until  its  destruction 
as  a  kingdom,  not  only  was  the  hope  of  a  nnivenial 
world-BDvereiguty,  and  of  an  extraordinary  degree 
of  prosperity,  warmly  cherished,  but  it  was  also  eon. 
fldcotl;  expected  that  Ood  would  raise  up  a  branch 
from  tne  stem  of  David  as  tbe  M.,  the  founder  of 
the  national  prosperity,  and  the  bringer-in  of  the 
all-embrncing  theocracy.  That  branch  was  declared 
to  be  '  the  anointed  of  the  Lord,'  and  since  David 
applied  that  epithet  to  himself,  the  Jews  transferred 
it  to  the  deliverer  whom  they  expected,  and  called 
bim  '  Son  of  David.'     The  prophetic  writings  oon- 


the  generation  then  living,  whose  birtbiiloce,  in 
congruity  with  his  Davidio  descent,  was  announced 
to  be  Bethlehem,  and  who,  it  was  believed,  wbb  to 
be  endowed  with  Divine   attributes.      Theee  pro- 

fhcUo  ollusians  are  commonly  termed  Messuhio 
KOPaECiES.  Along  with  such,  the  prophets  asso- 
ciated the  idea  of  a  foremnner  [Elijah,  Jeremiah, 
or  Moses),  whose  function  was  to  prepare  the  people 
for  tbe  appearance  of  the  Messiah.  The  coming  of  the 
Messiomo  kingdom  was  to  be  preceded  by  a  period 
of  severe  misfortune  and  bitter  sorrows,  the  pnrpoae 
of  which  was  the  reooDciliation  of  the  people  with 
Ood  (Isaiah  L  26,  &c;j  Joel  iiL;  Dan.ix.;  Zech.xiii.). 
These  sorrows  are  called  the  woes  of  tiie  U.;  they 
'e  minutely  described  in  the  second  book  of  Gsdraa 
-an  apocryphal  work.  Henoe  spnuig  up  the  idea 
of  a  suffering  M. — widely  ditTused  among  the  Jews 
— who,  by  enduring  grief  and  shame,  should  moke 
atonement  for  tbe  people,  and  reconcile  them  with 
Qod.  This  conception  w»h  greatly  strengthened 
by  the  picture  in  Isaiah  (Dha[)t«ra  IiL  and  liiL),  of 
a  'servant  of  God,'  which,  in  fact,  is  generally 
regarded  M  tbe  most  distinct  prophecy  of  the 
Saviour.  Hence  the  step  farther  of  considering 
the  M.  an  offering  and  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  the 
people,  was  an  easy  one;  yet,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  ]k  singular  that  no  trace  of  this  is  found  in  the 
Apocrypha,  not  to  mention  the  popular  bebef  of 
tbe  Jews,  that  the  M.  was  to  live  for  ever  (John 
xiL  34).  that  a  cruciSed  Saviour  was  a  stumbling- 
block  to  them  (1  Cor.  L  SS),  that  even  the  disciples 
of  Jesus  did  not  comprehend  bis  aUusiont  to  bis 
death,  and  that  their  faith  in  him  as  the  M.  was 
for  long  dim  and  donbtfuL  In  fact,  this  popular 
belief  at  the  Jew*  wm  the  very  nMon  why  th« 


CMon  why  th« 


UE88INA— lOTALIUBOT. 


not  reoogniM  Jeni  h  the  Meuiab.  In  tbe  later 
:.t —  („  ,t  abem  itMlf  in  tfa«  TtJmud),  the  oon- 
cit  the  M.  an  rich  in  nngiilaritiGB,  It  wu 
lered  that  the  tne  H.,  the  son  of  David,  would 


oci^ioiu 
bdiered 

or  &hn 
in-meri 


o  ahoold  anfFcr  death  for  n 


•zpeoted  &e  former,  and  lepeatedlr  have  they  naen 
and  placed  thenuelTea  anderthfl  itandojd  of  dr^mei*, 
{•oi^ica,  and  impoator^  who  took  to  theuaolvei  the 
aaered  name ;  aa,  for  ezample,  Bar-Cochbi  (q.  v.)  in 
the  2d  0.;  one  Mo«ea  in  Uie  lale  ot  Candia,  in  the 
Sth  o. ;    one  Jolim  in  Paleitino,  in  the  6th  < 
Mveral  in  PerEia  and  Arabia  in  the  12th  o. ;  and 
late  as  the  18th  a,  Sabatai  Zeri,  in  Aleppo.    Br 
yet,  the  hope  of  a  M.  ia  not  dead  in  tile  bearta 
the  abict  lUmudistio  Jews. 

The  erveiai  qneetioo  ot  tbeolosy,  however,  ia  not 
the  fonn  in  whieh  tbe  doctrine  (Sn  to  apeak)  of  the 
M.  waa  held  by  the  Jewi.  All  rational  itudenta  of 
Scriptni^  whether  '  orthodoi '  or  '  heterodox,'  now 
admit  thjit  ita  growth  wa«  gradual,  and  tbat  it 
aoqnired  precision  and  definiteneu  of  outline  in  the 
courae  of  agea  from  ita  firat  rude  phase,  among  f- 
paatoral  pnnce*  of  tbe  Syrian  wildoniesa,  down 
that  sublime,  yet  thadowy  personality — the  Man  of 
Sorrows — that  coutinually  floats  before  the  t 
of  tbe  'Younger  Isaiah.'  The  grand  queation 
'Was  tiiis  doctrine  ea«entially  a  Divine  inspiration, 
an  objective  tenth  of  God,  or  only  a  lofty  concep- 
tion of  tbe  reli^ouB  soul !  The  sttict  rationaliatui 
theologiana  mamtsin — and  endeavour  to  prove  by 
•o  uulytio  examination  of  the  Gospels — that 
Jesus  assumed  the  dignity  of  M.,  either  to  aooom- 
modate  biinself  to  a  rooted  conception  of  his 
oountrymen,  or  partly  because  he  had  come  to 
believe  it  himself— a  conclusion,  it  is  said,  at  which 
he  might  arrive  quite  honestly,  since  he  fdt  that 
the  tjith  which  be  taught  was  the  real  and  only 
■  kingdom  of  God,'  and  that  therefore  he  was 
jostifled  in  applying  to  himself  all  that  was  said 
(tropically)  by  Uie  prophetic  poeta  in  old  times 
oonoeming  him  who  should  naher  in  tbia  '  golden 
age'  of  we  world's  faith.  The  maai  of  oruiodox 
tSeolc^iana,  on  the  other  hand,  regarding  ^e  so- 
called  Memanio  propheciea  of  the  Old  Testament 
aa  positive,  divinely  suggested  (perhaps,  even  on  the 
nut  of  their  authois,  emtaoat)  predictions  of  Jesus 
Cbriit,  repudiate  the  principle  of  acoommodatioii, 
or  even  spiritual  ajmliostion,  and  try  to  shew  that 
the  Saviour  accepted  the  Ilesnanio  pnn^ieoies  as 
literally  and  ezdusivelT  ^iplicable  to  him.  "nie 
bittorico-spiritual  schooX  represented  in  Germany 
by  men  like  Neaoder,  Bothe,  Tholuck,  Ac,  and 
in  England,  generally  speaking,  by  the  divines 
ot  the  'Broad  ChuMh'  party,  occapy  a  middle 
position  between  these  two  extremes :  with  the 
rationalists,  they  btdd  that  the  Old  Testament 
doctrine  of  tbe  M.  waa  gradually  developed,  contains 
many  human  elements,  and  doea  not  imply  any 
knowledge  of  the  historical  Jesus  on  the  part  of 
those  who  announce  it ;  with  the  *  orthodox,'  on 
the  other  hand,  they  assert  that  the  doctrine  is 
the  expression  ot  a  fact,  not  of  a  aeotdmeDt— that 
Jeans  of  Nasareth  was  actually  the  Son  of  Ood, 
the  appdnted  M.,  and  tliat  in  him  tbe  so-called 
Ilessiaiiio  propheciea  were  fulfilled  in  a  far  higher 
■enaa  than  ever  the  prophets  could  have  dreamed. 
It  will  thns  be  seen  that  tbe  rationalists  reaolve  the 
doctrine  of  the  M.  into  a  merely  lu^jeeUve  religions 
idea;  while  the  orthodox,  and  also  the  hiftorico- 
qnritoal  school  of  theologians,  hold  titat  the  doctrine 
waa  tba  enKesaion  of  a  divine  fact— the  luMonce 
of  a  heavenly  faith. 

HBSSI'NA,  a  city  of  Sicily,  ehisf  town  ot  the 
name,  ooe  of  tlw  vtMt  uiaent  md 


i« 


_  _  I88I,  126,497.  The  town  is 
>y  old  walls,  and  has  aevwal  fine  aqoana 
and  wide  Mva-paved  streets.  The  harbour,  which 
is  formed  by  a  jnojading  tongoe  of  land  curved  in 

the  form  of  a  sickle  (mience  ita  primitive  name, 
Zanole — Qr.  siekle — see  Messbni*),  is  about  four 
milea  in  drcumfecence,  and  can  contain  a  thousand 
ships ;  it  is  defended  by  a  citadel  ood  six  forta ;  the 
deptb  is  sufficient  to  sdmit  vessels  of  large  size ; 
atM  the  quays  are  spacious.  The  trade  of  M., 
chiefly  in  silk,  oil,  wine,  coral,  fruits,  linseed,  fldt, 
Ac.,  uthough  less  extensive  than  formerly  is  still 
an  important  source  of  wealth  to  Sicily,  ^lie  chief 
imports  are  cotton  and  woollen  manufactores,  hard- 
warea,  and  otiier  articles  of  colonial  produce.    Tbe 

Bsheriei  important.  M.  has  steam-boat  oommnni- 
cation  with  Naples,  Marseille,  and  Malta.  In  the 
ISth  c,  M.  was  s  renowned  seat  of  learning ;  and 
in  the  16th  a,  a  famous  school  of  painting  was 
foaoded  then  by  Pelidoro  da  Caravaggio.  In 
modem  times,  it  has  nndergone  terrible  vioiBBi- 
tiides,  having  been  mtblessly  bombarded  by  the 
royal  forces  on  several  occasions  during  tlie  war  of 
independence  in  1S48. 

MESSINA,  Stbaiis  ov  (ItaL  Faro  di  Manna, 
lat.  Mamertiimm  fittium),  between  Italy  and  Sicily, 
are  22  miles  in  length,  and  vaty  from  2\  to  10  miles 
in  breadth.  A  sbong  cnrrent  rona  through  the 
strait,  which  ia  of  great  depth.    See  Sctlla.  add 

CHABTBDia 

ME'SSUAGE,  the  legal  teim  used  in  English  law 
to  describe  a  dwelling-housa  and  piece  of  land 
adjoining. 

HETAGB'NTRR     See  HTSBoarAiiCH. 

HETAI.  (in  Heraldry).  The  field  of  the  esont- 
cbeon  and  the  chargee  which  it  beam  may  be  of 
metal  as  well  as  of  «>lonr ;  and  the  two  metals  in 
nse  among  heralds  are  gold  and  silver,  known  aa  or 
and  argent.  It  is  a  mie  of  blazon  that  metal  sluiuld 
not  he  placed  on  metal,  or  colour  on  coloar. 

MB'TALLUBOT  is  the  art  of  extimdang 
metals  from  their  ores.  The  opoations  are  partiy 
mechanical  and  partly  chemicaL  tboK  {tfooesaes 
which  depend  principally  on  chemical  reatmona  for 
their  Teanlta  have  reierenoe  chiefly  to  the  roasting 
and  smelting  of  ores,  and  are  desciibsd  nmW  ^ 
heads  of  the  different  metals.  But  there  are  certain 
preliminary  operatious  of  a  tnechanioal  VithI  which 
metallic  ores  undergo,  anch  aa  crushing,  jigging, 
washing,  Ac,  which  we  shall  describe  here,  sa  tluy 
are  essentially  the  same  for  the  ores  of  lead,  copper, 
tin,  dnc,  and  indeed  most  of  the  metals.  (For  teOK, 
see  that  head.) 

Ores  are  first  broken  up  with  hammers  into  pieces 
of  a  convenient  size  for  crushing  or  stamping.  Waste 
material,  inch  as  pieces  of  rock,  spar,  Ac,  which  alwaya 
acoompany  ore,  ore  as  far  as  possible  picked  out  by 
hand,  and  the  ore  itself  airanged  in  stn^a  according 
to  its  puritr.  Virions  kinds  of  apparatns,  such  as 
riddles,  sieves,  fto,  are  then  used  for  separating  it 
into  different  sizes,  in  order  tc  secure  a  uniform 


forma  of  a  orushing-milL 
means  of  small  wagons,  a,  to  the  platform  o, 
where  it  is  ready  to  be  suf^ilied  to  the  tmshing- 
loUeta  r  throo^^  the  opening  e.  These  rollers  are 
mounted  in  a  stning  iron  frame,  hdd  togother  by 
wTongbt-iron  ban,  and  bolted  to  stroug  beams. 
Thdr  diatonoe  apart  is  regulated  by  means  of  ^le 
Iflver  4,  If)  y^m  %  weight  e  js    " 


is  attKh«L     Uta 


METALLUSOY. 

b«*ring*  of  th«  rollen  alide  in  gnovea,  bo  thatwhen    cated  to  it  by  »  norknun  altamalely  nuaiog  mi 

•ny  extra  preaBure  ii  put  upon  them  by  a  large  or   lowering  tha  hwidlB  d.     This  effects  two  purpose* 

hard  piece  01  ora,  the  lerer  riiet,  and  allows  the  space    —it  wuhee  the  ore,  and.  it  sep&ratea  the  material 

into  two  Uyeis :  the  upper  conalsbl  o£  the  lighter 

I  spar  and  other  impurities,  which  are  taked  off;  ^id 


Eal  Tlew  <rf  tba  cnuhiiig  rsllui,  ili 


(,  and  bQoket-whMl. 


between  tho  roUeiB  to  widen.  The  oruahed  ore  falls 
npou  a  eeriee  of  sievee,  /,  which  are  made  to  vibrate. 
TaeM  have  meshee  increasing  in  fineneoi  as  they 
deacend ;  and  the  upper  two  are  so  wide  that  jiieces 
of  ore  too  large  to  pass  through  tliem . 


3  that  pieces 
'e  oimdnoted 


Into  the  lower  part  of  the  bucket-wheel  g,   and 

le  platform  to  be  recraihed.    The 

separate  the  remaining  portion  ti 

'    '         "of  fineness, 


railed  again 

lower  (oar  siL , .. 

the  crushed  ore  into  different  degree* 
which  is  ooUected  in  the  pita  A. 

Instead  of  canshinff-rollers,  sometiiiiea  a  atamping- 
tnill  ii  used,  especial^  for  tin  ores,  which  require  to 
be  reduced  to  a  fine  powder.  The  atamping-mill 
consists  of  a  aeries  of  upright  shafts  with  a  weighty 
[Nece  of  iron  at  the  bottom  of  each.  They  ore 
raised  by  means  of  an  axle  with  projecting  coma, 
'   "        '  "■  ig   by  their  own  weight,  act  like 


After  being  craahed,  the  ore  ia  waahed  and  sifted 
on  a  jigging  aiere.  One  of  its  simplest  form*  is 
shewn  in  fig.  3.  The  ore  i*  placed  on  the  table  a, 
bom  which  the  uere  b  i*  flllea.  It  ia  then  immersed 
in  a  tnb  of  water  c,  and  a  jigging  motion 
3S7 


Rg.  3.— Jigging  aioTB. 

the  lower  consisti  of  the  heavier  and  purer  portions 
of  the  orc^  which  are  now  ready  far  tiie  roasting 
furnace. 

It  will  be  apparent  that  in  the  bottom  of  the  tab 
there  must  be  a  quantity  of  more  or  less  valnabLe 
ore,  which,  from  ite  fineness,  has  fallen  throng  the 
deve.  This  ia  called  sludge  or  slime ;  and  the 
minute  particles  of  ore  it  contains  ore  recovered 
either  by  sim^y  forming  an  incline  on  the  ground, 
and  waahing  it  with  a  current  of  water,  or  by  using 
an  inclined  table,  such  as  is  shewn  in  Eg,  4,  called  a 
deeping-tabU.  Ore  which  has  been  reduced  to 
powder  at  the  stamping-null,  as  well  as  alime,  is 
washed  by  this  apparatu  The  material  is  put  into 
the  chest  a,  which  is  placed  in  a  sloping  pomtion, 
and  is  supplied  with  water  on  turning  the  stop-cock 
b.  The  current  carries  the  oontenta  of  the  chest 
through  tile  opening  at  the  bottom,  and  qimads  it. 


Fig.  t-Sleeping  Tsble, 

with  the  aid  of  a  aariea  of  stops,  or  small  bits  of 
wood  e,  over  the  sorfaco  of  the  table  d.  A  stream 
of  wat^  is  then  kept  flowing  over  the  table  till  the 
earthy  impurities  are  all  carried  down  into  the 
trougli  e,  toe  pore  particles  of  the  ore  remaining,  by 
reason  of  their  greater  specific  gravity,  near  the  top 
of  the  table,  whence  they  ore  removed  to  be  smelteiL 
Sometimes  the  table  is  suspended  by  chains,  and 
receivea  a  succession  of  blows  at  the  top  frimi  a 
buffer,  moved  by  cams  on  the  same  principle  a*  the 
stamping-mill.  This  arrangement  is  found  of  great 
advantage  in  dressing  very  poor  oree. 


ivGuu^k 


imTALS,  METAIXOIDS. 


The  variety  of  miohinery  and  ftppami 
drearing  ore*  ii  veir  oreat,  and  Ukey  , 
diffiBrent  tuune*  in  difiarent  dutricts,  but  they  are 

all  very  Mmilar  in  prindple  to  thow  —    

deaeribed. 

HBTAL8,  HBTAIXOroS.  Ahhon^  each 
natal  ia  oonaideied  in  a  aeparate  articlo,  there  are 
varioua  points  regardijig  the  general  phvucal  and 
ohenucalohanwtera  of  tne«e  bodiw,  and  tl 
tt  alaanfying  them,  which  nqnire  notice. 

It  ii  not  eaay  to  define  a  metoL  AU.  ibe  elements 
are  asnally  divided  by  ohemiiti  into  two  groape — 
viz.,  the  noii'inetallic  bodies  or  metaUoida,  and  the 
metala;  the  list  of  non-metallio  bodies  containing 
all  .  those  elemeats  in  which  the  oharacteriitio 
properties  of  the  bodies  popularly  known  as  metala 
(sQch  as  silver,  gold,  iron,  fte.)  ara  wuttiogi  these 
characteristia  properties  being  their  metallio  lustre, 
their  opacity,  and  their  capacity  of  oondnctiDg 
heat  and  electricity.  The  non-metallio  elements  are 
14  in  nnmber— VIZ.,  oiygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen, 
■ulpbnr,  seloiinm,  tellniiiun,  phosphorus,  chlorine, 
bromine^  iodine,  fluorine,  carbon,  boren,  and  ailicon, 
of  which  five  are  gaaea,  one  ft  Uqnid,  and  t* 
solids  at  ordinary  temperatttres. 

The  division  of  the  elements  into  these  two  great 
groups  is,  however,  not  based  upon  any  deSnite 


tellurinm  and  silicon,  shonld  not  be  placed  amot^^ 
the  metals.  The  non-metallio  bodies  or  metalloids 
being  only  remarkable  as  a  group  for  their  negativi 
properties,  require  no  special  consideration,  and  wc. 
cbwefore  procesd  to  notice  tba  general  praparties  of 
the  metals. 

nie  following  are  the  most   important  of 
pimkal  properties  of  the  metals. 

I.  All  metala,  unless  when  they  are  in  a  finely 
pnlveriied  form,  exhibit  more  tn  Im  of  tlie  oharac- 
leristio  fautre  termed  metallio.  Two  of  the  non- 
metallio  elements,  iodine  and  catboo,  ia  scaiie  forms, 
present  also  a  metallio  lustre.  2.  AH  metoU  are 
good  oandactors  of  heat  and  electricity,  althon^ 
>a  very  unequal  degrees.  3.  With  the  eioeption 
4^  merouiy,  all  the  metala  are  solid  at  ordinary 
temperatures.  With  the  exception  of  gold,  copper, 
calamn,  and  strontium,  the  metal*  are  more  or  less 
white,  with  a  teodenoy  to  blue  or  giay.  Most  of 
them  have  been  obtained  in  orystus,  and  prob- 
ably all  of  them  are  capable  of  crystalliMng  Dnder 
oerfaun  conditions.  4  Metals  are  remarkable  for 
their  opacity,  and,  with  the  exception  of  Bplt 
hot  transmit  light,  even  when  they  are  lemee  _  _  _ 
extremely  thin  leaves.  Sl  All  the  metals  are  fnsible, 
although  the  temperatures  at  which  they  assnnie 
the  fluid  form  are  very  different  (see  Fnanio  Ponrra)_; 
and  some  of  tliem,  as  mercury,  aisenic,  cadmium, 
line,  Ac,  are  also  volatile.  6.  Qreat  weight,  or  a  high 
•peciflo  gravity,  is  popularly  but  erroneously  regarded 
as  a  characteiistio  of  a  metal;  while  platinum, 
osmium,  and  iridium  (the  heavieet  bodies  known  in 
nature),  are  more  thiui  20  times  as  heavy  as  water, 
Uthiom,  potassium,  aud  sodiiim  are  actually  lighter 
than  that  fluid.  7.  Qreat  difTereuces  are  observable 
in  the  hardness,  brittleneaa,  and  tenacity  of  metals. 
While  potassium  nnJ  sodium  may  be  kneaded  wiUi 
the  finger,  and  load  may  be  marked  by  the  fieger- 
dmI  most  of  them  possess  a  considerable  degree  of 
hardness.  Antimony,  arsenic,  and  bismuth  are  so 
brittle  that  they  may  be  easily  pulverised  in  a 
mortar;  whUe  othera,  as  iron,  gold,  silver,  and 
cop^,  require  great  force  for  their  diSLntecration. 
Talung  iron  and  lead  aa  representing  the  two 
extreme*  of  tenacity,  it  is  found  that  an  iron  wire 
will  bear  a  weight  26  tdmes  as  heavy  as  a  leaden 
wire  of  the  same  diameter.    Sea  DtroiiLiTT,  Malle- 


1STUT7.  8.  It  is  a  remarkabla  property  of  the 
metali,  that  none  of  them  are  capable  of  being 
dissolved  iriUiont  undergoing  chemical  change. 
Sulphur,  phosphorus,  iodine,  Ac,  may  be  dissolved, 
and  afUs  uie  evaporation  of  the  solvent,  may  be 
re-obtuned  with  all  their  original  prepertua;  bat 
this  is  never  the  case  with  metels. 

Amongst  the  chief  Aemieal  propcotiea  of  metala 
we  next  notice : 

Their  etrong  afSnifaa  to  certain  of  the  non- 
metallio  elements.  All  tbs  metala,  witbont  excep- 
tion, combine  irith  oxygsu,  sulphttr,  and  chlorine, 
and  often  in  sevAral  pnnmrtions,  fomung  oxides,  sul- 
phides (formerly  termed  sulphuretsj,  and  chlondcB. 
Many  cl  them  comlnne  with  bromine,  iodine,  and 
Buonneb  1^  other  componnda  of  this  nature, 
exoeptinff  carbide  (formerly  oarburet)  of  iron,  or 
vteel,  ana  the  hydrides  of  anenic  and  antimony 
(commonly  known  as  areenioretted  and  antimoniu- 
retted  hydrogen),  which  are  of  importauoe  in  toxi- 
cology, may  be  passed  over  without  notice. 

The  metaUio  oxtdea  are,  without  exceptdon,  solid 
bodies,  insoluble  in  water,  and  usually  present  a 
white  or  coloured  earthy  appearance.  Hence  tits 
old  name  of  nuiaiUe  eatx  for  thes»  oxides. 

Those  oiides  which  are  termed  banc  possess  the 
Tty  of  directly  uniting  witii  the  so-called  oiy- 
(such  as  sulphuric,  mtrii^  earbonio,  and  silicio 
aciaj,  and  of  fomung  a  new  chemical  compound  of 
the  second  order,  termed  a  i(dt  (q.  v.). 

The  componnda  of  tJis  metals  with  chlorine, 
iodine,  bromincu  and  fluorine,  «nch,  for  instance,  a* 
chloride  of  sodium,  or  common  salt  (OlNa),  are 
termed  'Haloid  Salts  ((j.  v.).  The  same  metal  may 
often  combine  both  with  chlorine  and  with  oxygeu 
in  more  than  one  preportion.  For  example,  we 
have  BubcUoride  of  mercury  {Hg,Cl) ;  anboxide  of 
meicuiy  (Hg,0) ;  chloride  of  mercmj  (HgCl)  ; 
oxide  of  mercui?  (HcO).  For  the  compounds  of 
the  metals  with  sulpliur,  see  Sdlphuib  o»  tom 

Metals  enter  into  combinatioa  with  one  another 
when  they  are  fused  ioge&er,  and  auoh  combina- 
tions are  termed  AUoyt  (q.  v.),  unless  when  mereur; 
is  one  of  the  oombinmg  metals,  in  which  case,  the 
resulting  compound  is  termed  an  amalgam.  It  ia 
doubtful  whether  all  alloys  sre  true  ohunical  com- 
pounds. Definite  compounds  of  ihe  metal*  vrith  each 
other  do,  however,  certainly  exists  and  are  some- 
times foiiD^  native,  aa,  for  example,  the  crystallised 
silver  and  merouiy  oompoond  represented  by  the 
foimola  AgHg,. 

In  OMunquanoe  of  Qiwt  atrcag  afBnitiea  for  the 
metalloids,  the  metals  are  seldom  lonnd  in  a  free  or 
L  in  the  iaorganic  kingdom, 
plants.    The  more  common 

.  _,  __ , of  their  strong  affinity  for 

oxyg^i  and  sulphur,  are  very  rarely  met  with  in  the 
imbined  st^ ;  bnt  some  of  those  which 


ibundaot,  such  as  gold,  silver,  and  ipl«tinnTi)^  am 
fonnd  nncombined,  m  whieh  case  ^e  terma  native 
and  virgin  are  ^iplied  to  them ;  and  other  metals,  aa 
mercury  aud  copper,  occur  both  in  a  free  and  in  a 
combined  state.      Many  native  alley*  ata  fonnd, 
but  the  ordinary  sources  of  the  metala  an  oxides, 
'  'lidea,    chlOTides,    and    carbimats^    an^ihates, 
other  salts.     These  are  termed  the  orai  of 
the  metala.    The  methods  of  obtaining  the  metala 
from  their  various  area   fall   under   the   head  of 
METALLimar. 
Various   classiflcations  of  the  metals  have  bean 
jested  by  diflleimit  chemists.    The  foUowing  is 
obablv  one  of  the  moat  oonvenient : 
L—'nie  Lighl  Ifttalt,  subdivided  into— 
1.  Hie  metala  of  the  alkalies — via.,  potassinn, 
aodinm,  ftt^fntn^  rohidiimi,  lithinm* 


i.Gou^lu 


HETAL8,  HirrALLOIDS— HETAMORPHIC  ROCKS. 


2,  ThemeUbof  tlie  alkaline  eartht — riz.,  barinin, 
itrontinm,  ooloiaiu,  mj^gnesiiun. 

3.  The  metali  of  the  tme  eariha— vis.,  alnminiuiii, 
Dtacinum,  ziiconium,  Tttrituu,  erbium,  terbium,  thor- 
iDum,  cerian],  l*nfhiLnnTw^  didymiom, 

n. — The  Heavy  Metalt,  subdiTided  into — 

1.  iUetali  whom  oiidea  form  powerful  ba 
-viz.,  iron,  mansaiieMi,  chroinimu,  niokel,  cobalt, 
i*niTniiiini  leadT  biamnth,  copper,  nraiiiiun,  thalli 

2.  H«taU  mioae  oiidea  form  Teak  baiea  or  scids 
^vii.  ftnenjc^  autimoDy,  tftuunm,  t^i"t-*l^>\T;  idoHom 
(or  oolombiom),  tuugstcoi,  molfbdetnun,  tin, 

3:  Metals  irhoae  ozidM  an  rednced  bj  heat — 
noble  metaU — via.,  mercniy,  nlTer,  gfAA,  pUtmrnn, 
paUadiom,  iridiom,  mtheDium,  rhodium,  or-"'"— 
(Several  of  the  nre  matala  are  here  omitted.) 

Another  cIwuGcation  is  that  by  which  the 
arranged  in  nx  gronpe,  each  g^oup  being  named  after 
a  metal  whioh  poaMuea  the  common  characters  ir 
■  well-marked  octree :  viz.,  (1. )  the  sodium  group 

SZ.)  the  oalcinm;  (3.)  the  iron;  (4.)  the  copper 
S.)  the  platinnm  ;  and  (6.)  the  antimony  groups. 

HETAMO'BPHIO  BOOKS.  Fewofl^ed^tositi 
fonniog  the  emst  of  the  eMth  remain  in  the  condi- 
tioQ  in  which  they  were  deposited.  By  infiltration 
of  a  oementing  flmd,  by  pTesaore,  or  by  some  other 
indarating  agency,  sand  has  become  converted  into 
■andstcms,  and  clay  aod  mod  into  shales  In  some 
strata,  this  operation  has  been  aairied  still  further. 
There  is  a  class  <rf  rodk^  incladiog  gneiss,  mica- 
•chist,  olay-ilate,  marbl%  and  the  like,  which,  while 
eertainly  of  aqueons  or  mechanical  origin,  have,  by 
intense  m<decu]ar  action,  become  more  or  lees  ens. 
tallinch  To  them,  the  convenient  name 'Metamoi^e 
(Or.  banafonued)  Books  bat  been  g^ven  by  LyelL 

The  Metamorphio  Kocks  were  formerly  cotuideied 
la  be  the  fondament^  strata  of  the  earth's  ctust. 
'iba  wifdnal  incandescent  mass,  it  was  said,  losing 
its  heat  by  radiation,  a  solid  uneven  crust  of  granite 
was  formed.  Aa  soon  as  the  ordinary  atmospheric 
■ad  aqueous  agencies  began  to  operate,  »  diaintef^ 
tion  took  place,  and  the  abradKt  materials,  carried 
down  by  the  waters,  were  deposited  in  the  basinB 
which  coatained  the  boiling  sea.  It  was  tbooght 
that  this  not  only  accounted  for  the  condition  in 
which  the  Hetamorpbic  Bocks  now  exist,  but  for 
the  remarkable  undulations  and  contortions  so 
characteriatio  of  these  strata.  Gneiss  and  ihe  aQied 
crystalUne  schista  wrae  accordingly  placed  as  the 
lowest  aedimentuit  strata  in  a  division  equivalent 
to  the  PaI»os>ic  Period,  and  called  the  Azoit^ 
because  they  were  destitute  of  organio  mnaina,  the 
conditi<ms  in  which  they  were  formed  being  (^iposed 
to  the  existence  of  animala. 

It  is  now,  however,  known  that  Uetamorphic 
Bocks  ooonr  as  oc4iteiDporaneoaa  depodta  io  all 
epochs  of  the  earth's  geological  history.  In  Canada 
and  in  Uie  Hebrides,  they  are  of  Laurentian  age ; 
in  the  Highlandi  of  Scotlaud,  Cambrian  and  Mq' 
lian ;  Jn  Devon  and  Cornwall,  Old  Bed  Sandstcaie 
and  Carboniferoua;  and  in  the  Alps,  Oolitio  and 
Cretaoeoni,  and  m  some  parts  even  Tertiary. 
Althongh  depoeits  of  sacb  vatious  ages  have  been 
thus  altered,  the  resnltjog  rocks  are  in  stmctore  and 
compositiou  very  similar ;   their  nltimate  conatitu- 


3r  from  those  of  ordinary  olayi  and 
all  of  them,  silica  forms  the  largest 
proportion,  consisting  of  about  60  to  TO  per  cent. 


alumina  foUowa  next,  and  then  other  Bul«tance«  in 
smaller  <tDantiticB,  snch  aa  lime,  soda,  potash,  iron, 
Ac  This  similarity  of  compositooo,  and  the  abund- 
ance of  clay*  and  sandstones,  snggeet  the  snppom- 
tion  that  the  Metamorphio  Books  may  be  notliing 
more  than  these  deposits  greatly  altered ;  this  u 
couGrmed  by  many  observed  instances,  in  whiob 


aqueous  strata  are  oontinnons  with,  and  gradually 
change  into,  Metamorphio  Rocks.  The  granite  of 
Dartmoor  has  intruded  itself  into  the  date  ud 
slaty  sandstone,  twisting  and  contorting  tiie  ttratib 
Hence  some  of  the  slate  rocks  have  become  mica- 
ceous ;  others  more  indurated,  having  the  characters 
of  mica-alate  and  gneiss ;  while  others,  again,  appear 
converted  into  a  hard-ioned  rock,  stronely  impreg- 
nated with  felspar.  In  smne  plaoes  in  Oie  ^Jastem 
I^renees,  the  chalky  Hmertone  becomes  crystalline 
end  Mcoharrad  at  tt  approaches  the  grautte,  and 
loses  all  trace  of  the  fosaila  which  it  dsewhece 
eontains  in  abondance.  These  illuBtrations  tell  of 
changes  oocnning  in  the  proximity  of  granite,  and 
it  has  been  consequently  somemat  hastily  con- 
olnded  that  this  rook,  coming  np  in  a  molten  con- 
dition from  below,  has,  by  the  radiation  of  its  heat, 
produced  the  metamorphods.  But  the  observed 
stra^graphical  position  of  granite,  its  sometime 
passing  by  insensible  d^rees  into  gneiss,  and  the 
ezperimente  of  Solly  and  Bryson  on  ite  int«mal 
stmctnra,  shew  without  donbt  that  thta  rock  is,  at 
least  in  many  jdaces,  an  extreme  resnlt  of  meta- 
morphio aetiou,  and  not  the  oaote  of  it    To     " 


the  energy  producing  thetw  k 


lUltt 


^  .     ..    .__.     --apeak  dog- 

matically on  a  sa^ect  so  obscure,  is  a  sign  of  the 
game  ignoruiee.  The  following,  however,  we  the 
moat  [vobaUa  agenta  that,  topither  or  separately, 
produced  these  remarkable  ohanget : 

1.  EtaL—Fiaai  whatever  Kmroe  dnivad,  heal 
does  Bxist,  sitber  diatiibnted  nniverssUy,  or  occur- 
ring locally  in  the  mass  of  Ike  eartii ;  and  where 
'*   izist*,  thermo-Bleotrio  influences  induce  action, 

ah,  earned  <m  over  immente  aerie*  of  yean, 
might  prodnoe  in  the  end  great  changes.  It  is 
generally  maintained  Aat  granite  ia  the  result  cd 
oryataUttation  from  perfect  fnaion,  and  that  the 
strata  converted  into  j;neisa  must  iMMte  be<B  rednced 
to  a  state  of  sami-fnaion.  Bat  we  know  of  oryatal- 
lisation  taking  place  in  the  most  compact  amorphona 
solid*  without  any  approach  to  fnaion,  aa  in  the 
axles  of  rulway-carriagas ;  and  of  metamorphio 
action  without  acuii-fueian,  aa  is  the  hwhly  indurated 
bottoms  of  bakers'  ovens,  in  which  the  clay  ia  sub- 
jected to  a  long-continued  though  not  a  great  beat; 
or  LQ  the  sandstone  floor  of  an  iron  funue^  which, 
from  long  contact  with  the  molten  iron,  loses  it* 
colour,  becomes  white  and  hard,  and  breaks  with  a 
porcelanio  fracture,  bavin;^  indeed,  been  changed 
mto  qnartz  rock.  Besides,  the  frequent  occurrenoe 
of  cavities  in  the  rock  crystals  of  granite  containing 
a  Quid  which  fills  them  only  when  the  temperature 
is  raised  to  at  least  91°  F.,  shews  that  the  crystal 
could  not  have  been  fonned  at  a  higher  tempera- 
ture. We  are  therefore  safe  in  maintaining,  that 
the  heat  was  not  in  all  eases  so  great  as  to  produce 

2.  Prearure.— This  alone  is  sofficient  to  effect  the 
consolidation  and  induration  of  aqueons  deposits, 
converting  day  or  sand  into  solid  stone.  When  heat 

.33.3  .._ Bure,  ereater  activitv  ia  likely  to  be 


ia  added  to  pressure,  greater  activity  ia  likely 
the  result.  The  undulatory  movements  of  the  ei 


encs  of  pressure,  heat,  and  thermo-electricity,  and 

at  the  same  time  elevate  rocks  that  have  been  thua 

acted  npon. 
It  is  thonght  that  heated  water  may  be  also  a 

powerful  agent,  eapeoially  when  it  ia  mbjected  to 

great  pressure. 

These  and  other  asents,  then,  operating  through 
unense  intervals  ot  time,  set  in  motion  chemical 

attraction,  whereby  the  various  subatancea  which 

entered  into  the  composition  of  the  aedintentMj 


i,i,,z<,c»,Guu^le 


MBTAU0KPEO8IB— UBTAPHYSICa 


deponta  leanaDged  tbemaelveB  u  the;  are  foond  in 
the  Metunorphic  Rocks. 

The  defloriptioii  ot  the  vuiom  Metamorphia  Bocki 
will  be  found  under  their  diffeient  namei,  vii., 
Ohetss,  Qitaktziti,  MioA-sOHisr,  Clat-si.atb,  and 
Marblk 

METAMO'BPHOSIS  (Gr.  change  of  form) 
denoted,  in  the  mythology  of  the  ancianta,  thoae 
innaformationi  of  humsnbeingg  into  beasts,  stones, 
trees,  and  even  into  fire,  water,  to.,  in  fablea  of 
which  that  mythology  abounded.  The  origia  and 
mgniScance  of  *uah  nibles  it  is  often  impossible  to 
det«niuiiet  Some  of  them  probably  originated  in 
obgerratioa  of  the  wonderful  tranaformations  of 
nature ;  aoiae  in  a  miBapprehension  of  the  metaphors 
einployed  hy  the  older  poets ;  and  some,  pernapa, 
in  mere  superstitioii  and  love  of  the  marvellom. 
The  wild  imagination  of  the  Orientals  filled  their 
mythologies  with  metamorphoaea  ia  the  greatest 
number;  and  the  classic  n^thology  spproAohet  to 
them  in  this  reipecL  They  weie  the  theme  of 
some  of  the  poets  and  otoer  Greek  authora  of 
the  Alexandrine  period,  and  of  Ovid  among  the 
Latin  classics.  The  medieval  literature  of  Europe, 
eapedally  of  Qermanjr,  in  iti  fairy  tales  and  otAer 
forms    of   folk-lore,   u   aljo   wonderfully   rich   in 


MBTAM0BPH03IS  OF  ANIBIAI.S.  This 
term  ia  applied  to  changes  whidh  certain  animals 
undergo  after  Uieir  esoape  from  the  envelope  of  the 
egg,  and  which  are  of  such  a  nature  as  easentially 
to  alter  the  general  form  or  the  mode  of  life  of  the 
iodividoal.  The  most  remukable  metamorphoses 
occur  in  tiie  Batrachiana,  Crustaceans,  Insect,  and 
Tape-worm*,  and  are  briefly  noticed  in  the  articles 
on  those  clasMS  of  »nim«u  The  change  in  insects 
from  ovum  to  larva  is  sometimes  called  Iran^orma- 
Hon;  while  the  change  from  larva  to  pupa  and  from 
pupa  to  imago  ia  mtiamorphoai$.  A  cunoua  case  of 
metamorphMiB  is  that  ol  Azolotl  (q.  v.)  to  Ambly- 

METAH0BPH05IS  OF  0KGAN8,in  Botany, 
was  by  Qoethe  made  a  separate  branch  of  botanical 
Bcienoe,  and  called  Morphology — a  term  now  oaed 
for  the  scisnce  of  organic  &Tm  (see  Dakwihias 
Thxobt  in  SttfT.,  ToL  X.).  It  may  almost  be  siud 
that  notiiing  was  known  either  of  the  facts  or  laws 
of  metamorphosis  till  the  poet  Oocthc  proclaimed 
them  to  the  world  in  his  treati^^  Die  Mtiamorplwte 
der  PJfaiaxn,  in  1T9(X  Limueus  had,  indeed,  colled 
attention  to  the  development  of  organs,  and  the 
changes  which  they  undergo,  and  had  made  this  the 
subject  of  a  tAsris  entitled  Prol^nit  Ptanlaram  in 
1700  ;  but,  in  a  manner  very  unuauol  with  him,  he 
mixed  up  with  his  observations  and  philosopMcal 
speculations  certain  fanciful  sappositions,  the  false- 
hood of  which  soon  becomioK'  apparent,  caused  all 
the  rest  to  be  neglected.  Worn  afterwards  extri- 
cated the  tme  from  the  fanciful  in  the  views  of  Lin- 
nnns,  and  gave  them  greater  completeness  ;  bnt  he 
introduced  the  subject  only  incidentally  in  a  paper 
on  comparative  anatomy,  which  failed  to  attract  the 
attention  of  botanists,  and  probably  had  never  been 
seen  by  Goethe,  whose  diBcovery,  apparently  alto- 
gether original,  is  one  of  the  finest  initances  on 
record  of  acnte  observation  combined  with  philo- 
sot^iical  generalisation. 

The  metamorphosis  of  organa  ia  noticed  in  Uie 
articles  on  particular  organs.  It  is  only  necessary 
here  to  make  a  ver^  general  statement  of  its  facta 
and  laws.  A  plant  is  oomposed  of  the  (ma  and  its 
oj^tendaaet ;  the  axis  appearing  above  groimd  **  the 
stem  and  branchea,  below  croond  as  the  root ;  the 
appendagea  being  entirdy  above  gronnd,  and  a 
tiuly  leaeu  ;  all  organ*  which  are  not  formed  o 


axis  being  modified  leaves.  The  proof  of  this  con- 
sists very  mnch  in  the  gradual  transition  of  one 
organ  into  another,  manifest  in  some  planta,  altboagb 
not  in  others ;  as  of  leaves  into  bracts,  one  of  t£e 
most  freqnentl;  gradual  transitions;  of  leaves  into 
gepsjs,  as  seen  m  the  leaf-like  sepals  of  many  roses  ; 
of  sepals  into  petals,  as  seen  in  Uie  petal-like  sepals 
of  lilies,  crocuses,  Ac. ;  of  petals  into  stamens,  aa 
seen  in  water-lilies  ;  and  even  of  stamens  into  pistils, 
often  exemplified  in  the  common  honse-leek.  The 
proof  ia  confirmed  and  completed  by  observation  of 
the  monstroeitieB  which  occur  in  pluita,  particulaily 
in  the  frequent  retnm  of  some  put  of  the  flower  to 
its  original  type,  the  leaf,  and  m  the  conversion  of 
one  part  of  the  flower  into  another,  which  is  often 
the  result  of  cnltivation,  and  is  particularly  illns- 
trated  in  c&mUs  flowers,  the  increase'  of  the  number 
of  petals  being  the  result  of  the  converaion  of 
stamens  into  petals. 

A  flower-bnd  being  a  modified  leaf -bnd  (see  Bint), 
and  a  flower  therefore  the  development  of  a  modified 
leaf-bud,  the  parta  of  a  flower  correspond  in  their 
arrangement  with  the  leaves  on  a  branch.  But 
peculiar  laws  govern  the  development  of  organa  in 
each  species  of  plant.  Thus,  the  leaves  in  one  are 
opposite ;  in  another,  alternate ;  in  another,  whorled  ; 
oll.depending  on  the  law  which  governs  the  Erowth 
of  the  axis  in  relation  to  the  development  of  leaves, 
which  ia  very  constant  in  each  species ;  and  in  like 
miuiner  the  parts  of  the  flower  are  developed  in 
whorls  BTouna  an  abbreviated  terminal  portion  of 
the  axis,  the  ener^ei  of  the  plant  being  hero  directed 
to  tbe  reproduction  of  the  species,  and  not  to  tba 
increase  or  growth  of  the  mdividnaL  The  fmife 
itself,  being  formed  from  the  pistil,  is  to  be  regarded 
as  formed  of  modified  leaves.  Goethe  truly  saya : 
'  The  pod  is  «  leaf  which  is  folded  up  and  grown 
together  at  its  edges,  and  the  capsule  oonaiats  of 
several  leaves  grown  together ;  and  the  compoond 
fniit  is  composed  of  several  leaves  nnited  round  a 
common  centre,  their  sides  being  opened  so  aa  to 
fonn  a  commonioation  between  them,  and  their 
edge*  adhering  together.' 

liie  metamorphosis  of  organa  has  been  investi- 
gated with  great  diligence  imd  success,  and  beaati- 
fiilly  elucidated  by  Uiiioel,  lindley,  Schleiden,  ond 
other  botanists. 

METAUOBPHOSIS  OF  TISSUB.  See  Tibsdx. 


_  e  Uiing  ia 

put  for  another  which  it  only  resembles.  Thus,  the 
Psalmist  speaks  of  Ood'a  law  as  beiog  *  a  light  to 
his  feet  and  a  lamp  to  his  path.'  ^e  meMphor 
is  therefore  a  kind  of  comparison,  in  which  tba 
speaker  or  writer,  casting  aside  the  circumlocntion 
of  the  ordinary  similitude,  seeks  to  attain  hia  end  at 
once,  by  boldfy  identifying  hia  illustration  with  the 
thing  iSastrated.  It  is  thus  of  necesaity,  when  well 
conceived  and  expressed,  graphic  and  striking  in  the 
highest  d^ree,  and  boa  been  a  favourite  figiue  with 
poets  and  orators,  and  the  makers  of  proverbs,'  in  all 
ages.  Even  in  ordinary  langnase  the  meanings  of 
words  are  in  gr^t  put  metauiors ;  as  when  we 
speak  of  an  aeuU  intellect,  or  a  botd  promontory. 

METAPHVSICS,  a  word  of  nncertiun  caifpn, 
but  first  applied  to  a  certain  group  of  the  pbdo- 
aophicol  dissertations  of  Aristoue  (see  Asistotlb). 
As  since  employed,  it  has  had  various  Edgnificationa, 
and  more  capecially  two — a  larger  and  a  more  con- 
fined. In  the  more  confined  venae,  it  ia  allied  to  tiie 
problema  of  the  Aristotelian  treatise,  and  ia  coDoemed 
with  the  ultimate  foundations  of  oar  knowledge  of 
existing  things.  What  is  tbe  nature  lA  oar  luow- 
ledge  of  the  external  world,  seeing  that  mind 
cannot  properiy  know  what  is  not  in  oonlact  with 


1,.==:,,  Google' 


UETASTAStO-MfiS^BUt^TOHOSIS. 


tnetaphyiica  (see  pKKCKmoN,  Couhon  Sknsb).  The 
name  '  Ontology '  hai  been  applied  to  the  ««me 
ioqairiet  into  out  ooxniiaiiM  01  eziateneea  oat  of 
ounelTeo.  Bat  aa  the  solutioii  of  thia  difficult 
qaeataoii  ma  found  to  inTolve  an  investigatioD  into 
the  nature  of  the  hnmannund,  it  became  allied  with 
the  •cienoe  whose  object  it  ia  to  deacribe  folly 
and  lyrtematically  the  Uwi  and  propertiu  of  our 
mentM  oouttitatioii — a  science  called  by  the  Toriana 
names  of  Fsyohology,  Mental  Philoaophj,  Moral 
Philosophy ;  and  hence  Metaphyiica  ctune  to  be  an 
additianal  name  for  this  more  compreheiiBive  depart- 
ment The  word  is  employed  at  uie  present  day  by 
writeni  of  repute  in  both  meaning  Thna,  Fenier^ 
Irutiititet  of  itkapKyiic  is  occupied  solely  with  the 
qnestiont  ooimeoted  with  knowledge,  or  the  nature 
of  onr  perot^ition  of  an  external  world ;  his  explana- 
tory title  is,  7%e  Theory  of  KlloiBing  and  Being.  On 
the  other  hand,  Uansela  Metapbysica  is  di-vided 
into  two  parta — Pbyoholoot,  <x  the  science  of  the 
facta  et  oonscionsnew,  which  expresses  the  science 
of  mind  generally;  and  OiiTOLOOr,  or  the  science 
of  the  ssme  fsota  considered  in  their  relation  to 
realities  existing  without  the  mind— that  is,  the 
problem   of   Perception,    or    Uetaphysica   in   the 


MBTA8TASIO  (originaUyTRAPASSI),  Prmto, 

one  of  Italy's  most  admired  poets,  was  bom  at 
Bome  iiv  lOOS,  of  humble  parents,  and  gave  early 
evidence  of  his  genius  by  his  boyish  improvisations. 
M.  having  attracted  the  casual  notice  of  Oravina,  a 
famous  juriscausalt  of  the  day,  the  latter  under- 
took the  entire  education  and  career  of  the  vouth, 
whose  paternal  name  of  Trapossi  became  tnence- 
forward  Orecised  into  Metastasio,  both  words  being 
identical  in  Bienificstion.  The  young  poet  speedily 
advanced  in  dassical  and  genial  kuowledge ;  and 
to  his  patron's  enthuMastio  devotion  to  the  Greek 
drama,  may  doubtless  be  traced  mush  of  the  after- 
bent  of  li.'%  own  poetical  tastes.  By  the  early 
death  of  Gravino,  M.  was  placed  in  posaession  of 
oonsiderable  property.  In  I7M,  he  published  one 
of  bis  most  celebrated  dramas,  La  Didone,  which, 
with  II  Oalone  and  11  Siroe,  conferred  on  the  poet 
a  Enropean  name.  In  1730,  M.  accepted  the  poet  of 
poet-Iauieate  to  the  imperial  court  of  Vienna.  During 
his  sojourn  in  Vienna,  M.  composed  his  Ohtaeppt 
Skotuueinto,  11  DemofonU,  and  the  OUmpiadt.  He 
died  at  'Vienna  in  1782:  H.  was  distinguiiihed 
for  Ute  generosity,  integri^,  and  candour  of  his 
nature,  Uie  mnoerity  of  his  friendships,  and  the 
diidnteTested  warmth  of  his  sentimenta.  His  worka 
ore  innumerably  embnuring  63  dramas,  48  can- 
tatas, besides  a  vast  nmnber  of  eleraes,  canEonette, 
sonnets,  and  translations.  They  enjoy  unexanifded 
popularity  among  all  grades  of  nis  countrymen ;  in 
their  pure  classical  subiecte  and  forms,  the  educated 
student  finds  instruction'  and  delight ;  while  their 
facile  musical  grace  and  verbal  simplicity  adapt 
them  to  the  popular  appreciation  of  the  artless 
beauties  of  poetry.  The  best  editions  of  M.  are 
those  of  Turin  {1767,  14  vols.) ;  Paris  (17S5,  12 
vols.) ;  Paris  {1780,  12  vols.,  large  8vo) ;  Genoa 
(1802,  6  thick  vols.)  i  Mantua  {181&-1820,  20  vols.). 
METATEB  (ItaL  metd,  Fr.  mtntil,  half),  in 
French,  is  the  oidtivator  of  a  metatrie,  or  farm, 
the  tenant  of  which  gives  the  landlord  a  portion 
of  the  produce  as  his  rent  In  some  of  tiie  older 
French  dietiimBriee,  inch  as  that  of  Trevonx,  the 
word  ia  said  to  apply  to  any  kind  of  farmer,  but  in 
the  cldtat  dictionaiT  of  Frenoh  and  English,  Cot- 
grav^sv  the  woid  is  thus  interpreted :  '  Properly 
one  that  takea  ground,  to  the  halves,  or  binds 


himself  by  contract  to  answer  unto  Him  ot  whom 
he  holds  them  half,  or  a  great  part  of  the  profits 
thereoL'  The  term  has  latdy  got  a  meaning  in  poli- 
tical  economy  on  account  of  some  eminent  writers 
having  raised  the  question,  whether  this  arrange- 
ment between  landlord  and  tenant  is  not  so  muoh 
more  advant^eous  than  any  other,  both  to  the 
partiea  immediately  concerned,  and  to  the  public  at 
large,  that  it  ought  to  be  specially  encouraged. 
Sismoudi  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  open  this 
wide  view  lA  the  influence  of  the  practice,  and  he 
has  f(iven  a  chapter  to  its  consideratioa  in  his 
Political  Economy  (b.  iii.  chap.  6).  He  ssys  what 
cannot  be  denied,  liutt  such  an  arrangement  was  a 
great  improvement  on  mere  serfdom,  whidh  gave 
We  cultivator  no  interest  in  the  produce  ol  his 
industry.  But  in  ^ving  the  reasons  for  his  admira- 
tion of  the  system  as  one  which  provides  in  the 
general  case  for  the  wants  of  the  peasant  while 
relieving  him  of  all  anxiety  about  markets  and 
prices,  he  admits  tiiat  a  metayer  peasantry  never 
advance  beyond  the  humble,  happy,  and  contented 
lot  which  immediately  falls  to  them.  It  ia  a 
system,  therefore,  inconsistent  witli  the  application 
of  large  capital  to  cultivation,  and  consequently 
with  uie  extraction  of  the  highest  value  which  the 
soil  can  yield.  A  tenant  wiO  hesitate  to  lay  £S0 
worth  of  guano  on  his  fields  if  half  the  additional 
crop  it  wm  bring  goes  to  his  landlord.  To  those 
who  maintwn  that  the  moral  effect  of  the  system 
is  beneficial,  thia  will  be  no  argument  against  it, 
but  to  the  political  eoonomist  it  is  an  argument 
against  the  practicability  of  the  system  in  a  rich 
money-making  ogricoltiual  country.  'Wliere  there 
is  Au  enterprising  peasantry  without  capital  it  ia  a 
valuable  resource ;  a  neat  portion  of  Uie  valuable 
agricultural  districts  A  ScoUand  were  thua  brought 
into  cultivation  by  improyers  whoae  rent  was  a  por- 
tion of  the  crop.  But  whilo  theaa  very  districts  in 
a  great  measure  owe  their  present  prosperity,  and 
the  existence  of  a  set  of  capitalist-fanners  to  such  a 
system  of  cultivation  pursued  with  more  enerf^ 
than  M.  Sismoudi  consideia  natural  to  it,  there  is 
no  doubt  tliat  the  substitution  of  sach  an  arrange- 
ment for  money-rent  would  now  be  a  very  serious 

HBTELLUS,  the  name  of  a  Roman  family  of 
the  plebeian  gens  Cscilio,  which  rose  to  be  one  of 
the  first  families  of  the  Roman  nobility. — One  of 
the  most  distinguished  members  of  the  family  was 
Qu  IS  1119  CxoiLim  M.  Maobdokicub,  who  received 
lus  surname  from  his  victory  over  Andriscus,  an 
o^irant  to  the  throne  of  Macedonia  (148  B.C.).  His 
Ij^  was  considered  by  ancient  writers  an  example 
of  the  gre«test  felicity.     He  died  ItS  b.c — Another 

QuiHTUB  CjBohjub  M.  NuiuDiom,  who  twice 

ited  Jiuurtha  in  Numidia  (109  B.O.},  and  was 
celebrated  for  his  integrity  of  character,  but  was 
superseded  in  his  command  by  Marius.  His  son, 
QuumiB  Cxcnjus  M.,  sumamed  Piat,  joined  Sulla 
in  63  B.C.,  but  sought  to  moderate  tiie  severity 
of  his  proscriptions.  He,  too,  bore  a  distingnished 
abaracter  for  virtue. — Qitinttib  Ckchjvs  M.  Cbi- 
TicuB  conquered  Crete,  and  reduced  it  to  a  Roman 
provinoe  (67  B.C.).— Qunrrus  Cacilios  M.  Pidb 
SciFio,  sometimes  call^  QumTDS  SciPio,  and  some- 
times SdPio  M.,  was  a  son  of  Publiua  Cornelius 
Scipio,  who  was  adopted  by  one  of  the  Metelli,  and 
became  the  father-in-law  oi  Pompey,  aiul  his  sealous 
partisan.  He  ccnunanded  under  hint  at  Phaisalus, 
maintained  war  on  his  behalf  for  some  lime  in 
Africa;  and  after  the  battle  of  Tbapsus  [4S  B.C),  died 
by  his  own  hand. 


»Ctff)gli 


MirrEOEOLOOT. 


UETEOROXOOT    (Or.  nxWni,  meteon, 
thenometia)  wu  on^naUY  applied 

. ion  of  kll  ftppeanncei  in  the  aky,  bi 

aabonomickl  and  afaDOEptierical;  bat  tbe  t«rm  i» 
now  eoDfiaBd  to  th*t  department  of  uatonl  phil- 
osophy Thioh  treats  of  the  pheaomena  of  the  atmos- 
phete  as  re^ardi  weather  and  clinuitB.    The  lea ' ' 

Cti  of  thu  wide  mbjeot  will  be  found  under 
[g   u   AitBOLtTB,  Athospszri,  Bakoke , 

SoiuFO,  Clovds,  Dew,  ELiomioiTT,  Etapobatioii, 
Too,  HAnxroirn,  HuoB,  HoAB-ntosr,  LioHTNiNf^ 
Haohbtism,  Minoits,  and  Ddht  (Mjtbobio),  in 
Bcpp.,  Vol  X,  Raut,  Show.  Stobmb,  Ac  The 
folloiring  i(  a  hutorical  iketch  of  the  science  : 

Owiuc  to  llie  compleiitv  of  the  phoiomena, 
meteorology  la  the  maA  dimcnit  and  involved  of 
the  sciences  and  leema,  indeed,  at  first  sight,  almost 
Incapable  of  being  rednc«d  to  a  science  at  all.  On 
this  account,  the  only  procednre  admissible  in  tl 
first  place  i*  long  and  patient  observation,  and 
foithM  recording  of  facts. 

From  the  natni«  of  the  sableols  which  make  v 
the  sdeno^  it  may  be  infetrea  that  they  oconpic_ 
men's  ntindii  &om  a  remote  antlqui^.  The  splendid 
and  erca^varying  panorama  of  the  sky,   smd  the 


well  litted  to  arrest  his  attention.  From 
time  roent  in  the  open  air  in  the  ear^  age^  and 
from  the  imperfeot  protection  afforded  a^mst  the 
inclemency  Jl  the  seasona,  those  n^iearances  which 
«xperience  prored  to  precede  a  cEwse  of  weather 
would  be  eagerly  recorded  and  han^  down.  -  In 
this  way,  many  most  valuable  facts  were  ascertained 
and  passed  cnrrent  from  band  to  hand ;  and,  per- 
hap«^  .there  is  no  soienoe  of  which  more  of  the 
leading  facts  and  inference*  have  been  from  so  early 
a  period  inoorpoiated  into  popular  langnage. 

Aiistotis  was  the  flnt  who  coUecteet  in  his  work 
On  Mtteora,  the  raurent  mignoetic*  of  the  weather. 
Some  of  tiiGSe  were  derived  from  the  E^ptiana,  who 
had  studied  the  science  as  a  branch  of  astronomy, 
while  a  considerate  number  were  the  result  of  hu 
own  observation,  and  bear  the  maifc  of  his  simpi- 
lariy  acute  and  reflectin  mind.  The  next  writer 
who  toiA  Bp  the  subject  was  Theopli 
Aristotle's  .popUs,  lAo  olaasified  the 
■nonly  raoeiTed  legatding  the  weatlier  uder  four 
heads,  vis.,  tiie  prognoatici  of  rain,  of  wind,  cf  stonn, 
and  of  fine  weather.  The  aubjeet  was  diacossed 
parely  in  its  popular  and  practioal  bearings,  and 
no  attempt  was  made  to  eiplun  pbeoomona  idtose 
ooenrrsnoe  uipeared  so  irregular  and  oq>rioionB. 
Cioero,  Vinil,  and  a  few  other  writera  also  wrote 
on  the  snqect  without  making  any  substantial 
aooeasions  to  onr  knowledge ;  indeed,  Hm  treatiBe  of 
llieophiastas  otmtains  nearly  all  that  waa  known 
down  to  oomparativ^  noent  times.  Partial 
explanattons  w«n  attempted  by  Aristotle  and 
XiUcretiuB,  but  as  ttiey  wanted  tha  elements  neow 
Mwy  for  sooh  an  inqoiiT,  bcuu  all  but  totally 

! L  J 1 ^    -it  («  physical  science, 

■arily  vagu^  and  often 


unoraat  of  every  i 
adr  explanatians  w 


it  tiiis  sobtls  eletniuL  I 


extended  our  knowledge 

BAjlOHKrXB. 

The  invention  and  gradual  perfecting  of  {h« 
Thermometer  [q.  v.)  in  the  same  century,  fcsmed 
another  capital  step;  as  without  it,  niiUiliieoonid  b* 
known,  beyond  va^  impreMions,  regaraing  tem- 
perature, toe  most  important  tA  all  tho  demMits  of 
climate.  This  ^«at  invention  aoon  bo 
fruit    Fahresludt  constructed  small  ai 

thermometers,  which,  being  e«rried.by  n 

and  travellers  ovw  every  part  cf  the  worid, 
nished  observations  of  the  most  valuable  desoiii 


travellers  with  reoard  to  Sremo  heat  and  cold 
were  reduced  to  their  proper  mesnicg.  Scarody 
less  important  was  the  intrmuction  of  tiie  Hygrom- 
eter (q.  V.},  first  systematicallj;  nied  by  Do  Sanssure 
gied  1790),  and  afterwards  improved  by  Dalton, 
aniell,  and  AngnsL  From  uie  period  of  the 
invention  of  theaa  instrumenta,  t£s  nomber  al 
meteorologicsl  cbsoYera   greatly  inoreaaed,  and  a 


large  body  at  well-autbentiosted  &cts  of 
vame  was  colleoted.  The  climates  of  partioolar 
parts  of  the  earth  were  determined,  and  the  sdenoe 
mode  great  and  rapid  advances  b^  the  investagattons 
undertaken  "isj  distingaished  [dulosopheis  into  the 
laws  which  n^nlate  the  ehaoges  of  tlu  atinos{beiia 

The  theory  of  the  favde-winds  was  first  pn>> 
ponnded  by  Qoargi  Hadley  in  tiie  PAilMapiUMJ 
IVofuodioru  for  1735 ;  and  it  may  be  mentioned  aa 

remarkable  fact^  that,  for  about  half  a  centory,  it 


arrivedat  oy  L ..  ,_ 

l^e  publication  of  Dalton's 

~     an  epoch  in  meteraolo^. 


It  is 


ffi 


brought 
pheoome 

vapour  is  an  independent 
elastio  flnida,  whether  alone  or  mixed,  exist  inde- 
pendently ;  the  'great  prinoiples  of  motion  of  the 
atmosphere ;  the  theory  of  winds,  their  effect  on  the 
barometer,  and  their  relation  to  temperature 
and  rain ;  observations  on  the  height  of  clouds,  on 
thunder,  and  on  meteon:  and  the  relations  of 
magnetism  and  the  aanva  boreolis — are  some  of  th* 
important  questions  discussed  in  these  remadcaUo 
essa^  with  an  aoutenesB,  a  fnlnesi^  and  a  hreadth 
of  new  that  leave  little  to  be  dcaired. 

One  of  the  most  inteieetiDg  and  fruitful  subjects 
of  inquiry  that  eimged  tile  attention  of  meteor- 
ologists wsB  deu>.  The  observations  on  this  snbjei^ 
were  first  oolleated  and  reduced  to  a  p«riect  theory 
by  Dr  Wells.    See  Daw. 

In  I^%  Daniell  pnbliahed  his  JTeteoroliviciiI 
£tMy«  and  ObiervatioM,  whiiA,  while  adding  laiiiely 
to  onr  kuoiriedge  in  almost  every  department  of 
the  subject,  are  chieSy  valuabfe  as  bearinD  on  the 
l^griunetry  of  the  otmosidiere.  Tlioiuh  <a«  prao- 
bcol  advantages  which  he  aotM^tedT  would  flow 
from  it  have  not  been  realised,  yet  this  difficult 
and  still  obscure  deportinent  of  meteoroIoE7  stands 
indebted  to  him  more  than  to  any  other  philosopher. 

The  law  of  the  diffusion  of 

air,  its  influence  on 

relations  to  the  other 

phere,  are  among  the  1< 

questions   in  meteorology.    Sinoe  this 

so  important  as  an  indicator  of  -*— •■ 

changes  of  the  weather,  and 

still  to  be  » 


■  Ciooiiilc 


UKTBOBOLOOT. 


inpwtauit  •ddhdon  hu  ktely  been  made  to 
kaowledge  of  tbs  -vaponr  of   the  fttmosphen 

eipeoukiljr  m  n^udi  the  gues.    The  Tftpour  of 


mtw  i*  thin  theini . .  ,        „ 

M  ft  radiant  and  abaorbent  of  beat )  and  hence  the 
vaponr  dinolTed  io  tiie  air  a«te  the  part  of  a  cover. 
iog  or  proteotton  to  the  earth.  A>  it  is,  to  Bome 
•xtenti  unperrions  to  Hilar  and  ter^e>tri3l  radiation, 
it  follown  that  if  the  air  were  quite  drained  of  its 
moiBtnre,  the  eztremea  of  heat  and  cold  would  be 
■o  intaue  and  inanfferable,  that  tdl  life  would 
inatantlf  periah,  tbare  beioK  no  acreen  ihielding  the 
earth  from  the  Kxmhingjuare  of  the  Ban  by  day, 
and  from  tiie  ecgiuil^  •oorefiiog  and  blighting  cffecta 
of  it*  own  radiation  by  night.  It  is  to  be  expected 
that  thia  gT«*t  dlacovei7  vill  iood  throw  light  on 


ETeotrioal  obaerrationa  have  been,  of  all  meteoro- 
logical obaerratiini*,  perhspa  the  least  prodndiTe, 
tazHy  owing  to  thnr  acantinen,  from  the  en>enBe 
and  tranble  attending  them,  and  partlv.  no  donblj 
to  the  free  and  baa  um  made  of  Hie  name  of 
"  '     ig  jiheno- 


haTO  OMiIeMed  their  ignorance  Bnt  the  brilliant 
diworeriea  which  have  recently  been  made  on 
"-  '■     '   relatione  of  heat,  motion,   electricity, 

'  "     other  forces  of  matter,  lead 


to  mdoIgB  the  hope  that  the  application  of  tbeoe 
reauIU  to  meteorolo^  will  be  attended  with  dis- 
coveriei  eqnall;  brilliant  and  important 

HumboUfi  b«atiM  oa  ItolAermai  Una  (1817} 
eonatitiitee  a  notable  epoch  in  experimental  meteor- 
otogy.  DovS  baa  linoa  oontinaed  the  investdgation, 
ana  in  hii  splendid  woric.  On  the  DitMJnition  ^ 
Htat  on  th«  Sar/ace  of  the  Ql-Ae,  haa  mvan  charts  of 
the  world,  shewing  tn*  temperature  lor  each  m  " 
and  for  the  year,  and  also  charta  ot  abnormal 
peraturee.  It  it  soaroely  poasible  to  overeatinute 
the  valne  of  this  work,  for  though,  to  a  consider- 
able extent,  the  lines  are  hypothetical,  there  can 
be  no  donbt  that  a  olose  uiproziniation  to  the  march 
of  mean  tempraature  and  ita  distribution  over  the 
earth  tlmngn  the  year,  has  been  arrived  at.  The 
ide*  haa  been  oained  out  with  greater  fulness  of 
detail  b*  the  United  States'  Kovemment  in  the 
beantiful  and  dabonite  series  of  charts  of  temper- 
atnre  and  rain&U  mven  in  the  Army  Mdeordlogiad 
In  these  charts,  the  temperature 
Serent  seaaous  for  every  part 
of  the  United  Statea,  deduced  from  aocnrate  ohs«^ 
vations,  may  be  seen  at  a  glanc&  Bnchan  has  pnb- 
lished  isothermals  for  the  British  Isles,  Mobn  for  Nor- 
way, and  Blandford  for  Hindustan ;  and  isothemuU 
tor  the  sea  have  been  published  by  the  Admiralty. 

The  establishment  of  meteorological  societies 
daring  the  last  twen^  jean  most  also  be  com- 
mem(»ated  as  oontribntiiig  in  a  high  degree  to  the 


£e|ni(«r  for  ISJJS.    b 
and  rain&ll  in  the  d 


ermomrter,  hygrometBT,  and ^_, 

ith  the  direotaon  and  forae  <^  the  wini£  and 
appearance  ot  the  sky,  at  each  of  these  forty 
statioDS  at  eight  in  the  morning.  In  the  erent  al 
there  being  any  storm  or  other  atmospberic  dls- 
torbauce  at^one  or  more  ot  tfaeee  plaoee,  a  full  and 
accomto  description  of  it  i»  thus  conveyed  to  Lon- 
don ;  and  it  is  thence  the  duty  ot  the  officials  then 
to  consider  the  direction  in  which  the  storm  is 
moving,  u>  as  to  enable  them  to  give  wunin^of  ita 


•olid  adTanoenudt  <i  ^  s 
any  othe^  most  depend  o: 


biob,  more  Uian 
t  uHiw\  uiusv  uopeuu  DD  exteosiTe  and  carefully 
idncted  obserrabon.  In  this  respect,  the  United 
States  stand  pn-eminoit,  the  observers  there  num- 
bering nearly  SOa  Great  Britain  is  also  well  roprc- 
■ented  in  the  Engliah  and  Soottisb  societies,  which 
together  number  above  SOO  ol«erver&  In  France, 
Germany,  Bnstia,  fto.,  the  sdenoe  is  also  being 
widely  oultivated.  Owii^  to  the  disastrous  Soof 
i-~  J^tk.  »!, —  —  inquiry  has  been  carried  "  *~- 


ing  of  the  !^one,  a 


the  rainfall  in 
the  basin*  of  the  Rhone  and  SaAne.  Observers  in 
Oermsny  and  Great  Britain  have  been  secured  to 
M>-open^  with  the  Frent^  observers,  and  under 

u. »t  of   a  ooQunission,  it  may  be  ex- 

iportant  oonolnsions  reepecting  the 


ascertain  the  d^jrees  of  beat,  ecld,  and  mdstnre  in 
various  localitiee,  and  the  nsool  period*  of  their 
occurrence,  together  with  their  effeoti  on  the  health 
of  the  peeves  and  upon  the  difhrent  agriaultoral 
producbons;  and  by  searching  into  the  laws  In- 
which  the  growth  of  such  products  is  tegulated, 
the  agriculturist  may  be  enabled  to  jndge  with  soma 
degree  led  oertslnty  whether  any  given  article  can 
be  profitably  onltdTated. 

Bnt  peihap*  none  of  the  arts  haTS  benefited  to 
so  large  an  extent  by  the  labours  ot  meteorologists 
M  navigation.  The  knowledge  thos  aoqniiad  of  Uie 
pmv^hn^  winds  over  the  diffeinnt  part*  of  the 
earth  during  the  different  seasons  of  the  year — and 
the  r^oni  of  storms  and  oalms — and  the  laws  of 
■torms,  bare  both  saved  innnmenble  lives,  and  by 
pointing  ont  tiie  most  espeditknu  roots*  to  be 
ndlowed,  shcotened  voyaoes  to  a  Mtnoikable  degree. 
In  oonnection  with  this,  the  name  ot  Captain  Ibnty 
(q.v.)  deserves  special  commendation  for  the  tiguM 
Bervice  he  has  rendered  to  na^eatioo. 

Another  frnit  of  the  multiplication  of  meteofo- 
lopcal  stations  is  ttie  prediclioii  of  stonns  and 
'  forecasts '  ot  the  weather,  whloh  have  been  carried 
in  in  the  United  Stat^  and  commenoed  with 
ibility  and  success  by  Admiral  Fitzroy  in  Eugland. 
These  'forecasts'  are  based  on  telegrams  which  are 
received  every  morning  from  above  forty  teleoted 
stations  in  Great  Britain  and  IreUnd,  and  en  tlie 
continenl^  from  Haparanda  as  tar  south  as  Lisbon. 


aned  daily ': 
ir  in  the  mffe 


ipprooch  b] 

' '^  storms,  intzi 

"  "  Or  .    . 

districts  of  Great  Britain  for  tiie  following  two  days, 
and  which  were  in  like  manner  fooitdsd  on  the  state 
the  atmosphere  at  distant  points,  keepmg  in  view 
the  atmospheric  currents  known  geneiaOy  to  pierail 
at  that  particular  time  of  the  year.  As  the  cost  of 
this  system  was  abont  £2000  annnally,  a  severe  test 
was  applied,  at  the  instance  of  the  Tressniy,  from 
Julji  1861  to  June  1862,  for  the  purpose  of  asoer- 
toining  whether  the  expenditure  was  Justified  by  the 
success  attending  it.  Doring  the  fint  six  montltt, 
413  signals  were  hoisted,  and  in  214  coses  a  storm 
occurred  where  a  warning  was  given.  It  most  not 
be  inferred  that  in  the  remaining  199  oaeea  there 
anywhere ;  all  that  was  meant  was, 
that  no  storm  occurred  at  the  places  where  the  signal 
ren ;  bnt  a  storm  may  have  occuirvd,  and 
probably  did  occur,  in  some  other  part  of  the 
country.  Now  that  the  mtem  has  been  longer  in 
use,  the  signals  oie  riven  from  a  better  knoi^edge 
smenta  ofthe  atmosphere,  so  that  if  the 
again  applied,  the  number  of  failnros 
would   be   found   to  be  much   fewer,    Sinoe  the 


pauiea  it,  and  since  the  stonn  oocasionajly  passes 
into  the  upper  regions  of  the  atinospbere,  so  ss 
to  bo  lesa  felt  on  the  earth's  inrf ooe  at  that  pl>Mi 


that  plooe, 


UETEOES-UETaODISTS. 


it  il  obvionB  that  a  ooiuiderable  time  moat  yet  elapae 
before  a  mffloiantlT  intimata  knowledse  of  the  move- 
menta  of  the  air  oe  acquired  in  order  to  indicate 
witii  cartaiiitythe  paiticular  placei  where  the  stonn 
vill  bi«ak  out,  and  irliere  it  will  not  The  problem 
to  be  ■pneHctilj  worked  out  is  Uub  ;  Qivcm  the  tele- 
BMtu  from  tite  «t«tioag  ghewing  the  exact  meteoro- 
foocal  oouditiotiB  prerailing  over  the  iacluded  area, 
wUh  iitdioatioDa  of  a  atorm  approaching  in  a  certain 
direotion,  to  determine,  not  the  probable  area  over 
which  the  tempest  will  sweep,  but  the  precise 
loealitiea  which  will  altogether  escape,  the  places 
where  the  storm  will  rage,  and  the  places  where  it 
will  not  touch  the  e&rth,  but  pass  innocauuel;  into 
the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere;  its  continu- 
ance, its  Tioleoce,  and  the  particular  directions  from 


progress  has 

ition  of  this 

iplete  solution  be 


already  been  made  towards  the  solution  of  this 
I  solution  be 
solution  will 


ionlt  problc , 

impoatible,  sach  on  approximatioi 

donbtiesa  do  anived  at  as  will  render  it  foolhardy 

to  disregard  the  wamioga  given. 

But  these  predictionB  only  extend  to  a  fei 
days.  Does  the  present  state  of  the  soience  aSbr 
any  srounda  to  hope  that  prediction  for  longe 
periods  will  yet  be  attained !  Weather-registei 
extending  over  long  periods  giro  no  conntenance 
whateret  to  the  notion,  that  there  are  regularly 
recurring  oyoles  of  weather  on  which  prediction 
may  be  bMed.  Further,  the  manner  m  which 
good  and  bad  seasons  occur  in  different  places  with 
respect  to  each  other,  shews  clearly  that  tbey  have 
little  direct  immediate  dependence  on  any  of  the 
hearenlr  bodies  but  that  they  depend  direcUy  on 
terrestrial  causes.  Thni^  while  the  summer  of  1861 
was  almcat  unprecedentedly  wet  and  cold 
land,  tlie  lame  •ommet  was  hot  and  dry  to 
equally  ouOTecedented  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
Mid  pMiJcolarlT  in  Italy  ;  and  auch  examples  may 
be  multiplied  almost  adinlittiittm. 

The  aaeiuuption  that  tne  eqaatorial  and  polar 
cnrrents  of  wind  at  any  locality  may  ultimately 
balanoe  each  other,  gives  ground  for  prediction 
extending  over  considerable  intervala.  Tbiis,  a  wet 
summer  has  been  predicted  for  Brit&in  from  unusual 
prevalence  of  east  winds  in  the  spring— a  praiictlon 
justified  by  the  event.  As  sontli-west  winds  pre- 
vailed till  the  next  spring,  leiss  south-west  wind  was 
looked  for  dnring  the  summer,  which  was  tbus 
expected  to  be  fine  and  wann — a  prediction  which 
wias  realised.  This  prediction  holds  in  about  tliree 
cases  out  of  four. 

The  study  of  meteorology  has  of  late  benefited 
largely  b;  the  establiihment  of  high-level  motaor- 
<^agio«l  itatioDi.  Thus  the  United  States  have  two, 
one  Ml  Pike's  Peak,  14,160  feet  hieb ;  France,  Italy, 
and  Switzerland  have  each  severid  (one  French  one 
being  12,200  feet  hiati);  aud  in  1383  a  British  one 
WM  equipped  on  Ben  Nevia  The  nine  arctic 
expeditions  in  I882-S3  devoted  themselves  hu^ly 
to  meteorological  observations. 

Kaemtz's  Meteorology  (tranal,  1S15) ;  Drew's 
litttorology  {2d  ed  ISQO);  Eetschel's  Meltorology 
(ISai);  ThMQSon's  Iiilrodueiioa  to  Mttatrology 
(1840);  Buchau's  Handy  Book  of  Meteorology 
(1868);  Loomis'  Trealiie  (m  Meteorology  (1868); 
H,  H.  Scott's  EleTntntary  Meteorology  (1883). 
METEOEa.  See  Snpp.,  Vol  X. 
METHODISTS,  the  name  originally  given,  about 
the  Tear  1729, 1^  a  student  ot  Cbrist-Chnrch  to  the 
brotheiB  Wesley,  and  several  other  young  men  of 
a  serious  turn  <^  mind,  then  members  of  different 
colleges  of  Oxford,  who  used  to  asaemhla  twether 
on  particular  nuli1»  of  the  week  ohiefiy  for  re^ons 
conversation.    The  term  was  selected,  it  is  believed,  | 


io  allusion  to  the  exact  and  metfiodiMJ  manner  in 
which  they  performed  the  various  eng^ements 
wliich  a  tense  of  Chriatian  duty  induced  uiem  to 
undertake,  such  as  meeting  ti^ether  for  the  par- 
pose  of  studying  Scripture,  visiting  the  poor,  aud 
prisoners  in  Oxford  jail,  at  regular  intervals.  Safaee- 
qnently,  it  came  to  be  applied  to  the  followers  of 
Wesley  and  his  coadjntois,  when  time  had  acquired 
the  magnitude  of  a  new  sect ;  and  though  their 
founder  himself  wished  that  *  the  very  name,'  to 
use  his  own  words,  '  might  never  be  mentioned 
more,  but  be  buried  in  etwnal  oblivion,'  yet  it  has 
finally  come  to  be  accepted  by  moet,  if  not  all  of 
the  various  denominations  who  trace  their  origin 
mediately  or  immediately  to  the  great  religious 
movemeat  commenced  by  John  Wesley.  For  an 
account  of  the  origin  and  earlier  development  of 
Methodism,  see  articles  on  the  brothers  WsaLET 
and  WamtrrgLD.  We  confine  onrselvea  here  to  a 
brief  notice  of  its  organisation,  doctrine,  and  present 
oaudition. 

1.  Organitation.~-lXiB  appean  to  have  been 
partly  improvised  by  Wesley  to  suit  the  exigencies 
of  his  position.  It  was  not  a  theoretio^  and  pre- 
meditated, but  a  practical  and  aiemport  tpAem.  In 
ikttRuUaof  tlu  Society  of  the  PeofilecaaedMelho^tls, 
drawn  up  by  himself,  he  says :  '  In  the  latter  end  of 
the  year  1730,  eight  or  ten  persons 


desired  (as  did  two  or  tlu'ee  more  the  next  day) 
that  I  would  spend  some  time  with  them  in  prayer, 
and  advise  Uiem  how  to  flee  from  the  wrath  to 
oome,  wiiich  they  saw  cootinually  hanfpng  over 
their  heads.  That  we  might  have  more  time  for 
this  great  work,  I  appointed  a  da?  when  they  mkht 
atl  come  together,  which  from  uieQceforward  they 
did  every  week,  viz.,  on  Thursday,  in  the  evening.' 
This  he  colls  'the  first  Methodist  Society.' 


numbers  rapidly  increased,  and  similar  '  societiea' 
formed  in  different  parts  of  EogUud, 
where  the  evangdistio  labours  ot  the  Wesleys  had 


awakened  in  maey  minds  '  a  deeire  to  fiee  from  the 
wrath  to  come,  and  be  saved  bom  their  sins' — tila 
only  condition,  we  may  remark,  required  of  any  for 
admission  into  these  societies.  In  order  to  ascertain 
more  minutely  how  the  work  of  salvation 
gressing  in  individual  oases,  Wesley  subdivided  the 
societies  into  '  classes,'  according  to  their  respec- 
tive places  of  abode,  each  class  contuning  about 
»■  dozen  persons,  under  the  anperinteodenoe  of  a 
'  leader,'  whose  duties  are  portly  religious  tnd  ^Artly 
fiuandiiL  1.  He  has  to  see  each  perean  m  his 
class  once  a  week,  'to  inquire  how  their  souls 
prosper,'  and  to  encourage,  comfort,  or  censure,  as 
the  case  may  require.  2.  To  collect  tile  voluntary 
contributions  of  nis  class,  and  pay  it  over  to  tlia 
'stewards'  of  the  society,  and  to  give  the  ministers 
all  necessary  information  regardmg  the  spiritual 
or  bodily  condition  of  those  under  his  leadershipi. 
For  preaching  purposes,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
societies  were  aggregated— a  certain  number  of 
them  constitutinff  what  is  called  a  circuit.  This 
generally  inolndes  a  town,  and  a  mral  oircle  of 
)r  fifteen  milee.  To  each  circuit,  two,  three,  or 
four  ministers  are  appointed,  one  of  whom  is  styled 
the  '  superintendent ; '  and  here  they  labour  for  at 
least  one  year,  and  not  more  than  three.  Every 
quarter,  the  classes  are  visited  b;  the  ministeiH,  who 
make  it  a  point  to  convene  personally  witb  every 
member;  at  the  termination  of  which  proceeding, 
a  'circuit-meeting'  is  held,  composed  of  ministers, 
stewards,  leaders  of  classes,  lay-preaoheii,  ftc 
The  stewards  (who  are  taken  from  the  sodetiee) 
deliver  their  colleotionB  to  a  drouit-stewMd,  and 
the  financial  bnsineas  of  the  body  is  here  publicly 


,v  Google 


USTHOBISIS. 


Mttled.  At  thk  muiieriy  meetmg  cuididaUa  for 
th«  offioa  ol  the  ministry  are  propoeed  by  the  praai- 
dent,  and  tbs  nomination  ia  approved  or  rejected 
by  the  member*.  Still  larger  anooiattoos  are  the 
'  diatrioti,'  eompowd  of  from  ten  to  twenty  cir- 
onibi,  die  miid«ter*  of  which  meet  onoe  a  year, 
under  the  prendenoy  of  one  of  their  number,  for 
the  following  pnrpoiea ;  1.  To  examine  candidates 
for  the  minirtiy,  and  to  try  '  caaea '  of  immoralily, 
hereay,  inrabonlinstiiMi,  or  inefScienoy  on  Uie  part 
of  the  cler^.  2.  To  decide  preliminary  quea- 
tiona  concerning  the  building  of  cbapela.  3.  To 
inToatigate  and  detennine  tbe  olsinu  of  the  poorer 
oircnitB  to  aanatanoe  from  the  general  fundi  of  the 
body.  4.  To  elect  a  representative  to  the  com- 
mittee ik  ConfcMOice,  whose  duty  is  to  nominate 
miniatei*  for  the  different  etationB  for  the  ensuina 
year— tlieii  appointmenti,  howerer,  being  anbjeiS 
to  the  rerision  of  Conference.  In  all  the  finanfiial 
and  other  purely  Kculor  bnsineaa  of  the  diitricta, 
laymen  (such  as  eirciiit-Btewards  and  othen) 
ddiberate  and  vote  equally  with  the  ciaegv.  The 
supreme  Methodist  assembly  it  the  'Conference.' 
The  first  wu  held  in  1744,  when  John  Wedey  met 
hia  brother  Charles,  two  or  three  other  clergymen, 
and  a  few  of  the  '  preacheia' — men  Whom  his  seal 
and  ferrour  had  indnoed  to  abandon  their  secular 
employments,  and  devote  themaelves  to  deolaring  the 
msisaga  of  the  GoapeL  The  pnipose  for  which  he 
called  than  together  waa,  he  says, '  for  the  sake  of 

eonveimng  oq  the  affiura  of  the  "  aocietiea" 

and  the  remit  of  onr  oonaultationa  we  aet  down  to 
be  the  role  of  our  fotnre  practice.'  In  the  cotme 
of  hia  lite,  Wesley  pMsided  at  forty-aeven  of  these 
annual  assemblies.  Hie  Conference  now  consiata  of 
100  ministers,  mostly  aenioTB,  who  hold  their  office 
according  to  arrangementa  prescribed  in  a  Deed 
of  DeolMatioD,  ezeouted  by  John  Wesley  himaelf, 
and  enrolled  in  ChanoeiT.  But  the  representa- 
tirea  previansly  mmtioned,  and  all  the  ministera 
ikUowed  hf  the  district  committees  to  attend — 
who  may  or  maT  not  be  members  of  the  legal  Con- 
ference— nt  ana  vote  nsDally  as  one  bodv,  the  100 
confirming  their  dedsiona.  In  this  sssemDly,  which 
ia  eiolnaively  clerical,  every  ministei'a  character  ia 
subjected  to  renewed  and  atriot  somtiny,  and  if 
any  oharga  be  proved  ogninat  htm,  he  is  dealt  with 
accordingly ;  caadidatea  for  tlie  ministry  are  exam- 
ined boUi  pabliclf  and  privately,  and  set  apart  to 
their  aacred  office ;  the  entire  proceedings  of  the 
inferior  oonrts  (if  we  may  so  call  them)  are  finally 
reviewed ;  and  the  condition,  requirements,  and 
prospects  a£Uie  body  are  duly  considered. 

2.  Dodria*  and  rroraftni. — Under  this  head,  not 
much  requires  to  be  said.  Wesleyan  Methoidiata 
daim  to  ba  considered  orfAo<Io3^  Avtufonf,  and  «nin- 
Bdieat,  The  pn^ety  of  the  last  two  appellationa 
will  piobaUy  not  be  disputed,  but  a  rigid  Calvinist 
might  object  to  the  first.  Thejr  accept  the  artida 
of  tiie  Engliah  Church,  but  believing  these  articles 
to  have  been  framed  on  a  basis  of  eotajrrduiuion, 
they  oonaider  themselves  at  liberty  b)  accept  them 
in  an  Arminian  sense.  It  must  not,  however,  be 
aup^Qsed  that  they  are  out-and-out  Arminiana. 
Their  great  distinguishing  doctrine  ia  the  univer- 
sality and  freedom  of  the  atonement;  hence  they 
reject   the    CaJvinistio    doctrine  of   predeatination 

i which  they  conceive  to  be  incompatible  with  the 
ormer),  but  while  they  "<""*«■'""  the  freedom  of  the 
will  and  the  responsibility  of  man,  they  also  main- 
tain hia  total  fall  in  Adaio,  and  his  utter  inability 
to  recover  himselL  If  these  two  appear  to  the 
human  nnderatanding  to  conflict,  it  is  nevertbeleia 
a**ert«d  that  the  Fible  teaches  both ;  and  it  is 
objected  to  high  Calvinistn,  that  in  its  anxiety 
to  DB  logioal,  it  has  shewn  itself  unscripturaL    Pro- 


minence is  also  given  by  the  Wesleyan  M.  to 
certain  points  of  religion,  some  of  which  are  not 
altogether  peculiar  to  them.  Xhey  iniist  on  the 
necessity  of  men  who  profeas  to  be  (jhristiaos  feeling 
a  pertmid  interat  in  the  blessings  of  aalvatioD — 
L  e.,  the  aaauranoe  of  forgiveuess  of  sins  and 
adoption  into  the  family  of  Clod.  Thia,  however, 
ia  not  to  be  confounded  with  a  certainty  of  finai 
taXvation.  They  believe  the  Spirit  of  Qod  givea  no 
assurance  to  any  man  of  that,  bat  only  otpretent 
pardon.  In  harmony  with  thia  view,  they  reject 
the  doctrine  of  the  neceaaary  peraeverance  of  the 
sainta,  and  hold  that  it  ia  fetu^y  possible  to 
fall  from'a  state  of  grace,  and  even  to  periah  at  laat 
after  having '  tasted  of  the  heavenlv  gift,'  and  having 
been  'made  partaken  of  the  Holy  Ghost'  They 
also  TnQ.int,aiTi  the  perfectibility  of  Christiana,  or 
rather  the  possibility  of  their  entire  sanctification  as 
»  privilege  to  be  enjoyed  in  this  hie.  But  Wesley 
'  explains '  that '  Christian  perfection  doe*  not  imply 
an  exemption  from  i^orance  or  mistake^  infirmities 
or  temptations  ;  but  it  impliea  the  being  so  crucified 
with  Christ  as  to  be  able  to  testify,  "  1  livo  not,  but 
Christ  liveth  in  me." '  He  reguda  the  sins  of  a 
'perfect'  Christian  as  'involuntary  transgressions,' 
and  does  not  think  they  should  be  called  '  sins '  at 
all,  tbon^  he  admits  that  they  need  the  atoning 
blood  of  Christ  The  Wesleyan  Methodista  in  their 
nlifpons  services  use  mora  or  less  the  English 
liturgy ;  the  morning  service  being  read  in  many 
of  their  chapels,  ana  tlie  sacramental  offices  being 
required  in  alL  They  observe  a  *  watch-ni^t'  on 
the  eve  of  the  New  Year,  on  whiiJL  oocasion  the 
rdigious  services  are  protracted  till  midnight,  and 
their  chapels  are  generally  crowded  to  excess ;  and 
7_  .1.  i...j.._7..     -' the  year  they  hold  a 'covenant- 


religioua  acrvices  in  some  plaoea  are  frequently 
marked  by  an  ebulhtion  of  fervent  feeling  on  the 
part  of  ^e  aodionce,  which  has  a  reiy  aingular 
effect  upon  a  atraQger. 

3.  aitlory. — The  history  of  Methodiam  ia  for 
many  yeara  the  hiatory  of  Christian  aflbrt  to  evan- 
gelise the  neglected  'masses'  of  England.  The 
laboura  of  Wesley,  and  of  those  whom  he  inspired 
to  imitate  his  example,  were  of  the  noblest  descrip- 
tion, and  met  with  remarkable  ancceas.  The  refor- 
matdon  of  life  which  his  preaohing  produced,  for 
example,  among  the  Kingawood  coluer*  and  the 
Cornwall  wreckers,  is  a  t^timony  to  the  power  of 
rellgioa  which  cannot  be  too  highly  estimated.  The 
ceafiriiiah  haa  insinredthe  body  in  i^^ard  to  foreign 
misaioiia,  althon|^  in  the  highest  degree  bonouratue^ 
is  only  the  lo^oil  development  of  &tii  efforts  at 
home— for  they  originally  regarded  their  society  b 
England  aa  simply  a  vast '  home  miaiion,'  and  neither 
Weelcy  nor  his  &>llowen  desired  to  connder  them- 
aelves a '  sect,'  a  new  chnroh,  in  the  common  oaose 
of  the  term,  but  were  warmly  attached  to  the  oM 
national  church,  and  oonaidered  themaelves  among 
her  tme  children.  When  Wesley  died  (1791),  his 
'  societies'  bad  apread  over  the  Cmted  Kingdom,  the 
contiaent  ot  Europe,  the  States  of  America,  and 
the  West  Indies,  and  numbered  60,000  membera. 
Since  then,  Oiay  have  largely  increased,  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  Report  o/the  i\rat  (Ecumenical  Mtlhodiit 
Con/'crence  (1881),  the  number  of  Wesleyan  Methodists 
belonging  to  the  United  Kingdom  waa  S96,S28 ; 
other  British  Methodists  numbered  336,011;  to- 
gether tbev  had  over  6000  ministers,  and  £2,044 
local  preachers.  The  number  of  adherents  over  the 
world:  was  estimated  at  about  19,000,000.  The 
annual  contributiona  for  purely  Methodist  purpcaea 
iu  Great  Britain  average  'Z\  millions. 


ivGuu^lt 


Hie  WedeTMi  M.  hsra  threa  theological  oallegM 
for  tlie  training  of  minirten — one  at  BiahmondKIl, 
Suney,  *  Mcodd  at  Didibnir,  South  LanoaahirB, 
■nd  a  third  at  HradiDKlirr,  m  Tinfahire,  borida 
tiw  MtatdisliiiiaitB  at  Shoffield  and  TaontMi ;  two 
•dioola  for  the  «daoation  of  mui  ot  Wealejan 
miuiBta*  (New  Eingswood  Sohool  and  Woodhonte 
Qrove  S«iu>ol) ;  and  two  for  tbs  daqgfater^  one  at 
Cl»^ton  and  another  at  Sonthpoil.  The  boja 
receiTe  a  aiz  yearf^  and  the  girls  a  toor  years*  course 
of  instnictioii.  They  have  sIbo  intareated  them- 
eelrei  in  elementarj  education,  and  tor  their  ediool* 
received  b  1879  a  government  grant  of  £98,700. 
The  Methodirt  Book-room  ia  aitnated  in  the  Ci^ 
Bood,  London,  and  iumes  hiudred*  of  thonsaDda  of 
reUgioua  pnblicationB  (tracts,  fto.)  monOily.  The 
newvpapen  and  other  peiiodioali  [mfenedly  in  oon- 


about  IBO  jonnu^  in  B"el'«li  and o— o™ 

AmoDg  the  more  emineuMethodiat  anthon  may 
be  named  the  two  Wealeya;  Fletoher,  Benton, 
Clark&  Hoore,  Wataon,  Drew  Edmoodaon,  Sat- 
eliffe,  Jaekaon,  Tre&y,  Boley  Niohol^  Smith,  and 
Etheridge. 


MnaoDm  Etiboofal  Csuram,  0»  name  rii 
to  the  Society  of  Wealenut  H.  in  the  Via 
Btatea  of  America,  where  iLe  fint  menbaa  cj  that 


body — immigranta.from  Ireland — established  them- 
•elre*  aa  a  roligioiia  society  in  New  Tork  in  the 
year  1796.  In  the  conise  of  a  year  or  two,  their 
numbers  had  oonalderabty  InoreiMd,  and  they  wrote 
to  John  Wesley  to  send  them  out  some  oomp«tent 
preachers.  Two  immediately  o^red  thenudva  for 
the  work,  Bicluud  Boardman  and  Joaeph  Pilmoor, 
who  were  followed  in  1771  by  n«ncis  Asbnry  and 
Richard  Wright.  The  agitations  precedino  the  Wot 
of  Independence,  which  soon  afterwards  broke  out, 
interrupted  the  iaboata  of  the  Bnglieh  MeUiodist 

Cioher»  In  America,  all  of  whom,  with  the  aioep- 
of  Aabnry,  returned  home  before  the  close  of 
the  year  1777 ;  bnt  their  place  appear*  to  have  been 
supplied  by  others  of  native  origin,  and  they  con- 
tinned  to  prosper,  ao  that,  at  the  termination  of  the 
revolutionary  struggles  they  numbered  43  preach< 
•nd  13,740  members.  Up  to  tlua  time,  the  Americ— 
Wedeyan  H.  had  laid  no  claim  to  Iraing  a  distinct 
religiona  organisation.  Like  Wealey  huuelf,  thei 
regarded  themselves  as  members  of  the  EnglisL 
Episcopal  Church,  or  rather  of  that  branch  of  it 
then  existing  in  AJnerica,  and  their  '  pieachen' 
bod;r  of  irrc^olor  auxiliaries  to  the  ordained  cli 

•Episcopal  ohorchefl,'  we  are  informed,  'are 

atanding  in  New  York  and  elsewhere,  at  whose 
altars  Embury,  Pilmoor,  Boardman,  Strawbridge, 
Asbury,  and  Rankin,  the  earliest  Methodist  preachen^ 
received  the  holy  communion.'  But  the  recognition 
of  the  United  Statoe  as  an  independent  conntiy, 
and  tho  difference  of  feelings  and  intereats  llut 
necessarily  qanng  np  between  the  oongrenHoai  at 
home  and  thoae  in  America,  rendered  tiie  formation 
of  as  independent  society  inevitable.  Wealey 


of   this,  and  met  the 


the   emergencv  m  a 
iipecled.    He  himaelt 


was  only  a  presbyter  of  the  Church  of  En^ond,  but 


other  presbyters  who  had. 
loined  his  moremeDt,  be  set  apart  and  ordained  the 
Eev.  Thomas  Coke,  D.C.L.,  of  Oiford  University, 
bishop  of  the  infant  church,  September  2,  173^ 
Coke  immediately  sailed  for  Amenca,  and  appeared, 
with  his  oredentials,  at  the  Conf erenoe  held*  at  Bal- 
timore, December  25  of  the  as 
muuiimonsly  recognised  by  the  as 


appointed  Asbnry  eoadjntor  Ushop,  and  ordainsd 
a«v«nl  jweachen  to  the  oSom  trf  deacon  and  eldw. 
Wesley  also  gtanted  t^  prcaohera  psnnisaicMi  (wluok 
•hews  the  eztttBJTe  eocleaiastical  power  h»  wielded) 
to  '■^^iw  *  aeparate  and  indepeodent  church  under 
the  Episoopal  form  of  government :  hence  aroea  the 
■Methodist  B^usoopal  Chnrch  in  the  United  Statu 
of  America.'  Nel^rtheleas,  there  were  not  a  few 
who  were  diwatisfied  with  the  Episoopal  form  of 
government.  This  feeling  grew  stronger  and  strongw, 
until,  in  1830,  a  secession  f«ok  place,  and  a  new 
eoclemaetical  organisatjon  was  formed,  ci^ed  the 
MBBomaT  PROTsmiMT  Cbitbcb,  whoae  numbers, 
acoordmg  to  the  returna  for  1881,  amounted  to 
118,*05jne[rf>ers  and  1314  preachers.  In  184il  a 
^    ^^^^^ 

_    —       ig   »ir  «Iar»- 

tful,  and  excluding  alave-Eidders  from 


of  slavery — the   seoeiun   pnnioimciliB 

holding  sinful,  and  excluding  slave-E 

chnrch  membership  and  Christian  fellowship '  and 
in  1843,  a  meeting  was  held  at  Utica,  New  York, 
where  a  new  society  was  constitnted  and  named 
the  Wbslktan  Hbthodiot  CoNmcnoif  or  Ajorica, 
whoae  members  in  1881  amounted  to  25,000,  ^ 
its  preachers  to  2S0.  But  in  1844  a  far  larger  and 
mote  important  secession  took  place  on  tho  same 
^oeation,  when  the  whole  of  the  Methodist  societiea 
in  the  then  slave-holding  statea,  conodving  tiiem- 
aelvea  aggrieved  by  the  proceedings  inalatuted 
at  Om  eeneral  oonfereuoo  of  New  York  (1»**) 
uunst  the  Ker.  James  O.  Andrew,  D.D.,  one  of  the 
biahops,  and  a  oitiien  of  Georgia,  who  had  married 
a  lady  poasessed  of  slaves,  rteolved  to  break  <* 
nmneotion  with  their  aorUiem  brethren.  Hence 
originated  the  Mbthodist  Episgofai.  Cbukch, 
SonTH,  whose  numbera,  in  1881,  were  as  follows ; 
Travelling  preachers,  4004 ;  local  preachers,  6832 ; 
and  members,  840,000,  including  whites,  coloured, 
and  Indiana.  To  these  most  be  added  391,044 
members  forming  the  African  Metiodirt  EpiscopJ 
Church,  and  323,921  of  the  African  Methodist  Epia- 
copal  Zion  Church.  In  1869,  a  movement  (unsno- 
Cfssful)  began  in  favour  of  the  re-noion  of  the  north- 
em  and  southern  Methodist  Episcopal  Chuiches, 
slavery,  the  main  obstacle  in  the  way,  having  been 
finollv  abolished.  It  may  here  be  stated  that  the 
membeis  of  the  Norlhem  Hethodut  AnMopoI 
Church  amounted  in  1881  to  1,743,000. 

Eetnming  to  the  English  Wesleyan  M.,  we  now 
proceed  to  mention  the  various  secessions  from  the 
t  body  in  the  order  of  time. 
Teb  Methodisi  New  Cootibotiok.— This 
society  detached  itself  from  the  older  one  in  1797. 
Its  doctrines  and  order  are  the  same;  tiie  only 
difference  being  that  it  admits  one  layman  to  eai^ 
minister  into  the  Conference,  and  allows  them  to 
share  in  the  transaction  trf  all  business,  both  secular 
and  apiritnaL  These  la^en  are  chosen  either  by 
the  drcuits,  or  by '  guardian  representativeB '  elected 
for  life  by  the  oonTerence.  Jn  1881,  the  numbeis 
of  the  Hew  Connection  were:  members,  31,662; 
preachers^  181  There  were  in  addition  a  large 
number  of  "*"".*.'«-  ..-  _....i._ii — 


number  oi      

PBiranvB  Mkthodimb,  vulgarly  designated 
-"a,  were  first  formed  into  a  society  in  18ia 
the  fonndeni  had  separated  from  the  old 
_  some  years  before.  The  immediate  cause  of 
this  separation  was  a  disagreement  as  to  the  pro- 
priety of  camp-meetings  for  religious  purposes ;  and 
also  upon  the  queetion  of  females  being  permitted 
to  prMcb.  A  third  point  of  difference  is  the 
admission  to  their  conference  of  two  lay  delegates 
for  every  minister.  In  1881,  there  were  180,310 
members,  15,800  miniatera,  1160  local  preachers. 

3,  Imdefetdbnt  MffTHomsTB,  who  separated  in 
1810.  They  are  chiefly  distinguished  by  their 
rejection  of  a  paid  ministry,  and  number  in  England 


11.==:,,  Google 


HOTHUBN  TEEATY— MBTHTL. 


Mid   SootUnd:    membera,   4000;    preaohoi^  290; 

ioholftra,  6000.  

4.  BiBU  CHKisruM,«]BO  osllod  Betahitm,  wro« 
formed  by  »  loo*!  prewher  named  Brywi,  who 
needed  from  the  Weileywu  in  mtL  The  only  dw- 
tiiwlion  between  them  and.  the  original  body  »ppeaw 
to  be  th»t  the  fwTnar  receive  tbe  euchariatioelementi 
in  »  aitt^  posture.  Id  1881,  thdr  unmJberH  wem: 
membei^l,542;  preachen^SO^ 
0,  Vsmo  I^B  CaimcH  Mfthodhtb  nava  been  ^  i 


rmportut:  Bydrtdt  of  Melh^  (0,H,3,  known 
aa  Light  Carlmttaed  Hydrogm  (q.  t.),  Martk-gat, 
and  Firt-dmnp,  may  be  obfedned  Mttwr  natunlly  or 
artifidaBy.  Aa  a  nataral  prodwri:,  it  •omatamM 
iMDM  bota  fiwnrea  in  ooal-aeama,  rodiing  fcoQi  as  if 
under  hi^  preeoue.  l^ieae  disohargM  of  thii  sai 
are  termed  'Blowem'  by  the  minen,  and  tt  i«  by 
the  cambiution  ol  Hub  fir»4amp  tliat  t^  tenifio 
o^osiona  whioh  ooeadonaUy  tako  pUoe  in  ooal-jnti 
eanaed.    Fop  ite  oombiution,  twice  ita  —J-—  '^ 


roMiiUv  formed  by  tho  amalgamation  of  two  sect,  of  oiygM  (and  oonwinentlv  ten  timM  ite  ^nme  of 
^SS^«XwniiaJ«toe;V    Theolderof  theee/air)l»  required;  t^e '^r^H"? "^Ix^'J:!^ »! 

called  SWBLBYiMAflBOOUiTON,  originated  Lq_  1834  Tolnme^  of  carbonic  wnd  and^two  (rf 


in  the 

from  the  onginal  », 

snbBeqocuth  appeared  mth  r^ard  to  the  conabtatdon 
of  tho  ccnference. — The  younger  sect,  called  th« 
Weslstut  Betorh  AasooiATiON,  took  its  rise  in 
1849  throng  the  expulsion  of  rwveral  mioiBtcn 
from  the  parent  body  on  a  charge  of  ioinlbordinatioB, 
and  being  founded  on  the  same  principleB  aa 
tho  iMt-mentioned  oommonity,  arrangements  were 
entered  into  for  their  union,  which  was  fmbsoquently 
effected,  Choreh  independency,  and  freedom  IH 
representation  in  the  annual  aasembly,  are  two  o£ 
the  most  prominent  diitinctive  traits  m  the  orrani- 
aation  of  the  United  Methodist  Free  Church.  Ilieir 
united  numbers  in  1881  were ;  members,  79,756  ;■ 
ministera,  432 ;  local  preachera,  340a— The  Wetleyan 
B^orm  Onion  consists  of  about  18  ministers  and 
7745  membera,  who  have  not  amalgamated  with 
tlie  Methodist  Free  Churohea, 

This  is  perhapa  also  the  most  convenient  place  to 
notice  the  Wjsiaa  GALviNisna  Mbthodisis.  They 
are  not  a  seoesrion  from  the  follower*  of  Wedey, 
but  orinnated  partly  in  the  preaching  of  his  friend 
and  feftow-arangelirt,  Whitefield,  and  partly  in  that 
of  Howel  Hairis,  a  WeLJi  clergyman  of  the  Church 
of  England.  Whitefield  was  a  Calvinist;  Wealej- 
aa  wo  have  Been,  was  on  soma  points  decidedl 
Arminian.  A  difference  arose  between  them  o 
the  snbieot  of  dection.  Henceforward  their  paths 
Uy  in  different  dlraotiona.  Whitefield,  however,  did 
not  form  a  religous  sect ;  and  after  hie  death  (1769), 
hia  followera,  biinR  left  without  any  distinct  booil 
or  organisation,  ei^er  followed  the  leading  of  the 
Conn&a  of  Hod tingdon  (q.  v.],  or  became  distributed 
among  other  denominatioas,  a  huge  portioa, 
Mj>ecially  in  Wales,  beooming  absorl 
BO<aety  gradnall*'  f'n'minn  ifwiTf  t.hrrn 
bg  Oi  How^  \ 

In  1886,  the  Wesleyana  b  the  United  Kbgdi 
nmubered  138,000 ;  the  New  ConnectioD,  28,000 ; 
PrimitiTe  Metiiodlata,  192,000;    Bible  CSiriatians, 
23,000 ;  United  Methodist  Fne  Churches,  67,000. 

METHUEN  TREATY,  a  commercial  treatv 
negotiated  b  1703  by  Mr  Methuen,  the  English 
ambanador  b  Portagal,  to  admit  Portnjptese  wines 
to  England  at  a  duty  one-third  leaa  tliaa  that  on 

HETHTL  i*  an  orgnnio  radical  homologoua  with 
E^l  (q.T,),  b«ine  the  lowest  term  in  Qie  aeriea 
C.H,  4- 1,  f>  b  tlA  oaae  bebg  equal  to  S;  Its 
formula  ia  C,H, ;  hot  b  ita  free  atate,  two  atoms 
nnite  to  form  a  nngle  mdeonle.  ao  that  free  methyl 
is  more  accoratelT  rcprcwntad  oj  (C,H.) ,,  H  is  a 
colonricM  gfM,  of  iPMifio  gntity  ItPSftj  it  buna 
with  a  Tery  fMble  bluish  Barney  and  ia  not  liquefied 
at  »  tenperatore  of  OT.  It  ia  obtuned  by  acting 
apon  iodide  of  metliyl  with  zino,  in  the  same  manner 
"  «  prniaration  of  etbyL 
euyl,  it  forr- '--     * 


thus  produced,  which  i 
for  respiration,  ia  known  »i  " 


vitiated  a 


utterly  nnfit 

J  afler-damp  or  dialX' 

dompi'and  is  sa  much  dreaded  m  the  explosion 
itseS  Hydride  of  meUkyl  is  also  one  of  the  gaseoaa 
ezhalatiana  from  marshes  and  stapiant  pools ;  aod 
the  bnbblea  that  rise  to  the  surface  iriiea  tlwmnd  at 
the  bottom  of  a  pon 


\  w  starred  np,  consist  ohiefly 

J  be  prMMnd  artificiallT  I^ 

strongly  Seating  a  mixture  of  orystalliaed  acetate 
of  soda,  hydrate  of  potnah,  and  powdered  qniek- 
lime.  It  u  a  colonrUas,  bodormis,  tasteless  gas, 
which  may  be  breathed  without  apparent  bjury  it 
well  diluted  vrith  air.  HydreiUd  Oxide  of  MtAgl 
|0,H,0,HO),  known  also  as  MOhyUe  AleoAol,  Wood 
^irit,  and  Pt/rmj/Uc  Spirit  (under  which  title  its 
properties  are  described),  is  the  strict  homologae 
of  Tinous  or  ethylio  alcohol  (C^.O,HO).  Oxidt  qf 
MeUtyi  (C,H,0),  or  Metlt^  M«r,  corresponds  to 
the  ordmary,  or,  correct^  speakiiu^  tho  ethylic 
ether,  and,  hke  the  tatter,  is  jirodnoedby  the  distflla- 

.1  — .  — ■_! E  — iv-i.-  alcohol  Mid  auljiinTio 

._  „  .  onde  of  ollq'l,  com- 

bines.with  acids  to  form  •  class  of  ethereal  salts, 
or  compound  ethers,  as  they  are  termed  by  some 
ohemisbi — as,  for  example:  Acetate  of  Methyl  (or 
metiiyl-acBtio  ether),  C,H,0,CtH,Ot;  Bnjyiiite  of 
Methjd  (or  methyl-butyric  ether),  0,H,0,Cf,H,0, ; 
Nitrate  of  Methyl  (or  meihyl-mtrio  etlier), 
C.H,0,NO,;  Bal^Ute  of  MeUiri  (or  methyl- 
sdicylic  ether),  C,H, 0,0,,  11,0,.  The  last-named 
oomponnd  may  not  only  De  obtained  by  distilling 
a  mixture  of  pyroxylio  apirit  with  aalkylio  and 
sulpbnrio  acidB,Dnt  occnrs  i«sdyfonned  b  the  vege- 
table kingdom,  oonatitntbg  the  eswntial  oil  procured 
frnn  the  Bttaia  Unto,  a  species  of  tHreh,  uid  trata 
the  Qaaitheria  pToaanboM,  or  ITtpiter  Qrten. 

Methyl  may  be  made  to  enter  bto  combination 
with  bromine,  iodbe,  chlorine,  and  fluorine,  the 
bromide  and  iodide  of  methyl  bebg  oolonriesi 
fluids,  and  the  chloride  and  fluori<ui  oolonrkss 
gases.  Amongst  the  most  bteiesting  of  the  nomer- 
ona  methyl  compounds  must  be  mentioned  the  arti- 
ficial bases  or  alkalies,  whudi  oan  ba  obtained  bom 
ammonia  by  the  subatitutian  of  one,  two,  or  tluee 
equivalents  of  methyl  for  one,  two,  or  three  of  the 
equivalents  of  hydrogen  contained  b  the  ammonia. 

If  only  one  eqoiralcnt  of  hydrogen  ia   replaced 


nuthiiiamint,  or  methylia,  which  ia  more  soluble  b 
water  than  any  other  known  gaa ;  water  at  6S* 
disaolving  1160  times  its  bulk.  It  is  a  frequent 
product  m  the  destructive  distillation  of  nibogODOUS 
EubotAncea ;  and  it  ia  present  when  many  natural 
alkaloids,  suob  as  nanwtiiM  and  moipbia,  are  dis- 
tilled with  caustio  potash.  The  proanot  resulting 
from  the  mbatitatiim  of  two  squivalentB  of  methyl 
for  two  of  hydn^en,  and  known  as  HmtQiyUanine, 
closely  r«semblea  methylambe.  When  the  three 
equivalents  of  Itydrogen  are  replaced  hy  three 
of  methyL  the  ruoltiug  oconponnd  ia  N(C,H,), 
or  CgH.N,  a  colourless  gas,  which  is  known  as 
trimdhylamiae,  or  trimtOi^Sa,  and  has  a  disagreeable 


MBTOYLATED  SFIKIT— METtt£. 


Bahj  odour.  It  ooonn  in  luga  ^tumtitr  in 
hemne-brioe,  and  it*  be«n  detected  in  the  spirit 
in  vhioh  tuiftbmiiMl  prepwationi  h&ve  been  long 
kept.  It  a  also  found  in  Chtnopodiam  vidvaria 
(Stinking  Gooaefoot),  in  ttie  flowera  of  OraUegvt 
oxyoatnAa  (Common  Hawthorn),  and  in  ergot  of  rye. 
UBTHYIjATED  spirit  oonjsUtg  of  a  mixtare 
of  aloohol,  of  apeciQo  gravit;  0'830,  with  10  per  cent. 
of  PyrDiylic  (q.  v.)  or  wood-apirit.  Thia  addition  oE 
woad.«IHrit  renden  it  nnQt  for  drioking  although 
It  Mwoely  interferes  with  its  power  as  a  solvent  It 
is  allowed  by  the  excise  to  be  sold  daty-free  for 
manufacturing  purpoaea,  and  for  preserving  speci- 

METHTLBITE.    Sm  Surr.,  Vol  X. 

MFTO'ITIO  C70LB,  to  called  from  ita  inrentor, 
Meton,  who  flourished  at  Athens  about  432  b.(l,  is 
a  cycle  of  19  yean,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the 
new  moons  fall  on  the  tame  days  ol  tbeyear,  and 
ealipaes  recnr  in  neatly  tbs  same  order.  'Chit  arises 
from  the  drcomitance,  that  19  oolar  years  are  nearly 
equal  to  23G  lunations,  their  avenee  Talucs  being 
efiSS-eSSSS  and  693960249  days  rar^iTely, 

ME'TOITTHT  [Gr.  meUmyrtua,  signifying  a 
change  of  name)  is  a  figure  of  speech  by  wmch  one 
thing  is  pat  (or  another  ia  which  it  bears  an  import- 
ant relation,  as  a  part  for  the  whole,  the  effect  for 
the  cause,  til*  abstract  for  the  concrete,  &c  For 
•sample.  '  Lyiitg  lipi  are  an  abomination  to  the 
Lord.  This  figure  is  very  expressive,  and  is  maoh 
used  in  proverbial  and  other  pithy  modes  of  speech. 

MB'TOP£,  the  vpace,  in  the  frieze  of  the  Doric 
order,  between  the  tnglyphs— generally  ornamented 
with  figures,  or  bulla'  heads,  or  patene. 

U  B'  I B  A,  an  ingenious  pocket-instnunen^ 
invented  by  Mr  Herbert  Mackworth,  about  185a 
It  combines  the  thennometor,  dimometer,  goni- 
ometer, anemometer,  level,  plummet,  scales,  &o.,  so 
that,  ,by  ita  awi  stance,  bmvellert  or  engineen  can 
at  once  reoord  their  obtervatione.  It  enables  us  to 
determine  the  dip  of  rocks,  angles  of  crystals, 
temperature,  rate  of  wind,  to  take  levels  of  large 
•urfaoes,  debsrmine  latitude,  and  a  variety  of  other 
matter*  connected  with  [Jiyncal  sdeuoe.  As  a 
pocket-instrument,  it  it  of  great  value. 

HE'TBB  (Qr.  measure)  is  that  regtilated  snooes- 
sion  of  oertain  groups  of  syllables  in  which  Poetry 
(a.  T.)  is  nsoally  written.  A  greater  or  lees  nmnber 
of  groups  form*  a  line  or  twrse  ( Lat.  a  turning),  and 
in  modern  languages,  the  verses  usiullv  rhyme  with 
one  another ;  although  this  is  not  at  sill  essential  to 
the  nation  of  metre.  See  KHTm,  Blake  Virss, 
In  the  olassio  languages,  metre  depended  upon  the 
ma  in  which  long  and  short  syllablea  were  made 
to  sncoeed  one  another.  Rngbah  metre  depends, 
not  upon  the  distinetion  of  long  and  shorty  but  upon 
that  of  accented  and  tmoccentM  syllables  Thus,  in 
the  lines. 

The  co'rjlew  tolls  \  the  knell  |  ot  pa'rtjing  da'j— 
Wa'rrianand  |  ohi'e&, should  the  |  sha'ftortbe  |  swo'rd — 
t^  accents  ooenr  at  r^olar  intervals;  and  the 
gronpa  of  syllables  thus  formed  constitute  each  a 
metre,  or  measnre.  1^  groups  ot  long  and  short 
syllables  composing  the  metres  of  obssic  verse, 
were  called  y«,  each  foot  having  a  distinctive  name. 

measures,  an  accented  syllable    id  English  being 
held  to  be  equivalent  to  a  long  syllable  m  Latin  or 
Qreek,  and  an  anacoented  syllable  to  a  short. 
Every  metre  in  English  contains  one  accented 

Z liable,  and  either  one  or  two  anacceuted  syllables. 
I  the  accent  may  be  on  the  fiist,  second,  or  third 
syllable  of  the  group,  there  thus  arise  five  distinct 


uu  uure  trujuiuna,  ■* 

y  (corrcapondrng  to  the 
.  (Iambus) ;   3,  ta'rriUy 

mphibrachys) ;  S,  abaen- 


measnres.  two  dissyllabic  and  three  tri^Uabio, 
seen  in  the  words — 1,  foTly  (-^'— -*-^^".-  *-  ' 
clusia  Trochee)  ;   2,  recall  (I 
(Dactyle) ;  4,  confu'sion  (Amphi! 
tee'  (AnapEBst). 

These  measures  an  arranged  in  Una  or  twrsM, 
varying  in  length  in  different  pieces,  and  often  in 
the  same  piece.  The  ending  measure  of  a  line  is 
freqaently  incomplete,  or  has  a  snpemumeraiy 
syllable ;  and  sometimes  one  measure  is  subsb- 
tuted  for  another.  All  that  is  necessary  is,  that 
some  one  measure  be  so  predomiiuuit  as  to  give  a 
character  to  tiie  verses  Ccnatant  recurrence  of  the 
same  messnn  ptoduces  monotony.  The  following 
lines  exemplify  the  five  measurea  i 

Iff  Meamre, 

lU'ch  the  I  trea'suie. 
Bs'ttcr  I  n'l^  |  yea'n   of  |  Bn'rope  |  tha'n    s  |  ej'cia  |  of 
Csjtlia'r. 

Sd  JfttMure; 

A1a'ft|ina'>Ifalsta'te. 

The  pro'p|er  stu'dlj  cf  ]  manki'Dd  |  is  ma'o. 

SdMeamtre. 

Bi'rd  of  the  |  wildeniesL 

Va'rricrs  and  |  ehi'efs,  should  the  ]  sha'ft  or  the  |  swo'rd. 

UhMeaiurt. 

The  da'w  cf  |  the  mo'niin^ 

0  jou'ng  Lochjinra'r  Las  |  ccme  on't  of  j  the  we'st 

As  they  ro'ar  |  on  the  sbo'r& 
The  Asay'r|ian  cane  dc'wa  |  like  a  wolf  |  on  the  fold. 

It  is  ins^ctivsty  felt  that  some  of  these  measnrej 
are  better  suited  for  particular  subjects  than  othera. 
Thns,  the  first  has  a  brisk,  abrupt,  energetic  char- 
acter, agreeing  well  with  lively  and  gay  subjects, 
and  also  with  the  intense  feeling  of  each  pieces  as 
ScoU  viia  ha't.  The  second  i«  by  far  the  most 
usual  metre  in  Engliah  poetiy ;  it  occurs,  in  fact, 
most  frequently  in  the  ordinary  prose-movement  of 
the  language.  It  is  smooth,  graceful,  and  statcty  ; 
readily  adapting  itself  to  easy  narrative,  and  the 
expression  of  the  gentler  feelings,  or  to  the  treat- 
ment of  severe  and  sublime  subjects.  The  trisyllabio 
metres,  owingto  the  number  of  unaccented  syllablea 
in  them,  are  rapid  in  their  movement,  and  calculated 
to  express  rushing,  bounding,  impetuous  feelingly 
They  are  all  lew  r^alar  than  Uie  dissyllabic  metres. 
One  of  them  is  frequently  substituted  for  another, 
as  in  the  opening  of  Byron's  Bride  o/Abj/do* : 
Kno'w  ;e  the  { la'nd  where  tie  [  ej'prsss  and  |  mj'rtle 
An  e'mblems  |  of   dee'ds  that  { an  do'ne  in  j  their 

Wbers   the   la'ge  I  of   the   Tullture,  the  Ic've  ]  of  the 

tu'r|Us— 
where  each  of  the  three  linea  is  in  a  diEFerent  metre. 
In  addition  to  this  irregularity,  one  of  the  unaccented 
syllable*-  is  often  wanting^     For  instance,  in  Mia 
Hemana'a  poem,  Tie  Voice  of  Spring: 

Ico'me,  lloo'nel  lye  hava called  Imelc'ng; 

I  oo'ms  I  o'er  the  mou'nllains  with  li V  ' 
Uie  fint  line  has  only  one  mesaura  of  three  syllable^ 
althongh  the  general  character  of  the  versification 
is  trisyllabic. 

In  a  kind  of  verse  introduced  by  Coleridge,  and 
used  Docasionalty  by  Byron  andotiien,Qie  unaccented 


li'gbtlandsa'Dg— 


i.LiOOglc 


MfiTRE-MBTROPOLia  LOCAL  MANAGEMENT  ACT. 


i^lUbles  are  altogether  left  out  of  aoccnmt,  and  the 
TeTBidcatioii   ii    made  to   depend   upoa  haTiog  a 
regular  number  of  accraita  in  tJie  line : 
Thna  i*!  not  vi'nd  euon'gb  to  tTi'ri 
Tha  o'na  nd  Wat,  the  la'rt  of  its  ola'n. 
That  da'noM  u  o'tten  as  da'noa  it  oa'n 
On  the  to'pmoit  twl'g  that  loolu  a'p  at  the  ■kj'. 
Hera  there  are  four  aooenta  in  each  line,  Inrt  the 
number  of  arllablea  varies  from  ei^t  to  eleren. 

To  icon  a  line  or  group  of  liuso,  is  to  divide  it  into 
the  neamrei  of  whioh  it  is  compoied. 

The  varietr  of  coubinationB  of  metre*  aud  rhymes 
that  may  be  formed,  ia  endleaa ;  but  a  few  of  the 
mora  usual  forms  of  English  veraification  have 
received  speoial  names,  and  these  ire  may  bht^j 

OeiMjfiaMet  are  Teraea  made  up  eaah  of  four 
meaanrea  of  the  aecond  kind  of  metre,  and  therafore 
containing  eight  iodo)  ajllaUea : 

With  fm'it|lMB  la'lboar,  Cla'|n  bon'nd 
And  slro've  |  to  sta'neh  |  the  gu'shjing  wo'and. 
Scott's  poems  are  mo«ti;  in  ootosjllabica,  and  an  is 
HwUbnu,  and  many  other  pieces. 

Htroic  is  a  term  applied  to  verses  eonttiniagJiM 
metraa  of  the  second  kind,  or  ton  syllablea.  Heroics 
either  rhyme  in  couplet*,  or  are  nitboat  rhymes, 
oonstituti>i«  blank  verse.  Many  of  the  chief  narra- 
tive and  mdactio  poems  in  the  R"g'"''  language 
ara  in  rhyming  Aeroica ;  as  thoaa  of  Chancer, 
Dryden,  Pope,  Cowper,  fto.  Milton's  two  great 
poems,  Yonn^s  Night  ThmighU,  Tboaaou't  Sttuciu, 
Cowper'a  Tiuit,  Wordsworth  s  &eeutti(m,  and  many 
others,  are  written  in  bUnk  heroics.  Metrical 
drama*  are  almost  always  in  blank  vene ;  in  which 
cose  there  ia  &equently  a  snpemnmerary  syllable, 
or  even  two,  at  the  end  of  the  lino : 


In  EUgiaa,  the  lines  are  of  the  same  length  and 
the  same  measura  as  in  heroics  ;  but  the  rhymes  ara 
alternate,  and  divide  the  poem  into  qoatrains  or 
of  four  lines,   as  m  Gray's   iHesn/.     The 


(q.v.). 

i^errics  vKtre,  also  called  oontmoH  Bw<r«,  is  the  fonn 
of  venoAcattOQ  adopted  in  the  metrical  Psalms,  in 
many  hynuu,  and  irther  lyrical  pieces.  From  being 
treqnently  employed  in  t»Ti«J«,  this  metre  i*  also 
ealled  bauad  metre.  The  first  and  third  line*  often 
thyme,  aa'  well  a*  the  second  and  fourth. 

Bnch  tat  some  of  the  more  tunal  and  definite 
forms  of  yenificatiDn.  In  many  poems,  especially 
the  more  recent  ones,  so  much  hoence  is  asaomed, 
that  it  is  difficnlt  to  ti'ace  any  regular  reoomnce  or 
other  law  detennining  the  ctumgea  of  metre,  or  the 
lengths  of  the  lines ;  the  poet  seeks  to  suit  the 
modulation  at  every  turn  to  the  varying  sentiments. 
But  it  may  be  questioDed  whether  mni^  of  this 
refinement  of  art  is  not  thrown  away,  npon  ordinary 
readers  at  least,  who,  failiikg  to  perceive  any  special 
suitableness,  are  inclined  to  look  apon  those  violent 
departures  from  accustomed  regularity  as  the  result* 
of  caprice. 

The  kind  of  vrase  called  Hexameter  i*  described 
under  its  own  name. 

mStBE,  tiie  basis  of  the  '  metrical '  or  modem 
French  system  of  weights  and  me«aures,  and  the 
unit  of  Wgth.  The  first  snggestion  of  a  change  in 
the  previoua  system  dates  as  for  baok  as  the  time  d 


Philippe  le  Bel ;  bnt  up  till  1790,  no  important 
change  had  been  effected.  On  the  8th  May  1790, 
propMals  were  made  by  the  French  government  to 
the  British,  for  the  meeting  of  an  e^jual  number  of 
member*  from  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  the 
Royal  Society  of  Loudan,  to  determine  the  length 
of  Mia  aimple  pendulum  vibrating  seconds  in  lat;  4S' 
at  ,the  level  of  the  sea,  with  ue  view  of  mlJLing 
thia  the  unit  of  a  new  system  of  measures.  The 
British  govemmeotl  however,  did  not  nve  this 
proposal  a  favourable  reception,  and  it  fell  to  the 
ground.  The  French  sovemment,  impatient  to 
effect  a  reform,  obtained  the  appomtment  by  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  a  commuaion  composed  of 
Bordo,  I^grange,  Laplace,  Mange,  and  Condarcet,  to 
chooae  from  tne  following  three,  the  length  of  the 
pendulum,  of  the  foniih  port  of  the  equator,  and 
of  the  fourth  part  of  the  meridian,  the  one  best 


of  a  quadrant  of  the  meridian  (the  distanoa  Aom  the 
e(]uator  to  the  pole,  measured  aa  along  the  surface  of 
Btdl  water)  be  token  for  the  baua  of  toe  new  system, 
and  be  called  a  'mitr«.'  Delombre  and  Meehtuo 
were  immediately  charged  with ' ' 


committee  of  twenty  membera,  nine  of  whom  wn« 
French,  tbe  rest  havmg  been  deputed  by  the  govern- 
ments of  Holland,  Savoy,  Denmark,  Spain,  Tosoany, 
and  the  Roman,  Cisalpine,  Ligurion,  ana  Helvetio 
republic*.  By  this  committee,  the  length  of  the 
mMre  was  found  to  be  443'290  Parisian  line*,  or 
39-3707904  Enghah  inches ;  and  standards  of  it  and 
of  the  kilogramme  (see  Qbamkb)  wera  constructed, 
and  deposited  among;  the  azchivea  of  Prance,  where 
they  (tUl  remain.  The  *  metrical  system '  received 
le^  sanction  2d  November  1801.  The  followiiw; 
an  the  multiples  and  fractions  of  the  mMra  whiofi 


1)193707004 
CflBtLmAln,  'SOITUTOM 

DKSlntev,  a-UTDTINM  BDillMhPHt.        Isflkli  TbSi. 

Dtamtwt,        seiTcnot      =     aieoasM  =     itnen 
Heetooittn,      aa/«7W4        =    sK-oeaat    =    ino'ssn 

Kllomttn,         SNTtTTOOt  =    SMO«gM       =    1009833 

UfrtuntUV,     303707-001  =33900  080         =  111016  U 

From  the  mHre,  the  other  princroal  nnita  of  measure 
and  weight  are  at  once  d^vei  See  Abb,  Lmti; 
Qkakme,  FiuKa 

MBTBONOME,  a  valuable  small  machine  for 
indicating  the  oon^ect  time  or  speed  at  which  a 
musieal  compositioD  should  be  played.  It  was 
invented  in  1816  by  MiUzel,  the  mventor  also  of 
the  automaton  trumpeter.  See  Actouatoit.  Tlie 
test  of  a  correct  metronome  is,  that  when  set  at  60 
it  shall  beat  seconds. 

UBTRO'POLIS  LOCAL  MANAGEMENT 
ACT.  Tbe  metropolis  of  the  United  Kingdom,  owing 
to  its  immense  size,  has  been  r^ulated  for  ndile 
and  sanitary  purposes  chiefly  by  special  act*,  one  of 
which  is  called  tbe  Metropolis  Local  Management 
Act  It  hod  long  been  subject  to  a  special  BuLlding 
Act,  which  laid  down  minute  regulations  as  to  the 
fonnation  of  streets,  alteration  and  building  of 
houses ;  and  the  Metropolis  Building*  Act  still 
contains  a  code  applicable  to  building  regulations, 
the  chief  principle  of  which  i*,  that  no  peison  can 
build  or  make  alterations  till  they  have  been  duly 
approved  by  the  inspectors,  whose  duty  it  is  to  see 
that  eertaii)  conditions  have  been  complied  with  aa 
regards  the  public  aafetr.  In  186S,  a  great  change 
was  made  in  tile  internal  economy  M  the  metropolis, 
by  the  Metropdia  Iiooal  Management  Act,  which 


METEOPOLITAN— METTEAT. 


it  pionuoe 


oreatod  the  Utrtropotitaii  Board  of  Woriu,  and  pn>- 

Tided  ttwHh  extensive  powen  of  -"— ■ 

age,    li^htin^  alMmng,  mnoTing 

Cenl  nnimnrBiDeiitB,  and  witb  powen  also  to  rate 
ooMplaHi  of  booMi  for  the  ezpenaes  <rf  llie 
geneial  nunasraicait.  Formerlr,  each  vwtn  did 
what  it  thtnignt  piopec  within  iti  own  pariah,  and 
there  wu  no  ouuormity'  obeerved  in  the  details  of 
management.  But  the  abora  act  oontBined  a  i 
of  law*  aKoting  nnmertnu  detail*  of  street  and  aty 
life.  One  important  fnnoldon  was  the  ijiBtem&bc 
conetniotion  in  aewen  and  the  remoTal  of  nidsanceB. 
No  new  building  is  now  allowed  to  be  bnilt  with' 
out  mifflaient  drain*  and  water- doeeta.  Faving  ii 
•nfOTced  in  most  CMies. 

METBOPOIiITAK.  in  Ohnroh  Law,  the  bishop 
ei  a  mtiro^^it,  or '  mother  dty,'  upon  which  other 
^mootmI  oitiea  are  in  some  sanse  dependent.  The 
gndationt  of  the  hierarchy,  on  which  this  d^wnd- 
enoe  it  founded,  an  of  rery  early  origin,  and  may, 
it  ia  alleged,  he  traced,  at  least  in  germ,  in  the 
letters  of  8t  Paal  to  l^mothy  and  to  Titna.  The 
oommentMiea  of  the  Father*  (as  ChiTsoetMD,  16 
Horn,  ia  1  Tim.,  and  Ensefain*,  HitL  Sedet.  L  iiL 
o.  IT.)  raoognise  it  aa  of  apoatolic  institatim.  The 
jnrisdiotiui  ef  mstnqwliUus,  aooording  to  the 
anoieat  law,  of  the  ohmidi,  was  Terr  oonsiderabl^ 
and  extended  o*er  all  the  Ushopa  of  tliat  pror' 
tt  wkiidi  the  melMpalitBn  see  was  the  o^ntaL 
WB*  thnr^Tilegemitonly  to  aummon  aiulpra.. .. 
oTer  pcomeial  ooundb,  to  eonaeerate  the  proriiKdal 
bishopit  but  alM>  to  dedde  certain  eatuee,  and  in 
other  ways  to  eunite  antkority  within  the  sew 
of  their  snffrafpuM.  Baoaat  e«Bona  hare  TWy  mooh 
restricted  their  powers.  The  metropolitan  is  dk- 
tinj^oiahed  from  an  ordinary  arohbubop  In  his 
havmg  suffragan  biahopa  subject  to  him,  which  is 
not  necessarily  tlie  ease  of  an  archbiahopL 

In  the  Chorch  of  Ebgland,  the  archbishops  of 
Canterbury  and  York  are  metropolitaDS,  and  in  the 
Protestant  E^soopal  Chnrch  of  Ireland,  those  of 
Armagh  and  Dnbho.  In  the  newly-constituted  hier- 
archy of  the  Boman  Catholio  Church  in  England, 
the  ArehbiBhop  of  Weatminster  has  the  rank  o( 
metropolitan.  Id  the  Boman  Catholic  Church  of 
Ireland,  the  Archbiahops  of  Armagh,  Dttblin,  Cashel, 
and  Tnam  all  poaseas  the  same  rank. 

UETTEBNICH,  Clbubns  Wehzh.  Nxfohvk 
LoTEAit,  Frinoa  T<m  Metternioh,  and  Dnke  of  Pon- 
tella,  an  onineDt  Anstrian  diidomatist  and  statea- 
man,  bom  at  Cobleni,  ISth  May  1773.  Hi*  father, 
Frami  Gboiui  Eau,  Count  von  Uetteniicb,  wa* 
also  an  Austrian  diplomatist,  and  an  assocdate  of 
Kaunitz.  He  represented  a  very  ancient  and 
disttDgniihed  family,  whcaa  orkinal  seat  waa  in 
JOlich,  Yonng  M.  was  edncated  at  the  nnivemty 
of  Strasbnig,  ^  afterwatda  stodied  law  at  Mainz 
and  tnTelled  in  England.  In  I79S,  he  married 
tlM  i^aod-daiuIiteT  and  heiiew  of  tbo  oelebnted 
minister  Eannii^  by  whom  he  aoqiiired  large  estates. 
Hia  diplonuAio  career  oommeoiced  at  the  oongrea*  of 
Bastadt,  which  he  attended  aa  tepreaentatiTe  of  the 
Wes^halian  counts.  His  rise  was  very  rapid :  he 
added  to  the  advantagee  of  his  birth  and  connections, 
a  more  than  ordinaij  share  of  diplomatic  abilitT, 
with  the  most  gracaol  and  winning  manners.  In 
1801,  he  became  Austrian  ambassa^ir  at  Dresden ; 
and  on  the  outbreaking  of  the  Uiiid  ooalitioa  war,  he 
n^otUted  the  trea^  of  allUnce  between  Austria, 
Pnada,  and  Busii&  In  1800,  he  went  as  ambassa- 
dor to  Pari^  and  concluded,  m  1807,  the  treaty  of 
Fimtaineblcan,  vary  favourable  to  the  interest*  of 
Austria;  but  on  the  outbreaking  of  Qi«  war  between 
Franoe  and  Austria  in  1809,  he  was  detained  some 
time  ere  he  oould  obtain  hi*  pamporb    In  oourae 


of  that  year,  ha  suoceeded  Count  Ton  StadJon  as 
Miniatea  of  Forelsn  AfEsin,  concluded  the  trea^  of 
peace  witb  the  French  minister  Champa^riy,  and 
accoDipsLuied  the  Empress  Maria  Louisa  to  Paris. 
He  iimded  the  ooune  tt  Austaria  amidat  the  diffi- 
cnltiea  of  1812— 18ia  Ha  maintaiaed  at  first  a 
temporising  polioy  and  a  scheme  of  an  amjed  media- 
tion of  Austria ;  bnt  the  obstinacy  ei  Napoleon 
reduced  him  to  the  Deceaeity  of  adopting  at  last  a 
decided  atep,  and  led  bim  to  resolve  upon  that 
declaration  of  war  by  Austria  against  Rrance^  whiiA 
took  i^ace  in  Aagust  1813,  and  he  subseqaentiy 
conducted  with  great  abili^  the  negotaatious  whi^ 
ended  in  the  completion  of  the  quadruple  aDunna 
On  the  eve  of  the  battle  of  Leipsg,  the  ei 
Austria  bestowed  upon  bim  the  princely  " 
was  afterward*  employed  in  almost  ku  win  uiuu 
diplomatic  oSairs  of  that  eventful  time;  and  after 
the  congress  of  ChstiUon  and  negotiations  with  the 
Count  d'Artois,  he  went  to  Pons,  and  signed  *ii- 
of  Fontainebinn  with  Ni^eon,  w 


__ nimomly  elected  president. 

■u^ned,  aa  Austrian  plenmoteotiarr,  t£e  aeoiwd  peace 
oTRuis  20th  November  161&  After  Hum,  he  con- 
tinued BtDI  to  oonduct  the  dipkimaay  of  Austria, 
and  in  1831  waa  appointed  obonoeUor  (f  ow-,  ffo/- 
tmd  jSbMUsfawEler),  and  in  189B  tuooeeded  Count 
Ziofay  in  the  pi«nden<T  of  ministerial  confenoeea 
on  home  affitin.  His  effort*  were  now  eaiiuatly 
directed  to  the  maintenuioe  of  peaoe  in  Europe,  aid 
the  pieasivation  ol  the  exisling  state  of  things  in 
the  Austarian  draainion*  hy  the  Mricteat  measure*  of 
pohoe  and  severe  deapotisn.  1b9  levolntaonMy 
movement  of  1S4S  breaking  forOi  with  sudden 
violence,  'oaused  the  aged  mtnirter  to  flee  from 
Austria,  and  to  seek  rnfngeinEatdand;  nor  did  he 
return  to  Vienna  till  the  end  <«  1851,  when  he 
received  great  marks  of  honour  and  favour  fram  the 

bnt   althouffh   sometimes  consulted,  he 

ojrain  asked  to  nndertake  the  cares  of 
died  at  Vienna,  11th  June  ISSa  The 
□ion  respecting  M.  has  been  well  eipresKd 
by  the  Tima  newspaper :  '  He  wa*  renowned  rather 
than  great,  clever  rather  than  wise,  venerated  more 
For  his  age  than  his  power,  admired  but  not 
lamented.  The  ilenoirt  of  M,,  largely  autobio- 
graphical, throw  valuable  light  on  his  timea.  They 
appeared,  edited  by  his  son,  in  1879 — 1882, 

MBTTRAT.  Hie  Befotmatory  of  U.  is  the 
true  parent  (&  all  inititutbnt  intuidad  to  reform 
and  restive  to  sooie^,  and  not  merely  to  punish, 
juvenile  driinquents.  M.  Donetz,  a  nwndtv  of  the 
Parisisn  bar,  strack  with  tlie  enls  and  hardabip 
attending  the  emmnittal  to  prison  of  yoon^  an^ 
conudermg  their  training  and  habits,  seafoely 
reapomMa  oriminala,  there  to  languish  hepeletsly  for 
a  tame,  and  then  to  cmoge  wocae  than  whan  tii^ 
entered,  rea<dTed,  in  oon}nnet)on  wi&  the  Vioomta 
Bretiflnteea  de  Conrteillea,  to  fa«nd  a  aehool  whi^ 
should  have  for  its  objeot  the  reformatiao  of  tlii* 
dais  of  (dfend«cs.  In  l^H,  aooixdingly,  the  Befbr- 
atory,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  Cd<my  of  Uettray, 
aa  set  on  foot,  about  five  mika  fnmi  the  aij  ef 
Tours  in  France.  Thus  H.  DemebLbjhia  assidu- 
ous labours  and  self-davotedneas,  renderad  to  E^oe 
and  Europe  one  of  the  greatest  benefit*  that  could 
be  conferred  on  aocie^,  \tj  proving  that,  by  agri- 


tglected  and  oriminal  may  be  toained  to  take  their 
place  honestly  and  honourably  in  society.  The 
children  consist  wholly  of  orphans,  foundliiigs,  and 
delinquents,  and,  in  1872,  amounted  in  number  to 
792.    From  the  foundation  up  to  that  dat^  1237 


;rT7t7 


OU5 


KETZ— MEXICO. 


httd  been  received,  Tha  wUpKH  into  caime  of  thoae 
who  h«d  left  the  colony  MDOQnted  ool;  to  abont  4 
per  cent.  The  snooeM  of  thii  e«t«bliihinent  ii  to  be 
attribated  not  lolelT  to  tha  esceUaat  training  and 
dose  (aperviiiOD  at  U.  ittelf,  bat  to  the  cam  vhich 
is  taken  to  preserve  the  liuk  between  Uie  anthoritiiN 
and  tboee  who  have  left  tha  colony.  A  amall  pay- 
ment IB  made  t^  the  itate  for  children  tent  under 
judicial  aentenoe;  the  lan;e  eitn  eipenditura 
necoMerily  mcoired  being  dcmyed  from  charitable 


oontribntunc  froni  the  mdividoale 
'  Pat^nal  Society  of  Mettny.' 

HETZ,  the  itroiigeit  fortreea  of  the  Oerman 
imperial  temtory  of  Alsace.LoTra!ae,  and  oapital 
of  the  diatiict  of  Lorraine ;  before  1871,  the  main 
bnlworh  of  France  in  her  north-eutem  frontier, 
and  capital  of  the  department  of  Moaelle.  It  is 
iituated  on  the  Moselle  at  its  oonflnence  with  the 
Seille.  The  strength  of  M.  couista  in  ita  exterior 
defencea,  of  which  the  principal  are  eleven  forte, 
pMily  strengthened  and  improved  ainoe  the  Ger- 
man occupation,  and  partly  entirely  new.  The 
city  o^twn*  many  important  inatitntlone,  barracks, 
hcepital,  military  sehooli,  and  araeoals.  The  oatbe- 
dra!,  *  OoUxio  edifloe,  bwnn  in  1014,  and  finished 
in  1C46,  if  ranurkuble  tor  Ha  boldaew,  lightnesa, 
and  elegance,  and  haa  a  beaatifol  spire  of  open 
work,  373  feet  in  hught.  The  industry  of  M.  is 
aetive ;  there  ia  a  good  trade  in  wine,  brandy, 
indij^  glMi ;  and  there  are  aereral  doth  manu- 
factoriea  in  the  ueif^bonTbood.  The  pop.  of  M., 
which  in  1669  waa  48,326,  had  in  187S,  by  reaun  of 
emigiatdon  into  France^  deoreaaed  to  37,926,  or  with 
gwmon,  46396;  (1881)63,107. 

H.,  known  to  the  Romana  aa  Dinxfunini.  woa 
afterwardi  called  Mettia  (aomnted  from  Medio- 
inatrioi,  the  name  of  the  people),  and  henoe  the 
present  form.  Under  the  Fraiju,  M.  was  the 
capital  of  AoatrMia  (q.  v.).     At  the  division   of 

Charleniagne'a  ampin,  M.,  w""""  "" ^  -'■' 

(q.  v.),  fefltoQ 
fne  city  of  the 


^ns' 


foim  the  right  and  left  bank  o 
(aee  Mau),  and  laparata  it  from  uia  Daam  oi  tue 
Seine  on  the  west,  and  from  that  of  tha  Moaelle  oft 
the  east  The  Meiue,  the  Oroain,  and  the  Ain^ 
are  the  chief  river*.  The  soil  is  generally  poor,  ex- 
cept in  the  valley  of  the  priucipu  riven,  which  are 
~"— kably  fertile  and  well  cultivated.  The  usual 
,re  raised  in  average  qnantitdea.    22,000,000 

.  of  wine  {red  and  white)  are  made  annnally. 

The  four  arrondiiaemetita  are  Bar-Ie-Dnc,  Comniercy, 
MootniMy,  and  Verdan.   The  capital  is  Bar-le-Dao, 

MB'XIOO  constitutes  the  aoutb-weet  extremity 
of  North  America,  and  occnpiee  a  portion  of  the 
isthmus  which  oonoecta  the  utter  with  the  sooth 
part  of  the  American  continent.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  the  territoriea  of  the  United  States,  on 
the  W.  by  the  Padfto  Ocean,  on  the  3.  by  the 
Padfio  and  Central  America,  and  on  the  £.  by  the 
Qolf  of  Mexico.  The  uea  of  M.  is  abont  7M,000 
aqoare  miles,  and  the  pop.  (1S8I]  about  10,000,00a 
In  this  total  there  were :  Foil-blood  Indiana, 
6,000,000;  Mestiioa  thalf-oaatca),  8,000,000 ;  Creole 
whites,  1,S00,000;  Spaniards,  60,000;  other  Emo- 
peans  and  Amarioana,  100,000;  negroes,  1(^000; 
beades  molattoa.  The  table*  ^Te  the  pop^  and  the 
of  the  ptovinoea,  with  thrar  ohief  towna : 


.,  with  the  rert  of  Lorraine 
ind  waa  afterwarda  made  a 
In  166%  it  waa  treacher- 


1562  to  January  1663,  they  kept  it  till,  it  i 
formally  ceded  to  them  in  1643.  In  August  18/u, 
Bazsina  waa  compelled  to  retire  into  fiL  with  hia 
army ;  and  after  an  investment  of  70  days,  during 
which  no  attempt  was  made  to  take  the  city  by 
foioe  (not  even  a  single  shell  havini;  been  flred  into 
it),  Enrope  was  startled  to  hear  of  the  oapitolatlon 
of  H.,  by  which  180,000  men  and  immense  mihtary 
atorec  fell  into  Oermaa  hands  (27th  October  1870). 
By  tha  treaty  of  Ftknkfnrt,  M.  waa  annexed  to 
Germany  aa  [Mui  of  Lorraine. 
MBUDOH.    See  SuTP.,  Vol  I. 

formerly    a    department    in   the 
immediately  south   of    the 

, loaelle.    The  area  was  about 

2264  sq.  milea ;  pop^  in  1866,  428,387.  Its  snrfaoe 
is  nndulating  and  pictureaqne ;  while  along  the 
eastern  border  run  the  Voages  IJonntains,  rising  in 
one  point  to  1143  feet  in  height.  The  ohief  rivers 
are  the  Moselle,  and  ita  i&uents  tha  Menrthe, 
the  Madon,  the  Seille,  ko.  This  district  ia  no  leas 
remarkable  for  the  beanfy  of  ita  aoenery,  than  for  the 
fertility  of  its  stril  and  the  variety  of  ita  produotionB. 
After  the  treaty  of  Frankfurt,  by  which  nart  of  M. 


Fnuux^  waa  formed 

department  under  the  name  Meuktue-bt-Mosellx  ; 
area,  2016  sg.  miles  i  pop.  (1881)  419,317.  Anon- 
dissementa ;  Hsnt^,  Luniville,  Tcnl  (from  M.),  and 
Briey  (from  Moselle) ;  capital,  Nuoy. 


gta  LdIs  FotCBl.. 

TsDuiDllpu, 

Sacatocu. 

FedonI  DUtric 


Ounpeachv. 
San  Cditoli^ 

Colimi.' 

Gnuafnato. 
Tlitla. 

Oiudalajaia. 


Ban  Loll  FalosL 


IaFu. 


Phyticai  Character,  ic — The  great  masa  of  the 
Mexican  territory  oonsisti  of  an  elevated  plateau, 
formed  by  an  expanmou  of  tha  Cordilleras  et  (Central 
America  (q.  v.),  from  which  terraoed  sl<q)ei  descend 
with  a  more  or  leas  rapid  inolination  towards  the 
Atlantic  on  the  east,  and  the  Padfio  on  the  west 
This  vast  tract,  which  extendi  from  13°  to  32°  N. 
Ut.,  and  from  95°  to  JIS"  W.  long.,  compriMS  one 
of  tJte  richest  and  meat  varied  lones  in  the  world ; 
for  while  its  geographioal  position  seourea  to  it  a 
tn^iioal  v^atation,  the  rapid  diSerenoea  of  elevAtion 
whioh  characterise  it,  afford  it  the  advantage*  of 
temperate  climates,  in  which  all  the  varietica  of  our 
European  flom  and  fauna  can  oome  to  perfection ; 
and  it  thn*  combines  within  ita  limits  an  almost 
unparalleled  exuberance  and  mnltiplioity  of  natural 
products.  The  table-lands  of  M  lie  at  elevations 
varying  from  5000  to  more  than  9000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  aea,  and  exhibit  great  diCTetenoea  of 


..Guogli 


«  break  up  t 
nbl«  deeply-c 


level  And  vanetiel  of  unl.  Hiey  genenilly  incline 
northwud,  ind  ore  for  the  mutt  fiwi  rait  in  by  low 
mountain  ebaini,  among  which  Ti*e  individnal  lofty 
naka,  aa  Co&e  de  Perote  (13,400  feet),  Orizava 
(17,370  fMt),  and  other* ;  while  they  aie  interaeoted 
t^  huW  luisea,  above  which  tower  a  few  oonea,  aa 
Istoo^natl,  de  White  Woman  (1B,700  feet),  and  the 
volcMio  ot  Popocatapetl,  or  the  Smoking  Uonntain 
(17,680  feet).  Ilieae  volcanoea  and  aereral  othen  of 
leaa  note,  l^ag  within  the  poiailela  of  IS*  1?  and 
19*  30*  N.  lat,  fom  a  traiurerM  Tdcanio  band 
between  the  two  oceana,  and  do  not  follow  the 
inclination  of  the  oentral  chain,  ai  ia  the  case  in  the 
ToloanOM  ot  South  America.  Volcanoes  alio  occur 
iaolatcd,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  plain  of  Mixtecapon, 
2000  feet  above  the  aea,  where,  in  1759,  the  volcano 
of  Jorullo,  which  still  entits  nnoke,  waa  formed 
after  an  ernption  by  which  a  aorface  of  many  square 
milea  was  raited  several  feet  above  the  lev^  of  the 
plain ;  in  fact,  every  port  of  the  Mexican  terri- 
tonr  betrays  the  volcanio  notare  of  its  formation, 
althoagh  neither  earthquakes  nor  any  other  active 
phenomena  have  of  late  been  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. The  piincipol  chain,  intersecting  the  table- 
land, ia  the  Sierra  Modre,  or  Tepe  Saeae,  in  which 
lis  the  chief  gold  and  silver  mines,  aod  which,  after 
tnvermng  the  states  of  Queietoro  and  Quaoajuato, 
divides  into  three  main  branches,  the  central  of 
which  forma  the  water-shed  between  the  Facifia 
Ocean  and  the  Gnlf  of  Mexioo.  In  addition  to  these 
chaint,  the'  Mexican  territory  i«  intersected 
~  '  '  raogea,  which  on  the  Pacific 
terraced  decliritiea  into  innu- 
.  fy-cleft  vaUeya,  which  aaaoma  almost 
the  character  of  ateep  ravines  near  their  junction 
with  the  narrow  Uttoral  ploina  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  Violent  ttonna  tnge  on  this  coast,  blowing 
from  the  south-west  daring  the  hot  months,  when 
the  climate  is  as  prejudicial  to  whites  as  on  the 
Mexican  Qnlf,  althongh  it  ia  not  visited  by  the 
yellow  fever.  H.  majr  be  said  to  be  generally 
deficient  in  navigable  nvers ;  for  although  some  <^ 
the  largest  have  a  course  ot  more  than  1000  miles, 
few  are  free  from  rapids.  The  Rio  Santiago,  or 
Bio  Urande,  with  a  course  of  BOO  miles,  ia  broken 
near  Guadalajara  by  60  falls  in  the  space  of 
less  than  three  milea;  the  Bio  Grande  del  Norte, 
which  forms  in  its  lower  conisea  the  boundary 
between  M.  and  the  United  States,  has  a  winding 
eonne  of  nearly  1900  miles,  bat  it  is  only  navi- 
gable for  small  sailing-vetsela  to  Matomoras,  00 
miles  from  its  mouth,  where  a  bar  and  numerous 
shoals  prevent  the  passaee  ot  larae  vessels.  A 
■imilar  remark  amihea  to  uie  majority  of  the  rivers 
which  fall  into  the  QuU  of  Mexico.  The  eastern 
oooat  generally  presents  ^eat  obstacles  to  navi- 
gation, a*  it  i*  low  and  sandy,  unbroken  by  bays  or 
inleta,  and  lined  by  sandbanks  several  miles  in 
widll) ;  the  only  x>oiuta  of  aceeaa  being  the  months 
of  rivna,  which  are  not  good  roadsteads,  as,  with  few 
exoeptiona,  the  riven  uve  little  water,  except  at 
the  rainy  season,  which  generally  seta  in  about 
June,  accompanied  by  overpowenng  heat,  during 
the  prevalence  of  which  the  yellow  fever,  or  vomilo 
prieUi,  rases  like  a  pest  in  all  the  low  lands.  M.  is 
on  the  whole  badly  supplied  with  water ;  and  sinoe 
the  Spaniards  have  discontinued  the  system  of  irri- 
gation, which  was  followad  by  the  Asteo  races  with 
BO  much  suooees,  many  ttacts  have  become  barren, 
and  unsnited  for  the  purposea  ot  human  occupation. 
A  great  portion  of  the  table-lands  can  only  be  nsed 
fwpaatora.  Spring*  are  rare,  and  many  of  the  riven 
flow  in  de«p  moontain-beds,  wiUiont  receiving 
smaller  tribntariea,  while  the  nqiid  evaporation 
on  a  light  soil,  covering  porous  rooks,  leaves  Uie 
anrlaae  dry  and  hot,  and  unable  to   support  any 


vegetation  beyond  the  oaotus  and  aome  low  gi 
The  plains,  moreover,  contain  the  beda  of  nun 
dry  salt  lakes,  bnt  this  is  chiefiy  the  case  o 
north  and  east  of  the  table-land.  The  western  parte 
of  the  plateaux  between  VXf  and  lOT  W.  long. 
(known  aa  the  Baxio)  yield,  by  careful  irrigation, 
rich  crops  of  maize  and  wheat,  and  rank  amoiu' the 
most  fertile  agrioultorol  districts  of  Mexieot  ihey 
are,  however,  here  and  there  intermpted  by  sterile 
tracts,  either  coveted  by  stoues,  and  then  known 
aa  'pedt^ral,'  or  with  lava,  when  they  aia  charac- 
terised as  a  maX  paU  (bad  country).  In  contrast 
with  these  unprofitable  districts,  the  plains  are  occa- 
sionally broken  by  depressions  of  the  soil,  known  aa 
Barrcmcai,  descending  sometimes  1000  fe  ., 
measuring  several  miles  across,  which  are  covered 
with  a  luxuriant  v^;eta1aon  of  trees  and  shmba, 
and  watered  by  small  slreatiiB  ranning  throu^  tlie 
middle  of  the  valley.  M.  bos  numerous  lakes,  but 
few  of  auy  importance ;  that  of  Chapala  in  Jalisco 
ia  one  of  the  most  considerable,  being  more 
miles  long. 

Climale,  PnducU. — The  differences  of  '•lima^nj 
depending  upon  the  different  degrees  of  altitude,  are 
so  great  m  M.,  that  the  vegetable  products  of  this 
vast  countty  indade  almost  oil  that  are  to  be  found 
between  the  equator  and  the  polar  drola.  In  the 
courae  of  a  few  houia,  the  traveller  may  Bxperience 
every  gradation  ot  climate,  embracing  torrid  heat 
and  glacial  cold,  and  pass  through  different  s  ' 

vegetation,  including  wheat  and  the  sogar-ca 
ash  and  the  palm,  apples,  olives,  and  guavaa.  The 
Spaniards,  on  their  tirst  occupation  S.  VL,  diitin- 
guished  its  great  climatic  diviiions  under  the  charac- 
teristic names,  which  are  still  retained,  of  the  Tiara* 

CaJiaOa  (hot  or  lit """ 

(temperate  lands),  ■ 
Uuds).    The  mean  i 

entea  is  77°;  and  the  soil,  which  is  generally  fertile, 
produces  maize,  Hce  where  water  can  be  procured 
lor  irrigation,  bananas,  pine-apples,  oranges,  manioc ; 
and  saisapariUa,  jalap,  and  vanilla  in  the  littoral 
swampy  forests.  This  tract  baa  only  two  seasons — 
the  wmter,  or  season  of  north  winds,  and  Uie  sum- 
mer, or  seoBoD  of  breeees.  In  the  former,  the  hurri- 
canes are  the  terror  ti  navigatora,  bnt  the  coast  ia 
clear  ot  yellow  fever,  which  prevails  in  the  hot 
season.  On  the  medium  elevi^ion*  of  the  TierrM 
Templodas,  the  temperature  ia  exttemely  equable, 
varvmg  only  from  about  70°  to  60''  F. ;  the  climate 
health}',  and  wherever  water  is  abundant,  a  per- 
petual summer  reigns,  yielding  a  varied  and  active 
vegetation,  whioh  embraces  ul  the  cereals,  fmils, 
and  vegetables  of  Central  and  Southern  Europe, 
unougsF  which  moise,  oranges,  lemons,  gnpes,  ud 
olives  are  produced  in  the  most  exuberant  abund- 
ance. The  Tierraa  EVias,  which  would  scarcely 
have  been  characterised  as  cold  by  disoovema 
belonging  to  a  less  scnthem  climate  than  %«in, 
possess  a  generally  temperate  climate,  the  i 
annual  heat  racnog  between  66°  and  68*  F. ; 

on  the  highest  of  the  table-landa,  the  ail  is  kei 

and  the  soil  more  arid,  and  agriculture  is  limited  to 
the  cultivation  of  barley  and  of  the  agave,  or  Mexi- 
can aloe,  which  held  Uie  place  of  the  vine  amon^ 
the  ancient  Aztecs,  and  is  still  extensively  culti- 
vated for  the  sake  of  its  juice,  which  is  made 
into  the  fermented  drink  known  under  the  name  of 
putque.  In  addition  to  the  vegetable  products 
ali«ady  referred  to,  M,  yields  coffee,  tobacco — 
whose  growth  is,  however,  limited  by  governmental 


r  littoral  lands),  Titrrat  Templadat 
3),  and  Tterrat  Friai  (cold  or  high 
lan  annual  heat  of  the  Tierraa  C^- 


restrictiocs— yams,  capsicums,  pepper,  pimento,  ii 
ipecaononha,  drogonVblood,  oopaiva,  fan-palms, 
rubber  trees,  mahogany,  rosewood,  ebony,  ko. 


ligopij 


,v  Google 


The  gold-mineB  of  M.  occiv  principally  on  tk 

•ide  of  the  Siem  Madra,  north  ol  24°  N.  lab, , 

nntil  the  ducoverr  of  the  tueltil  in  Australia,  their 
vleld  mrpuaed  utt  ittoduoe  of  any  other  part  of 
iha  world.  ffllTor  mines  abound  in  M.,  and  the 
■tgentifsraiil  veiiu,  whieh  may  be  «aid  to  iotenect 
aTBTj  part  <rf  the  irsBtem  dedivitiea  of  the  Andes, 
occur  m  aome  places,  aa  in  the  Vela  Madre  lode  at 
OnaoajiiBto,  in  bed«  varying  from  10  to  GO  yorda 
in  depth;  the  precioua  metal  beii^  in  these  oases 
intermixed  with  solphnr  oompoundj,  antimoDj,  and 
■nenio^  But  althon;^  these  mines  poBseea  the  addi- 
tional speoial  advantage  of  bdng  ntiurted  in  Fertile 
districts,  affording  abundant  food  to  miners  and 
their  cattle^  their  wockiiw  hoc  been  very  imperfectly 
oanied  on,  owing  to  the  unsettled  state  of  ttio 
eoaott7.  At  the  close  of  the  last,  and  the  beginiiiiis 
of  tlie  presBOt  omtury,  the  wnnal  value  of  vie  gold 
and  (ilver  of  M.  was  mwaids  of  ^£6,000,000,  of 
whioh  AthB  were  yielded  by  the  silTei;  but  the 
political  dirtwlianoea,  pnceding  and  conaequeat  on 
the  wan  of  independenoe,  have  very  oouBiderably 
reduced  this  som,  which  has  probably  never  been 
reached  sinoe  M.  was  finally  separated  from  the 
mother-country.  In  addition  to  gold  and  sUver,  M. 
yidds  tin,  antimony,  mercury,  copper,  lead,  iron, 
and  zinc ;  while  carbonate  of  soda,  used  in  aiiieltiiiK 
silver,  is  found  crygtallured  on  the  Burface  of  severd 
lakes,  and  oocnre,  together  with  oommon  salt,  in 
dry  sesaona,  on  the  more  arid  parts  of  the  surface  of 
the  devated  table-lands. 

Cattle,  horses,  oases,  mules,  and  sheep  abound  in 
M.,  where,  in  consequence  of  the  extent  and  excel- 
lence of  the  paature-gronnds,  all  tiie  domestic 
animals  introduced  from  the  Old  World  have  miUtd- 
plied  exoessively.  Bn&aloes  feed  in  the  lower  plains ; 
goats  and  sheep  are  [dentifol ;  the  tspir,  wolf, 
American  lynx,  jaguar,  wild-ca^  several  species  of 
the  skunk,  tile  brown  porcupine,  stag,  deer,  Ao.,  are 
to  be  found.  Parrots,  humming-bitds,  and  wild 
game  birds,  including  turkeys,  are  abnndant ;  and 
almost  aU  the  lakes  yield  large  quantities  of  fish. 
The  cochineal  insect  and  the  silk-worm  are  reared 
with  great  sooeesB  on  the  taUe-land  of  Mixteoapan. 

Commeree,  Jta. — Kotirithstanding  the  enormoua 
advantages  jo^isented  by  her  natural  productions, 
and  the  important  gec«raphioal  poaitioii  which  she 
occupies  between  the  Atl^itic  and  the  Facifio,  M., 
owing  to  her  unsettled  government,  and  the  conae- 

Sent  insecnrity  of  life  and  property,  has  not  been 
le  to  develop  her  foreign  oommerce  beyond  the 
value  of  about  6  millione  sterling.  The  precious 
metals   still    constitute  nearly  two-thirds   of   the 


as  cotton,  woollen,  and  silk  goods,  soap,  leather, 
aaddlery,  gold  and  silver  lace,  cigars,  brandy,  Ac 
England,  £Wic^  Hamburg  and  LUbc<±,  and  the 
United  States  of  America  ore  the  principal  powers 
with  which  M.  nmint^itit  relations  of  foreign  com- 
merce ;  while  the  dt?  of  Meiioo  is  the  chief  focus  of 
internal  trade,  and  Yen  Cruz  the  principal  port  for 
maritime  commene.  The  total  value  of  the  foreign 
trade  of  M.  in  1880  was— for  imports,  £5,600,000 )  ^ 
exports,  £6,300,000.  For  the  number  of  ships 
entering  and  clearins  the  ports  of  AL,  see  Veea 
Cbuz  and  Tahpico.  M.  posseises  about  3500  miles 
of  raUwav,  the  line  from  vera  Cruz  to  Mexico  being 


to  abont  6,250,000  passengers,  and  378,000,000  tons 
of  frei^t.    The  financial  condition  of  M.  has  been 

allow^  to  fall  into  such  disorder  since  the  estab- 
lidiment  of  independence,  that  tiie  ezpenditare  has 
been  continnolly  increasing  beyond  the  receipts- 
According  to  the  printed  estimates,  tile  estimated 


amonnt  of  the  budget  for  1881-82  was  £a,14d,00a 
The  total  expenditure  for  the  some  year  was  esti- 
mated at  £7,918,340.  The  revenue  is  derived  msinly 
from  the  cnstoms.  The  total  unount  of  the  national 
debt  was  estimated  in  ISBl  at  £2S,990,00a  <The 
loans  contracted  by  the  u  '  ' 
repudiated  by  the  re[  " ' 

Army,  Nam,  Ao. — -J 
stitution  of  bL,  the  si 
26,000  men,  with  a  reserve  of  65,000  men ;  but  this 
number,  which  had  fallen  to  nearly  half  the  re- 
quired force  in  1865,  has  been  so  extensively  reduced 
emce  that  period  by  continual  civil  wan,  that, 
Bccordingto  Spanish  authorities,  the  government  of 
the  late  Preaident  Juarez,  on  the  breaking  out  of 
hostilities  with  the  French  in  1862,  was  unable  to 
bring  into  the  field  more  than  5000  infantry,  800 
cavalry,  and  9600  of  the  national  guard.  The 
present  strength  of  the  anuy  on  the  peace  footing 
IB  17B0  officers  and  18,000  men.  The  navy  conusts 
of  only  4  gnnboats,  engird  in  the  revenue  service, 
and  2  torpedo  boats.  Education  in  M.,  long  in 
the  lowest  poudble  condition,  even  among  the 
wealthier  classes,  is  now  eteadily  improving. 
Ijberal  allowances  have  been  made  by  the  ccntnl 
and  state  govemmenta  for  esti^lishment  oi  new 
schools,  Ac  In  1884  there  wen  in  M.  close 
on  9000 .  public  schools,  with  nearly  600,000 
scholars 

Rdigion,  Ac — The  Bomon  Catholic  is  the  dominant 
chureh  of  M.,  but  aU  other  sects  ore  tolerated.  M. 
has  3  archbishops  and  12  bishops.  The  adminis- 
tration of  justice  is  not  what  it  should  be,  but  is  not 
so  inefficient,  nor  the  coorts  so  corrapt^  as  formerly, 
Brigondace  and  smuggling  endanger  personal  secu- 
rity^,  ana  seriously  ^moge  the  resouroes  of  the 
nation,  bnt  are  gradually  disappearing. 

The  supreme  power  of  the  state  was,  in  1868, 

«ted  in  the  hands  of  Benito  Juare^  who  w 
bear  the  title  of  Constitutional  President,  a 
administer  public  affairs  in  conjunction  with  a 
legislative  congress,  composed  of  a  cliamber  of  si 
tors  and  a  lower  house  of  rapreaentativee.  Bach 
province  was  to  elect  two  senators  and  one  deputy 
to  every  40,000  inhabitanta,  and  was,  moreover, 
to  have  a  separate  provincial  legislative  chamber, 
presided  over  by  its  governor.  Preaident  Juarez  is 
undoubtedly,  along  with  Qeneral  Iturbide,  to  bo 
regarded  as  the  neat  distingniahed  character  in 
modem  Mexico.  The  nnfortnnate  M«T^TriiH^i]  ^ag 
a  mere  episode  in  the  career  of  the  country.  A 
Provisional  Segency  of  the  Mexican  Empire  was 
ap^inted  by  the  Jwaia  Superior  dd  Gobiemo; 
which  was  itself  cimatitnted  (ISth  Jane  1863)  by  a 
decree  of  Maishal  Forey,  lead«  <rf  the  French  atmy 
of  invasion.  It  was  composed  of  36  membem.  Thu 
Junta  at  the  same  time  established,  under  French 
influence,  an  AuaMy  qfNotaiia,  whom  it  chained 
with  deciding  in  the  name  of  the  people  what  form 
of  government  M.  should  adopt.  On  the  10th  of 
Jul^  1863,  this  body,  by  an  overwhelming  majority, 
decided  in  favour  of  a  constitational  liereditary 
monarchy,  and  that  the.  new  mler  should  bear  tha 
title  of  Emperor  of  Mexico.  See  Mhxioo,  in  Sdtp., 
VoL  X.  llie  present  constitution  dates  from  1857. 
The  executivB  power  is  vested  in  a  president,  elected 
by  nnivereal  suffrage,  for  aperiod  of  6  years.  The 
legislative  power  is  confided  toaconeress  consisting 
of  a  House  of  Bepresentatives  (one  for  each  80,600 
inhabitants),  and^a  senate  (with  two  member*  for 
each  state). 

Bidary  of  Mtxko.—Tb9  history  of  ondent  H. 
e^iibits  two  distinct  and  widely-dMering  periods, 
the  former  of  which,  that  of  the  Tolteci,  wpeora 
to  have  bwm  in  tiia  7th,  and  ended  with  the 
12th  0.  i  n^e  the  second,  that  of  t^  Aztecs,  begm 


ivCiOOglc! 


^tlioagh  tha  nkoe  luu  maintai 

Mmook  tenitorj,  iti  erirtanoe  w  *  nwioa  ceaaea 
w^  tha  Spanith  dominataoD.  The  orisin  and  i«imi- 
tin  awrti  of  tha  ToUan  ata  ahnnidad  in  myaUryi 
and  all  tbal  we  loam  4rf  thia  paopla  i%  Ifaat  thaj 
j^tnw  from  tha  noiilit  from  Kmie  undefiiiad  localifyf 
vhiob  tlier  deainatod  Tnllan,  and  fiom  irtunea 
Uiey  bioiignt  to  uia  valley  of  Mexico  Uw  fiiat  ele- 
menti  <j  dviliaation.  Their  Jam  and  nuges  (tamp 
thMn  M  a  people  of  mild  and  peacrfol  jnatineti, 
indnatriooi,  aobvc^  aoi  eotorpriaiD^  Thef  oalti- 
rated  tba  land,  introdwMct  miua  a^  ootton,  made 
roada,  eraoted  mmnunenta  of  nnlrwal  dimezuiona, 
aodbniU  temj^  and  oitiM,  whoae  miat  in  Tari- 
ona  parta  <rf  New  Spain  iatill  atteit  tlieir  akill  in 
aKhJuotai^  and  mfficienUy  ar[dain  -whj  tba  name 
ToHeo  aho^  have  pe«Kd  into  m  ■ynonym  for 
r  how  to  fnae  metal*,  cot  and 
Maieata  earthen  wata^  and 


an^itaok    Xhsjrknewhi 


lor  the  raootd  of  •T«ati,'ii 


Bon-diiJiL  d 
meaanrad  ti 


•imple  ■jakiui  of  notation,  and  meaanrad  time  t^  a 
aolar  year,  aompoaad  of  ISmontha  4rf  SOdajaeaob, 
adding  S  aompWentary  daya  to  make  up  the  S6S, 
and  fatltntalfitwig  12|  daya  at  the  ez^ration  of  every 
lS2y«an,  wUchMoiwht  them  wiQiinan  almoat  uup- 
faidMrn  fraoti(m  to  the  length  of  the  bvpioat  year, 
aa  eetatditlied  fajr  the  moat  aoonrate  obaerrationa. 
Theae  and  other  arta,  with  a  mild  form  of  nliglMi, 
and  a  *inrr^  hot  jut  mode  of  admimstniiig  the 
Uw%  the  1\)tteea  bnineathed  to  the  Arteci^  who 
enj^iited  vp<»i  tha  «BTiliMti(m  of  thair  prede«eaaora 
many  flaKW  and  laiif^iiinary  praoticea  in  their  rdi- 
nons,  and  many  pnanle  naag^  in  their  ao<dal  life, 
^thmg  ia  known  of  the  ecaot  tim^  and  itdll  lea* 
of  tbe  maimer  and  oanaea  of  the  departure  fd  the 
Totteoa  from  M.;  bntlitlhaa  bean  ooojeotnred  that 
thm  went  toward*  the  aonth,  and  tiiat  the  coloasal 
ambitaotnial  remaina  of  Uie  dtiia  of  Palanqne, 
Uzmal,  and  Hitia,  in  Central  America,  aie  the 
work  of  their  hand*.  1^  Ajcteo*,  a»  we  hara 
aaid,  imparted  to  the  huUtutionB  of  the  Tolteca  a 
tinga  of  tbdi  own  aombie  omclty,  and  ^Kodnced  aa 
anmwlooa  form  (4  dTiEaation,  irtiich  aafamidied 
Hie  Spaalarda  t^  ita  mingled  cbaraoter  of  mildneaa 
and  fnocity.  Idke  the  l^lteoa  and  the  Chichmeca, 
a  mde  tribe  who  had  sncceeded  them,  the  Azteca 
oama  from  the  north,  and  aiter  wandeiiiw  &om 
[daoe  to  [daoe,  foimded  in  1325  the  city  of  Tenoch- 
titlan,  ca  Merico.  On  the  arrival  of  tn«  Spaniard*, 
tluir  empim  waa  found  to  extend  from  ocean  to 
ooaan,  cb«tohing  on  the  Atlantio  from  16°  to  21° 
N.  lat,  and  <Hi  the  Padfio  from  14°  to  IS^  N.  lat. 
"BmIi  gainmment  wa*  an  elective  empire,  the 
•oveMJni  being  aelectad  from  the  Insthera  i^  the 
daoaaaM  prinoe,  or,  in  defanlt  of  tikem,  from  hia 
nephew*.  Their  lawa  were  aevere,  but  jojstice  was 
•dminlaterad  in  open  oonrta,  the  proceedings  of 
irtu4fcwere  perpetuated  bymeana  of  pictnre-wiitteu 

Tba  Atteea  believed  in  one  anpreme  invieible 
creatiKof  all  things,  thornier  of  the  anivene,  named 
Taotl — a  belief,  it  is  oonjeotured,  not  native  to 
tbem,  bnt  derived  from  thair  predecesaora,  the 
Tolteoa.  Under  fhi*  anprene  bems  stood  13  chief 
and  200  inferior  divinitiea,  each  ta  iriiom  had  lii* 
(acred  day  and  feativiJ.  At  <  thdr  head  was  the 
patron  god  of  the  Axteca,  the  fri^itfnl  Hnitzilo- 
pochUi,  tlie  Hexioan  Mar*.  HI*  templee  were  the 
moat  qJendid  and  impoaiog;  in  every  <^iy  of  the 
empire  hia  altan  were  dienohed  with  the  blood 
of  nmnan  aaorifioe.  Cortea  and  his  companiona 
{aea    Duz)    were    parmitted    by    Monteinnia    to 


P^^,» 


enter  that  in  the  dty  of  Hexioo,  and  to  behold  Ow 
himaell  'He  had  a  broad  face,  wide  nontti, 
terrible  eyea.  He  was  covered  wi&  gM, 
a,  and  prndona  atonea;  and  wa*  eirt  wont 
!>.....  On  Ua  neo^  a  bilii^ 
faoea  of  men  wron^  in  ailver, 
and  their  hearta  in  sold.  Cloae  by  were  bnaiera 
oenae^  and  on  uie  brazien  l£ree  real  heart* 
who  had  that  day  been  aaotifieed'  (Edpa* 
SptutiA  Oonqaat  in  Amaiea,  voL  IL,  book  x.,  ohapb 
ii.  Hm  amell  of  the  [dace,  we  are  told,  wa*  like 
that  of  a  alanghttr-booMh    To  anpply  viotiBiB  for 

theae  aacrifioea,  the  { 

the  noghbonring  uid 


la  and  to  1^  aomid  of  mnaio,  ti 


in  ai^  of 
aacriioial  al 
it  the  b 


bleeding  heart,  whi__ 

the  image  of  tbor  god*,  or  eaten  t^  the  worahippera, 
after  having  been  eaiefnlly  cnt  np  and  mixed  with 
mule.  In  (^  yean  immediately  preceding  the 
Spaniah  oonqueat,  not  leu  tlum  20,000  viotinis  were 
anntully  imnu^ted.  Theae  atrodtiee  were  incon- 
gmondy  blended  with  milder  forms  of  worship,  in 
which  froita,  flower*,  and  perfomea  were  oD^ed 
np  amid  joyous  ontbnivt*  ol  song  and  dance. 
According  to  tiieir  mythology,  l^otl,  who  delisted 
i_    .i.__    —  rificea,   nad 


theae 


pnrer  *aonficea,''liad  once  reigned 
^  name  whidt  at  fint  Tsofaahl^  applied 
only  toithe  oonntry  in  the  immediate  vidwty  of 
the  cental,  Hioi^  afterwatda  it  waa  »mli«i  to  the 
whde  Aztec  empire)  inl^  golden  age  of  Utewnld, 
bnt  being  obliged,  from  lome  unexplained  canae^ 
to  retire  from  eoith,  he  departed  by  way  of  the 
Mexioan  Gnlf,  promising  to  retnm.  This  teaditaoit 
accelerated  the  saoceaa  of  the  Spaniazda,  iriloee  light 
ekina  and  long  dark  h&ir  and.  beaida  warn  r^^rded 
»«  evidenoee  of  their  afSiiity  with  the  long-lotAed- 
for  divinity.  The  Mexican  priesthood  tomMd  a  rich 
and  powerful  order  of  the  state,  and  were  ao  numM>. 
oua  that  Cortes  found  aa  numyaa  BOOO  attached  to 
the  great  temple  of  Uexicot  The  education  of  the 
young  of  boOi  aexea  remained  liU  the  t^  ot  pnbta^ 
m  the  hands  ol  the  prieeta  and  prieate«na ;  and  the 
Hwerdotal  dasa  were  thus  able  to  eiermse  a  widely* 
diffwed  inflneuce,  which,  under  the  later  ralers,  waa 
almost  eqaal  to  that  of  the  emperor  himself.  The 
women  abored  in  aU  the  ooanpations  ot  the  men,  and 
taught,  like  them,  the  uts  of  reading,  writing, 
Billing  in  choma,  dandng,  &c,  and  even 
.  . ..  n  the  aecreta  of  astronomy  and  astrology. 
On  the  arrival  of  Cortea,  in  1B19,  the  Azteo 
tjirone  waa  occupied  by  Montezoma,  an  eneivetia 
_ii...  ..■_  .,__.^._  ._  .!._  "~ne,  which 


ciphering,  ain 
iutiatea  in  t] 


highlj^-oiviliBed  neighbouring  atate  of  naacaU,  and 
on  Ijicoiagna  and  Hondoraa ;  after  a  time,  bow- 
ever,  he  grew  indolent,  and  alienated  the  a&totiona 
of  his  anbjecte  by  hi*  arrogance  and  cxsctitms^ 
and  by  hia  nnremittiiig  devotion  to  the  aerviees  of 
the  temples.  Acoordmg  to  the  oracles  wiuch  he 
frequently  consulted,  great  chongee  were  impending 
over  the  onme,  the  retum  of  Quettalooatl  waa  near 
at  hand,  and  the  fall  of  hi*  race  wa*  impending^ 
Tha  tidinga  of  the  arrival  on  the  coast  of  the  expe- 
dition of  Grigalva  in  1518  tenified  Monteiuma  and 
hi*  piieatly  comidllon ;  aod  when  the  himoglyphio 
Teporfa  of  hia  provinoial  offloen  BmLonDced  the  land- 
ing in  tha  following  year  of  Oortea  and  bis  eom- 
panions,  he  endeavonrad  to  propitoate  the  dreaded 
atrangan  by  a«ading    aa    embaai^  charged    with 


""""■■"/fcooi^lc 


ma  thw  open  to  tha  Spaouh  tm^ain,  wluvwttli 
handfid  of  men,  nclvHioed  from  St  Joan  de  UUob 


Spiin,  and  govemed  1^  neert^  ^)cdiited  b^  Uie 
moUwr^Miaii&f.   Tha  intcJeraiit  tpzit  ot  the  Catiia- 


tini,  muM  tha  (triet  iTrtem  of  wqneatiatiiMi  oiforoad 
in  M.  crippled  the  Munroea  ot  the  ,ooloiij  i  yet 
nDtwithstmdiiic  theaa  dnwbuka,  M.  raaked  m«t 


among  all  the  ^anMb  ooloniea  in  I'^od  to  papal*- 
tioi^  material  riuie^  aod  natnnd  [nadaota.  It  may 
be  Mid  to  bav«  TOgetated  for  nearly  thiae  ceoturiea 
in  a  atato  of  tma-qnimomt  pioaperity,  inteirupted 
1^  few  diattttbanoea  of  Kv  kind  until  the  year  181(^ 
inun  tha  diaDontent^wliiim  had  been  gaining  ground 


nthediaoontent^wL.  .    

'  '*      '  M-iwd  wfwat  daring  t 
T  wSb  iTtqwleo^    "-"-' 

rthe  I  ■ 

A  Hidalgo.  Th 
entioa  of  the  latter  in  1611  pat »  partial  atop  to  the 
inanmotioa  j  but  the  atrootisa  oommitted  nnder 
the  aanotion  of  the  new  Tia«n>7,  Calleja,  exatperated 
the  people,  and  (^ve  an  inoiurtjble  in^olaa  to  tlia 
MTolnbonanr  oaoae.  Guerrero  and  Itnrbide  in  torn 
gained  UDuladTanta^ovw the  Spaniard!.  For* 
fame,  ItnAida  maintained  a^eelf-eatahliihed  impai«2 


UOO. 

oani  nnder  QenmJ  ScotL  la  18S%  after  Santa 
Anna  and  Henera  had  been  in  torn  depoaed  and 
leoalled  to  power,  a  rsTolntiDnaiT  movement  of 
more  than  ordinary  importanoe  breast  General 
Cevalloafor  atdme  to  thebeadof  a&ira;  bnttWhan 
the  inanbotdioatioa  and  arroganoe  of  the  loliliecy 
threatened  udTetaoI  uiarchy,  Santa  Anna  waa  anin 
reoalled.  17th  Maroh  1863.  Having  reorganiW 
the  amgr,  and  auppreaaed  br  the  moat  trati  aenrit? 
the  innnwition  m  the  feoerali;  he  deelaiad  hha- 
■elt  Freddent  for  life,  and  thai  again  lekindled 
civil  wai.  In  18SS,  he  had  to  flee  from  the  oannbT. 
Down  till  1S6T,  EKst  confuBiou  prevailed.  Swita 
Anna  via  aoooeeded  by  Qeneial  Alvarec,  who  held 
office  for  about  two  montha,  after  whom  came 
General  Comonfort,  who  waa  forced  to  reaign  in 
1866;  whan  a  General  ZolvaKO  aaaamed  anprema 
power,  but  waa  almoct  imm^iately  dapoaed  by  a 
General  Boblea.  Thii  peiaon  also  proving  a  fotili^, 
Benito  Joorei  waa  elected ;  bat  his  daima  wet* 
oonteatad    by  General  Hiramon— tlta  haad  of  tha 


nde  over  the  oolooy ;  bnt  on  the  downfall  onuei^aent 
on  hi*  (yrannioal  atnue  of  power,  a  oonslitutional 
mode  of  gornrnmott  waa  inaugurated,  and  in  ~   ~ 
tiia   independasee   of   IL,   whioh   ^■d    ohoac 

federal  lepiiUioan  form  «{  oorenimenti  waa  fii , 

catablisbed,  and  in  the  following  year  definitdy 
reoofpused  by  every  fiadgn  power,  ezc^  Spain, 
^e  Mexican  war  waa  atainod  witJi  exceaaea  and 
atrodtiea  on  both  sidea ;  but  it  mmt  be  con- 
laaaed  that  the  Spaniards  gained  aa  UDSnviable 
pce-aminenoe  in  rej^rd  to  the  wanton  craelly  which 
charactariaed  their  method  of  conducting  boiitilitie& 
With  Uiem  the  war  waa  one  of  extermination,  every 
OMumander  being  allowed,  at  hia  own  discretion, 
to  hont  down  and  alanghter  the  inmrgenta  like 
bmtea.  The  welfare  of  the  new  republic  waa 
nnlu^^y  distorbed  by  conatant  ontl^eaka  of  civil 
war  under  the  lesdeiu^  (4  the  Eiooawa,  or  aris- 
tocratio  faction,  and  the  Ywldnoa,  tx  democrata ; 
and  the  hiatory  of  the  quarter  of  a  century  during 
which  v.  haa  exermaed  indq>endent  power,  leavea 
little  to  recount  beyond  erer-recorring  acta  of 
violence,  and  the  rapid  and  aammary  depoaition  of 
one  preodent  after  anotiier.  In  1S36,  Texas  aecured 
ita   independence    of    the    Mexican   rqiublio, 


war^  nowevar,  fccouj^t  to  a  peaceful  coiteliiBion 
after  the  taking  of  Vera  Cna  in  1838  by  tlie  FmuHx 
troopi.  In  ISA,  General  Santa  AiuM,oa  the  retire* 
ment  of  "    '  "  '  '  ■  ■       .. 


,  r&gainiDg 

direotiiai  of  aSain^  fnun  which  he  had  been  more 
than  onoe  dE^oaed,  and  under  the  title  of  Dictator, 
exerdaed  the  power  ot  an  antoctatiomlcT.  Inl84S, 
M  waa  oompelled  to  recogniae  the  independence  of 
Texaa,  which  waa  incorporated  wiOi  the  United 
State*,  whoea  boon  havmg  entered  the  Mexican 
tenitOTy,  provoked  a  declaration  of  war  on  the 
port  of  the  Mexican  government.  Hostilitiea  weto 
earned  on  with  great  energy  by  botli  parl^  imtil 
184^  when  peace  waa  finally  concluded,  after  aeveral 
bloody  engagementa  had  beea  foof^  witiuut  any 
definite  result  on  etUier  aide ;  and  tha  city  ol 
Uexioo  had  be«n  itoniied  and  takeo  by  the  Ameri- 1 


3  flagrant  inJuat       ,    ,.    __ 

foreinMn  in  M.  during  ttda  period  ot  internal 
diaorder,  daring  which  tha  Cortaa  pataad  an  ant 
■uapeDding  all  paymenta  to  foreignera  Ice  two 
yeara,  oould  not  mil  to  draw  upon  the  Maxicas 
leut  tha  aoiona  remonatraiice  of  thuaa 
.ii  powers  irtioae  aubjeota  had  juat  oaoae  <^ 
intj  and  the  reault  waa  to  bnna  a  fleet  ot 
ti,  French,  and  ^aniah  al^  into  the  Mexioan 


Spaniard*  diaembaiked  a  f<wae  at  Vera  Cnz,  and 
took  poaiewion  cd  the  itat  ti  St  Juan  d'VUoa,  a 
atep  whioh  waa  aom  fallowed  by  tite  arrival  before 
the  farmer  City  ot  the  allied  fleet  A  laoelamatian, 
signed  t^  the  comnandeia-in-ehief  of  the  three 
naval  dividona,  and  addrecaed  by  theau  to  the  Hexi- 
oan  people,  elicited  no  aatii&ctary  reply ;  and  Eteps 
were  acoordiugly  taken  to  advance  Mi  (moe  upon 
the  ct^itaL  Thia  meaanre  alarmed  the  proviaional 
government  of  M>  and  broof^t  about  an  armiatioa, 
with  a  view  of  negotiating  a  treaty  for  the  future 
igulation  of  Dommerciat  intecoonrae  between  M, 
ad  tha  great  Eorc^iean  poweia.  Ttda  trea^  waa 
rawn  up  and  proviaionally  ratified  by  the  dioerent 
immandera,  but  not  confirmed  on  the  part  of 
France,  and  consequently  tha  French  troope  retained 
oooiroation  ot  the  Mexican  territoiy  after  tha 
EngUah  and  Spaniaida  had  declined  to  Join  in 
furuier  hostile  demonatrationa.  In  April  1662,  the 
French  emperor  fornudly  declared  w«  againat  the 
government  of  Juarez,  who  had  aaaamed  arbitrary 
role  aa  president  of  the  republic  The  French 
never  m^  wit^  the  weloome  they  expected  from  the 
people,  atid  had  ultimately  to  withdraw,  without 
petmaoent  ancoeM,  in  1867— mainly  becanaa  of  the 
lealooq'  of  their  action  ahown  by  t^  United 
States  M^Timilian,  Archduke  of  Austria,  who  had 
beoome  Emperor  of  M.  under  French  auspices,  was 
executed  in  the  same  year ;  and  Juarez  ictnrned  to 
power.  (For  this  period,  see  Mbxico,  Jdas^ 
MaTtrMTum,  all  in  fiupp.,  VoL  X.)  Of  late,  there 
haa  been  a  great  improvement  in  the  condition  of 
"  peace  and  order  are  established,  aod  procjierity 
laaca.  Diplomatii)  relationa  witii  Great  Kitain 
I  restored  m  1883.  8eePr«aoott,CM<riM<q)'jr.; 
Ohevalicr,  Meai^;  works  by  Alamnn^  Ldivre^ 
Kendall  (1872)  i  and  Broddehorat,  Jfcadco  To-d^ 
"883). 

MEXICO  (Ctft).  Hexioo,  or  Mejieo,theaMital 
of  the  republic,  u  situated  in  IV  Str  N.  lat.,  and 
99*  S  W.  long.,  at  an  elevation  <tf  uevlv  7000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  aea,  in  tile  valley  of  i 


MEXICO MEZO-TUE. 


TanoeUitlMi,  2}  mile*  wect  of  I^ka  Tewaao.  Xtw 
pop.w>i,iiil880,241.110.  TbUbeantifnl city, which 
IB  built  OD  the  lite  of  the  ftudent  TmochtiUaii  of  die 
Aztao  empire,  ia  situated  od  an  exteniive  phit«**i, 
hsTing  an  area  of  mora  than  17M  aqnara  milea, 
■uTToaiuled  b^  lofty  mountains,  and  ioolvdiDg  fire 
lake*  within  ita  area.  The  principal  ctieeti,  which 
all  ccmxngi  toward*  the  gt^  aqoare  of  Mexico,  are 
ragnluly  and  wdl  laid-oot,  broad,  olein,  and  well- 
paved  and  lighted;  bat  the  bnilduigi,  both  priTOte 
and  pnbho,  are  low,  and  of  a  light  a^le  of  architeo- 
tora,  in  oonaa^nence  of  water  h^g  foond  in  many 
part*  of  the  oity  at  only  a  few  fe«t  below  the  but- 
noe,  and  partly  from  apOTdienrion  of  eorthqaaket. 
Tit6  Placa  Mayor,  one  of  the  finest  Bqnaraa  of  the 
weatem  wnrid,  contain!  the  oathedrall 
and  impoains  building,  erected  on  the  i 
freat  l«t>«a^  or  temda  of  the  Azteo  g 
and  adnmed  with  uie  hdienda,  a  dicnlar  (tons, 
oorered  with  hiero^yphicB,  l^  which  the  Aitecs 
ttted  to  repnaant  uia  montha  of  the  year.  The 
palace  of  Ok  Cortea,  in  the  «ame  iquare,  conmiti  of 
Tariona  bnildingi  appropriated  to  offices  of  atate, 
goremment  achools,  and  pabhc  inatitationi  of  Tori- 
been  auSeTed  gradually  to  faU  to  de<iay  ainoa  tlie 
BTOcuation  of  the  Spaniarda.  Mexico  contsina 
fourteen  chmobea,  aome  monaateries  and  coDveats, 
and  nomerom  charitable  imtitatioiiB ;  the  fine 
hoapital  haa  been  convertad  into  a  barrack.  There 
are  BChooI*  of  iuiiaprudence,  medicine,  agriculture, 
en^neering,  and  on  academy  of  the  fiue  arts,  cou- 
toming  Tunable  Aztec  antu^uitiea ;  also  several 
thealiea  and  a  circna :  the  bull-nng  was  demolished  in 
1874,  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  alameda  or  public 
walk  of  a  Spauiih  eitjr,  Mexioo  ia  remaAsUe  for  the 
extent  and  beantf  <^  its  jkubm,  or  raised  paved 
road^  planted  with  donlM  rows  of  trees,  which 
divei^  for  into  the  country  from  eve^  quarter  of 
the  mty.  Mexioo  still  boasts  a  few  of  the  water- 
gardens  for  which  the  ancient  city  was  so  celebrated, 
and  although  no  longer  floating,  as  in  the  days  of  the 
Aztecs,  they  form  attractive  oDfeda  in  the  midst  of 
the  suiTOunding  swamps,  which,  by  the  ut 
of  the  ■  Mexioons,  have  been  sufiered  to 
in  the  vidni^  of  the  lakes.  The  trade  of  Mexico 
is  chiefly  a  bansit-trade,  although  it  has  a  few 
manofacbirca,  as  cigars  of  sapeiior  qnidity,  gold-lace, 
hatt,  carriages,  aoddlery,  Ac. ;  and  these  articles, 
together  with  sold  and  silver,  and  some  of  the 

' valnable  natural  prodncts  of  the  Mexican 

'  mules,  to 
retom  the 
Eurepe  and  various  cobnial 
prodnotr 

IfBXIOO,  OvLf  or,  a  basin  of  the  Atlantic 
Ooean.  the  estimated  extent  of  which  is  800,000 
En^i^  square  miles,  is  closed  in  by  the  United 
StMes  on  the  north,  by  Mexico  on  the  west  and 
MUl^  and  its  outlet  on  the  east  is  narrowed  by 
the  jntting  peninsulas  of  Yucatan  and  Florida, 
which  approach  within  500  miles  of  each  other. 
Bight  in  ue  middle  of  this  entmnce  is  planted  the 
island  of  Caba,  dividing  the  strait  into  two — the 
Strait  of  Florida,  120  milea  wide,  between  Cuba 
and  Florida,  and  the  Strait  of  Yucatan,  105  miles 
wide,  between  Cuba  and  Yucatan.  The  former 
or  northern  entrance  connects  the  gulf  with  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  j  the  latter  or  southern,  with  the 
Oaribbeon  Sea.  The  depth  of  water  is  supposed 
nowhere  to  exceed  three-fourths  of  a  mile,  fet  the 
gulf  oontains  few  islands — the  Florida  Keys,  the 
adtos  of  the  MissiMippi,  and  a  few  on  tiie  coast  of 
Yucatan,  being  the  m<»t  important  of  them.  The 
shores,  which  are  very  sinuous,  form  numerooa 
bays,  the  laq|«st  of  whieb  is  the  Bay  of  Campeachy 


(q.T.L  The  coasts  ore  mostly  low  and  sandy  or 
marshy,  and  are  lined  with  numerous  Isgoons ;  good 
harbours  are  consequently  not  numerous,  the  Mst 
being  these  of  Vera  Cruz,  New  Orleans,  Peusacola, 
uid  Havana.  The  gulf  it  visited  Inrtitdent  northam 
gales  called  norta,  which  prevail  DOm  September  tt> 
March,  when  they  attain  their  maximum  force,  and 
then  immediately  terminate.  The  most  reoMrkabla 
feature  in  comection  with  the  Oulf  of  M.  is  the 
Chiff  Shram  (q.v.),  which  entos  it  by  the  southeni 

Strait  of  Florida.  Owing  partly  to  the  presence 
of  this  heated  corrent,  the  temperature  of  the 
gulf  is  8*  or  9*  higher  than  that  of  the  Atlantio 
m  the  same  latitude. 

HEYEBBEEB,  JAKOB,  commonly  called  Gu- 
ooMO  Mbtskbebb,  a  celebrated  musical  composer 
of  the  present  age,  was  the  son  of  a  wealthy  Jewish 
banker,  and  was  bom  at  Betlin,  September  6, 1791. 
He  was  a  precocious  child,  plying  tunes  on  tlis 
piano  sponbmeously  [it  is  sud)  as  eariy  as  his  fifth 
year.  He  began  to  study  dramatio  composition 
under  Bernhord  Anselm  Weber ;  and  in  1810  entered 
the  school  of  Vogler  at  Damutadt,  where  he  formed 
an  intimate  friendship  with  the  renowned  Karl  Maiia 
Ton  Webc7.  While  at  Darmstadt^  he  wrot«  a  cantata, 
Oott  imd  die  Ifatvr.  Subeequently,  he  composed 
an  opera,  JephStdh,  producea  at  Munich  in  18i2; 
but  though  warmly  admired  by  his  friends,  Vogler, 
Weber,  and  others,  it  fell  flat  on  the  audience,  and 
was  considered  a  failure.  He  now  proceeded  to 
Vienna,  where  be  acquired  a  brilliant  reputation  as 
a  pianist ;  but  another  opera  which  he  rooduced 
here  by  command  of  the  court.  Die  badea  Khai^m, 
more  succcesful  than  the  previous  one. 
ausio  was  the  rage  at  the  time,  and  nobody 
had  ft  chance  who  did  not  imitate  BoesinL  iL 
was  induced  by  his  friend  Saheri  to  visit  Italy, 
where  he  became  an  enthusiaatia  convert  to  the 
ew  Italian  school,  and  b^an  the  composition  of  a 
erics  of  operas  which  proved  highly  popular.     We 

a  mention  his  BomUda  «  Conitanaa  (performed  at 
la  ia  1819),  Semiramide  <Turin,  1819),  Emma 
di  JU^mrgo  (Venice,  1820),  the  first  of  M.'b  com- 
positjons  that  excited  a  furor  ;  Margherita  £A  njoK 
(1822),  E&uXe  di  Grenada  (1823),  and  Orodata 
(Venioe,  1825).  ^  The  last  of  these  afforded,  perhaps, 
the  most  decisive  proofs  of  the  high  genius  of  its 
author,  and  was  received  with  great  applause  ia 
Paris,  whither  M.  now  proceeded,  and  took  np  bii 
residence.  In  1831,  was  produced,  after  numeront 
rehearsals,  his  Robert  le  DiahU,  which  caused  an 
excitement  *  perhqis  nnparalleled  in  Uie  history  of 
the  Fariaian  stags;*  while  it  was  received  with 
nearly  as  great  enthusiasm  in  E^land,  Italy, 
Austria,  and  Rnssia ;  anid  in  1896,  Lt*  Httguaiol*, 
in  which  he  reached  the  climax  of  his  fame.  His 
next  opcr*,  Le  ProphHe  (1849),  fairly  sustained  hia 
reputation.  It  was  followed  by  Pierre  le  Oramd 
(1854),  Z>moniA  (1858),  and  X'4/V-K»in«{IS6S).  M. 
died  on  May  2, 1864 

MEZE'N,  or  MEZENE,  a  district  town  in  the 
government  of  Archangel,  European  Buamo,  OD  miles 
nom  the  mouUi  of  l£e  river  of  the  some  name, 
remarkable  for  the  ealmoa  and  herring  fisheries 
which  supply  St  Petenbnrg  with  frozenfish  duriiu 
winter.    Fop.  (1880)  1850. 

MEZEN,  or  MEKEWE,  a  river  in  the  north  of 
European  Busaia,  rises  in  the  north  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Vologda,  and  flows  north-west  into  the 
White  Sco,  having  a  course  of  about  450  miles. 

MEZO<TC'B,atownDfHungary,ontheBerettm 
an  affluent  of  IJia  EOroa,  60  miles  south-west  ol 
Debreczen.  Pottery  is  mode^  and  then  is  an 
importut  market   Pop.  (1880)  Sl,2ia         , 

.^—38'^' 


HEZZ09AKTI— HIASMA. 


MBZZOFANTI,  Oiubxpfi,  Casdvsxi^  %  wmatk- 
mble  liugaJBt,  waa  boni,  17th  September  1774,  at 
Bologiu,  where  he  received  Hil  education,  and 
■nbo^aentiy  (1810)  received  the  office  of  niuTenitf 
Ubruiao.  in  1S31,  ha  sattled  in  B«nie,  and  wu 
adraiiced  to  the  di^^  of  a  Monmgnore ;  in  1833, 
he  waa  appcnnted  oecntai;  of  tiie  Coll^  of  the 
fro^iaganda ;  then  keeper  ot  the  Vatican  library ; 
and  in  1S3B,  he  wm  nused  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal. 
He  died,  ISth  March  1S49,  at  Rome.  H-'a  Eoro- 
pean  repntatioii  vai  fonnded,  not  on  any  literary  or 
tewned  works  that  he  wrote,  but  m  the  almoat 
miraculoDB  extent  of  hia  lingoistic  aoqaiaitionB. 
Toward!  the  end  of  his  life,  ne  nnderatood  and 
q>okefifty-eicfat  different  tongnea.  Aa  early,  indeed, 
aa  1820^  Lord  Bjrron  called  him  '  a  walkuig  poly- 
glott,  a  monster  of  languages,  and  a  Briareua  of 
parts  of  apeech.'  He  waa  not  in  the  itrict  aenae 
a  critical  or  acientific  achoUr;  yet,  although  hia 
linguiatio  akill  lay  chiefly  in  verbal  knowledKe, 
his  acqtut«iaenti  in  other  departmenta  were  bj 
no  meiuis  inoonliderable.  See  Bnaaell'a  Ufa  qf 
CardineU  Mtxxqfaati  (Lond.  I85S). 

HEZZOTI'NTO.    See  EtiaKiviHa. 


MIAOAO,  a  town  in  the  iaUnd  of  Panay, 


The 


inhabitenla,  who  are  indnstriona,  oomfortable,  and 
well  educated,  are  estimated  at  31,000  in  number. 

HIA'KO,  or  KIOTO,  now  called  Sai<Kito,  the 
andeot  ca^tal  of  Japan,  aituated  in  tiia  S.-W.  of  the 
ialand  of  Nipon.  Broad  and  clean  stieeta  croes  each 
other  at  right  anglea,  and  the  honset  am  mostly  of  the 
better  claaa.  Dnrina  the  double  rale  in  Japan,  it  wu 
the  reaidenee  of  tbe  Mikado,  then  only  the  spir- 
itual emperor,  and  was  and  is  the  stroaghold  of  the 
national  religion.  Some  of  the  templea  ore  of  great 
size  and  splendour.  In  18&9,  the  great  revolution 
broke  oat ;  the  Shogun,  or  temporal  ruler,  waa 
deposed ;  and  the  MLkado,  who  waa  now  inveeted 
with  complete  authority,  both  temporal  and  apiritool, 
removed  hta  court  to  Yedo.  Most  of  the  aristo- 
cratio  dwellings  are  conaeqnently  tenantless,  and 
the  population  in  1S82  waa  only  239,125.  M.  is 
atill,  however,  the  seat  of  considerable  bade'with 
the  interior.  It  is  also  a  centre  of  Japanese  Uian^ 
tore  and  art,  and  is  well  provided  with  pablio 
schools  for  boys  and  girls.  It  is  famed  for  the 
manafocturs  and  dyeing  of  silka.  M.  is  connected 
by  railway  with  Oaaca  and  Hiogo. 

HIAW,  a  nver  of  Ohio,  United  States  ol 
America,  riaea  by  several  branches  in  the  wwtem 
eentn  ct  the  state,  and  after  a  aonth'South-west 


called  the  Great  M.,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  LitUe 
M.,  a  smaller  river,  which  nms  parallal  to  it,  IS  to 
25  miles  east,  throngh  the  Miami  Valley. 

MIA'SHA  (Qr.  pollution;  in  the  plural,  Jfiiu- 
maia),  or  MAT.ARrA,  it  jg  proved  by  the 
experieoM  ot  all  ages  that  there  is  an  intimate 
connection  betireen  manhy  districts  and  certain 
diaoaans,  especially  the  various  forms  of  inter- 
mittent and  remittent  fever ;  but  tile  exact  nature 
of  the  noxioni  agent,  and  tiie  circumBtances  on 
which  its  formation  and  extrication   depend,  are 

I™ 

orewa  of  cl^  ahipa,  when  cruising  in  the  tropics 
at  a  distance  from  land,  are  nsualfy  very  healtLy; 
it   any  known   gas   extricated   from   the 


I  hydrogen)  may  be  insirired  wiQumt  ^ving  rise  to  any 
symptoms  resembling  thoae  prodoced  by  malaria 
It  may  be  regarded  aa  an  established  fad^  that 
the  noxiona  agent  ia  a  product  of  vegetable  decom- 
position oocnrring  under  certain  oonditdona  of  heat 
and  moisture.  That  v^etable  decompadtion  is 
the  aooroe  of  the  poison,  is  inferred  fnmi  varions 
cironmstanceo.  For  'example,  this  special  morbi£i] 
inflnenoe  is  nowhere  bo  powerfol  aa  in  the  deltaa 
and  along  the  bank*  of  large  tropical  riven  which, 
in  their  flood,  brins  down  the  washingi  of  tlie 
soil,  full  of  vesetable  remains,  whieh,  apon  the 
inbaidenoe  of  the  waters,  are  left  reeking  in  the 
hot  son.  Again,  the  poison  has  been  traced,  in 
varions  places  in  Italy,  France,  and  the  Nether- 
lands, to  the  practice  ot  steeping  flax  in  stagnant 
waters,  and  even  in  sbreams ;  and  in  India,  it 
was  formerly  the  costom,  after  exfcncting  the 
colouring  matter,  to  throw  the  temains  m  the 
indigo  mto  large  heaps,  which,  in  the  oonrse  of 
three  years,  became  excellent  manmv :  it  WM 
found,  however,  that  these  heaps,  alternately  soaked 
by  thie  heavy  lains  and  heated,  by  a  tiopical  sun, 
decomposed  and  emitted  miasmata  precisely  dmilar 
in  their  effects  to  those  produced  by  marshea. 
Maish-miatmota  ace  seldom  evolved  at  •  tonpera- 


equator,  the  more  violent,  as  a  general  rule,  do  they 
become.  Althongh  moisture  la  necessary  to  the 
evolution  of  miasmata,  an  excess  of  it  often  acts  as 
a  preventdve,  and  by  impeding  the  access  of  atmo- 
spheric ur,  retail  or  prevenu  decompodlion.  This 
e^ilains  the  apparent  anomaly  of  an  uncommonly 
ramy  season  producing  opposite  eOects  in  different 
localities,  sometimes  not  far  distant  from  one 
another.  Thus,  in  the  West  Indies,  a  very  rainy 
season  induces  general  sickness  in  the  dry  and  well- 
cleared  island  of  Barbadoes ;  while  at  Trinidad, 
whose  central  portions  are  '  a  sea  of  swamp,'  and 
where  it  rains  nine  months  in  the  year,  the  exccs- 


seosons  when  rain  falls  only  eight  months  or  less, 
the  swamps  become  dry  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  and 
severe  remittent  fevers  are  sure  to  follow. 

Chemistry  has  hitlierto  failed  in  deteotang  anj 
special  ingredient  to  which  the  air  evolv^  1^ 
moishw  owes  its  poiaonous  qualities.  The  air 
collected  in  the  most  poisonou*  districts  gives, 
on  anal^aia,  the  same  gase«  existing  in  the  asma 
proporbons  aa  normal  air,  nor  (if  we  except  the 
observationB  of  Bouaaingault,  which  havo  not  been 
confinned  by  other  chemista)  does  it  give  evidence 
of  the  presence  of  any  organic  body. 

The  infecting  distance  of  this  poison  is  a  subject 
of  great  practical  importance ;  and  both  the  alti- 
tudiool  range  and  the  horizontal  apread  have  to  be 
noticed.  In  Italy,  it  ia  estimated  that  an  altitude 
of  about  1600  feet  assures  an  exemption  from  manh- 
poiaon;  while  in  the  West  Indies  ao  elevatioa  trf-at 
laBst  2000  feet  is  neeessoiy.  From  observationB 
made  by  Sir  Gilbert  Blane  during  the  ill-fated 
Walcheren  expeditiim,  it  appears  t^t,  in  Eaiope, 
tiie  horizontal  qiread  of  mush-miasmata  ovw  fresh 
water  ia  less  than  3000  feet ;  bnt  ovec  salt  water— 
at  all  events,  in  the  tropes— the  horixootal  range  is 
zreater.  The  extent  to  which  the  poison  may  Sfoead 
horizontally  over  land,  is  a  much  more  compboated 
question,  and  depends,  to  a  great  extenii  upon  the 
nature  of  the  soil  The  eflect  of  trees  in  interest- 
ing miasmata  is  very  lemarkaUe,  and  is  jwobablj 
due  partiy  to  their  ooudensing  the  vapoura  of  the 
mano,  and  part^  to  their  altering  the  direction  of 
the  current  of  air.  Foiw  Benedi^  XIV.  caused  a 
wood  to  be  eat  down  mich  separated  TiUatri  from 
the  Pontine  Manhes,  and  in  oonseqaeoo^  fo 

liiiiiii,'Rnfi/\iJ' 


jfiogJe 


MIATJTEdi-MlCHAXL  ASOELO. 


yean,  tiien  wm  m  mort  Mven  utd  f*U  farer  in  a 
dutridt  pnviouBly  liealthy ;  and  the  Mine  rerolta 
Ittve  ia  mai^  otnm  caaea  foUowed  the  remoral  of 
treea. 

In  dirtricta  when  thU  poiaon  «ziatB,  itii  fmud  by 
ezpemnoa  that  thoaa  who  do  ont  of  tbHi  hooBM 
Muy  during  th«  dty,  after  ui«  moraing  foga  hava 
diipeiaed,  and  before  the  eyening  muta  appwT> 
often  Moapa  the  bad  effectai  and  a  foil  maa^  witb 
•  few  paina  of  qaiaine^  ahould  be  taken  before 
expoanra  to  tha  mwmng  lit  by  tmveUen  in  a 
tnalaiioaj  diBbiet, 

Dr  Wood  <rf  PbJIadel^u*  baa  pointed  ont  the 


_  by  Hie  air  of  large  dtiea. 

Thoog^  malarious  dJataacB  may  tm  aronnd  a  oi^, 
and  even  inrade  Om  ontakirta,  yet  tiuv  an  nnable 
to  penetante  into  the  interior,  and  individnala  who 
sever  leave  the  thuddy-bnilt  parte  ahnoat 'olwaya 
eae^ie.  What  it  ia  in  the  air  of  the  dty  which  ia 
thua  inctrapatibla  with  malaria,  ia  miknown ;  bnt 
v«9y  piobauy  it  ia  oooneoted  with  tiie  reanlte  ol 
oombnataon,  for  tiie  fiia  and  amolce  of  oampa  are 
iianrtad  to  have  had  theaame  e&eete. 

UIATTTS^  the  abotwiiefl  or  hill-tribes  of 
Chin&i  From  Ute  dawn  of  Chineae  histoiy,  wa  find 
tile  people  of  the  plaina  contending  affunit  thoee  of 
the  high  lands,  and  to  the  present  day  the  hardy 
monn^iiteera  have  maintamed  their  independ- 
ence. They  consist  of  nnmerona  tribes,  occupying 
large  portiona  of  Kwang-a«v  Kwei-obow,  yun-nan, 
Sie-GbueD,  and  adjacent  prorincea.  Some  of  them 
own  Chinese  sway;  other  tribes  are  ahaolatsly 
independent.  They  are  Hmaller  than  the  Chiaese, 
and  unlike  in  features  as  in  ehorooter.  tllieir 
dialects  are  yarioo^  and  wholly  different  from  the 
Chiceae,  The  M,  of  Weatani  China  are  of  the 
Bame  stock  aa  the  STiana  and  Kftrpns  of  Siam  and 


BtlOA,  a  mineral  oonnsting  easenldaU^  of  a  rili- 
oate  of  alomina,  with  which  are  combmed  small 
proportians  of  mlioatea  of  potaah,  soda,  Uthia,  oxide 
of  iron,  oride  of  manganeae,  Ico.  By  theee  and  aliEbt 
extanud  di£foreacea,  mineralogists  bare  distinguished 
nnmeroua  speoiee.  MnscovrrE,  or  ComtOH  M.,  also 
called  Potash  M.,  contains  a  notable  but  variable 
proportion  of  ailicats  of  potash ;  it  contains  also  a 
little  fluorine.  It  is  a  widely  diffnaed  and  pkntifnl 
mineral,  entering  lorsely  into  the  composition  of 
granite,  mica-slate^  and  some  other  rocks,  veins  and 
nsmres  of  which  it  alio  often  fills  up.  It  baa  a 
strong,  and  often  almost  metallic  lustra.  It  is  re- 
markable  for  the  teadinea  with  which  it  splits  ' 
thin  elastic  ^atee,  which  are  generally  traospw 
The  thinness  and  elasticity  M  these  plates  readily 
distingnish  them  from  those  of  talc,  and  of  the 
laminated  variety  of  gvpmm ;  tiiey  are  also  devoid 
of  the  greasy  fed  of  tua  They  are  sometimes  not 
mi»a  than  one  SOO.OOOlh  part  of^an  inch  in  tbickneea, 
are  gaoeially  qnito  tnuurpareat,  and  were  formerly 
mnoh  need  in  setting  objects  for  the  microeoope,  bat 
for  this  purpose  thin  glam  is  now  generally  preferi  ' 
Flatea  of  mica,  often  a  yard  across,  are  fonnd 
the  mica  qnarriee  near  L^  Baikal  in  Siberia,  at 
Acworth,  New  Hampshire,  U.S.,  and  in  China. 
They  alio  ooenr  of  larse  aize  in  Sweden  and  in 
Norway;  and themineralis found inlargemasBM in 
St  Dennis  and  other  parte  of  CoruwaU.  In  Siberia, 
China,  Pern,  and  elsewhere,  mica  ia  subatdtnted  for 
^ass  in  windows.  At  one  time  it  was  used  for  this 
pnipcae  in  the  Bnssian  navy.  It  is  sometimes  pre- 
lernd  to  glass  for  lanterns,  and  especially  for  tiie 
fronts  of  stoves,  aa  not  brang  liable  to  bretw  with  a 
■ndden  ohange  of  temperature.    It  ia  also  oaefnl  for 


tlienionnta  of  natnrd  history  objectawhicharetobe 
pat  in  ipirit,  being  more  eanly  bored  than  glass.  In 
India,  small  pictures  are  frequently  paint^  in  dis- 
temper on  mioa.  Mosoovite  is  usaally  coloorlau  or 
of  a  pale  amber  Idnt,  but  it  also  occurs  whit^  SP'X* 
toDwn,  green,  dark  olive,  and  rarely  rose-red.  It  is 
aometii^  fonnd  in  beantifnt  crystals,  which  are 
geoNally  riiomhio  or  in  sti-aidad  tablet. — LnHUi 
M.,  or  Ljepidouti,  occurs  massive  in  a  scaly-granular 
form  at  Roxena  ia  Moravia  of  a  fine  pvple  or 
reddish-violet  ooloor.  This  is  a  vei^  beantifal 
mineral,  and  like  jasper,  lapis  lazuli,  £c.,  b  made  into 
ornamenti.  It  ia  fonnd  in  several  places  in  Great 
Britain,  but  not  of  sach  a  delicate  colour  as  that 
found  in  Ui^avia. — Maainsu.  M.,  or  Bionrs,  con- 
tains about  aa  much  magnesia  aa  alumina  It  ia 
often  dark  gteen. 

HI0A-80HIST  is,  next  to  gneiM,  one  of  flio 
most  abundant  of  the  Hetamotphio  Bocks  (q.  v.). 
It  coniisti  of  alternate  layers  of  mica  and  quarts, 
but  is  sometimes  composed  ahnost  entirely  of  the 
tian  and  shining  plates  or  scales  of  mica,  uid  from 
this  it  paases  by  insensible  gradatioii*  into  clay-slate, 
The  quartz  occors  pure  in  thin  layers  like  vein- 
quartz.  Oamets  are  in  eome  difrtricts  abundant  in 
uiis  rock,  making  up  a  large  proportion  of  the 
whole  mass.  Mica-schist  is  believed  to  be  a  higMy 
altered  shale  or  clay  deposit,  and  the  component 
minerals,  incladiag  the  garnets,  to  have  been 
developed  under  the  inflaenoe  of  metamorphia  action 
from  materials  already  exiirtang  in  the  unaltered 
strata.  In  many  plaoes,  the  mica-scbist  has  a  finely 
oorrugated  or  wavy  itniuture. 

MrCAH,  the  sixth  (third  in  the  Ixz.)  of  the 
twelve  minor  proiJiets  (Micavahu :  Who  is  like 
onto  Jab  n,  probably  a  native  of  Horeehetb, 
prophesied  dnnng  the  rdgns  of  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and 
Eezckiab,  and  was  therefore  contemporary  with 
IsaiaK  and  Hoeea,  and  Amos. — The  Boos  of  M.  is 
regarded  aa  divisible  into  three  parts,  each  com- 
mencing with  'Hear  ye,'  orgamcally  connected, 
however,  I  with  each<  other,  and  shewing  evens  pro- 
gressive development  of  idea  in  the  mind  of  the 
writer.  The  deetniction  of  Samaria  (Israel),  the 
ibseqnent   captivity  of   Judah    """ 


danger  an 
wictcedneai 


overtake  the  land,  the  „ __ 

theocracy  j  Jehovah'a  'controveny  with  hia  people' 
on  account  of  their  simi,  his  wamingi,  his  exhorta- 
tions, and  his  sublime  promise  of  forgivenea*,  form 
the  principal  pointe  of  BL's  prophedes,  wfaieh  rdate 
to  tiie  invasions  hr  Shalmaaeaa,  Seanaaherib^  the 
Babylonian  szile,  tiie  return,  and  the  le-eatablish- 
ment  of  tiie  theoonev  onder  Zerabbabel.  The  a^ls 
of  M.  is  clear,  vivid,  ooncise,  yet  riehly  poertical ; 
some  passages,  capeoi^y  in  the  b^nnin^  and  the 
lost  two  chqiteri,  an  among  the  noblest  m  the  Old 
Testament.  The  play  upon  worda  notioeatde  in 
Isaiah  is  also  a  marked  feature  of  this  writer. 

MICHAEL  ANGELO  (BUONAROTTI),  who, 
in  ao  age  when  Christian  art  had  reached  its  zenith, 
stood  umoet  unrivalled  as  a  punter,  sculptor,  and 
arohiteot,  was  bom  in  1474  at  Chinri,  in  Italy.  He 
was  of  noble  origin,  havingdescended  on  hia  mother's 
aide  &om  the  ancient  fanuly  of  Canossa,  in  Tuscany, 
while  the  Bnonarotti  bad  long  been  sssooiated  wim 
place*  of  tmst  in  the  Florentine  repnUio.  H.  A. 
learned  tiie  radimeoita  of  painting  from  Bertoldo,  a 


was  eataUisbed  by  Lorenm  the  Magnificent  f« 
the  stody  of  sodent  ait  in  conneotion  with  the 
ooUsctioDa  of  atatuary  in  Ifae  Hedicean  OardMia,  h* 
attraoted  the  notice  of  Lorenio  by  the  artistie  skUl 
With  which  he  had  natcmd  the  motiUtsd  htfd  <rf  » 

tr:nnoTc 


MICHAEL  Tl— MICHELEt. 


ftnii,  aJid  wu  nceired  into  the  nlace  of 
d,  whare  be  spent  Hreral  yean.  Lorenzo'" 
destli  in  1492;  and  tM  tempomi;  nvenea  viae) 
brfell  tlw  Medioi  tmSlj  in  oonaaaaMum  tt  the  inca 
Vfiaty  of  hi!  aiiMenor, fio^lad IL  A. to retira  t 
Bdogna,  iriieiiM  Iw  WMn  rraurrad  to  Bom^  whither 
liu  uuw  had  paeoeded  bim.  Si  eariiest  origiiul 
ITOib  wen  •  ^adiitf  Angel,  ■xaoitted  for  the  grav« 
of  St  Dcamiie,  at  B<^giM  t  the  atatoM  ol  Bacohm 
and  Dand  at  Horenoet  and  •  raunificent  oroDp 
npraaentfaig  Om  Malet  jMoma,  whidi  waa  plaoed 
fa  St  Pater*!,  at  BomeL  Next  in  order  of  time,  and, 
acootding  to  aoow  of  hia  oontemponriea,  fint  in 
meri^  rank*  U.  Ju'a  Kreot  eartocn  for  the  dooal 
palaoa  at  PhinDiM^  whidi,  together  with  the  pendant 
flzacoted  br  Leonarde  da  vind,  haa  long  iboa 
parillied.  Thii  work,  which  reprcaented  a  aoene  in 
tbe  wan  with  Kia,  when  a  nnmbar  of  yonnjt  Flor- 
(ntinee,  whila  bathins  in  the  Amo,  are  anrpnaed  bj 
an  attaek  of  th«  Puana,  shewed  lo  maivetloDa  a 
fcnowle^e  -  of  the  anatomioal  derelonnent  of  tiie 
bmnan  &aie,  and  anch  extraordinaiy  Wilitj  in  the 
powow  A  ezaoaliOD,  tbat  it  became  a  abufy  foe 
artitta  of  enrj  laud,  and  bv  ila  ezeellenoe  created  a 
new  era  in  ark  Pope  JuSoa  IL  called  U.  A.  to 
Rome,  I  and  oonuniiaianed  him  to  make  hia  monu- 
ment, which  wai  to  be  erected  wiibin  St  Feter'a. 
Althongh  thia  work  waa  never  completed  en  the 
aoloaaaT  scale  on  which  it  Jiad  been  designed, 
and  waa  nltimately  erected  in  the  chnrob  of  8t 
Pietro  ad  Vinonla,  it  is  a  magoifioent  compoiitit>n, 
and  is  memonble  for  having  given  occaaion  to  the 
reoonstmotion  of  St  Feter'a  on  its  present  snblime 
plan,  in  order  the  better  to  adapt  it  to  thaooloaaal 


inaiated  upon  M,  A.  pamting  with  hi*  own  band  the 
wiling  of  the  Siatine  Ch^el,  and,  altboti^  onwill- 
Ingly/b*  begw  in  1S06,  mkI  conqdeted  wiUiin 


than  two  yeara  hit  odossal  task,  which  fvored  one 
of  the  moat  marreUons  of  hia  work*.  Hie  anb- 
Jecta  of  these  cartoons  are  taken  from  tile  book  of 
Genesii,  whilo  between  these  and  the  lepreaenta- 
tiona  at  tbe  psisona  of  the  Saviooi'i  senealogf  are 
oolossal  figniea  d  prophets  and  ail^la*  MTA-'s 
genins  was  too  often  trammelled  Yiy  Uie  twworthr 
tMkt  in  which  Leo  X.  and  sncoMdve  pop«a  engaged 
him,  the  former  having  employed  bim  for  yean  in 
excavating  road*  for  uie  tranaportatjon  ot^marble 
from  Gamra,  and  in  other  ionoble  labonn.  The 
Florentioes  and  Bolognese  vied  witb  tbe  pontdfis  in 
ttyingtoseeBrebisserviaeai  and  to  his  sldll  at  an 
engineer  Florraioa  waa  indebted  for  the  plans  of  tiie 
fortificationa  by  which  she  was  enabled  for  a  pro- 
JoDged  time  to  resist  the  atl«mptB  of  the  Medici  to 
recover  poaiession  of  the  aby  after  tiieir  eipnlnon 
from  it>  On  tbe  sorreoder  of  Florence,  be  retnmed 
to  Borne,  where  his  great  pictnre  of  the  Last  Judg- 
ment waa  painted  for  the  altar  of  tbe  Siatine  Cha[)d. 
Thia  colossal  fresoo)  neariy  70  feet  in  height,  wiiich 
waa  completed  in:  1641,  waa  regarded  hj  contem- 
porary oritica  ■■  having  tarpasaed  all  his  other 
Worka  for  tbe  onparalleled  powers  of  iDventton  and 
the  conanmmata  knowledge  of  the  human  %are 
which  it  displayed.  Aitei  its  completion,  M.  A. 
devoted  himself  to  tbe  perfecting  of  St  Peter's, 
which,  by  the  tondh  of  bis  geoiuj^  was  converted 
from  a  mere  Saracenio  hall  into  tbe  moat  anperb 
model  of  a  Cluiitiaa  cbnrch.  He  refoaed  all  remu- 
neratian  tor  tbis  labour,  which  he  regarded  as  a 
service  to  the  gloiy  of  Ood.  M  A.  died  in  1(EG3,  at 
Bomev  but  bi*  remaina  were  removed  to  Florence, 
and  laid  witUu  the  dinrch  of  Santa  Croce.  Hia 
piety,  benevolence,  and  liberality  made  him  goiecally 
beloved ;  uid  in  xb«  blatory  m.  art;  no  name  shines 
with  a  more  nnsnlbed  Inttn  dian  that  of  Michael 
Angela— See  Yuari's  Fife  d^  PUtoti  (Eog.  tnui), 


and  lives  W  Dqppa  (1806),  Harford  (1857),  Wilson 
(1876),  and  H.  Grimm  (Hanover,  Gth  ad.  1879). 
MICHAEL  TL,  anmamed  Palxologd^  empercc 

of  Constantinople    See  PAueoLOOca. 

MICHABLIS,  Joounr  David,  one  of  the  moat 
eminent  and  learned  biblical  acholsrs  of  tbe  18th  o- 
'  'la,  where 
a  tbeolo- 

After  completing  bis  studies  at  his  native 
university,  he  travelled  in  Eoglaud  and  Holland, 
where  he  made  tbe  acqosintanoe  of  aeveral  cele- 
brated scbolan.  In  174^  be  became  a  profeaaor  of 
iMoaopby  at  Giittingen,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
the  formation  of  a  adentiSo  aasociation  there 
From  1753  to  1770,  he  was  one  of  the  editon  of 
the  QlXingtr  gdda-tea  Anzagoi,  and  for  some  yean 
he  filled  Uie  office  of  Ubruian  to  the  Dniversi^. 
During  the  Seven  Years'  War,  he  was  occupied  m 
making  prepv^tiona  for  an  ezpeditian  of  diacovery 
in  Arabia,  which  waa  afterwards  made  by  Nietmhr. 
In  tbe  latlsr  yean  of  hia  life,  he  was  almost  always 
in  the  professorial  chair  or  at  his  desk.  He  died  on 
22d  Angost  1791.  M.  waa  a  man  of  vast  attain- 
ment in  histoi^  and  arotueolo^,  and  his  labonn 
were  of  great  importance  in  ue  departments  of 
Biblical  ^Leeeaia  mid  Hiatory.  He  may  be  regarded 
at  among  uie  earliest  of  the  critical  scl^ol  of 
German  tbeologian*,  bnt  be  lived  at  too  early  a 
period  to  acquire   anything  like   a  counstont  "~ 


bow|thon 

tboi^  he  ,        , 

considered  a  Divine  reveUtion.    Many  of  bis  pnpi 

became  professors,  and  disaeniinated  bit  principlea 

through  the  German  nniveraities. 

M't  chief  worlui  are  hia  EinleUung  in  diegSU- 
Ikhea  Bdaiffen  da  JTcuea  Bvndet  (2  vols.  Oittt. 
17S0i  Wnglwh  by  Bishop  Manb) ;  his  Motaitchet 
Sedti  (6  vola.  Frankf.  1770—1775;  English  by  Dr 
Alexander  Smith,  1S14):  and  bis  Moral  (3  vola, 
OBtb  1792—1823).  See  hia  i/ebou^eaArei&ufV  «»■ 
ttin  aeStf  ahg^OMt  (Binteln  nnd  Leip.  1793). 

UI'OHABLMASPAJST.    SeeAfliu. 

UICHABLHAS  DAT,  one    of   the   Bnglisb 
for  payment  of  rent  1^ 

jringwhidi  t 

law  ai^  equity  tit  daily  tat  i 
It  begins  on  tbe  2d,  and  ends  ot 
Michaelmas  Head  Conrt  is  the  ni 

innnalmeetiiiKof  heri 

ity  to  revise  we  roll  of  freeholder^  the 
dnfciea  being  new  discharged  by  the  Commiasionen 
of  Supply. 

HIOHELBT,  Jdlk,  a  brilliant  Frenob  Urtorian, 

bom  at  Paris  21et  Angast  1708.    He  atndied  wiBi 

great  succeea  nnder  Tillemain  and  Ledere,  and  at 

Uie  ago  of  23  became  a  profeasor  in  the  CoUfige 

illin,  where  he  taught  history,  philoeophy,  and 

_j  cUeaica.    In  1826,  he  pnbliahed  Le»  TaHeaux 

Sjmchrtmiiput  de  VHUtoire  Modeme,  and  was  named 

Master  of  Confereacea  {MoVre  det  Cojiftrenea)  at 

the  Eaie  Normaie.     Alter  tbe  rerolotion  of  \SI30,  be 

waa  chosen  head  of  tiie  hiatorio  section,  intrusted 

wiUi  tbe   oare  of   tbe  arduvea  ot   tbe   kinsdom, 

~  itant  to  Guizot  at  the  Sorbonna,  and  tutor  to 

Vrmam  Clementine,  dan^ter  of  tbe  Trench 

and  pnblished  several  valuable  books,  snob 

rid*  de  VHitloin  Modtma  (1833,  oi  iriiidi 

there  have  been  more  tban  SO  edition*),  JPrteU  de 

FHittokedel^rtmtejutqii.'itaStvohliw'' 


a^ 


HICmaAH— HICBOMETECL 


{tito  7th  editum  of  vhich  appeared  in  1S42),  MtmiAra 
de  LttlAtr  (183S),  Origmea  da  Droit  Frantfti* 
ditreila  dan*  let  Bymboia  ft  SotitwU*  du  Droit 
Utiivertd  (1837).  In  1S38,  lie  nicceeded  Daunau 
in  ttie  Coll^  da  France,  and  Comta  BetDhord  in 
the  pTofeasoiahip  oE  Moral  FbiloBophy.  He  now 
pIuukmI  into  controveitj  irith  all  tUa  vivadty  and 
impSuoeity  of  bis  nature.  The  Jesuito  were 
grand  objects  of  bis  dislike ;  and  eloquence,  sarci 
(entunent,  and  liiatory  were  all  brondit  to  bear  upon 
them  with  brilliant  effect  Three  l>ookH  were  the 
fmite  of  his  polemic :  Det  Jttuilt,  in  oonjnnotion 
with  Edsar  Quinet  (1843) ;  Du  Prttrc,  dc  la  Femmt, 
tt  de laFamiiU  (1844) ;  Du PeupU_ (1846).  In  1847 
appeared  the  firat  volume  oj  hia  Histoin  de  la 
JBfvolution;  and  it  was  finished  in  1853,  in  6  Tola. 
When  the  affair  of  1848  broke  out,  acting  more 
wisely  than  moat  of  his  learned  foV'^J'^,  ha  declined 
to  take  an  active  part  in  political  itrugdes,  and 
quietly  pataued  hia  litarary  avocations.  He,  how- 
aver,  loit  his  altaatioD  in  tlie  Archives  Office  after 
the  coup  tPilai,  by  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegianca  to  Louis  Napoleon.  Other  workl  of  bis 
were  L'Oiimu  (1856),  L'lnteeU  (1887),  L'Amowr 
(1858),  and  La  Femme  (1869) ;  La  Her  (1861),  La 
Sorclire  (1862),  La  Bible  de  VEimaaM  (1864) ;  and 
Not  ^U  (1869),  a  plea  for  compulaory  edncatioa. 
His  maater-piecQ  is  his  HittiArt  de  France,  continued 
in  Hiatdn  de  Ut  Biwhtiwt  Frantaige,  and  Hutoire  du 
SIX"  Stick.    M.  died  at  Ey«ire(,9Ui  Fab.  1874. 

MIOHIGAK,  one  of  tha  United  SUtea  of 
America,  lying  in  Ut  41°  40"— 48°  W  N.,  and  long. 
82°  2S'— 90°  34'  W.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
Lake  Superior  and  St  Mory'i  River;  K.  by  lAke 
Huron  and  Loka  Erie  ;  3.  by  the  states  of  Ohio  and 
Indiana ;  and  W.  by  Lake  Michigan  and  by  Wia- 
oonun,  and  baa  an  area  of  58,915  sq.  m,  or  37,705,600 
aorea.  M.  waa,  in  1880,  the  fonrUi  in  order  of  the 
great  wheat- producing  states.  The  capital  is  Lan- 
sing ;  the  oluef  towns  are  Detroit,  Qiaad  liapida. 
East  Suinaw,  Jackaon.  Bay  City,  Saginaw  City,  &c. 
M.  is  (uvidcd  by  Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron  into 


•bout  one-third  Uie  area  of  the  state,  [liea  between 
the  northern  portions  of  Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron, 
and  Lake  Superior;  while  the  lower  ia  nearly  enclosed 
ID  a  vast  hone-shoe  bend  of  lakes  Michigan,  Huron, 
Ekie,  and  tlie  connecting  straits  and  rivers.  In  the 
upper  peninsula  are  the  Porcupine  Mountajng,  risin) 
to  a  ^^8^^  *>f  2000  feet,  with  sant^  plaiiu  ant 
foreata.  The  aoathem  is  a  level,  rich,  fertile  country 
of  prairiea  and  oaknipenin^  watered  by  nnmer- 
ona  rivetti,  as  tha  Grand,  Kalimazoo,  Muskegon, 
Saginaw,  to.  The  lower  peninsula  is  of  Umeetone 
strata,  vrith  coal  and  gypsum ;   the  upper,  of  : 

fbrmationB,  with  metamorphio  slatea,  gneiss  n , 

trap,  and  rich  minea  of  copper  and  iron.  The 
climate  is  mild  in  Ute  sonthem,  and  cold  and  bleak 
in  the  northern  regions.  The  southern  portion  pro- 
dqces  wheat,  maizet  fmita,  butter,  cheese,  and  wool 
in  great  abundance.  Vast  quantities  of  pine-lumber 
are  exported  from  the  nortbsm  half  of  the  vtate. 
The  prinoipal  manufactores  ate  flour  and  wooUeni. 
The  extensive  coast  and  riveia  afford  great  fadUtira 
to  navisKtion,  while  •event)  nulways  traverse  tJie 
state.  The  govamment  is  similar  to  those  of  the 
other  states,  and  the  school-system  is  based  on  that 
of  Prussia,  with  abundant  revenuee  from  public  laoda. 
The  university  of  M.  at  Ann  Arbor  has  44  profeaaors. 
In  ISSl  forest  fires  raged  over  50  square  miles  of 
M.,  oansed  the  death  of  600  persons,  and  tendered 
EOOO  homeleaiL  Detroit  was  settled  in  1610  by  the 
French,  who  also  established  a  trading  poit  at  Mac- 
kinaw, at  about  the  same  period.  The  British  took 
Deteoit  in  1812,  but  restored  it  at  the  end  of  tha  war. 


The  itata  wu  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1837. 
Pop.  (1840)  212,267:  (1860)  897,664;  (1870) 
1,184,296;  (1880)  1,636,9?7. 

MICHIGAN,  a  lake  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  the  second  in  size  of  the  five  great  fresh- 
water lakes,  and  the  only  one  lying  wholly  in  the 
United  State*,  tuning  Michigan  on  the  N.  and  K, 
and  Wisconsin  on  the  W.  It  is  32D  tnilee  long,  70 
mUee  in  mean  breadth,  and  1000  feet  in  me*ii  d^th. 
It  is  678  feet  above  the  level  of  the  an,  and  bai 
been  found  by  accnrate  observation*  to  have  a  lunar 
tidal  wave  of  three  inches.  It  is  tha  outlet  of 
numerous  riveii,  and  is  connected  by  a  canal,  and 
eometimw  by  flooded  rivers,  with  the  Missiasiwa, 
which  is  believed  to  have  been  ila  ancient  outlet  It* 
principal  harbonn  are  ijiose  of  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 
and  Grand  Haven;  and  its  bold  and,  at  certain 
seasons,  dangeroua  shoR*  are  guarded  by  23  light- 
houses. It  umis,  with  the  lower  lakes  and  tha  3t 
Lawrence,  a  natural  ontlet  for  one  of  the  richest 
grain-growing  regions  in  the  world. 

MI'OBOCOSM  Aim  HACROCOSU.  The 
belief,  current  in  ancient  times,  that  the  world  or 
cosmos  was  animated,  or  had  a  soul  (see  Anima 
Mdndi),  led  to  the  notion,  that  the  parta  and 
members  of  organic  beings  must  have  their  counter- 
parts  in  the  members  (3  the  cosmos.  Thus,  in  a 
hymn  ascribed  to  Orpheus,  the  sun  and  moon  are 
looked  upon  «a  tiie  eyes  of  the  animating  godhead, 
the  earth  and  its  mountains  as  bis  body,  the  ether 
as  hia  intellect,  the  sky  as  his  wings.    Xlie  natural 

{biloaophers  of  tiie  16th  c.—Paracelius  at  their 
ead — took  up  this  notion  anew  in  a  somewhat 
modified  shape,  and  considered  the  worid  as  a 
human  organiam  on  the  large  scale,  and  man  as  a 
world,  or  cosmos,  ia  miniature ;  henoa  they  called 
man  a  mitroeomn  (6r.  UtUe  world),  and  tba  naivene 
itself,  the  piaeroeotm  (great  world).  With  this  was 
associated  the  belief,  that  the  vital  movements  of 
:tly  corresponded  to  tlune  of  the 


copy ;  and  this  led  naturally  to  the  further  assuinp- 
tion,  that  the  movements  of  the  stars  must  exercist 
an  influence  on  the  temperament  and  fortanes  of 
men.    See  AarsoLOOY. 

MICBOCO'SMIO  SAIiT  is  a  tribune  phosphate 
of  soda,  oxide  of  ammonium,  and  water,  which 
crystalliaea  with  8  equivoleate  of  water,  its  fi 
being  NaO,H^'0,HO,PO.  +  8Aq.  It  U  pr 
by  mixing  a  not  solution  of  6  ports  of  pho 
of  soda  with  a  concentrated  soluldon  of  1 


muriate  of  oaunouia,  when  the  miorooosmio  salt 
crystallises  in  large  tmupareDt  prisma,  while  com- 
mon salt  remains  m  sohitioii.  On  the  application  of 
heat,  it  first  loses  its  water  of  dystaUisotioii,  and 
then  its  oxide  of  ammoninm  and  buio  w^ter,  so  that 
only  metaphoaphate  of  soda  lemaina,  whidi,  from 
its  ready  fusibility  into  a  colaurlesa  glass,  is  valu- 
able as  a  flux  in  blow-pi_pe  experimenU.  See  Blow- 
riFK.    This  salt  occurs  m  decomposed  urine. 

HICRO'METKB  (Gr.  miJcro$,  LtUe;  mOrw, 
measure)  is  an  iostruiueut  used  for  tlie  measure- 
ment of  minute' distances  and  angles.  Its  different 
forms,  depending  on  different  principlea,  may  be 
divided  into  two  sections,  according  as  tbey  are 
applied  to  Physics  or  Asteouomy.  Of  the  former 
section  are  the  Vernier  (q,v.)  aud  the  Mioromatcr 
Screw,  the  latter  instrument  beinE  merely  a  screw 
with  B  very  regular  thread,  and  a  Uive  round  head, 
which  is  carefully  graduated,  geuertuly  to  sixtieUia, 
and  furnished  with  an  index.  It  is  easily  seen  that 
if  a  complete  turn  of  the  screw  advance  its  point 
^th  of  an  inch,  a  turn  sufGcient  to  pass  tha  index 
from  oae  graduation  to  another  will  onl^  advance 
it  nVith  of  on  inch,  &c.    This  is  the  mieromalei 

H.II.LL.I.COO'ilC 


MICEOPBONE-MICfiOSCOPE. 


Uied  in  tlie  conatruction  knd  gradnatton  of  lustra- 
mentB.  Of  tiioae  applied  to  aatroiiomicAl  pnrpoua, 
fha  most  limpls  i*  a  Khort  tubt^  acroos  the  openini 
of  wliich  are  itretched  two  parallel  threadH,  whid 
ttM  tnoved  to  or  from  each  omer  by  acrews.  These 
threads  an  cnwsed  bj  a  tbiid  p«rpendictilarly,  and 
the  whole  ifipanttm  is  placed  in  the  foctu  of  a  lens. 
The  distanoe  of  two  itsn  is  fonnd  by  adjoating  the 
two  parallel  thnadi,  one  to  paaa  thronsh  the  centre 
«f  each  star,  taking  care  thai  the  thieada  are  placed 
perpendioalBT  to  the  line  joining  the  stais,  --' 
finding  how  many  turns  and  parts  of  a  turn  t 
screw  are  required  to  bring  the  wires  to  coincide, 
lie  an^le  of  podtion  of  two  stan  is  also  obtained 
by  turning  round  the  instruuieat  till  the  third  wire, 
wnioh  is  normally  horizontal,  bisecta  both  stars,  and 
reading  off  on  the  etronmference  the  aro  passed 
oyer.  Framthofa's  tumtukd  annitiar  micrometer 
oonmata  merely  of  a  steel  ring  BOrronnded  by  a  flat 


rim  of  glacB,  and  the  position  of  the  star  ia  dednoed 
from  the  time  when  it  cnwaes  the  ring  and  ita  path 
while  within  it.  The  Abbd  Kochon  enbatitated  for 
the  wire  micrometer  one  made  of  two  prisms  of  rook- 
arystal  or  Iceland  spar,  capable  of  doable  refractiim. 

HIGROPHONK     This  iutminent,  invented  i 


1ST8  by  Professor  Hughes,  doM  for  faint  •oonda 
what  the  Microaoopefq.T.t  does  for  matter  to  " 

for  sight ;  the  iall  of  a  bit  of  tissue-paper 


Microaoope  (q. 
„     ;  the  Wl  of  I  ,   . 

tread  of  a  fly  being  rendered  audible  at  many  miles 
distance.  In  principle  the  microphone  illnstrat«a 
the  action  of  sonorona  vibratioiiB  on  the  strength  of 
an  electric  current.  One  of  the  most  sensitive  sab- 
Btanoes  for  microphonia  action  is  willow-charcoal, 
plunged  in  a  state  of  white  heat  into  meronir. 
theory  ia  that  in  a  homogeneooa  ooodnetor  vu 
preedons  and  dilatationa,  of  the  molecules  balance 
each  other,  and  no  variation  of  current  ensne^  iriiile 
under  minate  snbdivision,  with  electrioU  contuni^, 
■onorons  waves  affeot  the  strength  of  an  electnc 
current,  and  variations  in  the  cnrrent  reproduce 
•onorons  waves.  One  form  of  microphone  consists 
of  a  piece  of  mercury -tempered  carbon,  an  inch  long, 
placed  vertically  between  two  carbon-blocka  hol- 
towed  to  receive  its  ends,  wires  coimecting  the 
Uockg  with  the  battery  and  the  receiver  by  which 
the  aoonds  are  to  be  heard.  *  A.  piece  of  willow- 
oharooal,'  says  the  inventor,  'the  size  of  a  pin's- 
head  is  mffident  to  rqtroduoe  articulate  speech.' 
Two  nails  laid  parallel,  with  wire  connectioni^  and 
a  third  nail  laid  across  them,  make  a  simple  form 
of  micrttphone.  A  few  cells  of  any  form  of  Iwtteiy 
may  be  used-  A  continnona  sound  has  been  made 
by  the  mntnal  interaction  of  the  micKphone  and 
l^ephone  (q.v.),  each  instrument  in  turn  repeating 
the  sound  made  by  the  other.  Many  useful  ap^ioa- 
tiona  of  the  microphone  have  been  made  or  suggeated. 
UI'OBDSOOPB  (Or.  nuhvt,  maO,  and  ^peo, 
I  aee)  is  an  instaunent  lor  j-nahliHg  us  to  azamine 
td>ject8  which  aie  so  small  aa  to  be  almost  or  qnite 
nndiaoemiUe  by  ths  maided  e]%  Its  eariy  history 
iaobaonre;  but  aa  it  is  qnite  endent  the  property  of 
ma^fying  pcsMwed  by  the  leiu  must  have  been 
noticed  SB  soon  as  it  wsa  made,  we  are  quite  safe  in 
attribating  its  enitence  in  ita  simplen  form  to  a 
period  coiuideTably  anterior  to  tiie  time  of  Christ. 
It  ia  generally  believed  that  the  first  compound 
microaoope  was  made  by  Zaohsriaa  Jansen,  aDutch- 
man,  in  the  year  1690,  and  was  ezhiUted  to  Jamea 
L  in  London  by  hia  astronomer,  Cornelias  Drebbd, 
in  ISlft.  It  was  then  a  verr  imperfect  iiMtrament, 
oolonring  and  distortug  ul  objecta.  For  many 
yean,  it  was  mcav  a  toy  than  a  useful  inBtrameot, 
and  it  was  not  untjl  the  invention  of  the  achromatic 
leoB  by  Hall  and  Dollond,  and  ita  ap^icstion  to  the 
mioTOfoope  by  litta  and  oUien,  that  it  reached  the 


advanced  poution  it  now  occupies  among  scientifla 


An  object  to  be  magnified  requires  simply  that 
it  be  broaeht  nearer  to  the  eye  tlian  when  first 
examined,  out  as  the  focal  distance  of  the  eye 
ranges  from  6  inches  to  14  inches — 10  inches  being 
the  avera^  focal  distance — it  follows  that  a  limit  to 
the  roagnihring  power  of  the  eye  is  attained  when- 
ever the  object  to  be  examined  is  brought  so  near. 
If,  however,  we  blacken  a  card,  and  [uerce  a  hole  in 
it  with  a  fine  needle,  and  then  examine  a  minate 
object,  as,  for  instance,  the  wing  of  an  insect  held 
aboat  an  inch  from  the  card,  we  shall  see  it  dis- 
tinctij,  and  that  too  mi^nified  aboat  ten  times  ita 
size.  TluB  is  explained  by  the  fact,  that  the  pin- 
hole limita  the  divergeooe  of  the  pencil  of  rays,  so 
that  the  eye  can  oonveive  it  si^oieutly  on  the 
retina  to  prodnca  a  distinct  impresstou,  which  is 
faint ;  sad  did  not  the  blackened  card  exclude  all 
other  hght,  it  would  be  lost.  If  we  now  remove  the 
blackened  card  without  either  removing  our  eye  or 
tli«  object  under  examination,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  insect'a  wing  is  almost  inviaibla,  the  nnassisled 
eye  beJi^  unable  to  see  deariy  an  object  ao  near 
as  one  uch ;  thna  demonstrrang  the  blackened 
card  with  the  needle-hole  in  it  to  be  sa  decided  a 
instromeat  as  any  set  of  lenses. 


maguifo'iDg  i 
By  tile  ap 


lines  drawn  from  tbs 
centre  i^  the  eye  to  the  extremitiea  of  the  object 
which  is  lawr  when  the  object  is  nearer  the  eye 
than  when  further  removed.  Thii  angle  is  called 
the  anfile  of  vision,  and  ia  quite  distinct  from  the 
anitle  M  the  pencil  of  light,  t>y  which  the  object  is 

focal  length  of  a  lens  determines  tia 

magnifying  power.    Ilie  object  to  be 


The  focal  length  of 

„ yin^  power.    Hie  obiec  . 

plaoad  in  its  focns,  so  that  toe  light  which  diverges 


omn  eaoh  point  may,  after  refnution  by  the  I^is, 
proceed  to  the  eye  in  Lues  as  nearly  paralld  as  is 
for  distinct  vision.    Thna,  in  fig.  I,  AB  ia 


r-- 


FiftL 

a  double  convex  lens,  in  the  foeoa  of  which  we  have 
T)  an  arrow,  BF,  to  represent  the  object  under 
inspection.  The  eonea  drawn  from  its  extremities 
are  portioiis  of  the  rays  of  light  div^rang,  from 
these  points,  and  *«'*'"  g  on  the  lens.  Isese  rays, 
if  not  interrupted  in  their  course  by  the  lens  AB, 
would  be  too  divergent  to  permit  their  being 
brought  to  a  focus  upon  the  retina  by  the  lenses 
which  constitate  the  eye.  But  as  they  are  first 
passed  through  the  lens  AB,  they  aro  bent  into 
nearly  paraUd  lines,  oc  into  lines  diverginK  from 
P^ta  within  the  limita  of  distinct  vision,  as 
CD.  Thus  bent,  these  ravs  are  received  by  the 
IB  if  proceeding  from,  tia  larger  arrow  CD, 
which  we  may  BUppcee  to  be  ten  inches  from  the 
and  then  the  ratio  of  the  length  <rf  the  virtual 
je  to  that  of  the  i«al  arrow  (neariy  10  to  1) 
gives  the  magnifying  power  of  the  lens  in  qnestioB. 
The  ratio  of  CD  to  EP  ia  the  same  as  that  of  HO 
to  KG.  Now,  HO  is  the  distance  of  distinct  vision, 
and  KO  the  focal  length  of  the  leua,  so  that  the 
magnifying  power  of  a  lens  is  obtained  by  dividing 
the  distance  of  distinct  vision  (tea  inobes  for  most 


indiTiduals)  by  its  focal  length.  Thus,  U  the  focal 
length  of  a  lena  be  \  inch,  the  magnifying  powei 

Jt  -Y-  —  40.      ThM    mppous    that    the    diitance 

between  the  eye  and  the  lea*  i>  eo  imall  aa  not 
materially  to  interfei«  with  the  oonectnen  of  thia 
ftatement. 

W«  lutTB  aappoied  the  whole  of  the  light  to  enter 
Hie  eye  throngh  the  lam  AB  (%  1),  bnt  we  most 
noir  atato  that  lo  large  a  pencil  of  light  paaiing 
throng  *  nngil*  leni  would  be  ao  diatorted  by  it« 

3hencal  figure^  and.  by  the  ohrontatio  diipenion 
th«  glai^  aa  topradnce  a  very  indietinct  and 
impctftot  image.  Tbi«  ia  bo  far  reotified  by  applv- 
ing  a  itop  to  th*  lens,  ao  aa  to  allow  only  the 
oaDtral  pcnrlaon  of  the  pencil  to  pMi.  Bat  while 
•nch  •  fimited  psnoil  wonld  lepreMnt  eanMOy  the 
tona  and  oolonr  of  the  objeot,  m  ■mall  a  peiKnl  of 
hfht  ia  unable  to  bear  difraaion  orer  the  nMgnifiad 
piotore,  and  ii  therefeve  inmpaUe  of  dif^ving 
thoae  oiganio  nurkinga  on  **■»"*!■  o^  fAanta  wmbfi 


WM  the  fint  to  ovarooma  thia  diffionlty,  which  he 
achieved  by  aonitruotiDK  *  donblet  (fig.  2),  which 

eonaiibi  of  two  plaso-oonTex  lenaa^ 

^'         ~^       havisg  their  food  lengtha  in  the  pn>- 

^^   ^^     portion  of  1  to  3,  and  plaoed  at  a 

^""^^        distanM  beat  aaoartaiueii  by  ezpm- 

^■*  ment.    Their  idane  lidea  are  plM«d 

gig.  2.         toward!  tito  object,  and  the  lena  ai 

■borteit  focal  length  next  the  object. 

By  thia  arrangement,  the  diatwtion  CMtied  brthe  fint 

lens  ia  ooiracted  by  the  oeeond,  and  a  weU-deflned 

and  illuminated  im»ge   ia   Men.    Dr  Wollaotoi^a 

donblet  wm  further  impMved  by  Mr  Holland,  who 

Mhvtitiited  two  leniM  mr  tiia  flrtt  in  Dr  WoUaiton'a 

doublet,  and  rataiued  the  itop  between  than  and 

tlia   third.     Hiia    combination,   thon^   generally 

called  a  triplet,  i«  virtnally  a  doublet,  inasmuoh  aa 

the  two  leooes  only  accompUah  what  the  ani«rior 

^^___^^      lena  did  in  Dr  Wollaaton'a  doublet, 

j--^ — ^i^    althongh  with  leea  preciBion.     In 

^^__^^^      thia  combination  (fig.  3)  of  lenseo, 
^yTT'^  tile  enora  are  still  further  reduced 

by  the  dooe  approximation  of  the 
leniee  to  the  object,  which  cauoes 
the  refractiooa  to  take  place  near 


Kg.  3. 


light  traiuinitted,  ai 

vivid  imagspreaented  to  the  ^e. 

8S»^  Ilieto»eope. — By  thi*  term  we  mean  tut 
fawlniment  hv  meaoa  of  which  we  view  the  object 
thi«Mgh  tha  lena  direotly.  These  inobumenta  may 
be  divided  into  two  duoea — fhooe  aimply  used  in 
the  hand,  and  thoaa  provided  with  a  atand  or  frame, 
to  wruiaed  «•  to  be  capahla  of  being  adjutted  by 
iDMns  of  a  screw  to  it<  exact  focal  diitanoe,  ai^ 
of  being  moved  over  different  parta  of  the  object. 
The  aingle  lenoe*  used  may  be  either  a  double 
oonvei  or  •  plano-oouvex.  When  a  higher  power 
Ii  wanted,  •  double^  luoh  aa  we  have  aueady 
dooribed,  may  be  employed,  or  »  Coddington  kna, 

0  which  couourta  (S^  4)  erf  a  nhere 


which  a  groove  _._..._  _  ..  _, 
with  opaqae  matter.  Thia  ia  perha^ 
''--  moot  convenient  hand  leno,'--  ■* 


matters  little,  from  ita  ipherical  form, 
in  what  j;K»tion  it  ia  feld.  In  the 
pj-  ^  timple  mioroeoope,  single  or  oombined 
■  knse*  may  be  anployed,  vaiying  from 
ftqnarier  to  two  inohea.  There  are  many  different 
kind*  et  ttanda  for  ample  inicro«c<^)e«  made,  but 
■a  ttiey  h«  ^ineipally  nied  for  diaoeotion,  the  moat 
imp<NtRnt  ptdnt  next  to  good  glaoiea  ia  to  oaonre 
» tirm  large  ■tags  for  otQip^'ti'V  *^  ol^eata  nndw 


the  stoEe-n: 

when  tite   doublet   or   triplet  is  emplOTed,   i 
more  delicate  adjustment  than  that  <a  ua  hai 
nec«esai7. 
Odmpattnd  Mkrotoope. — In  tfaa  oomponnd 
"'  a-      -  rt  view  the  object  di 

:  moture  of  the  ob, 
formed  by  one  lens  or  aet  of  lenoea,  and  that  image 


aeen  tmtingh  another  lena.  The  compound )  .  . 
aoope  oonaiata  of  two  lenaea,  an  object  and  an  eye 
lens;  bnt  each  of  thtae  nu^  be  oompoonded  nt 
«d».».i  ]»....-  playing  the  port  "'  """    "*  "~  **■" 

lope.     Th«   —  '- 


nmide  miorosoopa. 


the  eye,  and  the  object-lena  that  next  tiw 

objecti  The  former  ia  alao  called  the  ooolar,  and 
the  Utt«r  the  objeotive.  The  objeet-^aaa  ia 
generally  made  of  two  a  three  acbromatao  lonawt 
iriiile  the  •y».[aeoe  gammlly  oonalata  of  two  ploao- 
lenaea^  with  their  flat  face*  next  the  eye, 

the  anma  of  thmr  focal  kngtha, 

........       „       r  Itop  between  tham.    Luiaea 

ol  high  power  are  ao  email  aa  to  admit  onl^  a  very 
amall  beam  irf  light,  and  oODoeqnently  what  is  envied 
in  magni^rjng  Mwer  ia  often  worthleas  from  deficient 
illnmiiution.  varioua  devices  have  been  employed 
to  overcome  thia  difiioulty.  The  light  may  be  oon- 
ceirtrated  by  acihiomatio  condena«n  piaaei  beneath 
the  atwie,  in  the  cuTTatnre  of  the  lena  may  be  anch 
aa  to  allow  aa  large  a  number  of  divergent  nyt  aa 
poaaible  to  imnnge  upon  it  Sueh  a  lent  ia  aaid  to 
have  a  large  *an^e  m  aptrtorc^'  the  angle  of  aper- 
ture being  tliat  made  by  two  linea  oonver^ng  from 
1^  margins  of  the  lens  to  its  focal  point.  Beoently 
lenaes,  termed  *  Immernon  lenoea,'  have  been  ~ 


drop  of  water  placed  over  Uie  otdeot,  light  ia  ad- 
mitted on  all  rides.  With  ao  inuaermon  lena,  there  ia 
high  magnifying  power  with  mffloient  illnminatioii. 
The  toUowing  diagram  (fig.  E)  explain*  the 
manner  in  which  the  oomponnd  ntfcroscope  acta, 
We  have  here  repr«eented  Ola 
triple  achrcmatta  objective,  cm- 
listing  of  three  achromatio  leoaee 
combined  in  one  tob^  in  connec- 


vne  neia-eiaas  r\r,  ana  cue    .  , 

, .  „  B  EE.  Three  rays  of  ligjit  T  | 
are  represented  as  proceeding  from  :  I 
the  centre,  and  three  from  each 
end  of  the  objecb  ^ese  rays 
would,  if  not  interfered  with,  form 
an  image  at  AA;  bat  coming  in 
contact  with  the  field  .^ass  TP, 
they  are  bent,  and  mode  to  con- 
verge at  BB,  where  the  image  ia 
formed,  at  which  place  a  stop  or 
diaphragm  is  plooed  to  interoept 
all  ligh^  except  what  is  required 
to  form  B  distinct  image.  From 
BB,  the  rays  proceed  to  the  eye- 
glssa  exactly  oa  they  do  in  the 
'       '  "Tosoope,  andaa  we  h~ 


axptained  in  fig.  1.  Tba  image 
thorafore  formed  at  BB  ia  viewed 
aa  an  or^^nol  object  by  an  obaerver 
thrangh  the  eye-piece  EE.  The 
lena  S¥  ia  not  essential  to  a  oom- 
ponnd microscope  ;  but  oa  it  ia 
quite  evident  that  the  rays  pro- 
ceeding to  AA  would  fall  without 
the  eye-lena  ££,  if  it  was  removed, 
and  only  a  part  of  the  oUeot 
would  thna  be  Drought  under  view, 
it  ia  always  mada  use  of  in  the 
oompownd  mioroaoope. 


.;C0L>^IC 


HIOBOSOOPE. 


A  mirror  i«  plAC«d  nodar  the  atage  I 
the  Lght  thronslt  the  object  nnoer  obaervmtioii. 
Xhii  metiiod  of  Xnmuwtion  by  tnuwmittod  light  U 
wed  irtwn  tha  otgeot  it  taaiu[«rant.  Whan  opKqo^ 
lijdit  ii  reflected  on  the  objeol  by  >  bnll'i-sye  lea% 
ouled  k  oondeiueK  The  bert  iDctnunents 
■applied  with  kx  ot  mt 
nu^niying  poirerfrom 


s^i 


•  or  dii^vigm  ii  plM«d, 


le,  between 

I,  h«Ji-my 

magnifying  power 


leobjaot-di 


■  pfodoot 


whidi  •  atop   o 

betwMn  tha  two 

of  BOonvonndniioraaoopadaMnds 

of  tJh«  maqoi^dDg  powanof  the  abj< 

CTe-^eoa,  it  toUowi  Hoi  ita 

or  duniiiished  by  a  cbvige  io  cotJier  or  both  of  tlieae 

gUsKa.    In  the  meohanwal  Hrangameata,  it  ia  of 

unportmca  to  haTe  tha  inatnunent  lo  oonabnoted, 

th&l  while  eveiy  facility  ia  afforded  for  ""^•■"g  obaer- 

yatioat  and  eaay  meana  of  adjnabnant,  than  ahonld 

alao  be  great  ateadineaa,  witnont  which,  indeed,  no 

Baldafaa&)ry  naolta  will  be  obtained.    Tbeie  end* 


:e  aahievad 


waya,  of  whioh  fig.  S 

of  tha  aimplest :  a, 
braaa  stand,  Bnpportad 
on  three  feet ;  b,  mirroT 
npported  on  bannions ; 
e,  oiBphnwin,  pieroed 
with  drouLv  holes  of 
Tsiions  liiea,  to  regn- 
late  the  admitnon  to 
the  olrieot  of  reflected 
light  tnaa  the  mirror; 

d,  stage-plate^  on  which 
the  object   is   placed ; 

e,  aorew,  with  milled 
head    for    fine    sdjnit- 

';    /,    tha    object 


body  of  the 
is  moved,  so  as  to  effect 
the  coane  adjnstment ; 
A,    the     eye-piece^    or 

The    microaeona    hu 
npiT  become 


Ke-6. 


ednoation,  that  almott 
ereiy  department  <rf 
■stenoe  In  which  it  can  be  emfiloved  haa  a  mioro- 
•eope  snited  to  Its  nrticalaT  kind  of  work,  and  a 
specdal  treatise  explaining  and  illnstrating  its  use ; 
and  many  bmnotie*  ot  aoieDoe  have  instroments 
pecnliarly  their  own.  Thos,  ohenusta,  anatomists, 
aoolt^iits,  Ju.,  have  eaoh  an  instrument  wMch 
they  Tslne  as  being  peculiarly  adapted  for  their 
special  fields  of  inquiry  and  obaemtioa.  From  thia 
instmment  the  chenust,  and  natnial  ,  , 

Cirally,  hara  deriTed  great  assistance  in  itnc, .  „ 
diBerent  kind*  of  crystals  i  for,  by  means  of  it, 
tbef  can  not  only  obwm  and  reeogniae  tba  great 
Tano^  of  forms  that  esist,  bnt  at  any  momen^  and 
with  little  toonble,  they  may  witncea  the  process 
of  cTTstaUisation,  and  leisurely  stndy  it  Those 
•denoes  in  irtiioh  it  is  most  naed,  and  for  whioh  it 
has  dona  most,  ara  anatomy,  physiology,  botany, 
nology,  medidne^  minerslo^,  and  geoloey.  In  the 
practioe  of  medimna  all  me£oal  men  who  aim  at  a 
aeienti&o  treatment  of  diaeaae  hare  fnlly  reoognised 
how  nsefnl  it  haa  besi  as  an  agent  m  diagncsi*, 
more  MpedaU^  in  dissaaas  of  the  kidneys.  In  the 
detection  ot  crime  and  the  rindication  u  in 
It  is  DO  lesi  Dtafnl,  at  by  mean*  of  it 
oartain^  determine  whether 
fonnd,  lor  instanct^  on  the  clothing  ot  on  iudividuid 


charged  with  mnider,  haa  bean  oaosad  by  blood  or 
by  another  oolonring-matter.  In  like  manner,  we 
can  determine  whether  hair  fonnd  in  similar  dr- 
cnmstanoes  belcogp  to  m  hnniae  being  or  nob  It 
has  alto  enabled  nt  to  dittinguith  tna  differenoa 
diting  between  anbttancea  l£at  1 


chemical  re 


as  flonr,  potato,  tago,  aa),MHl  tiint  we  are  provided 
— ith  an  a^t  qoiok  in  detecting  adoltsntioa. 
A  few  luntti  u>  amatenr  obaerreia  may  not  be  ont 


with  an  a^t  qi 
A  few  luntti  U 
of  plaoe  her&  In  choosing 
■implw  it  it  tha  better.  iSie  eveoiiuu  poms  hi 
attMid  to  it,  to  have  good  glaaaea,  which  are  tested 
by  their  power  of  shewing  aoma  veiy  minute  mark- 
inp^  soon  as  we  find  on  diatoms.  The  cironnifer* 
enoa  of  the  field  of  view  shonld  nc^  be  tinged  with 
colour,  and  the  definition  shonld  be  as  good  at  tha 
edge  as  at  Uie  oentre.  The  beginner  should  nte  low 
powers  in  preference  to  high  onea.  The  best  light 
IB  that  reflected  from  a  whSe  olond  dnring  the  d^y. 
Artifidal  light  should,  if  possible,  be  avoided.  The 
table  most  be  steady  on  which  the  miorosoope  it 
plaoed,  and  when  not  in  nae,  the  instrument  tbonld 
be  oovared  by  means  ofaglaaashada,  Theobaerver 
also  ceqmres  a  few  oblong  ^asa  shdea,  and  a  few 
circles  of  thin  gUssj  oalled  covering-^^assar  to  lay 
over  the  praporation  under  examinttnon.    For  mok- 


of  the 
requires,  moreover,  a  pair  of  forceps, 
perhaps  better,  a  raior  ground  flat  on  the  one  side, 
a  few  needles  fixed  in  haudlea,  and  two  or  three 
hair-pencils.  80  equipped,  the  obeervcr  is  able  to 
bepn  examinations  of  texture  at  once  with  pleaanre 


and  different  kinds  61  stareh,  sneh  as  (mm  Is  suri^ 
buck  lyan^  cyoaa,  arrow-root,  ftc.,  and  notioa  par- 

ttcnlarly  their  different  ohataotets.  Make  as  thin  » 
lection  as  possible,  place  it  on  the  centre  of  the  sUd^ 
and  allow  a  dr<n>  of  water  to  fall  on  it  from  the  end 
ot  the  handle  of  the  needle.  Then  allow  the  oover- 
ing-glass  to  fall  gentlr  OQ  it — obliqnely,  ao  as  to 
preai  out  any  smaU  babbles  ot  air.  He  shonld  also 
have  a  few  bottles  containing  'reagents,'  such  >■ 
dilnte  acetic  acid  (equal  porta  of  pyroUgaeout  add 
and  water)  and  liijnor  pataseo.  By  means  of  these 
reagents,  peculiarities  of  structure   may  often   be 

Microscopea  vary,  much  in  price,  from  Bs:  to 
opwardi  of  £IOa  A  good  servioeaDle  disarcting 
simple  mierotoope  may  be  had  from  any  philoso- 
phical-instrument maker  for  from  9$.  to  15*.     Com- 

ponnd  miaroBoopes  are  more  eicpensive,  bat  awonder- 
fiilly  good  inttrament  for  begmnera  can  be  had  at 
30*.    It  has  one  eya-gloss  and  three  object-^aisea, 


eters,  and  coata  about  £7  i  Nachet^s  microaeopa  baa 
three  eye-pieces,  three  objeot-glaates,  msgoifies  from 
60  to  7G0  diameter*,  and  costs  £10;  Smith  and 
Beck's  educational  mioroaoc^  has  two  eys-pieoes, 
two  object-gtasses,  magnifies  from  60  to  SCO  diam- 
eters, and  costs  £10;  fioMBapplieanuimsoopesfrom 
£S  to  £100,  with  varions  number  «t  glasses. 

For  a  moca  oompleta  aoeount  t£  Hu  diflarant 
kinds  of  miorosoi^tes,  and  tha  vaiioos  pnrposes  to 
whid  tliey  are  aniUed,  aee  Qoekett  On  lAs  Uicro- 
scope  (1866);  Ov^ter,  The  Mieroiew  (1862;  «th 
ed.  1680} ;  works  on  tha  mierotoope  by  Hogg  and 
Beale :  Tht  Mienteopitt,  by  Wythe  {3d  ed.  1877). 

***"tI' 


MIDAS— MIDDLESEX. 


HIDAS,*  

Fhiymn  kingi,  of  whom  MidM^  tiia  ion  of  Gordiui 
ftnd  Cjbele,  i*  the  most  funon*.  H«  wu  k  pvpil  of 
OrpheiiB.  Among  the  nuuij  lesends  regnrding  him 
i*  on^  that  Baconnj  granted  bia  wish,  thftt  what- 
erer  be  tonohed  might  becoma  gold ;  fnim  which  lo 
great  irkMnvemeoce  ensued,  that  he  was  ^lad  to  get 
himHlf  teliered  from  the  burden  by  waahtng,  at  the 
«ommand  of  the  god,  in  the  Pactoliu,  the  sandi 
of  which  became  thenceforth  prodactive  of  gold. 
Another  legend  repreaenta  him  aa  haTing  offended 
Apollo  by  aaiigning  the  prize  in  a  mnaical  com- 
petitioa  to  Pan,  and  u  harlDg  therefore  been 
endowed  by  him  with  >  pur  of  **s'i  eara,  which 
he  oonoealed  nnder  hia  Phrygian  cap,  biit  which 
were  diacovcred  by  his  aerrant. 

MITtDBIiBUBG,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Zealand,  in  the  island 
of  Waloheren.  It  i*  connected  with  the  sea  by 
a  oanul,  five  miles  long,  which  admits  ahipa  ol 
beaiy  bordeo,  and  is  a  station  of  the  railwav  from 
Flnahing  to  Boosendaal  to  join  the  Dutch  and  Belgian 
lines.  Population  (ISSO)  16,050.  The  city  is  nearly 
dreolar,  and  a  league  in  circamferenoe,  snrroiuidea 
by  a  broad  canal.  In  farmer  times,  M.  waa  one  of 
the  leadinff  mercantile  cities  of  the  United  Pro- 
Tincei,  sending  many  ships  to  the  £ast  and  West 
Indies,  America,  and  all  European  ports,  found- 
ing tho  voloniet  of  Saiimun,  Berbice,  Esseqnibo, 
DemeianL,  &o. ;  but  the  opening  of  the  Scheldt  for 
Antwerp^  and  other  canses,  nave  rednced  the 
foreign  trade  to  aiogle  ships  to  Java.  Maajr  of  the 
inhabitants  are  wealthy,  which,  with  its  being  the 
meelang-place  of  the  provincial  states  of  Zednnd, 
and  poBsessins  a  considerable  trade  in  gnun,  salt, 
Ac. — making  beer,  vinegar,  starch.  leather,  having 
■niifF,  chocolate,  <ul  and  saw  mills,  and  founderiea 
— make  it  still  a  city  of  importance.     It  is  the  finest 


with  trees.  The  Town-house,  founded 
in  1468)  has  a  beantifnl  tower,  and  il  decorated 
witii  25  cdoMal  statnes  of  Counts  and  Conntesses 
of  Holland.  At  the  beginning  of  the  12th  c,  an 
abbey  was  founded,  which  was,  later,  enriched  by 
Willem  IL,  Count  of  Holland  and  Zeeland.  The 
buildings  are  now  occupied  aa  the  meeting-place 
of  the  provincial  states. 

M.  does  not  date  farther  back  than  the  9th 
oentniy.  In  1S74,  the  Spaniards,  under  Mondrogon, 
were  compelled  by  famine  to  give  tip  M.,  after  having 
defended  it  foe  tu  months  asainst  Prince  Willem  T. 
Thonsb  troops  are  stationed  in  M.,  it  is  no  longer 
tenable  against  an  enemy. 

MIDDLE  AGES,  the  designation  applied  to 
the  great  historic  period  between  the  times  of  classic 
antiquity  and  modem  times.  The  beginning  and 
dose  o(  this  period  are  not  mry  definite.  It  is  usual, 
however,  to  regard  the  middle  ages  as  bwinning 
with  the  overthrow  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire 
in  the  year  476  ;  and  there  is  a  pretty  general  con- 
currence in  fixing  on  the  Beformation  aa  the  great 
event  which  brought  this  period  to  a  close.  It 
began  with  tiie  rise  of  the  EYankieh  npon  the  mins 
of  the  ancient  Boman  Empire,  and  with  the  com- 
mencement of  civilisation  among  the  barbarous 
b-ibes  which  had  taken  posaesaion  of  the  former 
Boman  provinces.  In  courae  of  it,  the  different 
nationa  of  modem  Europe  were  formed,  and  their 
poUtioal  and  social  systems  developed,  lb  was  a 
period  of  much  superstition,  in  connection  with 
which  ranch  religions      "    "' — ..— ^— i- 


prevailed,  maniferted  ia  many  great  rehsion 
menta,  in  magnificent   ecclesiastical   builr     _ 
pilgrimages,  and,  above  all,  in  thn  Cnisades. 


tile  earlier  parta  of  this  period,  the  Choidi  waa 
much  occupied  in  the  eitendoa  of  its  bounds  in 

the  north  of  Europe,  where  heathenism  still  sub- 
sisted, and  the  means  employed  were  not  always 
consistent  with  the  spirit  of  Christianity.  During 
the  middle  ages,  the  uierarchy  acq^nlred  enoimoua 
power  and  wealth,  and  the  papacy  rose  from  com- 
parstively  small  beginnings  to  its  utmost  greatnesSL 
Dnring  the  middle  ages,  chivalry  had  its  rise  and 
decline,  modifying,  and  in  many  respects  tending 
to  refine  the  feelings  aud  usages  of  society.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  middle  ages,  the  revival  of  letters, 
the  increase  of  knowledge,  and  the  formation  of  a 
wealthy  and  influential  clasa  in  society,  distinct 
alike  from  the  aristocracy  and  the  peasantiy,  tended, 
even  before  the  Beformation,  both  to  the  diminution 
of  the  power  of  the  hierarchy  and  the  deo^  of  the 
feudal  system.  See  Onizot's  Hatoirt  de  la  do^ita- 
lion;  HOht'  HandbuehiUrOaduiJiUda  Jlfiadalttrt; 
aud  Hallam's  Hutory  of  tA«  Middk  Ago. 
MIDDLE  BASE  and  MIDDLE  CHIEF.    Sea 

Poem  OF  ESCDTCHBOH. 

MIDDLE  LATITtTDB  SAILING-     See 

SAILIHGa. 

MIDDLE  LEVEL.    See  Scpp.,  VoL  X. 

MIDDLE  TEMPLE,  one  of  the  four  English 
Inns  of  Court,  having  the  erclusive  privil^o  of 
calling  persona  to  the  bar.    See  Innb  or  Cocbt. 

MJ'DDI'EBBROTTaH,the  centre  of  the  north  of 
England  iron  manufacture,  ia  an  important  market- 
town,  port,  and  parliamentary  boroi^  in  the  Korth 
Biding  of  Yorkshire,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tees,  48 
milea  N.E.  from  York,  returning  one  member  to 
parliament.  The  town  ia  of  recent  growth,  and 
owes  its  origin  as  a  port  to  its  convenient  position 
for  the  shipment  of  coats  brought  down  W  railway 
from  the  mines  in  South  Dnrhjim.  In  18^  a  oom- 
modiotts  dock  waa  conatnicted,  which  has  recently 
been  very  considerably  enlarged,  and  wiU  admit 
ahipa  of  tne  largest  tonnage. 

On  the  discovery,  in  1840,  of  immense  beds  of 
ironstone,  extending  thronghont  the  whole  range  of 
the  Cleveland  Hills,  a  portion  of  which  lies  close 
to  the  town,  the  smelting  of  iron  was  speedily 
embarked  in  on  an  extensive  scale,  which  hsa  since 
increased  to  a  marvellous  extent,  to  which  haa  been 
added  iron-foundries,  the  manufacture  of  rails,  loco- 
motive engines,  tubes,  boQera,  Ac. ;  chemical 
works,  potteries,  and  ahip-building  are  also  carried 
on  to  a  large  extent  The  town  of  M.  waa  incor- 
porated in  18S3,  and  conatdtuted  a  parliamentary 
borough  in  1868.  The  Boyol  Exchange,  bmlt  in 
1867,  IB  a  large  and  handsome  building ;  within  ita 
spacious  interior,  the  weekly  iron  market  ia  held. 
The  Corporation  Hall  contains  the  Cnstom-honse. 
The  High  School,  built  at  a  cost  o£  £25,000,  was 
given  to  the  town  by  Mr  Pease,  M.P.  Albert  Park, 
of  72  acres,  was  given  by  Mr  Bolokow.  A  new 
dock,  costing  £120,000,  waa  opened  in  1875 ;  the 
new  cattle  market,  in  1876.  There  are  numerous 
chnrchea,  some  ot  them  handsome.  The  jabilee  of 
M.  was  celebrated  in  1881 ;  a  statue  o£  Mr  Bolckow, 
one  of  ita  founders  and  chief  promoters,  being 
unveiled.  In  1831,  M.  was  an  obscure  hamlet  with 
3S3  inhabltanta ;  in  1871,  the  parliamentary  borough 
had  a  pop.  of  4G,&43,  and  in  1881,  54,963. 

MI'DDLESBX,  the  metropolitaii  county  of  Eng- 
land, in  the  south-east  of  the  oountry,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Hertford,  and  on  the  south  by  Sun«y, 
and  about  60  miles  inland  (westward)  bom  the 
North  Sea,  with  which  it  commnnioatea  by  tiie  river 
Thames.  Next  to  Rutland,  it  ia  the  smallest  of  the 
English  counties,  ita  area  being  only  180,136  statata 
acrea  ;  but  its  population  is  inferior  only  to  that  of 
Lancashire,  and  was,  in  ISSl,  2,920,485.    The  sni- 


I  n.ennv  Google 


MIDDLETON— inDEASH. 


f&oe  u  on  the  whole  leTsI,  with  gentle  nndalstfoni. 
The  TluaneB,  which  forms  its  sontiierD  boooduy, 
mnd  its  mfflaenta,  txe  the  only  rivers  of  the  county. 
Two  of  these,  the  Colne  uid  the  Let,  form  respec- 
tively  the  wcetem  Bod  the  eMtem  boundaries  of  the 
conntf.  The  snrfue  is  also  tntveraed  by  the  Gr&nd 
Juactioii  Mtd  Brent's  Canal,  and  the  New  Biver, 
an  artifioial  eat  intended  to  supply  the  capital  with 
watoK  The  atnl  ii  in  general  poor,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  tesct  along  the  banks  of  the  Thamee, 
which  ooniista  of  a  ^od  f«tila  loam.  The  county 
is  chiefly  occupied  in  grass  and  hay  farms,  and  in 
market-gardens.  The  county  town  is  Brentford. 
The  whole  county  only  eent  8  members  to  parlia- 
ment till  1832.  14  till  1867,  and  17  till  1885.  It 
now  returns  47  members. 

MI'DDLBTON,  a  small  mannfactarinR  town  of 
LancMhire,  six  miles  north- north-east  of  Manchester. 
Pop.  (1861)  9876;  (1S71)  14,687;  including  Tonge 
(18S1)   18,91(2.     It  is  chiefly  dependent   upon  lU 


MIDDLETON,  a  siDall  decaving  market-town 
of  Ireland,  in  the  ooan^  of  Cork,  Knd  13  miles  by 
railway  east  of  th«  city  M  that  name.  It  contains  a. 
college  founded  in  1696,  noticeable  u  the  place  in 
which  John  Philpot  Curian  was  educated,  and  stiU 
of  considerable  reputation,  and  carries  on  a  general 
trade.    Pop.  (1881)  3358. 

MIDDLETON",  Costebs,  D.D.,  a  well-known 
divine  and  scholar  of  the  Church  of  England,  was 
bom  in  1683,  at  Richmond,  in  Yorkshire.  He  studied 
at  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in 
1702,  was  ^ected  a  fellow  in  1706,  and  shortly  after 
married  a  lady  of  fortune.  Ttin  ]jfe  was  a  seriee  of 
bitter,  and,  on  Uio  whole,  not  veiy  creditable  con- 
troversies, though  he  is  said  to  nave  been  rather 
a  likeable  person  in  private.  His  6nt  and  most 
formidable  opponent  was  Bichard  Bentlev  (q.  v.) ; 
afterwards,  his  pcdemics  were  chiefly  of  a  theolo^cal 
character.  The  views  he  expressed  and  defended 
were  generally  inch  as  to  draw  down  upon  him 
the  imputation  of  being  on  *in6del  in  di^uise,' 
thoufdi  some  of  them — such  as  that  the  Jews  bor- 
rowed  some  of  their  cnstouks  from  ^^ypt,  and  that 
the  primitive  writers  in  vindicatius  ^ipture  found 
it  neeesaaty  Bometimcs  to  recur  to  idlegory — ore  now 
estaUisbed  beyond  alt  doubt ;  while  a  third  opinion, 
viz,,  that  ike  Scriptures  are  not  of  absolute  and 
universal  inspiration,  haa  since  M.'s  day  been  adopted 
by  many  of  the  most  learned  and  accomplished 
divines  even  of  his  own  church.  M.  died  at  Hilder- 
sbam,  in  Cambridgeshire,  July  28, 17S0.  His  principal 
writings  are  Tlie  Hitlory  of  the  Life  of  if,  TutRui 
Cicero  (2  vols.  1741),  a  work  both  interesting  and 
valuable,  bat  neither  very  impartial  nor  quite 
accurate.  His  celebrated  Letter frma  Borne,  Aanrng 
on  exart  Co!\formily  bUtPera  Povtry  and  Paganism  ; 
or  ihe  Religion  of  lh«  present  Bojnans  derived  from 
Ihal  of  (Aeir  Heathen  Anteigon  (1729),  provoked  the 
ma«t  violent  indignation  among  Koman  CathoUca, 
and  is  still  read  with  interest.  All  his  pomiilJcts, 
treatises,  ftc.  were  oollected  and  pabliahed  under  the 
title  of  JfiweUononu  Woria  (4  vols.  Lond.  1752— 
1707),  and  contain  much  that  is  curious  and  valuable 
on  theological  and  antiquarian  topics 

MIDDLETOWN,  a  city  and  township  in  Con- 
necticut, Viuted  Statee  of  America,  at  the  head  of 
navigation,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Connecticut 
Kiver,  23  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  a  well-built 
town,  with  a  handsome  custom-house,  Wesl^on 
univernty,  episcopal  seminary,  numerous  churches, 
4  banks,  3  cotton  bctories,  foundries,  mills,  fto. 
Pop.  of  city,  (1870)  6923 ;  (1880)  6826. 

MrDDLEWICH,  a  small  market-twwn  of  .Eng- 
land, Cheshire,  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Canal,  20  miles 


east  of  Chester.  Salt  is  eztentuvsly  made ;  boat- 
building is  carried  on,  and  brick-works  are  in  opera- 
tion.   Pop.  (1881)  3379. 

HIDOB,  the  common  name  of  many  i^einea  of 
small  dipterous  insectB,  of  the  family  TipuUda, 
much  reoembling  gnats,  but  having  a  shorter  pro- 
boacis.  Their  lorvES  are  aquatic ;  the  perfect  ins«cta 
are  often  "Vfty  annoying  both  to  human  beings  and 
to  cattle.  The  little  pink-colonred  tortuous  worn 
known  to  anglers  aa  the  Bhod-'oarm,  freqnent  ii 
water-barrels  and  in  the  mud  near  the  edges  o. 
ponds  and  ditcher  is  the  larva  of  a  species  of  At 
.  (CAJnmonnu  jrfiuncnu),  a  little  larger  than  the 
common  gnat,  verr  abundant  in  Britain,  particularly 
in  marshy  situations.  The  larva  is  much  sou^t 
after  both  by  birds  and  fishes,  and  is  a  vaiy  tempt- 
ing bait  for  the  latter.  The  papa  is  cylindrical,  widt 
reapiratoi;  organs  on  the  sides  of  the  thorax.  When 
the  insect  is  ready  to  quit  its  pv 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  t 
pended  for  a  short  time  ;  the  perfect  insect,  when  it 
ha*  issoed  from  the  cose,  also  stands  for  a  short 
time  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  genoi  is 
remarkable  for  the  lonz  hairs  with  which  the 
aotennB  of  the  mole  are  furnished. — Another  genus 
of  Midges  (Simtdia)  contains  many  speaea  which 
are  most  tormentiiig  to  men  and  cattle,  by  entering 
the  ears  and  nostim,  and  aUshting  on  wa  eyelids. 
Several  species  are  British.  They  swarm  on  mats' 
and  damp  heatlis  in  the  wanner  months.  Bat  m 
of  them  is  nearly  so  tniscbievoos  as  a  species  (S. 
eotuTnbaxfiaitu)  found  on  the  banks  of  tlie  Dannb«^ 
and  so  plentiful,  that  horaes  and  cattle  are  often 
suSbcatM  by  the  numbers  which  get  into  the  wind- 
pipe, 

MIDHUBST,  a  market^town  ot  England,  in 
Sussex,  on  the  Both^,  a  navigable  tributary  of  the 
Amo,  50  miles  south-west  of  London.  Here  ore  the 
ruins  of  on  old  castle  of  the  Bohuns,  lords  of  M. ; 
and  within  half  a  mile  east  c '   "      '  '      ' 


down  in  17S3.  Till  1885,  M.  returned  a  member  to 
parliament  Fop.  (18G1)  6405 ;  (1871)  6753 ;  (ISSl) 
7277. 

MITIIANITES,  an  Arab  race,  descended,  accord- 
ing to  Scripture,  from  Midian,  the  son  of  Abraham 
by  Keturah.  They  occupied  the  greater  part  of  tha 
country  between  tho  north  aide  of  the  Arabian 
Oi^  and  Arabia  Pelix  as  far  as  the  Plains  of  Moab. 
Others  more  civilised  (if  not,  indeed,  of  Cuahite 
oriirin)  dwelt  in  the  vicinity  of  iha  Sinaitic  peninsula, 
carried  on  a  trade,  particularly  wiUi  EWpt. 
I»r,  we  may  preaume,  buonged  J^brtL 
sheik'  of  Midian— the  father-in-law  of 
Uoses.  The  M.  were  veiy  tmublesome  neighbonis 
to  the  Israelitea  till  Gideon's  victoiy  over  them. 
Their  national  god  was  Baal-Feor. 

MIDRASH  (Eeb.  daradi,  to  search,  explain  the 
Scriptures)  is  the  general  name  given  to  the  ex- 
poeiton  of  the  Old  Testament,  which,  for  about 
1500  years,  formed  the  centre  ot  all  mental  activity, 
both  in  and  out  of  the  schools,  omon^  the  Jews 
after  the  Babylonish  exile.  The  proUbil 
ordinances  contained  in  the  Mosaic  re 
which   a  precise   meaning  was. 


To  the  h 


,  _^ ,  ___ ,  and  further 

surrounded  by  traditional  ordinances  and  inhibi- 
tions ;  TTa1».-h»  (q.  v.]  =  rule  by  which  to  go,  or 
the  binding,  authoritative,  dvil,  and  religions  law. 
The  chief  codes  of  this  are  the  Miahna  (q.  v.), 
Gemara  (q.  v.),  Sifra  (an  amplification  on  Leviticus), 
Sifri  (on  Numbers  and  Deuteronomy),  and  Mechil- 
ths  (on  a  poilaon  cf  Exodus).    AnoUier  branch  id 


Jl^\ 


MIDSHIFBUN— HIDWini,  MIDWIFERT. 


._  ,  il  the  Haggada   (q.T.),  » 

kind  <A  frM  poetiMl  homikctiM  on  the  vhole 
bodjr  of  the  Old  Teetunent  <tbe  Haladw  betng 
obudy  oonfined  to  tho  Fantatsnoh).  Tho  ctiiA 
mllaotioiia  at  tlut  part  of  ths  Midiaah  are  Hidraah 
Babba,  TOfr-llW  a-d.  (on  Pantatench  and  Megil- 
loth),  and  Perikta  (700),  the  osttaeta  fnm  vhioh 
(Jalknt,  Feiikto  Babbati,  Sntarta,  An.)  onl^  at« 
known,  the  original  iteelf  never  having  been  pimted. 
MI'DSHIPHAir,  the  tecond  tank  atbuned  by 
oombatant  ofBoen  in  the  fotbI  navy.  After  two 
jeara'  aerrioe  ■■  naval  cadet,  the  aepirant  beoomea  ■ 
Dudahipoao,  wUoii  ia  latber  an  apprenticeahip  tot 
hif  after-naval  mimt  than  anv  reallr  -'— ^~ 
MwwwtiTMmt  Hie  midahipnum's  time  is 
devoted  to  receiving  inrtniotion.  both  ii 
nai7  mbjecti  cJ  a  gentleman'i  educalion,  and  in  tl 


pau  in  French  ooDvenation,  and 
ip,  steam,  and  gonneiy.  He  then 
beoomea  a  anb-lieatenant  (q.  v.] ;  and  it  19  jean 
of    age,  ia    eligible  for    promotion    to    Uentenant, 


A  midinipmao  oulj  reoeivM  1«.  Od  a  daj 
(£31,  18*.  So.  per  annum) ;  h*  ii  oomaqueatly 
depoident  on  hie  frienda  for  more  or  lesi  pectmiaiy 
aHistance  until  ha  become*  a  mb-lieDtenant. 

MI'DSUHMEB  DAT,  one  of  the  four  English 

Joarter-djqn  for  payment  of  rent  by  tenants,  viz. 
1th  Jane.    Sea  Luidlord  ahs  TenInt. 

MIDSUMMEB  ETE.    Bee  Johb's  (St)  Eti. 

HIDWIFB,  MIDWIFERY.  Midwife  (made 
np  of  Ans.-aaz.  mid,  tt^ether  with,  and  i^,  a 
woman ;  tno*  literally,  'a  woman  who  it  with  an- 
other ')  i*  the  name  applied  to  a  woman  who  aanjrte 
in  partnritiOD  or  delivety.  Fnnn  tliia  ia  derived  tbo 
term  Midm^vy,  for  that  department  of  mndieal 
aoiMioe  iriiidi  conoeraa  itidf  with  delivery  and  fts 
allied  (objeota.  Wiitert  who  prefer  \nada  derived 
from  I«tin  ;and  Greek  roota,  nave  anbatitntod  for 
it  ObiUtrkt  IJj>L',<AtteMx,  a  woman  who  standa 
near,  a  midwife),  and  ToMogy  (Gr.  ttibot,  ohild- 
birth),  or  G^naleology  (Gr.  gynl,  woman).  For  a. 
male  practibooer  in  tiue  line  of  Uie  medical  art,  the 
Framli  name  aecomhair  lia  oaed;  and  reoeatly,  an 
obnoxioaa  new  verb,  to  (Kwuci  (EV.  acooucAcr,.  to 
deliver  a  woman),  haa  made  ita  appearand  in 
medioal  literature. 

Uidwifeiy,  aa  a  branoh  of  medical  aoience,  ia 
nnderatood  to  iodnde  the  atudy  of  the  anatomy 
of  the  parta  «t  the  female  bod^  coaoerned;  the 
doobrine  of  oonoeption  and  of  atenli^,  and  the  ngna 
and  dniataon  of  pregnancy ;  parturition  in  all  ita 
varietiea:  and  the  dlMaaea  peculiar  to  the  puerperal 
ttate.  To  enter  into  detiula  of  Bueh  matt^  would 
be  oat  of  ^laoe  in  thia  work.  With  regard  to 
parturition  itaelf,  it  may  be  interetltine  to  remark, 
that  in  a  vaat  majority  of  caaea  the  labour  ia  what 
it  called  'natural;'  that  i^  the  child  presenta  itaelf 
in  the  normal  poeition,  and  muuded  nature  con^letea 
the  -ddivery  within  twen^-foor  honn  with  rafety 
to  the  mothm'and  child,  DrSmellie  oaloulated  that 
990  in  1000  are  '  natural '  labours;  and  the  later 
atati«tio*  of  Dr  Collint,  based  on  1(^850  casea^  give 
a  umilar  result— viz.,  983  in  lOOa 

■Unnatural'  labonr  arises  either  from  malfoima- 
tio%diaea«e,or  weakness  on  the  part  of  the  mother, 
<^  from  abnormal  conditions  ot  the  child ;  and 
F"f""'*  or  instmmental  aid  tiecomea  necessary  to 
peveut  IJie  labour  fnun  bang  dangerously  pro- 
loi^ed,  or— in  the  more  extreme  cases— to  tender 
deliveiy  at  all  possible.    Of  instrnmenta)  applica- 


tiona,  by  far  the  most  impcrtant  and  fawqaent  in 
that  of  the  Foien*  |q.  v.),'wliiok  ii  not  intoided  to 
ii^itre  either  mo&er  or  child.  In  128,295  caws  trf 
labonr  attended  t^  British  praotitiaiun^  tkete  ware 
842 foioera oaae*^ or  1  in  380;  of  thaw. abottt  lis 
21  proved  &tal  to  tiie  mother,  while  1  child  in  4 
was  lost.  In  Oraniotomy,  tba  head  of  the  idiild  ia 
intentionally  deetroysd,  with  a  view  to  save  the  Ufa 
of  the  mouier,  the  death  of  both  being 


Si.    See  also  CauMMtM  OnEATioii. 

HitlCTj(. — Fnnn  all  tiw  passagea  in  tiia  SoriptaiM 
lAere  nudwifwy  ia  i^ened  toi  it  ia  plain  tbat 
woman  were  the  onlv  practitioDera  (rf  this  arbamongst 
the  Hebrews  and  tne  ^rptiana  (tee  Gen.  xzkv.  17, 
and  zzrviii  26,  and  Ex.  l  1ft— 21),  and  it  ii  eqtuUjr 
oertain  that  the  Greeka  and  Bmuui*  ooofided  this 
branch  «4  madidne  to  women.  Phanaiete,  the 
mothar  ot  Sooratea,  waa  a  midwifsj  and  Plata 
explains  the  fonctiona  and  nuntioiia  the  ilntwt 
nndfrtatia  b7  thne  women.  The  Greek  and 
Boman  phyncoana  were  not  ignorant  ot  midwifen, 
for  Hippooratea  lefera  to  the  neounty  id  taming  the 
ohild  m  otftain  nasra,  altiioogh  his  doobmea  cq  thia 
point,  aa  also  on  Iha  managament  <rf  tlu  placenta 
are  replete  with  danger;  and  Celana,  neMly  foar 
oenturiea  later,  treats  of  the  meohaniam  <A  labonr 
with  great  cleamesa.  A  gradual  increaaa  in  the 
knowledge  of  this  sabject  may  be  baoed  in  tba 
writinm  of  AStiua  and  Faulus  .^Igineta,  who  advo> 
cates  Um  operation  of  craniotomy  in  certain  rssra. 
Rhazea  aeem*  to  have  beea  the  firat  to  advocate  tha 
niptore  of  the  metnbiaoes,  when,  by  their  tonghnea^ 
they  impede  labour ;  and  Avicenna  gave  tba  firat 
description  of  an  instrument  partJaUy  reeeoibling 
the  more  modem  foroapa. 

At  the  oommencement  ot  iha  16th  o.,  Buchariaa 
Bhodion  published  a  little  book,  which  toon  acquired 
a  great  celebrity.  It  wm  translated  fnmi  tbe 
original  High-Gennan  into  Latin,  Frenoh,  and 
'■^"gi_"li,  ana  ia  rttnarkable  aa  being  the  fint  book 
poSished  on  this  subject  in  En^and.  Iti  title 
IS,  Tha  Byrlh  qf  Maiicgnde,  eiheniiite  luaned  1A« 
Womaa't  Book,  W  Thomas  fiaynold,  Phj^sician 
(London,  IMO),  and  it  contains  no  external  evideuca 
that  it  ia  a  mere  banslation.  In  1673,  Ambrose 
Pare  nublished  a  small  work,  in  which  he  shewed 
that  &Mt-pr 
that  in  mal-L 
the  feet  than  to  attempt  to  bring  down  tha  head. 

In  the  eariy  part  <d  the  I7th  a.  the  tage^trntiu 
[the  Kench  tmm  oorreepondiDg  to  onr  "'»'"'> 
midwife)  of  Marie  de  Hediois  published  a  odleo. 
tiou  of  observations  on  midwilery.  Abont  thia 
e  (probablv  about  1640),  Dr  Paul  Chamberleo, 
'Pi"gt'T*'  physidan,  invented*  the  forcep*  w^ 
separate  bltwle*,  auch  as  are  now  ntedl  The 
Chamberlen  family  (the  father  and  three  sons)  did 
not,  however,  puMish  their  discovery ;  considering 
that  they  had  a  ri^t  to  use  tbe  secret  in  tbe  way 
moat  to  their  own  advantage;  and  the  exact  natnr* 
■omenta  waa  not  known  till  181S,  when 

of   a  houae   near   Maldon,   in  Essex, 

where  Dr  Peter  Chamberlen,  one  of  the  sao%  bad 
resided  mora  than  a  cento^  previonaty,  *ca. 
dentally  diacovered  a  concealed  spaoo,  i — ^"'' 
inter  ofio,  a  collectdon  ot  obatetrio 
'  iclnding  a  double-bladed  tbroepa  and  a  vectis, 
hich  are  now  in  the  posseanon  ot  the  London 

*  The  eiaat  date  of  tbia  Important  invenUon  is  not 
Down,  but  in  16tT,  Dr  Felar  Chamberien  pobliifaed  a 
uuphlet  entitled  A  Voice  in  JUomo,  in  lAioh  he  qwaka 
— '  hu  fatliel')  (Dr  Paul  ChamberianJ  disoorery  tor  the 
iarin>  ot  infantile  life.    Henoe  the  forceps  most  have 


been  invented  in  the  first  halt  of  the  itth 


theltthceataix. 


MIGNET— MIQRATIOKS  OF  ANIMALS. 


Uedico-I  .  ^_ 

ba'a  oelabratefl  areamm  in«  dcmbtloM  the  donUe- 
bUded  Uxoepa,  he  aeema,  Uim<«M,  alio  to  have 


._*  long  time  the  lUiidArd 
woik  OB  the  nibieot.  H«  glva  m  Tei?  full  •ocoont 
of  the  ^ocen  of  Ikbont;  ud  hie  book  hftTingbeen 
tnmdsted  into  BngHah,  iu  16^  bj  En^hCtuun- 
liMrleo,  beouuewidelr  known  in  tliii  oonntn'.  Thi« 
Menu  to  have  been  tho  time  whan  men  bean  to 
tmffigB  geneially  in  the  pnetico  of  midwifeiiy; 
HuTOT,  ue  Cbamberieni,  and  othsf^  taking  it  np 
in  Ea^and;  iriiila  Za  Vallibie,  the  mtbcemot  Lonu 
ZI7^  did  miuh  to  cetabliah  tbe  pmatiet  in  Ptanoe, 
bf  employing  Jolian  Clement^  a  •mseon  of  high 
npotation,  in  hm  fint  oonfioement  in  1683: 

TThe  hMt  point  raqniriiu  noUiia  in  the  hiitoij  ol 
midwifary  in  the  ITUi  o.,  U  tiko  dioooreiy  of  tile  nee 
of  etgo*  of  tye  in  aooaleratlng  petftirition.  In  1688, 
CamHtaiine  itMed  that  midwiTea  in  aome  parte  of 
Gennany  were  io  the  habit  of  employing  it  for  tbi* 
pnitKwe  i  but  it  ia  not  till  1774  that  we  find  any 
luitMr  teferanoa  to  the  nee  of  thii  dm^ 

In  the  «ar^  part  of  (he  18Uk  o.,  diSenot  nrietiea 
of  foroqpt,  sloa^  neembling  Cbamberlen'a  inabn- 
men^  wen  inveMed  by  OifltM,  Chapman,  and  othen ; 
Chsnnan  bctDg^  aa  it  ia  believed,  tiu  fiiat  ^blio 
teaatwr  ol  mldwifny  in  Ltmdon.  About  the  iniddla 
ol  thia  oentmy,  lived  Sir  Biohaid  Manningham,  who 
devoted  himaeU  to  Oat  bntnoh  of  the  i«ofeaHon, 
and  eatafaUahed  a  small  boapital  for  tlta  reoeption  of 

riorient  woman,  which  waa  Hu  firtt  of  um  kind 
Uw  Kitiah  dominionit  It  ia  acaioely  neoeaaaiy 
to  enter  into  f  mtiter  hiatorioal  detaila,  aa  midwifeiy 
waa  by  thia  time  folly  leoogniaed  aa  a  faianoh — 
ahhongh  then  and  loiv  anbaeqaantly,  ooiuidtred  aa 
tbe  kweat  btanoh — of  ""■^■'■"i",  The  namca  of 
fimellie^  William  fiiinter,  Dennun,  "*^  Bland  in 
England,  and  of  Aatroo  and  Bandelooq,ue  in  franca, 
are  well-known  aa  promoton  of  variona  departmenta 
of  tiie  art  d  tnidwifoy  towards  the  olose  of  tliia 

In  the  present  oentnry,  the  art  of  midwifsiy  haa 
ateadily  yogioaecd.  Tnt  by-lawa  pradnding  ptac- 
titbnen  in  midwif  cay  fiom  the  FeUowatup  of  the 
Iiondon  College  of  Phyaioiana,  and  oUier  equally 
oSenaiTO  nilaa  in  oth^  inatltutioiw,  have  been 
repealed  i  there  are  {cofeaaon  of,  or  lectnren  on 
midwifeiy  in  all  oar  medical  achoola  (ezoniling  at 
tlie  univemtiea  of  Oxf(»d  and  Oambrid^);  and  a 
knowledge  ti  thia  dqiartinent  of  mediome  ia  now 
Mqnlredlrom  OTOT  candidate  for  tiie  madioal  profea- 
aion.  Audnotoolyate  tbememberaof  thomedioal 
pi  II  fi  Mi  I II I  oompdlod  to  be  aa  well  veiaed  in  mid- 
wifeiy aa  in  medicinia  or  anigeiy,  but  the  imorant 
midwiTea  of  paat  timee  are  now  replaced  by  oom- 
parabvely  weU-ednoafced  noiaea,  with  diplomaa, 
certifying  that  thn  hare  rerailarly  attended  lectures 
on  nudtnfery,  ana  hare  taken  penonal  charge  of 
a  cert^  nomber  of  labomv,  onder  tha  anpeiintend- 


leapooBilHlitiea  <rf  thia  department  of  pnctice^  ia 
abewn  bv  anch  eaaea  aa  thoae  of  M««dames  Boivin 
Mid  LauupeUe,  who  (to  nae  the  worda  of  Profeaaor 


I  o^to  a  certain  extent,  the 


UIGKET,  FsAvsoiB  AuorHn  Auxn,  a  French 
hiitoiian,  waa  bom  Sth  May  I7M;  at  Aix  in  Froveoce, 
atndied  law  in  hia  native  city  along  with  Thiers, 
and  went  to  Paria  in  1821,  to  devote  himadf  to  a 
litenuy  lifch    He  fonnd  emplc^ment  in  writing  tar 


the  public  jonmali,  and  having  given  Iectnr«a  on 
Hodem  EiatoiT,  which  were  reoeived  with  great 
wprobatioQ,  he  waa  induced  to  write  hia  HItloire 
(fa  la  SimluUm  Frimtaue  (2  vola.  Par.  1824 ;  IDth 
edilioii,  1840),  a  work  in  which  that  great  event  ia 
regaided  leaa  in  ita  moral  than  its  phllinophical 
ac^ecta.  It  haa  therefore  been  reproached  with  lead- 
ii^to  fataliam.  Hia  atyle  ia  brilliant,  but  academio. 
After  the  revolution  of  1830,  he  became  a  Counaellor 
of  State,  and  Keopcrof  thoArdnvwof  theMiniaby 
of  Forogn  AfUra ;  but  loat  tbeae  i^cea  in  1848, 
ainoe  wbioh  time  be  baa  lived  in  ntinment.  He 
baa  edited  Nlgodathiu  refattvo  A  Ia  BueeaAm 
SEtpagttt  «mj  Louit  XIV.  (4  vola.  Par.  1836— 
ISffi),  to  which  be  prefixed  a  mattmiy  hiatoiio  inb»- 
dnotion.  Among  bia  later  worka  are  Hittoire  de 
Marie  Stuart  (3  vola.  Far.  1S61),  and  OharUt  Qtiint, 
tan  AbdUatim.  Km  Sljour  tl  ta  Mart  aa  Momutire 
de  ThiU  (IBM) ;  BlooM  Bistorvnui  (1804) ;  and 
RivaUiS  dt  Franfoi*  1.  et  de  Charlu  V.  For  a 
ffUoinde  la"-  -    -     - 

ireitri  IV.,  he _. 

volomea  of  mantuoript  corregpondenoa. 

MIONOITBTTE  (£ted(UMionita),  a  ^ant  of  tha 
natoial  order  BmtdaeoM,  a  native  <d  the  north  of 
Africa,  in  univraaal  cnltivatica  on  aooount  of  tha 
delidooa  fngrauca  td  Urn  floiraca.  It  ia,  accoiding 
to  droumatonMB  and  tha  mods  ti  ooltivi^ion,  aa 
annual  ot  m  pammial,  and  svok  baU-ahmfahy 
plant,  with  lanceolate  entire  or  bifid  leavaa,  and 
ereot  tenninal  raoemea  of  anuJl  wUtiah  flowen^ 
which  have  tha  calyx  6-parted,  aod  a«  long  aa  ilia 
"       "  lea  S-toothad.    It  ia  tJbe  aeea 

„  .  abnort  every  garden,  and  dnrinc 

winter  in  almoat  eveiy  green-houae  in  Britain ;  it  la 
often  cultivated  in  flower-pota  in  apartmenta,  and 
no  flower  ia  10  common  in  the  boxea  lAiich  are  placed 
ontdde  of  windowa  in  town*.  _  Yet  it  waa  fiiat  intro- 
bo  brought 
nl7G2;aorhadit 
It  njHdly  became 
it  Europe.  The 
FWich  naoie  M.,  now  ita  popular  name  everywhere 
aignifiea  ZHOU  parting.  What  is  called  Trte  M.  ia 
□ot  even  a  diitinct  varie^,  but  merely  tha  oommon 
kind  trained  in  an  ereot  form,  and  prevented  from 
early  flowering  by  pinobing  off  tot  enda  of  the 

ahoota Weld  (q.  v.)  oelong*  to  the  same  genua. 

HIORA'TIONS  OF  AlflMAIiS,  which  muat 
not  be  oonfonnded  with  their  diffiiaion  over  a 
re  or  leas  extended  area,  are  apparently  alwaya 
ided  b^  on  iuatinct  operating  on  aU,  or  nearly  all, 
I  individuala  of  a  apociea,  and  leading  tbt 
ive  in  a  definite  direction  in  aearoh  tFtood 
tbe  cose  of  fiahee)  of  a  fit  poaitii 

Among  mammals,  lodi  mixiationa  ore  compara- 
tively ntTH.  The  most  remarkable  inatanoe  ia  that 
of  the  Lemmings,  which  at  no  definita  epochs,  but 
generally  once  or  twice  in  a  quarter  of  a  centoiy, 
bavena  Nordland  and  FiimuA  is  vaat  hosts, 
eDding  theiF  career  in  the  Western  Ocean,  into 
which  th^  enter,  and  come  to  a  snicddol  end  j 
taking  a  diredaon  tbroarii  Swedish  Lapland, 
drowned  in  the  Gidf  of  Bothnia.  M.  Martins, 
who  waa  a  member  ot  the  great  sdentifia  Soandi- 
to  doubt  the  generally 

,    __    ■JiTurMf  casting  them* 

selves  into  the  Western  Ocean,  and  believes  tiiat 

moat  A  them  perish  bom  the  cold  hi  croasing  the 

riveta,  while  many  are  killed  by  does,  foxes,  and 

apedcs  of  Homed  Owl  (Slrte  oraaiigoUii^  irtiich 

large  nnmbera  always  accompaniea  these  emigis. 

According  to  Gmelin,  the  Arctic  Pox  (FufpiM 
jaeoptu)  alwns  acoompanks  tha  iummjHM  jn  andi , 


MIGUEL-MIKNAS. 


nQmbera  tb*i,  on  tbU  ground,  it  U  entitled  (a  be 
conaiderad  a  nigmtoiy  immikl ;  but  independentij 
-'  "-BK  wpadwl  mJEtatioiis,  it  ii  atatad  by  Sir  June* 
ttui  'tha  


Bom  liui  'Hie  jonug  generaUy  migrate  to  ttie 
•ootliwaKl  Ute  in  the  autumn,  and  cdlect  in  vut 
mnltitodM  on  the  ehoree  ol  HndtoD'a  Bay:  Umt 
trtnm  eariy  the  following  ipring  to  the  northward, 
•ni  addmn  ajnin  leave  the  apot  they  aelect  aa  a 
bieedin^plac^ 

The  Spring-bok  lAntid<rrea»  BuAort)  ia  aocoe- 
locned  te  make  yilgnrawiea  from  one  apot  to  another 
in  the  vaat  plaina  d  Soothern  Africa.  Heida  of 
many  thonaanda  are  led  by  their  chieb  in  these 
migntionL  and  the  wonderful  denaity  of  the  moTinj 
»ybe 


Duea  may  be  unagiiied  from  tae  fact,  that  a  flock  of 
•heep  haa  been  ineztricaldy  entangled  and  carried 
along  without  the  poadbiUty  of  escape.  Want  of 
— .__  ; -J  »_  i._  .!._  _.  .1 -"irationB, 

Hie  ooeaaional  incnniona  of  wolna,  in  reiy 
•BTere  winten,  into  districta  in  which  they  are 
not  oonunonly  found,  and  the  long  eicnrsicais  of 
Urge  ^onpa  of  monkeya  [Bn^eUuf  and  Hiettu), 
hardly  &U  within  the  acope  of  this  article. 

iiuiy  of  the  oetaeea  are  probaUy  migratoiy. 
'Hie  migratioiii  <d  the  Poipoiae  {Phoataa  arm- 
mwita)  appeai--aaya  Marod  de  Serrea  '  " 
eeaay,  i)««  Oitian  de>  Jft^i'dftoRt  dB>  dtn 
p.  63— to  be  aa  periodio  aa  thoae  of  certain  apeciea 
of  biida.  During  the  winter,  they  oonataatly  pro- 
ceed from  north  to  eonth ;  aind  when  the?  feel  the 
warmth  of  sonuner,  they  tttm  northwarda.  Thus 
they  are  common  in  amnmer  in  Cbeenland,  while 
they  are  rare  on  our  own  coaata,  where  they  abound 

The  niunber  of  nieciea  of  birda  that  periodically 
migiate  ia  ao  great  that  it  ia  impoBSible  to  find  apace 
for  a  liat  of  uiem.  Marcel  de  Scrrea,  in  the  work 
•IrMdy  quoted,  give*  a  '  Tableau  de  I'Epoqne  dea 
Faii^ea  dea  Oiaeanx,'  which  extendi  over  nearly 
n  ^afM  See  Birds  ov  Fassaob.  The  daaire  for 
autule  temperature,  and  the  aearch  tor  their 
food,  am  the  apparent  causea  atimulatiiig 
>  ^e«e  migrationa ;   and  in  most  instancte, 

lyin  the  oaae  of  inaectivorbue  birda,  the  food 

itimately  aaaociated  with  the  temperatore. 
jlie  muraldona  of  many  apeciea  of  fiahee  are  aa 
mnarkabb  for  their  rwuW  periodicity  as  those  of 
birda.  In  some  cases,  nahea  that  are  produced  in 
freab-water  atreama  toigrate  to  the  ocean,  and  after 
■pending  some  time  in  aalt  water,  return  (generally, 
with  aingular  instinct,  to  their  own  birth^^ace)  to 
fresh  water  to  propagate  their  apeciea.  Home  of 
for  eiample,  the  Lamprey  {Petro- 
■  r  their  lives  at  sea, 
_  .  _,  .  freah  water.  The 
remarkable  migrations  formerly,  but  erroneously 
Buppoaed  to  be  made  by  herrings,  are  noticed  in  the 
article  on  that  Sah.  Many  fiahea  of  the  aame  family 
aa  the  heiring,  the  Cltipatke—aa,  for  example,  the 
•prat  and  pilchard— leave  the  deep  sea  for  ahaUow 
water  dnrmg  tha  apawiung  period,  when  they 
approach  our  coaata  in  vaat  ahoalar  All  euch  migra- 
a  mainly  due  to  a  reprodactive 
B.  Lum-ciuB. 
jigat  inaeeta,  tne  Locoit  {Loaula  iTti^rratoria) 
ia  moat  remaikabis  for  its  migrations.  Theae  inaecta 
are  probably  produced  much  more  abundantly  some 
year*  than  otheia,  and  as  in  iucb  yean  thai  birth- 
place cannot  afford  tliem  sofBcient  Tttetation,  they 
are  led  to  migrate  in  searoh  vi  food.  Some  idea  of 
the  Dcoaaionu  extant  of  tiieir  wanderinga  may  be 
fOTmed  from  the  fact  that,  in  the  early  put  of  1810, 


pro|>er  £ 
mrda  to  _. 
emedatlyi 
la  intimata 


myam  vuuii»u)-~^ead  moet  of 
and  others  as  the  aalmoo,  in  1 


Treated,  3^  A[«il  1824,  and  hi* 
^watched  in  hia  palace;  but  the 
L  and  his  mother  were  faaoiabed. 


great  Indian  peninsula  to  Gozerat  and  tiie  ne^^ 
bouring  provinoao,  from  whence  they  punned  their 
conrae  MuthwanU  towaid*  Bombay,  tho  whalk 
period  of  their  ougmtiou  ext«mdiiw  ovn  between 
two  and  tiuee  yean;  while,  in  relation  to  their 
nombera.  Captain  Beaufort  ealenlated  a  awann  that 
appeared  at  Sardia,  in  Asia  Minor,  Id  1811,  at 
npwarda  of  168,000,000,000,000. 

HIOUEIi,  Don  Maria  Etarist,  bom  at  Uabon 
36th  October  1802,  was  tha  third  aon  of  John  VL 
of  PortugaL  Ea  spent  his  early  yeara  in  BraciL 
unrestrained  and  unedacBitied.  When  he  returned 
with  the  royal  family  to  Portngal  in  1821,  he  could 
neither  read  nor  write,  and  ^ewed  no  talent  bx 
anything  bnt  feodng.  He  joined  his  mother, 
Charlotte  Joachima  of  Spain,  in  her  plots  for 
tha  overthrow  of  the  constitution  and  the  eetab- 
liahmeat  of  a  despotic  government ;  part  of  tha 
soheme  being,  that  his  weak  father  shonld  be  either 
formally  depised,  or  virtoally  deprived  (^  all  power. 
The  ^ed  Marquis  of  LouU,  the  futbfnl  servant  at 
the  kmg,  bavins  been  removed  ont  of  the  way  by 

miiuBten  to  be  airested,  sSOx 
father  to  be  chMelyi  ■  '  ■  ■ 
idot  failed,  and  M. 


fligate  life  !n  formgn . 

his  father  in  1826,  the  queen's  party  set  forth  a  claim 
to  the  throne  on  his  oebalf,  aa  his  elder  brother. 
Bom  Pedro,  Was  emperor  of  Brazil ;  and  on  2d  May 
1826,  Fedro  reaigned  the  crown  of  Fortogal  in  favour 
of  his  eldest  daughter.  Donna  Maria  da  Gloria,  pro- 
posing that  her  nncia  Miguel  should  be  bsi  hnabaod, 
and  regent  of  the  kingdmn  tilt  her  maJOTity,  to  aO 
which  M.  agreed.  Bat  Qaeen  Joachimea  party 
hod  everytbuiH  prepared  for  the  restontion  d 
abeolntiam.  M.  was  declared  king  l£  PcotogiJ. 
War  ensued,  and  at  first  M.  was  victoriona.  He 
carried  into  full  effect  the  principles  of  hia  party  by  • 
system  of  the  most  severe  represdon  of  all  uberaliem, 
and  aignaliaed  himadf  by  the  moat  extretne  tyranny 
of  every  kind,  whilst  hia  own  life  waa  one  of  tlui 
wildest  exoeea.  In  1832,  Dom  Pedro  took  Oporto, 
and  hia  anna  gradually  prevailing,  M.  was  obliged 
to  si^  a  capitulation  at  Evora,  on  26th  May  1834, 
hj  'Miich  he  resigned  all  claim  to  the  throne  of 
Portugal,  and  agreed  to  retire  alfa^ether  from  tlie 
country.  Bnt  scarcely  had  he  been  oonveyad  to 
Qenoa,  whea  he  protested  against  tiiis  deed,  and 
consequently  all  hia  estate*  in  Portagal  were  con- 
Gscated,  and  aa  annual  pension  whioh  had  be«« 
aecored  to  him  was  stopped.  He  w^nt  to  Roma, 
where  the  papal  government  acknowledged  him  aa 
rightful  king  of  Fortngsl,  solely  becanae  he  had 
petted  the  Portuguese  prieatiiood  in  his  WOT  against  tha 
national  liberties.  Latterly  he  lived  at  the  castle  of 
Bronnbach,  in  Baden,  where  he  died  Nov.  I8661. 


Styria,  SOth  November  1813.  After  studying  law 
at  tha  university  of  Ortttz,  he  went,  in  1838,  ta 
Vienna  to  i^actiae  aa  on  advocate ;  bnt  in  1S44 
obtuned  a  aitnation  in  the  Imperial  Libnuj.  In 
lSSO,hewaa  appointed  Frofeaaor  of  Slavic  in  Vienna. 
His  principal  worka  are — Sadica  Lingva  Paiao- 
tUneniax  (Leip  lS4fi);  Ltxteon  L'mma  PaJjtotto- 
vemca  (Vienna,  1850);  Vergl^chende  Orammalik 
der  Sla\n,  Spraehen  {4  vols.,  1SS2~74),  a  work  which 
baa  done  for  Slavic  what  Grimm  and  Dies  have  done 
for  the  German  and  the  Romance  langpagea.  Other 
woiks  are  Die  BUdvng  der  Slaui.  PersonennonMM 
<1860),  andi»e  Z^euner  Buropa't  (1872-7S). 

MI'KNAS  MB'QUINEZ,  or  MEKNAZA  a 
town  in  the  province  of  Fe;^  in  Mwocco,  " 


,,  Google 


MILAN-MILDEW. 


weslby-Hnitti  from  the  town  of  Pei,  rtanda  io  a 
fertile  valley  near  the  Sabu.  It  is  lurronnded  by 
triple  wallB,  and  a  moat,  ii  neat  and  well  bnilt,  and 
the  finest  impmal  palace  in  Morocco.   TbiB 


in  gardena,  said  to  bo  the  most  beautiful 

in  Morocco,  and  here  and  there  adorned  with  foun- 
tains. M.  is  the  ■ammer  reeidance  of  the  lultan. 
Pop.  ertimated  at  from  16,000  to  66,000,  who  carry 
on  an  exteniive  tnula  in  native  prodnce.  The  chief 
manufactures  are  of  painted  earthenware  and  leather. 

MI'LAK  {ItaL  MUano),  tbe  >ocond  in  iize  of 
Italian  citiei  (after  Naples  and  before  Rome),  glands 
on  the  river  Olona,  in  tbe  centra  of  the  great  plain 
of  Lombardy.  Pop,  (1881)  of  dty,  214,0(Mj  with 
Babnrbs,  296,54.1;  of  commune,  321,839.  From  ita 
poaition  on  the  line  of  the  cbief  routes  of  the 
central  Alps,  it  derivei  great  oommeroial  advan- 
taftea,  while  its  fins  oanarsystem  opens  for  it  oom- 
munication  witii  the  principal  nvers  of  Italy. 
The  Navifjtio  Oraade,  or  Grand  Canal,  conneota 
M.  with  the  Tieino,  and  the  Martesana  Canal 
with  Uie  Adda.  The  cit7,  which  ia  almost  cir- 
cular, is  encompassed  on  three  aides  by  walla 
and  low  ramparts ;  it  has  a  circuit  of  about  T| 
miles,  and  is  entered  by  10  fsatea.  Notwith- 
standing ita  great  antiquitv,  U.  possesses  but 
few  remains  m  its  early  aplendid  etmcturea,  in 
consequence  of  the  many  calamitous  wars  by  which 
it  bos  been  ravaged.  Modem  M.  is  one  of  tne  moat 
opulent  and  populous  citiea  of  Italy  ;  its  best  streets 
are  regular,  wide,  and  well  paved,  and  kept  with 
(crupiuoiis  care ;  the  dwellinga  are  commodioua  and 
turteful,  though  of  a  less  impoeing  character  than 
the  great  feudal  Tuscan  bouses.  M.  abounds  in 
chnrcAcs  worthy  of  note  ;  of  these,  the  principal  is 
the  famous  Gothic  cathedral,  the  Suomo,  which,  with 
the  exception  of  St  Peter's  in  Bome,  is  the  most 
magnificent  eccleaiastical  structure  of  Italy.  It  has 
a  facade  of  white  Carrara  marble,  and  is  adorned  by 
106  pinnaclee,  and  4600  stataes,  besides  a  variety  of 
carvmgB  of  uiBiirpasaable  beauty.  Id  form,  it  is  a 
lAtin  cross,  with  a  length  of  485,  aud  a  breadth  of 
25a  feet  The  height  of  the  dome  Is  365  feet.  Its 
foundation  was  hud  in  1386  by  Gian  Gateazxo  Vis- 
conti,  and  daring  its  erection,  many  of  the  greatest 
European  architects  contributed  designs  for  its 
embellishmetit.  Within  it.  Napoleon  was  crowned 
king  ot  Italy  in  1805.  Besides  the  Duomo,  may  be 
meotioned  the  church  of  St  Ambrose  (founded  by 
that  saint  in  the  4th  c],  the  most  ancient  in  M, 
containing  inscriptiona,  sarcophagi,  and  monuments 
fidl  of  antiquarian  interest,  and  tiie  one  in  which 
the  Gennan  emperors  were  crowned  kinra  of  Italy ; 
the  Dominican  church  of  SarUa  JUtiria  adU  OrazU, 
which  contains  in  its  refectory  the  famous 'Cenacolo,' 
or  'last  Supper,'  by  Leonamo  da  Vinci;  and  that 
of  San  Carlo  Borromeo  (1847) ;  ot  St  Nazaro,  which 
possesses  several  mastei^pieces  of  the  best  schools  of 
Italiaa  art ;  and  of  St  Sebastiano,  once  a  Boman 
temple. 

Among  the  •ecalarlnuldinm  of  M,  the  most  note- 
worthy IS  tbe  UMniScent  Erera  Palace,  formerly  a 
Jesuit  ooUege,  and  now  need  for  public  schools  of 
the  fine  arts,  with  tiie  offidal  name  of  Palace  of  Art* 
and  Scienoes.  Within  its  vast  precincts,  tliis  unique 
institntion  includea  an  academy  of  art,  a  choice 
galleiT  of  puntinci,  of  the  Bolognese  and  Lomb^ 
schools,  a  fine  collection  of  casts  for  modelling  pur- 
poses, a  splendid  public  library,  containing  140.000 
Tolnmes,  and  a  rare  collectioa  ot  manuscripts,  medals, 
and  anttqnities ;  it  has  ilao  attached  to  it  an  obeer- 
VKiaty  and  a  botanical  garden.  Bemdes  the  Ambro- 
sian  (q.  v.),  there  are  several  largo  private  libraries. 
Among  tbe  Kiciitific  and  artistie  institutioDt  of  M. 


are  the  Museum  of  Natural  History,  the 
snidery  and  medicine,  especially  that  of  ' 
practice,  the  celebrated  Conservatory  or  school  u 
music,  and  a  military  geographical  institute,  well 
known  for  the  eicaQence  of  the  maps  it  has 
isaaed.  The  educational  establishments  include  four 
gymnasia,  besides  normal  schools,  technical  schools, 
conventual  schools,  and  a  seminary.  The  charitable 
inititutianB  are  numerous  and  splendidly  endowed, 
having  an  aEgregate  property  of  upwards  of 
£7,000,000  sterliQg ;  the  OspedaU  Maggiort,  or  Great 
Hospital,  founded  by  the  ducal  house  of  Sforza  in 
145S,  accommodates  2000  patienta,  and  annually 
admits  upwards  of  20,000.  The  Tiivuki  Hospital, 
endowed  by  the  Trinilzio  family,  "< ""*""«  and 
clothe*  600  aged  pensionem.  The  Milanese  plaoea 
of  amusement  are  on  as  grand  a  scale  a*  the  other 
public  buildings  of  the  city,  the  first  in  point  of 
celebrity  being  the  theatre  of  La  Scala,  which  can 
accommodate  3600  speatatonL  The  Corso,  or  ohief 
sbeet  of  M.,  is  the  univeraal  faahiouable  promenade 
of  the  iohabitatit*;  and  the  famous  arcade,  or  Gal- 
Una  di  Grittt/orit,  with,  it*  brilliant  ahope  and  caf  te, 
is  also  a  favourite  place  of  evening  raaort,  and  on 
account  of  its  ga^appearanoe  has  b^  called'Littla 
Paria.'  M.  carne*  on  an  immpnse  inland  trade  in 
silk,  KTain,  rioe,  and  cheese,  aud  ha*  considerable 
maaufacturea  lA  silk  goods,  ribbon*,  cutlery,  and 
porcelain. 

M,  (Lat.  Mediolanum)  wa*   originally  a  town 
or  vilWe  of  the  Insubrian  Gauls.     It  was  con- 

n'ed  by  the  Bomans  222  b.  a.,  received  tJie  Laliii 
chiae  about  SB  B.  o.,  and  the  fuU  p™"»t 
franchise  49  B.  c  Under  the  Bomans.  it  became 
a  conspicuou*  centre  of  wealth  and   . 

ita  dtizena  were  noted  for  their  refined  

and  literary  tastes,  and  the  publlo  building  for 
their  beauty  and  elegance,  m  the  beginning  o[ 
the  4th  c,  it  was  aelected  at  the  residence  ot  tbe 
imperial  court  by  Maximian.  M.  was  sacked  by 
the  Huns  (under  Attila)  in  452,  by  the  Goths  (und^ 
the  brother  of  Vitigee)  in  639,  and  passed  to  the 
Longobards  and  Franks  previous  to  its  subjection 
by  Uie  German  empire.      After  96i,  it  was  long 

Svemed  by  dukes  in  the  name  of  the  emperors, 
le  feuds  cf  the  Guelphe  and  Ghibelllnea  distracted 
M.,  like  all  tbe  other  Italiau  cities.  Supreme  power 
became  eveutually  vested  in  the  Ghibellme  Viaconti, 
by  whom  the  oscendeucy  of  M.  was  extended  over 
the  whole  of  Lombard};.  From  1645  to  1714,  M. 
submitted  to  the  succeasive  predominance  of  France 
Austria.     Under  Bonaparte,  it  was  declared 


In  1816,  M  was  restored  to  Austria,  and  continued 
the  capital  of  the  Austro-Italian  kingdom  until  the 
annexatioa  of  Lomb^y  to  Piedmont,  in  1859,  by 
the  peace  of  Villafranca. 

MILA'ZZO  (anc.  Jffyl<r),  a  fortified  seapart  on 
the  north  coast  of  the  island  of  Sicily,  18  mile* 
westofMessiuB.  Pop.  about  8000;  Its  situation  i* 
unhealthy.  The  chief  exports  are  tunny,  winc^  silk, 
fruits,  com,  oil,  and  liqueurs.  The  town  is  irregidarly 
built,  and  ia  considered  almost  impref^ble,  owing 
to  &e  great  natural  strenzth  of  its  position  and  the 
extent  of  its  laditary  works  and  citadel.  Garibaldi, 
with  2600  men,  defeated  7000  Neapolitan*  hero  on 
the  20th  of  July  I860,  and  cwnpelled  the  garriaon 
to  evaonat«  the  fortress. 

MI'LDEW  (Ger.  iffhUhau,  meal^dew),  a  term 
of  somewhat  vague  application  to  certain  diseosed 
states  of  plauts  caused  or  charactensud  by  the 
growth  of  email  parasitical  fungi,  and  also  to  spots 
ou  cloth,  paper,  &c.,  and  even  on  the  aurtace  ot 
glass  and  other  iuolsauic  substances,  produced  by 


HILB-MIUTABT  ACADEUV. 


uniliM  of  pImiU 
TMnatea;  ■Brenl  kind 
bowckTcr,  often  known  t 


tlw  grmrtK  Ot  miiinte  fnngL  The  mildew  fungi  us 
DomanKia,  Mid  tlte  name  mild«w  ic  often  giren  to 
nuuij  that  are  aleo  known  bj  oUier  nomca,  m 
BuoHT,  B&uis,  Buirr,  Bum,  kc ;  eee  these  heidi ; 
alio  BumxTiB  and  Omnw.  Difierent  ipeciea 
it*  have  thoir  own  peculiar 
of  paiaaitio  fongoa  being, 
o  infeat  one  jdant,  Prob- 
aUj,  the  name  mildew  originally  belonged  to  thoae 
idodMi  whioh  form  white  mealv  patches  on  IcAves. 
Boom  of  theae  belong  to  the  senoa  Erjfaipke, 
whi<jk  exhibita  fleshy  stunewliat  g^tinona  maaaaa, 
beooming  ^obiiM  ^xircmgia,  Slid  with  apore-coii- 
taioiiig  atet,  and  anrToonded  bv  a  flockjr  mtelium, 
oftao  mrMcliiig  widely  over  Uia  leavea  and  othei 
fuia  M  pknti.  Hwlea  am  ai 
mildew  of  tbla  idiid,  so  aa 


be  quite  hotu?. 
Similar  mildewa  are  often  aeen  on  pease  and  otller 
legnminoiu  plant* ;  *lao  on  nmbellifennu  planta. 
Bolphni  tiM  been  fonnd  effectual  in  oaring  aome 
ot  UuM  mildewa^ — Many  of  the  moat  deatonotiTe 
mildewa  are  ol  a  rad  or  brown  oolonr,  aa  tiie  mildew 
of  the  pear,  AatidiuM  eoMMHalwn,  that  of  Uie 
''    '  '    '"       "   Aerictit,  Ao. ;  irtiiLrt Mme are 

n  mildBW.i'iMeMafninniiu, 
irane  yean  greatiy  injured. 

.       .  ._  .  oonaequanoe  of  nn&vour- 

•ble  weather  aad  of  fnngi  attacking  an  already  weak- 
ened plant,  or  ia  the  oonseqaence  of  infection  by 
aporea  of  ^mgi  brought  tiinni^  tiie  air  oc  eoil  to  a 
plant  prerioouyhealuiy,  ia  not  yet  well  aaoertained ; 
and  probably  the  one  may  be  aometimea  the  cue, 
and  aometimea  tiie  other.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
many  kinda  of  mildew  ^ipear  ohieSy  towuds  the 
close  of  Bommer  on  leaTes  in  which  Tegetable  life 
luB  already  in  a  gnat  meaanrs  loat  ita  power. 

HILE,  the  largeat  terrestrial  measure  of  length  in 
commoQ  use  among  the  British  and  moat  continental 
uationi,  ia  derived  from  the  Koman  mOiiart,  whioh 


«ont^ed  1000  paces  IritiUe  ptunaan)  of  5  Boman 
feet  each,  the  pace  being  uie  length  of  the  st«p 
made  by  one  foot.    The  Soman  foot  being  between 


1I-6S  and  ll-OS  Gngliah  inches,  the  Bonan  mile 
thus  leas  than  the  present  Eoglish  mile  by  from  142 
to  144  yards.  The  length  of  the  modem  mile  in 
different  coantries  exhibits  a  remarkable  divem^, 
not  satiafacttnily  accoouted  for.  Before  tite  time  of 
EHnbeth,  adentaflo  writen  made  use  of  a  mile  of 
6000  Wngl"*"  feet,  from  the  notion  that  this  was 
Qie  Boman  mile,  forgetting  the  diETerence  tu  valne 
between  the  T^ngH«li  and  umian  foot.    The  present 


atallv  denned  by  an 
of  Uie  reign  of  Elizabeth 
to  be  '  S  forlongs  of  40  perches  of  164  feet  each' — 
L  e.,  1760  yarc&  of  3  feet  each ;  and  it  has  since 
retained  this  valne.  The  geographical  or  ruaUiad 
miU  is  the  60th  part  of  a  degree  of  the  equator, 
and  ia  employed  by  the  mariners  of  all  nations  ;  but 


Taiiona  miles  that  have  d 


MILETUS,  anoiently,  the  peat^  and  moat 
flouriahing  city  of  Ionia,  in  Aaita  Minor,  It  was 
aitoated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mieander,  and  waa 
famous  for  its  wooUen  manufacturea,  and  for  ila 
extenaive  trade  with  the  north.  Before  being 
forcibly  oolonised  by  the  lonians,  it  appears  to 
have  been  inhabited  by  Caiiana.  M.  eariy  fonnded 
a  number  of  ooloniea  on  the  Black  3e&  and  in  the 


Atlantic,  and  maintained  Iraig  and  expennve  waa 
with  the  Lydian  king^  The  '  Milesians '  wen  be- 
lieved to  be  the  purest  n^iceaentativea  of  the  loniaoa 
in  Ana.  After  the  conqoeat  oit  Lydi*  by  the  dder 
Cyma,  it  waa  anbdued  witii  the  whole  of  Ionia. 
It  continoed,  however,  to  flourish  till  it  waa  ezdted 
to  rebellion  against  the  Fetsiana  in  the  Ionian  war, 
and  was  deakoyed  494  B.O.  It  waa  rebuilt,  bat 
never  reacquired  ila  fonnar  importance  M.  haa 
an  honourable  plaoe  in  the  history  of  Oieek  liter* 
atiire,  being   the   iHrtbplace    of   the   philoaophen 

historians  Cadnma  and  Hecatsua. 

MI'IjPORD,  a  parliam^itary  borough  teontribn- 
tory  to  Pembroke)  and  seaport  of  South  Wales,  in 
the  county  of  Pembroke,  on  the  north  ahore  of  the 
Haven  of  the  same  name,  7  miles  eaat-north-east  of 
St  Ann's  Head.  The  Haven  is  gajd  to  be  unequalled 
aa  a  harbour  by  any  other  in  the  world.  It  ia 
formed  by  an  estuary  running  inland  for  17  milea  to 
lAogwin  (which  is  easily  reached  by  vessels  of  2000 
tons),  and  varying  from  1  to  2  miloa  in  breadti.  It 
is  jirotectod  bom  winds  by  a  girdle  of  undulating 
him,  is  deep  (from  15  to  19  faUioms  in  most  parta, 
while  the  spring-tides  rise  26  feet),  easy  of  acceoa, 
and  capable  of  anchoring  the  whole  fleet  of  England 
in  safety.  Hie  merits  of  the  Haven  have  been 
reoognised  from  the  earliest  tiraea ;  bat  the  rise  of 
the  town  of  M.  may  be  said  to  have  begun  with  the 
present  oentury,  when  docks  and  quays,  togetiier 
with  a  mail  packet-station  for  Ireland,  a  dockyard, 
■hipbuildinx  slip^  and  an  arsenal,  were  ealab^hed 
here,  only,  however,  to  be  removed  in  1814.  Since 
that  time,  with  only  occasional  ^eams  of  pros- 
perity, U.  haa  been  in  a  declining  condition ;  but 
the  opening  of  the  Milford  Railway,  and  the  con- 
tion  ot  docks  and  wharfs,  have  given  a 


>  its  progress.    New  docks,  designed  by  Sir 

L  J.  Beed,  capable  of  accommodating  '      '  " 


^  -  -  of  the 
largest  tonni^  were  completed  in  1SS2.  The 
new  avulable  dock  area  is  60  acre^  which  will 
materially  assist  in  developing  the  resources  of  M. 
In  ISSO,  1624  vusels,^  of  a  burden  of  407,475  tons, 
entered  the  port ;  and  162S,  of  377,335  tons,  cleared. 
Pop.  (1881)  3813. 

MILFOBD,  a  town  of  Maasachosetts,  United 
States  of  America,  34  miles  soutli-weBt  of  Boston, 
having  6  churches,  a  manufactory  of  machinery,  and 
large  boot  and  shoe  mannfactnree.    Pop.  (1880)  93101 

HILHAU,  or  MILLAU,  a  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Aveyron,  in  a  rich  and  fertile 
dale  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tarn,  66  milea  ninth- 
of  Montpellier.  During  the  16th  and  17tjt 
riea,  it  was  one  of  tin  strongholds  of  the 
Calvinista.  Leather  and  gloves  are  mannfactored, 
and  there  is  a  good  trade  in  wool,  timber,  hidei^ 
cheese,  and  wine.     Pop.  (1S81)  16,366. 

MILITARY  ACADEMY,  Botal,  an  establish- 
ment at  Woolwich,  through  which  must  pass  all 
candidates  for  the  RoyM  Artillery  Mid  Boyal 
Engineers.  The  age  for  enbranoe  ia  17,  and  the 
vacancies  are  open  to  public  competiUon.  The 
pupils  are  denominated  military  cadeta,  and  the 
parents  or  gnardiuiB  have  to  inidce  a  coiuidenble 


i.Guuj^Il 


MTLITARV  ASYLUM— IQUTABY  ORDEBS. 


Ngard  to  eadi,  ao  long  m  tli«f  rami 
n^  1Ji9  AcademT ;  the  ■■**"*i  clune  for  the  tm  o 
nvilUn  beiog  £120,  that  for  the  eon  of  a  naval 
miLtar)'  officer  Ism,  aocoidiiig  to  the  rank  of  the 
faUm.     When  tbe  teiiu  of  iustrnotioii — wbioh  com' 


uiiitaiy  do^— u  comrieted,  the  cadeti  compete  for 
the  Tinirtninn  id  the  Siudtuen  Mkd  Aitilleiy « those 


lefuM  of  tba  former  oorpe.  Thoie 
mksioDi  in  the  Eiumeen  |itooeed  to  Chatham  for 
tnrtfaer  iuetraction  (wHIt  milituy  pay.  however)  in 
their  nofeMunial  functioBi.  Ste  Aitdleryoadeteat 
muM  idn  dw  Boyal  AitiOeiy  ai  Ueutenaiibik  The 
for  the  BomI  Milttwr  AcAdcony  for  the  year 
-laSl  was  X31,60S,ofwhicl  '      '  " 


which  Bum  a)>ont  three- 
fmutJu  would  be  made  np  to  the  Exoheqaer  by  tike 
paymmla  ftw  pupil*  aoa  b  contributioB  from  the 

MILITARY  ABYLTTM,  Rotai,  bo  edacational 
govarnment  institation  at  Chalaea,  n«ar,  bat  wholly 
diatinot  from,  the  Boyal  HoepitAl  for  PeaaioDed 
Soldifln.  Ita  object  ia  the  amtable  edncatioii  for 
bade,  Ac.,  id  000  male  childreQ — generally  oiphona 
— of  Briti*h  aoldien.  For  theoe,  then  are  a  model 
Kbooi  Htd  an  infant  achool,  ud  the  boya  have 
u  oompleteljr  militaiy  orpmaatioii,  with  acarUt 
uniform,  baiid,  to.  Aa  a  reeult  of  their  training,  a 
of  the  pnplB  nl&nately  volnnteer 

nlSOabyf  

u  ftiU  commomy  known  aa  the  ■  Dnke  of  York' 


large  prqiMiit . —  ,_, ^   . 

into  ue  army.     The  Bohool  waa  originally  eetab- 
"    '  '    "  "       •  ■"   '    -Whence  it 


inl^bj 


le  late  Dnke  of  York,  w 


Originally  »  almilat  acliaol  for  aoldien' 

dan^iten  waa  included,  but  waa  not  found  to 
anawer,  and  luw  been  diacontunieiL  Attached  to 
the  achool  ia  a  truning  eatabliahment  for  militaiy 
■choolmaatora,  known  oa  the  Nonnal  School — Tbeie 
ia  a  aimilar  iuatitution,  the  Boyol  Hibernian 
Military  School,  at  the  Phcaaix  Porl^  Dublin. 

MIUTAKY  FBOITTIEB  (Oer.  JBiUargrvm), 
tiie  framer  name  of  a  narrow  atrip  of  land  along 
the  Tnikiah  &a«tier  of  the  Aostro-Hon^ptrian 
Empire^  It  had  a  apeoial  militaty  conatitution,  and 
formed  a  aepuate  'crowuland.'  Of  late,  howerm', 
the  peooliar  inatitnliona  of  the  M.  F.  have  been 
abobahed ;  portiona  of  Uie  territory  have  been 
inooiporated  with  adjconing  province* ;  and  since 
1873  the  rauainder  of  tim  M.  F.,  now  officially 
termed  the  Croato-Slavonic  Border-land,  forma, 
along  with  Slavonia  and  Croatia,  a  depeodeaoe  of 
the  Hongarian  Crown.  The  oonatitution,  civil  and 
military,  ta  now  accordingly  aimilar  to  that  of  the 
other  provincea  of  the  Hungarian  rart  of  the  Emmie. 
The  area  of  the  M.  ?.  waa  about  7S00  iqnare  milM, 
and  ita  pop.  in  1889  was  099;3Oa  The  breadth  of 
the  temt(n7  once  known  under  thia  name  ia  con- 
aidemble  tawarda  the  western  eztremily,  bat  dimin- 
iahea  to  only  a  few  milee  at  t^e  eastern.  The  sur- 
fiwe  has  an  average  elevation  of  upwards  of  2000 
feet.  All  the  important  rivers  flow  eastward.  The 
climate  is  serere  m  the  highlands  in  the  west,  but 
mild  {n  the  lower  diaaiots  towarda  Blavonls. 
Maize,  wheat,  o^  fruiti^  and  vegetables  at«  the 
priiio>]i«l  prodactians. 

TheM.T.aw(»ita(wJginasBarown-laDd  to  the 
ntniMitj  of  having  a  peraanut  body  ol  dcienden 
on  tha  borders  duing  fcamer  wai^  ud  especially 
during  wars  wHh  the  ToAa.  In  the  ItStb  e.,tlie 
Austnana  had  gained  from  tbe  Turks  cotaJn  trscta 
of  territory  <m  the  bonka  «l  the  Save  and  Dsjiube. 


ooloiusts  moat  reoder  military 
aerviee  against  the  Turks.  Thus  miginated  the 
Capitanate  of  Zengg,  dnriog  the  reign  of  Matitias 


Ci^vinna.     ^le  Waraadin  ^ontier  originated  in  the 

in  the  17th  c.  The  oonatitutioQ  of  the  M.  F.,  a*  it 
eiiated  tiU  1873,  bos  been  thna  described :  '  The 
militaty  stations  along  the  frontier  aerva  a  tiiree- 
ioli  purpose — the  daenoe  of  the  ooun&r, 
paerention  of    ■nogglin^  and  the  prevenboi 


the  spread  of  oontagioaa  disease  into  the  twri- 
toriss  of  the  Austrian  empire.     Ths  inhabitants 
of  this  ciown-land  aojoy  peeoliar  prinlegea. 
immigrant  anoeators  raoMvsd  mify  the  ten 
use M  lands  consigned  to  them;  Win  1801] 


paaaed  T"*^"g  over  *t**  1m^  t 
■a  wmt  own  prc^xrty.  Thia  ri^ib  ot  propany  noes 
not  belffli^  however,  to  individuals,  but  to  the  nunily 
in  a  united  senB&  The  eldest  mambcr  <rf  a  familf 
(called  the  SantBoitr)  ia  intrusted  with  ths 
management  <d  tiie  land ;  his  partner  (the  Smu- 
mutter)  tanks  aqual  willi  him,  and  they  each  reoeive 
a  double  ahars  ot  the  profits  tot  the  year,  aa  recom- 
pense for  the  managemsBit  of  the  estatsk  A  funily 
of  this  soft  is  called  a  Border-houas  iOrtadima). 
All  who  at*  aUe  to  bsar  arms  ai*  sworn  to  the 
aarvioa  fmn  their  9Mh  year.  The  soldier  ti  the 
&«sitMr,  who  is  (dothed  aa  wdi  as  anned  and 
aop^ied  with  ammnnition  by  goTemmsnt,  flnda  it 
his  du:^  not  only  to  watoh  and  protect  ths  fccntisr, 
but  to  ptnatsre  peaos  and  ordar  in  the  interior,  and 


le  acocmpliahmsnt  of  the  pnrpoaae  aimed  at  hy  the 
.  P.,  the  eortbm,  a  seriea  of  gnard-ho«aas  aleflg  the 
hole  frontier,  aflording  Moommodation  to  from 
foor  to  ti^t  man,  as  wall  as  latgw  ODe%  aeooan- 
"'^i-*™);  &dv»  nan  and  a  jnni(»  offioer,  haa  been 
inatit^w.  fnUmi  thk  line  are  the  offioN^  pasta. 
Without  aonaundnff  faimsdf  at  the  posts,  no  one  is 
allowed  to  pass  thelioundary;  and  after  puiDiaaioa 
%  longer  or 


spaas  tl 
the  pat      „ 

JuM  K  tha  4 .     

order  that  all  introdoietion  of  distase  may  bi 
Tttited,' 

HIUTABT    ORDBBS,    reli^Dua 
which  arose  from  a  mixture  of  the  redigioua  enthn- 
and  the  eliivalnnu  lore  of  arms  irtiich  almost 


of  the  Chriatiaa  residents  of  the 
Holy  Land,  in  which  the  monks,  whose  Stat  duty 
lud  been  to  serve  tti«  ralgrims  in  the  hoqiital  it 
Jerusalem,  wwe  oomnlled,  by  the  necessity  ot  bcU- 
detenoe,  to  asenms  the  oharacter  of  eoldiera  aa  well 
as  ot  monksb  See  John  (St),  Kmiovis  «w.  Tba 
order  of  the  Templan  (a.  v.)  was  of  sioailar  orioin. 
Those  (rf  Alcantara  ana  Calatrava  in  Spain  bad 
for  their  imuMdiate  ctijeet  tha  delsaoa  of  thdr 
country  usinat  the  Moors.  These  orden,  aa  well 
as  tiiat  tn  Avis  in  Fmiogat,  which  waa  institated 
ynth  a  aimilu  view,  toU^red  the  Owteraisn  rule^ 
and  all  thtee  differed  from  tile  Ten^lars  and  ths 
Knight*  of  St  John  in  being  psnnntsd  by  their 
inatitute  to  marry  caoe.  The  same  priviUge  was 
Mjoyed  in  tite  &,vay*ri  cades  of  Knig^  of  St 
Maorio*  and  the  nemish  erder  ot  St  Hubert.  On 
the  ootdvary,  the  Tenteaia  Kn^tts,  who  had  tMr 
origin  in  the  Crusades  (see  Gkutd  MinxB),  were 
bound  by  an  ritsolnte  vow  of  diHtity.  With  the 
varying  o( 
ationahav 


..Ge»oglr 


MILITABY  8CH00LS-MILITAHT  TRAIN. 


UILITAKY  SCHOOLS,  h  regarda  the  British 
Mm]',  •!«  divisible  into  aevend  clMsas ;  1.  Thote  for 
the  ednoKtion  oE  officen  Klready  Id  the  servioe ;  of 
thcM,  tbera  are  the  Staff  College  (q.  v.),  the  School 
of  MilitMy  Engineering,  and  Oairiaon  SchooU  of 
Inatraolion.  2.  ProfeMiaiul  lohooU  commoa  to 
officers  and  men  nill  be  found  tinder  Artillibt, 
Schools  or,  and  MosEBTRT,  Schools  or.  3.  Schools 
for  the  professional  edacation  of  candidates  for 
oommissioos ;  for  these,  referenee  should  be  made 
to  MiUTAST  Aai.DEiir,  Rotai.  and  to  Sahdhubst 
MluTABY  CoLLXOK.  4.  The  sdiools  for  men  in  the 
Tank*  and  for  their  children  are  described  under 
ScHOOU,  REamiNTAi.;  while  the  instooetion  pro- 
vided for  their  sons  or  orpluuii  is  ibewn  under 
MiuTABr  Abylom,  Kotal. 

The  Milttaiy  SohooU  of  fbreun  oouatries  deserve 
considerable  attention,  espeda^  those  of  France, 
where  a  militatj  oommissioa  la  one  of  the  best 
•cholMtio  prizes  looked  forward  to.  In  Franee, 
no  attempt  is  made  to  impart  general  edncatjon 
at  the  military  seminaries ;  a  boy  is  required  to 


nniveisal  competitioa,  and  being  the  only  chuinel — 
r  nearly  so — to  the  best  eoiployment  under  the 
,Me,  the  great  military  scbocila,  by  the  high 
standard  required  for  them,  give  great  impetus  to 
general  education  and  the  L7c6es,  or  public  schools, 
adapt  their  connw  of  iiutraction  to  tbe  auticipalea 
competition.  In  the  army,  two-thirds  of  the  line 
omniisaionB  (after  a  service  of  two  years  in  the 
_anks,  or  after  one  year's  service,  and  passing  the 
final  ejaminatioa  at  the  lafanttT  School  at  St 
Uaixent),  and  one-tbtld  of  those  for  the  scientific 
oorpa,  are  given  to  non-commiasianed  officers,  but 
few  of  these  rise  beyond  the  rank  of  captain ;  the 
remaining  ooDUoissiooa  in  the  line  and  soieutitiG 
oorpa,  and  all  appointmenta  to  the  sta^  are  given  by 
oompetitioD,  after  a  careful  conne  of  prolessional 
edneation.  Tb.«  candidates  in  open  competition  (in 
dvil  sabjeota  only)  an  placed  according  to  merit 
eiUier  in  the  Infantoy  School  of  St  Cyr,    -  ^•--     ' 


•npport.  From  the  School  of  St  Cyr,  the  more  pro- 
mising pupils  pass  to  the  Staff  School,  and  tbeaoe, 
after  a  thorough  course,  to  the  Etat  Majenr  of  the 
army ;  the  reitiaining  atadenta  pass  as  subalterns 
into  the  line.  The  pupila  of  the  Polytechnique, 
which  is  entered  after  the  i^  of  17  year*,  have 
annually  about  160  valnable  prizaa  open  to  them. 
The  fint  30  to  40  oandidatee  usually  select  civil 
employment  under  the  state,  such  aa  the  'Fonts 
et  Cluuisiiea ; '  those  next  in  merit  choose  the 
Artillery  tad  Engiiieers,  and  pass  through  a  tech- 
nical ooiDse  at  the  School  of  Application.  The 
rentaining  atudenta  either  fail  to  qualify,  and  leave 
"  --<---<  -f  bave  to  content  themselves  with 
D  the  line,  eubordinate  situatioiui  in 
Um  govenunent,  civil  or  colonial  service,  or  they 
retire  into  civil  life  altogether. 

la  aotuJ  service,  there  are  «cbo<ds  for  the  men, 
who  are  also  taught  trade*  and  tinjriag.  The 
standard  of  ednosbon  amou;  French  Mldiera  is  far 
higher  than  amcmg  their  ^glish  brethren,  as  the 
consoriptkui  draw*  tfaa  men  from  all  classes  of 

The  Oerman  system  of  militaiy  education  differs 
Irom  that  of  France  in  that  competitioa  is  but 
sparingly  Ksorted  to ;  and  the  objeot  is  to  rive  a 
— d  general  and  jnofessianal  education  to  ul  the 


a  Mle«ied  few,    Asinranta  i 


tion  iu  general  and  liberal  knowledge  (about 
equivalent  to  that  passed  in  this  country  for 
entrance  into  Sandhurst) ;  if,  however,  the  can- 
didate has  been  educated  in  a  cadet-bouse — which 
is  a  semi- military  school  for  youths — and  bas  passed 
properly  out  of  it,  he  loins  the  army  in  a  nuik 
equivalent  to  our  midshipman  in  the  navy  (porU- 
epie  JBJmruA),  After  some  further  service,  the 
aspirant  go«a  for  nine  months  to  one  of  three 
'Division  Schools,'  where  he  completes  his  pro- 
fesaional  education.  If  he  pasa  the  standard  here 
required,  he  is  eligible  for  the  next  vacancy,  bnt 
cannot  be  oommisaiooed,  nnlesa  the  ofScet*  of  the 
corps  ore  willing  to  accept  him  as  a  comrade.    The 


ttUmination  of  Prussian  military  education  is  the 
"  "  School,  open  to  competition  for  all  the  officers 
e  army,  and  presenting  the  highest  prizes  in 
the  profession.  In  all  the  school^  the  candidatea 
study  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  or  receive  great 

ixiliary  grants. 

In  Austria,  the  preliminary  step  to  a  commission 
ia  obtaining  the  nuik  of  a  cadet,  either  from  a  Cadet 
School  (which  boys  have  to  enter  at  an  eariy  age), 
or  by  passing  the  same  examinatian  aa  cadets  from 
these  schools  have  to  pass.  U  recommended,  they 
become  officers  after  a  year's  service,  and  riiewinv  a 
proper  knowledge  of  tfieir  work.  Cadet*  from  tne 
schools  have  the  advantage  of  being  commissioned 
at  once  if  qualiQed.  The  young  officer's  chance  of 
entering  tlie  Staff  School — and  therefore  the  staff — 
depends  upon  his  place  at  the  final  examination  at  a 
line  or  scientific  corps  academy.  There  are  school* 
for  training  for  uon-comnusaioned  officeie  and  for 
officers ;  and  senior  depsrtments  for  imparting 
more  extended  instruction  to  both  classes.  Can- 
didate* for  appointment  aa  non.commiisioned 
officers  pas*  by  competition  through  the  lower 
houses,  where  they  remain  till  1 1  years  old ;  the 
upper  houses,  wluch  detain  them  tiU  IS  ;  and  the 
school  companies,  whence,  after  actual  apprentice- 
ship to  service,  a  few  pupils  pass  to  tlie  ocodemiee 
for  aspirants  for  comouBsionB,  and  the  others  are 
drafted    into    the    service 


In  the  Italian  army,  the  system  so  nearly 
approaches  that  of  France,  that  a  separate  descrip- 
tion is  unnecessary.  It  need  only  be  stated  that 
the  educational  status  of  the  Italian  officer*  is 
conmdered  high. 

MILITABY  SECBBTARY.  an  officer  on  the 
personal  staff  of  generals  in  high  command.  Hi* 
duties  are  to  conduct  the  correspondence  of  his 
chief,  and  to  transact  agreat  amount  of  confidential 
business,  which  would  dangerously  occupy  the  time 
of  the  general  himself.  'Hie  mihtary  secretary  to 
the  officer  commanding-in- chief  at  tJie  War  Office 
receives  £2100  per  annum,  and  is  usually  a  general 
officer.  The  military  secretary  to  a  commander-in- 
chief  in  the  field  is  for  tbe  most  part  below  that 
rank,  and  receives  pay  at  the  rate  of  only  £S00  per 
annum  ;  while  to  a  general  commanding  a  division 
only,  an  Amttaat  MUitary  Seeretary,  at  the  rate  of 
£4b0  per  annum,  ia  allowed. 

MIUTART  TBAIN,  formerly  a  highly  import- 
ant corps  of  the  army,  of  which  &e  ia£etioa  was  to 
transport  the  provisions,  ammunilioD,  and  all  other 
matfinel,  together  with  the  wounded  in  time  of 
battle.  It  was  formed  after  the  Crimean  War,  on 
the  dissolution  of  the  Land-Transport  Corps  (q.  v.). 
It  comprised  six  battalions,  in  all  1840  officen  and 
men.  Attached  to  each  battabon  were  168  horeea, 
witii  proportionate  wagons  and  ambulances. 

Tba  Militaiy  Train  constituted  only  the  nuolen* 

,.  ^.OO'ilc — 


MILITELLO— MILITIA. 


I  tnmsport  B 


rice  for  a  inga  army,  and  ia 

be  expanded  hj  the  additioii  of 

thooBiuidB  of  iLorsai  or  mules,  and  the  incorporatioa 
of  many  hundred  drivers,  ia.  The  advantage  of 
po3seuing  even  ft  few  men  ready  traioed,  and 
capable  of  directing  the  moreroenta  of  others,  was 
amply  demoostratM.  by  the  failnres  of  the  Crimea 
in  185i— 1866;  BO  that  parliament  voted  ungrodg- 
iagty  the  expense  of  this  corps,  although  in  time  of 
peace  it  waa  comparatively  without  employment. 
The  Military  Train  waa  disbanded  in  1870,  as  bebg 
too  military  in  its  formation,  lis  functiona  are  now 
puformed  by  the  Transport  Staff  of  the  Commis- 
■ariat  Den^ment,  umsted  in  time  of  ma  by  a 
regimental  traDaport  train. 

HILITB'LLO,  a  oity  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of 
Cataoia,  and  21  nules  eouth-weat  of  the  town  of  that 
name.  Pop.  10,000.  It  itanda  on  a  mountain  in  a 
Bomewhat  imhealthy  sitnation.  In  its  vicini^  there 
are  important  salt  lagoooa. 

MILITIA  (Lat.  mSa,  a  soldier)  has  ncvw  the 
acquired  meaning  of  the  domeatia  force  tor  the 
defence  of  a  n^on,  as  diatingiuahed  from  the 
regular  army,  whioh  can  be  emjdoyed  at  home  or 
abroad  in  either  aggressive  or  defensive  operations,  i 
Every  natioa  has  a  reserve,  mider  ita  law  militaty, 
npon  which  its  defence  wonld  fall,  on  the  serious 
diacomSture  of  the  ivgidar  army,  or  of  a  portion  of 
it ;  but  the  system  difTers  in  each  country,  and  it 
may  be  aaid  that  none  are  formed  on  the  model  of 
the  BritiBh  "'i'''"''- 

The  militia  is  a  constitntional  force  raised  nnder 
the  sanction  of  parliament,  in  which  the  people — in 
theoiy,  at  least — wage  their  own  bodies  for  the 
defence  of  their  own  aoil,  and  in  which  they  depute 
the  sole  leadership  and  command  to  the  sovereign 
and  the  crown  nominees.  Organised  by  counties  and 
cities,  it  is  essentially  a  local  force  ;  but  the  right  of 
granting  commisdoDS,  formerly  held  by  the  lords- 
lieatenanla,  waa  tranaferred  to  the  crown  by  the  Act 
of  1871.  Under  the  Anglo-Saxons,  all  men  were 
required  to  bear  arraa,  as  a  sort  of  body-rent  for  the 
land  they  held ;  but  no  special  organisation  beine 
adopted,  efficiency  was  rarely  attained  in  the  use  of 
arms.  Thia  the  nation  found  to  ita  cost  when  the 
Banes  overran  it  during  Alfred's  reign.  That  great 
king,  to  prevent  a  simiir  ocourrencc,  establiited  the 
militia  or  /yd,  making  land  the  basis  of  numbers, 
but  the  family  system  tliat  of  discipline :  so  many 
families  were  a  tything,  ten  tythings  a  hnndred,  and 
hundreds  were  onited  into  county  poweis,  each 
nnder  ita  hertlach,  dnx,  or  dake.  lEach  section  of 
the  community  had  not  only  to  furnish  its  quota  in 
time  of  war,  bnt  also  to  provide  anna,  keep  them  ' 


<wn  began  to 
,  it  naturally 
found  its  moat  powerful  instrument  in  reviving  the 
Saxon  militia ;  and  the  English  yeomanry  became 
thenceforth  tile  fear  of  England's  enemies,  and  a 
guarantee  for  the  gradnal  enfruiclusement  of  the 
people.  Henry  II.  established '  an  a«aU»  of  araui,' 
at  which  every  bolder  of  land  was  bound  to  produce 


Sghti 


fully  equipped,  and  capabh 

Sin   the   national    defence.      This   am 
y  of  the  fyrd  or  militia  ia  first  recorded 


after  the  Conqnest  in  1181.  Further  alterationa 
to  suit  the  luivances  in  ths  art  of  war  took 
place  in  155a  In  1604.  James  I.  abolished  the 
ryrd,  and  snbstitated  'Trained  (commonly  called 
Train)  Bands,'  to  the  number  of  160,000  men— a 
force  partaking  of  the  nature  of  militia  and  Tolun- 


definitely  assiBned  to  the  crown  or  toanv  other 
bo^.  After  uie  Restoratitw,  the  loyal  panisment 
of  Charlea  11.  immediately  reorganised  Uie  militia — 
essentially  on  its  present  footing— and  declared  as 
law  that  '  the  sole  supreme  j^vemment,  commsnd, 
and  disposition  of  the  militiB  is,  and  by  the  laws 
of  England  ever  was,  the  undoubted  right  of  his 
majesty  and  his  royal  predecessors.'  As,  however, 
the  orowQ  from  this  tune  began  to  depemd  for  its 
support  upon  a  mercenary  army,  the  militia  waa 
much  neglected  until  1757,  when  a  larga  portion 
of  the  regular  army  being  absent  in  the  Seven 
Years'  Wkc,  it  was  carefully  organised  for  the 
defence  of  the  kingdom.  Several  militia  acta  have 
been  anbsequently  passed.  15  and  16  Vict,  c 
50,  consolidates  previous  legislation  from  1802,  Il_ 
1871,  the  control  of  the  mihtia  was  tranaferred 
frran  the  lords-lieutenants  to  the  War  Offioe. 
The  lords-lieutenants  may,  however,  recommend 
gentiemea  for  commissions.  Various  laws  on  army 
organisation  were  completed  in  1870,  having  for  a 
prominent  aim  the  consolidation  of  the  national 
defences  by  bringing  the  army,  "'''■*'»,  and  other 
military  forces  into  doser  connection.  The  IlDit«l 
Kingdom  is  now  divided  into  fifteen  military 
districts,  with  69  infantry  regimental  districts 
(besides  cavalry  and  eleven  artiUery  territorial 
divisions).  To  each  belongs  a  territorial  brigade, 
consistii^  of  two  line  battaliona,  from  two  to  nine 
militia  battalions,  the  regimental  depO^  volunteer 
battalions,  and  ths  men  m  the  Army  and  Militia 
Beserve.  The  members  of  the  mihtia  volunteer 
into  the  reserve,  and  may  thence,  in  time  of  ei 
gency,  be  directiy  drafted  into  tiie  regular  ai 
The  Mihtia  Reserve  numbered  about  30,000  in 
1884 

The  force  to  be  provided  by  each  territorial 
district — known  as  ita  '  quota ' — ia  fixed  by  govern- 
ment in  proportion  to  the  uumb^  oS  battafions  in 
each  sucK  district  (A  number  of  the  Militia 
battslionsarenotyetformed.)  The  numbers  must  be 
provided  in  some  way.  In  prsotioe,  they  are  raised 
by  voluntary  recruitment ;  but  should  volunteering 
fau,  a  levy  by  ballot  would  be  made  upon  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  locality  between  the  ages  of 
18  snd  35.  The  power  oF  making  this  ballot  olwaya 
exists,  and  would  have  by  law  to  be  enforced,  but 
for  the  Militia  Ballot  Suspension  Act,  which,  when 
the  measure  is  unnecessary,  is  passed  from  year  to 
year.  Many  claaaee  are  exempt  from  the  ballot, 
aa  peers,  soldieni,  volunteers,  yeomanry,  reaident 
membera  of  universities,  clergymen,  parish  school- 
masters, articled  clerks,  apprentices,  seafaring  men 
crown  employes,  free  watermen  of  the  Thames ;  IL 
England,  any  poor  man  with  more  than  one  child 
born  in  wedlock ;  in  Scotland,  any  man  with  more 
than  two  lawful  children,  and  not  possessed  of 
property  to  the  value  of  £50 ;  in  Ireland,  any  poor 
man  not  worth  £10,  or  who  does  not  pay  jEft  per 
annum  for  rent,  and  has  more  than  tnree  lawful 
children  under  tiie  age  of  14. 

The  militia  batt^ons  are  bound,  when  called 
upon  by  the  crown,  to  assemble  annually  for  any 
period  not  exceeding  50  days,  for  training  purposes ; 
and  the  government  can  embody  the  whole,  or  part 
of  the  force,  at  any  national  crisis.  In  1816,  the 
militia  had  been  embodied  for  nearly  20  years,  and 
the  regiments  were  again  embodied  tdmost  without 
exception  during  the  Russian  war  of  1354 — 1850, 
snd  to  a  considerable  extent  at  the  time  of  the 
Indian  mutiny,  1867—1859.  The  quota  of  the 
United  Kingdom   (including  the  Channel   Islands 


X.o^glc 


MILITIA-MILK. 


MiUtia)  u  I43,4Sg  man,  of  which  number  121,000 
may  be  ooniiderad  h  effectiTs.  They  may  not  be 
■ent  oat  of  the  kingdom,  except  they  volunteer,  uid 
then  only  by  ipeoial  pannieBon  of  p«rli»meiit.  As 
k  dafeniiTe  or  guriion  force,  setting  free  Uia  rega- 
Imr  army  foF  ag^reaiirB  opentione,  the  militia  ia 
•  moat  Tkhuble  uvtitation ;  and  in  timet  of  war, 
it  hta  erer  been  found  an  admirable  training- 
Mhool  whenae  wldkni  Tolnnteer  into  Uie  permanent 
toTOM.  Iti  affleienoy  baa  been  vastly  increaeed 
during  tiie  hut  twenty-fire  years. 

A^  militia^  volunteer  receivei  bonnty  (onder 
oertain  reetnotions)  after  each  training  period. 
When  ont  for  tnuune.  or  embodied  for  permanent 
dnty,  Um  offioen  and  men  receive  the  same  pay 
aa  regolar  troops  of  oorreapondinn  arms  of  the 
■ervioe,  and  are  nnder  the  Army  Diadpline  Act, 
except  that  no  pqniahment  can  extend  to  life  or 
Kmb.  The  officere  rank  with,  but  junior  to,  their 
brethren  of  the  regnlar  army,  and  are  always  sabject 
to  militaiy  law.  There  is  no  dirtination  in  nniform 
between  lefnlar  and  militia  troopi,  except  that  in 
the  latter  the  letter  U  is  home  on  the  Bhoolder- 
tt%p.  The  artillery  ii  cenerally  limited  to  the 
ooMt  oonntiei;  and  ii  Qghly  eateemed  by  the 
anthoritiea. 

Olie  coat  of  the  militia  for  the  year  IS82-83 
la  estimated  at  £1,188,874,  the  total  nnmber  thoa 
provided  for  being  138,274. 

The  Channel  Islands  UHitia,  consisting  of  4 
oorpa  of  garrison  artillery,  and  six  regiments  of 
infantry  (in  all  aboat  4000  men),  is  on  a  totally 
different  footing  to  the  militia  in  other  parts  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  Ihe  origin  of  tiia  force  dates 
from^  the  year  1201.  The  basis  of  service  is  a 
modified  conscription,  A  new  law  has  lately  come 
into  opantian,  impoiing  service  partly  compoisoty 
(with  very  few  peearrations),  partly  volnntary.  All 
yontha  between  the  ages  of  10  and  18  are  liable  to 


R^ment  Elach  manltsa  to  serve  ten  complete 
tiainings,  and  then  passes  into  the  reserve,  in  which 
he  reniains  np  to  uie  age  of  60  jreais.  A  som  of 
£0S70  is  voted  by  mrliament  in  aid  of  tiiis  force.' 

The  celebiated  Xocal  Militia  v  " 


I  ittstitnted  in 


Ebgtud  and  Scotland  in  1808,  and  anspended  m 
1810.  It  connated  of  a  force  for  enA  connty  mi 
timca  u  nnmeront  aa  tbe  proper  militia  quota, 
comprising,  of  conne,.'many  classes,  which,  from  age 
OT  other  cirenmitanoei^  were  ineligible  for  tba 
militia.  These  troops  could  only  be  marobed 
beyond  their  reapectivB  oonntiea  in  the  event  of 
actual  invasion.  Their  nnmbers  reached,  in  1811, 
to  213,000  men. 


^  „  ^  which  thdr 

offeprmg  are  too  immatore  to  live  npon  ordinary 
food.  It  is  devoid  of  odour,  except  for  a  short 
time  after  its  extraction ;  is  of  a  slichtly  sweet 
taste,  most  commonlv  of  a  slightiy  alkaune  reaction 
{except  in  the  Carruvora,  in  which  it  is  add) ;  and 
its  average  speciflo  snvity  (in  tiM  oaae  of  human 
milk)  is  K32. 

When  milk  has  been  allowed  to  stand  for  some 
time,  a  thick,  fatty,  yellowish-white  atratnm  (the 
crenm)  forms  npon  its  snifaoe.  When  this  is 
lemoved,  the  fluid  below  (popnlarly  known  as 
'  skim-milk ')  is  found  to  be  of  ereater  specific 
gravity,  and  of  a  mora  blniah-whfta  tint.  Milk 
does  not  coagnlate  on  boiling,  bnt  a  membrane  or 
film  of  coagulated  ooseine,  oonniaing  fat  corpnscles, 
forma  npon  its  aorfaoe.  If  milk  be  aQowed  to 
atand  for  aome  daya  exposed  to  ur  at  the  ordinary 
lamperatore,    it   gradually    be^na  to   exhibit    M 


increasiiu  add  reaction,  from  the  formation  of 
lactic  acM'trom  the  milk-sugar;  whila  the  caseins 
becoming  coagulated  by  the  action  of  the  lactia 
acid,  is  separated  in  the  form  ot  'cnrda,'  and  the 
fluid  gradually  aaaumea  the  form  of  a  <*ii*i«l>  pulp^ 
^e  ordinary  means  of  obtaining  tiia  oasedne  (which 
exists  in  solution  in  the  milk)  in  the  fonn  of  enrda 
ia  by  tba  addition  of  a  pieoe  of  rmnet  (tba  dried 
stomach  of  the  calf),  which  acts  aa  powerfully  aa 
any  add.  The  cnrda  thua  aeparated  fonn  Om  basis 
of  cheese,  while  the  Unid  portion  left  after  titeir 
removal  is  known  as  the '  whey.' 
When  examined  under  lib*  microscope, 


a  delicate  ooat  of  caseine,  which  prsventa  thcsi 
ranning  t<netiier.  By  ehumina,  the  anrroDnding 
enrelopea  become  mptnred,  and  the  oontenta  are 
made  to  unite,  tcsaning  buuir.  In  addition  to  milk 
globnles,  colostrum  sloMilefl  (see  CoLOSisni],  whi<di 

ire   inegnlar  con^omarations  of   very  smsU  fat 

globules,  oocur  in  the  milk  for  the  fust  three  or 

onr  da^  after  delivety. 
The   following  table,   which   is    based    on   tiw 

vaearches  of  Vemois  and  Beoquerel,  repreaenls  the 
densi^  and  composition  of  1000  parts  of  milk  in 


The  Bctnal  caseine  which  in  the  preceding  nnalyasi 
is  associated  with  tbe  nndefined  gronp  of  snfastanoea 
termed  txtraetbM  matten,  ranges  frtnn  27  to  S5  in 
1000  parts  of  healthy  human  milk,  while  in  the 
colostrnm  it  amounts  to  40';  in  the  milk  of  Uie 
cow  it  ia  somawhat  higher;  while  in  that  of  tlie 
bitch,  and  probably  of  ul  camivorons  animala,  it  is 
than  trebled.  It  is  found  '  " 
n  that  the  qnantit^f  of  the  e 
with  the  free  use  of  ammal  food, 
upon  VHjetable  diet 

The  tatty  matters  range  from  2S  to  43  in  1000 
parts  of  women's  milk,  while  in  cows'  mUk  they 
average,  according  to  Lehmann,  4tf ;  and  in  bitchea' 
milk,  riae  to  110.  Theee  fatty  mattera,  which  collec- 
tively form  butter,  oonsiat  of  an  admixture  of  08 
—  cenL  of  margarine,  30  per  cent,  of  oleine,  and 
jer  cent,  of  an  admixture  of  fats,  which,  on 
saponification,  yield  bn^Tie,  eajiroic,  caprylic,  and 
caprio  acids.  The  milk  which  is  last  ;pe]ded 
is   much  richer  in   fat   than  that  which  la  fint 

"The   an^,  or  lacljne,   whose 


described  in  the  article  Suoar  or 

milh  from  32  to  62  in  1000  parls,  and  in 
cows'  TniTb  from  34  to  43.  Ilie  mil  6  of  bitchcsi 
when  fed  on  a  purely  animal  diet,  often  OMitaina 
no  traces  of  sugar;  but  if  they  are  ted  on  v^et- 
able  or  mixed  fc«d,  a  considerable  quantity  of  sugar 
is  found-  The  salts  in  women's  milk  range  from 
0-0  to  2'6  in  1000  parts,  and  in  cows'  milk  from  3-S 


table,  which  shews  the  comparative  snalyBea^ 


MiLK-FEVMt— MILL. . 


CtaTorldd  of  potmuliuD, 


PhMphulo  mU, 


His  milk  ■■  liablo  to  tolerably  ngain  oluuue* 
at  diSemnt  period*  of  laotatioii;  tot  example,  uie 
■ngar  ia  deficient  dniiiig  Qu  fint  month,  and  u  in 
ezocM  famn  the  eidith  to  the  tenth  month;  the 
oweinB  is  in  exceM  during  the  fiiat  two  months,  and 
ii  Dioit  deficiait  betneen  the  tenth  and  eleventh 
month;  the  butter  is  eoneidenibly  in  exceae  dnring 
the  fint  month,  and  alightly  ao  for  the  next  two 
montha ;  while  ^e  ealta  are  most  abandant  dariDS 
the  fiiat  month,  but  preaent  no  t^nlar  law  m 
decreaae.  Hence^  it  will  readily  be  aeen  that  in 
the  aeleotian  of  a  wet-nuiee,  one  of  the  leading 
reqnirementa  ahonld  be,  that  bxa  milk  ahonld  be  <rf 
the  same  age  aa  that  of  the  mother's.  Various 
medidnea,  as,  for  eiompl^  iodide  of  potaaainm. 
iodide  of  mercory,  and  quinine,  hare  beea  detected 
in  the  milk,  after  being  taken  by  (he  mother ;  and 
many  eaaee  are  im  record  in  which  atrong  mental 
impreaaionB,  aa  fear  or  an^,  acting  on  the  mother, 
have  ao  far  poisoned  the  milk  aa  to  cause  inunediate 
oonvnlnons  m  the  infant. 

The  daily  qoanti^  of  milk  it  dependent  upon 
TBriouB  conditions,  ench  aa  bodily  constitution, 
food,  jco.  lAmpGrierre  detfirmined  the  qnanti^  of 
nuik  secreted  m  definite  times  by  a  large  nnmber 
of  women,  and  foond  aa  a  mean  for  each  brenet 
between  fifty  and  nxty  grammes  (the  gramme  being 
15'4  groins)  in  the  course  of  two  hourB,  asaimung 
that  uie  secretion  contiaues  at  a  nniform  rate. 

In  those  cases  in  which  a  wet-nurse  oannot  be 
obtained,  it  is  expedient  to  modify  cows'  milk,  so 
as  to  make  it  resemble  that  of  women.  The  main 
differences  are,  that  the  former  contains  more 
caseine,  and  len  n^  and  water  than  the  latter. 
By  exposing  cows'  nulk  to  a  gentle  heat  in  a  wide 
open  vessel,  we  obtain  a  film  ot  caseins  which  may 
be  removed  (more  than  once,  if  neceasaiy);  on  then 
adding  ngar  (sugar  of  milk,  if  proonrable)  and 
water,  we  obtain  a  good  imitation  of  the  human 


In  tha  article  on  DiOKnotr,  the  uses  of 
leadii^  ingredienta  of  the  milk  in  relation  to  n 
tion  are  saffiaiently  noticed.  The  milk  of  cows  is 
axtenaively  used  as  an  article  ot  diet  both  for 
healthy  peraona  and  invalida,  and  it  enters  largely 
into  all  nosjntal,  prison,  and  workhouse  dietaries. 
In  patients  with  a  tendeaoy  to  consumption,  or  in 
whom  that  disease  has  already  maniieeted  itself 
■-  ita  eariy  form,  cream  la  often  of  great  aervicei 
when  the  stomach  cannot  bear  cod-liver 


especially  m 


The  adolterationa  t 


which  milk  ia  often  s 


are  briefly  ref  eired  to  in  the  article  dxLAOTOMvrxR. 
Water  ia  by  tar  the  commooeat  adulteration,  and  if 
it  haa  been  added  in  lar^  quantity,  the  fraud  may 
be  detected  b^  evaporatmg  a  amaU  weighed  quan- 
tity ot  ike  milk  (aay  BOO  graina)  to  d^eee,  and 
uoertsining  whether  the  due  iccmortion  ot  solid 
■■      "UlefL 


Variona  methods  have  been  proposed  for  the 
Tffeservation  of  milk  for  sea-voyages,  Ac.  Moore's 
Essence  of  Milk  is  prepared  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  sugar  and  the  evaporati(m  of  the  fluid,  at  a 
tranperatnre  of  110°,  to  one-fourth  erf  its  bulk,  when 
it  is  put  in  small  tiD-caaes,  soldered  down,  steeped 
in  boiting-water  for  a  time,  and  taken  out  to  cool 
This  ptepatatioD  keeps  good  for  a  long  tima  Blatch- 


le  form  ot 


lbs.  of  milk  with  28  lbs.  of  white  sugar  and 
bicarbonate  of  loda.  The  miztore  is 
ouder  certain  conditions,  till  it  assumes 
a  creamy  powder,  which  ia  cooled,  wdghed  into 
parcels  of  1  lb.  each,  and  compressed  into  brick- 
shaped  masses,  which  must  be  triturated  and  mixed 
with  warm  water  when  required  for  use.  Grim- 
wade's  Beeiccated  Milk  is  prepared  br  mixing  the 
fluid  with  a  little  sugar  and  alkali,  and  evaporatinK 
it  till  it  ia  aa  thi^  as  dough ;  it  ia  then  dried, 
crushed,  and  bottled.  Atthemeelinf  of  the  British 
Association  in  1859,  tha  Abbi  Moigno  deaoribed 
tour  methods  employed  in  France  for  the  preserva- 
tion ot  milk,  of  which  the  most  valuable  seemed 
those  of  Maber  and  De  IHerre.  For  detuls  regarding 
these  methods,  we  most  refer  to  the  abbfi'a  paper. 
He  found  milk  prepared  by  Maber'a  process  pei^ 
fectly  good  after  haTing  been  kept  betwe«i  five 
and  six  years.  The  milk  preparei  by  De  Pierre's 
is,  unlike  the  other  jweparation,  is  liquid.    A 


be  perfeoi 
milk  is  no 


specimen  of  it,  the  age  of  wiiich  was  not 
which  the  abb^  brought  to  Aberdeen,  waa  found  to 

■■ tectiy  fresh.    The  preparation  of  condensed 

now  conducted  on  a  large  scale  in  Switzerland. 

MILK-FEVEB,  in  the  lower  animals,  comes  on 
within  a  few  dsys  after  parturition.  One  varidy, 
common  to  most  nniTnalw^  consists  in  inflammation 
of  the  mGmbranes  of  the  womb  and  bowels,  and 
is  produced  by  exposure  to  cold,  overdriving,  or 
injury  dnring  labour ;  it  ia  best  treated  by  oil  and 
laudanum,  tincture  of  aconite,  and  hot  fomenta- 
tions to  the  belly.  The  other  variety,  almost  peculiar 
to  the  cow,  attacks  animals  in  high  condition,  that 
ore  good  milkers,  and  have  already  borne  several 
calves ;  it  consists  in  congestion  and  infiammalicn 
of  the  brain  and  largo  nervous  centres,  and  impairs 
all  the  vital  functions,  leading  to  dulness,  loss  of 
sensation  and  motion,  and  stupor.  Blood  must  be 
drawn  early,  whilst  the  cow  is  still  standing  and 
sensible.  Later,  it  only  hastens  death.  A  large  dose 
of  physic,  snch  as  a  pound  each  of  salts  and  treade, 
a  drachm  ot  calomel,  an  ounce  of  gamboge,  and  two 
ounces  of  ginger,  should  at  once  be  given,  solid  food 
withheld,  clysters  of  soap,  salt,  ana  irater  thrown 
up  every  hour,  cloths  wrung  out  o(  boiling  water 
applied  along  the  spine^  the  teats  drawn  several 
times  duly,  and  tlie  apiTT^wl  frequently  turned* 
Although  treatment  is  uncertain,  prevention  u 
easily  insoied  by  milking  the  cow  r^ulorly  for  ten 
days  before  calving,  feeing  sparingly  on  laxative 
unstimnlating  food,  giving  several  doees  of  physic 
before,  and  one  immediatflly  after  calvii^ ;  and 
when   the   afiniftl  is  in  very  high   condition,  and 

L-fever.  ble  ' --  '^ ' * — 

calving. 

MILK  VETCH. 

MILKY-WAY.    See  Galaxt- 

MILKWOBT.    See  Poltoau. 

MILIl  This  word  is  now  used  in  a  general  way 
as  a  name  for  almost  all  kinds  of  mannfactories,  aa 
well  aa  for  grinding  machinery ;  bnt  wo  shall  only 
describe  here  the  arrangements  M  an  ordinary  flour- 
mill,  adding  a  brief  notice  ot  the  edge-mill  in  use  for 
grinding  ou-seeds  and  some  other  subatances. 

From  thne  immemorial,  com  haa  been  gronnd  by 
a  pair  of  stones.    The  eariiest  and  mdest  bandmills 


Coogi 


«ere  no  donbt  BOmeirtiAt  lika  thftt  ihewa  in  fig.  1, 
which  is  •  repreBsntatiim  of  one  sent  home  by  Dr 
),  tne  African  tiwTeller,  from  the  buiki 


Fig.  L — Aftiean  HuidmilL 

ot  the  Shire,  in  Sonth  Africa.  He  describes  it  aa  *  & 
mill  BQch  M  Sarah  otod,  when  told  by  lier  lord  to 
do  the  thing  huidsomely  and  in  »  hnir;  for  the 
•tnngen — L  e.,  a  big  itone  worn  hollow  by  the 
opeiatiOTUi  of  grinding.  The  nnper  atone  is 
graaped  by  both  haada,  and  the  weisbt  of 
Uie  body  brought  down  on  it  aa  it  il  utoved 
to  the  lower  part.  ....  The  meal  ia  made 
Tery  fiueL*  The  next  itep  in  advance  ot  this 
waa  the  qaem  or  bandoiill,  etill  in  me  in 
the  Shetland  lalei,  the  Faroes,  and  other 
plaoea.  The  old  qaern  acorcely  diSen  from 
a  pair  of  modern  millatonea,  except  in  the 
■tMiea  being  tmall  enoogh  to  allow  of  the 
nppar  one  beins  tornM.  by  the  hand, 
instead  of  by  wind,  water  or  steam  power. 

The  millatonea  which  are  now  all  bnt 
muTenally  naed  for  grinding  com  are  mode 
from  bnhr-ttone,  a  form  of  ailica  like  flint 
in  hardneaa,  bat  not  ao  brittle.  Thia  rock 
ia  only  foand  in  abondance  in  the  mineral 
basin  of  Faria  and  acme  adjoining  diBtricts, 
and  belongs  to  the  Tertiary  formation.  It 
ia  of  a  cellular  texture,  and  ia  frequently 
fnll  of  ailicified  shells  and  other  foaiila. 
MilUtonea  are  usually  from  four  to  six  feet 
in  diameter,  and  are  each  mode  up  of  a 
number  ot  pieces  strongly  cemented  and 
bound  together  with  irou  hoops.  One  six 
feet  in  dujnoter,  of  fine  quality,  will  cost  abont 
£50.  The  grindJog  surface  of  each  stone  is  fur- 
rowed or  grooved  in  the  manner  shewn  in  fig.  2,  the 
grooves  being  cut  perpBudicularly  on  the  one  side, 
and  with  a  uope  on  the  other.     A  pair  of  stones 


through  the  lower  one,  at  a  speed  of  one  hnndrad 

revolations  per  minute  more  or  less.  Motion  is 
commnnioated  by  the  spur-wheel  b,  which  is  driven 
by  a  water-wheel  or  other  power.  The  com,  pm- 
Tiously  cleaned,  ia  EuppliedT  to  the  millstones  by 
of  the  hopper  e,  connected  with  whieh  there 


etone,  it  comes  in  between  the  two,  wnere  it  ia 
fmnnd,  and  Uirown  ont  on  all  sides  by  means  of 
Uie  centrifugal  force,  lie  millstones  ore,  of  oonra^ 
enclosed,  and  the  flour  posses  down  through  the 
apoQt  e,  to  the  worm  at  y.  which,  while  it  ooola 
the  gronnd  com,  carriei  it  along  to  elevators  g. 
These  raise  it  np  to  the  floor,  on  which  the  silk 
dressing-machine,  A,  is  placed.  Thia  is  »  eylinder, 
which  was  formerly  mode  of  wirecloth  of  various 
degrees  of  fineness,  and  coosequently  separated 
the  flour  into  different  qvalities — tiie  finest  past- 
ing through  the  first  portion,  the  aecond  passing 


Vig,  2, — Hillstone,  shewing  Grinding  Surftioe. 


aLke,  the  _ 

come  against  uiose"on  the  othV,  and  so  cat  the 

groin  to  pieces. 

Fig.  3  shews  a  section  ot  a  fiour-mill  reduced  to 
:i..  — ipleet  elements.    The  millstones  are  at  a,  the 


upper  is  made  to  revolve,  on  a  shaft  which  passes  op 


Fig.  3.— Elementary  SooUon  of  a  Flanr-milL 

through  the  next,  and  so  on ;  but  no  part  of  it  largs 
enough  in  the  openings  to  let  throu^  the  braji. 
which  paased  ont  at  the  end.  Silk  is  now  preferred 
to  wirMloth  for  dressing  the  flour.  Hoppers,  i,  are 
placed  below  the  dresaing-machine,  by  means  of 
which  the  flour  and  bran  are  filled  into  sacks  ;  No. 
1  being  fine  flour;  No.  2,  seconds j  andKa  S,  bran. 
One  of  the  largest  Hour-mills  in  Great  Britain  ia 
that  beloQ^ng  to  Messrs  Tod  at  Leith.  All  tha 
machinery  m  uie  mill  is  driven  by  two  steam-anginea 
of  350  horse-power  each.  The  wheat  passes  thNngk 
a  series  of  cleaning  or  smnt  machines  [consistiog  of 
rapidly  revolving  beaters  inside  an  iron  case),  and 
through  winnowing  machines.  After  being  slightly 
cmshed  between  iron  rollora  and  passed  Uirough  » 
wire  dressing  or  aiFting  machine,  the  wheat  ia 
crushed  by  48  pairs  of  millstones.  It  is  Uien 
sifted  by  means  of  silk  cylinders— first  to  separata 
the  bran,  and  s  second  time  to  separate  the  '  midd- 
lings '  or  '  pariugs.'  What  falls  through  the  second 
setof  silk- machines  is  finished  flour.  Themiddlinga 
are  then  subjected  to  a  sifting  process  1^  means  of 
'  middlings-punfien.'  These,  which  are  horizontal 
sieves,  are  kept  constantly  in  motion,  and  through 
them  a  current  of  air  ia  made  to  pass  by  means  ot 
the  suction  of  a  fan.  Thereafter,  the  middhngs  are 
nvund  by  means  of  porcelain  rollers,  and  dressed 
through  silk  in  the  same  way  as  the  ground  wheat, 
the  Sour  thus  obtained  being  mixed  with  that  from 
the  mill-stones.  All  the  machinety  is  combined  by 
means  of  elevators  and  screws  in  such  a  way  that  no 


i.Guu^lc 


Fig.  4.— Edse-atone 


mannal  I&Ikiuf  ie  reqniied  for  the  conTeyknoe  of  the 
material  from  the  time  it  entsn  tho  mill  u  whe&t, 
to  that  at  which  it  falla  into  Kcka  as  floor,  the  pro- 
oeaa  of  manufacture  ooonpying  half  an  hour.  The 
mill  manufactures  about  1000  sacka  of  floor  per  <3ay 
of  24  houra; 
There  is  a  fonn  of  mill  in  use  for  some  parpoiea 
where  the  nullEtonei 
are  vertical,  m  ahewn 
in  fie.  4,  and  called 
the  edge-atone  milL    It 


ing  com ;  but  ia  much 
employed  for  cmahing 
oil-teeda  and  for  grind- 
ing dye-Btufffl,  Bogax, 
chemicals,  and  a  multi- 
tude of  other  aub- 
atancea.  The  stones  are 
geneiallj  of  some  hard 
rock,  such  aa  nanite  or 
aantbtone,  and  from  5 
to  7  feet  in  diameter. 
For  luch  pnrpoeea  aa 
Ip'illding  clay  or  loam, 
tiioy  are  naually  made 
of  cast  iron,  and  of  a 
smaller  aize.  The  atones 
revolve  in  opposite 
directions,  sometimes 
npoQ  a  fixed  stone  or  metal  bed,  ttuA  at  other  times 
it  is  the  bed-plate  itself  which  revolvea,  and  in  so 
doing  tarns  the  edge  stones  which  rest  upon  iL 

AmongOie  recent  improvemraits  in  out  float-mills 
whioh  have  attracted  conaiderable  attention  are : 
1.  The  high-grinding  ayatem  by  meana  of  rolleis 
— either  oi  chilled  iron  or  of  porcelain — in  place 
of  stones,  suited  to  hud  wheats,  and  carried  out 
with  great  success  in  Hungary,  particularly  in  Bud  a- 
Pesth,  whence  for  many  years  we  have  obtained 
the  finest  known  qualities  oE  flours.  Of  late  years, 
the  milters  of  Minnesota,  U.S.A.,  have  oopied  this 
system,  and  as  they  are  ^voured  by  their  having  a 
similar  quality  of  wheat,  they  are  now  with  consider- 
able success  contesting  the  Europeao  marketa  wiUi 
the  Hnngarians.  2.  Middlings-pariliera  tinentioned 
above),  which  vary  very  maSa  in  couatraction,  but 
have  the  same  Ie»diog  principle — viz.,  making  nee 
of  the  difFerence  of  specific  gravity  of  flour  andbran 
to  effect  a  separation  between  them.  By  meana  of 
these  machine^  flour  of  very  fine  quality  can  now 
be  made  from  material  formerly  used  for  feeding 

Eurpoaes.  These  middlincs-purinera  are  the  leading 
«ture  in  the  American  '  New  Process  '  millings  now 
universally  adopted  in  that  conntiy ;  and  it  la 
largely  owing  to  the  help  of  this  apparatus  that 
the  Americans  are  now  so  keenly  comptioz  with 
native  millers,  principally  in  Britain,  but  Mso  on 
the  continent 

MILI/,  in  Iaw.  The  owner  of  a  null  situated  on 
the  bank  of  a  stream  is  entitled  to  have  the  use  of 
n  midiminiahed  in  volnme ;  and  if  the  other 
riparian  owners  above  interfere  with  the  stream  by 
fliminisbiog  ita  volome,  thereby  causing  injury  to 
the  mill,  the  mill-owner  has  a  right  of  action  against 
the  parly  so  acting, 

MILIf,  JAME4,  was  the  son  of  a  shoemaker,  and 
was  bom  in  the  oei^bonrhood  of  Mtmtroae,  Scot- 
land, 6th  April  1771  Hestadied.withaviewtothe 
cliuroh,  at  the  oniversity  of  Edinbnrah,  where  he 
diatinjmished  himself  in  Qreek  and  m  Moral  and 
Metoiihyiical  Phitosopby.  He  was  licensed  to  preach 
'»  179S;  but  instead  of  following  out  the  ministcy,  he 
vent  to  London  in  180?,  where  he  settled  as  a  literary 


man.  He  became  editor  of  the  Literary  Jovmed, 
which  after  a  time  was  discontinued ;  and  wrote  for 
various  periodicals,  including  the  BdecUe  and  the 
£dirAurgh  JUviaa.  In  1S06,  he  commenced  hi* 
HitlOTy  qf  Briiiii/t  India,  which  he  carried  on  along 
with  other  literary  work,  and  published  in  the 
winter  of  1817 — 1818.  The  impreasion  produced  by 
Qua  masterly  history  on  the  Indian  anthoritiea  wss 
such,  that,  m  1S19,  the  Court  of  Directors  of  the 
Company  ^ipointed  him  to  Uie  high  post  of  Asaiat- 
ant-exBluiner  of  lodian  Correspondence,  notwith- 
standing the  tiien  unpopularity  of  his  well-known 
radical  opinions.  The  business  assigned  to  his  care 
was  the  Revenue  department,  which  he  continued  to 
superintend  till  four  years  before  his  death,  when 
he  wsa  appointed  h^d.  of  the  Examiner's  office, 
where  he  had  the  control  of  all  the  deportniaits 
of  Indian  administration — political,  judicial,  and 
financial —managed  by  the  Secret  Committee  of  the 
Court  of  Directors.  Shortly  after  his  appointanent 
to  the  India  House,  he  contributed  the  articles  tn 
Government,  Education,  Jnriaprudenca,  Law  ol 
Nations,  Liberty  of  the  Press,  Colonies,  and  Prison 
Discipline  to  the  Encuelopadia  Sritaaniea.  These 
essays  were    reprintetL    in    a   separate  form,   and 


probab^  never  before  been  brought  to  bear 

cUsa  of  subjects.    In  1821—1822,  he  published  his 

EUmenle    -     " "  ' 

primoril 
eldest  S<: 

q/"  (A<  fluraon  Jfind  appea. ._ , 

book  »SB  the  Fragment  on  XackinioA,  brought  out 
in  1835.  He  was  abo  a  contributor  to  the  Wai- 
min3f«r  Review  and  to  the  London  Smlea},  which 
merged  iu  the  London  and  We^mbuter. 

Isct  long  after  he  settled  in  London,  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Jeremy  Bentham,  and  for  a  number 
of  years  lived  during  the  summer  in  Eeotham'a 
country-house.      Although  he  must  have  derived 


but  a 

.f^_ „ 

Qtal,  and  political  philosophy, 
was  impressive  to  a  remarkable  degree,  and  he  gave 
a  powerful  intellectual  atimnlns  t«  a  number  of 
young  men,  some  of  whom  (including  hia  own  son, 
and  Mr  Grote,  t^e  historian  of  Greece)  have  since 
risen  to  eminence.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
foimding  ot  University  College,  L<mdon.  He  died 
at  KensmstoD,  23d  June  1836.  See  Autobiography 
ot  J.  8.  Mill,  the  Biography  by  Professor  Bain  in 
Mi-ad,  13T6--78,  and  hia  Jamtt  MiU  (1882). 

MILL,  John  STnAKf,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
bom  in  London  on  the  20th  of  May  1S06.  He  woa 
educated  at  home  by  Ms  father.  la  1S20,  he  went 
to  France,  where  he  lived  for  npwards  of  a  year, 
making  himself  master  of  tho  French  language,  and 
occasionally  attending  public  lectures  on  science. 
He  lived  for  some  time  at  Paris,  in  the  house  of  the 
French  economist,  Jean  Baptiste  Say,  where  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  many  men  distinguished 
then,  or  afterwords,  in  letters  and  in  politics.  He 
spent  part  of  bis  time  in  the  soutli  of  France,  in  the 
house  of  Sir  Samuel  Beutham,  brotiier  to  Jeremy 
Bentham.  During  this  stay  in  France,  he  laid  the 
fonndation  of  hia  great  familiarity  with,  and  interest 
in,  the  politics  as  well  as  the  literature  of  the  French 
nation.  In  1823,  he  entered  the  India  House,  and 
became  a  clerk  iu  the  Examiner's  office,  where  fail 
father  was  Assistant-examiner.  For  thirty-three 
years  he  continued  to  be  occupied  in  the  depaj-tmeat 
of  the  office  named  the  Political,    -  "■' ' "■'  — 


,,Ci00gl' 


MILLAia-MlLLENNTOM. 


he  wu  wpbintcd  Auiftant-«zumiier,  uid.  m  ISH 
h«  WM  plued  at  the  hetd  of  the  department  He 
•neigebcallj  oppoaed  the  tnmater  ot  tbe  Indii 
lent  to  tbe  crown  in  1858.    On  the  i 


faUing  hMlth  lie  dedmed  *  nat  at  tile  new  Indian 
Camcn,  and  retired  from  office  in  October  of  the 
Mine  Tear,  on  a  oompeniating  allowance.    At  the 

Gaeral  election  of  1896,  M.  waa  returned  to  par- 
ment  for  Wettminiter ;  and  till  he  loet  hi*  aeat 
at  the  election  of  1868,  he  acted  with  the  Advanced 
Liberal!.  He  died,  May  8, 1873,  at  Avignon,  where 
he  had  njent  moat  part  ot  the  laat  yean  of  bit  life. 

Mr  Mul  beoatne  an  aothor  at  a  tbit  early  age, 
and  may  be  looked  upon  aa  one  of  the  foremoet 
thinkera  of  Ida  time.  Hin  flrat  pnblicadona  con- 
silted  of  article!  in  the  Wettnifultr  Seuiea.  He  took 
an  aotive  part  in  the  politioa]  diacnaaiona  that 
followed  the  revolution  of  1830  in  France,  and  the 
Reform-BiU  movement  in  England ;  and  from  163S 
to  1840  wa«  editor,  and  along  with  Sir  W.  Moles- 
worth,  proprietor  of  the  London  and  WettmiasUr 
Jleview,  where  many  artaolea  of  hi*  own  appeared. 
In  184S,  he  pnbliahed  ■  hia  Sytt«m  qf  Logic ; 
in  1844,  Eamit  on  torn*  UiueUM  QtuMiime 
<lf  PoHricai  Beoiuymy;  in  1848,  tiie  Prineiples 
of  PolUieal  Eamomy ;  in  1869,  an  e»ay  on 
Lihtrtu;  in  I860,  Ditevmioiu  and  DiuerUUUxu ; 
in  1863,  a  nnall  work  on  UliUtariamtm ;  in 
1860,  Oomte  and  F«ritivi»m,  and  Hie  Saxunination 
of  Sir  WiUiam  HamUion'i  Philosophy;  in  1867 
(when  M,  w»«  rector  of  8t  Andrews  TJnivenrity), 
hia  iTiauavrat  Addrett;  in  1868,  EnMand  and  Ire- 
laad;  and  in  1869,  The  Si^«etion  uf  Womtn.  After 
his  death  appeared  hia  A^OoUographg  (1373),  read 
irith  intense  interest :  Tknt  Sk»ay»  on  S^Ugion 
(1874) ;  and  a  second  Tolome  of  Sitcuamont  and 
Dinertation*  (1870).    See  Bain's  John  Stuart  MUL 


_ .  . ,  entered  the  Koyal  Academy  at  the  age  of 
eleven,  and  in  1847  earned  off  the  gold  medal  for 
his  piotare  of  'The  Tribea  of  Benjamin  seising 
the  Danghten  of  Sbilah,'  exhibited,  m  the  follow- 
ing year,  at  the  Britiih  Inatitution.  Before  this 
perioid,  he  had  aoquiied  a  considerable  reputation 
among  yooager  painten  by  his  avowed  antipathy 
to  the  principles  of  art  whioh  then  prevuled.  His 
views  were  shared  in  \n  other  student«i  HQch  as 
Holman  Hunt  (q.  T.),  Dante  Roesetti  {q.  v.],  and 
Chailea  Collins,  and  a  sort  of  artistic  tratemity 
waa  formed,  wJuch  obtained  the  name  of  the  Pre- 
Paphiuiilt  School  M.'«  principal  paintuioa  are  : 
■Our  Saviour'  (1350),  'Marians  in  the  Moated 
Orange'  (ISfil),  'The  Huguenot'  and  'Ophelia' 
(1852),  ■  The  Order  of  Beleaae'  and 'TheProsoribed 
Royalist'  (18C3},  'The  Resoae'  (135G),  '  Autumn 
Loaves'  (1856),  'The  Heretic'  (1868),  'Spring 
Flowera'  (1800),  'The  Black  Branswicker'  (1861), 
'My  First  Sermon'  (1863),  'My  Second  Sermon' 
(1864), 'Joan  of  Arc' (18G5),  'Sleeping,'  'Wakiug, 
'Jephtha'  (18671,  'Moses'  (1871).  'Chill  Ootoher 
(1871),  'Day  Dreams'  (1874),  'Sound  of  Many 
Waters '  (1877), '  The  IMnoes  in  the  Towor  '  (1873), 
&c  Tbe  ^re-Raphaelitisin,  intenseneai,  and  extreme 
anti-traditionalism  of  M.'s  earbeit  years  were  gra- 
dually toned  down  ;  hia  mature  skill  shews  remark- 
able force  of  colour  and  breadth,  though  in  many 
rocent  works  there  is  a  lack  of  motive.  Of  late, 
hia  influence  on  portnuture  has  been  marked.  Hia 
portraits  of  children  are  very  charming. 

MIXLBDOGVU'IjB,  the  former  capital  of 
Georgia,  United  States  of  America,  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Ooonee  River,  ISO  miles  north-weat  ot 
Bavannih,  in  a  lioh  ootton  oonntry.    Among  ita 


edilioeB  are  the  former  govcmor'a  remdence  and  state 
bnUdings,  and  sercnl  chnzchea.    Fi^  3000. 

HILLBUNIVII  (Lai  a  thonaand  yeata'  time) 
deaknstea  a  eertain  period  in  the  hiatoiT  of  the 
world,  hating  for  a  loi^[  indefinite  apaea  (vagitely 
a  thonsand  years),  dnring  which  &a  kinsdom  of 
Measish  will,  according  to  tradition,  be  visibly  estab- 
lished on  the  earth,  lie  idea  originated  proximately 
in  the  Messianic  expectations  of  the  Jewa ;  but 
more  remotely,  it  baa  been  conjectured,  in  the  Zoro- 
aatrian  doctnne  of  the  final  triumph  of  Ormuzd  over 
Ahriman,  and  waa  connected  by  uie  Christiana  with 
the  Paroutia,  or  Second  Coming  of  Christ  The 
notion  of  a  Odden  Afe,  preserved  by  the  converts 
from  heatheniam  to  Christianity,  an  weU  aa  the 
oppreasion  and  peraecntions  to  which  ihef  were  long 
subjected  by  the  state  authorities,  were  natojally 
calculated  to  develop  and  strengthen  anch  hopes. 
Ilie  chief  baaiB  of  tbe  millanarian  idea  in  Jndaiam 
OB  well  aa  in  Christiaui^,  however,  is  the  ardent 
hope  for  a  visible  divine  role  upon  earth,  and  the 
identiGcatiou  of  the  church  with  that  of  whieh  it 
is  merely  a  symboL  In  the  let  o.  of  the  chnrch, 
miUenananism  (the  Oreek  equivalent  of  whicb, 
Aiiiamn,  from  ehiiiot,  a  thousand,  is  the  term 
employed  by  the  Fathera)  was  a  widespread  belief 
to  which  the  book  of  Daniel,  and  more  particu- 
larly tbe  pictorial  predictiona  of  the  Apocalypse 
(chaps.  XX.  and  ixi.),  ^va  an  apostolical  authority^ 
while  certain  prophetical  writing^  composed  at  tne 
end  of  the  1st  and  Uie  begiiining  oi  the  Zd  e. 
— such  as  the  Talamenl  of  the  Twdvt  PatrlartAt, 
the  Fourth  Book  of  Esdnu,  tiie  Seodalhn  of  Saint 
POer,  ftc ;  aUo  tiie  Ohrialian  SOmlUnt  Book*,  the 
EpiMt  of  BarmAoM,  the  Bh^herd  (f  Ue  Pteudo- 
Hemuu,  seversl  Midrsshim,  Taignms,  and  other 
works  of  a  partly  legendary  character  embodied  in 
the  T'olmu^— lent  it  a  mor«  vivid  odonring  and 


how  stronglv  it  had  laid  hold  of  tbe 
imagination  of  the  chnreh,  to  which,  in  this  early 
stage.  Immortality  and  future  Rewaida  were  to  a 
mat  extent  things  of  this  world  aa  yet  Not  only 
Qie  heretio  Ceriutnna,  hot  even  the  orthodox  dootota 
— such  as  Fapioa,  Bisht:^  of  Hierapolia,  IreniEus, 
Justin  Mar^,  Ac. — delighted  themselves  tnlh 
dreams  of  the  glon  and  magnifioence  of  the  mllleu- 
nial  kingdom.  The  S<byU&t  Boe^  for  instance, 
hold  that  the  earth  will  be  enltivated  thron^out 
its  length  and  breadth,  that  there  will  he  no  more 
seaa,  no  more  winters,  no  more  niriito;  everlaating 
wells  will  run  hone^,  milk,  ana  wine,  fto.  ftc. 
Papias,  in  his  oollectian  of  traditional  sayings  of 
Christ  {KariaiSn  LogiSn  ExX^iris),  indnlgw  in  the 
most  monstrouB  representations  of  the  rabmlding 
of  Jetiisalem,  and  the  colcaul  vinea  and  grues  A 
the  millennial  reign.  Every  vine  will  bew  10,000 
branches,  eveiy  bandi  10,000  shooti^  every  shoot 
10,000  sprigs,  eiaj  sprig  10,000  bnndua,  every  bunch 
10,000  berries,  evmy  bony  88  timea  2fi  giJlona  d 
winaj  and  if  a  Saint  come.to 'plniA:  a  beny,  they 
will  all  cty  ont :  '  Plack  me,  O  Sain^  I  an 
better,  and  praise  the  Lord  ^trough  me.'  His 
Talmnd  calculatea  the  height  of  tl»  men  c^  the 
millennium  to  be,  aa  before  the  Fall,  of  200—900 
yards;  the  moon  shall  be,  according  to  a  wo^ba- 
tical  dictum,  like  the  ann ;  the  snn  sfisU  be 
increased  343  timea;  and  every  Israelite  win  beget 
as  many  children  as  there  were  Israelitea  going  out 
from  %ypt— «0,00a  Each  grape  will  be  larRe 
enough  to  ml  the  bi^eat  ahipL  Above  alt,  however, 
the  land  ot  lanel  inD  be  free  again,  and  the  primi- 
tive worahip  restored  with  miSe*M-of  apleDdour. 
'Sudi  a  chuiasm,'  Neander  juatly  renutncs,  oonld 
only  '  promote  a  fleahly  endaimcmiam ;'  and  indeed 

oo;;lc 


MILLENNIUM. 


era  lon^  it  called  into  more  enerj^o  ttotinty  the 
oppomtioa  of  Onoatic  ipiiitilaliiiii.  AccordiDg  to 
tn«  geaend  opinion,  irlncli  wh  u  much  Chrirtian 
M  Jrariih,  tlia  miUenniam  mu  to  be  jneoeded  by 
great  oBUmitie^  reminding  na  in  soma  denaa  o(  the 
Scandinsviaa  BagnarUk  (or'Twilight  of  UieOoda'). 
The  penoniflcKtion  of  «vil  appaorad  in  ArUkhrkt,  tw 


the  land  of  Magoff  (Ezek.  chape.  . 

■gainat  the  people  Gog.  After  vhioh  the  Memaih- 
some  lay  a  donble  Meuiah,  one  tlte  aon  of  Joaeph, 
Tanquiahed  in  the  atrife;  the  other,  the  Tictoriona 
aon  of  David — vronld  appear,  heralded  by  EUaa,  or 
Moaeg,  or  MdcMzedek,  or  laaiah,  or  Jeremiah,  and 
would  bind  Satan  for  a  tiiomwiid  yean,  annihilate 
the  godleaa  heathen,  or  make  them  alavea  of  the 
believera,  overtnm  the  Roman  empires  from  the 
ruins  of  which  a  new  order  of  thinga  wonld  ipring 
forth, in  whiah  the  'dead  in  Chriat' vronld  anae, and 
alone  with  the  anrriving  aainta  enjoy  an  inoom- 
parable  felidty  in  the  oitj  of  the  *  New  Jemaiilam,' 
which  was  expected  to  descend  literally  from  heaven. 
To  the  innocence  which  waa  the  state  ol  man  in 
Paradise,  there  waa  associated,  in  the  preraleirt 
notiona  of  the  millenniom,  the  finest  physical  Nld 
intellectual  pleasnna. 

In  the  Moiaio  acoonnt  of  creation,  ««  find  the 
primitiTe  gnmnd  for  making  the  TictorionS' 


type  of  the  destiniee  of  creation.    Now,  by 

strictly  literal  interpretntion  of  the  4tk  rente  of  the 
90th  Fsalm,  it  was  supposed  that  a  day  of  Ood  was 
arithtnetically  equal  to  a  thousand  years ;  hence  the 
six  days  ol  creation  were.nnderstood  to  indicate  that 
the  euth  wonld  pass  through  6000  yean  of  labonr 
and  suffering,  to  be  followed  by  a  seventh  day — 
that  ia,  1000  yean  of  rest  and  hapj>inc8s.  In  the 
Book  of  Revelation  (chap,  xx.)  tms  view  is  pre- 
aented.  Still,  the  rabbini^  tnditions  differ  vndely 
among  tltemselvea  aa  to  the  duration  of  the  happy 
perio£  Instead  of  1000  yeara,  some  of  then  coont 
40,70,90,  365.400,600,2000,  or  7000,  or  so  many 
yean  a*  nave  eliimed  from  the  creation  oE  the  world 
or  the  flood.  The  Qoepel  of  Nicodemua  makes  it 
SOO  ycara,  to.  In  fact,  the  systems  of.  apocalyptic 
chronology  were  of  a  varied  and  somewhat  arbi- 
trary cast ;  according  as  their  originators  laid 
sreater  stress  upon  tne  Apocalypse,  the  Book  of 
Daniel,  the  Song  of  Songa,  the  Jewish  'Oematria,' 
or  Computation  of  Letten — a  very  pliable  art  in 
itself— or  on  astronomy,  astrology,  '  natural  pheno- 
mena,* and  the  like^ 

The  lapse    of  IJme  chilling  the  aidonr  of   the 

Simitive  Christian  belief  in  the  neamesa  of  the 
iroiuio,  had  without  donbt  also  Uie  tendenOT'  to 
give  a  mora  shadowy,  and  therefore  a  more  spintnal 
aspect  to  the  Hn^om  over  whieh  the  expected 
Messiah  was  to  reign.  The  influence  of  the  Alex- 
andrian philosophy  contributed  to  prodnoe  the  same 
result.    Origen,  for  example,  first  started  the  idea, 


final  uid  desperate  conflict 
between  the  two — instead  of  an  insolent  triumph  on 
the  part  of  the  saints,  and  a  serrile  submistioD  on 
the  part  of  Uie  nnbelievers,  the  real  progreaa  and 
vicbnT  of  Christianity  wonld  consist  in  the  gradual 
spread  of  the  trath  throu^ont  the  world,  and  in  the 
voluntary  homage  paid  to  it  by  all  secular  powers. 
This  waa  an  immense  advance  on  Uie  viewa  pre- 
viously entertained.  It  ia  owing  largely  to  Ongen 
and  his  disciple  Dioaysins  that  more  spiritual  oen- 
eeptions  of  the  millennium  finally  eetabWhed  them- 

lelves  in  the  church;  at  all  events,  they  furnished    — .  „ 

the  TaUiera  with  the  majority  ol  their  argumtnts.  I  ohiliaatio  teaohen  of  modem  «entuiei  ue  to  bt 


in  the  ^;ypto-Alexandrian  Chnroli,  mil- 
ta  moat  literal  form,  waa  widely 
la  only  eradicated  by  the  great 
wisdom  and  moderation  ot  Dionyiini.  The  Mon- 
taniiti  (q-v.)  gtnerally,  a«  mitdit  be  expected  from 
the  enthnsiastu)  tffnd<wira«i  <rf  uis  seoti  were  extrane 
millenarianB  or  ohiliast^  and,  being  oonaidered  a 
heretical  sect,  contributed  laigely  to  Dring  Chiliasm 
into  discredit  or,  kt  all  evoits,  their  own  eamol 
form  of  Ohiliaam,  which  Tortullian  hir^ifnlf  attacked. 
Cains,  the  Presbyter,  in  hii  'Disputation'  affiant 
the  Montanist  Proc]ns,''tiaoea  iti  origin  to  the  bated 
heretic  Cerinthua,  whom  ha  aoeoaaa  of  forging  a 
certain  revelation,  which  he  passed  off  aa  Uie  work 
of  an  qiostle.  From  hia  description  of  this  revela- 
tion, it  is  almost  certain — strange  as  it  mi^  appear 
— that  he  allades  to  the  oanonioal  Apoouypae. 
Laot«atdiu,  in  the  b^inning  of  the  4m  o.,  waa 
the  last  important  ohiuoh  Father  who  iiMlolged  in 
chiliastio  dreanu^  while  among  its  earlier  advocates 
may  be  mentioned  chiefly  Nepoa,  Melliodiaa,  Kca«> 
kion,  ApoUinariiu,  Tiotorinos,  &o.    In  the  5th  c. 


a  millennial  kingdom  whose  ^easoree  included  those 
of  the  flesh.  But  from  this  tune,  the  ohnrch  formally 
rejected  inillan«i-l«iij«m  in  its  sensuous  '  visible ' 
form,  althon^  the  doctrine  eveij  now  and  Uien 
made  its  reappearance,  espeoitdly  aa  a  general  popu- 
lar belief,  in  tna  most  sadden  amd  obetanate  manner. 
Thna  the  expeotation  of  the  Latt  J>ay  in  the  year 
1000  X  s,  re-mveeted  the  doctrine  witii  a  tnuudtoiy 
importance;  but  it  lost  all  credit  wain  vbta  Uie 
himet,  so  keenly  excited  by  the  CruBa£a,  faded  away 
before  the  stem  reali^  of  Saracenio  anocaaa,  and  the 

Sredictions  of  the  Sveriattinn  Ootpd,  a  work  of 
oachim  de  Flaris,  a  Franciscan  abbot  (died  1212), 
remained  nnfnlfiUed. 

At  the  period  of  the  Beformation,  millenarianism 
once  more  experienced  a  partial  revival,  beeanse  it 
was  not  a  dimcnlt  matter  to  apply  soma  of  its  em- 
bolism to  the  papacy.  The  Pope,  for  examj^  was 
AnUdiritt — a  belief  still  adherea  to  by  someexteema 
Proteatanta.  Yet  the  doctrine  was  not  adopted  by 
the  great  body  of  t^e  BefonneiB,  but  by  some 
fanatical  sects,  snoh  as  the  AnabapUata  and  by  the 
Theosophists  of  the  17th  centuiy.  During  the  civil 
and  reugious  wan  in  France  and  EngLuid,  when 
~?at  excitement  prevailed,  it  was  also  prominent, 
e  Fijlh  Monarchy  Men  of  Cromwell's  time  ware 
millmarians  of  the  most  exaggerated  and  donger- 
Their  peculiar  tenet  was,  that  the  oil^n* 
I  come,  and  that  they  were  the  sainta  who 
inherit  the  earth.  The  exccsaea  of  the 
French  Ronun  Catholic  Mystics  and  Qoietists  tei^ 
minated  in  chiliastio  views.  Among  the  Protest- 
ante,  it  was  daring  the  Thirts  Tmri  War  that  the 
most  enthusiastio  and  learned  chiliasts  flourished. 
These  may — ^broadly — -be  brauriit  under  the  three 
chief  heads  of  Exegaicai  Cbihasta,  who,  by  some 
biblical  datea,  endeavonred  to  compnto  the  ptedioted 
time ;  Alchanitlie  or  Kabbatiittc  Chiliute,  who 
endeavoured  to  hasten  the  period  by  some  mystical 
dlMovery;  and  Poltiieo^MoonUie  GhiliaitB,  who 
wished  to  reduce  the  governments  of  the  world  to 
a  biblical  standard.  See  ANABApnaiB,  MDmekb.  Hie 
awful  suffering  and  widespread  desolation  of  Utat 

^      theDudves  with  the 

future.    Since  then 
sprui^  up  for  expound- 
ing the  propheticsl  books  of  the  Bible,  and  [Mrticu- 
lorly  the  Apocalypse,  with  a  view  to  present  events 
has  given  the  doctrine  a  faint  aemi-thecdogicol  life. 


jftHiui   Buueriu^  aim   wfuwpn»u   u 

time,  led  pious  hearts  to  solaoe  thi 
hope  of  a  peaoefol  and  glorious  fui 

the  predilection  which  has  spruiu 


fl  ue  to  be 


MtLLCHHrdU— MIL1.&&. 


nuBtiaaed  Giechiel  Metli,  Psul  FelKenhaner,  Biahop 

Conwiiiii*  (Liiz  in  Tendrrit,  1657) ;  FrofeMor  Jnrien 

ompUttanaa  du  Prophitia,  1686);  3er&riui 

Etlon  <fu  Hegnt  dt  Mm  Ant,  <te.,  ab.  1670) ; 
igeonomit  Dimne,  16B7] ;  J-  Mede  {Clav. 
Apoeal  1637) ;  vhile  ThoDUts  Burnet  uid  W.  Whu- 
tcoi  ndsATOTU'^  to  give  chilium  a  geologio*!  founds 
tiOD,  bat  without  finding  innch  favour,  Spener,  od 
MMCHuit  of  hii  Hofaung  banrer  Zeitett,  hu  been 
■omiMd  of  chiliaHm ;  no  leu  Joachim  Luige  {Liclu 
tmij  StchCj  i  and  Swedenborg  employed  apoca- 
Ivptia  imagea  to  tet  fortii  the  traniGgored  world  of 
the  aenan.  L^terly,  eapeci»U7_  aincs  the  rise  and 
eKtenaion  of  miaaioiiuy  enterimM,  the  opinion  haa 
obtained  *  wide  cmrencjr,  tliat  after  the  converaion 
tH  tha  wlude  world  to  Christianity,  a  bliMfnl  and 
gloriona  era  will  enana;  bnt  not  mach  itren — except 
%y  extreme  literalista — ia  now  Uid  on  the  natnre 
or  daMtion  of  this  fac-ofF  felicity.  In  fact,  the 
oommoD  Chriatian  conoeption  of  a  miUenninm 
without  a  Tisibly  pr«aent  Christ,  aa  held  at  the 
preaent  day.  ia  little  different,  *o  for  aa  reaults  ore 
concerned,  from  the  belief  of  pMloaophen  in  the 
perfectibility  of  the  race.  The  eaience  of  both  con- 
ceptiona  ia  the  ceseation  of  ain  and  Borrow,  the 
prevalenoe  of  holineaa  and  bappineaa.  Bat  thi« 
depart!  widely  from  the  '  ancient  hope  of  the 
church' — a  kingdom  of  viaible  majet^.  with  Jesoa 
and  the  aainta  ruling  the  world  from  Jeraaalem,  the 
central  dl?  of  the  earth  I 

Great  ea^emeaa  and  sot  a  Uttle  inKsnnity  have 
bean  axlubitei)  by  many  pereon*  in  fixing  a  date 
for  the  oommencement  of  the  millenoiani.  The 
celebrated  theologian,  Johann  Albrecbt  Bengel 
(Braa^le  Qge^/antnp ;  Beden  fOr't  Volt),  who,  in 
the  18th  c,  Tevived  an  eanteat  intereit  in  the 
•abject  among  orthodox  Proteatants,  asaerted  from 
a  itcdv  of  the  propheciea  that  the  millennium 
would  Mgin  in  1836.  Thie  date  waa  lone  popoUr. 
Beiwel'i  general  miQenarianiam  waa  adopted  by 
Oetuger  m.  1782),  and  widely  apread  thnndiout 
Oermany  m  a  more  or  leaa  poetic  form  by  Hahn, 
Cnuiiu,  Jang  StiUing,  Lavater,  and  Heat  (£i-i«/e 
after  die  Offaib.  Jok).  Some  of  the  greatest  of  the 
more  recent  Qerman  tbeolocian*  are  miUenariaiu, 
inch  aa  Kothe,  Delitzsih,  Hoffmann,  Kurtz,  Hebart, 
Thiersch,  Nit»cb,  P.  I»nge,  and  Ebrard,  Swedan- 
boi^  to  whom  reference  baa  alreadjr  been  made,  held 
that  tiie  laat  judgment  took  place  in  1767,  and  that 
the  New  Church,  <a '  Churoh  of  the  Hew  Jeruaalem,' 
aa  hii  follower*  deiignate  themaelvea — in  other 
words,  the  millennial  era,  then  began.  In  America, 
ooiulderable  agitation  was  excited  by  the  preaching 
of  one  William  Millar,  who  fixed  the  second  advent 
of  Chiiit  about  1843.  Of  late  yeara,  the  moat  noted 
En_gli«h  millenariiHi  was  Dr  John  Gumming,  who 
ongin^y  placed  the  end  of  the  prettnt  dUprTuaiioa 
in  1806  or  1867 ;  bat  u  that  time  drew  near  with- 
out any  millennial  symptome,  he  waa  nnderetood  to 
have  modified  his  original  viewa  conriderably, 
and  came  to  the  belief  that  the  beginning  of  the 
millennium  will  not  differ  aa  much  after  all  from 
the  yeara  immediate^  preceding  it,  aa  people 
commonly  gnppoae.  See  CorrodPs  Kritttcht  Ot- 
Kliiijilt  det  ChUiaemiu  (Zurich,  17H  4  vols.): 
Calixtoe,  De  ChUiamio  {1Q92,  4to) ;  Klee,  De  ChUi- 
lumo  (1821));  SchOrer'a  Xmleilamenilidie  Zerlge- 
tchiehte  (1874) ;  and  the  itandud  handbooks  of  the 
history  of  Dogma.  A  really  good  history  of 
Chitiaam,  however,  ia  as  yet  a  deidderatnm. 


of  the  fomiiiea  JnUda  (see  Jdlub)  and  Polffdanada. 
In  the  latter  fauily,  the  feet  are  airangad  m  numer- 
ooi  groapa  along  both  ndea ;  otherwiae,  tiiey  mni^ 
naemlje  'Uia  Jvadm,    mie  largeat  apeoiea  are  found 


some  of  them  are  brightly 
ooloared;  but  amall  ipeciea  of  both  familiea  are 
common  in  Britain;  and  some  of  them,  aa  Polyda- 
miM  eompianatat — which  ia  lilac-ooloureid,  flattened, 
and  from  a  <]uarter  to  half  an  inch  in  length— are 
very  dettnicbva  to  the  roots  of  plants.  Doubt  has 
been  expressed  if  they  attack  roots  perfectly  healthy ; 
but,  at  dl  events,  they  take  advantage  of  incipient 
decay,  and  greatly  extend  and  accelerate  it.  The 
api^Aoation  of  salt,  lime,  nitrate  of  soda,  &&,  hat 
been  often  recommended  as  a  preventive  of  their 
ravage.— The  name  Piu.  M.  is  often  given  to  those 
shorter  ChUognatha,  o£  the  family  Qlonttrid^  which, 
when  disturbed,  roll  themselves  np  into  an  almost 
Blobolor  form,  hke  the  crastoceut  called  armadillo. 
Qlomaia  marginaia  ia  common  in  Britain,  under 
itonea  and  among  moas.  Some  of  the  tropical 
speciea  are  large  and  finely  coloured, 

HILLGR,  HtiOB,  a  distiiuniBhed  geolofprt,  was 
bom  in  Cromarty,  in  the  nort£  of  Scotland,  October 
10,1802.  He  waa  descended  from  a  family  of  aailon, 
ockI  lost  his  own  father  by  a  storm  at  aea  when  he 
was  only  five  yeara  of  age.  In  conseqnence  of  this 
misfortune,  ha  was  brought  up  chieBy  under  the 
care  of  two  of  his  mother's  uncles,  (me  of  whom 


tionol  historv.  He  acquired  a  good  knowledge  of 
English  at  the  Cr<miarty  grammar-aallooL  Before 
his  1 1th  year,  he  had  reaa  those  glorious  romanca 
of  childhood.  Jack  th«  Giant-hlUr,  Jack  and  tht 
Bean-ttali,  Sinbad  the  SaiU/r,  The  Ydlme  Daarf,  and 
Aladdin  and  the  Wonderfid  Lamp,  besides  aeveial 
other  works  of  Iiigher  literary  pretensions.  As  he 
grew  older,  he  became  extremely  fond  of  the  great 
Endish  poets  and  prose  writenu  From  his  17th 
to  his  34Ui  year,  he  worked  as  a  common  stone- 
mason, devotiDg  his  leisure  hours  to  independent 
researches  in  natural  history,  and  to  the  extension 
of  his  literary  knowledge.  In  1829,  he  published 
a  volume,  entitled  Poena  written  in  (fte  Ltitun 
Houn  q/'d  Jovmeyoan  Maaon,  which  waa  toUowed, 
a  few  years  afterwards,  by  Seenet  and  Legendt  t^fAt 
KorA  ofScoUaad,  His  attention  was  soon  drawn*- 
ifesiastical  controversies  which  n 


„tating 
Scotland,  and  his  famous  Letter  to  Lord  Brougham 
on  the  'Auohterorder  Caae,'  brooght  him  promi- 
nently into  notice.  In  1840,  he  went  to  Edinburck 
as  editor  of  the  WUneta,  a  newspaper  started  in  the 
interest  of  the  Noo-intruuon  party  in  the  Church  of 
Sootland;  tmd,iathe  coarse  <d  the  same  year,  pub- 
lished in  its  columns  a  aeries  of  geologio^  articles, 
which  were  afterwards  oolleeted  nnder  the  title  of 
The  Old  Sed  Sandstone,  or  Hea  Walk*  in  an  Old 
Fidd.  "DlBSO  articles  were  very  remarkable,  both 
in  a  scientilio  and  literary  pomt  of  view.  They 
contained  a  minute  account  of  the  author's  discovery 
of  foamla  in  a  formation  believed,  nntil  then,  to  be 
destitute  of  them,  and  written  in  a  style  which  was 
a  barmonioas  combination  of  strength,  beanty,  and 
polish.  At  the  meeting  of  the  British  Associalaon 
in  the  aame  year  (ISlO),  he  was  warmly  praised 
by  Murchison  and  Bnckland,  and,  in  fact,  hit 
discoveries  were  the  principal  topio  of  diacuttioB 
among  the  tavans.  His  editorial  laboors  during  the 
heat  of  the  Diaruptiou  ttroRgle  were  icomenae,  and 
so  seriously  injored  hit  healtli,  that  for  some  time 
he  had  to  give  up  all  literary  activity.  About  1846, 
he  resumed  his  pen,  and  became  the  moat  vigonms 
and  eloquent  writer  in  the  service  of  the  newty- 
constituted  Free  Church.  After  ten  years  of  hart, 
earnest,  fagging  toil,  his  brain  gave  way,  and,  in  • 
moment  ol  aberration,  ho  put  an  end  to  his  own 
existence,  at  FortobeUo,  near  Edinburgh,  on  the 
night  of  the  23d  or  morning  of  the  24th  December 
18^    M.'a  principal  work^  besides  those  already 


,.jC.oo^s;le 


MILLER'S  THtJMB— MILMAN. 


mentioned,  are  i  Firtl  Impreanoa*  of 
iUPeople;  Footprint*  of  the  CreoHir,  or  i 
i)f  Strojimen,  deaiBDed  m  »  reply  to  the  Vatiga 
qf  1A«  Natural  Hittory  of  Ormiion ;  My  SehooU 
and  SdiodmaHera,  or  the  Story  qf  my  Edvtation  ; 
and  TetHmony  nf  IA«  Socli*,  the  liiat  of  which  ii  aa 
Attempt  to  reocooile  the  geologr  of  the  Pentateaoh 
with  the  geology  of  natioe,  by  the  hypothealE, 
thkt  the  daya  mentioDed  in  the  fii«t  chapter  of 
Geneeis  do  not  rajowent  the  aetnul  duration  of  the 
(ncccaeive  periods  of  creation,  but  only  the  time 
ocoajHed  by^  Ood  in  unrolling  a  puummia 
of  theea  perioda  before  the  eyca  of  Moaes. 

M.'b  eervicea  to  acienoe  have  undoubtedly  boen 
greats  but  he  ia  eren  more  distinguiahed  as  a  man 
than.asaaavant  Honeet^ bigh-minded,  eara«st,and 
hugely  induatrioua,  a  tme  Soot,  a  hearty  bat  not  a 
Mor  Fretbyterian  <for  he  loved  Boma  ai  much  se  he 
revered  Enoi),  there  are  few  ot  whom  Scotland  ha* 
better  reason  to  be  proud  than  'Uie  stone-maaon  of 
Cromarty.'  Beddea  hia  autobiography  quoted  above, 
see  Life  by  Peter  Bayae  (2  vols.  ml). 
HILLBB'S  THUMR  See  BuiXHUs. 
MILLET,  a  grain,  of  which  there  are  aevsral 
hjads,  the  prodaoe  of  apeciea  of  Pcmicum,  Setaria, 
and  allied  genera.  The  genua  Panieum  contains 
many  apeoiea,  nativea  of  tropical  and  warm  tem- 
perate countries,  smd  some  of  which,  as  Ouiofa 
Qrat*  (q.  v.),  are  amongst  the  largest  fodder  grnsaes. 
The  flowers  are  in  spikee,  raceuies,  or  paniclca ; 
the  ^umea  very  unequal,  one  of  them  often  very 
minute ;  each  spikelet  containing  two  floreta,  one  ' 
which  ia  often  barren.  The  genua  S^arvi  baa  .. 
apikelike  panicle,  with  two  or  more  briatles  under 
the  glomea  of  eadi  apikelet. — Coumon  M.  {Ponictun 
mittaomm)  ia  an  annual  ffrass,  three  or  four  feet  high. 
remariubly  covered  wiui  long  hairs,  which  stand 
out  at  right  anglca.  It  hoa  a  much-branched 
nodding  panicle  ;  the  apikelets  are  oval,  and  contain 
only  one  aeed.  It  ia  a  native  of  the  Eaat  Indiea,  but 
is  extensively  oultivated  ia  the  warmer  parts  of 
Europe  and  other  quartera  of  the  world.  It  aucceeds 
only  m  Hiose  olimatea  in  which  wine  con  be  — 
duced.  It  is  called  fforree,  CT^eno,  and  Xodi- 
in  India.  The  grain,  which  is  v^  nutritioua,  is 
only  abont  one.eighth  of  an  inch  in  length.  It  ia 
uaed  in  the  form  ot  groata,  or  in  Sour  mixed  with 
wheat-flour,  which  makea  a  good  kind  of  bread; 
but  bread  made  of  M.  alone  u  brittle  and  full  of 
cracks.  Poultry  are  extremely  fond  of  millet  The 
straw  ia  nsed  for  feeding  cattle. — Other  species, 
P,  mSiart,  P.  ./rummtoceum,  and  P.  pStmmt, 
cultivated  in  diflerent  parts  of  India,  chiefly  __ 
hght  and  rather  dry  soils,  yielding  very  abundant 
crops. — GsBiUN  M.,  or  MoBAJt  {Setaria  Oermanka], 
and  ltAjdJL.ll  M.  iS.  Jlaliea),  regarded  by  many  as 


make  good  bread.  To  the  same  tribe  of  groMea  belong 

the  genera  Pa^um,  PeanuelUTTt,  PenidOctria, 
DigUaria,  and  MUium — specie*  of  which  are  culti- 
vated in  different  parts  of  the  worid  for  their  grain. 
Ptupalittn  elite  is  the  Faadi  (q.  t.)  of  Africa ;  and 
P.  terobiailalum  is  the  Koda  of  India,  where  it  is 
cultivated  chiefly  on  poor  soils.  Per^dUaria  tpkala, 
or  Pamiaetum  typhoidetim,  ia  very  eitenaively  culti- 
vated in  Africa,  and  to  a  oonaiderable  extant  in 
India.  Its  cultivation  has  been  introdaced  into  the 
south  of  Europe.  It  aacceeds  beat  oa  light  aoils. 
Ita  Indian  nume  is  Bcgree.  It  often  receives  the 
BavPTiAN  M.  and  OtmiBA  Cobn.    It  haa  a 


borders  of  the  Great  Desert,  wh^  it  is 


of  0  .  . 
from  the  Esst,  although  now  nati 
■oath  of  Europe,  are  cultivated  in  many  of  the 
warmer  parts  of  Eorope,  in  India,  and  other 
connbiea,  Italian  M.  ia  tnree  or  four  feet  in  height ; 
German  U.  much  dwarfer,  and  ita  apike  compara- 
tively short,  comM|Ct,  and  erect ;  and  leas  valuable 
as  a  corn-plant.  The  grains  ot  both  ore  very  small, 
only  about  half  as  long  as  that  of  Common  M. ;  but 
they  are  extremely  prolific,  one  root  prodndng  many 
stalks,  and  ono  spike  of  Italian  Ml  often  yielding 
two  onnocB  of  grain.  The  produce  ia  estimated  as 
five  times  that  of  wheat.  Italian  U.  ia  called 
Koongooait,  Kaia-htnQna,  and  Kora-bjitg  in  India. 
The  grain  of  theae  millets  is  imported  into  Britain 
for  feeding  cage-birds,  and  for  nae  aa  a  light  and 
pleasant  artide  of  food,  alUiati||h  for  this  pnrpose  it 
IB  little  used  in  Britain,  whilst  it  is  vwy  extensively 
nsedintonpa,fcc.,intliescFuUioEBiun^w.  Itdoesnot 


tho  traveller,  the  littlBbristlea  which 
attached  to  its  seeds  making  them  stick  Lke 
bura  to  tho  clothes ;  they  also  pierce  the  skin,  and 
causa  sores,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  be  provided 
with  small  pincers  for  their  extntction.  and  none 
even  of  the  wild  roving  natives  is  aver  without  such 
an  instrument.  But  its  seed  ia  a  common  and 
pleasant  article  of  food,  in  some  places  Uie  princ^ 
rood  of  the  people,  and  a  plesaant  beverage  is  made 
from  it. — Dtgilaria  aangiaiiaJi*  is  called  Foubh  M., 
being  cultivated  in  cottage-gardens  in  Poland,  when 
the  grain  is  used  like  Tic&  It  ia  a  common  grass  in 
many  parts  of  Europe,  alUtough  very  rare  in  Britain. 
The  spikes  in  this  genus  are  oompound,  and  from 
their  appearance  give  it  the  nomea  DigUaria  and 
Fiiuf^-gmm. — The  M.  GBaas  {MUiian  ^unan)  ot 
Britain,  occasionoUy  found  in  shady  woods,  is  a  very 
beautiful  graa,  three  or  four  feet  hi^  wiUi  a 
spreading  pale  panicle  of  smidl  floweii ;  mti  has 
Men  much  recommended  for  oaltivatioit  aa  a  forage 
grsaa,  and  for  the  sake  of  ita  very  abundant  small 
seeds,  an  excellent  food  for  gsma.  AnotJier  species  of 
the  same  genua  {}l.  tugrkant)  ia  the  Maize  de  Guinea 
of  Peru,  where  its  seeds,  after  being  dried  by  htttt, 
are  converted  into  a  very  white  flour,  a  pleasant 
article  of  food ;  and  a  beverage  colled  uUpu  is  mads 
from  them. — The  name  Ihdiah  U. 
is  Bometimea  given  to .Z>urra(q.  v.), 
bat  it  belonga  to  a  different  tribe 
of  grassea  from  the  tnte  millets. 

MILLBINS,  or  FER  DE 
MOULIN,  in  Heraldry,  a  chai^ 
meant  to  represent  a  mill-iron, 
originally  a  mere  variety  in  doaig- 
natmg  the  cross  moltne,  but 
accounted  a  distinct  chaige  by 
'^me  heralds. 

HILMAN,  HlNBT  Habt,  D.D.,  an  English  post 
and  ecolesiaatioal  historian,  was  the  youngest  son  of 
"'  Francis  Milmm,  physidan  to  George  IIL,  and 
J  bom  in  London,  10th  Februaiy  1791.  Ha 
was  educated  at  EtoD,  and  afterwards  at  Bnienoaa 
College,  Oxford,  where  be  took  the  dwree  of  M.A., 
obtained  the  Newdegate  Pme  in  1812,  published 
Faxio,  a  Tragtdy  (whieh  was  soocearfnUy  brou^t 
upon  the  atage  at  Covent  Oarden],  in  I61S;  took 
orders  in  1817,  and,  shortly  after,  was  a^pointad 
vicai  of  8t  Mo^s,  Beadini^  In  the  following  year 
appeared  his  Bonier,  Lord  of  Oie  BrigtA  CS^,  on 
Hetmi:  Poem,  which  was  followed  in  1820  by  the 
Fall  of  Jtnualem,  a  beautiful  dramatic  poem,  with 
some  fine  sacred  lyrics  interspersed.  In  1821,  M. 
was  chosen  Professor  of  Poetry  at  Oxford,  and  pob- 
liabed  three  otiicr  poems  in  the  oourae  of  the  same 
jeai—TJte  Martyr  of  AnHoA,  B^thaaar,  andJlane 
Bolqp^  Hia  Bermoiu  at  A»  Batupton  Ledura 
appewed  in  1 827.  and  his  iTtftory  </ <Ae  Jews  [3  vols. ) 
in  1829:    The  last  of  thesi  woAs  M  not  beftr 


MILNE-EDWABDa— UILO. 


the  Mitlior'a  name ;  it  was  written  in  so  Iib«ntl  uid 
tolerant  a  nnrit  th&t  eocleaiaatica  of  the  striota' 
aort  MHild  fiaidiy  Mi  to  be  offended.  Iti  weak 
pout  ms  •  want  ol  adequate  learning  eopeoiall^  in 
uie  department  of  biblical  criticiiin.  A  new  adi^oo. 


with  an  interesting  pKfact^  waa  pabhahed 
1863L  In  IMO  appeued  a  colleoted  edition  of 
fail  PoeUeal  Woru,  containing  aome  other  pieces 
beaidee  those  already  menMoaed.  Tba  game  year 
witnessed  the  publication  lA  hia  Hisiory  of  (jknt- 
tioMly  from  lAe  Birch  of  Ckrul  Co  tiie  Abolition  of 
Pagomtm  m  Ae  Soman  Empire  (3  vola.).  In  13^ 
he  waa  made  Dean  of  St  Paul's ;  and  in  1854  pub- 
liahed  his  master-piece,  HisCory  ofLaCia  Christiaitiiy, 
inuluding  that  of  Uie  Popa  Co  the  PottCi&aU  of 
Nicholas  V.  (3  vol*.).  It  is  a  work  of  great  leanuog, 
liberality,  and  chastened  elo^nence ;  it  displays  a 
broad  graap  of  hnman  natore  m  ita  relifdona  work- 
in^ :  beaidea  a  philoaophio  and  poeticM  syni{«tl]y 

The  walk  secnred  for  its  author  a  position  in  the 
first  rank  of  Engliah  historians  M.  edited  Gibbon 
and  Horace,  and  eontribated  exteniuTdy  to  the 
Qmaierly  Beniea.  He  died  24tb  September  1868. 
The  deliriiUnl  Amai*  nf  St  PanTt  CaChedral  were 

Sibliahed  in  1868,  and  a  onnplete  edition  of  his 
itCorical  Worh*  (15  Tola.)  in  1S57-6& 
HILIfE-EDWABDS,  Eekbt,  one  of  the  fore- 
most oi  recent  natnralists,  waa  bom  at  Bniges,  23d 
October  1800.  His  father  was  an  En^uhmaa 
M.  stndied  medicine  at  Paris,  where  he  took  his 
degree  of  M.D.  in  1823,  bat  devotad  himself  to 
natural  history.  In  1841  he  was  appointed  Profeost^ 
of  Katoral  History  at  the  CoU^  Boyal,  and  after- 
wards to  the  Faonltfi  dee  Sd^ioe^  of  which  he 
became  dean,  and  at  tiia  Jaidin  dee  Flautee.  He 
waa  a  member  of  Um  Acadimie  de  Midecine,  and 
of  moat  of  tbe  learned  academies  of  Europe  and 
America ;  and  held  aeveral  orders,  amongrt  others, 
ainoe  1861,  tiiat  of  Commander  of  toe  Lenon 
of  Hononr.  He  was  amoDg  the  first  zoologieta 
to  make  repeated  and  pndonged  visit*  to  the 
sea-coaete  for  the  purpoae  of  stadying  the  hixher 
and  bwer  fonoH  alive,  and  to  investigate  their 
habits  and  distribution.  He  published  nnmerons 
original  memoirB  of  importance  in  the  AnnaUe 
dtx  Sdenets  NaturtUa,  a  jonnial  he  himself 
assisted  in  editing  for  fifty  years.  Hia  EUmenU 
de  Zoologie  were  issued  m  1834,  and  rwsned 
in  ISfil  as  Court  BUraentairt  tU  Zookgie.  The 
latter  had  an  enormoas  circnlatiou  at  home  and 
abroad,  was  translated  into  various  languages,  and 
tilt  lately  formed  the  basia  of  most  minor  manuals 
of  »>ol^  published  in  Eorope.  Hia  Hittoire 
XaturtSe  da  OrMtadt  (1834-40)  waa  for  long 
tbe  ataitdanl  aothori^  on  tiie  onutM«a;  "* 
Hiaioirt  ilToAtrcJi)  de«  Oon^iairet  (18S7-40) 
almost  eqnaUf  noteworthy.  The  Ltcturtt  on  the 
Phgtiologg  «mi  ComporaUBe  Anatomy  q^  Man  and 
Hie  Animai*  (14  vols.,  1867-81)  have  a  great  per- 
manent valoa  for  its  immense  mass  of  details,  and 
anoos  referenoea  to  other  ecatteivd  sources 
nmatioii.  He  also  had  an  important  share  _ 
a  apleodid  quarto  of  Anatomieai  <md  Zoologieal 
Baeardiet  on  Oe  CoaM*  of  Sidlfi.  Othw  works 
were  researchea  on  Uie  natural  history  of  the 
Frmeh  ooaata  (1832-46),  and  on  the  natnral  history 
of  the  mammalia  (1871)'  In  aoue  of  hia  later  worlca 
he  waa  aaaisted  1^  hia  distinguished  son  Alphonse. 
Uilne-Edwards  must  always  hold  high  rank 
amonget  the  natoraliste  of  tbe  nineteenth  century. 
Hia  servicea  were  especially  valuable  in  tiie  de- 
partment of  the  inveitebniteB.  His  researches 
in  tbe  distribution  of  the  lower  invertebratea  led 


hJTiT  to  tlie  theory  of  centre*  of  creation ;  and  to 
this  he  adhered  tbronghout  lif  ^  in  spite  i^  Htm 
general  acceptance  of  toe  newer  and  larger  view* 
of  Darwin  by  his  fellow-sdentiatM.  He  died  oa  Uu 
29th  July  1885. 

HILNEB,  JosiFH,  an  ecclewiatioal  hiatorian,  waa 
bom  near  Leeda  in  174&  He  atodied  at  Cambridge^ 
and  afterwards  became  famona  aa  head-master  of 
the  grammar-achool  at  HnlL  He  waa  also  lectiirer  in 
the  principal  church  of  the  tows,  and  in  1797,  vicar 
of  fidy  Trinity  Church.  He  died  November  16th  of 
the  same  year.  M.'a  principal  work  is  Us  Hitiorf 
of  the  Church  qf  Chritt,  of  which  he  lived  to  ooni- 
plete  3  vols.,  reaching  to  the  I3th  c  (1704);  a  foorth 
volame,  reaching  to  the  16th  c,  was  edited  ftmn 
his  MSS.  by  his  teoUier,  Bb  laiAO  Mn.»i«»,  Dean 
of  Carlisle,  wholalso  published  a  aomjdeto  edition  of 
his  btnthet'a  works  in  8  vols.  1810.  The  principle* 
on  which  The  Bistcry  qf  the  Church  oTOhriU  ia 
written  are  of  tiie  aarrowe«t  kind;  tAe  acbdar- 
ahip,  literary  style,  and  critical  imnght  ate  alike 

MILNEB,  BlOHiRD  MoHCKTOK,  Baboit 
HoDOHTOH',  ^glish  poet  and  politician,  descended 
from  an  old  Torkahire  fanulv,  was  bom  iu  1809, 
and  educated  at  Trinitr  Colleffe,  Cambridge.  Hs 
sat  in  parliament  aa  M.P.  for  Kmtefraot  fr^  1837 
till  186%  when  he  was  called  to  Uu  Upper  Honas 
hy  the  title  of  Baron  Houghton.    In  the  Honae  of 


he  began  life  as  a  C(»uarvattve,  but  after- 
.    ad  MiMelf  to  the  Liberal  j     '  "     "    '' 
tinguished  himself,  however,  rather 


warde  allied  Mi^elf  to  the  Liberal  partjr. 
tinguished  himself,  however,  rather  by  his  philan- 
thrope labours,  and  his  epeeches  oa  bdialf  of  the 


itaiians,  Poles,  and  oth^  oppressed  nations,  than  by 
his  devotion  to  party  palitu^  He  was  the  advocate 
of  publio  education  and  re^raons  eqnality.  He 
earned,  in  1816,  a  bill  for  eetablishing  mormabHies, 
and  took  a  great  interest  in  Ute  reform  of  the 
criminal  clasKe.  He  was  a  master  in  the  art  of 
oonversatuni,  and  »  brilliant  ficure  in  sodety;  and 
showed  a  lingulT  tact  in  miiwing  together  in 
kindlv  social  relations  men  wide  as  tlie  polea 
aannder  in  politics  and  modes  of  thought  snd  b^eL 
He  was  unfailingly  kind  and  helpful  to  many  a 
struggling  poet  and  author.  Hia  own  poeby  shew* 
the  impress  of  a  refined  and  iDtelligent  mind.  He 
travelled  much  in  oriental  coantriee,  and  published 
ManoriaU  of  o,  Tonr  tn  Oreece  (1833);  poeuw 
called  Palm  Leava ;  Poem*  of  Mtaty  Teartj 
Potmt,  HitCorical  and  Legendary  (1844) ;  and 
other  Tolumea  of  verse.  In  1848  he  performed 
perhaps  his  moat  important  literary  work  by  editing 
the  L\/e,  LeCCeri,  and  Literary  Semaint  of  John 
KeaUs  and  also  in  1854  prepared  a  short  memoir 
for  the  poems  of  the  poet  He  also  wrote  ThmghU 
on  Purity  of  Election;  Monograph*,  Ptrtonai  and 
Social  (1873-6) }  Ac  His  CoUected  Poetkal  Worh 
•  ■    1876. 


athlete  famoua  for  his  greu  strengUi, 
acoording  to  Eerodotna,  in  the  time  of  Darius 
Hystaapea,  about  620  B.C.  Among  other  displays 
of  his  strength,  he  is  said  to  have  on  one  occasion 
carried  a  live  ox  upon  hia  ahouldera  throu(^  the 
stadium  of  Olympia,  and  afterwards  to  faave  eaten 
tbe  whole  of  it  in  one  day ;  and  on  another  (revers- 
ing the  story  of  the  Hebrew  Samson),  to  have 
upheld  tbe  pillars  of  a  houce  in  which  Pythagoras 
and  hia  soholais  were  assembled,  so  aa  to  give 
them  time  to  make  their  escape]  when  the  home 
was  falling.  He  is  said  to  have  lost  his  life  thruugh 
too  great  confidence  in  his  own  stretigtb,  when  he 
was  getting  old,  in  attempting  to  split  up  a  tree, 
which  closed  upon  bit  hands,  and  held  bim  fast 
until  ho  waa  devoured  by  wolv— 


"^  lOOgic 


Mn.REE-MlLTON. 


HILRBB',  MILREI,  or  MILREA.,  a  Portnsnne 
■ilver  coin  »nd  monej  of  aocoimt,  ooaUhis  lOQO 
»«•,  and  is  Tallied  at  ^  &^  iterline.  TSie  ooin 
i*  oommonlT  kiiawa  in  Pcatugal  u  &»  corUa,  or 
*  crown,'  and  ia  (nnce  24th  April  1830)  Um  unit  of 
the  moDOj'-nvtein  In  that  conntiy.  It  ii  nied 
in  BraaL  The  haU-corSa,  or  hiU-milTei,  of  SOO 
reel,  ia  alto  OMd  in  both  conntaiea.  Tha  name 
'  milrei'  ma  need  in  Fortiign«a»aceoanti  long  before 
auy  coin  raprasenting  ita  value  ezieted. 

MIIiTI'ADBS,  a  celebnted  Atheniui  general, 
'  tjrrant  of  the  Chersoneae,'  jet,  aa  Byron  tings, 
■freedom'*  best  and  bravert  friend.'  Forced  by 
Darius  to  flee  from  his  dominions,  he  took  tefuge 
at  Athens,  and  on  the  second  Fenian  invasion  of 
Qreeoe,  bis  military  talents  being  of  a  high  order, 
he  was  dioiea  one  of  the  ten  generals.  He  par- 
ticnlarlT  distinguisbed  himself  by  the  great  Tictoiy 
whioh  he  gainwl  at  Marathon  (q.  v.)  with  a  small 
body  of  Athenians  and  1000  Platieana  {29th  Sep- 
tember, 490  B.  c)  over  the  Persian  host,  under  Datis 
and  Arta}J)emea.  By  this  victory,  the  Oreelu  were 
emboldened  for  the  heroic  strnggls  which  they 
made  in  defence  of  their  country  and  their  liberty. 
M.  being  intmstad  with  the  command  of  an  arma- 
ment for  the  pmpofe  of  retaliating  on  the  Persians, 
made  an  attui  on  the  island  of  faros  in  order  to 
gratify  a  piJTatS  enmity ;  bnt  fuling  in  the  attempt, 
he  was,  on  his  letnm  to  Athens,  condemned  to  pay 
■  heary  fine  aa  on  indemnification  for  the  expenses 
of  Uie  expedition.  Being  unable  to  do  this,  he  was 
thrown  into  ptisan,  where  he  died  of  a  wound 
reomved  at  FanMk  The  fine  was  exaoted  after  his 
death  from  his  son  Cimon  (q.  t.|. 

HILTON,  Josh,  an  Rnglinh  poet,  was  bom  in 
Bread  Street,  London,  <w  &e  9th  December  I60& 
His  faljier  was  of  an  ancient  Catholic  family,  but 
was  d^nherited  on  becoming  Protestant.  He 
followed  the  oconpation  of  a  scrivener,  bv  which, 
according  to  Anbrey,  'he  got  a  plentiful  estate,' 
and  was  a  man  of  great  musical  accomplishment, 
beinz  the  oompoeer,  amonx  other  things,  of  the  two 
wellOuiown  psalm-tunes  NormA  and  YorL  From 
him  his  son  derived  his  matchless  ear,  and  that 
strict  integriW  of  character  for  whtch  he  ia  as 
famous  as  for  his  vene. 

M.  was  carefully  nurtured  and  educated.  He  was 
Grat  placed  onder  the  care  of  a  private  tutor  named 
Young,  a  Scotohmaa  by  birth  and  edacation ;  and 
at  the  age  of  twelve,  was  sent  to  St  Faol'a  School, 
London,  and  afterwards  to  Christ's  College,  Oom- 
Inidge.  According  to  (lie  University  Re^ster,  ho 
was  admitted  12tb  February  1624—1625.  He  took 
his  den'ee  of  M  *  ;  and  having  relinquished  the 
idea  rf  following  divinity  or  Uw,  he  left  Cam- 
bridge in  1632,  and  went  to  live  at  bis  fathei's  house 
at  Hoiton,  in  Buckinghamahira.  There,  in  serenity 
of  miad  and  passion,  he  lived  five  yein,  reading 
the  Greek  and  Latin  poets,  uid  composing  Oomvt, 
Iir/cidtu,  Arcadtt,  L'AUegro,  and  II  Peateroao.  On 
the  death  of  hia  mother  in  1637,  he  went  abroad, 
vitititig  the  chief  Italian  cities,  and  making  the 
acquaintance  of  Grotina  and  Qalileo.  While  travel- 
ling, beinK  mode  aware  that  donda  were  gathering 
in  tiie  political  atmosphere  at  home,  ha  retnrned  in 
1639,  and  engued  himself  with  tha  tmition  of  his 
nephews — on  which  portion  ol  U.'a  lifs,  Dr  Jidmson 
oonld  not  help  looking  iritb  ■  soma  degree  <d  meiri- 
ment.'  In  1641,  he  engaged  in  the  controveniea  of 
the  times,  and  in  tha  course  of  that  and  the  follow- 
ing year,  he  issned  the  treatise*  Of  R^ormalioa, 
The  Season  of  Church  Qoventment  urgid  agaiiut 
Prelacy,  PrdiUked  Bpucopaa/,  and  An  Apoltmy  for 
Smtctymmiua.  In  1643,  be  monied  rather  suddenly 
Mary,  daughter  of  Richard  Powell,  an  Oxfordshire 


His  wife,  who  had  been  accustomed  to  '  dance  

the  king's  officers  at  home,'  found  her  husbutdV 
society  too  austere  and  philosophic  for  her  gay  tastes. 
After  the  severe  honeymoon  was  over,  she  obtained 
nennisaion  to  visit  her  relativea  till  MifitimlTrm ; 
1  MirhaBlmw  oamet  she  refosed  to  return. 


— „ „  world  Uie  richer 

by  four  TVeafiMt  on  i>iti(»v«.  A  reconciliation,  how- 
ever, took  ploc^  which,  we  have  no  reason  to  doubt, 
was  both  genuine  and  pennanent.  Mary  Pon^ell 
died  in  16S2— 1653,  leaving  him  iJiree  danghters, 
Ann,  Mary,  and  Deborah,  of  whose  undnti^lnesa 
and  ingratitude  we  have  latterly  many  complatnbL 
In  1644  he  produced  hia  Tradaie  on  Mdueatuin  and 
his  Areopagiika — a  dame  of  eloquence  at  which  one 
may  worm  one's  hands  yet.  After  the  execution 
of  Charles,  ha  waa  appointed  Latin  secretory  to 
the  Council  of  State,  with  a  saUry  of  £290.  In 
his  new  position,  hia  pen  woa  as  temUe  ta 
Cromwell's  sword.  In  ^iUxmoilatUi,  he  made  a 
savase  but  effective  reply  to  the  famous  Siion 
Batilike;  and  in  his  Pro  Populo  Anglieano  D^atgio 
be  assailed  his  opponent,  Claude  de  Saunuire,  better 
known  as  Salmattut,  with  such  a  storm  of  eloquence 
and  abnse,  that  the  latter,  who  died  at  Spa  in  1663, 
is  believed  to  have  loct  his  life  through  chagrin. 
M.  at  leatt  flattered  himself  with  having  ■  killed  hia 
man.'  His  second  wife,  whom  he  married  12th 
November  1656,  was  a  danght«r  o(  Ci^itain  Wood- 
cock  of  Hackney.  She  died  in  childbed  iit 
February  165S,  and  faer  hosband  has  enshriDed 
her  memory  in    an   exquiutely  pore  and  tender 

Hnoeanng  stody  had  affected  hia  eyesight,  and 
about  1664,  M.  became  totaUy  blind.  Jutei  the 
Restoration,  he  retired  from  afftuis  ;  he  was  obnoi- 
ioQS  to  the  reiguiiu;  power,  and  it  is  said  that  he 
waa  once  in  custody  of  the  sergeant-at-aims.  On 
the  publication  of  the  Act  of  Oblivion,  he  mairied 


wird  wife,  Elizabeth  Minshull,  and  shortly  after 
removed  to  a  house  in  Artillen'  Walk,  when  he  was 
busy  with  Parailite  LoiL  This  great  poem  was 
riginally  [danned  as  a  mystery,  then  some  idea  of 
'  '  "le  author's  mtod  ; 
its  aa  epio  ^m  on 
.  .  .  1  poem  was  published  m  1667. 

He  received  five  pounds  from  his  publisher,  and  a 
promise  of  other  five  pounds  when  1300  copie* 
should  have  been  sold.    In  1670,  he  published  hia 


Sunday,  the  8th  November  1674,  and  was  buried 
next  his  father,  in  tha  chancel  of  Sb  Giles,  at  Cripple- 
gate.     He  left  property  to  the  value  of  £1500, 

M.  was,  above  all  English  poets,  stately  and 
grandiose.  He  arrived  early  at  the  knowledge  of 
bis  powen,  and  did  not  scruple,  in  one  of  bis  prow 


old  i^;e,  blindneH,  and  nej^ect. 
other  poets  are  like  sailing-ships,  at  the  mercy 
Uiainnds  of  Fas8i<n  and  Circnbataaoe ;  he  resem- 
bled (h«  ooeaa-steamer,  which,  by  dint  of  iotcanal 
caergy,  can  pieroa  right  throng  th«  hnrtiosn& 
Never,  perhaps,  wu  a  mind  more  richly  farnisbed. 
Hia  careleat  'largeaa'  is  ^n*t»  than  the  fortnuea  of 
other  men.  His  Comus  is  the  very  morning-light  al 
poetry ;  while  in  his  great  epic  there  is  a  massive- 
nets  of  thought,  a  sublimity  of  imagery,  a  pomp  of 
sound — ss  of  rolling  organa  and  the  oatboialing  of 
cathedral  choira— which  can  be  fa     ' ' 


MILWAUKEE— MtMOSE^. 


Uia  miiHl  u  if  loath  to 

perbspa  the  one 
for  vhom  we"  are  conicioui  of  the  leut  penonal 
sffectioD,  and  this  aruei  from  a  cerbun  faautenr  and 
■everity  which  owes— which  repela 
yet  be  infects  hia  reader  with  his  01 
See  Fattiron't  gbort  ]ife  (IS79) ;  Stem's  M. 
Zeil  (1876);  and  Manoa's  Life  and  Tima  of  M. 
6vol»."""     ■"""' 


MILWAU'EBE,  a  city  ol  Wisconun,  United 
Statoa  of  America,  OD  the  western  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of  Milwaulcee  Kiver  01 
Ci«ek,  which  fomu  i(a  harbour.  The  town,  beauti- 
folly  built  with  light  yellow  bricks,  crowns  a  high 
Uim  OD  the  lake,  and  contains  coimty  buildings, 
custom-house,  and  post-offioe,  60  churches.  pubUa 
schools,  female  college,  banks,  insurance  companiej, 
asylums,  hospital,  and  many  daily  and  weekly  papers. 
Several  railways  connect  the  city  with  a  country  of 
great  fertility.  In  extent  of  marine  commerce,  M. 
ranks  fourth  among  the  cities  of  the  union ;  and  it 
has  great  advantaRee  as  a  manufacturing  centre. 
The  Rrain  received  at  M.  in  1873  amounted  to 
33.U8:l,31B  bushels.  Pop.  (1800)  46,254;  (1870) 
71,440;  (1880)116,578. 

MI  HANS  A  (from  the  Sanscrit  mdn,  to  ini 
gate ;  hence,  literally,  inrestigationl  is  the  collective 
name  of  two  of  the  six  divisions  of  orthodox  Hindu 
philosophy.  See  SiNSOBir  Litkbatdbi.  It  if 
tingaished  as  P&na-  and  Uliara--aATBAia^  the 
latter  being  more  commonly  called  Ved&nia  (q.  v.). 
while  the  former  is  briefly  styled  J/frndn*!.  Thougl 
tha  M  H  ranked,  by  A  native  writen,  with  tht 
five  other  philosophical  systems,  the  term  philo- 
■UfAy — M  understood  io  a  European  sense— can 
•corcely  be  applied  to  it;  for  the  M  is  ndther 
ooncemed  with  the  nature  of  the  absolute  or  of  the 
human  mind,  nor  with  the  various  categories  of 
existence  in  general— topics  dealt  with  more  or  less 
by  the  other  hve  philosophies ;  its  object  is  merely 
to  lay  down  a  correct  interpretation  of  such 
Vodic  passages  as  refer  to  the  Brithman'io  ritual,  to 
aolve  doubts  wherever  they  may  exist  on  matter* 
oonoeming  sacrificial  acts,  and  to  recoacila  discre- 
pancies — according  to  the  U.,  always  apparent 
only — of  Vedio  texts.  The  foundation  of  this 
system  is  therefore  preceded  by  a  codification  of 
the  three  principal  Vedas — the  R'ik,  Black- Yajus, 
and  S&mau — and  by  the  existence  of  schools  and 
theories  which,  by  their  diflereot  interpretations  of 
the  Vedic  rites,  had  begun  to  endanger,  or,  in  reaUty, 
hod  endangered  a  correct,  or  at  least  authoritative 
nnderstaodtag  of  the  Vedio  texts.  It  is  the  meUiod, 
however,  ad^ted  by  the  M.  which  imparted  to 
it  a  hi^er  character  than  that  of  a  mere  com- 
mentary, and  allowed  it  to  be  looked  upon  as  a 
philosophy;  for,  in  the  first  place,  the  topics 
explained  by  this  system  do  not  foUow  the  order  in 
which  th^  occnr  m  the  Vedio  writings,  especially 
in  the  Br&hma'DB  portion  of  the  Vedas  (q.  v.] ;  they 
are  arranged  according  to  certain  categories,  sucn 
as  authontativeneas,  mdirect  precept,  concurrent 
efficacy,  co-oidiuate  eETect,  Ac;  and  secondly,  each 
topio  or  case  is  discussed  according  to  a  regular 
scheme,  which  comprises  the  proposition  of  the 
subject-matter,  the  doubt  or  question  arising  upon 
it,  Uie  pnmd-/acte  or  wrong  a^jtunent  appli^  to  it, 
the  correct  argument  in  refutation  of  the  latter,  and 
the  conclusion  devolving  from  it.  Some  anbjects 
treated  of  in  the  M.,  inddentalty  as  it  were,  and 
merely  for  the  sake  of  argument,  belong  likewise 
more  to  the  sphere  of  philosophio  thouaht  than  to 
that  of  commentatoriol  criticism,  suoh,  for  instance, 
as  the  association  of  articulate  sound  with  sense, 
the  similarity  of  woids  in  different  languages,  the 


inspiration  oj 

ration  ot  nions  acta.  «c     inL  __^ 

unknown 

date — who  taught  it  in  twelve  books,  each  sub- 
divided into  four  chapters,  eice^  the  third,  sixth, 
and  tenth  books,  which  ooatam  eight  cfaapteis 
each ;  the  chapters,  again,  are  divided  mto  secOons, 
generally  comprising  several  Sutras  or  aphorisms, 
but  Bometimee  only  one.  The  extant  commentsi; 
on  this  obscure  work  is  the  BhAiiiya  ot  'Ssban- 
Bw&min,  which  was  critically  annotated  by  the 
great  M.  authority,  Komftrila-swllinin.  Out  at 
these  works,  which,  in  their  turn,  quote  sevnal 
others,  apparently  lost,  has  arisen  a  ^reat  number 
of  other  writings,  explaining  and  elucidating  their 
predecessors.  The  best  compendium,  amon^  these 
modem  works,  is  the  Jaimi7ttt;a-jiydya-jrUUa-mlur», 
by  the  celebrated  Madhavdchlrya  (q.  v.). 

MIMES,  the  name  given  by  the  ancients  to 
certain  dramatic  performances,  in  which,  with  little 
attempt  at  art,  scenes  of  actual  life  were  repre- 
seated,  sometimes  in  improvised  dialogue.  The 
Greek  mimes  appear  to  have  been  invented  by  the 
Greeks  of  Sicily  and  Southern  Italy.  Tbey  were  a 
favourite  amusement  of  convivial  parties,  the  guests 
themselves  being  generally  the  performers.  Sophnn 
of  Syracuse,  about  420  b.  c,  composed  many  in  ths 
Done  dialect,  which  were  much  admired,  and  which 
Plato  wsa  accustomed  to  read. — The  Boman  mimes 
were  not  borrowed  from  the  Greek,  but  were  of 
native  Italic  growth.  They  were  not  only  far  mder 
and  coarser,  but  in  aomo  respects  they  were  essentislly 
different — the  diolocue  occupying  a  smaller  place, 
and  mere  gesture  and  mimicry  pr^Iominating.  Ths 
humour  and  satire,  however,  were  often  genuine 
thouah  rough,  and  even  indecent^  and  they  wers 

Sreatly  relished  by  all  cloasu;  even  the  x>atriciaii 
ulla  was  food  of  them. 

MIMO'3E.^,aBab-orderofL^7ununo«E,onaofths 
largest  oatursl  orders  of  exogenous  plants ;  distin- 
guished by  regular  Sowers  ana  petals  valvate  in  bud. 
About  lOOU  species  are  known,  all  natives  of  warm 
climates,  a  few  only  extending  beyond  sub-tropical 
regions  in  the  southern  bemispbere.  The  genen 
Acacia  (q.  *-}  and  Mimota  are  the  best  known.    Is 


the  latter  genus  belong  the  Sensitive  Plants  (^.  v.). 

Some  of  the  larger  species  of  M-  ore  valuable  timber 
.  The  Talha  [Mimota  /arugiiua)  is  one  of 
noat  common  trees  of  Central  Africa.  Tiiey 
Iso  trees  of  great  beauty.    Some  apecica  of  the 

genus   Protopii,  oativM  of  the   western  parts 


,  Google 


MIMULU3— MIND. 


South  Amsrics,  are  remarkable  for  the  ainuidaiica 
of  t<*""^"  in  their  poda. 

HI'MULUS,  a  gennt  of  pUnta  of  Hie  natainl 
order  Scrop/ndariacea,  havins  a  priBmatio  6-toothed 
eoljx,  a  somewhat  bell-ahap^  corolla,  of  which  tlie 
upper  lip  is  bifid  and  the  lower  lip  trifid,  the  lobes  not 
very  iuiec[iial,  two  long  and  two  short  stamena,  and 
a  Btigma  of  two  lamelliB,  which  dose  together  upon 
irritation.  The  species  are  mostly  herbaceous  pl^ta, 
natir«B  of  America.  Some  of  them  are  very  frequent 
in  flower-gardens,  and  nanv  fine  varieties  have 
resulted  from  cnl^vation.  Thef  sconetimce  receive 
the  name  of  Monkey-Jiouxr.  One  species,  M.  bOma, 
a  native  of  Pem  and  Chili,  has  become  naturalised 
in  manyparti  of  Britain.  Tlie  little  yellow-flowered 
MuBE  Plaht,  now  so  couaion  in  gardens  and  on 
window-sills  in  Britain,  is  M.  moaeiiaiat,  a  native  of 
Oregon  and  other  north- weetem  parte  of  America. 

MITT  A,  or  MN  A,  the  name  of  a  Greek  weight  and 
monn  denomination,  derived  from  an  oriental  word 
■aotMA,  signifying  'wei^b'     The  mina  contained 


pound  more  or  leas,  following  the  flnctnationi  of  the 
talent  iteelt  As  a  money  of  aeootaU,  it  preserved 
the  same  relatioa  to  the  talent,  and  waa  worth 
£4,lt.3cL    See  Haixst. 

HINA  BIRD  {Bal<^ia  Indiau  or  Oraada 
Jndiea),  a  ipecie«  of  Grskle  (q.  v.),  or  of  a  nearly 
allied  genus,  a  native  of  many  parte  of  the  East 
Indiea,  abont  the  size  of  a  common  thrash,  of  a  deep 
velvety  black  colour,  with  a  white  mark  on  the 
base  of  the  quill-feathers  of  the  wings,  yellow  bill 
and  feet,  and  two  Urge  briirbt  vellow  wattles  at 
the  back  of  the  bead.  The  biD  it  large,  conical ;  the 
upper  mandible  a  little  cnrved,  and  sharp-pointed. 
"Ae  food  of  the  M.  B.  conmsta  of  fruits  and  insects. 
It  is  very  lively  and  intelligent,  and  poaseasee  a 
power  of  imitatiuR  bnioan  speech,  ezoelled  by  none 
of  the  parrots.  It  has  Bomelime*  been  bained  to 
repeat  sentences  of  oonsidenible  length.  It  is 
tiierefore  in  great  request,  and  ii  often  bronght  to 
Eimipe. — Another  and  larger  species  is  found  in 
Sumatra  and  some  of  the  other  eastern  ialands, 
noaseseing  the  same  power  of  articniation.  It  is 
hi^y  pnzed  by  the  Javanese 


architectare.     , 

is  divided  into  several  stories,  with  balconies  from 
which  the  priests  summon  the  Mohammedans  to 
prayer— bel&  not  being  permitted  in  their  religion 

and  is  terminated  with  a  spire  or  ornamental 

finiaL  The  minareta  are  amoiust  the  meet  beautiful 
features  of  Mohammedan  architecture,  and  are  an 
invariable  accompaniment  of  the  Moequee  (q.  v.).  In 
Indi^  Mittart,  or  pillars  of  victory,  are  frequently 
erected  in  connection  with  mosqnes  ;  eome  of  theee 


,  being  48  feet  4  inches  in  diameter  ... 

ba«e,  aod  aboot  250  feet  high.  The  form  of  the 
minaret  was  derived  from  Uie  Fharoa  {q.  v.],  the 
ancient  lighthouse  of  Alexaodriik 

HINCH,  the  channel  which  separates  the  island 
of  Lewes  from  the  counties  of  Cromarty  and  Root, 
in  the  north-weetof  Scotland.  Ita  Hborea  are  eioeed- 
iofrly  irregular,  and  its  average  width  is  about  28 
D^es.  The  LitiU  Miadi,  which  Beparates  the  island 
of  Skye  frem  Uiat  of  North  Uist  and  the  neigh- 
bouring ialanda  in  tiie  Onter  Hebrides,  ia  upwards  of 
15  miles  in  width. 

MraOIO   (anc.  Mindta),  a  river  of    Northern 

Italy,  a  continostioit  of  i^e  IVroleae  itreani,  the 

290 


Saroa,  emerges  from  Lake  Oarda  at  Peachiera,  and 
after  a  conrae  of  abont  38  miles  through  the  province 
of  Mantua,  which  it  separates  from  Verona,  falls 
into  the  Po,  8  miles  below  the  city  of  Mantua.  The 
M  has  comrtituted  an  important  bmds  of  operatioii 
during  the  ware  between  Italy  and  AurtrijL 

MIND.  Having  adverted  in  various  other  articles 
— Emotiok,  Intbllkct,  Will,  ftc,— to  the  chief 
component  parts  of  onr  mental  constitution,  all  that 
is  necessary  under  the  present  bead  ia  to  consider  the 
definition  or  precise  demarcation  of  mind  as  a  whole. 
In  this  subject,  we  cannot  reaort  to  the  common 
meUiod  of  defining,  which  is  to  assign  something 
iple  and  fundamental  than  the  thing  '     ' 


supposed  to  be  more  intelligible  than  gravity.  Mind 
can  be  resolved  into  nothing  more  fundamental  than 
itself;  and  therefore  our  plan  must  be,  to  call 
attention  to  those  individual  facts  or  experiences 
that  are  painted  at  by  the  name,  and  to  circum- 
scribe, in  some  way  or  other,  the  whole  field  of  such 
ezpenences.  For  an  example  of  mind,  we  shoold 
prebably  refer  each  penou  to  his  pleasures  and 
pains,  which  are  a  class  of  things  quite  apart  and 
peculiar ;  we  should  also  indicate  thoughts  or  ideas, 
at  mental  elements  ;  also  exerosea  of  will  or  volun- 
tary action.  There  is  a  sufBcient  oommnnity  of 
those  various  elements  to  cause  them  to 


be  classed  by  themselves,  under  a  oonunon  desig- 
namdy,  mind.  If  any  one  could  be  made 
if  all  the  phenomena  that  have  received  \ 


nation,  nami 


designation,  he  would  of  course  know  the  meaning 
in  Uie  detail;  but  this  i*  not  enough.  Mind  being 
a  general  or  comprehentive  name,  we  ought  to  sea 
distinctly  the  common  character  or  attribute  per- 
vading all  those  particular  phenomena ;  the  recog- 
nition of  this  common  character  it  the  knowledge 
of  mind  in  general,  or  the  determination  of  itt 
defining  attribute.  For  the  settling  of  this  oommou 
attribute,  we  have  another  great  resource,  betides 
comparing  the  individual  facts,  that  is.  to  determine 
the  oppoBite,  or  contrast  of  mind.  Now  the  usually 
assigned  contrast  is  matter  ;  but  more  precisely,  it 
is  eitention,  or  (Ae  ecUnded,  including  both  mert 
matter  and  empty  space.  When  we  are  consciaus  of 
onytliiDg  as  havmg  the  pro^ierty  of  Extension,  our 
consciouauess  is  occupied  with  the  object  world,  or 
something  that  is  not  mind  When  we  are  feeling 
pleasure  or  pain,  remembering,  or  willing,  we  are 
not  conscious  of  anything  extended;  we  ore  said  to 
be  in  a  state  of  subjective  contciousness,  or  to  be 
exhibiting  a  phenomenon  of  mind  proper.  Hence, 
philosophers  are  accustomed  to  speak  of  the  in- 
eztauled  minif,  as  distinguished  from  the  outer  or 
object  world.  In  one  sense,  everything  that  we  can 
take  oognizance  of  is  mind  or  self ;  we  cannot  by 
any  poatibility  tnnscend  our  ovm  mental  sphere ; 
whatever  we  knew,  is  our  own  mind ;  hence  the 
idealism  of  Berkeley,  which  seemed  to  annihilate 
the  whole  ext^nal  universe.  But  this  large  tense 
of  mind  is  not  what  ia  usually  meant,  aod  whatever 
view  we  take  of  the  reality  of  the  external  world, 
we  roust  never  mew  the  distinctioD  between  the 
oontcionaneaairf  the  Extended — which  is  also  coupled 
with  other  truly  object  pxjperties,  as  inertia,  for 
matter — and  the  conaoioniness  of  the  Inexteuded,  as 
constituting  our  feeling  and  thoughts.  This  opposi- 
tion it  fun&mental  and  inerosable,  and  ia  cxprased 
in  language  by  a  variety  of  designations  ;  mmd  and 
not  mmd,  subject  and  object,  internal  and  external. 
The  laws  and  phenomena  ol  the  Extended  are  set 
forth  in  the  sciences  of  the  external  world — Mathe- 
matics, Mechanics,  Chemistry,  &c. ;  the  laws  of  the 
Mind  proper,  or  Uie  Subject  contcionsness,  are 
quite  ^stmct  in  their  nature,  and  are  embodied 

^gl 


UlNBAlf  AO— MINEBAL  WATER& 


tee,  oalled  MenbJ  Philosophy, 

SeePHiuFmn  Isuhds. 


in  «  Mpantte  tdi 

PBycholog]',  Ik, 
■UlSDASA'O. 

HrNDBIT,  >  Prajgum  town,  in  the  provinoo  ol 
WeatphaUoi  lies  on  the  Weaer,  ka  pnwperom  closely 
baUt  city,  with  e.  pcpniation  of  (1S80)  17,867.  It  was 
till  Uteif  ft  fortreoa  of  the  second  class.  AL,  whicti 
ranks  as  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Germany,  has  a 
atone  bridge  acroM  the  rivet,  onginall-f  erected  in 
1518,  and  poMeaiea  several  ancient  churches,  the 
most  notewiirthj  of  which  is  the  present  Raman 
Catholic  chnrch.  Bnilt  in  the  second  half  of  the 
11th  century,  it  waa  till  1811  an  emioop^  cathedral 
A  battle  was  foaght  near  M.  in  17GB,  m  which  the 
French  were  defeated  by  an  army  of  Anglo-Haoo- 

The  Hanoverian  town  of  U.  or  MSnden  is  ritnated 
in  the  district  of  Hildeaheim,  wilJiin  the  province  of 
OCttiagen,  and  at  the  confloenoe  of  the  Fulda  and 
Werra.  Pop.  (18S0)  635t  M,  liea  in  one  of  the  moat 
picturesque  and  fruitful  parts  of  Hanover.  It  has  3 
breweries  and  manufactories  of  china,  earthenware, 
BDgar,  tobacco,  and  linen,  with  a  noted  linen-market 
There  are  alum-works  and  good  coal-nunea  in  the 
inunediate  neighbourhood ;  and  it  has  an  exten- 
sive river  transport-trade  in  millatonea,  oom,  and 
timber.  M.  possesses  several  architectural  remains, 
indicative  of  its  former  more  proaperooa  condition. 

UISEBAIi  OHAIUCELBON.    See  Mahoisisk. 

MINERAli  KINGDOM,  tiie  inorgudo  porticm 
of  nature.  Under  this  term,  however,  are  not 
inelnded  the  inorganic  prodncta  of  orgaoio  beings, 

„ __^_-    t.     .ii.v-^]i   «ub*tancea  more 

in  *ni*T«1  origin  are 
_  ooal,  fossils,  io.    To 

the  Mineral  Kingdom  belong  liqnid  and  gaaeona,  aa 
well  M  solid  iabatanoes;  water, atmoa^erio  tit,&o., 
are  inolnded  in  it.  All  the  ehetnioil  dsmenta  are 
found  in  the  Mineral  Kingdom,  from  which  vege- 
table and  «"i">f1  oiganisma  derive  them  ;  but  many 
of  the  oompotmds  which  exist  in  nature  belooK 
entirely  to  the  vegetable  and  anitpal  kingdoms,  and 
are  produced  by  &e  wonderful  chemistiy  of  life. 


MINERAL  TAIiIiOW,  or  HATCHETINE,  a 
remarkable  substance  found  in  several  places  in 
Britain,  Gerauuiy,  Siberia,  Ik.,  soft  km  flexible, 
yellowiah  white,  or  yellow,  leaemblin^^  wax  or 
tallow,  often  flaky  £ke  spermaoeti,  inodoroos, 
melting  at  115°— 170°  F.,  and  ccanpoaed  of  about  86 
oarbou  and  14  hydrogen. 

MINERAIj  waters.  This  term  is  usnaHy 
applied  to  all  spring  waters  which  poaaeea  gnalitiee 
in  relfttuHi  to  the  animal  body  different  frooi  thooe 
of  ordinary  water.  Mineral  waters  have  been  osed 
as  remedial  agents  from  a  very  eariy  period.  The 
oldest  Greek  physidans  had  ereat  faith  in  their 
curative  power,  and  the  tempm  erected  to  .^locn- 
lapius  were  nsoaUy  in  close  proximity  to  mtnraal 
springs ;  they  had  reoonrae  to  the  tnlphnroas 
thermal  springs  of  Tiberias  (now  Tabareah),  which 
are  still  used  by  patdenta  from  all  parts  M  Syria 
in  oasea  of  painful  tamow,  riieumatiam,  goat,  palsy, 
Ac,  and  to  the  warm  batiis  of  Calirrhoe,  near  the 


indebted  to  the  BAinans  for  the  discovery  not  only 
of  the  mineral  thermic  springs  in  Italy,  bat  of  some 
of  the  most  important  m  other  parta  of  Europe, 
amongst  which  may  be  named  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
Baden-Baden,  BatJi,  3pa  in  Belgium,  and  many 
_xi.„, ^-j  mt .  ?■  Lf-  >'-. i^w--......    »_'  — 


l»  of  Europe. 


direetions  o: 


Ihe  then^wntio  action  of  mineral  wftteta,  or  of 

spsB,  ss  they  are  frequently  termed,  depends  chiefly 
upon  Uieir  chemical  compoeitdon  and  tneir  tempers 
ture,  although  a  varie^  of  other  circumstances,  as 
situation,  elevation,  clunate,  geological  formation, 
mean  temperatnie,  Ac,  have  an  important  bearing 
npon  the  success  of  the  treatment. 

The  beet  time  for  undergoing  a  course  of  mineral 
waters  is,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  months  id 
June,  July,  August,  and  September.  There  an, 
however,  exceptions  depending  upon  climate ;  for 
example,  at   Gaetein,  celebrated   for    its   thermal 

S rings,  the  weather  is  ohan^ble  and  stormy  in 
me  and  July,  but  pleasant  in  May,  Aoenst,  and 
September.  Barly  rising  is  usually  advisable  daring 
a  couise  of  mineral  wst(«i,  and,  as  a  general  mie,  the 
water  should  be  drunk  before  break&st,  at  intervala 
of  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  between  each  tnmbler, 
moderate  exercise  being  taken  in  the  intervals.  Id 
many  cases,  bathing  is  of  even  greati 
OS  ft  remedial  ^ent  than  drinking, 
generally  taken  between  breakfast  and  dinner;  and 
should  never  be  taken  soon  after  a  full  meal  Tho 
time  during  which  the  patient  should  remain  in  tha 
bath  varies  very  much  at  different  spaa,  and  the 
i  the  local  phyricaan  shonld  be  ctrictty 
on  thia  point.  It  is  impossiblo  to  deter- 
mine beforehand  how  long  a  oomae  of  uinenl 
waters  shonld  be  continned,  aa  this  eotiiely  depends 
npon  the  ^mptoms  observed  during  tresitntent.  As 
a  general  rule,  the  treatment  should  not  be  pto^ 
bacted  beyond  the  spaoe  of  six  weeka  or  two 
monlhs,  but  on  thia  point  the  patient  must  ba 
solely  guided  by  the  physiciBn  t«siaent  at  the  spa. 
It  Qutuot  be  too  fordbly  inqiieased  upon  the  pfttieot, 
that  indulgence  in  the  pleamres  of  the  table,  and 
excesses  of  any  kind,  frequently  counteract  tha 
salnta^  effects  of  the  witen,  while  perfeot  mental 

It  win  be  seen  from  remarks  tm  the  nature  of  t^ 
cases  likely  to  receive  beneSt  from  the  varioui  Idndc 
of  mincaaf  waters,  that  spas  aro  only  suitable  tor 
patients  suffering  from  c&ronic  disorders 

No  claasificatioD  of  mineral  waters  baaed  npon 
their  ohemical  oompoeitiou  can  be  strictly  axac^ 
because  many  springs  are,  as  it  were,  intermediata 
between  tolerably  well  characterised  groups.  The 
following  dasriScation,  which  is  adopted  by  Df 
Althaus,  in  his  Spat  of  Suropa  (Lond.  18(^,  ii 
perhaps  the  most  convenient ;  1.  Alkaline  WatOT ; 
2.  Bitter  Watera ;  3.  Mtiriated  Waters ;  4.  Earthy 
Waters ;  S.  Indifferent  Thermal  Waters ;  6.  Chaly- 
beates;  7.  Solphnrous  Waters. 

1.  The  Alkaline  Waters  are  divisible  into :  (a) 
Siiaple  AlixiUae  Addvltnu  Waiera,  of  which  tJia 
chief  contents  are  carbonic  acid  and  bicarbonate  of 
soda.  The  most  important  spaa  of  this  class  are  the 
thermal  spring  of  vichy  and  the  cold  springs  of 
Fachingen,  Geilnau,  and  Bilin.  These  waters  are 
usefol  tn  certain  forma  of  indigestion,  in  jaundice 
arising  from  catarrh  of  the  hepatic  ducts,  in  gall- 
st«nes,  in  tenal  calculi  and  grsvd,  in  gon^  ia 
chronio  catarrh  of  the  respiratory  organs,  and  in 
abdominal  plethora.  Vich^  (q.  v.)  may  be  tak«*i  *• 
the  representative  of  this  class  of  sprmgs^  (6) 
Mvriattd  AOcaline  Ariidulotu  WaUrt,  whi<£  diffiB' 
from  the  preceding  sub-group  in  additionally  con- 
taining   a   considerable    quantity   of    ohlonde   ol 


Seitets,  Lubatschowttz,  and  Saizbrann.  They  ai« 
useful  in  chronio  catarrhal  affectioDS  of  tho  brea- 
chial  tubes,  the  stomach,  and  the  intestines,  and 
the  Urfnx ;  and  the  Ems  waters  possaw  a  hi^ 
reputation  in  certain  chronio  diseases  of  the  womh 
aitd  adjacent  organs,     (c)  AUoZine  8a3imt  Wattrt,  of 


Liui.u  i.Coo^;;lc 


wiaaii  Oi»  diirf  oontenta  are  iulpbata  and  bicu- 
boiwta  of  loda.  The  mcwt  beqnented  of  tbe«a 
a  ■{singe  of  Carubad  and  the  cold 


to  tbtae  apM,  which  often  prove  of  ^reat  Hervioe,  if 
the  atagoatioa  of  the  blood  it  owing  to  habitual 
oonitipatiea,  prtmxa^  from  accnmnlated  fncea, 
congeatioa  of  the  liver,  lucoimeotcd  vith  diaea 
of  the  heart  or  lonin.  These  watai^  capedallj 
those  of  CarUbad,  afford  an  excellent  remedy  for 
the  habitual  conatipation  which  io  freqnently  ariws 
from  aedeatai;  occnpatiom  i  the  reanlt  being  much 
more  permanent  than  that  podnoed  by  atoong 
[mrgatiTe  waters. 

2.  The  obief  contenta  of  the  Bitter  Waters 
the  lolpbatcB  of  mngaeua  and  soda ;  and  the  best 
known  spaa  of  this  claaa  are  tboae  of  Pullna, 
SaidtehUtB,  Sedlitz,  Friedricb^iaU,  and  Kitaiiigen ; 
altbon^  Uiere  are  two  JGnalish  tpm—TUttaely,  the 
bitter  water  of  Cheny  Bock,  neat  Kiag<woo4  in 
GIonceEtersbire,  and  the  PurtoD  S^  near  Swindon, 
in  TViltflbire — which  'are,  by  their  chemical  com- 
position, admirably  enited  for  the  treatment  of 
many  cases  of  disease,  and  may  perhaps  even  prove 
auperior  to  the  contmental  spaa  of  this  cb^' — 
Althtma,  op.  cU.  p.  360;  These  waters  act  both  as 
purgatives  and  diuretics,  and  may  therefore  be  used 
adTantaseonily  in  the  nameroas  cases  in  which  it 
is  adviawle  to  excite  the  action  both  of  the  bowels 
•od  kidneys. 

3.  The  Utiriated  Waters  are  divisible  into ;  (a) 
Simple  MunaUd  Waters,  of  which  the  chief  contents 


baden  and  Baden-Baden,  which  are  hot ;  those  of 
Soden  (in  Nassan),  of  Mondorf  <near  Luiambourff), 
and  of  Canstatt  (near  Stnt^iait),  which  are  tepid ; 
Mid  those  of  Eissin^n,  HombniK  and  Cheltenham. 
which  are  oold.  The  mnriated  sahne  apringa  of 
Saratoga  in  the  United  States  are  some  of  tbem 
chalybeate^  others  sulphurans  or  iodinoos ;  all  of 
them  being  rich  in  carbooio  acid  gas.  They  are 
chieSy  employed  in  caaea  of  gout,  rheumatism, 
Bcrofola,  and  abdominal  plethora,  (i)  Mv,Tio,ted 
Lilhia  Waleri,  of  which  the  chief  contents  ate  the 
chlorides  of  sodium  aad  lithium.  In  gout,  they  first 
aggravate  the  pain,  but  then  give  relief ;  and  in 
periodic  beadacns,  they  iiave  been  found  serviceable. 
(«)  Brina,  whoee  chief  contents  are  a  large  amount  of 
chloride  of  aodium.  Amongst  the  spaa  of  thia  kind, 
those  of  Rehme  in  Westphalia,  audNauheimin  Hesse, 
have  the  greatest  reputation.  They  are  mostly 
employed  for  bathing,  and  are  often  of  much  service 
'n  scrofula,  anemia,  rheumatism,  certain  forms  of 
alysis,  and  catarrh  of  the  mucons  membranes. 
'lodo-bromaied    iiicrialed    Waiert,   in   which, 


vr'z 


.. a  moderate  guantiW  of  chloride  of  sodium, 

the  iodides  tmd  brMOides  of  sodiom  and  magnesium 
■re  contained  in  an  appreciable  quantity.  Ereoz- 
nach  is  tiie  moat  cdebrated  of  the  spas  of  this  class. 
Its  waters  are  used  both  for  drinking  and  bathing, 
and  am  of  aerrioe  in  scrofolous  infiltrations  of  the 
glands,  in  scrofulooi  ulcers,  in  chronic  inflammation 
oE  the  uterus  and  ovaries,  kc  The  waters  of  Hall, 
in  Austria  Proper,  are  also  of  thia  class,  and  have  a 
hi^h  reputation  in  cases  of  bronchocele  or  goitre. 

4.  Earthy  Waters,  of  which  the  chiel  contents 
nre  sulphate  and  carbonate  of  lime.  The  most 
important  waters  of  this  chtas  occur  at  Wildungea, 
Leuk,  Batli,  Lnoco,  and  Hsa.  The  Wildungen 
water,  whiidi  is  exported  in  large  quantities,  is, 
according  to  Dr  Althaus,  'a  capital  diuretic,  and 
not  onlv  promotes  the  eliminabon  of  gravel  and 
renal  cidciui,  but  by  its  tonio  action  on  um  mucous 
■nembranB  tt  the  urinaiy  passages,  serves  to  prevent 


the  formation  ol  freah  concretions.  It  is  also  much 
used  for  chronic  catarrh  of  the  bladder,  neuralgia  of 
the  urethra  and  neck  of  the  bladder,  dyauria,  and 


nntilj  an  eruption  appean,  are  chiefly  used  in 
chronic  skin  diseoaes.  The  waters  of  Bath,  Pisa, 
and  Luoca,  which  are  thsrinal,  are  useful  in  chtonio 
skin  diseases,  scrofula,  gout,  rhenmatjsm.  Ac. 

6.  Indifferent  Thermal  Watets,  which  usually 
contain  a  small  amount  of  saline  conatituents.  Ot 
ik«  spas  of  this  class,  the  moat  important  are 
Oasttnn  (95*  to  118°),  TSpliti  (120°),  WOdbad  (06°), 
Warmbnmn  (lOff*),  Clifton  (86°),  and  Buxton  (83°). 
Their  most  striking  effects  are  to  stimulate  the 
skin  and  excite  the  nervous  system.  >  They  ore 
especially  used  in  chronic  rheumatism  and  atouio 
gout;  in  diseases  of  the  skin,  such  as  prurigo^ 
psoriasis,  lichen ;  in  neuralgia  and  paralysis  due 
rheumatic  and  gonty  exudationa,  to  parturition, 
._  to  Mvere  diseases,  such  as  Uphold  fever  and 
diphtheria;  in  hysteria;  and  in  general  weakness 
-id  marasmus.'— Althaus,  od.  cil.  p.  42L 

6.  Chalybeate  Waters,  which  are  divisible  into ; 
(a)  SimpU  Acidulous  Ckdybtaies,  whose  chief  con- 
tenta on  carbonic  acid  and  bicarbonate  of  protoxide 
of  iron ;  and  (6)  Sairn*  Acididova  ChaXybeaia,  whose 
chief  contents  are  sulphate  of  soda  and  bicarbonate 
of  protoxide  ot  iron.    These  waters  are  considGred 

.  a  special  article.    See  Ciui.TBEira  Ws.tbbs; 

7.  Sulphurous  Waters,  which  contain  sulphuretted 
^drogen  or  netsllio  sulphides  (aulphurets),  or  both. 

_ie  most  important  sniphuron*  thermal*  are  those 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Baden  (near  Vienna),  Barnes, 
Eaux-Chaudes,  and  Bagnires  ds  Luchon ;  whilst 
amongst  the  cold  sulphuroua  springs,  those  of  Nenn- 
dorf  |in  Hessen- Nassau)  and  Harrogate  are  of  great 
importance.  Thev  are  extensively  used  in  chronic 
diaeaaes  of  the  skin,  and  at«  of  service  in  many 
caaee  in  which  exudotionB  require  to  be  absorbed 
in  swellinga  of  the  joints,  in  old  gunshot-wounds, 

laryngeal  and  bronchial  catarrh,  they  frequently 
give  relief,  and  in  chronio  poisoning  by  lead  or 
mercury,  they  favour  the  elimination  of  Uie  poison, 
although  to  a  far  less  derate  than  iodide  of  potaa- 
ainm  biken  internally,  ^e  sulphurous  waters  are 
employed  externally  and  internally,  and  mineral 
mud-baths  are  behoved  by  many  physicians  to  form 
a  valuable  auxiliary  to  tlus  treatment; 

For  further  iulonnation  on  this  subject,  see 
Althaus;  the  DiclUmnaiTe  Ointral  da  Eaitx 
MiniToiii  el  d'Sydrohgie  MldieaU,  by  Durand- 
Fardel,  Le  Bret,  and  Lefort ;  and  the  very  valuable 
work  on  the  Mineral  Water*  qf  Europe,  by  Fich- 
bonme  and  Prosser  James  (1883). 
MINERAXOOT  (Fr.  miner,  to  dig,  mine;  OaeL 
eina;  WoL  munt,  ore,  mine),  the  science  which 
treats  of  minerals.  But  it  does  not  embrace  all  that 
relates  to  the  mineral  kingdom.  Simple  nunerail 
alone,  of  homogeneous  mineral  substances,  are 
regarded  as  the  sm>jecti  of  mineralogy ;  rocks  formed 
by  the  sggn^tioa  of  simple  minerals,  and  th^ 
relations  to  each  other,  are  the  subjects  of  Geolof^ 
).  This  limitatioa  of  the  term  mineralogy  u 
^laratively  recent.  Geology  or  geognosy  was 
formerly  included  in  it.  The  Mtongement  and 
description  of  simple  minerals  according  to  their 
extermJ  ebaroctora,  has  been  called  by  Werner  and 
othcM  OTydognoey,  but  the  term  hu  fortunately 
fallen  into  disuse.  Nor  is  the  study  of  mere  external 
characters  sufficient  in  mineralogy.  The  chemical 
composition  of  minerals  equally  demands  attention. 
In  the  claaaiflcation  of  minerals,  some  mineralo^ats, 
OS   Mobs  and  Jameson,  haw  regarded    od^  the 

Diiiii..f:nvGOOgl 


MINEBALOGY— MINEEVA. 


extenwl  duractera,  and  Bome,  u  Benelins,  only  the 
chemictl  eompodtioii ;  bat  the  reoiilti  have  been 
Dimtu&ctoiy,  and  the  present  tendencty  ie  in  favoar 
of  a  ^rttun  which  aeeha  to  oonatitate  iMtaial  gronpa 
by  having  Ng»rd  to  both. 

Some  minerahi  hetng  of  great  nse,  and  others 
bighlj  valoed  for  their  heanty,  have  receiTed  mach 
attention  from  the  earliest  sge».  But  the  ancient 
naturaliata  deftoribe  few  mineraU.  The  finct  attempt 
at  edentiflo  mineralogr  waa  by  Geoim  Agricohi  m 
the  16th  centniy.  The  syEtemB  (S  the  Swedes 
Wallehiu  and  CrODStedt.  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
18th  c,  were  the  first  worthy  of  the  name.  That 
of  Werner  followed,  and  was  extensively  adopted. 
The  discoveries  of  Hany  in  crystallography,  and 
the  progress  of  chemistry,  gave  mineriuogy  a  new 
chaiicter ;  and  then  ■pruDa  sp  two  sdioola  of 
minenlogists,  one  reetdng  chiray  on  external  charac- 
ters, and  the  other  on  chemical  composition. 

The  cbetnicai  classification  of  mineraU  is  rendered 
difficult  by  the  endless  variety  of  combination  and 
proportion  in  the  elements  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed, the  presenoe  of  subetancea  not  eesential 
to  the  mineral,  and  yet  mote  or  lem  affecting  ita 
character*,  and  the  frequent  impossibility  of  deter- 
mining what  is  to  be  deemed  essential,  and  what 
accident^  Chemical  purity  i>  almost  never  found 
in  nature.  Even  the  porest  diamond,  when  burned, 
leaves  some  traces  of  ash  ;  and  the  varions  coloms 
of  diamond,  qnartz,  and  other  minezals  are  due  to 
the  pretence  of  sabatancee  which  are  often  in  so 
imallqnaotitT  as  not  to  affect  their  ciystalline  forms 
or  other  physical  properties.  Again,  some  miner^ 
of   Identwiu  chemical  composttiOD  differ  in  their 


it  would  separate  them  too  widely.  There  are  also 
many  minerals  which  are  often  foond  in  an  nncrys- 
tallised  state,  and  others  which  are  always  so.  In 
the  arrangement  of  mineials  into  naturu  Eroaps, 
their  diemical  compositiau,  although  not  ahme  to 
be  regarded,  is  of  the  first  importuoe,  so  that  the 

5 lace  of  a  new  mineral  in  the  system  can  never  be 
etennined  withont  analysis;  and  in  detenniuing 
the  natora  of  a  mineral,  chemical  tests,  such  as  the 
application  of  acids,  oro  contlnnally  resorted  to.  It 
is  also  necessary  to  know  its  specific  gravity,  and 
bow  it  is  acted  upon  both  by  a  moderate  heat  and 
by  the  blowpipe.  An  examination  of  the  crystal- 
liite  forms,  wiUi  measurement  of  the  angles  of  the 
crystals,  ia  often  sufficient  to  distinguisn  minerala 
which  have  otherwise  much  resemblance.  The 
cleavage  of  crystals  is  also  imjmrtant,  a  readiness  to 
spht  in  planes  parallel  to  certain  of  their  faces  only, 
by  which  the  primitivt  form  of  the  crystal  may 
be  ascertained.  Minerals  not  crvstallieed  exhibit 
important  varieties  of  limrtare,  as  taminoJai,  jifrroua, 
ffranuiar,  &0.  Certain  peculiarities  of  fona  are  also 
frequently  characteristic  of  uncrystallised  minerala, 
as  inaiaMaTy,  Mr^tndai,  Ac.  Mioerahi  exhibit,  when 
broken,  veiy  diflerent  kinds  of  frattart,  as  njen, 
amduAdal,  fplmtay,  &c.  Opaoamat,  transluaney, 
and  tramparmcy,  ore  more  or  less  characteriBtia  of 
different  Kinds :  do:tric  and  inagnelic  propertieB 
demand  attention ;  and  very  important  characters 
are  derived  from  kittre,  which  in  some  minerals  is 
melallie,  in  othen  aemi-meiaiiic,  in  others  pearly, 
vUnmu,  &c.  CoUjvt  is  not  generally  ot  much  import- 
ance, but  En  some  minerals  it  is  very  charaotenstic 
Hardaai  and  tmacUn  are  very  important,  and  are 

of  aU  varioos  degrees.    A  few  Bmd,  and ' — 

gaseous  substances,  are  inclnded  in  mi 
systems.  Unctaotity  and  other  peooliarities 
ascertained  by  the  touch,  are  very  cbaracteristia  of 
some  minerals;  peculiuities  of  Costeand  tmed  belong 
to  others. 

Mineralogy  has  very  important  relatiou   with 


„',  which  cannot  be  studied  without  regard 
to  the  mineral  constituents  of  rocks.  The  mineral 
oomposition  of  soils  greatly  affects  vegetation  and 
agricaitnre.  The  economioal  nses  ot  minerals  ore 
also  very  important  and  vanoos.  It  is  enondi 
merely  to  alloda  to  coal,  lime,  salt,  and  the  metaUia 
ores.  Naphtha,  petroleum,  bitumen,  asphalt,  to.  are 
of  well-known  utility ;  and  a  hi^  value  has  slways 
been  attached  to  gems  and  other  onuunantal  stone*. 

MIITE'BVA,  the  name  of  a  Soman  goddess, 
identified  by  the  later  GiteciBing  Bomans  with  the 
Qreek  AOinu.  whom  she  pj-Mtly  resembled,  though, 
like  all  the  old  Latin  divinities,  there  was  nothing 

ithrop(anorp'>'<i  ">  what  was  told  concerning  her. 

er  name  is  thought  to  spring  from  the  some  root 
_j  men*  (the  mind)  and  monire  {to  warn  or  adviae) ; 
and  the  ancient  Latin  scholar  and  critic,  Vorro, 
regarded  her  as  the  impersraiation  of  divine  thought 
— the  plan  of  the  mat^ial  omverse  of  which  Jupiter 
was  the  creator,  and  Jnno  the 
representative.  Henoe  all 
that  goes  on  among  men,  all 
that  constitutes  the  develop- 
ment of  human  destiny  (which 
is  but  the  expression  of  the 
divine  idea  or  intention),  is 
under  her  care.  She  is  the 
patroness  of  arts  and  trades, 
and  was  invoked  alike  by 
poeta,  punten,  teachms, 
physicianB,  and  all  kinds  of 
craftsmen.  She  also  gaadm 
heroes  in  war;  and,  in  fact, 
every  wise  idea,  every  bold 
act,  and  eveiy  useful  design, 
owes  somethmg  to  the  lugh  uinervs : 

inspiration     of     this     virgm     rrom  Colonal  Rtsd  In 
goddess.    Her  oldest  t«mp!e        BrlUib  Mukdii. 
at  Rome  was  that  on  the 

Capitol,  but  she  had  another  on  the  Aventine. 
Her  festival  was  held  in  March,  and  lasted  five 
days,  &om  the  19th  to  the  23d  inclusive, 

Athbnb,  or  FuAAB  Athshb,  the  Greek  goddess 
corresponding,  ss  we   have 
Minerva,  — '  ""-  '~ 

».^  given  of  her  origin  and  parentage,  probablytrom 
the  jumblioa  together  ot  local  legends;  but  the  best 
known,  ana  in  ancient  times,  the  most  orthodox 
vermon  of  the  myth  represented  her  as  the  daughter 
of  Zeus  and  Metis,  Zeus,  we  are  told,  when  he  had 
attained  supreme  power  after  his  victory  over  the 
Titans,  chose  for  his  first  wife  Meins  (WiBdora) ;  bnt 
being  advised  by  both  Uranus  and  Oiea  (Heaven 
and  Earth),  he  swallowed  her,  when  she  was  pregnant 
with  Athene.  When  the  time  came  that  Athene 
should  have  been  bom,  Zeus  felt  great  pains  in  his 
head,  and  caused  HepbfflstnB  (Vulcan)  to  split  it  np 
with  an  axe,  when  Uie  goddess  sprang  forth — fully 
armed,  according  to  the  later  stories.  Throwing 
aside  tiie  thick  veil  ot  anthropomorphism  which  con- 
ceals the  significance  of  the  myth,  we  may  see  in  thi» 
account  of  Athene's  parentage  an  effort  to  set  forth 
a  divine  symbol  of  the  combination  of  power  and 
wisdom.  Her  faUier  was  the  greatest,  her  mother 
the  wisest  of  the  gods.  She  is  Lterally  bora  of  both, 
and  so  their  quuitdea  harmoniously  blend  in  her. 
It  is  possible  that  the  constant  representation  of 
her  as  a  strictly  maiden  goddess,  who  hod  a  real, 
and  not  a  merely  jniulisft  antipathy  to  marriage,  was 
meant  to  indicate  that  quahties  like  hers  could  not 
be  mated,  and  that,  because  she  was  perfect,  she 
was  doomed  to  virginity.  She  was  not,  however, 
cold  ttnfaeling  divinity;   on   the   contnkry, 


wumly  and  actively  interested  herself  in  the  affairs 
of  both  gods  and '^-    -'   -'  "■"  ~~'-^ 


I  sat  at  the  right: 


ivGuu^Ic: 


1  of  Zeiu,  Miiiting  hi™  with  bar  coiumIs  , 
aha  helped  him  in  his  w&ig,  und  conqaered  FolLu 
and  Eoceladoa  in  the  battle*  of  the  giaots.  She 
WM  the  patroness  of  agrioaltnre,  iavented  the 
ash  and  rake,  iutrodaced  the  ohve  into  Attica, 
1  (in  harmony  with  her  character  aa  the  per- 
aoniGcation  of  active  wisdom}  tanght  men  the  use 
of  ahnoat  all  Uia  implements  d  indnstrv  and  art ; 
and  is  itud  to  haTe  devised  neariy  all  feminine 
etnployments.  PhikMophy,  poetry,  and  i 
were  also  nnder  her  care.  She  wss  the  piol 
of  the  Athenian  state,  waa  believed  to  havi 
toted  the  court  of  instice  CD  Mm*'  Hill  (the 
Areiopagus).  As  a  warlike  dtviiiitf,  she  woa  " 
to  approve  of  those  wan  011I7  which  wart 
taken  for  the  pablic  good,  and  conducted  with 
pmdenoe ;  and  thn*  she  was  regarded  as  the  pro- 
tectreaa  in  batUe  of  those  heroes  nko  were  dis- 
tdnguished  as  well  for  their  wi«dom  aa  their 
votoor.  In  the  Trojan  wais^  she  favoored  the 
Greeks — whi^  in  point  of  fac^  were  in  the  right 
Her  worship  was  universal  in  Qreeoe,  and  rapra- 
centationa  of  her  in  statoes,  btwta,  coins,  r^efs, 
and  vase-paintiiigt  wei«  and  are  aumerons.  She  is 
ilwaya  diened,  generally  in  ft  Spartan  tnnic,  with 
ft  cloak  over  it,  and  wans  a  helmet,  beautifully 
ftdome^  with  fisniea  of  different  animals,  the  aagia, 
tiie  round  ArgoUo  thield,  ft  louca,  fto.  Har  oouDte- 
nonoe  ia  beantifol,  eameat,  and  thonghtfal,  and  the 
whole  figure  majestic. 

MIHEBVrNO,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  in  the 

province  of  Bori,  called  tha  Bakons  <ifP«gUa,  from 

"-  3  extensive  view  it  command*  of  several  cities. 

stands  od  ft  £na  hill,  and  enjoys  excellent  vr. 

Fop.  (ISSl)  16,163. 

MINES,  in  Law.    In  England  and  Ii«Und,  the 

'   s  the  right  to  all  minea  ot  gold  and  silver 


but  where  these  metals  are  found  id  minea  of  tin^ 
copper,  iron,  or  other  baser  metal,  then  the  crown 
has  only  tha  right  to  take  the  ore  at  a  price  fixed  by 
statute.  As  a  general  rule,  whoever  is  tha  owner  of 
freehold  land,  has  a  ri^t  to  all  the  minea  underneath 


or  otherwiee  to  a  tenant  for  life,  while  a  third 
ty  has  the  reversion,  then  Uia  tenant  for  life 
eld  to  be  entitled  not  to  open  mines  which  have 
never  before  been  opened,  but  to  cany  on  such 
IS  have  been  open,  and  are  going  miues.  80  in  the 
:a*e  of  ft  lease  of  lands  for  agricultoral  purposes, 
f  nothing  is  said  as  to  mines,  the  tenant  is  not 
entitled  to  open  any  mines,  for  that  would  be  com- 
mitting  waate.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  one  penou 
to  be  owner  of  tha  surface  of  the  land,  and  another 
to  be  owner  of  ^e  minea  beneath ;  or  several  per- 
sons may  be  owners  of  diflerent  kinds  of  mines  lying 
above  each  other  in  the  different  atrat&.  Many 
queationa  have  been  T^sod  lately  between  railway 
companies  and  mine-owneis  as  to  their  respective 
lights  and  liabilities.  When  a  railway  puses 
through  ft  mining  country,  it  is  generally  optional 
with  the  owner  to  sell  to  the  company  merely 
the  surface  of  ilie  lands,  reserving  to  himself  the 
minea  beneath;  and  it  is  nioalty  provided  that, 
ver  the  owner  work  hie  mines  so  near  to  the 
railway  as  to  endanger  its  itabili^,  the  company 
must  have  notice  of  t£at  fact,  and  then,  if  necessary, 
may  purchase  the  mines  immediately  under  the 
railway.  But  the  courts  have  detarmiaed  that  even 
though  tha  owner  of  the  land  reserve  his  right  to 
minerals,  he  is  nevertheless  prevented,  by  common 
law,  from  working  the  mines  immediately  nnder 
the  railw^r,  so  oa  to  endanger  the  use  of  the 
rulway.  In  these  matten  the  law  of  Scotland  liies 
~''  ftt  all  differ,  thongh,  as  to  other  point*  of  the 


common  law,  icsub  differences  of  no  great  import- 
anoe  occur.  See  Patenion'a  Oompertdivm  <tf  English 
and  Seottith  Late. 

The  practical  working  of  mines  and  collieries  in 
any  part  of  Oteai  ^tain  has  been  controlled 
by  oertoin  recent  acts  of  parliament,  with  ft  view 
to  insure  the  greater  safety  of  the  persons  working 
them,  and  to  prevent  the  employment  of  winnan 
and  children.  Thus,  the  ownen  of  mines  ore 
prohibited,  by  the  Mines  Kegulation  Acts,  1872 
(repealing  pnor  acts),  from  employing  any  female 
or  bov  nnder  10  undergroond.  Boys  under  16  can 
only  he  so  employed  ten  honis  per  day,  and  boys 
under  12  must  attend  school  at  certain  times. 
No  owner  or  worker  of  a  mine  or  GoUiery  is  allowed 
to  pay  the  wages  of  the  men  at  any  tavern,  public- 
house,  beer-shop,  or  place  of  entertainment,  or 
any  office  or  outhouse  connected  therewith.  No 
person  under  18  is  to  be  employed  at  tha  entrance 
of  any  mine,  to  have  charve  of  the  steam-en^e 
or  wmdlass,  or  other  machinery  and  tackle  for 
letting  down  and  bringing  up  the  men.  Inapeotora 
are  appointed  by  government  for  the  express  pur- 
pose o£^  visiting  mines,  and  seeing  that  the  statutes 
are  complied  with.  The  statutes  in  qnestdon  now 
iqiply  not  only  to  coal-mines  and  ooUtariea,  but 
to  metalliferous  mines  oC  all  kinds.  Whenever 
an  inspector,  on  examination,  finds  anything  dan- 
geraua  or  defective  in  the  mine,  he  is  Donnd 
to  give  notice .  to  the  owner,  so  Ihat  it  may  be 
amended.  In  case  of  aeddents  occniring  in  the 
mine,  caused  by  explosion,  and  resulting  in  loss 
of  life  or  bodily  injury,  the  owner  is  bonod,  within 
twenty-four  hours  th^-eaEter,  to  send  notice  to  the 
Secretary  of  State,  and  to  the  district  inspector  of 
mines,  specifying  the  ^«bable  eoosa  of  tha  aocidenL 
MINES,  UnjTAKV,  oonetitute  at  once  one  of  the 
moat  important  departments  in  miUtory  en^eer> 
ing,  and  a  very  formidable  accessory  both  m  the 
attack  and  defence  of  fortresses.  A  mihtory  mine 
consists  of  a  gallery  of  greater  or  leas  length,  run 
from  some  point  of  safety  under  an  opposing  work, 
or  under  on  area  over  which  an  attacking  force 
must  pass,  and  terminating  in  a  chamber  whidi, 
being  stored  with  gunpowder,  can  be  exploded  at 
the  critioal  moment  Mines  are  of  great  use  to  the 
besiegers  in  the  overthrow  of  ramparts  and  formo- 
"  m  of  a  breach  ;  the  countermiaa  of  the  besi^ed 
.  undermining  the  glacis  over  which  tha  assanltmg 
colnmn  must  charge,  and  blowing  them  into  the  air, 
in  deetroying  batteries  ere^ed  for  breaching, 
___  etjually  serviceable.  But  fikr  above  the  actual 
mischief  wrought  by  the  mine — often  very  great — is 
its  moral  influence  on  the  troops,  and  especially  on 
tha  asiulanto.  The  bravest  soldiers,  who  advaaos 
witbont  flinching  to  the  very  mouth  of  the  cannon 
mkuh  bUy  ttr,  will  hesitate  to  cross  ground  which 
they  suppose  to  be  undermined,  and  on  which 
they  may  be  dashed  to  destmction  in  a  moment^ 
witliant  the  power  of  averting  the  tauten  danger. 
The  first  employment  of  mines  was  very  andent, 
and  merely  consisted  in  obtaining  an  entrance  to 
the  interior  of  towns  by  r^°'."g  beneath  the 
IS ;  but  thia  soon  fdl  into  disuse,  the  ohances 
eas  bemg  merely  those  of  introducing  a  body 
before  ttiebedeged  discovered  the  mine.  The 
le  occurred  during  the  middle  ages,  and  waa 

estmctive.    The  minan  went  noiurther  than 

beneath  the  wall,  then  diverged  to  either  aide,  and 
undermined  the  wall,  say  for  about  100  feet.  I>nring 
the  process,  the  wall  was  sustained  by  tunber-propa  ; 
and  these  being  ultimately  set  on  Are,  the  wall  fell ; 
and  the  besiegers,  who  had  awaited  the  oppor- 
'uiity,  ruahed  in  at  the  breach.  This  use  of  mines  of 
Xadc  necessitated  those  of  t^fiitce,  which  obtained 
I  medieval  times,  ftad  hnw  svec  rinoe  kept  tfae  , 


._    .  Ths  eariisBt  Bubtemnean 

defcDoe  eoniiltad  of  a  gallery  suiroonduig  the  fort 
in  adfaiice  of  the  foot  of  the  vail,  and  termed  an 
■enTc%>e-g«llery.'  From  tbi*  the  gartiaon  wonld 
pnili  forward  amall  bmaciiet  or  tribubur  gallehes, 
iriience  Uiey  oonld  obtain  naniiiif  of  the  Jqiproaoh 
o{  hostile  ninen,  and  by  which  iney  aucoeeded,  at 
time*,  in  ovrathrowing  the  battenng-raois  or  tower* 
of  the  bcai^eis. 

Two  DentiiiieB  appear  to  have  elapaed  between  the 
introdnation  of  gonpowdei  into  European  waiiaie 
Mid  it*  appUoation  to  subterranean  operations.  The 
£nt  iostanco  ol  this  oocurred  in  1S0%  at  the  «iege 
of  the  Castello  del'  Uovo,  in  the  Bay  of  Niralea, 
which  a  French  garrison  had  soooeeded  in  holding; 
for  three  yean  against  the  combined  Spanish  ana 
Neapolitan  (orcea.  At  leiurtb,  a  Spaniuk  capfaiin, 
Pedro  NaTwro,  devised  %  km1«it  into  the  look,  which 
he  stored  with  powder,  iniereaf  the  ez^oaion,  hml- 
ins  portions  of^the  rock  and  many  of  the  beaieged 
into  the  tea,  caused  the  immediate  cnptore  of  the 
place.  At  once  the  nse  of  mines  of  attack  ipread 
throughont  EoTc^ ;  andao  irresistible  were  they  soon 
oonsEderod,  that  it  was  not  miiUDa]  for  the  besieger, 
after  preparing  his  mine,  to  invite  the  besieged 
to  inspect  it,  with  the  view  of  indaoing  the  latter  i^ 
once  to  tmrender.  Defence  soon  availed  itself  of 
the  neirpower,aDdretainiiig  the  envelope-gallery  as 
a  base,  ran  snuH  ootmtermmes  in  many  direotions, 
to  ascertain  l^  hearing  the  approach  of  the  enemy's 
BappeiB — his  work  being  awfible,  to  a  practised  ear, 
at  a  horizontal  distance  of  60  feet.  Small  ohai^es 
were  then  exploded,  which,  witbont  eteating  sor- 
face  disturbance,  blew  in  the  ^iprotohi^  gallery, 
and  baiied  the  sappert  in  its  rains.  Thus  com- 
menced a  system  of  subterranean  warfare,  requiring 
the  greatest  risk  and  coorage,  in  which  the  operator 
WM  in  constant  danger  SS  being  soffocat^  Of 
oauTBe,  in  such  a  system,  the  balance  of  advantage 
lay  w^  the  besieged,  who  had  ample  opportonities, 
bdore  the  siege  oommenced,  of  completjiu;  his 
ramifications  in  «vwy  direction,  and,  it  desiraUs, 
ol  revetting  thcsn  with  masontv,  which  much 
diminished  the  chance  ot  being  Dlown  in:  while 
Mefo 


int,  no  longer  able  £ 


I  the  gbdfl 


subtmranean  advance. 
French  engineer  Belidor,  in  the  J8th  a.,  reetored 
the  advaiiWe  to  the  attack,  by  demonstraUng 
that  the  ezidoaiDn  of  a  very  luge  mass  of  powder 
in  a  mine  which  had  not  yet  entered  the  labyrinUk 
of  defensive  mines,  efieoted  the  destmctioD  of  the 
latter  for  a  great  apace  ronnd,  clearing  ^e  way 
with  certain^  for  the  hostile  advance.  Although 
the  i^imary  pnrpoaa  of  a  mine  is  the  explosion 
el  a  charge  ot  powder,  they  are  often  used  as  a 
means  of  eomnuuication  betweoi  different  works,  ot 
between  diSerent  pttrte  of  the  I 


It  is,  of  oourse,  impossible,  m  such  ■  work  as  this, 
to  give  even  an  outline  Ot  the  professional  part 
of  military  miniogi  bat  the  article  would  be  incom- 
plete without  some  allosion  to  the  main  principles. 

Mines  are  either  vratical — when  they  are  called 
AaJU — horizontal,  or  inclined,  in  either  of  which 
cases,  they  are  'galleries,'  the  word  'ascending' 
or 'deacei^ing' being  added,  it  there  be  inclination. 
The  dimenaions  range  from  the  '  great  gallery,'  six 
feet  six  inches  by  seven  feet^  to  the  'small  branch' 
— the  last  diminutive  of  the  gallery — which  has  bnt 
two  feet  six  inches  height,  with  a  breadth  of  two 
feet  The  moat  frequent  work  is  the  *  common 
gallery,'  four  feet  six  inches  by  three  feet,  whioh 
IS  ctmsideied  the  easiest  for  the  m' 

The  sappm's  tools 


request 
'  push-pi 


B  hii  shovel,  pickaxe,  and  above  all,  lu» 


push-pick'  (see  fig.  1) ;   he  has  besides  a  batrov, 
a  imaQ  wagon,  a  lamp,  and  o<' 
he  advances,  it 


line  his  gallery,  always 
at  the  top,  and  almost 
always  at  the  sides.  This 
he  does  either  by  fr&meo 
— which  resemble  door- 
framee,  and  serve  to  retain 
horizontal 


planks  or  'abeet- 
jition  against  the 


^  .  position  against  tl 
eurth — or  by  case*  some- 
cases,  of  little  d^ith,  which 
are  used  to  form  the  sides 
and  top.  With  cases,  Tig.  l.^Pogh-piek : 
galleries  are  supposed  to  Ltngtb,  i  lint  lo  maw 
advance  one    foot   and   a 

half  per  hour ;  while  with  frames  the  progress  is 
barely  more  than  half  that  amount. 


leoat  Toiataaa  a  the  perpendicular  &om  the  chatgB 
the  surface ;  the  half-dismeter  of  the  crater  ia 
its  radins;  and  the  radait  of  expleaiott  is 
from  the  cluuve  to  the  edge  oC  the  crater,  i 
hypothenuse  of  the  triande,tha  revolution  of  which 
would  form  the  oone.  When  the  diameter  equal* 
the  line  of  least  tcsiiitance,  the  crater  is  called  • 
one-lined  crater;  when  it  doubles  that  line,  & 
two-lined  crater;  and  so   on.    *" 


A,  trench;  B, « 


iCg^ltrj 


lUlangUi. 


for  ordinary  opoations  is  the  two-lined  crater ;  anA 
for  this  the  cdiaige  of  powder  should— in  gronncl 
of  average  weight  and  tenacitv — be  in  pounds  ^ 
number  equal  to  one-tenth  of  the  cube  ot  the  line 
of  least  resistance  in  feet ;  for  example,  at  a  depth 
of  18  feet,  the  charge  ahould  conaist  of  083  pounds. 
In  suT-charKed  mines,  or  globes  of  comjoeBsion,  ai 
introduced  by  Belidor,  vutly  ^reat«ar  charges  an 
employed,  and  cratera  of  six  hues  are  aometimEi 
produced.  The  rules,  in  these  cases,  for  com^itins, 
the  oharges  v»rf  exceedingly,  according  to  dinsrens 
en^eeiB,  and  m  every  oaae  are  very  complicated. 
Previona  to  the  ex^oaion,  the  g^leiy  is  filled  np- 
behind  the  charge,  or  lamped,  with  earth,  sand- 
bi^  ftc,  to  prevent  the  force  of  the  powdw 
wasting  itself  in  the  mine.  This  tampin{^  ni'™*' 
extend  backwards  for  oae  and  a  half  oi  twMe 

length  of  the  line  of  least  resistance.      The  n 

is  commonly  fired  by  means  of  a  powder-hoa^ 
oompoeed  m  strong  linen,  enclosed  in  «  woodeo 

g'pe  laidcorefully  through  the  tamping,  or  by  w: 
)m  a  voltaic  battery. 

In  the  annexed  figure  (fi^  3),  is  riiewn  a  sysl  _ 
of  countermines.  tH-b  magistral  gallery,  AAA,  is- 
immediately  within  the  wall  of  the  counterscarps 
through  onfioes  in  which  it  derives  light  and 
air,  and  by  its  loopholes,  the  defenders  con  take 
in  rear  any  enemy  who  might  obtun  momentar? 
possession  of  the  ditch.    Further  in  advano^  and 


UnTQHEm— MINIATURE  PAINTINQ. 


reached  hj  gaUerie«  of  eomnnmiMlion  B,  is  tlu 
eDVelopft-gallery  0,  from  which  ndikte  the  hitenera 
D,  D.      To  pieTtnt  the  enemT'i  advanoeB,  thase 


ennlo^  ^1(^>  M>D,  UiMoen;  E,  tnnob  •oding  I 


tMcoiera  ahoold  not  b«  mors  than  »bont  54  feet 
KpML  Bttidtt  luteninf;,  tiuiy  are  lued  foe  itggtf»' 
■v«  ptupOKo,  moh  aa  dnvioK  branchea  and  blowing 
in  or  np  hoatile  w<^u.  Modem  anginears  object  to 
the  enrelope-gallery,  aa  aSbrding  too  good  ■  baae 
to  the  enemj',  ahould  he  obtain  posseesion  of  it ; 
and  either  dupenie  with  it  altcwetbet,  or  merely 
retain  it  in  aliort  Bectiona.  At  soiUiblB  points 
among  the  mines,  email  nugaonea  for  tools  and 
powdm:  are  fcamed ;  and  at  about  wfsry  30  jarda, 
loopholed  doon  of  great  atrength  are  made,  to  atop 
the  advanos  of  an  enam;,  aho^  he  break  into  the 
gaUeiiea^ 

In  the  ooona  of  their  ezcavationa,  hostile  minera 
fraqnently  meet,  or  approach  within  a  few  feet 
It  becomes,  then,  merely  a  qneation  of  lime  which 
shall  destroy  the  other ;  ahdii,  jn^tola,  pikes,  aad 
petards,  as  well  at  small  mines,  being  osed  with 
mtirderons  effect. 

Provision  is  mads  for  pmnping  fool  air  out  of 
mines;  but  soch  mihtory  works  are  in  general 
badly  ventilated. 

MINOHETTI,  Catalikki  Masco,  a  diatin- 
gnished  Italian  writer  and  stateaman,  and  for  a 
bme  prime  minister  of  Italy,  waa  bom  at  Bologna, 
on  the  8th  November  1818.  He  belonged  to  an 
opulent  comniercial  fvnily,  and  on  tha  terminaHon 
M  his  stndiee,  entered  on  an  extenuve  continental 
tour,  with  the  object  of  oloeelyinvcaldgating  the  poli- 
tical, social,  and  economical  institntions  M  France, 
Germany,  and  more  eapecially  of  Britun.  On  hia 
retnm  Irom  travelling,  he  published  his  maiden 
sasay,  incnlcatiDg  the  great  commercuJ  advantages 
of  free  trade,  as  eziabng  in  England,  and  eapooc- 
ing  with  wanath  the  economioafviewa  of  Biohard 
Cobden.  In  1B46,  M.  opened  his  politdcal  career  by 
starting  a  jonmal  of  liberal  tendenciea,  soon  after 
the  advent  of  Pius  IX  to  power ;  in  1847,  he  waa 
elected  member  of  the  Conaidla  d^  FmariiA,  and 
in  1848  became  minister  of  public  works.  Having 
speedily  lost  faith  in  papal  progression,  M  withdrew 
from  office,  and  joined  the  army  of  Charles  Albert 
b  Lombaidy,  where  he  waa  wannly  recdved  bv  tha 
king,  and  qipointed  captain.  After  the  battle  of 
Goito,  he  waa  promoted  major ;  and  for  his  bravery 
in  the  engagement  of  Costoza,  he  received  from  the 
king  the  CTOBs  of  the  Knidits  of  St  Manrizio.  On 
the  conolusion  of  the  war,  M.  lesnmed  his  study  of 
political  economy,  and  gained  the  confidence  of 
Cavour,  by  whom  he  was  consulted  dnring  the 
conferenoea   of   Paria.     He  subsequently   became 


8Bcretat7  for  foreign  a^r*.  and  only  raigned  with 
Cavour  on  the  peace  of  VillafraDca.  j£  became 
minister  of  tha  interior  in  I860,  and  premier  in 
1863.  On  leaving  the  ministry,  he  went  as  ambas- 
sador to  London  m  1863,  and  was  anbsemiently,  for 
a  abort  time,  minister  of  agriculture.  From  1873 
to  1876,  he  waa  again  premier.  P'l  chief  works  are 
DeUa  Eeonomia  mkhlka  (1859) ;  La  Chieaa  « lo  Staio 
(1878). 

UI1IH0.    See  Ehtbjc  Dodso  ■  Knmo. 

HINHO  (Span.  MUo,  anc  Minau},  a  river  of 
Spain  and  Portugal,  rises  in  the  north-east  of 
Galicia,  in  lat  about  43°  20'  N.,  long,  about  T  15' 
W.  Ita  course  it  south-west  throu^  the  modem 
Spanish  piovincea  of  Lugo  and  Orenae,  after  whidi, 
cootinoing  ita  Course,  and  forming  die  northern 
boundai;  of  the  Portugueae  province  of  Minho,  it 
falls  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Its  length,  exclusive 
of  windings,  is  130  miles,  and  it  is  navigable  for 
small  craft  23  milet  above  its  month, 

MrKIATXmE-PAIKTING,  or  the  ptunting  of 
portraits  on  a  small  scale,  originated  in  the  prac- 
tice of  embellishing  manuscript  books.  See  MIkc- 
S0BIPI8,  Illuhimation  Ot.  As  the  initial  letters 
written  with  red  lead  (Lai  mtniun),  the  art  of 
ination  waa  exptessed  by  the  Low  Lat  verb 
Duntora,  and  the  teim  miniaitira  was  applied  to  the 
small  pictures  introduced.  After  the  uvention  of 
printing  and  engraving  thia  delicate  art  entered  on  a 
new  phase;  copies,  in  small  dimensions,  of  celebrated 
pictoroB  oame  to  be  in  considerable  request,  and,  in 
particular,  there  arose  auch  a  demand  for  miniature- 
-portraits,  that  a  miniature,  in  popular  language,  it 
leld  to  mgnif^  '  a  ver^  sm^  porb^t^'  Soon  wFter 
*•---  '-'roduclr ■— ' ' — ''■ — ■ "■-' 


a,  miniature-portralta  w 


with  very  great  skill  in  England.  Holbein  (h.  1498, 
d,  1554)  punted  exquisite  miniatures,  and  having 
settled  in  Londou,  his  works  had  great  influenoe  in 
calling  forth  native  talent  The  worka  of  Nicholas 
imianf  "-   -■  - 

'^k  ,  .  -. 

'as  emfiloyed  by  Queen  Elizabeth  and  moat  of  the 
diatjnxuiahed  cbanictera  of  the  time ;  bis  worka  are 
remarkable  for  careful  and  elaborate  execution; 
and  his  son,  Peter  Oliver,  achieved  even  a  higbeE 
re^Utioo.  Tbomoa  Flatman  (b.  1633,  d.  iBSS) 
pamted  good  miniatures.  Samuel  Cooper  (b.  London 
1609,  d.  1672),  who  was,  with  hia  brother  Alexander, 
a  papil  of  hia  uncle,  Hoakius,  an  artist  of  reputa- 
tion, carried  miniature-painting  to  high  excellence. 
Cromwell  and  Milton  sat  to  him — he  was  employed 
by  Charles  IL — and  obtained  the  highest  patron- 
a^  at  the  courts  of  France  and  in  HollaniL  Till 
within  these  few  years,  miniature.puntinff  con- 
tinued to  be  Buccesafnlly  cultivated  in  Britain; 
'  it  it  has  received  a  severe  check  since  photo- 

'aphy  was  invented,  and  most  ot  the  artists  of 

le  preeent  time,  who  ezereiaed  their  bilents  in 
..lis  exquisite  art,  have  left  it  for  other  branohea 
ot  jminting.  As  to  technical  details,  the  early 
arbats  painted  on  vellniu,  and  used  body-colooia, 
that  ia,  oolonn  mixed  wiUi  white  or  other  onaqne 
pigments,  and   thia   practice   waa   continued   till 


stitnt«d.  Many  of  the  old  miniatore-painten 
worked  with  oil-oolours  on  small  plates  of  copper  or 
silver.      After  ivory  was  anbatituted  for  vellum. 


but  daring  the  present  oentnry,  in  which  the 

art  has  been  brought  to  the  highest  eioeltenoe,  tbe 

las  been  to  execute  &o  entire  woric,  with 

iion  of  the  high  lights  in  white  dm 


.^1 


MINIM— HIKING. 


vith  tntnsparent  colonn.  In  worbiiig,  the  general 
pnctice  is  to  draw  tbe  pictnre  very  faintiy  and 
aolicateJy  with  k  table  hair-pencil,  luing  a  neutral 
tint  composed  of  cobalt  and  bnmed  lienna.  The 
featnrea  at«  carefully  made  out  in  that  way,  and 
then  the  carnations,    or  fieih-tinti,   composed    of 

B'  ok,  madder,  and  t>w  nenna,  mdnally  introduced. 
la  drapery  and  badcgronDd  should  be  freely 
washed  in,  and  the  whole  work  is  then  brought  out 
by  hatching,  that  is,  by  painting  with  lues  or 
(trokei,  which  the  artist  must  accommodate  to  the 
forms,  snd  which  are  diminished  in  size  as  tbe  work 
proneasas.  Stippling,  or  dotting,  was  a  method 
mu^  employed,  particularly  in  early  times;  fant  the 
latest  mastOT*  of  the  art  preferred  hatchinf^  aod 
there  are  spedmena  by  old  mastert^  PenigiDO,  for 
instance,  execated  in  that  manner. 

HIIIIM,  the  name  of  one  ot  the  notes  in  modern 
mnsic,  the  nlae  of  which  is  the  half  of  a  senubreve. 
UtN IMS  (Lat.  Fralr<'»  Miniim,  Least  Brethren), 
•0  called,  in  token  of  still  greater  humility,  by 
contrast  with  the  JiVafra  JftrxTTM,  or  Lesser  Brethren 
of  St  TrancLS  of  Aasisi  (q,  v.),  an  order  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  founded  by  anoUier  fit  Francis,  a 
native  of  Paula,  a  small  town  of  Calabria,  about  the 
middle  of  the  16th  century.  Francis  had,  an  a  boy, 
entered  the  Franciscan  order;  bat  the  austerities  of 
that  mle  failed  to  satis^  his  ardonr,  and  on  his  return 
from  a  pilgrimage  to  Kome  and  Assisi,  he  found^ 
in  1453,  an  association  of  Hemiits  of  St  Francis, 
who  first  lived  in  seiiarate  cells,  but  eventually 
were  united  in  tiie  conventual  life  in  1474.  and 
established  in  several  places  in  Calabria  and  Sicily. 
Francis  was  also  invited  into  France  by  Lonis  XI., 
and  fonoded  houses  of  his  order  at  Amboise  and  at 
Plemis-Ies -Tours.  In  Spain,  the  brethren  took  the 
name  of  '  Fathers  ot  Victtwy,'  in  memory  ot  the 
recoverv  ot  Malaga  from  the  Moors,  which  was 
ascribed  to  their  prayers.  It  was  not  till  vei;  near 
the  close  of  the  life  of  Francis  that  he  drew  up  the 
rule  of  his  order.  It  is  exceedingly  austere,  the 
brethren  bein?  debarred  the  nse  not  only  of  mea^ 
bnt  ot  e^s,  butter,  cheese,  and  milk,  Notwilh- 
standing  its  severity,  this  institute  attained  con- 
aiderable  success ;  its  house*,  soon  after  the  death 
of  Ftandi  (1602),  numbering  no  fewer  than  46(1. 
It  has  reckoned  several  distinguished  scholars 
among  its  members;  but  in  latter  times,  the  order 
has  fallen  into  decay,  being  now  limited  (a  a  few 
houses  in  Italy,  the  chief  of  which  is  at  Rome.  The 
superiors  of  convents  in  this  order  ore  ooUed  by 
the  ooiious  Dame  of  Corrtctor,  the  general  being 
styled  Oeneralit  Corredor.  A  corresponding  order 
of  females  had  its  origin  about  the  same  time,  but 
this  order  also  has  fallen  into  disuse. 

MINING  is  a  general  term  for  the  underground 
operations  by  which  the  yarious  metals  and  other 
minerals  are  procured.  It  has  been  practised  to  some 
extent  from  the  remotest  timet,  as  is  proved  by 
the  reference  to  it  in  the  28th  cimpter  of  the  book 
of  Job.  In  ita  proper  sense,  the  ui  was  oeitoinly 
known  to  the  ancient  Fhcenicians  and  Egyptians, 
and  also  to  tbe  Greeks  and  Komana.  Mining  opera- 
tioos  were  csiried  on  in  Britain  by  the  latter  at 
thetiineof  the  Roman  Conquest.  After  the  Norman 
Gonqtiest,  Jews,  and,  at  a  later  time,  Germans  wore 
largely  employed  in  onr  minefl.  The  introduction 
of  gonpowcler  as  a  blasting  material  in  1620,  ted  the 
way  to  many  improvements  in  mioing  ;  so  also  did 
the  introduction  of  powerful  engines  for  pumping 
water,  about  the  beginning  of  the  ISth  o. 

There  are  two  pnncipalmethods  of  mining  :  one 
ot  which  is  adopted  where  the  mineral  occare  in 
yeini  or  lodes,  as  oopper  and  lead  ore ;  and  the 
other  where  the  mineral  occnrs  in  mors  or  leu , 


sometimea  extend  for  leveral  n 
conntiy ;  but  they  expand  and  contnot  so  m 
and  split  up  into  so  many  branches,  that  it  is 
haps  uncertain  whether  the  same  lode  hw 
been  traced  for  more  than  a  mile.  Veins  seldom 
deviate  more  than  4fi  degree*  from  a  pt^pendicular 
line,  and  descend  to  unknown  depths,  -lliey  pene- 
trate alike  stratified  and  nnstratified  rock*,  ^loaa 
which  run  east  and  west  have  been  obanred 
to  be  the  moat  prnductive. 
"■      "    ■  'a  Lkimish  mm 


parallel  beds,  as  coaL  Mining  in  alluTial  depoala 
18  a  third  method,  largely  practised  in  the  gold 
—  -■  -     of  California  and  AushaUa,  and  includes  tho 


where  most  of  the  copper  and  tin  of  Great  Britain, 
and  also  some  of  the  lead,  ai«  obtained,  the  ore* 
occur  in  veins  filling  cracks  or  fisauree  in  the  rocks. 
Such  veins  are  termed  lodes,  to  diatinAuish  tliem 
from  veins  of  quartz  and  otiier  non-met^lic  minsala. 
Lodes  are  ve^  iirq^nlar  in  nie,  and  in  tbe  direc- 
tions they  take,  though  they  nsually  follow  e 
general  line. 

Fig  1  shews  a  portion  of  a  lode,  where  a  repre- 
sents the  main  <»  'eham^oa'  lode,  and  b  "" 


Fig.  1. — Fortdon  of  a  Lode  or  Mineral  Vein. 


s  throngh 
;  BO  mndi. 


Wit-  2. — Cross-seotian  of  a  Cornish  Mine. 

which  is  done  by  means  of  buckets.    The  adit,  or 

day-levd,  is  a  long  passage  to  which  the  water  of 
nius  is  pumped  up  aod  conveyed  away.  Some 
I  are  made  to  traverse  several  mines.  The 
b  adit  which  drains  the  mines  of  Glennap  and 
i^th,  in  Cornwall,  is  30  miles  long.  At  c,  c,  e, 
cross   cuts,  by  which  the  work: 

different  lodes  are  connected. 
Fig.  3  is  a  partial  section  in  the  d 

lode,  and  therefore  at  right  a     ' 


'"^;oSq1c 


■hem  tlie  horizontol  galleriei,  termed  leada,  a, 
vhicli  are  driven  npon  the  lodJe,  and  some  of  ti» 
■mall  upright  (haft*,  railed  mactt,  b.    Lerela  aie 


Kg.  3. 
generallj  abomt  ten  fathomi  (60  feet)  apart    They 

are  rarely  perpendicular  above  each  other,  ai 
they  folloir  the  inclination  of  the  vein.  In  the 
■ection,  the  richer  poitionB  of  the  lode,  termed 
'  bunches,'  are  ehenn  shaded ;  and  where  theee 
have  been  removed,  and  their  place  filled  with 
mbbi«h,  angular  fragments  are  tepresented.  Thia 
u  necessary  to  prevent  the  tided  of  workings 
from  falling  in.  The  bottom  of  the  engine  ah^ 
ia  the  loweet  portion  of  the  mine.  It  ie  called  the 
tump,  and  is  the  place  where  the  water  from 
the  various  levels  and  workings  collects,  in  order 
to  be  pumped  up  to  the  adit.  The  galleries  and 
shafts  m  ui  extensive  mine  are  very  numerous, 
uokijig  it  altogether  a  yerv  complicated  a^ur. 
The  shafts,  however,  have  all  distinct  names,  and 
the  levels  are  known  by  their  depth  in  fathoms, 
■0  that  particnlar  places  are  as  eiudly  found  as 
streeta  in  a  town.  The  underground  workings  of 
the  Consolidated  MJnM,  which  are  the  largest  in 
Cornwall,  being  a  conjuoctton  of  four  mines,  are 
fiS,000  fathoms,  or  S3  miles,  in  extent.  In  working 
out  the  lode  between  one  level  and  another,,  the 
raioer  usually  goea  upwards,  it  being  easier  to 
tllrow  down  the  ore  thui  to  raise  it  up.  He  works 
with  the  Ugbt  of  a  candle,  stuck  with  clay  to  the 
side  of  the  mine.  His  tools  are  few — namely,  a 
pick,  a  hasuner,  and  some  wedges  where  the  vein 
IS  soft  and  friable ;  but  it  i»  generally  hard  enough 
to  require  blasting,  ia  which  case  be  uses  a  borer  or 
jumper,  and  some  smaller  tools  for  cleaning  and 
stemming  tJie  hole  which  is  made.  The  ore  ia  filled 
into  WMODS,  and  then  drawn  along  the  gallery  to 
the  shaft,  to  be  raised  to  the  surface  in  bmila, 

A  vein  may  be  30  or  40  feet  thick,  and  so  poor 
in  ore  as  not  to  be  worth  working  ;  again,  it  may 
be  only  a  few  Inches  tliiak,  and  yet  its  richness 
may  amply  repay  the  labour  of  extracting  it.  Three 
or  four  feet  may  be  taken  as  the  average  of 
several  kinds  of  veins.  In  extensive  mines,  poriions 
of  the  ore  are  here  and  there  left  in  the  lode,  so  as 
to  furnish  a  steady  aupply  when  other  parts  are 
onproductive.  These  are  called  eya,  and  when  tbey 
are  afterwards  removed,  the  operation  is  termed 
picking  out  the  eyw  qfthe  mint. 

The  old  plan  of  ascending  and  descending  the 
mines  by  ladders,  so  destructive  to  the  health  of  the 
Biiaers,  is  still  largely  in  use.  The  ladders  ar« 
now  about  25  feet   long,  and  set  with  a   slope. 


There  is  a  platform  at  the  bottom  of  each  callsd  ■ 
tollar,  with  a  man-hole  in  it  leading  to  the  next 
ladder  beneath.  Some  of  the  Cornish  mines  are  half 
a  mile  deep,  so  that  it  takes  the  miner  an  hour  to 
reach  the  sorface  after  be  is  done  with  faia  work ; 
moat  of  the  joomey  being  accompliabed  on  wet, 
slippery  ladders.  The  bad  effects  of  the  fatigue 
•0  prDduced  is  augmented  by  the  fact  that  the 
men  come  from  a  constant  temperature  of  80°  or 
90°  F.  below,  to  one  of  perhaps  30°  or  40*  on  the 
surface.  Dr  J.  B.  Sanderson  states  as  the  result 
of  recent  inquiries,  that  90°  F.  is  the  highest  limit  of 
temperature  consistent  with  healthy  labour  in  a  mine. 
A  f^reat  improvement  on  the  ladder  system  is 
now  m  operation  in  several  of  the  deep  Cornish 
mines.  It  ia  a  method  first  introduced  into  the 
deep  mines  of  the  Harz,  and  called  the  FahT-kuiteL 
The  plan  of  this  'man-engine'  is  this;  Two  rods 
descend  through  the  de»t£  of  the  shaft,  and  upon 
these  bracket-stepe  are  fixed  every  12  feet  The 
rods  move  np  and  down  alternately  throogh  this 
distance  by  meona  of  a  reciprocating  motion. 
Fig.  4  represents  the  arrangement  when  the  rods 
are  at  rest  If  the  miner  wishes  to  ascend,  he 
places  himself  on  the  step  a  of  the  rod  A,  and  is 
raised  by  the  first  movement  of  this  rod  to  t^e  level 
of  2/  on  the  kmI  B  (see  S^  ff),  to  which  he  now 


A  S 

AS  B  A 


Tig.  S.  Flj.  t. 

Unstnte  'Man-engina.' 
crosses.  The  next  movement  raises  the  rod  B,  and 
brinss  tlie  step  b'  np  to  the  level  of  e  on  A  (fig.  6), 
to  which  be  next  crosses ;  and  so,  ascending  stage 
by  stage,  be  reaches  the  top.  The  descent  is,  of 
conrse,  accomplished  in  the  same  way. 

Some  of  the  Cornish  pumping-enginea  are  very 
large  and  powerfoL  The  cjiimer  of  one  of  the 
largest  is  T  feet  6  inches  in  diuneter.  With  the 
expenditure  of  one  bushel  of  coal,  it  can  raise 
100,000,000  lbs.  weight  one  foot  high ;  tbis  U  caUed 
its  >du^.'  It  lifts  nearly  800  gallons  of  water  per 
minute,  and  its  cost  was  about  £S000. 

In  Comwij!,  the  miners  are  divided  into  two 
classes;  one  of  them  called  tributeri,  who  take  a 
two  months'  contract  of  a  portion  of  the  lode ;  the 
other  called  fnlmen,  who  are  employed  in  sinking 
shafts,  driving  levels,  &a 

A  detailed  analysis  of  one  of  the  largest  Cornish 
copper  mines,  published  some  years  ago,  shews  that 
in  uiat  year  it  produced,  in  round  numbers,  16,000 
tons  of  ore,  realising  £90,000,  and  yielding  a  net 
profit  of  about  £16,000.  It  employed  abont  700 
miners,  300  labooreis,  300  bofs,  and  300  women  and 
girls.  The  cost  for  coal  was  £1SOO ;  for  malleable 
iron  and  steel.  £1300 ;  for  foundry  costings,  £2000 ; 
for  ropes,  £1000 ;  for  candles,  £1800  ;  for  gun- 
powder, £2000 ;  and  for  timber,  nearly  £3000.    The 


Uit  Minea  Bef^nlation  Acis  irere  pused  ia  1872 
(amended  in  1875).     See  Mines  m  Law. 

Mining  for  CoaL — The  minerals  of  the  cvbonif- 
oroiu  foimation,  at  leaat  those  which  occnr  in  beds 
or  cbata,  as  oool  and  clay  ironitone,  are  mined,  m 
hai  been  alre*dy  awd,  m  a  different  wbj[  from 
metallic  veina.  Ori^nall;  deposited  in  a  hariiontal 
positioi),  tiie;  hare  t>een  to  altered  by  movements 
m  tiie  earth  a  emit,  that  Uiey  are  r^ely  found  ao 
now.  The^  am  more  generally  fonnd  lying  in  a 
kind  of  baon  or  troagh,  with  many  minor  undnla- 
tiou  and  dialooati<nia.  Bt^  hoverer  mnch  twisted 
out  <A  t^eir  originBl  positioD,  the  diff<R«Dt  seams, 
more  or  tflt^  nieaerre  their  parallelism,  a  facrt  of 
great  terviee  io  the  miner,  imca  beds  of  shale,  or 
other  minerals,  of  a  known  distance  from  a  coal- 
seam,  are  often  exposed  when  the  coal  itself  ia  not, 
and  >o  indicate  where  it  may  be  found. 

The  great  profrress  made  of  late  yean  in  the 
■cieoce  of  getdogy  nas  made  us  so  minntdy  acqmunted 
with  all  the  rock  formations  above  and  below 
the  ooal'measnreB,  that  it  is  now  a  comparatively 
easy  matter  to  determine  whether,  in  any  given 
•pot,  coal  may  or  may  not  be  fonnd.  Nevertheless, 
large  suma  are  stiU  occasionally,  as  tlwy  have  in  past 
tiiMS  been  very  fi«qnently,  wasted  in  tiie  fniitlesa 
•earch  (orooal,  irtiere  tbe  uuuaoter  of  t^  rooks  indi' 
eate*  formations  far  r^novedfrom  coal-beaiing  strata. 

Whsn  there  are  good  grounds  for  anmiowig  that 
ooal  is  likely  to  be  found  in  any  partiouiar  locality, 
before  a  pit  is  sank,  the  preliminary  prooeea  of 
'  Boring '  (q.  v.)  it  resorted  to,  in  order  to  determine 
whether  it  actually  does  exist  there,  and  if  in 
qaantitynifficient  to  make  the  mining  of  it  profit- 
able. The  nsoal  mode  of  'winmiig^  or  reaching 
the  coal  is  to  sink  a  perpendicular  ahaft  as  at  a, 
tig.  7;  but  sometLmea  a  level  or  cross-cut  mil 


way,  are  left  for  the  snpport  of  the  'roof'  of  the 
seam,    Latger  stoops  are  left  at  the  bottom  of  the 


and  at  other  times,  an  inclined  plane  or  'dock'  c, 
ia  adopted.  Before  the  introdnction  ti  pumpii 
engines,  all  coal.worktngs  were  drained  by  mes... 
of  a  level  mine  (6)  called  a  day-laiA,  driven  from 
the  lowert  available  pcnnt  on  the  sorface,  and  no 
eoal  could  be  wnni^t  at  a  lower  depth  than  this, 
because  there  vrere  no  means  of  removing  the  water. 
When  the  shaft  baa  been  sunk  to  the  necessary 
depth,  a  level  pasuge,  called  the  dip-h^ad,  or  ntain- 
leoel,  it  first  driven  on  each  side,  which  acts  as  a 
roadway  or  passage,  and,  at  the  tame  time,  as  a 
drain  to  conduct  the  water,  whioh  accomnlates  in 
the  workings,  by  meant  of  a  gutter  on  one  side,  to 
the  lodgment  at  the  bottom  of  the  sho^  This 
level  is  the  lowest  limit  of  the  workings  in  the 
direction  of  the  dip,  and  from  it  the  cool  is  worked 
out  at  far  as  is  practicable  along  the  rise  of  the 
strata.  There  are  two  principal  methods  of  mining 
the  coal.  One  is  termed  the  '  post- and- stall '  or 
'atoop-Mid-room'  system,  and  is  used  for  thick 
seamt ;  the  other  is  called  the  'long. wall'  system, 
and  ia  adopted  for  seams  under  four  feet  in  thick- 
nest.  Fig.  8  represents  a  portian  at  a  mine 
wrou^t  on  the  poat-and- stall  phui,  where  the 
ooal  It  taken  oat  in  parallel  spaoes  of  say  IS 
feet  widc^  intervected  by  a  similar  series  of  paaaages> 
at  right  anglea.  Between  these  '  rooms,'  as  tbey 
are  called,  '^rtoopa'  of  cool,   about   30  feet   —-^ 


ibaft,  in  order  to  tecore  greater  stability  then. 
There  is  a  modification  of  this  plan  adopted  at 
Newcastle,  called  the  *  board-and'piUat '  method,  by 
which  a  certain  number  of  the  stoopa  or  pillars  are 
removed  altogetiier,  after  which  the  root  falls  in, 
sjid  forms  a  maas  of  ruins,  termed  a  '  goaf.' 

The  long-aali  syetem  consists  in  extracting  the 
entire  seam  of  coal  at  the  firat  working,  the  over- 
lying strata  being  supported  by  the  waste  rock  from 
the  roof  of  tiie  workmau  It  is  necessary,  however, 
to  leave  Urge  itoopa  M  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  tor 
its  support,  St  in  the  stoop-and-roonx  method.  In 
loiu;-widl  workinm,  roads  of  a  proper  height  and 
wi£h  require  to  t>e  made  for  conmiunication  with 
the  different  ports  of  the  mine. 

The  oolliePt  nauol  mode  of  extraobng  the  coal 
from  its  bed  it  this :  With  a  light  pick,  he  nnderouta 
lie  coal-seam,  technically  termed  'holing,'  for  two 
or  three  feet  inwards,  and  then,  by  driving  in  wedgea 
at  the  top  of  the  seam,  he  breaks  away  the  portion 
which  has  been  holed.  Blasting  is  occasionally,  bnt 
not  often  resorted  to.  For  die  past  ten  yean. 
machines  some  for  'holing'  only,  and  othera  for 
both  ^'holing'  and  hewing  down  coal-seams,  havo 
been  more  or  less  in  use.  They  osually  work  with 
compressed  air,  but  sometimes  with  steam  or  watery 
It  is  still  premature,  however,  to  expreaa  any  decided 
opinion  as  to  their  efficiency  as  compared  with  hand- 
labour.  The  coal,  when  eepaiatod  from  its  bed,  is 
Eut  on  tuba  or  hutches,  which  ore  generally  drawn 
y  horses,  but  sometimes  by  eninne-power,  along 
the  roads  to  the  bottom  of  the  shsit,  and  hoisted  to 
the  surface. 

The  shaft  is  perhaps  the  most  important  portum 
of  a  coal-pit,  and  the  principal  puta  irf  one  «» 
shewn  in  fig.  fl.  The  upper  part  shews  too 
pit-head  amingementa,  the  central  part  shews  tho 
force-pnmp,  Ssc,  and  the  lower  port  shews  the 
pit-bottom  arrangcmenta.  To  make  the  s«rtioQ 
complete,  the  reSer  roust  imagine  a  great  depth 
to  intervene  at  the  gaps  A  and  B.  There  are 
four  divisions  in  this  shaft :  the  two  centre  onea, 
a,  a,  are  used  for  sending  up  and  down  the  men  and 
tho  coal ;  the  one  on  the  right  aide,  6,  contains  the 
pumps  ;  and  the  remaining  one  on  the  left,  C,  is  tot 
withdrawing  the  vitiated  ur  from  tJie  mine,  and 


has  usually  a  furnace  at  the  bottom  of  it  In  aonM 
pits  a  special  shaft  is  applied  to  the  vantilatioii,  for 
which  mechanical  contnvancee,  such  as  voitilating 
Iso  partially  introduced.  Sinoo  the 
It  at  the  Hartley  Colliery,  in  January 
the  beam  of  the  engine  breokingand 
haft,  an  act  of  parliament  hasoeen 


which  rnechanical  contnvanoce,  such  as  witil^mg 
fans,  are  now  also  partially  introduced.  Sinoo  the 
dreKlfnl accident  '  "  "  -"--'-i-ii.  —  .—•>» 
1862,  caoaad  by  tl 

closing  up  the  shaft, ^ —  ,    „^ 

passed  nuddng  it  imperative  to  have  two  shafts, 
at  least  two  outlets,  to  every  coal-mine,  -■  "  ■""• 
of  escape,  in  case  of  an  acddent  to  one  o 


HmiNQ— MINISTER. 


Fig.  9.— Vertical  Seotioa  of  the  Shift  of  ■  Coal-pit, 
with  >  Detuhed  Fortiini,  ahewing  k  Miner  kt  work 
on  Uie  Coal  Seun. 

ue  menly  ■qnare  plate  of  timber,  wiOt  rai]i  oeroa 
them,  for  tbe  conveniBnce  of  ninnina  off  and  on  the 
coal-hutchea,  «,  md.  with  »  light  iron  frame,  hy 
which  they  are  ttupended  to  a  flat  wir«-ropB.  On 
each  ca^  there  are  iron  clara,  which  alide  up  and 
down  on  goide-roda.  In  the  Bgure,  two  miners  are 
■hewn  Btandiof;  on  one  cage  at  the  bottom  of  the 
■haft,  and  the  other  ia  at  the  top,  with  a  coal-hntoh 
upon  ib  Tht  acddenti  reaulting  from  the  raising 
and  lowering  of  the  cages  are  numerous  ;  many  of 
them  happen  by  the  careleauMea  of  the  engino-man 
in  not  ih^ins  the  cage  when  it  reaches  the  mouth 
of  the  pit,  and  10  allowine  it  to  be  npset  by  over- 
winding. Many  aocidenia  also  happen  from  the 
rope  breaking.  To  prevent  Qua,  numerous  '  aafety- 
eagea '  have  been  invented,  moat  of  which  depend 
on  the  action  of  a  spring,  whioh  is  held  in  a  oertain 
position  while  the  cage  is  anspended  hy  the  rope ; 
but  should  the  latter  snap,  the  firing  is  anddmly 
relieved,  and  then  araspiug  the  gmde-iroda,  prevente 
tiie  cage  from  falling.  Other  safety  ca^ea  act  by 
Itiven  and  elatchei,  Iwt  it  is  atill  disputed  whether 


there  is,  on  the  whole,  a  decided  advantage  in  using 
any  of  them,  since  they  are  all  liable  to  get  out  of 
order.  The  man-engine  ahewn  in  figE.  4,  B,  and  6, 
altbongh  not  used  in  British  collieries,  is  adopted  in 
several  on  the  continent,  and  ia  certunly  the  safeat 
way  of  patting  Uf  and  down  men  in  a  pit, 

The  steam-engine,  B,  works  the  pumps,  in  thia 
ease  by  a  direct  actiiMi,  the  pump-rods  being 
attached  to  the  piston-rod.  The  engine  also  winds 
np  the  cages,  one  of  which  ascenda  while  the  other 
deacenda — the  barrel  and  other  arrongementi  for 
which  are  shewn  in  the  figure. 


Some  idea  of  the  general  mode 

will  be  obtained  by  referring  to  fig.  9,  where 
irowB  pointing  downwardi  indicate  the  dount- 
eatt  abait,  and  the  aimwa  pointing  npwarda,  tho 
tpttUt  one ;  and  to  the  plan,  fig-  8,  where  the 
rimocpbeiie  air,  entering  bj  the  downcast  ahaft^ 
pasaee  along  the  roadwayi,  as  indicated  by  anows. 
A  number  at  doors  aod  tA/yat  secure  the  teaveUitw 
of  the  current  in  a  preper  oirection,  so  aa  to  rea(£ 
the  fartheat  receasee  of  the  mine.  It  then  retoma 
by  the  upcast  ahaf^  where,  aa  haa  been  already 
a&ted,  it  IS  usual  to  keep  a  furnace  bamiuB,  to  aid 
'  withdrawing  the  impure  air.  It  is  vm?  difficull^ 
wever,  to  secure  emciont  ventilation  through  all 
the  zigzag  windings  of  a  mine ;  hence  the  frequent, 
'  sometamea  terrible  explonon*  of  fire-damp,  or 
carbnrettad  hydrogen,  which  explode*  when 
mixed  with  a  certain  proportion  of  atmoapherie  air ; 
hence,  also,  the  occasional  accumulation  ti.  foul- 
damp  (carbonic  add)  in  aoma  pita,  which  mfiboates 
any  one  breathing  it,  Thia  deadly  gaa  U  always 
prodnced  in  tai^  quantity  by  an  exploaion  of 
fire-damp,  and  chokea  many  who  have  survived  Uie 
violence  of  the  explosion.  See  Satits  Lamp.  Of 
'  '  t  has  been  found  that  the  presence  of  eoal-duet 
nine  renders  the  air  explosive  if  2  per  cent,  of 
fire-damp  ia  also  pnisent. 

Beddea  the  already  mentioned  aourcea  of  aocident, 
.  lere  ia  the  audden  fallinv-in  of  pieces  from  the  roof 
of  the  workings.  The  following  aonimary,  mode  nn 
from  H.U.  iospectot's  returns,  shews  the  number  of 
lives  loat,  in  ^«portioD  to  the  quantity  ol  coal 

Total  taiu  of  mlnoil  r^sed  lo  Gnat  Britain  1  ,f,  u.  ug 


UrulortlnierS... 


^bllftloM,  \19,¥» 
To  shew  Uie  magnitude  of  soma  of  the  laree  ooal- 
mines,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  Hetton  GolCery,  ia 
Durham,  yield*  600,000  tons  in  the  year,  employe 
about  lOOO  men  Md  300  boys  undeiground,  and 
300  people  at  the  surface.  The  Monkwearmonth 
pit,  near  Newoaatl^  is  1900  feet  deep,  and  ila  £ace- 
woricinga  are  two  mile*  from  the  bottom  of  the  abaft. 
Roaebndge  CoiLcry,  near  Wigan,  haa  the  deepest 
abaft  in  England,  being  nearly  2500  feet  deep. 
The  rinking  (3  aome  of  the  mora  difficult  shaft*  has 
coat  from  £60,000  to  £100,000  each. 

MINISTER,  a  public  fonotioiiary  who  haa  tho 
chief  direction  of  any  department  in  a  state.  See 
Monsnty.  Also  the  delegate  or  repreaentativa 
of  a  soveroffn  at  a  f  orragn  court  to  treat  of  aSairs 
of  state.  £vei|y  independent  atata  haa  a  right  to 
aend  public  ministers  to,  and  receive  them  from, 
any  other  eovereiga  state  with  which  it  deairea  ti> 


have  generally  been  considered  not  to  possess  the 
jvM  Uga^onit,  unless  when  delegated  to  them  fav  the 


_..., ^  bembvtbe 

whwh  they  are  d^eiodent.    ^^^^JKj-j*f, 


MINISTBIU- MINISTBY. 


send  public  miniEten  to  each 
foreign  states,  depeDdi  on  the  natare  and 

.    I  of  uiennion  by  which  they  are  bound 

together.  The  conrtitutioQ  of  the  United  Province* 
of  the  Loir  Coontriea  and  of  the  old  Qerman  Empire 
preaerred  tbis  right  to  the  iadividoal  Itatea  or 
piincea,  aa  do  the  present  constitutioiii  of  the  Oer- 
man  Empire  and  SwiuConfedsration.  TheconstitQ- 
tiOD  of  the  United  Statea  either  greatly  modifiea  or 
entirely  takes  away  the  jiu  UgaCvmvi  of  each  iadi- 
vidoal  abate.  Evei^  lOTendgn  state  has  a  right  to 
receive  publio  miniBtei*  from  other  powers,  unless 
where  obligationa  to  the  coutrM^bave  been  entered 
into  by  traaty.  The  diplomotio  usage  of  Europe 
reoosnwei  three  order*  of  miniiten.  MiniaterB  of 
th«  fint  order  ponew  the  representatiTe  oharacter 
Idghort  degree^  repreMnting  the  state  or 
jn  sending  Siom  not  ociy  in  the  particular 
»&ii*  with  which  ther  are  charged,  bnt  in  other 
nutten :  tiiey  may  oUim  the  same  bonoon  ae 
would  belong  to  tieic  constitoent,  if  present.  This 
first  class  of  diplomatio  agente  includes  papal 
legate*  and  mmcios,  and  ambassadors  ordinuy  and 
extraordinary.  A  principle  of  reoipiocity  is  recog- 
nised in  the  daas  of  diplomatio  agents  sent.  States 
enjoying  the  hononn  of  royalty  send  to  each  other 
mmuten  of  the  first  olass ;  so  also  in  some  cases  do 
thoM  states  whidi  do  ncit  en^them  ;  bnt  it  is  said 


He  enioyins  snch  honooni  can  r 
f  the  fint  CUM  from  those  who  a 


UiidsteTS  of  the  second  Mid  third  order  have  not 
the  same  aWetly  representatiTe  ohanwter;  their 
representation  is  not  neld  to  go  beyond  the  af&in 
with  wbioh  tiiey  are  chatved.  They  are,  howerer, 
the  natural  protectors  of  the  snbjects  of  the  state 
or  conntry  sending  them  in  the  county  to  which 
they  are  sent.  Ministers  of  the  second  cloni  include 
envoys,  whether  these  are  simply  so  atyled,  or 
denominated  envoys  extraordinary,  and  also  miois- 
tets  plenipotentiary.  The  third  class  of  nuni«t«r* 
doe*  not  differ  from  the  second  in  the  degree  of 
their  represeatative  character,  but  only  m  the 
diversitv'  of  their  digni^,  and  the  ceramraiial  with 
which  they  are  received.  This  clas*  comprehends 
ministers,  ministers  rendent,  ministers  obai^ 
d'affaires,  such  consuls  as  are  possessed  of  a  diplo- 
matio character,  and  those  char^Ss  d'a&ires  who 
are  sent  to  oonrti  to  which  it  is  not  wished  to  send 
uent*  with  the  titie  of  minister,  Mini«ters  of  the 
tnird  olssa  have,  for  the  moat  part,  no  letters- creden- 
tiij  from  the  sovereign,  and  are  , 
letter*  to  th«  foreign  minister  o 
eoootry toi  ■  -  . ^ 

Besides  1 

oUier  diplomatia  agents  occaaionallv  reoognised— ss 
deputies  Kot  to  a  congress  or  oonfederacy  of  states, 
and  commisnonen  sent  to  setUa  territorial  limits  or 
disputes  conoeming  jurisdictioiL  Thoa  srs  ^er- 
slly  conEnder«d  to  enjoy  the  privileges  of  ministers 
of  the  second  and  third  order.  Minist<m-medi»tors 
are  ministen  sent  by  two  powers,  between  which  a 
dispute  ha*  arisen,  to  a  foreign  court,  or  oongress, 
where  a  third  power,  or  several  powen,  have,  with 
the  consent  of  the  two  powers  M  varianoe,  offered 
to  mediate  between  them. 

Diplomatic  agents,  except,  as  abeadv  mentioned, 
tliose  of  the  thinl  class,  are  accredited  by  a  letter  to 
the  sovereign  of  the  country  to  which  tsey  are  sent 
The  letter  of  n^ence  is  nsnallv  despatdied  under 
a  caxhet  vciaat—i.  e.,  a  seal  whidi  does  not  dose  the 
letter;  or  else,  in  addition  to  the  principal  letter,  an 
ited  oam  is  sent,  which  the  diplomatic 
his   arrival  presents  to  the  Minister  or 

^_,  for  Foreign  Affiurs,  a*  his  right  to  demand 

au  audience  of  the  sovereign ;  tlie  ori^nal  is  |ae- 


grees  or  diet  have  nnially  no  credentials,  bat  merely 
a  fall  power,  of  which  an  authenticated  copy  i* 
de]iver»l  into  the  bands  of  a  directing  miniater, 
or  minister-mediator.  A  minister  of  the  fiist  cUas 
is  received  to  both  publio  and  private  audiences  by 
the  sovereign  to  whom  he  is  accredited  ;  a  minister 
of  the  tecoad  clasa  generally  to  private  audiences 
only.  Diplomatio  agents  are  entitied  to  conduct 
nejnitiations  either  directlf  with  the  soverdgn,  ot 
with  the  minister  or  secretary  for  foreign  aChiis. 
The  latter  course  is  the  more  usual,  and  generally 


le  courta  it  is  ext^ided 
to  minister*  of  the  eecond  class,  or  at  least  those  sent 
by  the  gnat  powen.  See  Asbi«j>dob,  Ehtot, 
CoNSDi.  Uii<br  Aubassaimb,  the  immanitits  end 
privileges  enjoyed  by  diplomatio  agents  sn  explained. 

MINISTRY,  the  body  of  ministera  ot  state,  or 
peisont  to  whom  the  sovereiga  or  chief  magistrate 
of  a  country  commits  the  executive  government. 
The  Cabinbt  is  composed  of  a  limited  number  of 
Privy  Councillors  holding  the  more  important 
ofGces  in  the  Ministry;  and  the  individnus  who 
thus  form  the  cabinet  are  selected  by  the  Prime 
Minister,  who  presides  at  its  meetiags. 

It  is  a  principle  of  the  oonstitation  of  Great 
Britain,  that  the  sovereign  is  irresponuble,  the  real 
responsibility  resting  with  the  administrative  govern- 
ment. The  'Kinn*a  Conncil,'  or  Pwvr  Coi7S<nL, 
were  the  earliest  advisers  of  the  sovereign  in  matters 
of  state ;  but  when  this  t>ady  came,  in  course  of 
time^  to  be  fonnd  too  large  for  the  despatch  c^ 
business,  its  duties  Iwere  transferred  to  a  email 
committee  of  privy  ooandllors  selected  by  the 
king.  As  late  as  in  Charles  L's  time,  all  the  more 
important  resolutions  of  the  crown  were  taken  after 
deUberstiou  and  assent  of  the  Privy  Council.  An 
nnauccessfnl  attempt  was  made  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  IL  to  restore  the  council  to  its  original 
functions.  Its  numbers  were  limited  to  thirty  ;  and 
it  was  intended  that  thin  limited  coandl  shoald  havo 
the  control  of  the  whole  executive  administration, 
superseding  any  interior  cabinet.  But  the  cooncdl 
was  found  too  extensive  for  an  effectively  woikini 

ministiy,  and  the  f  or ' ' ' 

The  cabi 


iy  woikins 
isrestoreil 


linet  may  be  regarded 
of  the  Privy  Council  [q.  v,) ;  and  its  exclusive  right 
to  discuss  and  determine  the  plans  and  bamness  of 
the  government  ha*  been  often  said  not  to  be 
TBoognised  by  the  law,  a  position  which,  however, 
was  disputed  by  Lord  Campbell,  who  maintained 
that^  '  by  one  oonatitution,  it  u  in  practioe  a  defined 
and  acknowledged  body  for  carrying  on  the  execn- 
tive  government  of  the  country.'  The  cabinet  is  a 
merely  deliberative  body ;  its  members  collectively 
have  no  power  to  issue  warrants  or  proclamationB ; 
but  all  important  measures  which  engace  the  atten- 
tion of  the  government,  whether  reguding  matter* 
domestic,  foreign,  or  colonial,  and  all  plans  of  action, 
whether  purely  administrative,  or  to  be  carried  out 
in  parliament^  most  be  ^oposed,  considered,  and 
ad<^ted  by  the  cabinet  The  sovereign  intrusts  the 
foraatioa  of  a  ministry  to  a  statesman,  who  selects 
for  its  members  those  who  are  attached  t«  hi* 
political  views.  He  generally  place*  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  government  as  First  Lord  ot  the 
Treasury,  and  in  popular  langnage  he  is  called  tiie 
Premier,  or  Prime  Minister.  The  Lord  CSianceDar, 
the  Chancellor  of  the  Excheqaer,  the  Secretaries  of 
State  for  Home,  ForeiCT,  Colonial,  and  Indian 
afibira,  the  Secretory  at  War,  and  the  President  of 
the  Council,  are  necessarily  members  of  the  cabinet ; 
also  the   heads   of    various   ot^er   important 


MINIUM— MniTffBStNGEES. 


deputmenta  of  goTemineiit,  includmg  ^nerally  the 
First  Lord  of  '£e  Admiralty,  <Le  Preeideot  of  the 
Board  Ot  Trade,  tlio  Poatmaater-Benend,  the  Preai- 
dect  of  the  Poor-law  Board,  the  Chancellor  of 
the  Ihichy  of  Lancaeter,  and  occasionally  the  Chief 
Secretary  for  Ireland.  The  Premier  has  •ometime* 
held  the  office  of  Chancellor  of  the  Sxcheqner  in 
conjunction  with  that  of  First  Lord  of  the  Treaaury. 
A  privy  coaacillor  of  great  political  weight  is  some- 
times called  into  the  cabinet  without  ofGce,  and 
takes  the  poet  of  Lord  Privy  SeoL  Her  Majeaty'a 
DtiiiiaterE  who  have  usually  no  seat  in  the  cabinet 
iaclude  the  following :  the  Chief  Secretary  for 
Ireland,  tixe  First  Cooimisaiooer  of  Works,  ^evioe- 
president  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  the  Vice-president 
of  the  Committee  on  Education,  the  Commander- 
in-chief,  the  Lord  Chamberlain,  the  Sten'srd,  the 
Master  of  the  Horse,  the  Master  of  the  Buckhounds, 
the  Comptroller  of  the  Household,  the  Lord  LieO' 
of  Ireland,  the  Attorney-general  and  SoUci- 
leral  of  England,  the  Lord  Advocate  and 
Dr-general  of  Scotland,  and  the  Attorney- 
general  aud  Solicit«r-general  of  Ireland.  Occasion- 
ally, but  eiceptionally,  the  Commander-in-chief,  and 
the  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  England,  have  been  mem- 
bers of  the  cabinet  A  ministry  is  oftm  spoken  of 
w  the  ministiy  of  the  person  who  is  at  its  head. 

Meetings  of  the  cabinet  are  held  on  the  snmm 
of  any  one  of  its  members,  usually  at  the  Foreign 
Office.  Its  proceedings  are  secret  and  confidential, 
and  no  reconl  is  kept  of  its  resolutions,  which  are 
carried  into  effect  by  those  of  its  members  to  whose 
departments  they  severally  belong.  As  the  acts  ' 
a  ministry  are  at  all  times  liame  to  be  called  __ 
question  m  parliament,  it  is  necessary  tiiat  the 
heads  of  the  chief  deportments  should  have  seats  in 
eitlicr  House,  in  order  to  be  able,  when  required,  to 
give  prompt  eiplanations. 

A  government  exists  only  so  long  as  it  can  oom- 
mandthe  confidence  of  parlisjnent.  The  sovereign 
has  the  power  to  dismiss  his  ministers  whenever 
they  cease  to  posaess  his  confidence,  but  such  a 
change  would  be  useless  without  the  support 
the  House  of  Commons,  who,  1 —  — :i.vi— u —  ii. 
support,  could  paralyse  all  the 
~"  nt      A  sovereign  has  some 

listry  with  whose  policy  he  was  dissatisfied,  by 
dissolving  parliament,  and  appealing  to  the  conntiy. 
Where  a  ministiy  cannot  command  the  confidence 
of  parliament,  they  resign,  and  a  statesman  of  some 
other  political  p^ty  ia  sent  for  by  the  sovereien, 
and  authorised  to  fona  a  new  cabinet.  All  the 
adherents  of  a  ministry  filling  pohtical  offices 
resign  along  with  it,  as  also  the  great  officers  of 
the  court,  and  those  officers  of  the  royal  household 
who  hare  seats  in  either  house  of  parliunent.  Some- 
times officers  holding  lucrative  appointments  which 
*     not  necessitate  resignation,  have  retired,  as  » 

inifestatioD  of  adherence  to  their  political  friends. 
In  addition  to  the  ministers  already  named,  the 
following  adherents  of  the  ministry  go  out  of  office 
on  a  change  of  gnvemmeut :  the  three  junior  Lords 
of  the  Treasury,  the  two  Seoretariea  of  tie  Treasury, 


Ordnance,  the  Surveyor-general  of  the  Ordnance, 
the  five  junior  Lords  of  the  Admiralty,  -Uie  first 
Secretary  of  the  Admiralty,  the  Chief  Commissioner 
of  Greenwich  Hospital,  the  President  and  Parlia- 
mentary Secretary  of  the  Poor-law  Board,  the 
President  of  the  Board  of  Health,  the  Vice-cham- 
berlain, the  Captain  of  the  Gentlemen -at-arms,  the 
Captain  of  the  Yeomen  of  the  Guard,  the  Lords  in 
Waiting,  the  Mistreu  of  the  Bobes,  the  Treasurer 
of  the  Household,  the  Chief  Equeny,  or  Cle^ 
Marshal,   the   Judge    Advocate-genand,   and   tike 


Lord  Chanoellor  for  Ireland.  The  private  secretary 
to  a  minister  losea  office  on  a  chsiige,  his  oppoint- 
tneat  being  a  purely  personal  one ;  and  some 
changes  are  genially,  though  not  always  made  in 
ambassadors  extraordinary. 

In  1S39,  vhen  Viscount  Melbourne's  ministry 
migned.  Sir  Bobert  Peel,  vho  was  intrusted  by 
the  Queen  with  the  formation  of  a  new  ministiy, 
proposed  that,  in  order  to  give  public  proof  of  her 
Majesty's  confidence,  the  change  should  indnde 
the  chief  appointments  held  by  the  ladies  of  Her 
Majesty's  household.  The  Qaeeo,  counselled  by 
Lord  Melbourne,  refused  her  consent  to  this  pro> 
posd,  on  the  ground  of  its  beinz  contrary  to  the 
latest  precedents  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Anna  Sir 
Robert,  however  (with  whose  opinion  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  expressed  concurrence},  considered  the 
change  a  necessary  one ;  and  as  he  refused  to  under- 
take the  formation  of  a  government  without  its 
beiuK  adopted,  the  result  was  that  Lord  Melbourne 
and  nis  colleagues  were  reinstated.  At  a  conndl 
held  on  their  resuming  offioe,  it  was  reaidved,  *  That 

character  <d 


purpose  of  giving  to  the  administrattOD  the 

er<d  effideneyaiM  stability,  and  thoBS  nia^ 

the  oooBtitaiiooM  mxpport  ot  ue  otown  tiiat  ar« 


requisite  to  enable  it  to  act  usefully  to  the  publio 
service,  it  is  reasonable  that  the  neat  officers  of  the 
court,  and  situations  in  the  household  held  by 
members  of  parliament,  should  be  indudad  in  the 
political  arrangements  made  in  a  chan^  of  the 
administratioii.  But  thev  are  not  of  opinion  that  a 
similar  principle  should  be  applied  or  extended  to 
the  office*  held  by  ladies  in  Her  Majesty's  household.' 

MI'NIUM  (Lat.  red-lead).    See  Lead. 

MINK.    See  Sdtp.,  VoL  X. 

MI'NN^INGERS,  a  designation  applied  to  the 
earUest  lyric  poets  of  Germany  in  the  12th  and 
I3th  centuries,  and  derived  from  the  word  Mittne, 
or  lovc^  widch  was  at  first  the  predominating,  and 
almost  sole  subject  treated  of  in  their  produc- 
tions. The  wortu  of  the  M.  are  (or  the  most  part 
superior  to  those  of  their  more  generally  known 
contemporaries,  the  troubadours,  both  in  regard 
'x>  deUcacy  of  sentiment,  elegance  and  variety  of 
'hythmical  structure,  and  grace  o£  diction.  Henry 
of  Veldig,  who  fiourished  in  the  beginning  of  the 
12th  c  at  the  court  of  the  Swabian,  Frederick 
Barbaroaaa,  Emperor  of  Germany,  ia  regarded  as 
the  father  of  the  M.,  and  Walther  von  der  Weide, 
who  was  born  about  1170,  as  the  last  of  this  ^eat 
vocal  band,  which  included  emperors,  princes,  nobles, 
and  knights.  Many  of  their  productions  have  of 
course  perished,  althongh,  in  addition  to  a  very 
large  collection  of  poems  by  anonymous  M,  we  still 
possess  some  remains  of  the  songs  of  more  than 
150  known  composers.  Among  the  most  celebrated 
of  these,  special  notice  ia  due  to  Wolfram  von 
Fschenbach  {q.  v.),  Henry  von  Ofterdingen,  Hage- 
laue,  Hartmann  von  der  Aue  (q.  v.),  Gottfned  von 
Itrasburi  (q.  v.),  Otto  von  Botenlauben,  Truchaess 
'on  St  Gal£  and  Dlrich  von  Lichtenstein— men  of 
loble  houses,  who,  although  they  belonged  to  every 
lart  ot  Germany,  wrote  almost  exclusively  in  the 
Jwabian  dialect,  which,  during  the  brilliant  days  of 
the  Fredericks  and  Conrads  of  the  House  of  Swabia, 
was  the  language  of  the  court  in  Germany.  Among 
the  few  other  forms  of  German  employed  by  the  M., 
' '  e  one  next  in  favour  was  the  Thuringian,  adopted 

compliment  to  Hermann,  Landgraf  of  Thuringia, 
who,  next  to  tiie  princes  of  the  Swabian  dynasty, 
was  the  most  munificent  patron  of  the  M.  during 
the  period  of  their  renown,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
13th  oentnry.  Besides  songs  in  praise  of  women,  the 
M.  composed  odes  on  pubUo  or  private  occasions  of 
'         '  ■.-.-.  fctHnmii,  and  ffacMtaJsr, 


uia.i.».,GUO^IC 


HINKISOTA— lONOB. 


or  watdh-MDgi,  in  which  tbs  lover  wu  npnaented 
u  ezpoatnlatiDg  with  the  watohmui,  who  keiit 
eoud  ti  the  gnte  of  the  cwtle  wiUiin  which  hi> 
bdy-lovs  wu  imprisoned,  ukd  trying  to  pemuuie 
him  to  gr&nt  him  admittance  to  her  presence.  Theoe 
■onga  «nd  odes  were  recited  bjr  the  compoasr,  to  his 
own  Mcompaniment  on  the  viol ;  ftnd  m  few  of 
the  iL  oould  write,  tiieir  compositiODa  were  pn- 
Berred  mostly  by  verbal  tradition  only,  and  carried 
br  wandmiog  minstrels  from  castle  to  castle 
tnionghoot  Qermany,  and  even  beyond  its  borders. 
As  the  variety  of  rhythm  and  complioated  forma  of 
vetsifieatioD  affeotea  bv  the  M.,  more  eapecially 
towards  the  decline  of  toeir  art,  rendered  it  difficnft 
to  retun  by  memory  the  mass  <d  Uinnesong  which 
had  bean  |i;rBdiially  accnmnlated,  these  itinerant 
mnsicians  SiiaU^  made  ns«  of  written  eoUeotion^  a 
practioe  to  which  alone  wa  are  indebted  for  the 


>f  thonsht  m 

haa  they  again  enjoyed  for  many  ages ;  and  i 
"  D  aa  the  chnroh  sncoeedad  in  i 


proportiOD  a 
It*  sway  ove 


- . .  sway  over  the  miads  of  men,  which  it  had  Ion 
onder  the  role  of  the  chivalrio  Fredericks,  free- 
dom of  speech  and  action  wu  trammelled,  and  »Diig 
and  poetry  contemned.  Parsphnue*  of  Scriptare, 
hymns,  and  monkish  legends,  took  the  place  of  the 
chivalno  songs  of  the  nobly  bom  M.,  and  German 
poetry  waa  for  a  time  almost  annihilated. 

In  the  14th  o.,  the  art  of  Minneaonc  was  partdally 
revived,  altboogh  under  a  nide  and  cliunmly  elabor- 
ated form,  b;  the  MaMtr-t'mgen,  a  body  of  men 
belon^ng  to  the  burgher  and  peasant  chwses,  who, 
in  aeoordaDoe  with  their  artisan  habits,  formed 
theinselvM  into  gnilda  or  companiea,  which  bound 
themsdvea  to  observe  oerttun  arlHtranr  laws  of 
rhythm.  NnronberK  was  the  focni  of  their  guilds, 
which  rapidly  spread  over  the  whole  of  Qermany, 
and  gained  so  firm  a  footing  in  the  land,  that 
the  Gut  of  them  was  not  diuolved  at  Ulm  till 
1839.  A«  the  title  of  Hatter  waa  only  awarded 
to  a  member  who  invented  a  new  form  of  verse, 
and  the  companiee  oonsiated  almost  exclusively  of 
unedDcated  persona  of  the  worldng-ol  ssses,  it  may 
easily  be  conceived  that  eitravaganoes  and  absur- 
ditias  of  eveiy  kind  speedily  urmed  a  leading 
oharacteristio  ot  their  mode*  of  vendficatdon ; 
attention  to  quantity  was,  moreover,  not  deemed 
necessary,  r^ard  being  had  merely  to  the  nsmber 
of  tiie  syllables,  and  the  relative  position  and  order 
of  the  veraes  and  Aymea.  Their  songs  were  lyrical, 
and  snug  to  miuio ;  uid  although,  as  before  remarked, 
each  master  was  bound  to  devise  a  (pedal  ttoU  or 
order  of  ihymes  for  each  of  bis  compoeitionB,  these 
stoles  were  subjacted  to  a  severe  code  of  critidsm, 
enacted  by  the  TahvkUvr,  oc  rules  of  the  song- 
schools.  Among  the  few  Masters  who  exhibited 
anjr  ^uine  poetio  feeling,  the  most  noted  were 
Eeinnch  Ul^eln,  Michael  Behum,  and  the 
Koiemberg  shoemaker,  Hana  Sachs,  who  prided 
bimielf  OD  having  composed  4276  Bar  or  Master 
Songs,  See  Tieek's  ilinndieder  (18U3) ;  Taylor's 
Lata  oftM  Miiuit  and  Hatter  Siitgen  (Lond.  1K25}; 
and  Von  der  Hagen's  Minnaanger  (4.  vols.  1S38}. 

MINHBSOTA,  one  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  lies  in  lat.  43°  30'— 49°  N.,  and  long. 
S9P  29'— gr  Bf  W.  It  is  S80  mHes  in  extreme 
length  from  north  to  south,  and  from  183  to  337 
from  east  to  west,  contiuning  an  area  ot  83,365 
sqaare  milea.  It  is  bcunded  on  the  N.  by  the 
British  possessions,  from  whioh  it  is  separated  by 
tiie  cbwn  of  lakes  and  riven  connecting  the  Lake 
oE  the  Woods  with  Lake  Superior,   ud  by  the 


49th  parallel  of  latitude;  £.  by  lake  Saperiiw 
and  Wisconsin;  &  by  Iowa;  and  W.  by  Dakota 
Territory  (q.  v.),  from  which  it  il  partly  divided 
by  the  Bed  River  of  the  North.  It  contains  75 
counties,  and  its  chief  towna,  are  St  Faol,  tba 
ci^tal,  Hed  Wing,  Winona,  Hsitdngs,  Minneapolis, 
&0.  M.  oontaina  the  summit  of  the  central  table> 
land  of  the  North  American  continent,  where^ 
within  a  few  milea  of  each  other,  are  the  soorce* 
of  rivers  which  find  their  outlets  in  Hudson's  Bay, 
the  Onlf  of  St  Lawrence,  and  the  Gulf  of  MexiooL 


.  Bed  Itiver  of  the  North,  Euny 
Biver,  and  their  branches,  and  has  more  than  S70D 
miles  of  navigable  rivera.  The  country  abounda 
also  in  lakes  and  ponds.  The  Bourcea  ot  the  great 
rivers  are  1680  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Though  the  most  northerly  state  in  the  Union, 
M.  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful,  fertile,  and  sala- 
briouB.  The  winters  are  long  and  cold,  but  equable^ 
and  the  oomitry  ia  rich  in  fertile  lands  and  for«st& 
The  clear  waters  are  stored  with  fish,  and  game  is 
abundant.  The  scenery  is  varied  and  beaatiful. 
The  Falls  of  St  Anthony  on  the  Mississippi  afliird 
abundant  water-power.  Near  these  is  tiie  beantUul 
cascade  of  the  Minnehaha,  or  I«agbing  Water,  45 
feet  perpendicular,  and  a  cavern,  explored  to  the 
depth  <a  1000  faet  M.  began  to  be  settled  in 
1645,  though  it  was  explorea  by  the  French,  and 
trading-posts  established,  in  1630.  The  chief  touta 
to  the  British  aettlementa  of  the  Bed  Biver  of 
the  North  lies  through  MinneaobL  The  state  has 
plen^  of  good  timber,  aud  is  rich  in  mineralsi 
inclodiiig  gold,  iroD,  copper,  coal,  and  lead.  Power- 
ful Indian  tribes  occupy  portions  of  the  state,  Tha 
state  govemment  waa  ori^ieed  ia  1858.  In  1880; 
M.  had  5  colleges  and  about  3000  public  schools. 
In  the  same  year,  the  state  raised  34,001,000  buBhela 
of  wheat  (being  the  lifth  in  this  respect).  There 
were  3500  manufactories  employing  21,200  persona, 
and  having  an  annual  produce  worth  $76,065,000  ; 
and  near  4000  miles  of  railway  in  the  state.  Pop. 
(1860)   172,023;    (1870)   439.706;    (1880)   780,773. 

MINNESOTA,  or  ST  PETER'S  BITSB,  risM 
near  the  eastern  boundary  of  Dakota  Territory, 
United  States  <A  America,  rnns  sonth-east  300  milea, 
to  South  Bend,  tiien  north-east  120  miles,  and  falls 
into  the  MissisdpiJ  at  Mendota^  It  is  navigable 
for  40  miles  by  steam-boats. 

MI'NKOW  (Lateucua  phoxinus),  a  smaD  fish  of 
the  same  genus  with  the  roach,  dao^  chub,  &o.,  at 
a  more  louaded  form  than  moat  of  its  cosseners,  a 
common  native  of  streams  with  gtavelly  l>ottonis 
in  most  parts  of  Britain.  It  seldom  exceeds  three 
inches  in  lensth,  the  head  and  back  of  a  dusky 
olive  colour,  the  sides  lighter  and  mottled,  the 
belly  white,  or,  in  summer,  pink.  Minnowa  swim 
in  shoals,  feed  readily  either  on  animal  or  vegetable 
Bubstancos,  if  sufficiently  soft,  and  are  sud  to  be 
very  destructive  to  the  spawn  of  salmon  and  of  trout. 
Very  young  anglers  generally  begin  their  sport  by 
catching  minnow-  The  M.  is  a  flah  of  very  pleasant 
flavour.  A  casting-net  affords  Out  means  oftaking 
it  in  sufficient  abundance.  It  is  a  favourite  bait  for 
pike  and  large  trout  or  perch. 

MINOR,  a  term  nied  in  Uasi&  L  In  tha 
nomenclature  oE  intervals.  The  interval  between 
any  note  and  another  is  named  aocording  to  tha 
number  pf  degrees  between  them  on  the  scale,  both 
notes  included.  The  interval  between  C  and  E  ia 
called  a  third ;  that  between  E  and  O  is  also  a 
third;  but  these  intervala  are  unequal,  the  ona 
oonsisting  of  four  aemitouea,  the  other  of  three;  tba 
former  ia  therefore  distinguished  as  a  majiN',  the 
latter  as  a  minor  intern^     i.  'Da  term  ii  alio 


,,  Google 


MIKOB— MINSK. 


the 


•^ipUed  to  one  of  tiis  two  mode*  in  whioh  a  mt 
pauage  may  be  oompoaed.    The  aoale  of  the  v 
node  diffen  from  that  of  the  m»jor  mode  il  .. 
third  of  tta  key-note  b^2  >  mmor  instead  (d  ft 

inftjor  third.    Set  MUBIO,  Modk 

MINOB  ia,  in  Sootoh  Iaw,  the  taim  deacribing  > 
penoQ  who,  if  a  male,  ia  between  the  agea  of  14  and 
21 ;  and  If  a  female,  ia  between  12  and  21.    In  the 

Eiceding  period,  he  or  aha  ia  called  a  PapiL  In 
gland,  the  techoical  term  ia  an  Infant  (q.  v.], 
which  includes  all  persona,  male  and  female,  nnder 
tike  age  of  21.  In  Scotland,  a  minor  ia  for  maay 
poipoeea  majarit,  and  can  many  witJlont  anybody^ 
cotuent,  and  can  also  make  a  will  of  movable  pro- 
perty. For  the  purposee,  however,  of  maoagiog  hia 
real  property  and  making  contracts,  curatois  are 
often  neceaaaiy.  See  iHFAST.RBsnnmoK,  Guardian. 
MIHOB  BABONa  The  word  baron,  in  the 
earlieat  period  of  fendaliam,  signified  one  wlu>  held 
tanda  of  a  anperior  by  military  tenore.  The  anperior 
might  be  the  aovra^ign,  or  he  mi^t  be  an  earl  or 
oth^  eminent  person,  who  held  of  the  sovereign. 
According  aa  he  was  the  one  or  the  other,  the  baron 
WH,  in  the  earheet  aeose  of  the  distinotion,  a  greater 
or  leaaer  baron.  At  the  Conqnest,  a  luse  part  of 
the  soil  of  England  was  parcelled  by  WUliaca  the 
Norman  among  hia  military  retainera,  who  were 
bonnd  in  return  to  perform  services,  to  do  homa(^ 
and  to  assist  in  administering  jnatioe,  and  m 
trMuactitig  the  other  bosineaa  done  in  tlie  oonrt 
•rf  the  king.  400  of  the«e  tenanta-in-cMef  of  the 
erown  are  entimetated  in  Domesday  (q.  v.),  inclnd- 
ing  among  them  '  vicecomites'  and  '  oomites,'  who 
together  oonstitiitcd  the  body  of  men  called  the 
Barona  of  Engjland.  Aa  the  sovereign  was  entitled 
to  demand  &om  the  barons  milituy  service,  homage, 
"      '  in   the   courts,  ao,  many   of  the 


earia,  had  military  tenants,  -  .       . 

received  homage  and  assistance  in  administering 
inatice  in  their  baronial  ooorts.  These  tenant*  were 
barons  of  the  barona,  or,  in  the  earliest  sense, 
minor  barons ;  bnt  by  the  ns^e  of  England,  from 
the  Conqnest  downwards,  they  were  aeldom  called 
barons,  Uiat  term  having  been  generally  restneted 
to  the  former  dasa,  the  holdera  of  land  direct  from 
the  crown,  who  were  nert  to  the  king  in  dignity, 
formed  his  army  and  his  Iwislative  assembly,  and 
obtained  tlie  Great  Charter  bom  King  John.  The 
■nbintendation  which  produced  Uie  minor  baron* 
was  checked  by  a  statnte  of  Edward  L,  directios 
that  all  persons  acquiring  lands  from  a  sob^eot  ahoold 
hold,  not  of  that  sabjeol,  but  of  hia  superior. 

Out  of  the  '  commune  condlinm'  of  the  king,  at 
which  all  hia  barons  were  bound  to  attend,  arose  the 
parliament  It  is  not  till  the  dose  of  Henry  lU.'s, 
or  beginning  of  Bdward  L's  reign  that  we  find  a 
select  number  inst^Ml  of  the  whole  barona  attending. 
The  eiact  period  of  the  change,  and  the  way  m 
which  it  was  made,  are  still  among  the  obacore 
points  of  English  history ;  it  has  been  thought  that 
after  the  rebeUion  whitm  was  crushed  at  the  battle 
of  Evesham,  Henry  IIL  summoned  only  those 
baions  who  were  most  devoted  to  his  mteresL 
From  tlds  period,  a  new  distinction  between  major 
and  minor  Daions  aroae,  tii«  latter  term  being 
longer  applied  to  the  buons  of  the  barons,  but 
those  barons  <rf  the  crown  who  were  no  longer  ax. 
moned  by  writ  to  parliament.  The  wotd  baron  was 
more  and  more  used  in  the  restricted  sense  of  a 
baron  of  parliament,  and  the  right  or  dnty  of  attend- 
ance came  in  process  of  time  to  be  fonnded,  not  on 
the  tenore,  but  on  the  writ. 

In  ScoUand,   the  barona  (or  lairds)  were  such 
person*  as  held  their  lands  directly  of  the  cnwn. 


They  were  the  kin^s  advisen,  witnessed  his  charten, 
and  poBosed  a  civil  and  criminal  jnriadictioa.  All 
bad  to  give  attendance  in  the  Socttish  puliament, 
which  consisted  of  the  eari*  and  baron*  dttdng 
together.  After  Uie  reign  of  James  L,  some  of  the 
more  powerful  barons  appear  miffe  exclosively  as 
lord*  Si  parliament,  those  whose  incomes  were  below 
a  certain  amount  obtaining  a  dispensation  from 
attendance:  yet  all  possessed  a  right  to  attend 
parliunent  tiU  1687,  when  the  barons  not  specially 
cre^^  lords  of  parliament  were  required,  m  place 
irsonally  attending,  to  send  representatives  of 
order  uvm  each  uieriffdom.  The  term  boron, 
however,  still  continued  in  Scotland  to  be  apphed  to 
tiie  whole  body  of  tenants  in  capiU,  such  of^them  as 
were  lords  of  parliament  being  distinctively  major, 
and  the  others  minor  barons ;  but  all  continuing  up 
to  1747  to  poasess  an  extenaire  dvil  jorisdiction. 


_  jpreaentative  minor  harona  aat  in  the  same  fioose 
with  the  major  barona,  and  their  votes  continued 
down  to  the  union  to  be  recorded  as  those  of  the 
Small  Barrounis.' 

HIK(yBGA,  the  largest  of  thsBsleaiic  Isles  (q.  v.), 
tfter  MajoKs,  from  which  it  is  distant  2S  miles 
north-east.  It  u  31  miles  lon^  and  13  inil«a  in 
neatest  breadth,  with  an  area  S  284  square  miles. 
Pop.  <1877)  34,173,  Its  coast,  broken  into  numer- 
ous Inys  and  inlets^  is  fringed  with  islets  and 
shoals,  and  its  snr&u»,  less  mountainons  than  that 
of  Majorca,  is  undulating,  rising  to  its  highest  point 
'    Monut  Tore,  4783  feet  above  sea-leveL    Its  pro- 

lotious  are  similar  to  those  of  the  larger  island, 

though  it  is  neither  ao  fertile  in  sail  nor  so  well 
.tSxtSl  as  Majorca.  The  chief  towns  are  Fort 
Mahon  (q.  v.),  and  Ciadadela.  The  annual  exports 
are  worth  £110,000;  the  imports,  £100,000. 

MI'NOBITES,  a  name  of  the',  Franciscan  order 
(q.  v.),  derived  from  the  original  later  denomination 
adopted  by  their  founder,  Fralret  MmoTtt.  Thia 
name  has  left  its  trace  in  Uie  popular  deaignation  lA 
several  localities  both  in  English  and  foreign  cities. 

MITtOS,  the  name  of  two  mythological  kings  of 
Crete.  The  first  is  said  t«  have  been  the  son  of 
Jupiter  imd  Europa,  the  brother  of  BhadomanthuB, 
the  father  of  Deucalion  and  Ariadne,  and,  after  his 
death,  a  judge  in  the  infernal  regions. — The  second 
of  the  soma  name  was  grandson  of  the  former,  and 
son  of  Lycostiia  and  Ida.  To  him  the  celebrated 
Law  of  Minos  are  ascribed,  in  which  he  is  said  to 
have  received  instruction  from  Japiter.  He  was  the 
husband  of  that  Paaipha8  who  ^ve  birth  to  the 
Minotaur  (q.  v.)  Homer  and  Hesiod  know  of  only 
one  Minos,  the  king  of  Cnossus,  and  son  and  friend 
of  Jupiter. 

MI'NOTAUB  Ci.  e.,  the  Bull  of  Minos),  one  of  the 
most  repulsive  conceptions  of  Grecian  MytholoEVi 
is  represented  as  the  sou  of  PadphaS  and  a  bull, 
for  which  she  had  concaved  a  passion.  It  was  half, 
man  half-ball,  a  man  with  a  bull's  head.  Minos, 
the  husband  of  Pasiphaa,  shut  him  up  in  the 
CnoBsian  Labyrinth,  and  there  fed  him  with  youths 
and  maidens,  whom  Athens  was  oblieed  to  supply 
as  an  annual  tribute,  till  Theseus,  with  the  help  of 
Ariadne,  slew  the  monster.  The  M.  is,  with  some 
probability,  regarded  as  a  symbol  of  the  Fhcenician 

MINSK,  a  government  and  province  of  Western  or 
White  Bttssia,  hes  south-eost  of  Wilna,  and  oontdns 
34,860  sq.  m.,  with  a  population  (1S80)  of  1,451,950, 
composed  chieQy  of  KuBaians,  Lithuanians,  Polee, 
and  Jews,  with  a  small  percentage  of  Tartars  and 
jripdes.  Kve-aeventha  of  the  population  profess 
the  Greek  religion.      The  chief  artides  of  export 


ivLiOOgIc 


HINSE-HniT. 


are  tdmb^,  uU,  and  oom,  which  •»  brooght  by 
river-curia^  to  tbe  Bidtio  and  Black  Sea  portB. 
The  prindpal  maonfactures  are  fine  clotbs,  linen, 
and  augar.  The  aoil  ia  not  feitQe,  and  ia  covered 
to  a  luge  extent  wiUi  wooda  and  manliea,  wtulc 
in  many  other  placet  it  ia  a  aaody  waata,  but  in 

Ssneral  Qie  native  raodncta  anffice  for  the  wouta  of 
le  inhabitaota.  The  climate  i>  veiy  aevere  in 
winter.  Oattls  and  aheep  breeding  are  panned 
with  tolerable  anccesa.  The  inh>bitaat»  of  tbe 
aonth  or  marabv  portion  of  the  proriuce  are  subject 
to  that  dreadfiu  diaeaae,  the  Plica  Poionka  {q.  v.). 

MINSK,  tbe  chief  town  of  the  government  of  the 
■ame  name,  is  aitaated  on  the  Svialocz,  an  affluent 
of  the  Bereeina.  It  ia  mostly  built  of  wood,  but  baa 
many  handsome  atone  edifioee,  among  which  ar  ' ' 
Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  cathedmU  and  . 
nariea,  the  church  of  St  Cathanae,  a  number  of 
edncatioual  and  philanthropic  estabUsbmenta,  a 
pnblio  library,  and  a  theatre.  The  chief  mann£ac> 
turea  are  woolleu  cloth  and  leather.  Pop.  (1880) 
44,000,  many  of  whom  are  Jewa. 
MINSTER.    See  Mohistxry. 


t,  PennT-Toyal,  and  Spewmintv  an  naed 


often  grouped  in  ipikea  or  heads.  The  species 
widely  distributed  over  the  world.  Some  of  them 
are  very  common  in  Biitftin,  aa  Watxr  M.  {M. 
aqwUiea),  which  grow  in  wet  grounds  and  ditches, 
and  Cork  M.  (&  arveruii),  which  abounds  aa  a 
weed  in  comlielda  and  gardens.  These  and  most  of 
the  other  ipeciea  have  erect  stems.  AU  the  speciea 
contain  an  aromatic  esBeotial  oil,  in  Tirtus  of 
which  they  are  more  or  leas  medioinaL  The  most 
important  apede*  are  Sfeabhint,  TsfrxaMurr, 
and  Pknity-boyaI:.— SFEasNiNT  or  Qaasir  M.  (Jf. 
viridu),  is  a  native  of  almost  all  the  temperate  parts 
of  the  globe ;  it  has  erect  smooth  sterna,  &om  one 
foot  to  two  feet  high,  with  the  whorls  of  flowers  in 
loose  cylindrical  or  oblong  spikes  at  the  top ;  tbe 
leaves  lanceolate,  acute,  smooth,  serrated,  destitute 
of  stalk,  or  nearly  ao.  It  has  a  vei;  aereeable 
odonr.— Fbfpriimimt  {M.  piperiia),  a  plant  of  equally 
wide  distribution  in  the  temperate  parts  of  tbe 
world,  is  very  aimilar  to  spearmint,  but  has  the 
leaves  atalked,  and  the  flowers  in  short  spikee,  the 
lower  whorls  aomewhot  distant  from  the  rest  It  is 
very  readily  recognised  by  the  peculiar  pungency  of 
its  odour  and  of  its  taste. — Px^ini-botai.  (If.  pule- 
gium),  also  Tei7  coamopolitan,  has  a  much-branched 
prostrate  stem,  which  sends  down  new  root*  as  it 
extendi  in  length  j  the  leaves  ovate,  stalked ;  the 
flowers  in  distsnt  globose  whorls.  Its  smell 
resembles  that  of  the  other  mints. — All  these 
BTOciea,  in  a  wild  state,  crow  in  ditches  or  wet 
places.  All  of  them  are  oiJtivated  in  gardens ;  aod 
peppermint  largely  for  medicinal  ose  and  for 
flavouring  lozenge*.  Mint  Sauce  is  generally  made 
of  spearmint;  which  is  also  nsed  for  flavouring 
Bonps,  &e.  A.  kind  of  M.  with  lemon-scented 
leaves,  called  BnuiAMOT  M.  (M.  dirala),  is  found 
ia  some  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  coldvated  in 
nutlens.  Varieties  of  peppermint  and  horse-mint 
^JV.  rylvalrU),  with  frup^j  or  inflato-mgose  leaves, 
are  much  ciutivated  in  Germany  onder  the  name 
of  CiiBLSD  M.  {Kraiue-mintt^ ;  the  leaves  being 
dried  imd  used  as  a  domesbo  medicine,  and  in 
poulticea  and  hatha.  All  kinds  oC  M.  are  eaai^ 
propagated  by  parting  the  roots  or  by  cnttinst.  It 
IB  said  that  mice  have  a  raeat  aversion  to  U.,  and 
that  a  few  Isavea  of  it  wiU  ceep  themat  a  distuioe. 


Feniermint,  Pennv-ioyal,  and  8] 
in  medicine.    The  pnarmaMpceiaa . __, 

jpMbM,  and  otntm  of  each  of  them ;  the  officinal 
part  being  the  herb,  which  ehoold  be  collected 
when  in  flower.  PepptrmitU  is  a  poweifnl  difi'usiblB 
stimnlon^  and,  as  such,  is  antispAsmodio  ■■"■i 
stomachic,  and  is  much  employed  in  the  treat- 
ment of  ESstrodj^Dia  and  flatulent  colic.  It  is  alao 
extensively  used  in  mixtures,  for  covering  the  taste 
of  drags.  Patny-royal  and  ipearmint  are  similar  in 
their  action,  bat  inferior  for  all  pnrposea  to  pepper^ 
mint  The  ordinary  doses  are  from  one  to  two 
ounces  of  the  aqva,  a  drachm  of  the  tpiritia  (in  ■ 
wine-glassful  of  water),  and  from  three  to  five  diopa 
of  the  oleum  (on  a  lump  of  sugar). 

MINT  (Lat.  moneta),  an  establishment  for  making 
corns  or  metallic  mone^  (see  Monet).  The  early 
history  of  the  art  being  traced  under  the  head 
NuHlBHATlcs,  the  preeent  article  is  mostly  confined 
to  a  sketch  of  the  constitotion  of  the  British  mint,  and 
of  the  modem  prooeosea  of  coining  as  there  followed. 
The  earliest  regulattons  retarding  the  Bn^ish 
mint  belong  to  Anglo-Saxon  times.  An  omcer 
colled  a  reeve  il  referred  to  in  the  laws  of  Canuta 
as  having  some  jniisdiclion  over  it,  and  certain 
names  wMch,  in  addition  to  that  of  tbe  sovereign, 
appear  on  the  An^o-Saxon  coins,  seem  to  have 
been  those  of  the  moneyera,  or  principal  officers  of 
the  mint,  till  recently,  an  important  olaas  of  function- 
aries, who  were  responaible  for  the  integrity  of  th» 
coin.  Besides  the  sovereign,  barons,  bishops,  and 
the  greater  monasteriea  baa  tiieir  iwpectave  mints, 
where  they  exeiciaed  tbe  right  ot  ooinagtv  a  privilegB 
enjoyed  by  the  archbishope  of  CaaterMuy  u  late  aa 
"le  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  by  Wolsey  as  Bishop 
!  Durham,  and  Ajchbisbop  of  York. 
After  the  Norman  Conquest,  the  officers  of  tha 
lyal  mint  became  to  a  certain  extent  subject  to 
the  authority  of  the  exchequer.  Both  in  Saxon  and 
Norman  times,  there  existed,  under  oantrol  of  the 
principal  mint  in  London,  a  number  of  provincial 
mints  in  diSerent  towns  of  England ;  there  were  no 
fewer  than  38  in  the  time  of  Ethelred,  and  tha 
last  of  them  were  only  done  away  with  in  the 
reign,  of  William  IIL  The  officen  olOie  mint  were 
formed  into  a  coiporation  bva  charter  of  Edward  IL; 
they  consisted  of  the  warden,  master,  oomptroUer, 
isay-mMter,  wotkeis,  coiners,  and  subordinates. 
Tie  seignorage  for  coining  at  one  time  formed  no 
inconsiderable  item  in  the  revenues  of  the  crown. 
a  deduction  made  from  the  bullion  coined, 
and  comprehended  both  a  charge  for  defraying  the 
expense  of  coinage,  and  the  sovereign's  profit  in 
virtne  of  his  prerogative.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VL, 
the  Beignoroge  amounted  to  6dL  in  the  pound ;  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  L,  U  21d.  By  18  Car.  IL  c  C; 
the  seignorage  on  sold  was  abolished,  and  has  never 
since  been  exacted.  The  shere,  or  remedy,  oa  it  ia 
iw  called,  was  an  allowance  for  the  unavoidable 
iperfection  of  the  coin. 

The  function  of  the  mint  is  in  theory  to  reoeiva 
gold  in  ingots  from  individooU,  and  return  an  eqoal 
weight  in  sovereigns;  but^in  point  of  foot,  gold  ia 
now  exclusively  coined  for  the  Bank  of  EngUnd ; 
for,  though  any  one  has  still  tbe  right  to  coin  gold 
'  the  mint,  the  merchant  or  d^er  has  ceased 
obtain  any  profit  for  so  doing,  as  the  Bank  is 
mpelled  to  purchase  all  gold  tendered  to  it  at  the 
fixed  price  of  £3,  17).  ftl  an  ounce.  The  increment 
on  the  Assay  (q.  v.),  or  on  the  fineness  of  the  metal,, 
which  aogmente  the  standard  weif^t,  and  therefore 
the  valne  of  the  gold,  is  a  more  considerable  source  of 
profit  to  the  importer  of  gold.  The  ordinary  trade 
assay,  on  which  the  impoiW  pnrchaaea  the  bullion, 
does  not  by  usage  coma  oloser  than  ^th  of  a  oarat 
grain  or  74  grains  per  lb.  troy.    Before  being  coined. 


„.«:,,  GUU^IC 


the  f;o1d  u  subjected  to  >  lecond  vid  mora  delic&te 
assay  st  the  mint,  and  the  importer  receives  the 
bcDeflt  of  the  differenM,  amonntmg  to  aboat  ^Ih  of 
a,  camt  grain  =  3J  troy  gnini,  or  nearly  Sd.  per  lb. 

BuTer,  which  was  formerly,  oononrrently  with 
gold,  a  I^al  tender  to  any  amount,  has,  by  66 
Geo.  IIL  0.  68,  ceased  to  be  so.  There  is  a  seignora^ 
on  both  silver  and  copper  money,  amounting  m 
■ilrer  to  10  per  cent.,  when  the  price  of  silver  is 
fi&  per  omice,  which,  however,  from  the  tear  and 
wear  of  the  coin,  brings  small  profit  to  the  crown. 
On  the  capper  coinage,  the  seignorafe  is  no  less 
than  100  per  cent  on  the  average  pnce  of  copper. 
The  profits  of  the  sei^orage,  fonaerly  retained  by 
the  master  of  the  mint,  to  defray  the  expense  of 
coinage,  have,  since  1837,  been  paid  into  the  bonk, 
to  the  credit  of  the  Consolidated  Fnnd. 

A  new  mint  was  erected  on  TowerhUI  in  1810. 
In  1815,  soma  alterations  wera  made  in  its  oonstitn- 
tion ;  and  in  1851  a  oomplete  change  wasjntroduced 
in  the  whole  eyetem  of  administratioa.  The  control 
of  the  mint  was  vested  in  a  master  and  a  deputy- 
master,  and  comptroller.  The  mastership^  which 
had,  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  oentoiy,  become 
a  political  appointment  held  by  an  adherent  of  the 
government,  was  restored  to  the  position  ol  a  per- 
manent office,  the  master  hebg  the  ostecsibla  exec- 
Dtive  head  of  the  establishment  The  operative 
department  was  iatrosted  to  the  assayer,  the  melter, 
and  the  refiner.  The  moneyers,  who  had  from  early 
times  enjoyed  extensive  privileges  and  exemptions, 
and  were  contractors  with  the  crown  for  the  execu- 
tion of  the  coinage,  were  abolished,  and  the  oontracts 
with  the  crown  were  entered  into  by  the  master  of 
the  mint,  who  also  made  subordinate  contracts  for 
the  actual  manufacture  of  the  ooin.  Further 
changes  were  made  on  the  adminiatration  of  the 
mint  in  1369.  The  mastership  was  added  to  the 
dnties  of  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  witiioiit 
any  addition  of  salary,  and  the  offices  ot  deputy- 
master  and  comptroller  were  amalgamated.  A 
yearly  saving  of  £10,000  is  b^eved  to  have  been 
effected  by  the  changes  of  1851,  and  a  further 
£8000  by  those  of  1 869,  with  an  increase  of  efficiency. 
It  is  at  present  in  contemplation  to  remove  the 
mint  from  Towerhill  to  the  rear  of  the  Thames 
Embankment  at  Whitefriars,  with  new  and  im- 
proved machiaeiy.  Mints  have  lately  been  estab- 
lished at  Sydney  and  Melbourne  to  coin  the  gold  so 
largely  fonnd  in  Australia. 

Procaaa  ofeoiiaag. — Down  to  the  middle  of  the 
loth  c,  little  or  no  improvement  seems  to  have  been 
made  in  the  art  of  coining  from  the  time  of  its  inven- 
tioD.  The  metal  was  simply  hammered  into  slips, 
which  were  afterwards  cut  np  into  squares  of  one 
mxe,  and,  then  forged  round.  The  required  impres- 
sion was  given  to  these  by  placing  them  in  txrea 
between  two  dies,  and  strikmg  them  with  a  hammer. 
As  it  was  not  easy  by  this  method  to  plaoe  the  dies 
exactly  above  each  other,  or  to  apply  proper  force, 
coins  so  made  were  always  faulty,  and  had  the  edges 
unfinished,  which  rendered  them  liable  to  be  olippSd. 
The  first  great  st^  was  the  application  ot  the 
acraw,  invented  in  1553  by  a  French  engraver  of  the 
name  of  Brucher.  The  plan  was  found  expensive  at 
Grat,  and  it  was  not  till  1662  that  it  altogetner  super- 
aeded  the  hammer  in  the  English  mink  The  chief 
steps  in  coining  as  now  piactised  are  as  follows :  The 
sold  or  silver  to  be  coined  is  sent  to  the  mint  in  the 
form  of  mgoU  {Ger.  eiitgiti*e».  Do.  nguten,  to  pour 
in,  to  cast),  ot  caatingi ;  those  of  gold  weighing  each 
about  180  01.,  while  uie  silver  ingi^  are  much  brger. 
Before  melting,  each- — ■;-'■— --j  --'■-  " :^i_ 


'sfully  recorded.    For 


noot  is  tested  as  to  its  parity  by 
then  we^hed,  and  tho  resulta 
For  meltuig  Uia  gold,  pot*  ot 


cniaihles  of  plumbago  are  used,  made  to  contain  each 
about  1300  01.  The  pots  being  heated  white,  in  fur- 
naces, the  charge  of  gold  is  introduced  along  wiUl 
the  proper  amonntof  copper  (dependinsupon  the  state 
of  parity  of  the  gold  as  ascertained  by  the  aaay), 
to  bring  it  to  the  standard,  which  is  22  parts  of  pure 
gold  to  2  of  copper  (see  Allot).  The  metal  when 
melted  is  poured  into  iron  moulds,  which  form  it 
into  ban  21  inches  long.  If  inch  broad,  and  1  inch 
thick,  if  (or  sovereigns ;  and  somewhat  narrower, 
if  for  half-sovereigns.  For  melting  silver  (the  alloy 
of  which  is  adjusted  to  the  standard  oE  2^  puts 
of  silver  to  18  of  oopper),  malleable  iron  pots  are 
used,  and  the  metal  it  cast  into  bars  similar  to 
those  of  gold. 

The  new  copper,  or  rather  bronze  cmnage,  issued 
in  1860,  is  an  alloy  consisting  of  95  parts  (3  copper, 
4  of  tin,  and  1  of  zinc  The  coins  are  only  about  \ 
half  the  weight  of  their  old  copper  representatives. 
The  processes  of  casting  Mid  coining  the  bronze 
are  essentially  the  same  as  in  the  oase  of  gcdd  and 

The  operation  of  rolling  follows  that  of  casting. 
It  consists  in  repeatedly  passing  the  bars  between 
pairs  of  rollera  with  hardened  steel  surfaces,  driven 
by  steam-power;  the  rollers  being  brouf^t  daser 
and  closer  as  tiie  thickneas  becomes  reduMd,  At  a 
certain  stage,  as  the  ban  become  longer,  they  are 
cut  into  several  lengths ;  and  to  remove  the  hard- 
ness induced  by  the  pressure,  they  are  annealed. 
The  finishing  rollera  are  so  exquisit^y  adjusted  that 
the  _fillria  (as  the  thinned  bus  are  called)  do  not 
vary  in  tluckneaa  in  any  part  more  than  the  ten- 
thousandth  part  oE  an  inch.  The  slips  are  still 
further  reduced  in  the  British  mint  at  what  is  called 
the  '  draw-bench,'  where  they  are  drawn  between 
steel  dies,  as  in  wire-drawing,  and  are  then  exactly 
of  the  necessary  thickness  for  the  coin  intended. 

The  fillets  thus  prepared  are  passed  to  the  t^er, 
who,  with  a  hand-punch,  cuts  a  trial-blank  £rom 
each,  and  weigh*  it  in  a  balance  ;  and  if  it  vary 
more  than  -^Ut  of  a  grain,  the  whole  fillet  la 
rejected. 

For  cutting  out  the  blartit  of  which  the  coins  are 
to  he  made,  there  are  in  the  British  mint  twelve 

Sresses  arranged  in  a  circle,  so  that  one  wheel  with 
riving  cams,  placed  in  the  centre,  works  the  whole. 
The  panchea  descend  by  pneumatic  pressure,  and 
the  mlets  are  fed  into  the  presses  by  boys,  each 
punch  cutting  out  about  60  blanks  a  minute.  The 
scrap  left  after  the  blanks  are  cat  out,  called  setud, 
is  sent  back  to  be  remelted. 

Each  blank  is  afterwards  weighed  by  the  auto- 
maton balance — a  beautiful  and  most  accurate  instru- 
ment, invented  by  Mr  Cotton  about  1854,  and  subse- 
quently improved.  It  weighs  23  blanks  per  minute, 
and  each  to  the  001  of  a  grain.  The  standard 
weight  of  a  sovereign  la  123-274  grains,  but  the  mint 
can  issue  them  above  or  below  Uiis  to  the  extent  ol 
0-2568  of  a  grain,  which  is  called  Ae  rantdy.  Blanks 
which  come  within  this  limit  are  dropped  by  the 
machine  into  a  '  medium '  box,  and  pass  on  to  be 
coined.  Those  below  the  required  wei^t  are  pushed 
into  another  box  to  be  remelted,  hot  those  aoove  it 
into  another,  and  are  reduced  by  filing.  The  correct 
blanks  are  afterwards  rung  on  a  sounding  iron,  and 
those  which  do  not  give  a  clear  sound  are  rejected 

To  insure  their  being  raoperly  milled  on  the  edge, 
the  blank*   are  pressed  edgeways  in   a   machine 

between  two  oircular  steel-plates,  which  raises  the 
edges,  and  at  the  same  time  secures  their  being 
perfectly  round.  After  this  they  are  annealed  to 
soften  them,  before  tiiey  can  be  struck  with  dies : 
they  are  also  put  into  a  boiling  pot  of  dilute  sul- 
phuric add,  to  remove  any  oxide  of  copper  from  the 


glc 


MINT— MINUTE. 


WithoDt  tiieae  praoKutioni, 
on  new  coin  could  not  b«  aecnrad. 
w  oome  to  th«  preta-rootn,  wliere  the  blanki 
ha  impresiion  which  nuikea  them  perfeot 
The  0(>miiig-pr«M  ii  shewn  in  the  ng.  and 


Colning-prev, 

there  are  eight  of  them  in  all,  tuwed  in  a  row  upon 
a  itroug  fouudation  of  nuttODiy.  CCB  is  the  DUBDve 
iron  fraiue  into  which  the  aorew  D  woi^  the  opper 
part  B  being  perforated  to  reoeiTe  it  On  the  bottom 
of  this  (Crew  the  upper  steel  di«  is  fixed  hj  a  box, 
the  loner  die  being  fixed  in  another  box  attached 
to  the  base  of  the  preea.  The  diet  have,  of  conne, 
the  obvene  and  reverse  of  the  ooiu  upon  them. 
See  DiK-aiHKiNO.  The  bkok  coin  is  placed  on  the 
lower  die,  and  recaivea  the  imprcMion  when  the 
screw  U  turned  round  so  as  to  preae  the  two  dies 
forcibly  towards  each  other.  A  steel  ring  or  collar 
contains  the  coin  while  it  is  being  stamped,  which 
preserves  its  circular  form,  and  also  effecbi  the  mill- 
iDg  on  the  edge.  In  caaes  where  letters  are  put  on 
the  edge  of  a  coin,  a  collar  divided  into  Hi^menta 
woiting  on  centre-pini,  is  naed.      On  the  jvopw 


and  impreaa  l£e  fettsra  on  the  edge  of  the  coin. 
The  tcrew  of  the  pre**  ia  put  in  motion  by  mi 
of  tiie  iHeoe  A,  wnioh  is  worked  bjr  - 
driven  by  (team-powor,  and  sitnated  ' 
ment  above  the  ooining-room.     The 

dnoed,  an  air-«tigine  works  a  teriM  <f  ait-pomp^ 
which  oommnmcate  a  more  exact  and  r^nlar 
motion  to  the  machinery  of  the  stlmping  prrinna 
than  by  the  ordinary  ooDdenvnc  engitM.  Tha 
loaded  anus  KB  strike  arauDst  blocks  of  wood, 
irtiemby  they  are  prevented  from  moving  too  far, 
~~  *  '~'  "**  "risk  of  bnaking  the  hafd  ateelditt  by 
1  in  contact.  The  preaa  brings  down 
le  eoin  with  a  twistmg  motion,  but  if 
it  were  to  rise  np  in  the  same  vrtj,  it  would  atnada 
the  coin ;  there  u,  in  oonaeqocnoe,  an  arrangement 
whi<^  by  means  of  a  wide  notch  in  the  ring  3,  allowa 
the  die  to  be  raised  np  a  certain  ■<'TtBP"'  before  it 
bemn*  to  torn  loond  with  the  screw. 

On  the  left  side  of  the  figor^  tiie  artai^emoit  for 
feeding  tiu  Uanka  and  removug  the  coins  u  they 
are  staii^nl,  is  shewn.  A  lever  HIK,  moving  on  • 
ftilaum  X  is  snroorted  by  a  bar  Q,  fixed  to  tlm  aide 
of  the  Vttm.  The  top  ot  this  lever  is  guided  by  » 
sector  7  fixed  npon  the  aorew  D.  In  this  aector 
these  is  a  apiral  groove,  which,  as  the  screw  tuma 
Tonnd,  moves  the  end  H  of  the  lever  to  or  from  tha 
screw,  the  other  end  E.  beioK  moved  at  the  sama 
time  tdtiier  towards  or  away  &om  the  centre  of  tb« 
preea.  The  lower  end  of  the  lever  mov«a  a  slider  I^ 
which  ia  directed  exactly  to  the  centre  of  the  pre^ 
and  on  a  level  with  the  upper  surface  of  the  die. 
The  slider  is  a  thin  «teel-plate  in  two  pieces  united 
by  a  joint,  and  having  a  drcular  oavily  at  the  end, 
which,  when  ita  lim^  are  shut,  gnape  a  piece  of 
coin  by  the  edg&  This  piece  drops  out  on  th« 
limba  eeparating.  There  is  a  tube  at  K  which  an 
attendant  keeps  filled  with  blank  pieces ;  it  is  open 
at  the  bottom,  so  that  the  pieces  rest  on  the  slider. 
When  the  press  is  screwed  down,  the  slider  is  drawn 
back  to  its  furthest  extent,  and  its  circular  eod 
comes  exactly  beneath  the  tube.  A  blank  piece  oi 
coin  now  drops  in,  and  is  carried,  when  the  screfw 
riaea,  to  the  collar  which  fits  over  the  lower  di«^ 
The  slider  then  retunu  for  acoUier  blank,  while 
the  upper  die  deecends  to  give  the  impreaaion  to  the 
ooin.  Each  time  the  slider  brings  a  new  blank  to 
the  die,  it  at  the  same  time  puahee  off  the  pieoe  last 
struck.  An  arrangement  of  springs  lifts  the  milled 
collar  to  enclose  the  coin  while  it  is  being  struck. 

It  is  found  on  examining  the  coins  that  about 
I  in  200  is  imperfecU^  finished ;  these  being 
rejected,  the  rest  are  uialty  weighed  into  bag% 
and  subjected  to  the  process  of  pKriH^.  T^  ooa- 
aists  in  taking  from  each  bag  a  oertam  number  ot 
soverugns  or  other  coins,  aod  sahjecting  them  to 
a  final  examimrfiioa  by  weight  and  assay,  befim 
they  are  delivered  to  the  pouia 

MI'NUET,  the  air  of  a  most  sracefol  iaaern, 
iginally  from  Poitoo,  in  France.  It  ia  performed 
in  a  alow  tempo.    The  first  minuet  is  said  to  have 


aoposed  by  Lnlly  the  Elder,  and  wss  danced 
Louis  XrV.  in  1653  at  TersaiUes  with  his  mistresa. 
e  music  of  the  minuet  ia  in  j  time,  and  is  still 


well  known  in  England  by  the  celebrated  MinuH 
de  la  Cour,  which  is  frequently  introduced  in  stage 
performances. 

MIliniE,  a  ronsh  draft  of  any  proceeding  cc 

-• ent ;  so  called  from  being  taken  down  shortly 

nuntife  or  small  writing,  to  be  afterwarda 
d.  See  iKOitOHs.— UiNUTE,  in  Law,  is  a 
memorandum  or  record  of  some  act  of  a  o(Hiri  tM 
of  paitieaj  in  the  latter  se&a^  it  is  nsed  ohieflyin 

''■■...  „„,^,, 


IHNOTE-  MIBABEA.D. 


flootUnd,  M  m  tfaa  0 
tnmaU  M  nle,  Ao. 

UIKXTTB,  the  60tlk  port  Ot  «ii  honr ;  kIk  the 
40th  part  ot  &  tl^ree  of  a  oirole.    See  Sxxixi] 
AuiHHZna— lUMDTS,  in  Arohitoctnre,  "  '^'■ 


detennine  the  propoitii 

HI'OOENK  (Or.  leas  racwnt),  a  term  intiodmied 
bj  Lvell  to  ch&ncteriae  the  Middle  Tertiuy  itnt 
which  he  aapgoBBB  to  contain  k  muUsi  ptoportit 
of  TBOont  Bpeciea  of  mollnac*  tbmn  the  newer  Pli 
oeiMt  wkd  more  t^*"  t1i*  older  EooeDCh  He  eotimati 
the  proportion  of  linng  to  fomil  ipeciei  in  the 
Uiocene  et  25^er  cent 

Stasta  of  Hum  ace  ooour  in  Britein  In  two  limited 
•nd  far  aepaiated  looalitiei — in  the  iaUod  of  UuU, 
and  at  Dartmoor  in  the  lonth-eart;  of  Er^jland.  In 
thit  l«at  diitriot,  Huy  exiit  at  Bovot  TtMey,  m  a 
flat  area  ot  ten  mika  kuF  hjr  two  milca  broad,  and 
«onai>t  <^  cl^r  intanfentified  with  bed*  of  imp^feot 
lignitea.  PauceUr  and  Heai  have  Teoently  «^«-"""""i 
toe  itnita  of  uiia  BnaU  baain,  and  luna  found  that 
all  the  plants  are  of  Miocene  age,  and  belong  to  the 
•ame  apeoieB  aa  those  found  in  limilar  depontai,  not 
only  rai  tka  continent,  bnt  in  loeland,  Qreenland,  and 
Arolio  Amerioa.  Their  fiieie»  indicatea  a  wanner 
Dlimate  than  ib»  ptoaentv  and  the  geogra^iical  tange 
«f  the  apeoiM  ia  unexampled  in  the  ■Tiatjug  flotr 
The  Mull  beda  are  aitnated  at  the    headland  < 


ft  Um  t, 


Ardtnn,  and  oonaiat  of 

■and  ligniUi.  There  aie  three  leaf-beda,  Tai^iiu  in 
tiiiokiien  from  It  to  24  ttet,  aeparated  by  tiro  b»da 
«f  ash,  the  whole  reatine  on,  and  covered  by  itrata 
«f  banlt  The  whole  thickneu  ii  131  feeb  It  ii 
anppoeed  that  the  leaf-beda  were  deposited  in  a 
ahallow  lake  or  marsh,  in  the  Ticinity  of  an  active 
Toloana  One  of  tiie  beds  conaiata  of  a  mass  of 
oinnpieased  leaves  without  Etems,  and  acconmanied 
with  abnndant  renudna  of  an  eqniaetnm,  which  grew 
in  the  nanh  into  which  the  leav«e  were  blown. 
The  leave*  belong  to  dicotyledoos  and  conUene, 
«nd  are  of  opecieB  similar  to  those  of  Bove;  TnuK^> 
Thv  Fahlniis  of  IVance  are  of  tlus  agc^  as  are  aJiso 
part  of  the  MoUaaai  of  Switzwland,  and  the  MaTCDce 
and  Vienna  banna.  Of  the  same  period  are  the 
deposita  in  the  Sewalik  Hilla, 
^  B  remaina  of  levenl  elephante,  a 
I,  hippopotamna,  giraffe,  and  large  oatrioh, 
iTaraf  oamivora,  monkeys,  and  crocodiles, 
tortoiae,  whose  ahell  meosorod  20  feet 
I  Gnropean  beda  contain  the  remains  of 
the  Dinothaiiom  (q.  v.], 

MIBABEAU,  HoNontf  Qabbiel  RiQinrn,  OoHn 
OS,  waa  bom  9(h  March  1749,  at  Bignon,  near 
Nemoors.  He  was  descended,  by  hia  own  accomit, 
{rom  the  ancient  Florentine  funily  of  Arrighetti, 
who  being  erpellad  from  their  native  city  in  126S, 
«n  aoeoimt  of  Ohib^line  politici,  settled  in  Provence. 
Jean  de  Biqnetti  or  Amgjtetti  pnrchaaed  the  estate 
of  Miiabeaa  in  1662;  hia  gmndaon,  Thomaa,  bap- 
pesed  to  entertain  here,  in  1660,  Louis  XIY.  and 
{Cardinal  Mazario,  on  which  eccaaion  he  received 
ftom  the  monarch  the  title  of  Marquis  "Victor 
RiqnettL  Marqoia  de  Mirabean  (bom  171C,  died 
nSi),  the  father  of  Honore,  was  a  vain  and  foolish 
snan,  wasted  hi*  patrimony,  wrote  booka  of  philan- 
tbnmy  and  j^iilosophy,  aa  L'Atni  de*  Homme* 
4S  v^  Par.  171(5),  and  waa  a  cmel  tyrant  in  hia  own 
nonaa.  He  procnred  no  fewer  than  fifty-four  ieUrea 
4U  eadut  at  different  timet  againat  lua  wife  and 
hia  children.  Honort^  hia  eldest  son,  waa  endowed 
with  an  athletia  frame  and  eztraindinary  mental 
aUlitiea,  bnt  waa  of  a  Sery  temper,  and  dispoaed  to 
«v«>7kmd<rf    ""  *" -  >-■— -^ '  ' 


intrigna  wiUi  the  yonthfal  wife  of  an  ^ed  marqnii 
bronght  him  into  danger,  and  he  fled  with  her  to 
Swibtsrland,  and  thence  to  Holland,  wliere  he  anb- 
aiited  by  his  pan,  amongst  other  productiona  of 
whioh,  u*  £««*  tar  it  DapiMmie  attracted  gi«at 
attention.  Meanwhilsv  aentenoe  of  deaUi  was  pro- 
nounced against  ^I'm ;  m*^  the  Fre&oh  minister,  at 

be  ddivend  np  to  jnstiae,  he  uJd  bia  paramonr  were 
u^rshended  Sx  Ainit«cdam,  and  he  waa  brotubt  to 
the  dungeon  at  Viuoennes,  and  there  doee^  im- 
priaomed  for  42  montha.  Durins  tliia  time  lu  waa 
often  in  great  want,  bnt  onployed  himself  in  literaiy 
laboara,  writing  an  Ettoi  tttrUt  LeOrt*  tb  CoAtt  tt 
It*  Ptiion*  ^Oat,  which  waa  published  at  Hamburg 
[2  Tola.  17^,  and  a  number  of  obseene  tslia,  by 
whii^  bo  disgraced  hia  geniui^  ^thon^  their  aaJe 
supi^ied  hia  neoessitdM.  After  bia  liberation  from 
pruon,  he  anbtiated  chiefly  t^  literaiy  labcor,  and 
•tiU  led  a  vary  proflimte  hid  Hewn&muiyefl'eo- 
tive  poliHoal  pampUeta,  partaoolarly  i^ainat  tiie 
fl,**,iiwl  admimatrataon  of  Oalonne,  reoeiving  peon- 
niaiy  aaaistawca,  it  waa  said,  from  some  of  the  great 
baokera  of  Parii ;  and  beoams  ona  of  the  leadeia  d 
the  Idbanl  party.  WhentheStataa-goneral  were  con- 
vened, he  souilit  to  be  dected  aa  a  repieaantative  of 
the  uwlea  of  Provuioe,  bnt  waa  rejected  by  them  on 
the  gronnd  of  hia  want  of  property :  and  left  them 
with  the  threat  that,  like  Mwu^  ha  would  over- 
throw the  aristoenu^.  Be  porchaaeda  draWa 
ahop,  offered  himself  aa  a  candidate  to  the  Third 
G«b^  Hid  waa  enthnaiaatdcally  returned  both  at 
Aix  and  Uarseillei  He  chose  torepreaentMaraeilla, 
*  by  hit  talenta  and  admiraUe  oratorical  poweia 

aognired  great  influence  in  the  Statea-genetal 

and  National  Assembly.  Bamave  well  characterised 
him  as  'the  Sbakspeaie  of  ebqnence.'  He  stood 
forth  aa  the  ojfionent  of  the  court  and  ot  the  aria* 
toccacy,  but  reprded  the  conntiy  aa  by  no  meana 
ripe  for  the  extrema  changes  proposed  by  politicsl 
theorists,  and  laboured,  not  for  the  orerthrow  of 
the  monaichy,  bat  for  the  abolition  ot  despotiim, 
and  the  eetaUislment  of  a  oonatdtntional  throne. 
To  rapprcBs  insurrection,  he  effected,  on  Sth  July 
1789,  the  institatiou  of  the  National  Onaid.  ui 
some  of  the  contesta  which  followed,  he  sacri- 
ficed hia  popularity  to  maintain  the  throne.  The 
more  tilat  anarchy  and  revolutionary  fren^  pre- 
vailed, the  more  decided  did  he  become  in  his 
resistance  to  their  progreaa  j  but  it  was  not  ea«y  to 
maintftin  the  cauae  of  conatitntional  liber^  at  once 
agunst  tlie  su[^rteia  of  the  antnent  ooipotiam 
and  the  extreme  revolntioniata.  The  king  and  hia 
friend*  were  long  unwilling  to  inter  into  any  rela- 
"      I  wiUi  one  BO  diarepotable,  but  at  last,  under 

pressure  of  neceeaity,  it  waa  reeolved  tjiat  M. 

Id  be  invited  to  beoime  minister.    No  soonw 

this  known,  ttian  a  combination  of  the  moat 

opposite  parties,  by  a  decree  of  7th  Novemb^  17S9, 
forjbaide  uie  appointment  id  a  de^ty  aa  minister. 
Fiom  thia  time  forth,  M.  above  in  vaw  in  favoor  of 
the  most  indispensable  prerogativea  of  the  crown, 
and  in  so  doing  ezpoaed  himself  to  pt^nlar  indigna- 
tiiHL  He  stul  continued  the  abngpt^  however, 
with  wonderful  ability,  and  aou^  to  leoonoile  the 
oonrt  and  the  Revolution.  In  December  1790,  he 
waa  elected  president  of  the  Club  ol  the  Jaoobina, 
uid  in  Febnian  1781,  of  the  National  Assembly. 
Both  in  the  Olnb  and  in  the  AasemUy,  he  displaced 

:  boMnies  and  eneray;  bnt  soon  aft«  his  ^p<»nt- 

:  aa  pimdmt  of  the  latter,  ha  sank  hito  a  state 

ot  bodily  ud  mental  weaknev,  consequent  npon  bis 
great  ^ertions  and  hia  oontiBned  dabandien^  and 

II  I, .Cioogl 


MIRACLE-MIRACLE  PLAYS. 


died  2d  April  1791.  He  wu  interred  with  g^t 
pomp  in  tAe  ohuroh  of  Saint  Geoevieve,  the  '  Paa- 

theon ; '  but  hia  body  was  ftfUrwardi  removed,  to 
mAke  loom  for  tliat  of  Marat.  A  complete  edition 
of  hii  vorki  was  pnbliahHl  at  Paris  m  9  vola.  in 
I82S— 1827.       Hia    lutiual    bod,    Lacaa    Hontigay, 

Sibliahed  MfTnoira  Biogranhiquet,  LiUtraira  et 
alitiquei  de  Mirabtau  (2d  edit  8  to1&  Par. 
1S41),  the  moot  complete  aocoant  which  we  hare  of 
hia  life.  Sea  also  Carlyle's  aketch  of  MirabekU  in 
hi*  ifiaeeUaneou*  Bmayi,  and  hia  Fraieh  SeBoluli«ii. 

MIBJlOLB,  a  term  commonly  applied  to  certain 
tnarvellooa  wocks  (healing  the  sick,  raisiDe  the  dead, 
changing  of  water  into  wine,  te.)  ascribed  in  the 
Bible  to  Bome  of  the  ancient  propbets,  and  to  Jesus 
Christ,  and  one  or  two  of  bis  foUowers.  It  signifiea 
■imply  that  which  is  wonderful— a  thing  or  a  deed 
to  be  wondered  at,  beinv  derived  directly  from 
the  Latin  miraeulura,  a  thing  unusual— an  object 
<rf  wonder  or  sitrprise.  The  same  meaning  is  the 
governing  idea  in  the  term  apphed  in  the  New  Test- 
ament to  the  Christian  miraclea,  lerat,  a  marvel,  a 
portent ;  besidea  which,  we  also  End  them  designated 
dunameu,  powers,  with  a  reference  to  Uie  power 
Raiding  in  the  miracle- worker ;  and  timaa,  signs, 
with  a  referenoe  to  the  character  ut  pretenaions  of 
whicli  they  were  aasumed  to  be  the  'witnessea  or 
gnaraotees.  Under  these  difi^rent  namee,  the 
(»a  fact  recognised  is  a  deed  done  by  a  man,  and 
acknowledged  by  the  eommoD  judgment  of  men  to 
exceed  man's  ordinary  powers ;  in  other  words,  a 
deed  tvpenuUural,  above  or  beyond  the  common 
powers  of  nature,  as  these  are  understood  by  men. 

In  the  older  speculatioos  on  the  subject,  a  miracle 
wai  generally  dTefined  to  be  a  violation  or  suspen- 
sion of  the  onler  of  nature.  While,  on  the  one  bknd, 
it  was  ar^ed  (as  by  Hume),  that  such  a  violation 
or  tiuipeosian  was  absolutely  impouihle  and  incred- 
ible; it  was  maintained,  on  the  other,  tiiat  the 
Almighty,  eitiier  by  hia  own  inmiediate  agency,  or 


oertaia  ends,  which,  without  that  interference,  could 
not  have  been  secured,  and  that  there  was  nothing 
incredible  in  the  idea  of  a  law  being  suspended  by 
the  Person  by  whom  it  bad  been  mode.  The  laws 
of  nature  and  the  will  or  providence  of  Ood 
were,  in  this  view,  thus  placed  m  a  certain  aspect  of 
oppositiaa  to  eactk  other,  at  paints  here  and  there 
olasbing,  and  the  stronger  arbitrarily  asserting  its 
ntperiorit^.  Such  a  view  haa,  with  the  advance  of 
philosophical  opinion,  appeared  to  many  to  be 
inadequate  as  ■  theoiy,  and  to  give  an  unworthy 
conception  of  tiie  Divine  character.  The  great 
principle  of  Law,  as  the  highest  conception  not  only 
of  nature,  but  of  Divine  Providence,  in  all  its 
manifestations,  has  asserted  itself  mote  domiiuuitly 
in  the  realm  of  thought,  and  led  to  the  rejection  of 
the  apparently  oonBictuig  idea  of  '  ioterf erenoe,' 
implied  in  the  old  notion  of  mincle.  Order  in 
natore,  and  a  jnst  and  oncapridoaa  will  in  God,  were 
felt  to  be  first  tjid  absolutely  neceosary  principles. 
The  idea  of  miracle,  accordingly,  which  seem*  to  be 
now  most  readily  aocepted  by  Uie  advocates  at  the 
Christian  religion,  has  its  root  in  this  recognised 


All  law  is  regarded  aa  the  expression,  not  of  a 
lifeless  force,  but  of  a  perfectly  wise  uid  just  vriU. 
All  law  must  develop  itself  throueh  natural  pheno- 
mena ;  but  it  is  not  identified  with  or  bound  down 
to  any  necessarr  series  of  these.  If  we  admit  tiie 
mainspring  of  the  nniverse  to  be  a  hving  will,  then 
we  may  aomit  that  the  phenomena  through  which 
that  will,  acting  in  the  form  of  law,  expreesee  itself, 
may  vary  without  the  will  varying  or  the  law  being 
broken.    We  know  absolutely  nothing  of  the  mode 


either  impossible  in  themselves, , 

tions  of  natural  law,  is  to  pronounce  a  jod^iant  on 
imperfect  data.  We  can  only  say  that,  under  aa 
impulse  which  we  must  believe  proceeds  from  the 
Divine  will,  in  which  all  law  exists,  the  phenomena 
which  we  have  been  accustomed  to  expect  have  not 
followed  on  their  ordinary  conditions.  But  from 
our  point  of  view  we  cannot  affirm  that  the  qneation 
as  to  how  this  happens  is  one  of  interferenos  oi 
violation  ;  it  is  ratiier,  probably,  one  of  higher  and 
lower  action.  The  miracle  may  be  but  the  expres- 
sion of  one  Divine  order  and  benefioent  will  in  a  new 
shape — the  law  of  a  greater  freedom,  to  nas  the 
words  of  Trench,  swalloiriiig  np  the  law  of  a  leaser. 
Nature  beins  but  the  plastic  medium  throodi 
which  Qod's  w3l  is  ever  manifested  to  Ds,  and  uie 
design  of  that  will  being,  as  it  necesssrily  most  ba, 
the  good  of  hia  creatures,  that  theory  of  mixacle  is 
certainly  moot  rational  which  does  not  represent 
the  ideas  of  laws  and  of  the  will  of  God  as  separate 
and  opposiDg  forces,  but  which  represents  the  D 


from  these  a  new  issue,  when  it  has  a  special  bene- 
ficent purpose  to  serve.  And  thus,  too,  we  an 
enabled  to  see  in  miracle  not  only  a  wcmder  and  a 
power,  bat  a  ugn — a  revelation  of  Divine  character, 
never  arbitrary,  always  generous  and  loving,  the 
character  of  one  who  seeks  throogb  all  the  ordtnuy 
coorses  of  nature  and  operation  of  law  to  further 
His  creatures'  good,  and  whose  will,  when  that  end 
is  to  be  served  is  not  restricted  to  any  one  neces- 
sary mode  or  order  of  expression.  Rightly  tntw- 
preted,  miracle  is  not  the  mere  assertion  of  power, 
or  a  mere  device  to  impress  an  impreasibla  mind; 
it  is  the  revelation  of  a  will  which,  while  leaving 
nature  as  a  whole  to  its  established  course,  can  y« 
witness  to  itself  as  above  nature^  when,  by  doing  •Oi 
it  can  help  man's  moral  and  sjHritaal  being  to  grow 
into  a  higher  perfection. 

The  evidence  for  the  Christian  miradee  is  of  a 
twofold  kind — external  and  intemaL  As  allied 
facta,  they  are  supposed  to  rest  npon  competent 
testimony,  the  teetimony  of  eye-witneesea,  who 
were  neither  deceived  Uiemselves,  nor  had  aay 
motive  to  deceive  otbers.     Xhey  ocourred  not  in 


privacy,  like  the    alleged  supernatural 
Mohamcned,  but  for  the  most  part  in  the  open  light 
of  day,  amidst  the  professed   enemiea   of   ChnsL 


They  were  not  isolated  facts,  nor  wrought  ten- 
tatively, or  with  difficulty ;  but  the  repeated,  the 
overflowing  expression,  as  it  were,  of  au  jqipaieutly 
supernatunl  life.  It  seems  impossible  to  conceive 
therefore,  that  the  apostles  could  have  becm  deceived 
as  to  their  character.  They  hod  all  the  means  d 
Bcrutiuising  and  forming  a  judgment  r^aidiiu 
them  that  tliey  could  well  have  possessed ;  and  a 
not  deceived  themselves,  they  were  certainly  not 
deceivers.  There  is  no  historical  criticism  that 
would  now  maintain  such  a  theory ;  eveo  th* 
most  positive  unbelief  has  rejected  it.  The  etnK 
of  the  apostles  forms  throughout  an  irre&agable 
proof  of  the  deep-hearted  and  laoomiptible  sincerity 


shines — witneasin^  to  the 
which  underlie*  all  the  ouuufestationa  of   decay, 
and  all  the  traces  of  sorrow  in  the  lower  worLo, 
and  lifting  the  mind  directly  to  the  oontemplation 
of  his  life. 
UIBACLB  PLATS.    See  MrBTEBm. 


Ditj'i" 


,v  Go  Ogle 


MISAOE— HIBBOH. 


HIRA'GE,  a  ph<  , 

Mitam  localitiea,   and  as  liniple  in  ita  origin  ai 
■stoniihing  in  ita  effecta.    Uader  it  are  classed  the 
^)p«Biance  of  distant  objecbl  aa  double,  or  aa  if 
•napeoded  in  the  air,  erect  or  inverted,  Ao.    One 
canae  of  mirage  ia  a  diminution  of  tlie  denaity  of  tlie 
air  nxta  the  aorface  of  the  earth,  produced  b;  the 
tnmamiaaion  of  heat  from  the  eu^  or  in  aome 
other  iray ;  the  denser  stratum  being  thus  placed 
oAoce,  instead  o^  aa  ia  osuaUy  the  case,  bdoia  the 
rarer.    Now,  rajrs  of  light  from  a  distant  object,  aitn- 
Btad  in  the  denser  medium  (L  e.,  a  little  above  the 
earth's  level),  coming  in  a  direction  nearly  parallel 
to  the  earth's  surface,  meet  the  rarer  metuam  at 
a  very  obtuse  an^te,  and  (see  RxTKAcnox)  instead 
of  paasinK  into  it,  are  reflected  back  to  the  dense 
medium ;  the  common  surface  of  the  two  media  acting 
M  a  mirror.    Suppose,  then,  a  spectator  to  be  situ- 
ated on    an   eminence,    and 
looking  at  an  object  aituated 
like  himself   in   the    denser 
-_    stratum   of  air,   he  will  aee 
F    the     object     by    means     of 
i    directly    transmitted     rays ; 
^  bat  beside*  this  (eee  &a.  2), 
..    rays  ftom  the  object  wul  be 
'_    tefieeted  from  the  apper  snr- 
1.    bee  of  the  rarer  stratnm  of  air 
-    beneath  to  his  eye.  The  image 
'    prodnced  by  the  reflected  roys 
L-   will    aopear    inverted,    and 
'    below  Ule  real  object,  just  as 
aa  image  reflected  in  water 
aimears  when  observed  from 
a  distance.    It  the  object  is 

__   ,...        of  sky,  it  will  appear  by  the 

reflected  rays  as  lying  on  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  a  sheet  of 
water ;  also,  as  the  reflecting  surface  is  irregular, 
and  oonatantly  varies  ita  pcaitioa,  owing  to  the 
constant  oommunication  ot  heat  to  the  upper 
abatnm,  the  reflected  image   vrill    be    constantly 


of  these  images  at  times  may  be  imagined  from  th« 
fact^  that  Captain  Scoresby,  while  cruisLng  off  the 
mast  ot  Greenland  in  1822,  diacoveted  the  propinquity 


I  cloud  or  portion 


mffled  by  the  wind.  ^Diia  form  of  mtisoe, 
which  even  experienced  travellers  have  found  to  be 
completely  deceptive,  is  of  common  occurrence  in 
the  arid  deserts  of  Lower  i^ypt,  Persia,  Tartary,  Ac 
In  particolar  states  of  ^  atmosphere,  reflection 
of  a  portion  only  of  the  rays  takes  place  at  the 
tnr^oe  of  the  dense  medium,  and  thus  doable  imaees 
are  formed,  one  by  reflection,  and  the  other  by 
refraction— the  first  inverted,  and  the  second  erect. 
The  phenomena  of  mirage  ate  frequently  much 
more  strange  and  completed,  the  images  being 
often  much  distorted  and  macnified,  and  in  some 
instancea  occnrring  at  a  consi<terable  distance  from 
the  object,  aa  in  ^e  case  of  a  tower  or  church  seen 
over  the  sea,  or  a  vessel  over  dry  land,  Ac.  The 
particular  form  of  mirage  known  as  ioommg,  is  ttay 
frequently  observed  at  sea,  and  consists  in  an 
excessive  apparent  elevation  of  the  object.  A  most 
remarkable  case  of  this  sort  occurred  on  the  2Gtb  of 
July  179S,  at  Hastings.  From  this  place  the 
French  coast  is  fifty  miles  distant ;  yet,  from  the 
sea-side  the  whole  coast  of  France  from  Calais  to 
near  Dieppe  was  distinctly  visible,  and  continued 
•o  for  three  hours.  In  the  Arctio  regions  it  is  no 
nncommon  occnrrence  for  whale-Ushers  to  discover 
the  proximity  ot  other  ships  by  means  of  their 
images  seen  elevated  in  the  air,  though  the  ships 
themselves  may  be  below  the  horizon.  Generally, 
when  the  ahip  is  above  the  horison,  only  one  image, 
and  that  inverted,  is  found;  but  when  it  is  whoQy 
or  in  great  part  below  the  hoiuoo,  double  images 
(see  flg.  I),  one  erect  and  the  other  inverted,  are 
frequently  seen.    The  faitiif  nlncM  and  distiBctncM 


^2. 

of  his  father's  ship  from  its  inverted  image  in  the 
sky.  AnotJier  remarkable  instance  of  M.  occurred 
in  May  ISM,  when,  from  the  deck  of  H.  M.  screw- 
steamer,  JrcAc,  then  cruiaiDgofF  Oesel,  in  the  Baltic, 
the  whole  English  fleet  of  mneteen  sail,  then  nearly 
thirty  miles  distant,  was  seen  aa  if  suspended  in 
the  air  upaide  down.  Beside  such  phenomena  aa 
these,  the  celebrated  Fala  Morgana  (q.  v.)  of  the 
Straits  of  Mesjina  sinks  into  intigQilicsnce.  The 
Spectre  <if  the  Brodcen,  in  Hanover,  is  another  cele- 
Inated  instance  of  mirage.  Its  varietieB  are  indeed 
numberless,  and  we  refer  those  who  wish  for  further 
information  to  Brewster's  Optia,  Biot's  Traitt  de 
Phytiqw,  and  for  the  mathematical  theoiy  of  the 
mirage  to  the  works  of  Biot,  Monge,  and  Wollaston. 
See  ^so  Betuexion  and  B,EnucTiOH. 

MIRA'NDOLA,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Modcna,  and  20  mites  north-north- 
east of  the  city  of  that  name.  It  stands  in  the 
midst  of  a  low-lying  and  somewhat  unhealthy  flat^ 
and  contains  numerous  ohurchea,  a  cathedral,  and  a 
citadel  Bice  is  much  cultivated  in  the  vicinity, 
and  the  breeding  of  silk-worms  is  an  important 
branch  of  indnst^.    Pop,  of  town  (1881)  3069. 

HIRBANE.   8eeNrrHO-BB(izoL,inSnpp.,Vol.X 

MIRECOUBT,  a  town  of  France  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Vosges,  in  a  picturesque  district,  20  mile* 
south  of  Nancy.  It  is  famous  for  its  manufactures 
of  lace,  and  of  cbnrch-orBaDs  and  stringed  musical 
instruments.    Fop.  (1S8I)  filGS: 

Ml'RFIBLD,  a  manufacturing  village  of  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England,  three  miles  east  of 
Dewsbuiy.  The  manufacturea  are  fancy  and  other 
woollen  fabrics,  and  cotton  goods.  It  is  one  of  the 
chief  railway  centres  in  the  country.  Pep.  (1871) 
12,869;  (1881)11,512. 

MIBPITR,  a  flourishing  town  of  India,  in  Sinde, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Piniari,  46  mile*  south  of 
Hyderabad.  It  contains  a  fort  capable  ot  accom- 
modating 200  men,  and  which  oommands  the  route 
from  Hyderabad  to  Cutch.  The  surrounding  dis- 
trict is  fertile  and  well  oultivnted.    Pop.  3000. 

MIRROB,  a  reflecting  surface,  usually  made  of 
glass,  lined  at  the  back  with  a  brilliant  metal,  so  as 
strongly  to  reflect  the  image  of  any  object  placed 
before  iL  When  mirrors  ware  invented,  is  not 
known,  but  the  use  of  a  reflecting  surface  would 
me  apparent  to  the  first  person  who  saw  hit 
image  reflected  from  water ;  and  probably  fot 
ages  after  the  civilisation  of  man  oommenced,  the 
sbil  waters  of  ponds  and  lakes  were  the  only 
>rs ;  but  we  read  in  the  Pentateuch  of  mirrors 
aM  being  used  by  the  Bebrawa.     Uimjra  <i 


HIRZA— UI97KASAN0E, 


1m>iue  were   in  Teiy  anmnon   dm   amonffrt   t 

ancient  EgyptiuiB,  Greeks,  uid  Romans,  of  which 
iTUmy  flpecimeos  are  preserve  in  mnBerims.  Pnm- 
telea  tauglit  the  use  of  ailver  in  the  manufacture  el 
mirron  m  the  year  328  b.  o.  Mirron  of  glaw  were 
fint  mads  at  Venice  in  1300;  and  jnd^uz  f-  ~ 
thooe  (till  in  ezirtenoe — of  which  one  may  M 
at  Holyrood  Palace,  in  tba  apartment*  of  Qneen 
Mary — tiiey  were  very  rude  coutrivanoei,  compared 
w^  modem  onea.     It  waa  not  until  1673  '''"'' 


It  u  now  a  very 
mirron  can  be  prodnoed  of  any  aiie  to  which  plate- 
glaat  can  be  cart.  Aft«r  tite  ^te  of  glaaa  ia 
polished  on  bath  ndet,  it  w  lud.  on  a  perfectly 
lerel  table  of  great  rtrcosth  and  solidity,  nsuallv 
of  amooth  atone,  made  1^  a  bilUard-table  witli 
raised  edges ;  a  aheet  or  aheeta  of  tinfoil  aufQ- 
cient  to  cover  the  npper  snrface  of  the  glaM  are 
thmi  put  on,  and  rubbed  down  Hnooth,  aftar  which 
the  whole  ia  coreied  with  qoicbilTer,  which 
immediately  fonxki  an  ^tp^^f-^  with  the  tin.  The 
■nperfluona  mercury  ia  then  mn  off,  and  a  woollen 
eloth  ia  spread  over  tbe  whcJe  anrface,  and  oqnare 


weights  are  applied.    After  this  pres«m«  b 
I   coatliined  a  day  and  night,  the  weights  ai 


coating  the  g^aaa,  and  perfeetly  adherent 

Heat  ia  reflect^  like  Lght ;  bo  that  a  conoave 
M.  may  be  naed  to  bring  rays  of  heat  to  a  focua.  In 
this  way  combustible  tubstaoces  may  be  set  on  fire 
at  a  distance  from  the  reflector  whence  the;  receive 
their  heat     Thus  used,  a  M.  is  called  a  Bunting  M. 

MI'RZA,  a  ooutraction  ot  Emr  Zadah,  '  son  of 
Ute  prince,'  is,  when  prefixed  to  the  nmame  of  the 
individual,  Uie  common  title  lA  honour  among  the 
Persians  i  bat  when  oanaxil  to  the  Eomame,  it 
deaignatee  a  prince  oi »  male  of  the  blood-myaL 

MIRZAPU'B,  a  town  of  British  India,  ca^tal  of 
Uie  district  of  the  same  name,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Qangea,  which  is  here  luCf  a  mile  wide,  and 
crossed  ^  a  Uarf,  40  miles  eonth-weet  of  Benans. 
It  has  some  mtmufactnrea  ol  oarpeta,  oottoua,  and 
■ilka,  and  ia  the  greatest  ootton-mart  in  India.  Fop. 
0881)66,378.  The<U«(rid  of  bL.inthe  J^oriA-uMl 
Provitttt*,  is  watered  by  the  Oaoges  and  the  Sone. 
Lat  23"  W— 26°  30'  N.;  W  &.'  11'— 83°  39*  B. 
Area,  B224  sqnare  milee.  I^p.  (1881),  almost  all 
Hindus,  1,13&T96.  The  chief  jirodactions,  beside 
tbensnalcereaJiiSTe  cotton,  mdigo,  and  sugar.  The 
climate  is,  on  the  whole,  unheal^y  for  Europeana. 

MISDEHEAHOUB  is  one  of  the  technieal 
divisions  of  erimee,  by  the  law  of  England  and 
Ireland.  The  mail  division  of  crimes  ia  into 
toeaaon  (which  generally  stands  by  itself,  though, 
strictly  speaking,  included  in),  felony,  and  mis- 
demeanour.    The  offence  of  greatest  enormity  is 

original  distinction  between  felony  and  misde- 
meanour oonsisted  in  the  consequences  of  a  oon- 
viction.  A  party  convicted  of  felony,  if  capital, 
forfeit*  both  hia  real  and  personal  estate )  it  not 
capital,  lus  personal  estate  only.  A  party  convicted 
of  misdemeanour  forfeits  none  of  hia  property.  The 
distinction  is  not  kept  up  between  the  two  olasaes 
of  crimes  by  any  pe*ibet  Mveri^  of  punishment  in 
felony,  for  many  misdemeauonn  am  punished  as 
■everaly  •■  some  felonies.     But  it  has  been  the 


the    above    incidents    atta<di   to    \ 
accordingly. 

HISB'NO,  n  pnmontoiy  of  the  pnmnoe  of 
Naples,  9  miles  south-west  of  the  oity  of  Naples 
On  the  ontakirts  of  the  promontory  sm  the  aitaii> 
aivD  mins  of  the  ancient  city  of  1Wi«T'iim,  incloding 
a  vast  chnrdk  and  theatre^  VL  ia  mnch  visited  on 
Moonnt  Of  its  wonderfnl  grotto  Diwwura,  and  » 
onrion  lubternmMn  buHmng  or  labyrinth,  called 
the  Huncb«d  Chamber^  si^Msed  to  have  beeb 
anoicuUy  (mfJoyed  a*  dungeons. 

HISEBBTB^  the  name  by  whioh,  in  CUholir 
osan  the  GOth  Psslm  of  the  Vnlgats  (Slst  in 
aat£oriaed Tenion|U  commoi^  knows.  It  is  oB» 
of  the  so-called  'Penitential  PMlms,'  and  is  oosn- 
monly  understood  to  have  been  composed  hy  Davii 
in  the  depth  of  hi*  remorse  for  the  donbla  crims- 
which  Uie  prophet  Nathan  rebuked  in  tha  wtQ. 
known  pamUe  (2  8am.  ziL).  Another  t^inioa, 
however,  attributes  this  psalm  to  Minaww,  «f  t» 
some  of  the  Dsalm-writers  of  the  Captiri^.  Tha 
Mi*era«  is  of  frequent  ocourrenoa  in  uu  servioM  <£ 
tfas  Roman  Chnicn ;  and  in  the  celebrated  serrics- 
of  Tenebm,  as  ptafbrrned  in  the  Sixtine  Cht^ 
at  Rome,  it  fonos,  as  chanted  by  the  pope's 
ohoir,  one  of  the  most  striking  end  impcesBre 
chants  in  the  entire  range  of  sacred  moaia  It  is 
sung  on  each  of  the  tluee  n^ta  in  Holv  Week 
(q.  V.)  on  which  the  office  id  lanebrB  is  hdd,  with 
differtnt  muiio  on  each  of  the  three  oooasiona,  tba 
three  oompoaers  being  Bsi,  Baini,  and  the  still  m 
celebrated  AIlegrL^Sliserere  is  also  the  name 
one  of  tlie  evening  services  in  Lent,  which  is 
called  from  tlie  ""^"fl  of  that  psalm,  and  whidk 
include*  a  sermon,  commonly  on  toe  dn^  of 


practice   (^   tiie   le^slattve,   when   oreatins 

-' 1,  to  M^  whether  tiiey  are  to  be  dassM 

or  misdemeanonii  and  when  this  it  don^ 


offences,  t 


with 


Ptdid  BUUng't  OartiiU  OaOtdroL 

chapels,  Ac.  They  are  uanoUy  ornamented  with 
oarved  work,  and  are  eo  sht^ed,  that  when  tbs 
seats- proper  are  folded  up,  thev  form  a  small  seat  it 
a  higher  level,  sufficient  to  sfibrd  some  suppot  to 
a  person  resting  upon  it.  Aged  and  in£rm  eodc- 
siastics  were   flowed   to  use   thsM   dnong   faag 

MISFEA'SAKOE,  in  Legal  Langnase,  means  tte 
doing  of  a  positive  wrong,  in  conuwuatinctioa  ta 
nonteasance,  which  means  a  msn  ft— !«»     AAj 


HISHKA— MESSIONa 


AM  tometiiiiM  followed  with  different  legal  conte- 
qnencea,  aooordiiig  u  they  fall  ondei  tlie  he«d  of 

HI'SHITA  {from  Heb.  *itima,  to  leiiii ;  errDneontly 
BepetitioD)  oompiise*  tlie  body  of 


bold  todetd 


the  *Ond  Diw,'  or  tiie  jnniico-political,  dvilfUid 
oode  of  the  Jem;  ana  foi~  ~ 


rehaioQs  o 

Una  of  complement  to  the  Uoaaio  ot  Written 
Law,  which  it  explaina,  unplifiec,  and  immatabl; 
fixe*.  It  WW  tut,  howerer,  the  tole  authority  of 
tile  lohoolB,  and  tlie  maatera,  on  which  these  ezplan- 
atioDi  aitd  tiie  new  otdinanota  to  wliich  they  gave 
lice  depended,  bnt  nther  certain  distinct  and  well- 
anthentioated  tnditiimi,  -toaced  to  Mount  Sinai 
itMU  No  lets  were  owtain  special  letters  and  signs 
fnthe  WrittejilAW  appealed  to  in  some  cases,  as  con- 
taining an  indioation  to  <Le  speaial,  newly  issued, 
«r  fixed  prohilntion*  or  lulea.  See  HuaOHA.  The 
Hiahna  (to  whi<^  the  Toaeftaa  and  Bonithaa  form 
npplenMDts)  was  finallr  redaotad,  after  some  earlier 
incomplete  ct^eotionB,  b^  Jebudah  Hansui,  in  220 
A.i>.,  at  Tiberias.  It  la  moaUy  written  in  pure 
Helmw,  and  is  divided  into  six  portions  <8edanm) : 
L  Ztraim  (Seeds),  on  Agricnlhue ;  2.  Moed  <Feast), 
on  the  Sabbath,  FertivaU  and  Fasts;  3.  Nashim 
(Women),  on  Mairiage,  DivoroB,  &&  (ranbracinA 
also  the  lawa  <m  the  Naciiship  and  Vows);  £ 
Nezikin  (Damagea),  chiefly  dvil  and  penal  law 
(also  Mntsining   tha   ethit^   treatise   Abotb) ;   S. 


iadaihim  (Samd  Things),  Sacrifices,  fto. ; 
TintiMi  4rf  the  Temple  of  JenuiUem,  so. 
^eWoth  {Pmifieatioul  on  puM  and  impute  tb 


UISKOXOZ,  the  priudpal  to 
BoTsod,  Hongary,  ntuated  at 


impure  tluDga 

.  -  ,1 _.ti>wn  in  the  oonnty  of 

.  .--.  Hungary,  ntuated  at  the  eztremi^  '  - 
beantifii]  ralley,  25  miles  norUi-east  of  Erlatu 
connected  with  DebrecsD  by  railway,  and  contains 
niuneioiu  ehorchea,  two  gymnasia,  and  other  educa- 
tional institutions.  Wine  and  melons  are 
lively  cultiTated.  From  the  iron  obtained  .  .  . 
ficimty,  the  best  steel  in  Hungary  is  made.  The 
chief  trade  is  in  wine.  Pop.  (ISSO)  24,319. 
MISKO'MEB  is  tiie  giving  of  a  wrong 
party  in  a  suit.  Fonnerly,  the  objeotio 
nomer  was  of  some  importance,  but  now  ii 
as  it  is  easily  cured  by  amendment. 

MISPRI'SION  is,  in  English  Iaw,  a  clerical 
error  made  in  drawing  np  a  record  of  a  court  of 

HISABPRBSEHTA'TION,  in  point  of  law,  or, 
as  it  is  moat  frequently  tramed,  fnuululent  misre- 
presentation, is  that  kind  of  lie  for  which  courts  of 
law  will  give  redress.  It  consists  in  a  wilful  false- 
hood «B  to  some  material  thing  connected  or  not 
with  some  contract ;  the  object  being  tliat  the  party 
deceived  should  act  upon  it  as  tnie.  The  legal 
result  is,  that  if  the  party  so  relying  on  its  truth  and 
acting  oa  i%  soffier  auniigfi,  be  can  sue  the  deceiver 
for  snob  damage.  It  has  sometimo  been  sappoeed 
that  tiie  deoeit  or  misrepresentation  must  have 
nfvance  to  some  contract,  or  arise  out  of  soma  con- 
fidential relation  between  the  parties,  and  that  the 
party  making  it  should  have  some  private  interest 
to  serve ;  but  this  is  a  mistake  ;  and  recent  cases 
have  eatablished,  that  if  a  person  wilfully — L  e., 
either  not  knowing  anything  at  all  one  way  or  the 
other  about  the  matter,  or  knowing  the  real  truth, 
inisrepieeent  something,  with  the  mtenUon  that  a 
■tranger  should  act  on  such  misrepresentation,  and 
BDch  stranger  does  so  act  on  it,  and  suffer  damsge, 
tben  the  n^t  of  action  accrues  to  the  deceived 
party.  One  remaAable  excnition  to  this  doctrine, 
however,  ooctua  in  the  oase  oltbe  conb«at  cd  mar- 
riage, where  either  party  has  in  general  no  remedy 
whataver  agunrt  the  other  ba  misrepreaentationsaa 


to  his  or  her  property,  oonnecfcionB,  fto,  It  is  not 
necessary  that  the  misrepresentation  should  be 
made  in  writing,  in  order  to  give  rise  to  the  action, 
except  in  cases  where  the  psHy  gives  representa- 
tions as  to  the  conduct^  crodit,  ability,  trade,  or 
dealings  of  a  third  party,  in  order  that  snch  third 
nu^  ahall  obtain  mdi^  money,  or  good*  thereby. 
The  doctrine   oi   misrepresentation    has   acquired 


strangeia  a 
thereby  suf 


tion  has  acquired 
m«at  cooseqaeooe  t£  late,  owing  to  the  extennon  of 
tbe  ayitem  of  joint-stock  companies,  ud  the  Rao> 
tice  ra  the  director*  and  officers  pnblishins,  or  being 
parties  to  fraudulent  reports,  accounts,  and  drculara 
as  to  the  credit  and  stability  of  such  nndertokingi. 
It  is  now  settled,  that  not  only  every  director, 
but  ovely  clerk  in  the  service  of  the  directors,  wh« 
knowingly  and  wilfully  concurs  and  takea  a  part  in 
publishing  or  circulating  such  false  reports,  whereby 

-' B  are  led  to  believe  and  act  on  them,  and 

suffer  pecuniary  loss,  is  liable  to  an  aotioo 
gea  at  the  suit  of  such  strangen.  It  is  abo 
g(9iem  rule  afCecting  contracts  (other  than 
marrisse),  that  misrepresentation  in  some  material 
point  beuing  on  the  contract,  and  likely  to  hiduae 
the  party  to  enter  into  such  oontrad^  wUl  render 
the  contract  void;  but  in  order  to  make  a  triBing 
misrepresentation  have  tlie  same  effect,  the  party 
must  warrant  such  repreeentatiMl  to  be  true ;  in 
which  case,  whether  trifling  or  not,  or  whether 
wilful  or  not,  a  misrepresentation  avoid*  the 
contract ;  and  tbia  is  generally  the  case  in  eon- 
tracts  of  life  and  fire  miutance.  Against  soeha 
practice,  Lord  St  Leonards  lately  lemonitrated,  as 
one  involving  great  hardship  to  the  claai  of  insurer*, 
who,  after  paying  premiums  for  years,  find  at  last 
their  secnnty  gone.  Another  cutss  <rf  fraoduloit 
misrepreeentatioii^  of  great  consequence,  and  now 
brought  witttin  tbe  criminal  law  to  a  large  extent,  is 
that  of  counterfeiting  trade-marka,  as  to  which,  see 
Trahe-makks- 
MI'SBA  DI  TO'C£,  a  term  used 


With  the  v: 


long  duraition, 

MI'BSAL,  the  i 
used  in  tbe  oelebn. 
considenible  variety  in  minor  details  prevailed 
amon^  the  books  in  use  in  different  countries,  and 
— "•  in  different  churches  of  the  same  countlT. 
the  view  of  restoring  uniformity,  the  pope,  m 

of  a  decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  m  1570, 

ordered  t^t  all  cbnrchee  which  had  not,  for  a 
dearly  aacertained  period  of  200  years,  enjoyed  an 
nnintermpted  use  of  a  peculiar  service-book  of 
their  own,  ehonld  thenceforth  adopt  the  lioman 
TLfiaftftT,  QE  tiiis  exemption,  several  churches  in 
Qernlany,  Fnuioe,  and  even  in  Italy,  availed  tliem- 
selves  ;  but  in  later  times,  the  ^|eat  majority  have 
conformed  to  the  Homan  use.  The  Roman  Missal 
has  twioe  since  tbat  date  been  subjected  to  revision 
and  correction— in  1601  by  Clement  VIIL,  and  in 
1634  by  Urban  VIIL  l^e  latter  recension  still 
continues  in  uss.  The  '"'»«'■'"  of  the  oriental  rites 
differ  from  that  of  ihe  Soman  Church,  each  having 
for  the  moat  part  it*  own  proper  forjtt.   SeeLmrEor. 

MISSIONS,  enterprises  of  the  Obristian  Chorch 
for  the  conversion  of  the  nations  to  Christianity,  by 
sending  to  tbem  teocbelm  called  muiionaria. 

Tbe  first  Christians  displayed  great  zeal  in 
preaching  the  gospel  to  the  heathen  ;  CHhrisfjaa 
teachers  contdnued  to  go  forth  for  this  purpose 
into  heathen  oonntriea  until  about  tbe  9th  c,  and 
althon^  other  and  less  worthy  means  were  too 
often  employed,  the  labours  of  Palladius  in  Ireland, 


Qallna  and  Xknnisran  in  i 


^ 


ID  BkTaiu,  of  WQlibnid  in  FnmconU,  of  Swidvirt 
in  FrieiUnd,  of  Siegfried  in  Sweden,  of  Boni- 
face in  Tburin^  and  Saxony,  of  Adalbert  in 
Frusaia,  of  Cynl  and  Methodina  amon^  the 
Slavonians,  and  of  many  Buch  early  miauonariee, 
were  nnqnestionablj  vei?  initnunentiil  in  the  exten- 
sion of  Chriatianity  in  Biuvpe.  After  the  B^or- 
raatiOQ,  the  Boman  Catholic  Church,  roased  to 
kcttvity  by  its  looaea  and  dangera,  not  only  sent 
forth  miaaionariea  to  coofinn  its  adherent*  in  Fro- 
teatant  countrie*,  and  to  win  back  Frotestanta,  but 
abo  (Ought  to  repair  ita  losaea  by  new  ocquiutionB 
from  the  vast  domain  of  heatheniam.  With  this 
view,  the  CongrtgtUio  de  Pivpagmuid  Fide  was  con- 
■titnted  by  Oregoty  XY.  in  16^  and  the  Ci>%i'ui7t 
d«  PropagandA  lide  (aee  Fropagavsa)  by  Urban 
TIIL  in  1627,  and  in  a  number  of  places,  institutions, 
called  teminariti,  were  eatablishM  for  the  training 
of  misnonaries.  Jesuit  missiooariea  earnestly  pro- 
■ecutad  their  work  amongst  the  Indiaos  of  South 
America,  from  the  middle  of  the  16th  c  to  the 
middle  (rf  the  18th,  when  they  were  expelled  by  the 


an  aconaed  of  administering  baptism  with  too  gt«al 
(eadiness  ;   bnt  they  were  oertainly  suQceMflU    in 

extendiuff  civilisation  amongst  the  Indians,  partic- 
niarly  of  Faraguay.  Jesuit  missions  to  India  and 
Japan  were  fonnded  by  Francis  X»vier  (q.  v.)  in 
the  middle  of  the  16th  century.  In  Japan,  the 
miMtonariea  made  great  progren  at  first ;  and  in 
1SS2  they  boasted  ol  160,000  converts,  200  chnrchea, 
and  W  religions  honaas  of  their  order  in  that  empire ; 
bnt  era  tb  middle  of  the  17th  c,  the  whole  work 
had  beenoverthrown,  and  every  missionary  expelled. 
In  China,  similar  raiiid  success  wu  enjoyeo,  and 
was  followed  by  a  similar  period  of  peneoation, 
altliough  the  destruction  effected  was  more  partial 
than  in  Japan,  and  the  Chnrch  (rf  Bome  continued 
to  subsist  in  China,  ita  miaaionaries  and  members 
enduring  great  hardships,  and  many  of  them  evincing 
their  sincerity  even  by  their  death.  There  are  not 
a  few  Boman  Catholics  in  China  at  the  present 
time.  In  Abysaioia  also,  the  Jesuits  made  great 
progreoa  in  the  17th  century,  and  for  a  time  attained 
great  power  in  the  country ;  but  their  interference 
in  polildcal  matteia  led  to  their  complete  expul- 
sion. In  the  17th  c,  the  Jesuits  boasted  of  the  vast 
success  of  their  mission  in  Madnra,  a  province  of 
Southern  India ;  but  it  was  found  to  be  rather 
apparent  than  real,  and  to  have  been  attained  by 
a  compromise  of  Christianity  and  the  employment 
of  unworthy  means,  so  ihat,  after  long  oontests  in 
the  papal  court,  a  decision  was  pronounced  against 
the  Jesuits,  and  their  connection  with  Madura  was 
dissolved  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century. 

For  a  long  period  after  the  BeformatioD,  the  Fro- 
testant  Church  seems  to  have  been  little  sensible  of 
the  duty  of  labouring  for  the  propagation  of  Chris- 
tianity ;  nor  was  it  until  the  present  century  that 
missionary  zeal  b^an  to  be  Isjgely  developed.  In 
the  middle  of  the  17th  o.  (1647),  indeed,  an  act  of 
the  English  parliament  established  the  Society  for 
Propagaling  lie  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parlt,  and  at 
the  cIoBB  of  the  century  (1698),  the  fioctrfy  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knotnled^  was  established. 
A  few  missionaries  laboured  with  zeal  and  success 
among  the  North  American  Indians,  in  which  field 
the  names  of  Eliot  and  Mayhew  are  particularly 
distingoiehed  in  tiis  17lh  a,  and  that  of  Broinerd 
in  the  ISth ;  but  the  commencement  of  more  sys- 
tematio  and  contiouous  missionary  enterprise  may 
be  reckoned  bom  the  establishment  of  the  first 
Protestant  mission  to  India,  which  did  not  take 

C'  M  till  the  beginning  of  the  18th  c,  when  Bar- 
lomew  Ziegenbalg  and  another  wen  sent  thither 


by  Frederick  IT.  of  Denmark,  and  settled  in  a  smafl 
territory  then  belonging  to  Denmark  on  the  coast 
of  Coromandel.  The  mission  in  the  south  of  Indift 
soon  received  the  support  of  the  English  Society  for 
Promoting  Chriitian  Knowledge,  and  was  nuuntained 
and  extended  chiefly  by  that  Society  during  the 
whole  of  the  18th  century.  Amongst  the  mi>- 
sionaries  who  labonted  in  this  field,  the  name  at 
Swartz  is  particularly  distinguished ;  and  the  success 
which  attended  his  exertions,  Mid  the  influence 
which  he  acquired  in  the  country,  were  equally 
remarkable.  He  died  in  1798.  Since  that  time,  the 
missionary  woric  in  the  south  of  India  has  been 
carried  on  with  oontinued  snocess,  and  by  the  mis- 
sionoriea  of  a  number  of  societies.  Greater  progreas 
has  been  made  there  than  in  any  other  part  of  India, 
nor,  indeed,  was  the  work  commenced  in  any  other 
part  of  India  till  almost  a  century  later. — The  Mora- 
Chorch  early  entered  upon  missionaiy  enter- 
aud  waa  the  first  Protestant  Church  which  did 
its  nnit«d  or  corporate  chsraoter ;  and  very 
Eucceasful  missions  of  the  United  Brethren  were 
planted  in  the  IStb  c  at  the  Ci^  of  Good  Hope, 
m  the  West  Indies,  and  in  Labrador.  Greenland 
had  previously  been  made  the  field  of  umilar  enter- 
prise by  missionaries  from  Norway,  The  mission 
to  Greoiland  was  founded  by  Hana  Egede  (q-v.),  in 
1721,  and  has  been  maintained  to  the  present  djiy. 
Its  aucoesB  has  been  such,  that  the  greater  portion  of 
the  Greenlanders  have  now  been  cooverted  to  Chrit- 
tianity,  and  much  of  the  rudeness  of  their  former 
manner  of  life  has  disaiipeared. — Towards  the  close 
of  tJie  ISth  c,  some  of  the  great  missionaiy  societies 
stm  existinz  in  England  were  formed — uie  BapUtt 
JUietionarf/Societ]/  in  17C2,  the  Lorulon  Jfisnonary 
Sodely  in  1796.  About  the  same  time,  the  Sriliiii 
and  Fweiffit  B'Me  Bodid^,  and  the  iUiigiout  Traet 
Sodetp,  were  formed,  which  have  co-operated  with 
all  the  missionary  aocietiea  is  most  important 
auxiliaries.  Tha  BapUat  liitsionary  Society,  imme- 
diately after  ita  formation,  sent  missionaries  to  the 
north  of  India.  Br  Carey  was  one  of  its  first,  and 
also  one  of  its  most  eminent  missionsries.  India  is 
now  a  field  of  labour  for  many  missionary  societies, 
not  only  of  Britain,  but  also  of  America  and  of 
the  continent  of  Europe,  llie  London  Miieionary 
Societu  seat  its  first  missionaries  to  the  South  Sea 
rilands,  and  the  mission  was  maintained  for  about 
16  years,  amidst  many  difficulties,  without  any 
apparent  success ;  but  its  success  was  afterwords 
great  and  rapid,  first  in  T^ti,  and  ofterwu^s  in 
other  ialondB,  so  that  now  many  of  the  islands  of 
the  South  Seas  are  entirely  Christian.  The  London 
Missionary  Society  soon  entered  also  upon  other 
fields  of  labour,  and  now  maintains  missions  to 
many  parts  of  the  world.  It  was  at  firat  composed 
of  members  of  almost  all  Protestant  denominations  j 
but  the  formation  of  other  societies,  and  the  enga^ 

'  of  churches  as  such  in  missionary  enterpnss 

the  Wesleyan  Methodist  -Chnrch— have  left 
this  Society  now  in  a  great  measure  to  the  English 
Indepeadeuts.  One  of  the  most  important  aocietJM 
founded  during  the  present  century,  the  Ch«rA 
Mitiionary  Soaety,  formed  by  members  of  the 
Church  of  Englsnd,  has  sent  forth  missionaries  to 
many  fields.  They  have  been  particularly  sucoeas- 
ful  in  New  Zealand,  the  west  of  Africa,  and<  about 
Hudson's  Bay  ;  and  they  recently  entered  Abys- 
sinia. The  various  churches  in  Scotland  also  support 
vigorous  mission  agencies.  The  late  Dr  Livingstone, 
at  the  London  Missionary  Society,  explored  vast 
re^ons  in  Central  Africa.  Fired  by  his  example,  the 
friends  of  missions  in  Scotland  subscribed  £1^000 
to  found  Livingtlonia,  a  memorial  mission  station  on 
Lake  Nyusa,  under  the  managunent  of  the  Free 
Chorch  For^gn  Missions  Committes ;  and  an  ex- 


,,  Google 


MISSIONS— MISSISSIPPI. 


pediCion  arrived  there  and  eitabliili(d  itself  in 
1876.  Various  other  miiaionaiy  HocietiM,  CathoLc 
and  Protestan^  have  selected  stationa  id  Uie  rezioD 
of  the  great  lakes.  The  Wealevait  Methodists 
have  missioiiB  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  They 
have  been  {wrticularly  succeasful  ia  the  Fiji 
Islands,  and  in  parts  of  the  west  of  Africa. — The 
A  ra*rican  Board  nf  CoTnmuaioneri  for  Foreign  MU- 
tioa*  was  formed  in  ISIU,  aod  was  soon  followed  by 
other  miasiona^  societiea  in  America,  some  of  which 
lival  those  of  Britain  in  magnitude  and  importance. 
One  of  the  finit  enterprises  of  the  American  Board 
nas  the  mission  to  the  Sandwich  Islands,  founded 
in  1819,  which  bos  resulted  in  the  general  Chiistiani- 
Bation  of  theee  islands,  and  in  their  civilisation  to 
a  degree  which,  considering  the  shortness  of  the 
time,  may  well  be  r^aided  with  admiration.  The 
.American  Bap&it  Hiuionary  Soddy  has  occupied 
Bormah  and  the  Eastern  Peninsula  as  one  of  its 
pioctpal  sphei«a  of  labour,  and  there  its  misuon- 
ariw  have  enjoyed  remarkable  success  in  the  Cfaris- 
tianisation  and  civilisation  of  the  people  called 
Karens.  Frotestaot  missionary  societies  have 
also  been  formed  on  the  continent  oE  Europe,  ot 
which  the  first  was  that  of  Basel,  in  1816,  and  the 
next  wu  that  of  Beriin,  in  1823 ;  and  soma  of  these 
have  also  maintained  sucoenfnl  missions  in  heathen 
countriet.  The  instance*  of  most  marked  uid  ez- 
tensiva  mcoen  of  miMioii*  are  those  which  have 
been  already  noticed,  and  that  of  Madagascar, 
when  missionaries  of  the  London  Missionary 
Soeiety  enjoyed  the  protection  and  favour  oE  King 
Kadama  L,  and  the  church  planted  by  thorn 
oontinued  to  exists  notwithstanding  severe  per- 
■eouUon,  and  the  martyrdom  of  not  a  few  of  its 
members,  during  the  next  reign,  and  ia  a  wonder- 
fnlly  flourishing  church  at  the  present  day.  In  the 
south  of  Africa,  also,  important  resolta  nave  been 
attained.  Access  has  recently  been  obtained  to 
China,  and  a  number  of  Protestant  churches  and 
societies  have  entered  energetically  upon  that  field. 
Preparation  had  been  previously  roaae  for  this,  by 
misalonary  labours  amongst  the  Chineaa  in  the 
Eastern  Peninsula,  and  by  the  study  of  the  language. 


croage.  ^deed,  it  must  be  reckoned  ss  among 
tike  services  rendered  to  mankind  by  Christian 
missionarie*  in  modem  times,  that  they  have  not 
only  translated  the  Bible  and  other  religious  books 
into  many  languages,  but  have  reduced  many 
borbaroni  tcmguea  to  writing,  and  have  prepared 
grammars  and  dictionaries,  thereby  contributing 
not  a  little,  independently  ot  their  highest  aim,  to 
the  promotion  of  knowledge,  civilisation,  and  the 
welfare  of  (he  hmnou  race. 

The  progress  of  Christian  misuons  to  Mohamme- 
dan couotnet  has  hitherto  been  very  small,  although 
numeroos  converts  from  Mohammedanism,  aa  well 
as  bom  heathenism,  have  been  made  in  India.  Of 
late,  some  have  thought  they  observed  a  movement 
among  the  Mohammedans  of  India,  apparently 
tending  toward*  Christianity  ;  but  at  the  same  time 
there  mu  been  a  new  awakening  of  Mohammedanism 
itself  in  the  &stem  Peninsula  and  the  islands  of 
the  Malayan  Archipelago.  Missions  to  the  Jews 
have  tor  several  years  engwed  not  a  little  of  the 
attention  of  some  portions  of  the  Christian  Church, 
particnlarly  in  England  and  SootlaQd.  Missions 
have  been  planted  in  places  where  Jews  are  numer- 
ous, and  already  witji  considerable  success. 

MISSISSrPPI,  one  of  the  south-western  United 
States  of  America,  lies  in  lat  30°  Iff— 35'  N.,  and 
long.  88*  T—ii'  *1'  W.    It  ia  332  miles  from  north 
to  south,  and  has  an  area  of  46,810  sa.  roiles. 
which  ia  the  foremost  of  the  cotton-prodncing  sts 


by  the  rivers  Pearl  and  Missiaaippi.  The  state 
also  includes  a  duster  of  islands  in  the  Gulf,  of 
which  the  principal  are  Horn,  Deer,  and  Ship 
Islands.  There  ate  74  counties.  The  principiQ 
towns  are  Jackson  (the  capital),  Natchez,  Vicksburg 
and  Columbus.  There  are  88  miles  of  sea-coast, 
but  no  good  harbours.  Tba  surface  is  undulating, 
and  generally  very  fertile,  with  river-bottoms  of 
great  productiveness.  Ilie  sea-coast  is  sandy, 
but  well  timbered  with  live  o^,  magnolia,  and 
pine,  and  is  considered  one  of  the  most  healthy 
districta  in  the  world.  The  state  borders  for  500 
miles  on  the  Mississippi,  and  is  drained  by  its 
tributaries,  the  Yazoo,  Black,  Sunflower,  kc,  and 
by  the  Pearl  laxd  Fascagoula,  flowing  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  The  oonntr^  ia  of  the  Tertiary  and 
Upper  Secondary  formations,  with  great  alluvial 
villeya;  the  climate  semi-tropical;  &e  chief  pro- 
ducbona,  cotton,  sugar,  nuite,  wheat,  sweet  pota- 
toes, peoohes,  figs,  oranses,  &e.  In  its  foreata  are 
found  the  deer,  poma.  Dear,  wolf,   wild-cat,  paro- 


vided  with  railways,  and  h 


wealth  and 
of  the  state  is  above 
$550,000;  the  debt  in  1880  was  $3,090,150;  the 
amount  of  taxable  proper^  in  the  state  is  above 
8106,000,000.  Pop.  (1870)  827,922;  (1880)  1,131,592. 
M.  has  a  university,  four  colleges,  and  many  benev- 
olent institutioDS.  This  region  was  traversed  by  De 
Soto  in  1542.  La  Salle  descended  the  Mississippi  in 
1682,  and  claimed  the  country  for  France  ;  in  1698, 
M.  d'Iberville  formed  settlements  on  the  coast  at 
Ship  Island  and  BiloxL  Natchez  was  settled  in 
1700 1  but  in  1728  (his  settlement  was  destroyed  by 
the  Natchez  tribe  of  Indians,  who  were  aftowarda 
defeated,  and  the  survivors  sold  into  slavery  in 
~       ngo.     M.  waa  admitted  to  the  Union  in 

,  ..  seceded  in  ISGl,  and  joined  the  Southern 

Confederacy.  In  1869,  M.  agreed  to  the  new  con- 
stitution, and  waa  restored  to  its  place  in  the  Union. 
In  1863,  the  city  of  Vicksburg,  after  a  tang  and  gallant 
defence,  was  forced,  by  famine,  to  surrender  to 
General  Grant:  and  Jackson,  the  capital,  was  taken, 
and  partially  destroyed  by  the  Federals,  and  soma 
of  the  finest  regions  of  the  state  laid  waste. 

MISSISSIPPI  (Indian,  Mkhi  Sep*,  Great  Biver 
literally.  Father  of  Waters),  a  river  ot  the  United 
States  of  America,  the  priooipal  Hver  of  North 
America,  and,  including  its  chief  branch,  the 
Missouri,  the  longest  in  the  world,  rises  in  the 
highlandi  of  Minnesota,  in  a  cluster  of  small 
lakes,  and  near  the  sources  of  the  Red  Biver  of 
the  North,  and  the  rivers  which  flow  into  Lake 
Superior,  in  Ut  47°  10"  N.,  long.  94°  64'  W.  lU 
sources  are  1680  feet  above  the  Qnlf  of  Mexico,  into 
which  it  enters.  Its  general  course  is  southerly, 
with  numerous  windmgs,  giving  it  a  length  of 
2616  miles  to  its  mont^  in  lat.  29°  K.,  long.  90° 
W.,  from  which  to  the  source  of  the  Missouri  is 
4200  miles.  The  M.  and  its  branches  drain  an  area 
of  1,226,600  square  miles.  It  is  navigable  to  the 
Falls  of  St  Anthony,  2200  miles,  and  by  smaller 
boats  above  the  falls ;  or  by  (he  Missouri,  3S50 
miles,  and  has  1500  navigable  branches,  the  chief  of 
which  are  the  Red  Biver,  340  miles  from  its  mouth  ; 
the  Yazoo,  634  miles ;  the  Arkansas,  700  mile* ; 
the  Ohio,  1063  miles  ;  the  Missouri,  1253  miles. 
The  M.  River  forms  a  poition  of  the  boundaries 
of  ten  states,  having  the  southern  port  of  Minnesota, 
Iowa,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  most  of  Louisiana 
on  the  west  bank;  and  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee,  Mid  Mississippi  on  the  east  The 
chief  towns  situated  on  its  banlu  are  New  Orleans, 


?r^ 


.MIS80UBL 


Natchez,  Ticbbont  Mempbia,  8t  Lcniu,  Qnincy, 
Keokuk,  Oslena,  ^  PanL  The  Upper  M.,  abore 
Ute  junction  of  the  MiBSOuii,  flowi  through  a 
pictnreoque  and  beantifnl  comitry.  ^e  great 
Uwer  valley  il  SOO  milea  looa,  and  from  30  to  EO 
wide.  The  deltft,  through  irbjch  flow  its  numeroua 
bayoiu,  il  ISO  inilea  wide.  Hie  alluvial  plain 
throngh  which  the  riTer  winds  hai  an  area  of 
31,200  Miure  milai;  and  the  delta,  14,000  aquare 
milee,  all  of  which,  except  a  few  bluffi^  ii  pro- 
tected I^  lereea,  or  eabankmetita,  from  frequent 
innndationB.  The  descent  of  the  plain  is  320  feet, 
or  8  inches  per  mile.  The  river,  at  hiah  water,  Il 
higher  than  the  plain,  and  the  bonks  higher  than 
fte  twoniM  of  the  interior.  The  great  floods  rise 
40  feet  above  low  water  at  llie  head  of  the  plain, 
and  20  feet  at  New  Orleans,  and  for  the  whole 
distance  the  river  averageB  3000  feet  wide,  ood  il 
from  76  to  120  deep.  Some  40  per  cent,  of  the 
floods  are  lost  in  the  great  manhes.  A  disaitrona 
flood  in  Maroh  1S82  rendered  76,000  persona  dtati- 
tnte.  ThooiMndB  of  acres  of  land  upon  the  banks, 
with  their  growth  of  timber,  are  aoDiiilly  carried 
away  by  the  current. 

MISSISSIPPI  SCHEME.  The  ^gantio  com- 
mercial scheme  ooounoiily  known  by  tbia  name  was 
projected  in  France  by  the  celebrated  John  Law 
fq.  v.)  of  I^uriston,  in  1717,  and  coUapsed  in  1720. 
Ite  primary  object  woa  to  develop  the  resources  of 
tito  province  of  Louisiana  and  the  country  bordering 
on  uie  Mississippi,  a  tract  at  that  time  believed  to 
abound  in  the  precious  metals.  The  company  was 
incorporated  in  Auoust  1717,  under  the  deaignation 
of  the  CompoKfi  <ff  lAs  Wett,  and  started  with  a 
capital  ot  SOO^  sharaa,  of  000  livre*  each.  They 
obtained  the  exdnrive  ^Til^^e  oi  trading  to  the 
^''~'*inKd,  fuming  tiie  taxes,  and  coining  money. 
~~— ' —  — s  BO  inviting,  that  -' 


Indies,  China,  the  Sou^  Seas,  and  all  the  , 
uons  of  the  rrenoh  East  India  Company,  the 
brilliant  vision  opened  up  to  the  public  gaze  was 
iiTesiilabla.  The  Company  tif  tie  India,  as  it  was 
iiow  oalled,  onated  00,000  aaditiaaal  abarat,  but  a 
ngft  for  speculation  had  seized  all  classes;  and  there 
were  at  least  300,000  appUoanla  for  tbo  new  shores. 

Law,  as  director-general,  promised  an  annual 
dividend  of  200  livrei  per  ahare,  which,  as  the 
■hares  wen  paid  for  in  tba  depreciated  biUeit  Sllat, 
auoonted  to  an  annual  return  ot  120  per  c«mt.  The 
iHiblia  enthuaisam  now  rose  to  absolute  fren^,  and 
Law's  house,  and  the  street  in  front  of  it,  were 
doily  orowded  with  applicants  of  both  sexe«  and  of 
all  ranka,  who  were  content  to  wait  for  hours,  nay, 
for  days  together,  in  order  to  obtun  an  interview 
with  the  modem  Ptutus.  While  confidence  losted, 
a  factitious  im^iulse  was  given  to  trade  in  Paris; 
the  value  of  manufactures  was  increased  fourfold, 
and  the  demand  for  exceeded  the  supply.     The 

EDpulation  is  laid  to  have  been  increased  by 
uudreds  of  thousonde,  many  of  whom  were  glad 
to  take  shelter  in  garrets,  kitchens,  and  stoblea. 
But  the  regent  had  meonwhile  caused  the  paper 
oimiilotiDn  of  the  notional  bank  to  be  increased 
M  tJie  M.  S.  stock  rose  in  value,  ond  many  wary 
speeuIotoiB,  foreseeing  a  crisis,  had  secretly  con- 
verted th^  paper  and  shares  into  gold,  which  they 
transmitted  to  England  or  Belgium  for  security. 
•j^i ; i„„f 


M.  S.  atock  now  fell  oonsiderably,  and  despite 
■undijr  desperate  efforts,  which  were  attended 
with  momentary  success,  to  keep  up  its  credit, 
h   ooittinaed   to   foil    steadily   and   rapidly.      ''- 


February  1720,  the  National  Bank  and  the  Com- 
pony  of  the  Indies  were  amalgamated,  but  thou{^ 
this  gave  on  anward  turn  to  the  share-market,  it 
foiled  to  put  the  public  credit  on  a  sound  baiuB. 
Several  useless  attempts  were  made  to  mend 
matters ;  and  those  suspected  of  having  more  Uian 
a  limited  amount  (fixed  by  a  law  passed  at  tl>» 
time}  of  gold  and  silver  in  their  poeeesdon,  or  of 
having  removed  it  from  the  country,  were  punished 
with  the  utmost  rigour.  The  crisis  came  at  last 
In  July  1720,  the  bonk  stopped  payment,  and  Iaw 
waa  compelled  to  flee  the  comtt^.  A  share  in 
the  M.  8.  now  with  difficulty  brought  tweoty-fonr 
Hvres.  An  examination  into  the  etato  of  the 
accounts  of  the  company  was  ordered  by  govern- 
ment ;  much  of  the  paper  in  circulation  waa  can- 
celled'; and  the  rest  was  converted  into  '  rentes '  ai 
sacrifice. 


ill  town  of  Greece,  in  iha  eovemment  of  Mtc^M, 
the  northern  shore  of  the  Qulf  of  PaUaa,  21 
miles  west  of  Leponto.  It  is  t^iiefly  memofable 
for  the  two  ai^es  which  it  nndenrant  daring 
the  war  of  inde^dence  in  the  early  part  of  tiie 
ineaent  century.  In  1B22,  it  was  invested  by  land 
and  sea  by  the  Turks,  who,  after  a  siege  of  two 
months,  were  compelled  to  withdraw,  u  1S28,  it 
was  agun  besieged  by  on  overwhelming  Ottranaa 
force ;  and  after  ton  months  of  tedstauce  and  snar- 
ing, its  garrisoD,  reduced  ttcaa  0000  to  3000  fl^ting- 
men,  cut  their  way  through  the  ranks  of  the  eaemy, 
coriyiiie  with  them  a  great  number  of  the  wiraaen 
and  children.  The  Turks  then  entered  the  town, 
which  was  oil  but  totolly  destroyed.  Here  Lord 
Byron  died  in  1824.    Pop.  (1S79)  6324 

MISSOU'RI,  one  of  the  ITnited  SUtea  of  America, 
in  Ut.  36°  30'— 40*  Sff  N,  and  long.  SST  3'— 9S* 
02'  W.,  being  277  miles  from  nortii  to  south,  and 
from  200  to  312  miles  from  east  to  west,  h&viDg 
an  area  of  69,416  square  mUee,  or  44,425,600  wires. 
It  is  bounded  N.  by  Iowa ;  E.  W  the  2iliasiaaiOTa 
Biver ;  S.  by  Arkansoa ;  and  W.  by  Nebraska 
Territory,  Eonsaa,  and  the  Indian  Territory.  M. 
has  114  couotiea.  Its  chief  towns  are  JeS^son 
City  (the  capital),  St  Louis.  Kansas  City,  Eanoibal, 
St  Joseph,  Lexmston.  Its  chief  rivers  are  the 
Mississippi,  which  Dorders  the  state  for  470  tniles ; 
the  Minouri,  which  forms  a  portion  of  its  western 
bonikdaiy,  and  pasaes  through  it  from  west  to  east; 
and  its  affluents,  the  Osage,  Gasconade,  Ac  The 
oountiy  south  of  the  Missouri  River  is  undulat- 
ing, rising  into  mountains  toward  the  borders  of 
Arkansas ;  the  northern  portion  of  the  state  is  level 
prairie-Iond,  with  rich  bottoms,  and  high  picturesque 
tiuSa  on  the  rivers.  The  geologioil  formatiani 
range  between  the  Lower  Silurion  and  Upper  CoaL 
There  are  porphyritic  rocks  in  the  —  '  "" 
centre,  coaf  meaaurea,  with  veins  of  .j„    „ 

thicltneas  of  GOO  feet,  bighly  bituminous,  ond  "im- 
mense deposits  of  iron,  with  lead  and  iron  in  lime- 
stone formations.  The  winters  ore  long  ond  sevete. 
the  summers  hot,  with  sudden  changes.  Much  of 
the  land  is  very  fertile,  producing  muze,  wheat, 
hemp,  tobocco,  the  pesicb,  nectaoue,  grape,  Ac- 
Cotton  is  grown  in  the  southern  countiea.  A  large 
Geimon  population  hoa  introduced  wine-making 
The  chief  monufaotures  are  IronwiakB,  distillerico, 
and  breweries.  St  Louis  has  a  large  trade,  and 
was  in  1380  the  fonrth  manufacturing  city  in  the 
nuioo.  Its  iron  industry  has  grown  ramdly.  In  ISSt 
M.  had  3900  milei  of  railway  in  use.  The  state  debt 
in  1831  was  $16,269,000;  the  expenditnre  for  the 
two  years  1880-81  omounted  to  ^,861,63^    33iere 


(: 


00^ 


MISaODEI— MBTRAL. 


.  .  .  leaA  ooUegei,  teveitl  medical  uid 

ecclesiastiiul  leminariea,  SW  pntilio  ichoalB  vith 
370,000  pnpiU,  and  above  2000  chorcliea.  M.  was 
formerly  »  part  of  Upper  LoniBuuia.  St  QeneTJere 
vu  settled  in  1756,  by  emigmit*  bom  Canada  and 
Bemuo.  St  Laoio,  a  Freach  trading-post,  in  1775,  had 
800  inliabitaQU.  The  couctcy  was  pnrchised  by 
f resident  Jeffereoo  in  1S03 ;  and  in  1821,  after  a 
great  oonteat,  was  admitted  into  the  Union  bh  a  alave 
fUt«,  nndar  nhat  waa  called  (he  Misaonri  Compro- 
miae,  which  admitted  M.,  but  prohibited  alaveiy 
north  of  the  northern  bonndary  of  Arkaniaa,  36* 
SO'  N.  UL  Id  1861,  M.  joined  with  the  Seceded 
Staleo,  and  became  a  scene  of  civil  war  and  violent 
partisan  conflicta.  Pop.  (1820)  68,680;  [1810; 
»83,702  ;  (1870)  1,716,000 ;  (1880)  2,16^380. 

MIB80UBI  (Mud  Biyez),  a  river  of  the  United 
Statea  of  America,  and  chief  aEBoent  of  the  Miaais' 
sippi,  rises  in  two  forha,  the  JeSerson  and  Gallatin, 
in  the  Socky  Mountains,  Dakota  Territoi;,  lat. 
45°  N.,  long.  aboDt  112'  W.  Itt  eontae  is  fint 
northerly  for  600  miles,  then  Easterly  1200,  than 
•outh-eBSterly  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kansas,  and 
easterly  to  its  jonctioa  with  the  Mississippi.  Its 
length  from  its  source  to  the  Missiatippt  u  290S 
miles ;  to  the  Golf  of  Mexico,  4200.  It  is  navigable 
at  hiah  water  to  the  Great  Falls,  3040  miles  tziau 
the  MississippC  It  is  a  turbid,  rapid  stream,  with  a 
vast  number  of  tributaries,  the  chief  ^  whidi  ara 


its  scenery;  at 411  miles  from  its  source,  it  enten 
the  Gates  ot  the  Bock^  Moontaina,  a  gorge  of  6) 
miles,  between  perpendicular  walla  1200  feet  high, 
and  460  feet  apart.  At  the  Great  F^  145  milM 
below,  the  rivet  falls  307  feet  in  a  seties  of  rapids 
and  cascades,  16^  mUes  long.  The  largest  fall  is  87 
(eet,  and  the  scenery  is  full  of  grandenr. 

MISTAKE  is  a  ground  in  law  for  having  a  oon- 
tract  reformed,  and  may  be  set  up  in  some  cases  aa 
a  defence ;  but  a  mere  mistake  as  to  the  legal  effect 
of  a  deed  or  contract  is  in  general  not  regarded  as 
a  ground  for  redress.  When  money  has  been  paid 
by  a  mistake  aa  to  some  inqmrtant  fact,  it  may  be 
recovered  back  from  the  party  to  whom  it  was  so 
paid  by  an  action  for  money  had  and  received ;  but 


UI'STLEIOE  (Anglo-Sax.  ttUiUlmn,  Oer.  miHei  ; 
the  ta»  of  the  Aiulo-Saxon  name  means  a  tine  or 
prong,  a  shoot  of  a  tree;  nwtel  ia  of  annertain 
etymology,  bat  joobably  tiw  same,  in  muMiing  at 
lus^  as  tbe  Latin  vJseus),  a  genus  ( ruetun)  <tf  small 
parasitieal  sliraha  vi  the  natnial  order  Jcrcntftacaa 
This  ordxa  ia  exogenous,  and  oootaina  more  than  400 
known  ^ecie^  moatlf  boreal  and  panaiteiL  The 
leaves  are  entire,  almost  Derveleea,  t^ck  and  fleshy, 
and  witlLont  stipules.  The  flowen  of  many  species 
are  showy.  The  oafyx  arise*  from  a  tube  or  rim, 
which  sometimes  aesomea  the  appeannce  of  a  calyx, 
and  is  so  refnuded  by  many]  boianisfai ;  vriut  othen 
deem  the  ooloured  calyx  being  viewed  bythem  as  a 
eorolla  of  4  or  8  petals  or  segments.  Within  this 
are  the  stamens,  as  numerous  as  its  divisions,  and 
ite  to  Vkunu    The  ovary  is  one^oelled,  with  a 


jktatyovnle ;  thefmit  oneaooded.  generally  suet 

■  .-■.-.  iHatt  orderis  t 

also  of  the  greate 

n  many  kinds  of  tree) 


lent-'Tbs  only  British  spedea  of 
"  ( K.  al&um),  a  n   ' 
qMk  growme  o 
particnlariy  on  the  apple,  and  <^ers  botanically 


a  native  also  of  the  greater 


allied  to  it,  as  the  pear,  service,  and  hawthorn , 
sometiinei,  also,  on  sycamores,  limes,  poplars,  locost- 
trees,  and  firs,  but  very  rarely  on  MXS  (oontrary  to 
the  common  belief).  It  is  very  plentiful  in  some 
parts  of  the  south  of  England,  its  evergreen  leaves 


r,  when  Uie  . 

amanff  the  ikaked  branches  of  the  trees ;  Imt  it  i» 
voy  local  It  is  not  a  native  of  Scotland,  thou^ 
ions  pUoes.    The  stons  ai* 


(Fw 


wmOnim). 


..  divide  by  forking) ;  the  leaves  are 
opposite,  of  a  yellowish-green  colour,  obovate-lanceo- 
late,  obtnSB.  The  flowers  are  inconspicuous,  and 
grow  in  small  heads  at  the  ends  and  in  the  divisions 
of  tiie  branches,  the  mole  and  female  flowers  on 
sepaiate  pUnts.  The  berries  are  about  the  size 
of  currants,  white,  translucent,  and  foU  of  a  very 
viscid  jnioe,  whiidi  serves  to  attach  the  seeds  ta 
branches,  where  they  take  root  when  tlley  ger> 
minate,  the  radicle  always  tntnins  towards  tiie 
branch,  whether  on  its  upper  or  nnoer  side.  The 
M.  derives  ila  nonriahment  from  the  living  tissue  of 
the  tree  on  which  it  grows,  and  from  whi(m  it  seems 
to  spring  aa  if  it  were  one  of  its  own  branoheo.  The 
berries  are  a  favourite  food  of  thmahes.  Bitd-lime 
is  made  from  them  and  from  tiie  bark.    The  M.  was 


In  the  northern  mythalo^,  Balder  is  said  to  have 
been  slain  with  a  spear  of  mistletoe.  Among  the 
Celts,  the  M.  which  grew  on  the  oak  waa  in  peculiar 
esteem  for  magical  virtues.  Traces  of  the  ancient 
r^nrd  for  the  M.  still  remain  in  some  old  ''■^"bI"*' 
ai^  German  cnstoms,  as  kissing  under  the  M.  at 
Christmas.  The  M.  was  at  one  time  in  high  repute 
as  a  remedy  for  epilepsy  and  convnlaioiia,  bat  it 
seems  to  possess  no  decided  medicinal  propertiea. — 
XorcwirttM  Emvptau,  a  ahmb  very  nmilar  to  the 
M.,  bat  witii  flowers  in  racemes,  is  plentiful  in  soma 
parts  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  very  frequently 
grows  on  oaka.-~ii.  odoraiiu,  a  Kepamese  speoei^ 
has  very  fragrant  flowers. 

MISTRAL,  MISTEAOU,  or  MAESTEAL,  ti» 
Provencal  designation  of  the  Counts  or  Coma  of 
the  Romans,  is  a  north-west  wind  wiiich  at  certain 
seasons  of  tiie  year  prevails  on  the  sonlh  ooast  of 
France.  Its  apfooach  is  heralded  by  a  suddMt 
diange  of  the  temperatore,  from  the  moat  geoial 
warmth  to  piercing  cold ;  the  air  is  felt  to  be  purer, 
and  more  easily  inhaled,  the  azure  of  the  oky  is 
nndimmed  by  dond,  and  the  stars  shine  by  nie^t  vrith 
extraordinary  and  sparkling  brightness ;  wis  last 
"  L  in&Jlible  pmgnnstii^     Tha  Mistr^ 

III  V    -v  -*^t  IV 


MISTRBTTA— HTTFOBIk 


thtn  aomM  in  taddsii  ^n«tt,  ttmgglmg  with  the 
local  kOrial  carrenta,  bnt  its  fast  increkaing  violence 
■ooD  OTercomea  all  oppoiition.  In  a  few  hours,  it 
h»  dried  np  tha  soil,  disperaed  the  vapours  of  the 
atmoephere,  tuid  m»ed  ft  dangerous  tumult  among 
the  waten  of  the  Mediterraaeaii.  The  Mistral  blows 
with  its  ^estest  force  from  the  end  of  autumn  to 
the  beginning  of  spring,  and  causes  much  damsge  to 
the  fruit-trees  in  blossom,  and  often  to  the  neld- 
OTOpa.  It  is  a  terror  to  the  msrinera  of  tha  gulfs  of 
Lyon  and  Valence,  and  even  the  most  hardv  seaman 
makes  all  haste  to  a  harbour  of  refuge.  The  most 
probable  cause  of  the  Mistral  is  the  aeraagement  of 
■tmospherio  equilibriani  produced  by  the  cold  con- 
densed oil  cd  the  Alps  and  Cevennes  rushing  in  to 
supply  the  vacuum  produced  by  the  ezpansion  of  the 
•ir  in  the  warm  southern  provinces  of  France,  and 
on  the  surface  of  the  Ueditenaoean.  This  wind  is 
very  appropriately  denominated  by  the  Italians 
Maeairo. 

HISTBETTA,  a  town  of  the  ialaod  of  Sicily,  67 
miles  west-south-west  of  MenainB,  capital  of  a  dis- 
trict. Pop.  <1SS1)  13,132.  It  occupies  a  healthy 
dtoation  near  the  nortbeni  coast,  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  river  NebrodeD. 

MITAXSHARA  i*  tha  name  of  aeveral  com- 
mentatorial  works  in  Sanscrit,  for  instance,  of  a 
oommentary  on  the  text-book  ot  the  VedHnta  phil- 
osophy, of  a  commentary  On  the  MltnAnsA  work  of 
Eumftrila,  of  a  commentary  on  the  Br'ihod&ran'yaka 
(see  Vei>&),  ftc  The  most  renowned  work,  how- 
ever, bearing  this  title  is  a  detailed  oommentary  by 
Tijoines'waTa  (also  called  Vijn&nanfttha),  on  the  law- 
book of  Y&jnavalkya  (i^  v.) ;  and  its  authority  and 
inflnenoe  are  so  great  that '  it  is  received  in  ul  the 
schools  of  Hindu  law  from  Benares  to  tha  southeni 
extremity  of  the  peninsnla  of  India  as  the  chief 
giunndwoTk  of  the  dootrine*  which  they  follow,  and 
as  an  authority  from  which  thev  rarely  dissent'  (cl 
two  tceatuef  on  tha  Hindu  Law  of  inheritance, 
tnuulated  by  H.  T.  Colabrooke,  Calontta,  1810). 
Most  of  the  other  renowned  law-booka  of  recent 
date,  such  as  the  Smr'iti-Chandriki,  which  prevaila 
in  the  south  of  India,  the  Chintlman'i,  Vlromitro- 
daya,  and  MayQkha,  which  are  authoritative  saver- 
ally  in  Mithill,  Benares,  and  with  the  Mahridtas, 
Binerslly  defer  to  the  decisions  of  the  M. ;  the 
iyahhlga  of  JimQtavtLhana  alone^  which  is 
adopted  by  tha  Bengal  school,  differs  on  almost 
every  dtspnted  point  from  the  M.,  and  dues  not 
acknowleage  its  authority.  The  M.,  foUoviug 
the  arrangement  of  its  text-work,  the  code  of 
Yijnavalkya,  treats  in  its  first  part  of  duties  in 

Keral ;  in  its  second,  of  private  and  administrative 
;  in  ita  thiid,  of  purification,  penance,  devotion, 
and  so  forth ;  but,  iince  it  frequently  quotes  other 
legislators,  eipoundina  their  tuts,  and  contrasting 
tiiiem  with  those  of  Y&jnavalkya,  it  is  not  merely 
a  commentary,  but  supplies  the  plaoe  of  a  regular 
digest  The  text  ot  the  M.  has  been  edited  several 
times  in  India.  An  excellent  transUtion  of  its 
chapter  'On  Inheritance'  was  published  by  Cole- 
tvooka  in  the  work  above  referred  to  ;  and  its 
eonilanatiou  of  Ytjnavalkya  is  followed  by  the  sonte 
celebrated  scholar  in  bis  Digat  of  Hinau  Law  (3 
vols.  Calcutta  and  London,  ISOl),  when  translating 
passages  from  this  ancient  author. 

HITE,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  Aearida 
Keuerally  (see  AcABCS) ;  someumes  only  to  those  of 
them  which  have  the  feet  formed  for  walking,  and 
the  month  not  famished  with  a  snckar  formed  of 
IsDoet-like  plates,  as  in  the  Ticks  (q.  v.),  bnt  with 
mandibles.  All  of  them  are  amall  nreatores ;  the 
vpecies  are  very  namerons;  they  feed  chiefly  on 
woaying  animM  aod  vegetsbla  substaiMea,  m  are 


AcASUs)  ia 


if  the  best  known  species ;  another 


both  of  which  the  body  is  covered  with 
hairs  very  large  in  proportion  to  its  size,  and 
capable  of  a  considerable  amount  of  motion.  The 
ScoiUt  M.  (A.  taedtariaia)  swarms  in  almost  tSi. 
»qfl  sugar ;  but  refined  and  crystallieed  sugar  seems 
to  defy  ita  mandibles,  and  is  free  of  it.  The  surface 
of  jelly  and  preserves,  when  it  has  begun  to  become 
diy,  is  often  covered  with  multitudes  of  very  smsH 
mites.  A  species  of  M.  is  the  cause  of  Itch  (q.  v.) ; 
and  many  of  the  lower  animals  are  infested  by 
parasites  of  this  tribe.  Beetles  may  often  be  seen 
absolutely  loaded  by  a  species  which  preys  on  them ; 
and  bird-fanciers  regard  with  tha  utmost  horror  the 
Red  M.,  which  limes  in  crevice*  ot  cages  and 
aviorieo,  and  sucks  the  blood,  and  eata  the  featheia 
of  thdr  inmatea. 

MITFORD,  Mart  RoaasLL,  a  weB-known 
English  authoress,  was  the  only  child  of  a  physi- 
cian, and  was  born  at  Alreafon^  Hants,  December 
16,  1786.  At  the  age  of  ten,  she  was  sent  to  a 
boarding-school  at  Chelsea,  and  also  placed  under 
the  gnJdance  and   tuition  of  a   Miss   Bowden, 


of  Miss  London  and  of  Fanny  Kemble. 
During  the  five  j^ean  she  spent  heia,  she  read 
with  avidity,  studying  the  tragic  aothors  of  Fnace, 
Shakspotre,  and  the  early  dnunatista  of  England. 
At  the  age  of  fifteen,  she  returned  home,  and 
before  she  was  twen^,  she  published  three  volumea 
of  poetry.  These  having  been  teverely  'M^rtig^t^M^ 
by  the  Quarterb/  JUtaeia,  she  applied  herself  to 
writing  tales  and  sketches  for  the  '"»(p-""'^  Tha 
profession  she  had  adopted  from  taste  she  waa 
oblioed  to  continue  from  neces^ty,  for  the  spend.- 
thrift  habits  of  her  father,  a  good-natured  bnt 
careless  gentleman,  had  exhausted  a  competent 
fortune,  and  left  him  dependent  on  his  daughter. 
The  first  volume  of  Our  Village  appeared  iu  1^4, 
and  the  aeries  of  five  volumes  was  completed  in 
1832.  Of  the  more  important  of  her  dramatic 
works,  JWtan  was  first  performed  in  1823 ;  the 
FoKori  in  1S26 ;  and  Riaiai  in  1828— all  of  them, 
and  especially  the  last,  with  saccess.  Among  her 
other  impcnrtant  works,  are  StcoOeclioiu  of  a 
Literary  Life  (3  vols.  1S52) ;  Allierton  (a  novel,  3 
vols.  1S64)  and  other  TeUet ;  and  in  1854^  she  also 
published  a  collected  edition  of  her  Dramatic  Works, 
m  two  volumes.  In  1838,  ahe  received  a  pension 
from  goiermnent,  but  neither  this  nor  the  growing 
iU-he^th  of  her  later  years,  indnoad  her  to  relax 
her  literal  induitry.  She  died  at  her  residence, 
SwaUowfield  Cottage,  near  Beading  JaooaiT  10^ 
1656. 

Successful  both  as  a  compiler  and  an  author,  Miss 
M.  has  produced  many  interestins  volumes ;  but  her 
fame — if  the  admiring  respect  &  an  amiable  lady 
and  a  woman  of  sraceful  literary  genius  may  be  so 
called — rests  chiefly  on  the  sketches  of  oountry  lifs 
which  compose  Our  VUlage.  These  sketches  an 
chiefiy  memorable  for  their  sfr^le,  which,  if  not 
witty,  is  vivacious,  cenial,  and  humorous.  Five 
volumes  of  her  Life  ana  Letters  appeared  in  1870-7^ 
and  two  volumes  of  Letters  to  her  in  1882. 

MIIFOBD,  WiLLUH,  waa  bom  in  London, 
February  10,  1744,  aud  studied  at  Queen's  College, 
Oxford,  but  left  the  tmivertity  without  taking 
' ""   ■  ''"   1761,  he  Bucceedi  '   '     ■>  -   • 


a  inaj.or  of  the  jsame^ 


H1TUJU8— HITHBIDATE3. 


by  whose  adTioe  and  enooanigement  he  wm  indoeed 
to  undertake  a  history  of  Greece.  M.'b  Grat  work, 
entitled  An  Inquiry  tnio  iht  PrindpUi  of  HarmoKy 
in  Languagei,  and  of  lie  lieehiauaa  tf  Vtrm, 
Modem  and  Ancient,  Appeared  in  1774;  bttt  b; 
far  hii  most  important  publication  trae  bis  Hillory 
qf  Oreex,  the  fint  volume  of  which  appeared  '~ 
178^  and  the  last  in  1818.  It  is  a  ^uonaoimu, 
opinionatdTe,  one-sided,  and  even  fanaboaf  produo- 
tion.  The  author  is  an  intense  hater  of  democracy, 
knd  can  see  in  Philij)  of  Macedoo  nothing  but  a 
great  statesman,  and  in  Demosthenes,  nothing  but 
an  oratorical  demagogue.  Yet  his  zeal,  which  so 
often  led  him  astray,  alio  urged  him,  for  the  very 
parpoee  of  subatantiatiDg  hi*  viewi,  to  search  more 
minutely  and  critically  than  his  predecessor*  inti: 
oertain  portions  of  Qreek  history,  and  the  conse- 
Quence  WAS  that  M.'*  work  held  the  highest  place 
in  the  opinion  of  scholats  until  the  appearance  of 
Tbirlwall  and  Orote.     He  died  Febnuuy  8,  1827. 

MITHRAS  (cL  Sanscrit  Mitram,  friend),  the 
higheat  of  the  twen^-eurbt  aecond'Claai  divinities 
of  the  ancient  Peraian  Fantheon,  the  l2ed  (Zend. 
YawOa)  or  Oenins  of  the  Son,  and  roler  of  the  oni- 
▼erse.  Protector  and  supporter  of  man  in  thi*  life, 
he  watches  over  his  soul  in  the  next,  defending 

r'ngt  the  impure  ipirita,  and  transferring  it  m 
realms  of  etemu  bliss.  He  i>  aU-seeing  and 
all-bearing,  and,  armed  with  a  clnb — hi*  weapon 
against  Ahriman  and  the  evil  Deuu — he  unceasiu^y 
'  runs  his  course '  between  heaven  and  earth.  The 
ancient  monuments  represent  him  aa  a  beautiful 
youth,  dressed  in  Pbrygiau  garb,  kneeling  upon  an 
ox,  into  whose  neck  he  plunge*  a  knife ;  several 
minor,  varying,  allegorical  emUems  of  the  s  ' 

his  conrse,  surrountUng  the  group.  At  time 
also  repceaented  aa  a  Lon,  or  the  head  of 
The  most  important  of  his  many  festivals  was  his 
birthday,  celebrated  on  the  26th  of  December,  the 
day  snbeequaitly  fixed — against  all  evidence — as 
the  birthday  of  Christ.  The  worship  of  M.  early 
found  ita  way  into  Borne,  and  the  mysteries  of  M. 
{HitTocaracka,  Coraaca  Sacra),  which  fell  i 
spring  eqninoz,  were  famous  even  among  the  many 
Roman  festivals.  The  ceremonie*  observed  in  the 
initiation  to  these  mysteries — symbolical  of  the 
(traggle  between  A*'""""  and  Ormuzd  (the  Good 
and  the  Evil) — were  of  the  most  extraordinary  and  to 
a  certain  degree  even  dangeroo*  character.  Baptism 
and  the  partaking  of  a  mystical  Uqmd,  coneisting  of 
flour  and  water,  to  be  dmnk  with  the  utterance  of 
•acred  formulas,  were  among  the  inangurative  acts. 
The  seven  degrees — according  to  the  number  of  the 
planets— were,  1.  Soldier* ;  2.  Lions  (i 

Fathers — the  highest — who  were  also  called  Eagles 
and  Hawki.  At  tint,  of  a  merry  character — thus  the 
king  of  Persia  was  nUowed  to  get  dmnk  only  on  the 
Feast  of  the  Mysteries — the  solemiiitie*  gradually 
assumed  a  severe  and  rigorons  aspect.  Prom 
Persia,  the  cultna  of  M.  and  the  mysteries  were 
imported  into  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Palestine,  &a,  and 
it  1*  not  unlikely  that  in  some  part*  hnman  sacri- 
fice* were  connected  with  this  worshipv  Throngh 
Borne,  where  this  worship,  after  many  vain  endeav- 
ours, was  finally  suppressed  in  37S  A.D,,  it  may  be 
presumed  that  it  found  its  way  into  the  west  and 
north  of  Eurepe ;  and  many  tokens  of  its  former 
existence  in  Qermanv,  for  instance,  are  atill  to  be 
found,  such  aa  the  M.  monnmenta  at  Hedernheim, 
near  Frankfurt- on-tbe-Maine,  and  at  o^Ler  places. 
Among  the  chief  authorities  on  this  subject  are 
Anquetil  du  Perron,  Creuzer,  Silveatre  de  Sacy, 
I^jard,  0.  MUller  [DenkmaUr  d.  aittn  KuntQ.  See 
Odcbkb,  FAtBMEa,  ZsmavasTA. 


MITHKIDATES  (more  properly,  MiTHitaiiATn, 
a  name  formed  frem  the  Penian  MilAnu,  or  MUhra, 
'  the  son,'  and  an  Aryan  root  da,  to  give ;  hence 
'snn-given*  or  'sun-bom'  prince),  the  name  of 
several  kings  of  Pontus,  Armenia,  Commagene, 
Psrthia,  and  the  Boa^om*,  all  of  whom  have  sunk 
into  insignificance,  with  the  exception  of  M.  VL 
of  Pontus.  surnamed  Eitpator  and  Ihoirvslis,  bat 
more  generally  known  aa  M.  tkc  Great.  Litlls 
is  known  of  hi*  early  career.  He  succeeded  his 
father,  probably  about  120  b.  a,  while  under  13 
yean  of  age,  and  soon  after  subdued  the  tribes  who 
bordered  on  the  Buxine,  as  far  aa  the  Chersonesu* 
Tanrica  (Crimea),  and  after  the  death  of  Par^tiB, 
incorporated  the  kingdom  of  the  Boniania  with  hi* 
dominions.  The  jealous  behavioor  <d  the  Romania 
and  the  premptingB  of  his  own  ambitions  ajmt,  now 
incited  him  to  invade  Cappadocia  and  Blthynia, 
but  a  wholesome  fear  of  the  power  of  the  Great 
Kepublio  indnced  him  to  restore  his  conquests. 
The  First  iSWtridaUe  War  was  oommenced  by  the 
king  of  Bithyuia  (SS  i.  a),  whc^  at  the  inati^itioD 
of  the  Romans,  invaded  Pontus.  M.  sent  an  ambas- 
sador to  Home  to  aunplain  of  this  treatment,  but 
be  was  *ent  back  wtth  an  eva«)Te  reply.  M. 
immediately  oommenaed  bostilitiea,  and  hi*  gaterala 
repeatedly  defeated  the  Asiatio  levies  of  the  Romany 
and  he  lumaelf  took  possessicai  of  Bithynia,  Cappa- 
docia, Phiygia,  and  the  ^'"«"  possessions  in  Aaia 
Minor,  the  inhabitanta  of  which  last  hailed  him 
as  a  deliverer.  By  hi*  ordera,  a  great  massacre 
of  the  Romans  took  plaoe,  in  which,  according  to 
mt,  80,000,  and  according  to  anouwr, 
rere  alain.     He  also  sent  three  powerfol 

aid  the  Greek*  in  their  rebellion,  but  the 

disastrous  battles  of  Clueronea  and  Orehomenna 
broke  his  power  in  that  conntiy.  He  was,  however, 
driven  from  Pergomus  (85  a  c)  by  Flavins  Fimbria, 
and  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  malring  peace  with 
Sulla,  relinquishing  all  bis  conquests  in  Ajia,  giving 
up  70  war-galleya  to  the  Romana,  and  paying  8000 
talents.  The  wanton  aggreasions  of  Murana,  the 
Roman  legate,  gave  rise  to  tbe  Second  ifillirtdaiie 
War,  in  S  ca  M.  was  wholly  suoceaafnl  io  tbia 
war,  but  peace  was  concluded  on  the  ttatut  qtto,  61 
B.O.  M.  felt,  however,  that  tbia  was  merely  a  tnios, 
and  lost  no  tine  in  preparing  for  a  third  contest,  in 
alliance  with  Tigianea,  king  of  Armenia,  the  next 
most  powerful  monarch  of  Asia.  Tigranes  seized 
Cappadocia,  76  B.C.,  and  M.,  in  the  following  year, 
innriled  Bithynia,  commencing  the  TAird  JfifAri- 
datic  War.  M.  formed  an  alliance  with  Sertoriua 
(q.  v.),  and  obtained  the  services  of  Roman  officen 
of  the  Marian  party,  who  trained  his  army  after 

I  Roman  manner.  The  anna  of  M.  were  at 
first  successful ;  but  afterwards  the  Roman  consul 
Lncullna  (q.  v.)  compelled  him  to  take  refuge 
wiUi  T^ranee,  72  B.a  Lucullus  then  conquered 
Pontus,  defeated  Tigranea,  09  B.C.,  at  Tigrano- 
rta,  and  both  Tigtane*  and  M.  at  Artaxata,  fi8 
c.  M.,  however,  recovered  possoaaion  of  Pontus. 
After  the  war  had  lingered  for  some  time,  Cneitw 
Pompeius  (see  Pdufey),  completed  the  work  ot 
Lncullu\  66  ca,  defeating  M.  on  tiie  Enphretes, 
and  compelhng  him  to  flee  to  the  Boapoms.  Here 
hia  indomitable  apirit  prompted  him  to  form  a 
new  scheme  of  vengeanoe,  which  was,  however, 
frustrated  by  the  rebeUion  of  his  *on,  Phamace*, 
who  besieged  him  in  Pantlcapaceam.  Deeming 
his  cause  hopeless,  M.  put  an  end  to  his  own  life, 
63  B.O.  M.  was  a  specimen  of  Oie  true  eastern 
despot,  bat  he  poesessed  great  ability,  and  extra- 
ordinary energy  and  penevsranoe.      His   want  of 

^esB  was  owing  not  to  his  defects  as  a  general,  but 

the  impoBsibibty  of  raising  and  training  an  arm^ 


capable  of  Doping  with  the  i 


u  legions,  and  hi* 


MITKAIIJjBUSK— MITYLGNE. 


iytem  of  tftoticv  daring  the  t^drd  Mithndfttio  wat 
^lUnly  ahewB  bii  thonmi^  oonviotioD  of  thii  fact 
He  bad  raceivsd  ft  Oreek  edncatdou  at  Sinope,  could 
■peftk  no  lea  than  26  diSarant  lannuuM  and 
dialeeti,  and  poneaaad  aonndeiable  lora  forlhiB  aiti, 
of  trhich  hit  magnifioent  mlleetion*  of  piotams, 
statuM,  and  ofwnTsd  genui  won  a  proot  In  tha 
catimattoii  of  t£»  Bomuu,  ha  waa  tlie  tnoat  formid- 
able  opponent  tliey  erer  anoDnntered,  and  nporti  of 
hi*  mooesea  epraad  tanor  among  them. 

HITRAILUEIUSB.    See  Betoltxb. 

MITBE,  the  point  or  line  of  nnion  ol  monldingi 

MITBE  (Lat  mitm,  aUo  iufi^),  the  head-dren 
worn  in  solemn  chnrch  Barrioea  bv  biahopo,  abbot*, 
Mid  oettain  other  prelates  in  tha  We*tem  Church. 
The  name,  ta  probabljr  the  onuuneot  itaal^  ia 
bomnred  from  the  oriental*,  altbouDh,  in  ita  pieaent 
form,  it  ia  not  in  one  in  the  Gr^ek  Church,  or  in 
any  other  of  tiie  chnrchea  of  the  variona  eastern 
ritea.  The  western  mitn  ia  a  tall,  tongne-ahaped 
'  point,  whioh  ia 
to  aymbdiaetiia 
__.  ._  tonjpiea,'  in  the 
form  of  which  tha  Holy 
Ohort  waa  imparted  to 
tha  apoatlee,  and  ia  fur- 
nished with  two  flaps, 
I  which  faU  behind  over  tiie 
ahoaldos.  Opinioo  ia 
much  diridad  a*  to  the 
date  at  which  the  autre 
firat  came  into  lue. 
Hitra.  EnaebinB,      Gregory      of 

'  KazianzQS,       Epiphanios, 

hem  speak  of   an   ornamented   head-dreoa, 
It  the  ehnreh ;  but  there  is  no  very  early 


n*c^  atthoQgh  not  muvenally;  and  inatanoaa  are 
reomded  in  which  the  popes  grant  permission  to 
oertun  tni^pa  to  wear  the  mitre ;  as,  for  example, 
Leo  rv.  to  Ansohor,  Bishop  of  Hamburg,  in  tie  9th 
oentniy.  The  material  used  in  the  mannfactore  of 
the  mitre  is  very  rarioiis,  often  consisting  of  moat 
eostly  stufis,  studded  with  gold  and  preoioua  stane& 
The  coloor  and  material  differ  according  to  t^e 
leatival  or  the  setvice  in  which  the  mitn  i«  need, 
and  there  is  a  ipeoial  vfyt  in  the  oonseonttion 
aervice  of  bishops,  naed  m  investing  the  new  bishop 
with  his  mitre.  The  mitre  of  the  pope  is  of  peculiar 
form,  and  ia  called  by  Qie  name  Tiara  (q.  v.). 
Althoogh  the  mitta  properly  belongs  to  buhops 
(»ly,  iM  nse  is  alio  permitted  by  special  privilege 
to  eertaiii  abbota,  to  provosts  of  some  distinguished 
cathedral  chapten,  and  to  a  few  other  digmtaries. 
Sea  Binterim,  DenturOrdigkeUeu  der  Kinhe,  1  B. 
2Th.,p.3t& 

Tlie  mitre,  as  an  ornament,  aeems  to  have 
deacended  in  the  earlieat  times  from  bishop  to 
bishop.  Among  the  Cottonian  MS3.,  ia  an  order, 
dated  1st  Jdy,  4  Henry  VL,  for  the  delivery  to 
Archbiahop  Cnichely  of  the  mitrv  which  had  been 
worn  by  bis  predeceoaor.  It  waa  in  aome  oaaea  a 
very  costly  orruunent.  In  England,  siaoe  the  Refer- 
matioD,  we  mitre  was  no  Gnger  a  part  of  the 
episcopal  costume  till  188S,  when  it  was  resumed  by 
the  new  Bishop  of  Lincoln  ;  but  it  ia  placed  over  the 
shield  of  an  archbishop  or  Uahop^  instead  of  a  crest 
The  mitre  of  a  bishop  haa  ita  lower  rim  surrounded 
with  a  fillet  of  gold ;  out  the  Archbiihopa  of  Canter- 
buiy  and  York  are  in  the  practioa  of  enorcliug 
theirs  with  a  duoal  coronet,  a  usage  of  late  dat« 
a&d  doubtful  pnpiialT.     The  Bishop  of  Ihirham 


qnenoe  tA  bMOC  titolar  Count  P^atine  <rf  Durl 
and  Earl  of  Sedbtu^      Before  the  castom 


euoed  their  paternal  ooat  by  the  addition  of  a  mitra. 
Mila«a  are  rare  as  a  chaige  in  heraldry,  but  are 
aranetimea  borne  as  a  crwt,  particularly  in  Oarmany, 
to  indicate  that  the  bearers  wme  feudatotiea,  or 
dependencies  of  ancieut  abbeya. 

UITSCHERLICH,  Ellbaxd,  a  distinguished 
Prussian  chemist,  was  bom  at  Nenend&  near  Jen^ 
in  1794,  and  died  at  Berlin  in  1863.    In  1811,  ha 

Eroceeded  to  the  nnivenitjr  of  Heidelbeif^  wher« 
e  devoted  himself  to  history,  philology,  and 
oriental  laagnages ;  and  he  oontmned  the  study  of 
these  subje^  at  Paris  and  OtSttingoL  It  seems  to 
have  been  at  the  last-named  nniveratty  that  (1814 
or  1815)  he  fint  turned  hii  attention  to  geologjr 
and  mineralogy,  chemistry  and  physica,  and  it  waa 
not  till  1818,wheohe  was  at  Berlin,  that  he  selected 
chemistry  as  hia  special  study.  His  obosrvationa 
on  the  strihing  sinulari^  betwe«o  the  crystalline 
form  and  the  imemical  composition  of  the  atseniatea 
and  the  phosphates,  led  to  Va  discovery  of  the  law 
of  Isomorphism  (q.  v.),  the  importance  cf  which  waa 
so  fully  recognised  by  Beizelius,  that  he  invited  tha 
young  chemist,  in  1819,  to  Stockholm,  where  he 
studied  till  1821,  when,  on  the  death  of  Klaproth, 
he  was,  on  the  strong  recommendation  of  BeneUos, 
appointed  to  the  vacant  chair  of  chenusby  at  Berlin. 
Ona  at  his  earliest  discoveriea  after  his  appdntment 
waa  tliat  of  the  doable  crntalline  form  Ot  sulphur, 
the  first  observed  case  of  Dimoiphiim.  See  Ddiob- 
PHOUB.  His  investigations  regarding  tha  formation  o< 
artificial  minerals,  and  his  memoirs  on  Benzine  and 
on  the  FormatioD  of  Ether  must  be  classed  amongst 
his  most  important  contributions  to  chemistry  ;  but 
=*  ''  mainly  on  the  discovery  of  Isomorphi-"  •-* 

.829,  and  concladed  in  184L  It  haa 
passed  through  five  editions,  and  is  especially 
valuable  for  tha  clear  and  aimple  tn^  in  which 
he  has  brought  mathematica  and  physica  to  bear 
upon  the  subject  He  was  an  honorary  member  of 
almost  all  the  great  scientific  soeieties,  and  received 
the  ^Id  medal  from  the  Boyal  Society  of  London 
for  his  discovery  of  the  law  of  Isomorphism. 

MI'TTAU,  or  MTTAU,  the  chief  town  of  tha 
government  of  Courland,  in  European  Rosaia,  is 
situated  on  the  right  bauk  of  the  Aa,  25  miles  south- 
west of  Kiga,  andwas  founded  in  1271  by  the  grand 
master  of  the  Teutonic  Knights.  It  was  annexed 
to  Russia  in  1793.  Pop.  (18S0)  23,847,  the  majority 
ot  whom  ate  Qermans  by  birth  or  descisnt,  1000  are 
Jews,  and  only  a  few  Bossions.  The  town  ia  indiSer- 
ently  built,  the  house*  being  cbiefiy  of  wood,  and 
painted  of  a  green  w  brown  colour.  The  most 
important  buildiDga  are  the  old  castle — now  the 
seat  of  the  governor  of  the  province — four  churches, 
an  asiaonomical  obearvatoiy,  a  publio  hbnuy,  a 
mnsaum,  and  a  number  of  educational  and  charitalil* 
iniidabition*  As  r^ards  commerae  and  indusby, 
tha  town  occupies  wdy  the  third  place  in  the 
government,  ita  principal  product  being  articles  of 
lapanned  iron  and  tin;  there  is  an  export  tnde  in 
nnnp,  flax,  and  com.  iL  is  the  winter  residence 
of  the  gentry  of  the  surroundingcountry,  and  waa 
for  some  time  the  abode  of  Louis  XVIIL 

English  law-term  for  a  writ  by 
uiBferred  out  of  one  ooiut  into 
another. 

HITYLB'N&    SobLbboi. 

..C.ooqIc 


MIXED  MABRIAOBS— MIXED  RACES. 


MIXED  BIABRUOES.  In  varimu  oonnbiea 
«(  Europe,  Diwmgea  between  penoiu  of  diOerent 
Mlupoiw  belief  iMre  either  been  proMbited  or  put 
mi&  TeBtrictionB.  The  canon  U«  forbade  murugea 
betwe«aiCIiristuiiBandnoii-Chriatiaiis;  ktonetima, 
it-  mflcely  discanraged,  at  mother  altc^ther  pro- 
liibited  the  nuuruge  of  orthodox  Chrutians  with 
Imetica.  Sabseqaently  to  the  Befonnatdon,  papal 
4ispeiliaatioiiB  were  in  use  to  be  granted  lot  mafnag" 
between  Catholics  and  Proteetanta,  with  Qui  ooni. 
tion  anaexed,  that  the  children  should  be  brought 
«p  in  the  CathoUe  faith.  Dnrinz  the  laUei  part  of 
the  I7tho.,pat«nt*Beemtoha7e  Deenleft  at  Uberty 
to  m^e  wlut  aereemeiLt  they  pleated  on  thi*  head; 
And  in  default  ttt  their  making  any,  it  was  presumed 
that  the  ohildrea  would  follow  the  religion  of  their 
fidher.  In  the  middle  of  the  ISth  c.,  the  validity 
of  mixed  mairiagefl,  even  lAm  celebrated  by  the 
oiTil  nuufiatoat^  was  Moogniaed  by  the  papal  court ; 
«ad  on&r  Napcdecnt'a  nue,  th^  became  oommon, 
withoot  stapolatunu  •■  to  the  nhildrnn.  The  events 
«f  1815  iMtored  nffident  influence  to  the  Boman 
Oatholio  Church,  to  enable  the  clei«y  to  put  in  force 
a  rule  by  which  they  could  refuse  to  celebrate  such 
marriages  without  an  assurance  that  the  children 
would  be  brought  up  Catholics.  By  the  law  of 
many  of  the  German  states,  the  clei^yman  of  the 
bride  waa  the  only  person  who  could  competeotly 
officiate,  and  an  engagement  of  this  kind  was  often 
not  only  repiwuuit  to  the  father  as  a  Protestant. 
bat  ill^aL  Conflicts  followed  between  the  dvil 
and  eccwsiastical  authorities,  which  have  sometimea 
been  obviated  by  the  priest,  on  whom  the  law 
imposea  the  celebration  of  the  marriage,  not  pro- 
nouncing the  nuptial  beaediction,  hut  giving  bis  pre- 
«ence  as  a  witness  along  with  two  ottiet  witnusBea 
when  the  parties  declared  themselves  husband  and 
wife — a  kind  of  marriage  whose  validi^  is  per- 
fectly recognised  by  tbe  canon  law.  In  Spain, 
mamagCT  between  Catholics  and  Frotestants  have 
oometimea  taken  place  in  this  way,  avoiding  the 
stipulationB  otherwise  necessary  regarding  the 
fihildren. 

There  was,  till  lately,  a  great  diverrity  in  the 
state  of  the  law  ol  mixed  marriues  in  different 

rba  of  Germaay.  Prussia  was  the  first  state  to 
tway  the  former  restrictions  by  the  recognition 
of  a  civil  ceremony  alone  as  that  which  constitutes 
marriage  in  the  eye  of  the  law.  Until  that  change, 
the  letter  of  the  law  provided  that  the  children 
•hould  be  brought  up  in  the  faith  of  their  father, 
and  no  compacts  to  the  contrary  were  allowed. 
Practically,  however,  the  law  was  largely  evaded, 
no  one  having  a  recognised  interest  to  object  to  the 
fnlfllment  of  such  agreements.    In  Bavaria,  mixed 


their  power  to  make  what  atrangemants  they 
{tleased  regarding  the  diildren  before  or  after  mar- 
riage ;  but  if  no  such  arrangements  happened  to 
have  been  made,  the  children  were  brought  up  in 
the  relieioa  of  their  father.  In  Saxony,  and  various 
other  Qerman  states,  the  spouses  might,  before 
marria^  make  what  arrangements  &ej  liked  as  to 
the  rabgion  of  tiirar  children  ;  but  if  they  had  made 
nones  toB  law  obliged  them  to  be  brought  up  in  the 
faith  of  their  fa^er.  A  bill  tor  rendering  civil 
naniaga  obligatiwy  throughout  tbe  empire  was 
brought  before  the  Reichatag  in  1874,  and  passed 
in  1876,  thus  extending  the  system  of  PniHsia  to 
«I1  otiier  German  atateo.  This  bill  enables  men  and 
women  to  be  married  independently  of  the  canaent 
«f  the  clergy  (not  always  easily  obtained  in  Catbo- 
Uo  districts),  or  of  the  difference  of  their  religious 
belief.  It  also  allows  of  ohildten  being  left  un- 
bi^itised,  and  brought  up  without  being  assigned 


to  any  reli^ous  denomination  whatsoever.  In  Ans< 
tria,  tbe  mterpoeitian  of  the  CatJiolio  priest  is 
required  in  marrii^es  between  Catholics  and  Pro- 
teatanla.  He  need  not,  however,  give  the  sacer- 
dotal benediction ;  his  passive  assutanoe  only  is 
required,  either  in  taking  the  declaration  of  the 
DSfties.  which  is  foUowed  by  a  Protestant  oeremony, 
~; 1  „M  ,  wttoeaa  at  the  Protestant 


children  must  be  brought  up  Catholics ;  when  the 
husband  is  Protestant  and  the  wife  Catholic,  the 
sons  follow  the  father  and  the  daughters  the 
mother.  In  Denmark,  stipulattona  may  be  made 
before  or  after  marriage,  and  can  be  altered  by 
mutual  consent  of  the  parents,  or,  in  some  coses,  even 
after  the  death  of  one  of  them.  Mixed  marriages 
were,  till  lately,  altogether  prohibited  in  some  of  the 
Cathohc  cantons  of  Switzerland,  but  they  are  now 
authorised  in  all  the  cantons  by  the  federal  laws, 
It  it  generally  the  clergyman  of  the  husband's 
creed  who  officiates,  but  at  Zurich  the  ceremony  it 
performed  in  both  churches.  In  most  coses,  the 
children  are  required  to  be  educated  in  the  reugjon 
of  their  father. 

Id  most  German  statet,  marriagea  between  Chiit- 
tians  and  Jews  or  Mohammedans  used  to  be  inter- 
dicted ;  but  after  1349,  the  prohibitions  were  in 
individual  cases  dispensed  with.  In  Denmark,  inoh 
marriagea  have  been  permitted,  on  coudition  of 
the  children  being  brought  up  Protestants.  In 
Russia,  the  membos  of  ooth  Greek  and  Roman 
conununioot  are  prohibited  fronl  intermariTing  with 
noQ-Christiaat ;  members  of  the  orthodox  Greek 
Church  cannot  mart;  Greek  aectariea ;  but  when  an 
orthodox  Russian  marries  a  Proteatant  or  Catholio, 
the  benediction  must  be  riven  in  the  Greek  Church, 
ood  the  children  baptized  in  the  Greek  commonion. 
When  tbe  parents  are  of  different  rdigionB,  but 
neither  belong  to  the  Greek  Church,  ante-nuptial 
stipnlationB  will  be  given  effect  to;  if  none  have 
been  made,  the  sons  follow  the  father's  faith,  the 
daughters  the  mother's. 

In  France,  t!  '  - 
civil  contract, 
tion,  which  is 
giona  ritei  As  the  faith 
cognizance  of,  qnestiona  regarding  the  religions  edu- 
cation of  the  cLildren  cannot  ante  before  the  dvfl 
tribunals. 

The  only  restriction  to  which  mixed  marriages 
are  now  subjected  in  any  part  of  the  United  King- 
dom it  inH>aaed  by  act  19  Geo.  II.  c  13,  apphcabb 
to  Irelano  only,  that  a  marriage  celebrated  by  a 
Catholic  priest  between  a  Roman  Catholic  and  a 
Protestant,  or  a  person  who  within  twelve  months 
ho8  been  or  professed  to  be  a  Protestant,  or  between 
two  Protestouta,  is  nulL 

MIXED  RACES.  The  subject  of  mixed  raeet 
one  intimately  connected  with  an  enlarged 
study  of  ethnology.  It  involves  a  consideration 
of  the  phenomena  attendant  upon  the  lexual  — -~ 
between  individuals  belonging  to  different  — 
of  the  human  race ;  as,  for  instance — adopuug  uis 
claasificatioa  of  Blumenbach— between  the  European 
and  the  n^ro  or  the  American  Indian ;  or  between 
the  American  Indian  and  the  negro ;  or  between 
any  of  these  three  and  individu^  belon^^ng  to 
the  Malay  and  Mongolian  varieties.  It  it  well 
understood  that  tnch  unions  ore  in  general  proliflo ; 
id  not  only  ao,  but  that  their  offepring  is  likewise 
prolific ;  and  this  foot  is  much  relied  upon  by  tome 
ethnolorists,  as  an  argument  in  favour  of  the  unity 
of  the  human  race.  They  reason  thus :  Were  the 
different  varieties  of  mankind  distinct  species,  a* 
has  been  freqaen^  alleged,  then  it  would  necessarily 
follow  that  uie  onpring  of  snob  onions  wonld  prove 


i.LiOOglc 


MIXED  RACES-MNEMOSflTE. 


u  nnffnitfal  as  thote  betvreea  the  horse  uid  the  u«, 
the  goat  and  tiie  ahaep,  the  wolf  and  the  dog ;  and 
■itniGu-1^  with  respect  to  the  hjrbrids  among  birds, 
iiuectg,  And  plants.  To  turn  up,  in  the  words  of 
Dt  Frichord,  the  but  exponent  of  this  school  of 
ethnoloey :  '  It  seems  to  be  the  veil-established 
result  oiinquiriea  into  the  vaiioiiB  tribes  of  organised 
beings,  that  the  perpatoatioa  of  hybrids,  whether 
of  pToiits  or  animals,  so  as  to  produce  new  and 
intmnediate  tribes,  is  impossible.  Now,  nnless  all 
these  observations  are  erroneous,  or  capable  of 
explanation  that  hai  not  yet  been  pointwi  out, 
lead,  with  the  strongest  force  of  analogical  re 
ins,  to  the  conclusion,  that  a  number  of  diSerent 
tnbea,  such  m  the  varions  races  of  men,  rauat  either 
be  incapable  of  intennizing  their  stock,  and  thus 
klways  fated  to  remain  separato  from  each  other, 
or,  if  tiie  oontran  should  be  the  fact,  that  all  the 
races  to  whom  the  remark  applies,  ue  proved  by 
it  to  belong  to  the  tame  species.'  Dr  PrichiUil 
further  observes,  that  so  far  from  such  unions 
between  members  of  different  varieties  of  the  human 
race  proving  unfruitful,  or  their  of&priog  unfruitful, 
the  ve^y  opposite  i>  the  caae,  aa,  for  mstonce,  in 
unions  between  tiie  negro  and  the  European,  the 
most  stronoly  marked  varieties  of  our  race.  '  If 
we  inquire,  he  says,  '  into  the  facts  which  relate 
to  the  iatemuxture  of  negroes  and  Europeans,  it 
will  be  impossible  to  doubt  the  tendency  of  the  so- 
termed  Mulattoes  to  increase.  The  men  of  colour, 
or  the  mixed  race  between  the  Creoles  and  the 
negroes,  are  in  many  of  the  West  India  Islands  a 
rapidly  increasing  people,  and  it  would  be  very 
probable  that  they  will  eventually  become  the 
pennaDent  masters  of  those  islands,  were  it  not 
lor  the  great  numerical  snperioril^  of  the  genuine 
negroes.  In  many  ports  of  Amenca,  they  are  also 
very  numerous.'  It  is  to  America,  indeed,  both 
north  and  south,  that  we  must  chiefiy  look  for 
the  numeruns  and  varied  phenomeoa  resulting  from 
this  intermixture  of  races;  for  there  we  have  not 
only  the  negro  and  the  European  mingling  their 
blood,  but  the  negro  ood  tite  Americon  Indian,  the 
European  and  the  Indian,  and  the  ofbpring  of  each 

* -      ■ *  "--    -■'  with 


which,  of  late  yean,  the  Chinese  (of  Mongolian 
race  or  variety)  have  appeared  upon  the  scene,  thus 
contributing  greatly  to  the  number  of  what  are 
termed  Auman  kybridi.  All  tiiese,  however,  are 
not  equally  fertile ;  and  with  respect  even  to  the 
Mulattoes,  it  is  alleged  by  writers  of  the  Morton 
school  of  ethnology  that  they  do  not  perpetuate 
themselves  for  many  generations.  '  Nature,'  says 
Squier,  rather  dogmatically, '  perpetuates  no  human 
hybrids — aa,  for  instance,  a  permanent  race  of 
Mulattoes.'  And  Dr  Nott,  adopting  the  classiR- 
catiou  of  species  laid  down  by  Dr  Morton — namely, 
Semole  Sptmea,  in  which  hybrids  ore  never  pro- 
duced;  Allied  Sptciee,  which  produce,  inMr  tc,  an 
unfertiie  offspring ;  and  Proxi-maU  Speciea,  which  pro- 
duce with  each  other  a  fertile  offnpnng — is  of  opinion 
that  it  is  only  by  the  union  of  southern  or  dark- 
skinned  Europeans  with  negroes  that  thoroughly 
prolific  Mulattoes  are  engendered,  which  is  not 
t^e  case  iu  anions  occumog  between  individuals 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  negro  races.  In  arriving 
at  this  conclusion,  we  cannot  help  thinking  that 
the  author  has  been  helped  forwai^  by  the  strong 
prejudice  existing  in  the  Southern  States  against 
all  taint  of  negro  blood.  A  more  impartial  writer. 
Professor  Wilson,  iu  his  FrtkUtoric  Man,  observes  : 
'There  are  upwards  of  four  millions  of  people  of 
African  blood  in  the  United  States,  and  certainly 
not  less  than  ten  millions  throughout  the  continent 
and   islands   of    North  and   South  America,  and 


....  It  is  impossible  to  determine  with  oar- 
tainty  how  far  the  hybrid  coloured  popnlatum  of 
the  United  States  is  capable  of  permanency, 
either  by  the  development  of  a  fixed  hybrid  QT>e, 
or  by  continnoQS  fertility,  until  the  predominant 
primary  type  reasserts  its  power,  by  their  retain 
to  that  of  the  original  white  or  black  parent,  so 
long  as  the  mixed  breed  is  constantly  augmaitsd 
in  the  Southern  States  by  means  at  vorionoe  with 
the  Dstorol  and  moral  relations  of  social  life.'  Aa 
it  is,  the  weight  of  evidence  appears  to  be  in  faronr 
of  Dr  Frichard's  view;  but  until  the  doctrine  of 
hybridity  is  better  understood,  and  a  more  satis- 
fsctory  answer  to  the  vexed  qnestioo,  '  What  ii 
species!'  has  been  supphed  to  us,  we  must  deem 
it  idle  to  pronounce  dogmatically  on  the  sabject 
See  Htbbid  and  SPKCira.  We  oonclade  with  a 
list  of  balf-caste«  given  by  Dr  I^chudi,  *  with  a 
few  additions  from  other  sonrcea,'  printed  in  the 
appendix  to  Professor  Wilaon's  v^uahle  work  jnit 
mentioned. 


■  inJ..,;,  ■  . 

.    Uatlu,   . 

1     brawn  unipluloo. 

Negio.      . 

ZnDta, 

ft«k')"^       "*'*^' 

N.BTO, 

Cu.rl.roi.., 

.    Mu1.lLa[r.lbCT<!.rtJ. 

DdUin,  Uulittii,   .  .    ChlDo-aHiniL 

ndliB,  Cblna,      .  ,    Chlno-shohL 

lillsn,  .       .    ZiiBbi,  ZnBliHilsni. 

idi.n,        .      ChlowboK  ■{'"hi;?,.*""'  •''°"  '■'"'' 

idian,  .       .    CuarMran.,  HndM  (tslhn  tnirn). 


(China     [or    latber     eletr 
'Chlno(nllitrd*rk). 


MIXTURES  are  officinal  preparationa,  extem> 

ire  in  their  nature,  some  of  which — as,  for  example, 

'ulura  Camphora,  Jtfittuni  Crttas,  and  Jfiitum 
Ferri  Compotita — ore  very  extensively  used  in 
medical  proctioe,  either  as  vehicles  for  more  active 
remedies,  or  for  their  intrinaic  valnn. 

MI'ZBN.  or  MIZZEN,  the  stenunost  of  the  mails 
in  a  tbree-mosted  vessel,  and  also  the  smallest  of 
the  tbre&  Above  it,  are  the  miseD-topmast,  tils 
i-top-gallant-mast,  and  the  mizen-royaL  It 
supports  the  usual  yanls,  and,  in  additiM),  ^e  ^aff 
and  boom  of  the  Spanker  (q.  v.).  A  rear-admiral 
'  }ists  his  pendant  at  the  mizen. 

Although  the  word  mizen  is  now  ftpi4ied  adjeo- 
tively  to  the  seveiol  parts,  it  appe*n  lormeriy  to 
have  been  the  name  of  a  laive  triangular  aoil  canted 
the  stem,  and  thence  to  nave  become  the  distin- 
guishing  title  of  the  mast  which  bore  that  saiL  Th* 
name  is  probably  from  It.  meaxano,  mean,  in  Uw 
middle  ;  w  opposition  to  a  sqoare  Mil  which  lies 
across  tJie  vessel 

MNFMO'NIca    See  MintonT. 

MNEMO'StNE,  in  Classical  Hytboli^,  ths 
goddess  of  Memory,  and  the  mother  of  the  nine 
Mueea  (q.  v.),  whom  she  bore  to  Jupiter.  Ths 
principal  seat  of  her  worship  was  at  Eleathera^  in 


<  ^nngli' 


MOA-HOBtLIBB. 


MOA,  the  tuiii«  given  b;  tha  Nev  Zeilanden  to 
the  large  wingten  oi  Btmthioiu  birds  (m»  Bbbvi- 
PBHKBa)  of  wEich  the  bonea  are  found  imbedded 
in  Uie  sandB  of  the  eeaahore,  in  iwompa,  foralts, 
riTsi^beds,  and  limestone  ovef.  and  of  wbich  tradi' 
tioni  anbiist  among  them  aa  bird*  living  in  their 
oonutry.  The  target  bonee  belong  to  Uie  genna 
Dinortiu  (q.  v.),  oGieai  to  Paiaptaw  (q. '.) :  "d 
wHh  them  are  fotind  boaea  ri  a  I^ge  bird  (Apioraii) 
resembling  a  iwsn,  mppoeed  to  be  now  extinct, 
also  of  the  existing  species  of  Apteryx  ((}.  t.)  and  of 
Ifolomii  (q.  v.),  much  smaller  biras.  It  u  generally 
SDppoeed  uiat  no  large  moas  have  been  seen  alive 
since  about  16C0;  bnt  it  has  recently  been  again 
alleged  that  some  have  been  seen,  and  rewards 
have  been  oSered  for  the  capture  of  them.  Thev 
■re  represented  bj  the  New  Zealanden  M  itnpio, 
fat,  indolent  birds,  living  in  forests,  moontaio  fast- 
nessea.  Ik.,  and  feeding  on  vegetable  food.  Their 
feet  are  **id  to  have  been  adapted  for  dining. 
They  seem  to  have  been  extirpated  for  the  ssSa  & 
their  flnh,  feathers,  and  bones.  The  aifgi  wen 
raten.  See  Prof.  R  Owen's  ShcHntt  Win^tu  Bvrdt 
o/Neie  Zealand  (2  vols.  1878). 

MO'ABITES,  a  pastoral  people,  who  inhabited 
the  monntainons  country  east  at  the  lower  part  cd 
the  Jordan   and  of  the  Dead  Sea.     Their  atlita 


Judges,  the  Jews  were  for  eighteen  years  under 
the  yoke  of  the  M.,  who  were  afterwards  made 
tributary  by  David,  but,  about  900  b.  c,  shoot  off 


Their  name  no  longer  exists,  and  the  remnants  ef 
the  people  have  long  been  inclnded  among  the  Arabs. 

MOABITE  STONE,  Teb,  a  stone  bearing  a  long 
inscription  in  Hebrew- Phtxniciau  letters,  discovered 
at  DiUn  in  Moab  in  1S68.  It  appears  to  have  been 
erected  by  Meaha,  king  of  Moab,  mentioned  in 
2  Kings  viL,  and  the  inscription  refers  to  his  wars 
with  Israel  (in  the  10th  c.  B.C.).  The  negoti- 
ations set  on  foot  for  its  purchase  led  to  qoarrels 
among  the  Arab  tribes  churning  an  interest  in  it,  and 
the  memorial  was  unfortunately  broken  to  pieces. 
The  fragments,  however,  were  with  great  difficulty 
oollecte^  and  are  sow  preserved  in  the  Louvre^ 

MOAT,  the  ditch  round  the  ramparts  of  a  fortress, 
may  be  either  wet— L  e.,  full  of  water — or  dry- 
In  the  latter,  which  is  the  commoner  case,  tha  depth 
should  not  be  lees  than  12  feet,  nor  the  width 
nnder  24.  lie  more  perpendicnlar  the  walls,  so 
much  the  gT«ater  will  be  the  obstruction  to  the 
enemy.  In  regolor  works,  the  walls  ore  nsaally 
revSted  witli  maaonry.  that  at  the  foot  of  t^e 
rampart  being  the  scarp  or  escarp,  and  that  below 
the  covered  way  tha  coontersoarp.    See  Ditch  and 

FORTIyiClTIOM. 

MOBIXE,  the  principal  city  and  only  seaport  of 
Alabama,  United  States  of  America,  is  situated  on 
the  west  side  of  Mobile  Kiver,  and  at  the  head  of 
Mobile  Bay,  which  opens  into  the  Gulf  of  Meiica 
It  is  bnilt  with  broad  shaded  streets  on  a  sandy 
plain,  rising  gradually  from  the  river,  with  a  fine 
cnstom-honsa  and  poat-officet  city  hsil  and  maiket- 
honse,  theatre.  Odd  Fallows'  Hall,  cathedral,  30 
chnrcheo,  4  orphan  asylums,  several  hospitals,  a 
medical  ooDege,  8t  Joseph'a  Colle^  (a  Jesuit  'insti- 
tntion),  a  convent  of  the  Visitation,  and  academy 
for  young  ladiea.  M.  has  several  ship-yards, 
foundries,  and  cotton-presses.  Its  chief  business 
is  the  export  of  cotton.  The  average  export  for 
five  years  preceding  the  Civil  War  was  632,308 
bales;  in  IS74-6,  131,342  bales,  in  1881-2,  2S6,040 
bales,  were  exported.   There  is  also  a  loi^  exptuta- 


tion  of  turpentine,  rosin,  and  tar.  Its  harbour  is 
defended  by  Fort  Morgan.  M.  was  settled  hy  the 
French  in  1702.    Pop.  (1870)  32,03* ;  (1880)  31,206. 

MOBILE,  a  river  and  bay  of  Alabama,  United 
States  oC  America.  The  river  is  formed  by  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Alabama  and  Tombigbee,  GO  m.  above 
Mobile,  which  lies  at  its  mouth.  It  is  a  sluggiah 
stream,  with  low  banks  and  several  channels.  The 
bay  is  30  m.  from  north  to  south,  and  10  or  12  from 
E.  to  W.  The  entrance  from  tha  Gulf  of  Mexico,  3 
m.  wide,  is  defended  by  Fort  Morgan  andFort  Gaines. 

MCTBILE,  MOBILI'SB,  an  adjective  and  verb, 
used  respectively  in  regard  to  continental  armies, 
to  designate  a  ante  of  readiness  for  taking  tha  field, 
and  tha  act  of  making  ready  for  such  an  operation. 
Tha  process  consists  in  augmenting  a  renmant 
from  its  peace  to  its  war  complement  in  calling  in 
men  on  furlough,  in  organising  the  st^  of  divisions 
and  brigades,  constitntuig  the  conmussoriat,  medical, 
artillery,  and  transport  services,  and  in  aconum- 
lating  provisions  and  munitions.  Aa  the  woric 
of  mobilising  an  army  causes  great  and  inevitable 
expense,  it  is  only  resorted  to  wlien  hoatilitiea 
appeu  imminent. 

MOBILIBB,  CltilHT.  On  the  ISth  November 
1SS2,  tlia  E^encli  covemment  sanctioned  the  statutes 
of  a  new  bank  under  tha  name  of  the  aoeUtl  Otniral 
de  Crtdit  MMUer.  The  name  was  intended  as  a 
contrast  to  tha  SoeUUt  de  CrfdU  Fonaar,  which  ore 
of  the  nature  of  land  bonks,  and  advance  mmey 
on  the  security  of  leal  or  immoBable  property; 
while  the  CridU  JlobUier  proposed  to  give  simihr 
aid  to  the  owners  of  movtMe  property.  The 
dedand  object  <rf  this  bank  is  tepecialfy  to  promote 
'   ''     *  '  *    itararises  of  all  kinds,  aoch  as  the  eon- 

_..    ._  railways,  sinking  of  mine^  Ac  Tarioos 

privileges  were  ooDferredmonitnnder  its  charter; 
m  especial,  it  was  allowed  to  aoquire  shores  in 
pnbho  companiea,  and  to  pay  the  colls  made  upoo 
it  in  respect  of  such  shares,  by  its  own  notes  or 
obligations ;  also  to  sell  or  give  in  security  all  shares 
thus  acquired.  The  operations  of  Qie  society  were 
oonducted  upon  a  very  extensive  scale.  In  1S64, 
it  subscribed  largely  to  the  government  loan  on 
account  of  the  Russian  War,  to  tha  Grand  Central 
Kailway  Company,  to  tha  General  Omnibus  Com- 
pany of  Pons,  and  to  vanons  other  important 
undertakings.  Tha  dividend  for  this  year  was  12 
per  cent.  In  183S,  it  lent  two  sums  to  the 
government — the  one  of  250,  and  the  other  c^  376 
millions  of  francs.  Its  open^ions  were  vast  during 
this  year,  and  the  divid^ida  declared  amounted  to 
40  per  cent  Tha  directors  had  not  hitherto  availed 
themselves  of  their  privilege  of  issuioz  their  own 
obligations,  bnt  this  they  now  resolved  on  doing. 
They  proposed  to  issue  two  kinds — the  one  at  short 
dates ;  the  other  at  long  dates,  and  redeemable  by 
instalments.  The  propixed  iisna  was  to  amount  to 
240  millioaa  of  fnn«s,bat  tha  public  became  alanned 
at  the  prospect  of  so  vast  an  issue  of  paper-money, 
so  that,  in  March  1866,  the  fVenoh  govomnent 
deemed  it  necesaary  to  prohibit  the  oanTiDg  ont  of 
the  proposed  schemci  This  was  a  sever*  Blow  to 
the  institutiou.  In  186$,  its  dividends  did  not 
exoeed  22  per  oenb;  in  18S7,  tiiey  vera  only  S  per 
cent.  Several  attempts  bad  been  made  to  ntaa- 
dtate  its  credit,  but  failed.  In  1S7S  it  was  put 
under  a  new  board  of  management,  who  reported 
its  assets  at  77,000,000  francs.  In  1878,  the  capital 
was  reduced  from  80  millions  to  32,  and  in  1879, 
raised  again  to  40  millions.  In  the  period  1872 — 
187S,  the  highest  value  reached  by  the  shares  waa 
390  francs  (m  1874).  The  Credit  Mobiliar  ia»  nn- 
doubtedly  been  nsefnl,  but  its  operations  have  been 


..C.Lff).iil(t 


UOCHA— HODELLENO. 


HOCHA,  ft  naport,  anl  onoe  the  esptal  oF 
Yemen,  in  Arabia.  It  ii  eitnftted  on  tiie  Bed  Sei^ 
mt  the  heed  of  a,  little  bay  neu  the  Strut  of  Bftb-el' 
Mandeb,  and  130  milM  weet-Dorth-we«t  of  Adea 
(q.  v.).    All  round  the  shore  ii  a  hot  tandy  n 

lie  principal  trade  is  in  coffee ;  bnt  the  eminen 

M.  at  the  ahipping  i>ort  for  all  the  coffee  of  Yemen 
(M.  not  being  itaelf  in  the  coffee-growing  conntry), 
hat  been  usiuped  by  Aden.  Other  eiporta  are  dates, 
gunu,  balm,  ivory,  and  genoa.    Pop.  GOOO. 

HOCHA  STONES  are  pieces  of  a^te  or  of 
dialcedony,  ooutaining  dendntio  infiltrahona,  often 
•naming  app^rancea  very  like  finely  ramified  coa- 
Ibttd,  £0.  They  receive  the  name  Mocha  Stone 
became,  when  they  flmt  became  known  in  Europe, 
they  were  bron^^t  from  Mocha.  Of  Uie  same 
namn  witb  bL  8.  are  jtfbu  AgaUt.  The  reaem- 
blano*  of  the  enoloeed  infiltrationi  to  pknte  is 
ofteB  merely  accidental,  bnt  it  appean  to  be  some- 
limea  realljr  due  to  plant*,  which  were  enclosed  in 
the  eavity  in  which  the  Hliciuiu  mineral  itself  waa 

MCOKHTO-BIED,  or  MOCKINQ-THRUaH 
(Jfimtu  or  Orf/xva),  a  geonl  of  birds  of  the  family 
MendidiK,  havuig  a  more  elongated  form  than  the 
true  thrushea,  a  longer  tail,  shorter  wio^t,  and  the 

a  per  mandible  more  curved  at  the  tip.    The;  are 
American.    The  best  known  species,  the  H.  of 
the  United  Statea  (if.  polj/gtoUtu),  u  about  the  lize 


Hooklng-biid  {ilintia  poty/iloatu). 

of  tiie  *one-thnuh;  &»  npper  parti  of  »  dark 
brownish  aah  oolonr,  the  wmDi  and  tail  nearly 
bUek,  the  under  parta  brownisb  white.  The  M. 
ia  common  in  almost  all  parta  of  America,  tram  the 
■ODth  of  New  England  to  Brazil;  north  of  the 
Delaware  H  is  only  a  aummer  visitant,  but  in  more 
southern  regima  it  is  foond  at  all  Beasons.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  common  birds  of  the  West  Indies, 
ud  it*  eugniaite  aoas  fills  their  stores  with 
inelody  by  night,  for  which  resson  it  is  there  very 
oensnlly  known  as  tlie  Ni^tingale.  By  day,  the 
aL  is  geurally  imitative,  excelling  all  birds  in  its 
power  of  imitation,  now  taking  op  the  song  irf  one 
Mid,  tai  now  of  another,  mi  often  deceiving  the 
most  practised  ear  by  its  perfect  performance.  By 
night,  its  Bon^  is  for  the  most  part  oaturaL  It  does 
not  confine  itMlf,  however,  to  mtuical  strains ;  it 
•eems  to  take  equal  pleuure  in  repeating  the 
hanbert  cries  of  the  feathered  tribes  j  and  in 
domeitioation  readily  adds  to  its  accompliihmenta 
the  initatian  of  almost  any  sound  which  it  is 
sccwtonted  to  hear,  paasiDg  from  one  to  another 
with  great  rapidity,  so  as  to  (nwiuoe  an  inoompar- 
able  medley.    The  M.  readily  learns  to  whirtle  a 

*■ of  oonnderable  lenrth,  but  there  ia  no 

..^..i.j  :_., ,  ^   j(,   imitating  the 


well  authenticated  i 


Inunan  voice.  The  barldi^  of  a  dog,  the  mewing 
of  a  cat,  the  crowing  of  a  cock,  the  '■"fc""g  of 
hen,  the  creaking  of  a  wheel-barrow,  are  alt  wiUii 
the  oompsst  of  its  powera.  During  ita  performanecs, 
it  spreads  its  wing^  e^iands  ito  tail,  and  thivm 
itself  about,  aa  if  full  of  entbnsUtm  and  enjoymoit. 
The  M.  ia  vocal  at  all  aeaMUia  of  the  year.    " 

a'oys  almost  avoywhero  the  proteotioo  of  1 
1  often  makes  its  nest  b  a  Uee  or  bnih  1 
beside  a  honsa.  Two  or  three  brood*  are  i«odiiiied 
in  a  year.  The  male  ia  extavmdy  attentive  to  lui 
mate,  and  manifest*  eKtraordinary  ooui^  in 
driving  away  enemies  from  the  nesL  Mcckiiu- 
birds  often  assemble  on  suoh  oooaaioni,  and  biidi 
of  prey,  far  superior  to  them  in  aixe  and  sbesgtb, 
are  compelled  to  retreat.  Snakes  ore  Idlled  by 
reiterated  blows  on  the  head,  and  oala  kani  to 
consider  the  yicinity  of  a  mocking-bird's  nestamfa 
The  food  of  the  M.  oonnstfl  chiefly  of  berries  sod 
ioaeots.  Another  species  of  M.  is  found  in  tbs 
Bocky  Moontains,  and  spedes  of  the  same  gain 
are  among  the  finest  song-bird*  of  tliB  tempenti 
parts  (rf  £iitfa  America. 

HODB,  in  Mnaiix  Bvery  musicsl  pausge 
referrible  to  and  form*  part  of  a  succession  of  bodi 
having  soma  appreciable  relation  to  one  taotket. 
This  aaecesdon  of  sonnds  ia  called  Uie  Scale,  sod  it 
a  series  of  ste^  leading  from  a  given  note  cslled 
the  Eey-oote,  or  Tonio  (q.  v.),  to  its  octave.  TTw 
'eps  or  degrees  of  the  scale  are  of  unequal  sii^ 
Id  on  the  place  M  the  smaller  ones  or  semiknel 
dtfiends  the  mode  of  the  mnsio.  TUdng  oar  nstntsl 


scale,  there  am  only  two  notes  in  it  which 
satisfy  the  ear  as  kev-notee—vix.,  C  and  A.  In  the 
major  mode,  with  C  aa  key-note,  the  semitone  or 
snail  intoral  faUa  between  the  third  and  foortfa 
■oonda :  in  the  minor  mode,  with  A  as  key-note,  it 
folia  between  the  second  and  third  sounds ;  in  Uu 
former  oaae,  the  third  of  the  key-nota  is  a  msjtr 
third,  in  the  latter  a  minor  third.  The  minor  mod* 
farther  requires  to  be  modified  by  occasioDaUy 
Bhsij>ening  its  sixth  and  seventh,  in  order  to  M 
pleasing  to  modem  ears.  The  staJe  of  the  msJM 
mode  is  derived  from  simpler  harmonic  pnmortioiis 
than  that  of  the  minor.  Melodies  composed  in  (tis 
latter  mode  have  generally  more  or  less  iM  a  plaintin 
or  malancholy  character.  For  the  theory  of  thesa 
modes,  see  Moaio.  Ancient  musicians  sdmitted 
of  a  crater  variety  of  modes.  The  Greeks  bid 
six,  designated  the  Dorian.  Phrynon,  Lydisn, 
Miio-Lydian,  lonio,  and  .£alian.  The  lonio  is 
the  modam  major,  the  .^^Lan  the  minor  mode; 
the  othen  are  more  or  leas  intolerable  to  a  modem 
Tbey  are  used  to  «  limited  extent  in  the 
of  the  Oreek  Chni«h,  and  in  the  Ambrosia 
Chant 

MO'DELLINO  ia  the  procMS  iH  prepsrisg  1^ 
OTTgimd  pattern  or  design  from  which  a  work  i 
sculpture  is  '-   *--   — -*   — '     "--  '—'--■■- 


^  be  caBt''or  carved:   the  tecbiu5al 

details  will  be  found  nnder  BaoLgruBM.    Uodeiliug 

relief  with 
silversmiths,  and  jewellras  also  model  intricate 
artistic  forma  and  ornaments  of  pieoea  of  pls^ . 
be  cost  and  chased  by  them,  cr  in  whieh  je«^ 
are  to  be  set.  Wax  u  the  aubstance  ased  when 
delicacy  and  minuteness  are  reqnired.  Ifodeliing 
it  also  a  branch  of  the  potW'*  trade.    SUiiBsa 


1*0  practised  by  medallists:  the  head  or  fig«i* 
ided  to  be  cot  in  the  die  being  first  modellsd 
a  pieoe  of  slate.    Goldsmit^ 
llers  also  model  intricate  tnd 
1  ornaments  of  pieoea  of  pLUe,  ^ 


„  Google" 


MODENA— MOBN. 


modelled  for  Wedgwood  nnmeroui  figures  tad 
group*  in  mx.  For  Utge  tnodeli^  the  materUl 
emoloTed  U  potter'a  oUy,  vhich,  vhan  used  b; 
■cnipton.  ii  mixed  irith  *  portion  of  undifame, 
'finely  polvariud,  to  nuiks  it  work  freely. 

MODBNA  (ano.  Mulina),  capital  of  the  former 
■dnchjr  of  eame  name,  ft  fortifted  city  of  NorUiam 
Italy,  24  milot  weet-eorth-weet  of  Bologna.  Pop. 
■(1881)  Sl,053.  It  stands  between  the  riven  Seochu 
and  Puuuo,  in  a  pleasant  plain,  noted  for  ita  rich 
•oil  and  ealabriou*  tit,  wtd  from  its  nuTonnding 
ramparts  comnuuids  fltM  Tiews  of  Om  Apanninea. 
Although  the  locnal  life  of  M.  is  lomewbat  ati^iuuit, 
it  v  Darerthelen  &  moat  sgreeaUe  eit^.  It  1ms  mi 
ito  duaon*  Vis  ^knilis  (eee  Emujah  PsoTiNora], 
by  whiok  it  is  divided  into  the  old  and  new  city, 
sud  ia  oonneoted  by  a  nsTigable  canal  with  the 
this  and  Fansro.  Amonaat  the  pablic 
nay  be  noted  the  oathedial  of  St  Geniin- 
ntavn  of  the  city,  a  ttraotore  of  tlie 
partHy  Lombanl  atyle.  The  campanile  or  belfry  ia 
cue  of  the  great  towers  of  Italy ;  it  ia  a  aqoare 
tnrreted  atruotnTe,  316  feet  in  height,  ita  entire 
facade  being  in  white  marble.  The  dut^  palace,  a 
piotaTcai]ne  ■tmctnre  of  the  17th  a.,  i>  adorned  with 
an  infinity  of  gaUBiies,ootnts,  sod  marble  siebea;  it 
contains  the  splendid  BiUioteos  Eetoise,  nnmbenng 
100,000  volmnM,  and  3000  rare  MSS.;  slsa  the 
valoabla  Eate  aiduTet^  a  moat  important  oolteetiim 
of  mediersl  records,  oolleotiona  of  --' '  —-'-'- 


>l<igyi  1      , 

nplacad  Uw  nnivenity,  aappiesaed  in  1821 :  there 
are  alao  fine  mnteums  of  natural  histoiy,  a  botanic 
garden,  tbestrss,  and  good  pnblio  bathA  The  trade 
^  M.  ia  unimportant :  tie  manofactured  prodncta 
are  confined  to  linen  and  woollen  fabrics,  leather, 
hats,  psper,  gtasa,  and  pottety,  besLde*  ailk  mann- 
tactored  to  a  much  lee*  extent  than  fonnerly.  M. 
IS  the  tdrthplsoe  of  the  great  anatomist  FaUopins, 
sod  flie  siitiqaary  Sigonio. 

The  andent  history  of  M.  a&brda  eTidence  tliat  it 
-enjoyed  at  an  eariy  period  a  considerable  degree  of 
proeperity ;  the  apleodour,  wealth,  and  arts  of  the 
city  of  M.  being  mentioned  by  Cicero,  Pliny,  and 
Strabo.  In  modem  times,  M.  has  shared  more  or 
leas  the  vaxiona  vidssitadea  which  befell  Italy,  and 
participated  in  the  great  internecine  fenda  of  the 
country.  In  960,  a  member  of  the  great  House 
of  Eate  was  proclaimed  Marquis  of  Modeua,  and 
in  US2  the  then  reigning  marquis  waa  oreated 
duka  by  the  Emperor  FWerick  IIL  In  1796, 
M.  fonned  part  of  the  Ciealpine  Republic,  bnt  waa 
restored  in  1814  hy  the  oongreaa  of  Vienna  to  the 
tfiigniuB  family.  The  duchy  had  at  that  time  an 
area  cS  2310  umare  miles,  and  a  popnlation  of 
686,000.  In  1848,  the  Duke  of  Modena  waa  tem- 
poruily  deprived  <^  his  rights ;  and  in  1S60,  the 
popnlatioa  definitively  expelled  their  unpopular 
ruler,  who  carried  off  all  the  property  and  valoablea 
within  hia  reach,  including  the  ailver  handle*  of  the 
palace  doora.  M.  is  now  a  provinoe  of  the  kingdom 
«t  Itely  !  area  960  aq.  m. ;  pop.  (1881)  279,405t 

M01>BRAT0B,  a  term  used  in  Scotch  ecdeaioa- 
tieal  kw  to  describe  the  chairman  or  president  of  a 
I^esbyterian  cborcb-oourt. 

HODICA,  the  Mohae  of  the  Saraoena,  a  city  of 
the  island  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  V^  di  Nota, 
30  m.  from  Syracuse.  Pop.  (1831)  37,919.  The  dty, 
which  stands  perched  amidst  rocka,  contains  several 
fine  buildings,  and,  notwithstandiag  the  humidity 
of  the  climate,  t^e  samtaty  condition  of  the  inhabi- 
tants seems  satisfactory.  The  soil  of  the  surroaad. 
ing  district  is  the  most  productive  of  Sicily,  and 
yields  vast  qusntitiea  of  com,  lobacoo,  oil,  wine. 


hemp,  whieh,  with 
form  the  chief  ex-  ^ 
port  trade  of  the  B 
plaoe.    Olie  valley  '^ 
of  Ipsias,  or  Ispioa, 
in  the  vicini^  of 
M.,    ocmtaina    re- 
markable     roeka, 

ona  dwelling  are 
excavated. 
MODrLHON, 


cheese,  wool,  soda,  and  butter. 


bracket  (a  in  fig.), 
mnch      used      in 

classio  arohitec' 
tors,  (specially  in 
the  comicea  of 
the  Corinthian  and  Compodte  styles, 

MODULA'TIOK,  in  Muaio.  When  in  the 
coarse  of  a  melody  the  key-note  is  changed,  and  the 
origiual  scale  altered  by  the  btroduction  of  a  new 
sharp  or  fiat,  auch  change  ia  called  modulation.  Mudh 
of  the  pleasure  of  mnsio  ia  derived  from  a  jadicioos 
use  of  modulation.  The  art  of  good  modulatdon 
from  one  key  to  another  oonaiata  in  the  prc^>er 
choice  of  intermediate  chorda.  Sudden  tnusitious, 
without  intermediate  chords,  should  be  employed 
bnt  sparingly,  and  in  peculiar  droumstanccs. 
Ever^  piece  of  muaio  ia  composed  in  a  particular 
key,  m  which  it  b^ins  and  ends,  which  generally 
predominates  over  any  other  keys  that  may  be 
mtrodnced  in  the  course  of  the  composition. 

UO'DULE,  in  CIssmo  Architecture,  an  arbitrary 
aaaure  for  determiniog  Utt  proportiona  (rf  the 
irioua  members  of  the  orden.  lite  diameter,  semi- 
_ameter,  or  ofke-tiiird  of  the  diameter  are  most 
frequently  used;  the  first  being  usually  divided 
into  60  parts  (or  minutes),  ths  second  into  3D  parts, 
and  ths  third  into  20  parts. 

H01>tri:.n8,  a  constant  ooeflBmant  or  moltiplisr, 
by  mean*  of  which  one  aeries  <>t  system  of  quantities 
can  be  reduced  to  anotlier  ■*";■>"  series  or  system. 
Thus  we  have  the  modulus  irf  SJastiaity  (q.  v.),  of 
Friction  (q.  v.),  and  of  systciua  id  Lo^rithms  (q.  v.). 
The  system  i^  logarithms  which  is  univeisally 
accepted  as  the  primarr  i>  Napier's,  and  from  it  all 
otJier  systems  are  deduced  in  the  following  man- 
ner ;  Let  N  be  a  number  of  which  the  Kapierian 
logarithm  ia  fr,  s  being  the  Napierian  base,  it 
ia  required  to  find  the  Ic^arithm  of  N  to  some 
other  base  a.  Let  »  ba  this  loorithm,  then  (ses 
JJoaisnata)  N  =  f  =  am,  and  taking  the  Napierian 
gatithma  of  both  dde*  <^  this  equation,  b  iog.,e  = 
lJog,,a,  or  [since  log.,e=  l>i  m  se log., a,  therefore 
t       .      ,       „     log..N  1         ,       _ 

a, !Le.,log..N  =  --''-^— -■  5 X  log.N. 

log.,a'  "^  log.,o       log..o 

This  multiplier,  or '  modolus,'  j ,  ia  independent 

of  N,  and  is  thetefon  constant  for  the  reduction  of 
all  Napierian  logarithms  to  the  aystem  whose  base 

If  a  EI  10,  Qm  mnhipliet  beoemes  *  -y  the 
modolna  of  Brigg*'*,  or  the  common  aystem  of  loga- 
rithm^ and  ia  equal  to  s:5;,^55S  = -^Wa***  ■■■ 


HO'DTIB,  in  English  Law,  meana  a  peculiar 
custom  by  which  landa  beoMue  exempted  from 
payment  of  tiOam  aa  paying  soaue  oomposition  or 
equivalent; 

M&EN,  a  Danish  ialand  in  the  BsHio  Sn,  sspai^ 
ated  from  Seeland  on  the  north- we*t  by  the  U^nad, 
andfroroFalster  on  the  south-west  by  theffrAusNti. 


UCEEIS-MOHAUt. 


It  is  19  milM  loDg,  hy  kbont  5  mile*  in  averace 
breadth.  Area,  84  sqaare  milea.  Pop.  about  1S,0IXI, 
iFbo  ore  luppoited  by  agriculture,  fiaheriea,  and 
commerce.  It  liaa  been  otUed  the  Switzeriand  of 
Denmark,  and  ia  remarkable  for  the  irrwnlarity  of 
ib>  inrface.  The  toil  it  fruitfid.  Ita  chief  town  and 
teaport,  Stege,  has  »  population  of  (1880)  1930. 

H<E'IUS^  Lakb,  the  ancient  name  of  a  sheet  of 
water  iu  E^ypt,  now  known  aa  Birlcd-<l-Ktr(in, 
or  El-Kom,  ('The  Lake  of  the  Promontory'),  ia 
■itoated  In  the  pnmiic«  of  FayOm,-  about  SO 
milea  louth-west  of  Cairo;  extreme  leogth  from 
Qorth-eavt  (o  lonth-weat,  30  mila ;  breadth,  6 
toilei :  it  WM  formerly  much  larger.  Its  average 
depth  ia  12;  and  lla  greatest  ascertained  depth 
28  feet.  On  Uie  north  and  weet,  ita  shoraa  are 
rocky,  but  on  the  south,  flat  and  tandy.  It  ia 
connected  wiOi  the  Ifile  by  a  canal  called  Bohr- 
Jv»ti/  ('The  BJver  of  Joseph ').  The  water*  a^e 
braokiih,  on  aoconnt  of  their  being  imprwnat^ 
with  the  alkaline  talta  of  the  desert,  and  with 
the  muriate-af-!ime  depoeitioaa  of  the  surrounding 
hilli.  In  (be  time  of  the  Pharaohs,  the  tevenne 
derived  from  the  fisheries  was  apphed  to  the  main- 
tenance of  the  queen'a  wardrobe  and  perfumes. 
Under  the  Persians,  they  were  let  (dorins  the  season 
of  the  inundations,  when  the  cuial  fed  iJie  lake) 
at  £1B0  a  day.  At  present,  however,  they  only 
yield  about  £M  a  year. 

UCE'SIA,  an  ancient  Soman  province,  bounded 
br  the  Danube  on  the  N.,  the  Black  Sea  on  the 
XL,  the  moantain -chains  of  Hamui  (Balkan)  and 
Orbehii  on  the  S.,  that  of  Seardiu  and  the 
riven  Drinu*  (Drina)  and  Sam*  (Save)  on  the 
W.  The  river  dabrvt  (Cibriz)  divided  it  into 
two  parts,  of  which  the  Eastern  rMiMia  Inferior) 
is  the  present  Bulgaria,  and  the  Western  {Moaia 
Superior)  is  Servia.  Its  original  inhabitant  were 
■uoatly  of  Thracian  race.  Gaulish  or  Celtic 
invaders  settled  in  Western  Mcesta  about  277 
B.C.,  under  the  name  of  SeorditeL  The  Bomans 
first  came  in  contact  with  the  tribes  (d  H.  after 
the  conquest  of  Uacedonia,  when  C,  Scribonins  Curio 
forced  his  way  aa  far  north  as  the  Danube,  and 
gained  a  victoty  over  the  Mtasians  (7flB.c.),  but  tha 
country  was  not  completely  subjugated  till  S9  B.  a 
It  was  made  a  Boman  province  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  and  flourished  for  more  than  two  oen- 
toties,  bnt  as  a  frontier  province  it  was  much 
exposed  to  hostile  invasions,  and  required  a  line  of 
fortreMes  and  stations  all  alone  the  sonUi  bank  of 
the  Dannbe.  In  250  A.D.,  the  Goths  made  an 
irruption  into  the  conntry,  and  defeated  and  slew 
the  ttonan  emperor,  Decins.  In  the  following  year, 
and  aboQt  the  end  of  the  4th  e.,  it  was  given  up 
to  them  by  tbe  Emperor  Theodoains  I.  Slavonian 
tribes  settled  in  M.  in  the  6th  and  7ih  centnrioa. 

M(BSO-GOTH3,  the  name  pvaa  to  the  Goths 
who  in  the  3d  c.  settled  io  Lower  M<EBLa  at  the  month 
of  tbe  Danube.  Ulfilae  (q.  v.)  was  a  Mceso-Ooth. 
The  name,  however,  became  of  more  general  use  to 
deaignate  thoaa  wbo  remuned  in  Mcesia  after  the 
great  migration  in  the  beginning  of  the  6th  centniy. 

MOFFAT,  BoBXBT.    See  Srrrr.,  VoL  X. 

HO'FFAT,  a  market- town  and  favourite  waterine- 
place  of  SooUand,  in  tiie  oounty  of  Dumfries,  stands 
m  the  upper  part  of  the  broad  and  beautifnl  va]]ey  of 
the  Annan,  and  is  snrrouTided  by  hills  of  moderate 
elevation.  A  short  railway  to  connect  M.  with  the 
main  Caledonian  line  was  opened  in  1683.  It  is  19 
milea  north-north-eaat  of  Damtries.  Among  other 
public  edifices  are  the  baths  and  the  reading  and 
aaaemhly  rooms.  The  mineral  springs,  the  principal  | 
of  whi(^  like  -Uiat  of  Harrogate,  is  sahoe  and  suI- ; 
phuroos,  are  highly  celebrated;   bat  perhaps  the 


greatest  attractions  of  the  place  are  its  salnbrioua 
air  and  exquisite  eavirons.  During  the  season,  the 
town  is  increased  in  population  by  from  800  to  1000 
visitors,  to  suit  whose  convenience  great  numbers  of 
elegant  villas,  commanding  fins  views  of  the  ndgh- 
bouring  country,  have  bMn  erected.  Pop  (1»1) 
2161.— The  Moffat  Hills  lie  to  the  northward; 
bighest  summit,  Hartfell,  2650  feet 

MOFUSSIL  (from  an  Arabic  word  meaning 
'  separate '),  a  term  commonly  used  by  Anglo-Indian* 
for  the  rnral  part  of  a  district  as  opposed  to  the 
administrative  headquarters.  Thus  in  Ben"'  "" 
M.  means  practically  t^e  whole  province 
the  city  of  Calcutta. 

MOGABOR,  or  SUEIEA,  a  fortified  town  and 
great  seaport,  130  miles  W.S.W.  of  lie  city  of 
Morocco.  Pop.  about  20,000.  It  stands  on  a  rocky 
promontery,  opposite  a  small  island  which  forms  the 
harbour,  and  n  said  to  be  the  beat  built  town 
of  the  kingdom.  Ita  streete  are  rwolar,  thon^ 
narrow,  and  it  conaistsaf  two  parts,  eardisurnianded 
by  water.  The  quuier  callea  the  Fortaoss  ocDtaina 
the  custom-house,  and  the  treasury,  and  ia  the 
residence  of  the  psaha,  the  vice-consnla,  and  the 
Christian  merchants.  The  town  is  defended  by 
four  batteries  on  the  isUnd,  and  b^  a  fort  on  the 
Und-side ;  the  walls  are  also  defeusibla.  H.  ia  the 
•eat  of  considerable  trade ;  it  export*  dive-oil,  wool, 
gam,  hides,  feathers,  gold-dust,  and  almonda.  Com- 
merce is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews.  The 
chief  importa  are  woollens,  cottony  and  hardware. 
The  tottu  imports  have  an  »""■■»!  value  of  between 
£200,000  and  £300,000 ;  the  eiporte  have  about  th« 

MOQU'L,  GEU.T,  the  popular  designation  of  the 
emperor  of  Delhi,  as  the  impersonationof  the  power- 
ful empire  eatablished  in  Hindustan  by  the  Mongolft 
(q.  v.),  who  were  called  Mogul*  by  the  Peraians. 
The  fuBt  Great  Mogul  was  Baber,  the  creat-grand- 
son  of  Timfir,  who  founded  the  Mongul' emjnre  ia 
Hindustan  m  1526.  In  1803,  the  Great  Mogul  wm 
deprived  of  his  throne ;  in  1827,  of  even  (he  appear- 
ance of  authority,  becoming  a  mere  pensioner  of  Uie 
British;  and  in  1868,  Mohammed  BahadOr,  the  last 
of  the  dynasty,  was  transported  for  complicity  ia 
the  Indian  mutiny.   (Tha  better  spelling  is  Jfu^AoJ^^ 

MOHA'Ca,  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  110 
miles  S.-S.-W.  of  Pesth,  on  the  veatcm  arm  of 
the  Danube.  It  contains  a  gymnasium,  baa  an  im- 
portant cattle-market,  ia  a  station  for  steam-boato 
on  the  Danube,  and  the  seat  oE  considerable  trade  in 
wine,  coal,  timber,  and  azricultural  produce.  Poik 
(1880)12,335.  Itowesitshisterioalimportancetotha 
great  batftle  fought  here,  20th  August  1626,  brtweea 
Lewis  IL  of  Hungary,  with  25,000  Hungariuit,  and 
the  Sultan  Sohman,  at  the  head  of  about  200,000 
Turks.  The  battle  resulted  in  the  disaatrous  defeat 
of  the  Hnnj^ariana,  who  loat  their  kin^  7  bishops 
many  noble*  and  dignitariea,  and  upwaida  of  22,000 
men.  A  second  battle  waa  fought  liere  on  Ang.  1% 
1687,  when  the  Turks  in  their  turn  were  defeated  l^ 
auAusbv-Hangarian  army  under  Charles  oCLonaiDe. 

MO'HAIR,  the  wool  of  the  An^cora  goat  (see  Goat 
and  Amooka),*  native  of  Asia  Minor.  Fewaninal* 
have  so  beautiful  a  covering  as  the  line,  soft,  silky, 
lona,  and  always  pure  white  wool  of  this  goat. 
Each  animal,  nt  the  annual  clip  in  April  or  Uay, 
yields  from  2  lbs.  to  4  lbs.  of  wool  It  ia  only 
within  the  last  30  years  that  M.  has  been  in  great 
request  in  Britain,  but  its  development  as  an  article 
of  trade  has  been  simultaneoos  witli  that  of  alpaca. 
In  1870,  6,348,299  lbs.  of  mohair  and  other  goats' 
hair  were  imported  ;  in  1S80,  13,566,020  Ibe.  (valna 
£1,233,855).     3ee  Woollvt  MANffiTACruBra. 


jCiOoglc 


UOHAMMED. 


HOHAIfUBD  {Anh.  the  Praiaal*),  Uie  nune 
taken,  at  a  later  period,  b?  the  fonnder  of  lalam. 
He  was  origiiuLUy  called  Halabi,  He  was  bom 
about  the  year  570  a.  d.,  at  Mecca,  and  waa  the 
son  of  Abdolia!],  of  the  family  of  the  Htahim;  and 
of  Amioa,  of  the  family  oE  Zuhra,  both  of  the  power- 
ful tribe  of  the  Korei^,  but  of  a,  aide-braDch  only, 
and  therefore  of  little  or  no  influence.  His  father, 
a  poor  merchant,  died  either  before  or  Bhortly  after 
mi't  birth,  whom  bia  mother  then  (according  to  a 
doubtful  traditjon)  is  supposed  to  have  handed  over, 
after  the  fashion  of  her  tribe,  to  »  Beduin  woman, 
that  she  might  nurse  him  in  the  salubrious 
air  of  the  desert  In  oonsequence  of  the  repeated 
fits  of  the  child,  however,  which  were  ascribed  to 
deuoDS,  the  narae  sent  him  back  in  his  third  year. 
When  six  years  old,  ha  also  lost  his  mother.  His 
grandfather,  Abd-Al-Hntallib,  adopted  tiie  boy ;  and 
when,  two  yean  later,  he  too  died,  M.'a  nncle,  Abu 
Talib,  thoogh  pow  himself,  to<A  hiiu  into  his  honee, 
and  remained  his  best  fiiuid  and  protector  through- 
oat  bis  whole  life.  The  acconnts  which  have  sur- 
vived of  the  time  of  his  youth  are  of  too  legendary 
a  nature  to  deserve  credit ;  certain,  however,  it 
aeemi  tobe  that  he  atfint  gtuned  a  scanty  livelihood 
by  tending  the  fiocks  of  the  Mecoans,  and  that  he 
once  or  twice  accompanied  his  uncle  on  his  journeys 
to  Southern  Arabia  and  Syria.  In  his  25thyear,  he 
entered  the  service  of  a  rich  widow,  named  Ohadldja, 
likewise  descended  from  the  Eordsh,  and  accom- 
panied her  caravans— in  an  inferior  capaoity,  perhaps 


changed.    The  wealt^,  but  much  older, 
widowed  Chadtdja  offn«d  him  her  hand,  which  he 

accepted.  She  borehim  a  son,  Al-K&sim— whence 
M.  adopted  the  name  Abu  Al-Kftsim — and  four 
daught^s:  Zainab,  Kukaija,  Umm  Eultiillm,  and 
CStmia;  and  afterwotds  a  secoad  ion,  whom  he  called 
Abd  ISxdM,  after  an  idol  worshipped 


■nucb  enei^,  epending  most  of  his  time  in  solitary 
contemplaboiis.  In  bis  35th  year,  he  is  said  to  have, 
by  chance  only,  been  chosen  arbitra'  in  a  quarrel 
about  the  replacing  of  the  sacred  black  stone  in  the 
Eaaba  (q.v.)-,  but  not  before  his  40th  year  is  there 
anything  really  important  to  be  told  of  nil  life. 

Before,  however,  entering  on  the  weighty  events 
of  the  subsequent  period,  it  is  by  no  means  ntum- 
portant  to  advert  to  tuoli  traits  of  H.'s  outward 
appearance  as  are  yet  reooverabl&  He  was  of 
imddle  height,  rather  lean,  but  broad  shouldered, 
and  altogether  of  strong  buUd ;  slightly  curled  black 
hwr  flowed  round  his  strongly  developed  head ; 
hit  ^es,  overhung  with  Uiiok  eyelashes,  were  large 
and  Mal-black;  nis  nose,  large  and  alightly  bent^ 
was  well  formed.  A  long  beard  added  to  the 
dignity  of  bis  appearance.  A  black  mole  between 
his  shoulders  became  afterwards  omons  Vho  faithful 
'  the  seal  of  prophecy.'  In  his  walk,  he  moved  Iiis 
whole  body  violently,  '  as  if  descending  a  moun- 
tain.' His  gait  and  presence  were  altogether  of  an 
extremely  imposing  nature.  In  his  wtb  year  M. 
received  his  fitst-  'revelation,'  or,  in  other  words, 
became  first  aware  tlu,t  he  had  a  '  mission.'  About 
the  year  600  a.  d.,  Christianity  had  penetrated 
into  the  heart  of  Arabia,  through  Syria  on  the  one, 
and  Abyssinia  on  tbs  other  hand.  Judaism  no  less 
played  a  prominent  part  in  the  peninsula,  ohiefiy  in 
its  northern  parts,  which  were  dotted  over  with 
Jewish  colonies,  founded  by  emigtanta  i^ter   the 

*  Or,  according  to  Deutsch  and  Sprenger,  in  allDsion  to 
Hag.  ii.  7,  tA£  pretttctoj  JlfutioA.  M.  is  bIbo  spelt 
JUvJiammad,  ifonamniad,  JWvAaumiui,  and  (leas  tor- 
isotly)  JfoAomma^  JfoAMMf,  and  (anciently)  Mahaand, 


Jerusalem ;  and  ronnd  abont  Yatbrib 
(Medina).  Besides  these  two  all-important  religions 
^lement^  several  sects,  remnants  M  the  nnmerous 
ancient  sects  which  had  sinung  up  everywhere  during 
the  first  Christian  centariea :  Sabians,  Mandnans, 
&C.,  on  the  frontien  of  Syria  and  Babylonia,  height- 
ened the  relisions  ferment  which,  8h<Ttl7  before  the 
time  of  M.,  had  begun  to  move  the  Dunds  of  the 
thoughtfuL  At  that  time  there  arose,  according  to 
imdouhted  liistorical  accounts,  several  men  in  the 
Hedjaa  (Waraka,  Obeid  Allah,  Othman,  Zayd,  &c.), 
who  preached  the  futility  of  the  ancient  pagan  creed, 
with  its  star-worehip,  ite  pilgrimages,  and  feetive 
ceremonies,  ite  temples  and  fetiches.  It  had  in 
reality  long  ceased  to  be  a  living  futh,  and  only  the 
great  mass  of  the  people  clung  to  it  as  to  a  sacred 
inheritanoe  from  times  imtoemoriaL  The  unity  of 
Qod,  the  'ancient  relision  of  Abtnham,'  was  the 
doctrine  promulgated  by  these  forerunaeis  of  M., 
and  many  of  those  -who,  roused  by  tlieir  words, 
began  to  search  for  a  form  of  religion  which  should 
embody  both  the  traditions  oE  their  forefathers  and 
a  purer  doctrine  of  the  Divimiv,  turned  either  to 
Judaism  or  to  Christiani^.  llie  principal  scene 
of  these  missionary  laliours  was  Mecca,  then  the 
centre  of  the  pilgrimages  of  most  of  tiie  Arabian 
tribes,  and  where,  from  times  immemorial,  long 
anterior  to  the  ci^  iteelf,  the  Kaaba  fq.  v.),  Movint 
Arafat,  the  Valley  of  Mina,  Ac,  were  held  saorcd — 
the  Koreiah,  Ms  tribe,  having  the  supreme  care 
over  these  sanctuaries,  ever  since  the  Stb  century.  It 
waa  under  tluse  circomstances  that  M.  felt 'moved' 
to  teach  >  new  faith,  which  should  diapense  with 
idola^T  on  the  one,  as  with  Judaism  and  Christianity 
OQ  the  other  hand.  He  was  40  years  of  age,  aa  we 
said,  when  he  received  the  first  '  divine'  communi- 
cation in  the  solitude  of  the  monotain  Hiri,  near 
Mecca.  Gabriel  appeared  to  him,  and  in  the  name 
of  God  commanded  him  to 'read' — that  is,  to  preach 
the  true  religion,  and  to  spread  it  abroad  by  com- 
mitting it  to  writing  (Sor.  icvi.).  How  far  M.  wai 
a  '  prophet,'  in  the  common  sense  of  the  word,  has 
been  the  subject  of  endless  and  utterly  futile  discus- 
sions in  the  Christian  world.  That  hewae  no  vulgar 
impostor,  is  now  as  generally  recognised  as  t£at 
other  once  popular  doctrine,  that  he  was  in  lewue 
with  the  devil,  is  rejected  b^  thinking  men.  what 
part  bis  epilepsy  had  in  his  '  visions,'  we  are  not 
able  to  determine.  Certain  it  is  Oiat,  after  long 
and  painfol  solitary  broodings,  •  somethiiig— not 
dearw'  known  to  himself — at  times  moved  him  with 
such  fearfully  rapturous  vehemeoce,  that,  during  his 
revelations,  he  is  said  to  have  roared  like  a  camel, 
and  to  have  streamed  with  perspiration ;  his  eyes 
turned  red,  and  the  foam  stood  before  his  mouth. 
The  voices  he  heard  were  sometimes  those  of  a  bell, 
sometimes  of  a  man,  sometimes  they  came  in  his 
dreams,  or  they  were  laid  in  his  heart,  Waraka, 
one  of  his  wife's  relatives,  who  bad  embraced 
Judaism,  spoke  to  him  of  the  Jewish  doctrine,  and 
told  him  we  story  of  the  patriarchs  and  Israel ;  not 
so  much  as  it  is  told  in  the  Bible,  but  in  the  Mid- 
rash  ;  and  the  gorgeons  hues  of  the  legendary  poetry 
of  the  latter  seem  to  have  made  as  deep  on  impres- 
sion ou  M-'s  poetical  mind  as  the  dot^rine  of  the 
uni^  of  Ood  and  the  laorcde — in  its  broad  outlines — 
of  the  Old  Testament,  together  with  those  civil  and 
religious  laws,  scriptiual  and  oral,  which  ore  either 
oontMied  as  germs  or  folly  developed  in  this  record. 
Christianity  exercised  a  minor  influence  upon  him 
and  his  spiritual  oflspring.  AH  his  knowledge  of 
the  New  Testament  was  confined  to  a  few  apocry- 

Jhal  books,  and  with  all  the  deep  reverence  before 
esus,  whom,  together  with  Mose^  he  calls  the 
greatest  prophet,  next  to  himself,  his  notions  of  the 
Christian  religion  and  its  founder  were  excessively 
HI         , 

^ 


m  mtut  r«f«i  to  Kokan  mnd  MoKUOfxPAimac. 

HiB  flnt  nrrelatHO  b*  oommiuioKted  to  no  oim^  it 
would  appear,  txcept  to  Cbadtd]*,  to  hi*  dftoghten^ 
hia  stepMO  AH,  hu  (KTOorito  dave  Zaid— whom 
h«  had  probably  fr««d  and  adopted  l^  thb  time — 
and  to  hu  friend  the  pmdeat  and  braert  Abn  Bekr. 
Hit  otbwieUtiTei  nfeoted  hia  taachingi  with  eeont. 
Abn  l^iith,  hii  nndet  oalled  him  a  fool ;  and  Aba 
Tilib,  hit  adopUre  fitlur,  aHhaagh  he  never  eeaeed, 
f or  the  honooi  of  hia  faiulr,  to  i«otaot  him,  Tet  never 
ptofMMd  an;  belirf  in  M.*a  wordi.  In  ue  foortli 
jrear  of  hia  mimion,  howerer,  he  had  made  forfy 
proaeljtea,  chiefly  Blavea  and  peoide  from  the  lower 
ranka ;  and  now  flrtt  eome  venea  w«m  lerealed  to 
him,  oommanding  him  to  oonw  forwaid  pnblioly  ai 
apieaoher,  and  pa  defr  the  aoom  of  the  nnbelie^aa. 
With  all  hii  power,  ne  now  invdghed  Maintt  tiie 
mimeral  ntperatition  of  the  Heooani,  and' 
them  to  a  raona  and  moral  lib,  and  to  the 
aa  aU-mi^ty,  all-wiH^  oreriaatuig,  indiriable^  all- 
jnet,  but  meraUnl  Ood,  who  had  onoeen  him  aa  he 
had  cboeen  the  pTophete  of  the  Bible  bdon  him,  to 
to  teach  manUi^  that  the^  ahould  eeoape  the  pnniah- 
menta  of  hell,  and  inbent  ercriaating  lifth  God'a 
mercy — Qui  waa  a  primitive  dootrine,  eommon  to 
tlie  whole  Eaat — wia  TOindpally  to  bo  obtained  by 
prayer,  faating,  and  aunigirug.  The  beUef  in  the 
■acredneaa  of  the  Kaaba  and  (he  ceremoniee  of  ttie 
{olgrimage  waa  too  firmly  rooted  in  hi*  and  tiie 
peoplf'a  minda  not  to  be  reoeived  tnbt  the  new 
creed ;  but  eertun  barbannu  habiti  of  tiie  Bedoina, 
aooh  aa  tiie  killing  t£  thrir  new-bom  daoghtera, 
were  mtbleady  oandemoed  by  Mdtammed.    Tbe 

rihitutdou  of  certain  kinda  of  food  abo  belonga 
tbia  flnt  period,  when  he  aa  yet  entirdf  stood 
nnder  the  inSuenoe  of  Jadtism ;  the  prohilntion  of 
nmldinK,  nanry,  fto.,  probably  htaiia  al  a  loniewtiat 
later  dale.  Wbether  ne  did  or  did  not  nnderrtand 
the  art  irf  writing  and  readins  at  the  oommeooement 
of  hia  eaTeei\  ia  not  qnite  clear ;  certain  it  ia  that 
he  ^«tendea  not  to  know  it,  and  employed  the 
•ervicee  of  amannensea  for  hia  Eoranio  dicta,  which 
at  firat  eonaiited  merely  of  brief,  thymed  aentencea 
in  the  manner  of  tile  andent  Arabio  aoothiayera. 
[EoKAK.}  TheMecoanadidnot  object  to  hiadoingi; 
they  coniidered  him  a  common  'poet'  or  'ioolh- 
•ayer,'  who,  moreorw,  waa  not  in  hia  right  Mnaee, 
or  limply  a  liar.  Oradoally,  however,  aa  the 
namber  of  hia  oonvetta  incrawed,  they  began  to 
pay  more  and  more  attention  to  hia  prooeedings ; 
and  finally,  fearing  moatly  for  the  lacredneM  of 
Mecca,  wtuch  the  new  doctrine  might  abolish,  tima 
depriving  them  of  their  chief  glory  and  the  ample 
revenuea  of  the  pilgrimagea,  they  rose  in  fierce 
oppoeition  againat  the  new  prophet  and  hie  adber- 
enta,  who  <UTad  '  to  call  their  ancient  god*  id<JB, 
and  their  anceeton  fools.'  Many  of  the  oonverted 
alavee  and  freedmen  had  to  undergo  terrible  pnniah- 
moita ;  and  others  aoffered  ao  mooh  at  the  handa  of 
theb  own  relstivea,  that  th^  were  fain  to  revoke 
thrir  deed ;  ao  that  tbe  prophet  himaalf  adviaed  hia 
followei*  to  emigrate  to  Abyvinia.  M  himself, 
althoDgh  protected  by  the  strong  arm  of  Abn  Tolib, 
waa  yet  at  that  tame  ao  low-apirited  and  fearful, 
that  he  even  ruaed  the  idola,  which  hitherto  he 
had  repreeented  aa  nongh^  to  intermediate  beinn 
between  Ood  and  man — a  dictum,  however,  whiSi 
be  Boon  revoked,  aa  an  inapiration  of  Satan,  thereby 
increaalng  the  hatred  of  hia  adveraariea,  at  whose 
head  atood  two  membera  of  the  family  of  MMhTfltn, 
Al-Walid  and  Abulhaharo  Amr  (called  by  Moham- 
med 'Father  of  FooMineM'),  and  who  in  everr 
way  tried  to  tiirow  ridicule  on  him.  At  laat  it 
became  neceenry  that  he  ehonld  be  pnt  beyond  the 
reach  of  hia  peraeontors,  and  Abn  Talib  hid  him  in 


a  fortified  eaatle  of  hia  own  in  the  oonntry.  W..n>-_ 
hia  nnde,  and  Omar,  formerly  a  hitter  enemy  of  M  ^ 
and  who  afternide,  with  IS.  and  Aim  Bekr,  beoama- 
tbe  third  head  of  ItlaTn,  continued  in  the  irw^n^mf^ 
to  apread  the  new  doctrine.  The  Koreiah  now 
demanded  that  M.  should  be  deliv^ed  into  their 
handa ;  but  Abn  TaUb  steadfaatly  refnaed  to  oam< 
p^  witb  their  wiahea;  a  fend  thereopcm broke onfe. 
Wwe^  their  family  and  that  of  the  Haahenute^ 
and  U.  and  all  the  membera  of  hia  family,  eic<^ 
periu^M,  Abn  Lahab^  wne  excommunicated.  Aft«- 
the  niaoe  of  three  years,  however,  the  'peaes  par^' 
in  Heooa  bron|^t  about  a  tecondliabcm,  and  H. 
was  alknrad  to  return.  A  great  grief  hcfoll  Un 
at  thia  time— hia  futhfnl  win  Chadldja  died,  and, 
ahorUy  aftarwarda,  his  uncle  Abu  Talil^  and,  to 
add  to  hia  miaery,  the  viciaaitudes  ot  hu  career 
had  reduced  him  l^  thia  time  to  poverty.  An 
emigratiou  to  Tal^  where  he  sought  to  improvB 
hia  poaition,  proved  a  failure ;  it  waa  with  great 
difficulty  that  he  eaoafied  with  hia  bare  lif& 
Daring  thia  epoch,  he  b«d  the  well-kiion  dream 
of  hia  journey  to  Jerusalon  and  in  the  heavoa- 
on  the  bach  ei  tbe  Borak  (Miraj),  the  relatica 
of  whidi  cansed  even  Us  atancheat  adhennta  to- 
amile  at  hia  halhioination.  Shortly  afta  his  return 
from  Tal^  he  married  Sauda,  and  afterwards  ao- 
increaaed  the  number  of  hia  wivea,  tliat  at  his 
death  he  atill  left  nine,  of  whom  AyidMb,  tb» 
daughter  of  Aba  Bekr,  and  Haba,  the  daughtw  of 
Omar,  sm  best  known.    In  the  midrt  of  faia  vain. 


those  naar  it,  be  snoceeded,  dorinig  ..  ,  „..._._ 
oonvnting  aeveial  men  from  Medma,  whose  inulni> 
anta  had  long  bean  accustomed  to  hear  from  tlM- 
__.,._  ,.  .1. Jtun  livinr  —  "-  -^ ' 


God's  Word,  Messiah  I  totheMeccans 
withont  any  meaning.  The  seed  sown  into  tlie 
minda  of  these  men  bore  a  fruitful  harvest.  The 
next  pilgrimage  brought  twelve,  and  the  Ourd  mor* 
than  seven^  adherents  to  the  new  faith  from 
Medina,  and  with  these  he  entered  into  a  eloM 
alliance.  M  now  conceived  the  plan  to  sedt  r«fn« 
in  the  friendly  dtv  d  Medina,  and  about  622 
(ten,  tlurteen,  or  uteen  years — aoDording  to  the 
diffraent  traditjona — after  his  firat  aeanniiiig  the 
sacred  office}  he  fled  thitha',  about  one  hundred 
familiea  of  hia  faithful  flock  having  preceded  him 
aome  time  before,  aocompanied  by  Abu  Bekr,  and 
reaohed,  not  vrithout  dancer,  the  town,  called  tboioe 
Medinat  Annabi  (City  m  Uie  Prophet),  or  Medina. 
'  City,'  by  way  of  eminenoe ;  and  from  this  fli^iW 
or  rather  from  the  first  month  of  the  next  Arw)i» 
year,  dates  the  Mohammedan  Era  [HedjrahJ. 
Now  everything  waa  chan^^ed  to  tiie  advantage  of 


podtisn  of  higiieet  Jadge,  law^ver,  and  ruler  of  th» 
d^and  two  moat  powufnl  Ainbdo  tribes.  Hia  fint- 
caro  waa  directed  towards  the  o<maolidation  of  tha- 
new  worahip,  and  the  inner  arrangements  in  the 
oongtegatdon  of  his  flock ;  his  next  chief  endeavour 
was  to  proselytiBe  the  nnmerons  Jews  who  inhabited 
the  ci^,  to  whom,  besides  having  received  tiieir 
prindpal  dogmaa  into  his  nilision,  be  made  many 
unpcMant  conoeaaiona  also  in  the  outer  obaervaooia 
of  Islam,  and  oondnded  aWanoes  with  many  of  thar 
bribes ;  but  ha  waa  aorely  disappointed  in  his  hopca 
to  convert  them.  They  ridiculed  hia  pretenaion  to 
be  the  Meaeiah,  and  ao  enraged  Tiim  by  uieir  conatant 
taunts,  that  he  soon  abrogated  hia  oonceaiiona,  and 
became  their  bittcaieat  adv«nary  up  to  the  hour  of 


: z vGuUJ^I^' 


Iiu  deatk  The  moct  impottAiit  mA  in  the  fint  rear 
of  th«  Hedjnh  wag  hu  permiBiioa  to  ip  to  war  irith 
the  ttiemiee  of  lalam  in  the  name  of  Ood — a  kind 
of  uutnifeBto  chicflj  direoted  against  tiie  Meoaau. 
Not  beiiu  able  at  fint  to  fight  hia  enemjee  in 
open  fiel^  ha  andeaTotued  to  weaken  tiieir  power 
t^  attacking  tlie  oanvMi*  of  the  Koreiih  on  their 

_-  *^  o.™>i     D^—  — — — *«i 1.  to  dwhwb 

>  oondnda 
be^  ha  at 

last  dand  to  break  •ren  tho  peace  ol  the  Mcnd 
month  <rf  BadjBl:^  and  with  thia  the  ngtul  to  opes 
varfat*  was  giveiL  A  battle^  the  &tt,  b^weeo 
SM  Hoolinu  and  about  600  Ueooana  wm  fboght 
at  Badr,  in  tb»  Mcond  year  of  the  Hedjidi ; 
the  foimer  gatoed  the  vtetoty,  and  made  many 
prisonera.  A  great  nnmber  of  adTenturaia  now 
nocked  to  M.'b  ooloun,  and  he  ancceBahtlly  oon- 
tinued  hia  espeditiona  againit  the  Eoreiah  tuid  the 
Jewiih  tcibea,  ohiefiy  the  Beni  KeinnkA,  whole 
fbrtifled  caatUa  he  took  after  a  loos  eiese.  Mot- 
'        ~      llnQie 

'V  incTMsed  eo  m^dhr  tlut 
"^j»h  abei'^^ 

..      pijgnmage , 

AiOioa^  Uu  Meoeana  did  ju£  ail/nr  Uiia  to  ba 
eacried  ottt,  he  gained  the  atiU  greatw  advantage 
that  they  concliuled  *  fonnal  peace  with  him,  and 
.1 ._.i  t!_.  ._   ._   -.j^  poww  and  bellL- 


lal  V  wonnded,  hia  power 
k  Ue  Kzth  year  irf  the  _ 
I  Itfoelaim  a  pnUio 


Hadjrah  alnm^  he  « 


age  for  ttuee  da^  nndittnrbed  at  Meoo^ 
afterwatda,    dnnng    hia    ezpeditiona    aga 


. „    —    -, ^ the 

Jewe  of  Chaibar  and  Fadak,  M.  veiy  ii«arif  lost 
hii  life :  a  Jeweaa,  Zainab  by  oaoe,  a  r^ative  id 
whom  had  talleii  in  tia  fight  against  him,  placed 
neat  before  hrm,   and 
it,  he  yet,  up  to  hia 


I  poisoned  pi< 
iltnoDgh  he  E 


abroad,  to  Choaroea  IL,  to  HeiacliiM,  to  the  Idng  of 
AbyBdnia,  the  Yioeroy  of  Egypt,  ud  the  ehi«£  of 
•ereral  Aiatoe  pnmDoea.  Some  lecMved  the  new 
goapel;  hot  Cnosft  Furii,  the  kiiw  <d  Persia, 
and  Amm  the  Ohassaoida,  reieoted  hia  propoaalt 
with   Bcom,  and  the   latter  had  the   measeogw 


however,  employed  in  deaboying  all  tnoea  of  id 
in  the  beii^ied  d^,  and  fixing  the  minoi 
and  cenmonie*  <i  the  bne  faith,  M.  beard  o 


•zecnted.  This  waa  the  canae  of  the 
between  tike  Christiana  and  the  Uoilims,  in  which 
the  latts  wen  beaten  with  Bre*t  lose  by  Axam. 
The  Meccans  now  thought  the  Icmg-deiired  moment 
of  revenge  at  hand,  and  bn^  the  peace  by  commit- 
ting serial  acta  of  vioteoce  i^*JQ*t  ths  Cbaiait«e, 
the  alliea  of  Mohammed.  The  latter,  however, 
marched  at  the  head  of  10,000  men  against  Mecca, 
before  ita  inhabitants  had  had  time  to  prepaie  for 
the  si^e,  took  it,  ud  was  pnbliely  recognised  by 
them  sa  chief  and  prophet.  With  this  toe  victory 
of  the  new  Teligjon  waa  asomnd  in  Anbia.  Whil^ 
""'"  "  "    •    ■  "  ■       BOf  idolatry 

„  minor  laws 

faith,  M.  beard  of  new 
which  several  warlike  Antloe  tribes  marched 
uamst  him,  and  which  wn«  ooncentrated  near  Talf 
(630).  Again  ha  wsa  victorioas,  and  his  dominion 
and  eteed  extended  farther  and  further  erery  day. 
From  all  parts  flocked  the  deputations  to  do  homage 
to  him  in  the  name  of  Um  varions  tribes,  either  as 


the  BvBsntines;  batnot  being  able  to  bring  together 
a  aomoiait  army,  he  had  to  be  ntiafied  wittk  the 


homage  of  a  few  miner  priooea  on  hia  way  to  the 
frontiera,  and  to  return  without  haTins  earned  oat 
his  intention.  Towards  the  end  of  the  lOUi  year 
"rah  he  undertook,  at  the  head  of  at  feast 
ims,  his  laat  aolemn  pilgrimage  to  Meoo^ 
[on  tiie  Mount  AroUtJinatnicted  tiiem 


40,000  Mna 


him  on  that  _  _   

[Huj.]  He  apin  solemnly  exh<»ted  hia  believen 
to  lighteousneas  and  juety,  and  ehiefly  reoommanded 
them  to  protect  tha  weak,  the  poor,  and  the  women, 
and  to  abstain  from  usury. 

Betamed  from  Mecca,  he  oooupied  himsdf  again 
with  tiie  earryiug  out  of  his  expedition  agamat 
^lia,  but  fell  dangeronily  ill  very  soon  after  hia 
Tetum.  One  night,  while  Buffering  from  an  attack 
of  fever,  he  went  to  the  eemetery  of  Medina,  and 
prayed  and  wept  npon  the  tombs,  praising  the  dead, 
and  wishing  that  he  himself  mi^t  soon  be  delivered 
boa  the  swims  of  this  world.  For  a  few  mom  days 
he  went  abont;  at  hut,  too  weak  further  to  vint  hia 
wivei^  be  ohoaa  the  house  of  Ayeahah,  situated  near 
a  mcsqiM^  as  hia  abode  during  ua  uckueia.  He  con- 
tinnea  to  take  part  in  tiia  public  tnayera  as  laps  aa 
he  oonld ;  nntil  at  last,  feeling  that  hii  boor  bad 
aom^  ho  onoa  more  preadied  to  the  pM^le,  reocm- 
miHing  Abu  Bekr  and  Uama,  the  son  of  Zaid,  an 
the  nmerala  whom  be  bad  chosen  for  Uie  army. 
He  tnen  asked,  like  Moms,  whether  he  had  wronged 
any  one,  and  rend  to  them  paBiagea  &om  the  Eonn, 

■farict  olMdienoa  to  the  tenets  of  the  biith.  A  few 
days  afterwards,  he  asked  for  writing  materials,  prob- 
al^  in  order  to  fix  a  socceasor  to  his  office  aa  chief 

of  UIO faithful;  ^ntflm^f,  fHmirihghmniphf  nhnfn  f^}^^ 

while  he  hinwelf  inclined  to  lAn  Bekr,  would  not 
aUow  him  to  be  furnished  with  them.  In  his  last 
wftnderingi  he  oolv  spoke  of  angels  and  heaven. 
He  died  in  the  Up  of  Ayesbah,  about  noon  of  Monday 
the  12th  (11th)  of  the  third  month,  in  the  year  11 
of  the  Hedjrah  (8th  of  Jane  632).    His  death  canaed 

faithful,  and  Omar,  who  liiin»i»lf  would  not  believe 
in  it,  tned  to  persuade  the  people  of  his  still  beiiu 
aliva  But  Abu  Bekr  said  to  ttie  assembled  multi- 
tiide :  '  Whoever  among  yon  has  served  Mi^iammed, 
let  him  know  that  MoEumned  is  dead;  but  be  who 
haa  served  the  Ood  of  Mohammed,  let  him  coutinoe 
in  his  Barvioe,  for  he  is  still  alivc^  aud  never  dies.* 
While  his  corpse  waa  yet  nnburied,  the  quarrela 
abont  his  suooeesor,  whom  ha  had  not  definitively 
been  aUe  to  appoint,  commenced;  and  SaaUy,  Aba 
Bekr  received  the  homage  of  the  principal  Mnslima 
at  Medina  M.  was  then  buried  in  the  night  from 
the  9th  to  the  lOth  of  June,  after  long  discoBaiona, 
in  the  house  of  Ayeshah,  where  he  had  died,  and 
which  afterwards  became  part  ol  the  adjoining 
mosquei 

This,  in  briefest  ontUne,  is  M-'a  career.  We  have 
not  been  able  to  dwell,  as  we  could  have  wished 
to  do,  with  any  length,  either  on  the  peculiar 
oircninBtances  of  his  inner  life,  which  preceded 
and  accompanied  his  *prophetio'  coorse,  nor  on  the 
part  whkb  Idolatry,  Judaism,  Christiani^,  and  hia 
own  reflection  respectively,  bore  in  the  formation 
of  his  teligion;  nor  have  ws  been  able  to  trace 
the  process  by  which  his  'mission'  grew  upon 
tiim,  M  it  were,  and  he,  from  a  simple  admonisher 
of  his  family,  became  the  founder  of  a  faith  to 
which  now  above  130  millions  are  said  to  adhere. 
The  articles  Eobah  and  Mohauuedanibh  con- 
tain some  further  details  on  his  doctrine  and  its 
history.  We  have,  in  addition  to  the  few  obser- 
vations  on  the  points  indicated  at  the  beginnii^ 


^ 


UOHAMMBD— MOHAMUEDAinsU. 


ooly  to  leitente,  tlut  a  nuui  of  Mohunmed'a  eitn- 
orduiMT  powera  and  gifts  it  not  to  be  iadged  by 
a  modita  coauaon-plAce  atsndaid.;  and  tbat  the 
tnamun  and  monili  of  his  own  t^e  and  ooontry 
tnort  alio  ba  talcen  into  conaideratioii.  We  are  fa 
from  OTarratina  his  character.  Hb  ■waa  at  time 
decettfnl,  cnniun^  even  wvenaelal  and  cowardly , 
Hid  genenUy  addicted  be^nd  limit  to  tenmali^. 
But  aU  thia  doea  not  joibfy  the  tavaga  and  ail^ 
abnia  which  haa  been  heaped  apon  hta  name  for 
ceDtnriea  by  if^itoraace  and  fonaticiam.  Not  only 
bia  public  ttation  aa  prophet,  preadier,  and  prince, 
but  also  hia  privata  chaiaoter,  his  amiabili^,  bi« 
faitlifiiliieas  towards  friend*^  his  tenderncis  tovrarda 
his  family,  and  tiie  fceqneiit  readineai  to  foigiTe 
an  enemy;  beaidea  tiie  sxtrema  aimplicil^  of  his 
domestic  lUe  <he  lived,  when  already  m  full  power, 
in  a  miaerable  hat,  mended  his  own  clothes,  and 
f/eed  all  his  alana),  moat  be  taken  into  coDaideiation ; 
and,  to  do  him  fall  jiutdce,  hia  melanoholic  tempera- 
ment, hie  nerronineu,  oftrai  bordering  on  fran^,  and 
which  brongbt  him  to  the  brink  of  auicide,  and  hia 
beii^  a  poet  of  the  highest  order,  with  all  the 
weakoeases  of  a  poet  developed  to  eiceaa,  muat  not 
be  forgotten.  Altogether,  hia  mind  contained  the 
ttrangeat  miztnre  of  right  and  wrone,  of  truth  and 
error.  Although  bis  seU-choeeD  miaiion  waa  the 
abolition  (4  anpetttdtioD,  he  yet  believed  in  Jim, 
Omens,  channs,  and  dreams,  and  *-^^«  ia  an  additional 
reason  agaioit  the,  aa  we  aaid,  now  generally  aban- 
doned notion,  that  he  was  a  vnlgar  designer,  who 
b^  DO  means  deceived  himself  aluut  thoae  revela- 
tions which  ha  pretended  to  have  received.  And 
however  much  the  relwion  of  lalam  maj,  rightly  or 
wrongly,  be  oonriderea  tlie  bane  and  pnme  canae  tt 
Oia  rottenneea  of  eaatem  atatea  and  nations  is  ont 
day,  it  must,  in  the  firat  place,  not  be  forgotten 
that  it  is  not  necessarily  ulam  which  haa  caused 
the  comiptioa,  aa  indeea  its  ethica  are  for  the  most 
part  of  toe  higheat  order ;  and  in  the  aecond  place, 
that  Mi^uunmed  ia  not  to  be  made  responaibfe  for 
aU  the  cCTon  of  hia  ancceseora.  Tabe  him  tdl  in 
■U,  the  hiitoiy  of  humanity  haa  seen  few  mora 
earnest,  noble,  and  ainoere  'prophets' — nainE  the 
word  prophet  in  the  broad  numan  aense  oi  one 
iiresiatibly  impelled  by  an  inner  power  to  admoniah, 
and  to  teach,  and  to  ntter  anatei«  and  anbhme 
trntha,  the  full  purport  of  which  ia  often  unknown 
tohioiaeE 
The  moat  important  European  bioffraphies  of  M. 


MOHAMMED,  the  name  of  four  snltana  of 
Turkey,  of  whom  the  most  noted  is  Moeammed  IT., 
■oinamed  Biaui  or  Tbe  Orzat,  the  conqueror  of 
ConstantiDopUh  He  waa  bom  at  Adrianople  in 
1430,  and  snoeeeded  his  father,  Amurath  IL,  in 
14filX  Hia  Sat  acts  were  the  murder  of  hia  two 
biothen.  and  the  suppreaaion  of  a  rebellion  in  Kara- 
man.  Having  thus  aecured  liimaelf  on  the  throne, 
he  bent  tU  hia  enemea  to  tbe  accomplishment  of  the 
great  project  whi^  had  always  been  kept  promi- 
nently in  view  bjhis  predecessora — the  capture  of 
Constantinople.  This  city  waa  now  the  sole  remnant 
of  the  once  mighty  empire  of  tbe  Cesare ;  and  after 
more  than  a  year  spent  ia  preparationB,  M.  com- 
menced tbe  aiege,  6th  April  1453,  with  an  army  of 
268,000  men,  and  a  fleet  of  320  vcsaels.  The  Greeks, 
aided  by  a  gallaiit  band  of  2000  stran^ra,  imder 
Oiau  Juatiniani,  a  noble  Genoese,  long  mamtained  an 
obatjnate  resistaoce.  On  the  mommg  of  the  29th 
Mav,  a  combmed  attack  waa  made  by  land  and'  sea 
witlunt  aoeeeaa ;  but  the  ntirement  from  the  ram- 
parta  of  Juatiniani,  who  bad  been  severely  wounded, 
and  denuured  of  a  iQeceiifnl  defence,  caused  a  panic 
among  fiia  lolloweti,  aad  the  simultaneous  cha^  of 


a  chosen   body  of  janiEsriea,  with  M.  himaelf  at 

their  head,  waa  irreaistible.  Conatantine  XIIL  died 
in  the  breach,  and  the  Turks  poured  in  over  hi* 
corpse  to  plunder  and  devastate  hia  capital.  IiL 
now  trauBEerred  the  seat  of  bis  government  to 
Constantinople,  and  sought  to  win  tnick  the  inhabi- 
tsuts  by  promising  them  tbe  free  exercise  of  their 
religion.  He  neit  reduced  the  kingdoms  of  Morea 
and  Trebizond,  ofishoots  of  tbe  Otcek  emnir^ 
obtuned  possession  of  Serria  on  the  death  ol  it« 
last  prince,  and  made  formidable  preparationa  for 
tho  invadon  of  Hungary.  Belerada  was  the  first 
pdnt  of  attack ;  and  with  100,OD0  men,  supported 
by  a  fleet  of  200  shi^  on  ths  Danube,  M.  tat  down 
before  it*  walls.  13ie  enormons  ordnance  whitli 
had  done  sach  good  service  at  Constantinople,  w«« 
employed  to  batter  the  rampari^a ;  but  the  valonr, 
skill,  and  activity  of  the  defenders  foiled  his  utmot 
eSbrta.  John  Hunjrady  (q.  v.),  who,  with  BOOQ 
chosen  troops,  bad  reinforced  the  ganison.  destroyed 
or  captuied  all  bta  vesaela,  and  aoon  after,  by  k 
sadden  tally,  defeated  his  army,  and  carried  off  tha 
batteiing-tnun,  compelling  bim  to  raise  the  a' 
fitb  August  14C6.  Hit  next  enterprise  was 
invasion  of  Epirus,  where  Scanderbeghad  hithmto 
succeasfuUy  defied  the  aultan'a  power.  Three  Turldkh 
armiea  were  destroyed  in  rapid  auccesfdon,  and  a 
fourth  and  fifth  under  M.  ni»>sff]f  met  with  w> 
^^tar  success ;  bnt  the  death  of  Ihe  gallant 
Epirote,  in  1487,  removed  the  only  obatule  Ut 
tne  tncceaa  of  the  aultan'a  plana,  and  Gpirus 
was  forthwith  annexed  to  Turkey.  'Hie  tatter  half 
of  M.'a  reign  wh  also  fruitful  in  important  achieve- 


1,  but  on 


space  will  pertnit  only  a  curaoiy 
He  reduced  the  Khan  ot  the  Crimea 


to  the  condition  of  a  vaaasl,  deprived  the  Oenoeea 
of  Ca^  and  the  Venetians  et  Friuli,  Isb^  N^ro- 
ponl^  and  Lemuoa;  but  tha  Knights  (tf  8t  John 
repelled  bim  &om  Rhodea,  and  the  Yenetiana  from 
Scodra  He  carried  hia  arms  into  Italy,  and  took 
Otranto,  but  died  in  14S1  at  Nicom^dia,  while  oa 
vav  to  join  his  sou  Bajazet,  who  was  warring 
the  Peraians  and  Egyptisna.  Hia  freqneat 
cont«sbl  with  tbe  former  of  these  nations  had 
always  interfered  very  much  with  the  socceasfnl 

iroaecution  of  his  designs  of  conquest  in  Europe. 

i.  waa  poaseaaed  of  ^^at  abilitie* ;  he  waa  brave, 
entetprismg,  and  sagacious ;  nor  was  he  deficient  in 
leanuog,  for  he  spoke  four  langnagea  fluently,  waa 
well  versed  in  geography,  ancient  niatory,  and  the 
natural  aciencea,  and  waa  practically  ac^OMnted 
with  the  fine  arts.  But  the  brilliancy  ot  hia  oareeTi 
and  tbe  occasional  generoaity  and  even  magti*. 
□imity  which  he  shewed,  cannot  obliterate  the 
recollection  of  those  acta  of  cruelty  and  trekcheiy 
which  have  justly  branded  him  as  the  most  ruUi- 
less  tyrant  of  the  House  ot  Osman.  At  the  founder 
of  the  Turkish  power  in  Europe,  hia  memory  ha* 
always  been  revered  by  the  Turka. 

MOHA'MMEDANISM,  the  teUgion  founded  by 
Mohammed,  or,  accotdii^  to  him,  the  only  orthodox 
creed  exIstiDg  from  the  beginning  of  the  world, 
preached  by  all  the  mopheta  ever  since  Adam. 


dogmatical  or  theoretical  part,  it  is  ImAn,  BUth ; 


tuined  in  the  two  artictea  of  belief :  '  There  is  no 
Qod  but  Qod;  and  Mohammed  is  God's  Apoetle.' 
The  Mohammedan  doctrine  of  God's  nature  and 
attributes  coinddea  with  the  C%rittiaD,  in  so  far 
as  he  is  by  both  taught  to  be  the  Creator  of  all 
thin^  in  heaven  and  earth,  who  rules  and  preserve* 
all  tmnga,  without  beginning,  omnipotent  omnisciant, 
<annipresen1^  and  fuU  t£  matny.    Y$t,  accordug  to 

Lj,,ii_u  ,.Li00qIc 


MOHAUMEDAKISM. 


diviiM  opentum ;  and  aa  the  Koran  snperaeded  the 
6««pQl,  BO  Mohunmed,  Chiut  The  cnici&dt 
Mid  to  hare  been  eiecnted  npon  another  pe 
Christ  baring  been  taken  np  nnto  Ood  betoro  the 
decree  wm  oairied  ont  He  will  corns  again  npon 
the  earth,  to  otaUiih  ereiywhere  the  Moalem 
religion,  and  to  be  a  rign  of  the  oominK  ot  the  day 
of  judgment  Next  to  the  belief  in  God,  that  in 
sogeU  fbima  a  pr(nmaent  dogma.  Created  of  fire, 
and  endowed  with  a  kind  of  unoorporeal  bodj,  they 
>tind  between  Ood  and  ih^ti,  adoring  or  waiting 
upon  the  former,  or  intetDeding  for  and  goivdiag  the 
Utter.  The  fonr  chief  tmgeli  are  '  The  Holy  apirit.' 
or  'Angel  of  BeveUtiona' — Oabriel;  the  special 
protector  and  goardian  of  the  Jews— Michael ;  the 
'  Angel  ot  Deatii '— Airaei  (Bwhaat,  in  the  apocry' 
^i«l  ^oapel  of  Bamabaa),  and  IsrafU— Uriel,  whoac 
office  It  will  be  to  aonnd  the  trumpet  at  the  Beanr 
reolion.  It  will  haidly  be  neoenary,  after  what 
we  nid  Trader  MoHAuaD,  to  point  out,  in  ereiy 
indiTidnal  inatamce,  how  meet  ot  Ma  'religious' 
notiona  wore  taken  almost  bodily  from  the  ^wisb 
l^^enda;  his  anwlolo^,  however,  the  Jews  had 
borrowed  thenuelrea  from  the  Persians,  only  altering 
the  names,  and,  in  a  few  casea,  the  offices  of  the 
chief  aoselio  dignitaries.  Besides  angels,  tiiere  are 
sood  and  evil  genii,  the  chiet  of  the  latter  being 
Iblis  (Decpair),  once  called  Axazil,  who,  refuainz  to 
pay  homage  to  Adam,  waa  rejected  by  God.  These 
Jin  are  of  a  grosser  fabric  than  angels,  and  subject  to 
death.  They,  too,  have  difibrent  names  and  offices 
<Fai,  Fairies  i  Div,  Oitmta ;  Takvfna,  Fates,  Ac),  and 
ai«,  in  ahnost  every  respeo^  like  tiie  ShMim  in  the 
Tahnod  and  Hidraah.  A  further  point  of  belief  is 
Uiat  in  certain  Ood-pven  Scriptural,  revealed  suc- 
cessively to  the  different  prowiets.  Four  only  of 
the  original  one  hundred  and  four  sacred  books: 
vis.,  the  Fentateuoh,  the  Fsalms,  the  Oospel,  and  the 
Koran,  are  said  to  have  survived ;  the  three  former, 
however,  in  a  mutilated  and  falsified  condition. 
Besides  these,  a  certain  apocryphal  gospel,  attri- 
buted to  3t  Barnabas,  and  the  writings  of  Daniel, 
tcwether  with  those  of  a  few  other  prophets,  are 
t^en  notice  ot  by  the  Moslems,  but  not  as 
caiKHiical  books.  The  number  ot  prophets,  sent 
at  varioua  tunes,  is  stated  variously  at  between  two 
and  three  hnodced  thousand,  among  whom  313 
were  apostles,  and  sz  were  specially  commissioued 
to  proclaim  new  laws  and  dispensotioas,  which 
abrtw^ed  the  preoeding  once.  Thete  were  Adam, 
''ToaG,  Abmham,  Mosea,  ' — -i  •«-«- -i     ■>-- 


last  tiie  gtetrfest  of  them  all,  and  the  propagator 
of  the  final  ditpeniation.  The  belief  in  the  resur- 
rection and  tbe  floal  judgmfnit  is  the  next  article 
of  faith.  Hie  dead  are  received  in  their  graves 
by  on  angel  announcing  the  coming  of  the  two 
examine^  Monkv  and  Naklr,  who  put  questions 
to  the  corpse  respecting  his  belief  in  God  and 
Mohammed,  and  wno.iu  accordance  with  the  answers, 
either  tortnre  or  oomfort  him.  This,  again,  is  the 
Jewish  'Cbibbot  bakkeber,'  tbe  Beating  of  the 
Ontve,  a  hyperbolical  description  of  the  suSeringa 
during  the  intermediate  state  after  death  (purgatory). 


disc  (piopheia),  or  partake*,  in  the  shape  of  a  green 
bird,  of  the  dcJi^ta  of  the  abode  of  bUss  (mortyra), 

either  to  stay  near  the  grave,  or  to  be  irith  Adam  in 
the  lowest  heaven,  or  to  reoiain  either  in  tbe  well 
of  Zem-Zem,  or  in  the  trumpet  ot  the  Teanrrection. 
Aooording  to  others,  it  restB  in  tbe  shape  of  a  white 


bird  under  the  throne  of  Ood.  The  sonls  of  tlie 
infidels  dwell  in  a  certain  well  in  the  provinoe  of 
Hadramant  (Hcb.  Chambers  of  Death),  or,  being 
first  offered  to  heaven,  then  offered  to  earth,  ana 
rejected  by  either,  subject  to  unspeakable  tortnrea 
until  the  day  of  resurrection.  Concerning  the  latter, 
aeat  discrepancy  reigns  among  the  Mobammedjui 
ueologians.  Mohammed  himself  aeetni  to  have 
held  Uat  both  soul  and  body  will  be  raised,  and 
the  'Bone  Luz'  of  the  Jewish  Hoj^^dah  was  by 
him  transformed  into  the  bone  Al  Ajb,  the  rump- 
bone,  which  will  remain  nncorrupted  till  the  lost 
day,  and  from  which  the  whole  body  will  spring 
anew,  after  a  forty  days'  rain.  Among  the  signs 
by  which  the  approach  of  the  last  &y  may  be 
known— nearly  all  taken  from  the  legendary  part 
of  the  TalmncI  and  Midrash,  where  the  signs  ot  the 
coming  of  the  Meanah  ore  enumerated — are  the 
decay  of  faith  among  men,  the  advancing  of  the 
meanest  persons  to  lughest  dignities  wars,  seditions, 
and  tumults,  and  oonsequent  dire  distress,  so  tiiat 
a  man  poavng  another's  grave  shall  saQ* :  'Would  to 
Godlwere  in  his  idacel'  Certain  provinces  shall 
revolt,  and  the  buildings  ot  Medina  shall  reach  to 
Yahib.  Again :  the  snn  will  rise  in  the  west,  the 
Beast  will  appear,  Constantinople  will  be  tskrai  by 
the  descendants  of  Isaac,  the  Anti-Christ  will  come, 
and  be  killed  by  Jeens  at  Lud.  There  wiU  further 
take  place  a  war  with  the  Jews,  Gog  and  Magog's 
(Jajng  and  Majuj's)  eruptioa,  a  great  smoke,  an 
eclipse,  the  Mohammedans  will  retiuTi  to  idolatry,  a 
^eat  treasure  will  be  found  in  Uie  Euphrates, 
Qie  Kaaba  will  be  destroyed  by  the  Ethiopians, 
beasts  and  inanimate  things  will  speak,  and 
finally,  a  wind  will  sweep  away  the  souls  of  Uiose 
who  luve  faith,  even  if  equal  only  to  a  grMn  of 
mustard  seed,  so  that  the  world  shall  be  left  in 
ipiorattceL  The  time  of  the  resurrection,  even 
Mohammed  could  not  learn  from  Gabriel :  it  is  a 
mystery.  Three  blasts  will  announoe  it :  that 
of  consternation,  of  such  terrible  powers,  that 
mothers  shall  n^ect  the  babes  on  their  breasts, 
and  that  heaven  and  earth  will  melt ;  that  of 
exonimation,  whkh  will  annihilate  all  Uiin^  and 
bein^  even  tbe  angel  ot  death,  save  p«i-nHi«n  ^mi 
hell,  BJid  their  inhuiitants ;  and  forty  years  later, 
that  ot  resurrection,  when  all  men,  Mohammed 
first,  shall  have  their  souls  breathed  into  their 
restored  bodies,  and  will  sleep  in  tiieir  sepnlchrei 
until  the  final   doom  haa  been  passed  upon  them. 


paradise,  to  the  right  hand,  sod  tbe  wicked  wilt 
pass  to  the  left,  into  hell ;  both,  however,  have  first 
to  go  over  the  bridge  Al  Sir&t,  laid  over  the  midst 
of  hell,  and  finer  than  a  hair,  and  sharper  than  the 
edge  of  a  swotd,  and  beset  with  thorns  on  either 
side.  The  rizhteona  will  proceed  on  tbsir  patb  witli 
ease  and  swQtnesi,  but  the  wicked  will  tall  down 
headlong  to  hell  bdow — a  place  divided  into  seven 
stories  or  apartments,  respectively  sailed  to 
MohammedauH,  Jaws,  Christians,  Sabians,  Sfagians, 
idolaters,  and — the  lowest  of  all— to  the  hypocrites, 
who,  outwardly  professing  a  religion,  in  reslitrf  hod 
none.  The  degrees  of  pais — cluefly  consisting  in 
intense  heat  and  cold — vary ;  but  the  Moham- 
medans, and  all  those  who  professed  the  unity  ot 
God,  v>UI  finally  be  released,  while  nnbcLevers  and 
idolater*  will  be  condemned  to  eternal  punishment. 
Paradise  is  divided  from  hell  by  a  partitian  (Ort), 
which  a  certain  nombsr  ot  balf-sainti  will  find 
,  ux.  The  blesNd,  destined  for  tbe  abodes  ot 
eternal  ddight  (Jonnat  Aden,  Eelk  Gan  Eden)— of 
which  it  is,  however,  not  quite  certain  whether  it 
is  created  already— will  fint  drink  of  tiM^Fuid  ot 


H0HAHUEDAKI8M. 


tlw  PioidMiL  wUch  ii  nipplied  from  tlw  riran  ot 
pandiM,  miter  than  muk,  and  man  odoriferoni 
thmn  moiik.  ArriTed  at  one  ol  the  eight  gates,  they 
inll  be  met  by  beantitnl  jroothi  aid  angele ;  and 
their  d^iee  u  tighteonanea  (prophete,  idigiona 
teachen,  mwtrn^  belieren)  inilpnican  for  them 
the  coimtponaiug  da^ee  of  hapimieM.  It  may, 
how«T«r,  not  b«  anperflnoiu  to  add,  uiat,  aooording  to 
the  Ucdummedan  doctrine,  it  i>  not  a  penon'a  good 
worka  or  merita  irhioh  gain  his  adinittance,  bnt 
aolelj  Ood'i  meroT ;  alao  that  tiie  pocc  wiU  enter 
p«r»diM  At*  hanored  nan  before  tbe  rich ;  and 
that  the  majon^  et  the  inhaUtanta  of  hell  are 
women.  Aa  to  the  Tariona  Ididtiea  which  await 
the  ^ont  (and  of  vhidi  ther«  an  abont  a  hnsdred 
degraea),  Uiot  are  •  wild  emiglomeration  of  Jewiab, 
Cfariitian,  Magian,  and  othw  bjtdea  on  Um  aobject 
te  which  the  Primhefa  own  exoeedingi;  Minaal 


the  enjoyment  of  the  Hbr  Al  Oy&n,  tiia  btack-eved 


held  out  aa  a  reward  to  the  c< 

of  paradise,  who  will  alwsya  rem^  in  the  fnUvigoor ; 
of  their  yon&  and  manhood.*  For  thow  deeerring  a ' 
higherdegreeof  recompenie,rewardlwillbe  preiar«d 
ofapnrelynnritiulkiiid — i.e.,tbe'beholdingofOod'« 
facB^  (Sheomnah)  by  night  and  by  day.  A  aepante 
abode  of  happiness  will  also  be  reserved  for  women, 
bnt  there  is  oonsiderable  donbt  aa  to  the  manner 
of  their  eDJoyment  That  they  are  not  of  a  promi- 
nently tpintnal  natnre,  is  dear  from  the  stocy  of  the 
Vrofbet  and  the  old  woman.  The  Utter  aolidted 
Mohammed  to  intercede  with  Ood  that  she  might  be 
admitted  into  paradise,  whereupon  he  replied  t^  old 
women  wers  not  allowed  in  pantdise,  which  diatnni— 
causing  her  to  weep — ho  further  explained  by  saying 
that  they  would  nret  be  made  yonng  agam.  The 
last  of  the  precepts  of  para  faith  taught  by  Mohom- 
meduiuim  is  the  full  and  nnconditional  submission 
to  Qod's  decree  [Tblam],  and  the  predestination  of 
good  and  evil,  which  is  fonud  from  the  beginning 
inscribed  on  a  '  preserved  table.'  Not  only  a  man's 
fortunes,  but  hia  deeds,  and  consequently  his  future 
reward  or  poniahment;  «re  irrevocably,  and  Uktu 
muiTddably,  pre-ordained  (Fate) :  a  doctrine  which 
is  not,  however,  taken  literally  by  ali  Moslem^  bat 
which  haa  nA  doubt  oontiibntad  largely  to  the  sne- 
ceas  of  Islam,  by  inspiring  its  champions  wiHi  the 
greatest  indiS^i«no«  and  contempt  for  the  dangera 
of  warfare;  their  destiny  being  immutably  &ed 
nnder  any  circumstances. 

Thns  lax,  brieSy,  the  Imtm,  dogmatical  or  theo- 
retical part  of  Islsin.    The  Din,  or  practical  part. 


Qod  will  reach  to  them  like  >  raka  :  Cor  meat  they 
will  luTs  the  01  Bal&m  and  (ha  flih  NCiu,  the  lobes  of 
whose  livers  will  soffloe  seventy  thoosand  men.  Every 
believer  will  have  dghty  Uurasand  servauti  and  seveuty- 
t«o  gtrli  of  paradise,  beside*  hi*  own  lormer  wivoa,  it 
he  should  wish  for  these,  and  a  larn  tent  of  pearlB, 
ladnth^aiid  emeralds:  three  bundled  dishes  ot  gold  shill 
be  set  befora  each  guest  at  onae,  and  the  last  monel  will 
be  as  tntetul  as  the  flni  Wins  will  be  pumitted,  and 
will  flow  oopioDily,  without  InebriatluK  The  rigbteom 
will  be  dothed  In  the  most  pteoious  nus  and  gold,  and 
will  be  arowned  with  erowns  of  the  most  respleodent 
pearis  and  JeweliL  II  they  deaire  eMldran,  Uiey  iholl 
b^et  them,  and  sea  them  now  np  within  an  hour. 

dougbtefs  of  pmdlsc^^e  <r«ty  trees  will,  by  the 
nstliiiK  of  th^  boughs,  the  slanging  of  bells  suspended 
front  them,  and  the  "'■■''■"e  of  their  fruits,  which  are 
pearls  and  emenddi,  tailu  sweetest  muiift' 


which  contuns  the  ritual  and  moral  laws,  'M^l'-Mf 
•s  th»  chief  duties  tiie  following  four :  prayv,  alna- 

Prayer,  *ue  key  of  paradise,'  onnpisei  sIm 
certain  religioua  purifications,  aa  the  most  neocMSiy 
preparatioiu  to  the  former.  They  sn  of  tm 
kinds :  the  Ohud,  or  total  immsnica  of  the  body, 
required  as  »  reli^poni  oertmony,  on  rane  ipeail 
ooeoaiona ;  and  die  WtidA,  a  pamal  abhttioo,  to  be 
performedimmediatsly befoi* theptaycK  lluiistf 
primaiy  imptrtano^  smd  oonnsta  of  the  washing  ct 
bandit  fooe,  ean,  and  feet  up  to  the  soMsi  s  pro- 
oeeding  Mnerally  Mocoipaiued  at  aoeh  ifc^  hy 
oorreapoi^ng  pions  sentenoea,  and  aonddded  aj 
tha  recital  (J  Uie  S7th  chqiter  cd  the  Kinaa.  U 
thocaae  of  water  being  bayood  readi,  diydnat  i 
sand  mar  snpply  its  place.  '  Tha  pnotioe  of 
reUgion  neing  founded  on  daaofineaa,  it  ii  not 
snffituent  that  *^  believer  himself  i^wmM  be  puit* 
fied,  but  evm  the  ground  at  Om  carpet  upoa  vhicli 
he  prays  matt  be  as  dsMi  a*  powibts,  and  tha  use 
of  a  special  piwnr-eafpet  (SeggadA)  ii  tiutefr^ 
recommended.  Evay  ""'""""-^fi"  it  oUigad 
pray  five  times  in  the  naoa  ti  erery  twen^-fDW 
hours.  The  p«yar  (EUaU  itaelf  ooMirts  partly  of 
eztraota  fnnu  the  ReTealed  Book,  the  Ecnn  (Faid). 
part^  of  pieces  ordained  1^  the  ftophet  witboot 
all^iatioQ  of  «  cUvine  <»dar  (Sonnah).  The  fint 
time  of  prayw  oommencea  at  Qie  Maghrib)  or  about 
sunset;  the  second,  at  the  EthB,  «r  ni^itfsU;  the 
third,  at  the  Subh,  or  daybreak ;  the  fourth,  at  Uw 
Duhr,  or  abont  noon ;  the  fifth,  at  the  Aar,  or  ofto- 
noon.  The  believers  ore  not  to  oomnunce  tlieir 
prayera  exactly  at  sunrise,  or  nooa,  er  sunset,  Ust 
they  might  be  confounded  wilJi  the  infidd  Sua- 
worahippera.  These  several  timei  of  fj^  f 
announced  by  the  Mneddiiw  (q.  T.)  fnminamiiMrstt 


umple  but  solemn  melody,  sounds  hoiiiM- 
ly  and  sonoronaly  down  taa  bd^  ot  the 
mosque,  through  the  mid-day  din  and  nar  id  ih* 
dties,  but  its  imprearion  is  one  at  tia  most  strik- 
ingly poetical  in  the  stillneaa  of  nidit ;  sonuEhn, 
that  even  many  Bnropeana  cannoi  help  ecapata- 
lating  the  Prophet  on  his  pKfening  the  hnmsa 
voice  to  either  the  Jewish  tnu^et-Ml  of  tlw  tins 
of  the  Temple,  or  the  Christian  ohnieh-bdla  Tbs 
day-call  (the  Adon)  consiata  ohle^  tt  the  ooofsHO 
of  faith  (God  is  moat  great— MoWuned  is  OoA 
ipostle — OMue  to  prner,  come  to  seoaritr)  rwMw 

.  ^ ...-  -...u.  „„.  (0l|^  ttefet;  Ebsd, 

. „  ,.faoua  who  dsnn  t» 

snperenwatoiy  acta  of  devutioD,  are  kbA 
longer.  The  b^ever  often  ehanges  hit  psstm 
during  his  prayera ;  and  »  oartain  nmmbar  d  ma 
inclinations  of  head  and  knees,  ptosbationi,  Ao, 
is  called  a  lUkah.    It  is  also  ueoeMay  that  lb* 


mosque  marking  that  di 

.   by  *  niche   (Udirab}. 

d  pompons  M^Mrd  it  liud  aside  bal 
eliever  approaches  the  sacred  plooa;  sad 


,..u.vu.>,  solemnity  and    deoorum,    the 

bnmiiity,  Uie  real  and  ail-absortdng  devotion  whim 
pervades  it,  have  been  nnanimonsly  bald  "P JJ 
an  example  to  other  creeds.  Women,  althiwgh  ■» 
strictly  forbidden  to  enter  the  moaqus)  yat  an  an 
practicBlly  allowed  to  pray  there,  lest  thsir  pn- 
sence  might  be  hurtful  to  true  devotioD.  Besides 
these  prayeiB,  there  are  others  ordained  *"  JS*"*? 
occasions,  as  on  a  pilsrimagts  befbr*  a  batm  ■* 
funetols,  dnrmg  an  eclipse,  &a.  That  the  U<w^ 
do  not  pray  to  Mohammed,  bat  sim^  im^cM  w 
tntsrceeuon,  as  they  do  that  of  tha  *™"^"J 
saints,  tha  r«Jativ«a  <rf  the  Fn^ha^  ud  tha  ant 
C.nogic 


MOHAHUEDANISH. 


woptpitart  el  Iilam,  nesd,  tStet  what  we  Mid  mder 
MoHUOOD,  not  bs  dwelt  ni>on  ksre.  For  the  nrti> 
cnlu*  of  the  MrriM  in  the  Mofqne,  the  reader  ii 
lefemd  to  tbat  hotding.    It  mav  bi 


being  bonnd  vp  in  mml    See  alM  Hollas,  Hem. 

Nert  io  imptnianoa  rtanda  the  dnty  of  9*ing 
■Idn.  The**  are  twofold— legal  (Zekah)  and  volnn- 
tai7  (Sadakah;  Heb.  Zedakah,  met^,  rabteonmeH)  r 
bat  the  fonnw,  onoa  «olleot«a  by  the  aavtniai. 


.  to  pioaa  naee,  hu  now  been 


•ovtniai, 
p«otioul; 


to  be  giren  onoe  eve^  year,  of  «attle,  money,  oorn, 
frniti^  aod  wafea  tola,  at  about  the  rate  ii  frnn 
two  and  a  hall  vf  to  twenty  per  oent.  Beaide* 
Hum,  it  ia  nanal  to  beetow  a  meaaore  of  pro- 
vlnona  npon  tha  poor,  at  the  and  of  the  aaored 
monUirfTtainadin. 

The  dnty  of  bttiDg  foUowa.  [Fasts.]  During 
tba  whole  montli  of  Ramadtn,  the  Moakm  ia  oom- 
maihdad  to  reftain  frcHn  eating,  drinking,  nDokiiigt 
■melling  pttfiunea,  bathina  and  eveiy  nnneoaMity 
'-'-'lenoe  in  wofidly  peaaoiei  from  dajbraak 
nnaet    Frmn  toat  period  till  the ~~ 


ing,  more  aqteoiaUy  Out  ahataining  fran  drinkiDg, 
is  ezoeauTely  morUfyin&  None  are  exempt  frran 
thia  do^  aara  the  aii^  tnTellera,  and  loldicn 
in  time  M  war ;  bnt  they  are  bound  to  taat  an  eqnal 
number  of  daya  dcring  aome  otiier  montha.  NnraM 
and  prwnantwMBMi  are  entii^  free  from  bating. 
n  ia  UMMmmed'a  ipeeial  and  «^res8  deaire,  that 
DO  one  ahoold  bat  into  ia  not  aaih]  equal  to  a,  leat 
be  might  infora  hia  be^th,  and  diaanalify  tiimarff  for 
necenary  Idioar.  Of  the  other  commandaUe  faat- 
day^  tiie  Aahnnt,  on  the  10th  of  Moharram  (the 
Jewish  Jana  Eippori,  deacTrea  n>ecial  mention, 
^ere  an  vm;  lew  Hoalema  who  do  not  keep  the 
Ramadin,  eren  if  they  o^lect  thdr  otho'  religiona 
dntiea ;  at  all  arenla,  th^  all  pretend  to  keep  it 
moat  atrictly,  faating  bmng  oonaidered  'one-foorth 
part  ol  the  l«ith,'  nay, '  the  gate  of  religion.' 

Of  the  fourth  paramonnt  dnty  of  the  Moham- 
medan— viz.,  the  pQgiimage  to  Mecca — we  have 
iDoken  both  nnder  tb^  heuing,  and,  mora  felly,  in 
the  arlide  Hajj.  Snffioe  it  bcfa  ImiHj  to  recapitu- 
late, that  the  Eaaba  (q.  v.)  ia  to  be  enc4Mnpaa»ed  aeven 
time(^  Hie  oelebiated  tdaek  atimo  being  kiaMd  at 
each  mond,  that  Honnt  Arafat  ia  to  be  Tiaited, 
the  aacrifioa  El-Pida  (tiie  Banaom,  in  memoiy  of 
Innael'a  aaorifloe)  to  M  performed,  aod  «  nomber 
of  minor  oeremoniea  to  be  gone  throogh  by  tba 
pilgrim,  and  that  he  who  a^Iacta  to  pwfonn  the 
aa<xed  pikpimage,  'might  aa  well  die  a  Jew  or  a 
Chriatian. 

To  the  '•eoatiye'  ordinoocea  of  lalam  m^  alao 
be  reokoned  the  'Sashir,'  or  minor,  and  'EeUr,' 
or  great  feativala.  ^'bttvaia]  _  The  first^  (Al- 
Fetr,  or  bnaking  the  faat),  following  immediately 
npoD  tba  BamatUn,  befpna  on  the  fint  d^  of  the 
month  of  Shawfl,  and  laata  three  daya.  Tho  second 
(Eed  Al-Eorban,  or  aaorifica)  b^jna  on  the  10th  of 
Danl  Hemeh,  when  the  rilgnma  perfbnn  their  aaori- 
fice,  and  laata  three  or  toSt  daya.  Tat,  although 
intended  to  be  the  moat  important  of  the  two,  &e 
people  hare  ia  moat  plaoea  changed  tiie  order,  and, 
by  way  of  eompansabon  tor  Uie  prevkona  faat,  they 
Eoake  the  leaaer  festiTal  which  f  oUowa  tbe  Bamadin 
themoat  ji^folandthelonseat  ol  thetwo.  The  day 
aat  aaida  lor  the  weekly  day  of  rat  k  tiie  Friday 
—not,  aa  la  genaslly  anppoaed,  beoaasa  both  the 
Jewid)  Sabbath  and  the  CnTistun  Sunday  were  to 
be   avoided,  bvl  baoaoaa^  &om  timea  hmg  before 


Mohammed,  the  people  oaed  to  hold  public  aaaem- 
bliea  for  oivil  aa  well  as  relimoos  pnrpcaes  on  that 
day.  Hie  oelebratioD  of  the  Moslem  daya  of  relipona 
BCMDUU^  ia  far  ksa  strict  than  is  the  onstom  wiUi 
tiie  other  Sbemitia  religions.  Serrioe  bdng  over, 
the  peofde  an  allowed  to  return  to  tfanr  worldly 
afEun,  if  tbey  oanitot  afford  to  give  tiiemaalTss  np 
entirely  to  pleaanra  or  devotion  For  the  rest  of  the 
sacred  period. 

Thns  far,  briefly,  the  Drina{«l  pontive  lawa  of 

lam  nlating  to  bif-  — '-''-     "'■   '■-" 

«ch  upon  the  fimc 
tained  in  the  Koran. 

First  of  alL  tba  drinking  of  whie,  which  iudndea 
all  stKmg  aod  inebriatiDg  liquors,  aa  giving  rise  to 
'  more  enl  Uian  good,'  ia  rigorously  futiidden ;  and 
althongh  of  late,  chiefly  throndi  Ennpeau  inflneno^ 
very  many  Moalama  have  loat  their  reUgians  aovplea 
on  that  acore,  and  not  only  secretly,  but  openly 
indulge  in  sjniita,  yet  Um  great  bulk  of  the  fiithfnl 
refoae  even  to  make  nae  of  tbe  proceed*  of  tba  aala 
of  wine  or  gn^ea.  Some  oym-aamgnlom  believeia 
ereo  indode  opmrn,  eoffe^  and  tobacco  in  the  piohi- 

Tht  preMtM^y  lawa  ranestiDg  food  naemble  cloae^ 
thoae  <d  Jndaum ;  blooa,  the  aeah  of  swine,  further, 
'"""*'■  which  bare  died  fnm  dissssa  or  age,  or  on 
which  the  name  of  aome  idol  baa  beenLivoked, 
which  have  been  aaoifioed    nnto  an  idol,  or 


'  Pure '  aniinaU  most  be  slsnght«cied  aooording  to 
sertain  fixed  rules,  and  the  name  of  God  ia  to  be 
inT<Aed  before  the  operation,  withoat,  howarar.  tiia 
uanal  addition  of  thebenevoloit  epithetB,Bii 


there  an  in  nearly  all  caaes  certain  religjooa 
monies  to  be  observed,  bafne  tbey  beoome  St  for  the 
believer's  tables 

AH  games  subject  to  cbanoe  ('casting  lots  by 
arrows  ) — such  as  dioCL  cards,  tables,  bets,  &c. — an 
conaidered  ao  wicked,  tnat  a  gamliler's  testimony  ia 
invalid  in  a  oonrt  of  W.  (The  Talmud  onljr  rejeota 
the  testimony  of  the  habitual  'dice-  [Kabia,  i  e.. 
Cube]  gambler  and  better  upon  dona.')  Chesa  and 
other  games  depending  on  skill — provided  tliey  do 
not  interfere  with  the  regular  performance  of  reli- 
gious duties,  and  that  they  are  played  without  any 
stakes  whatsoever— are  allowed  by  the  m«}ori^  i^ 
Moslem  theologians.  TJanry  ia  strictly  prohibtted. 
Taking  intereat  upon  any  loan,  however  large  or 
small,  or  pit^ting  in  trade  through  any  qotttion- 
-"-  — —  lave  by  baying  and  selling  ia  aeverely 


To  prevent  the  faithful  from  «v«r  falling  back 
into  idolatry,  the  lawa  relating  to  imagea  and  pictures 
have  baen  made  very  atringent.  Wnoaoever  makea 
an  imitatiim  of  any  living  oeiiig  in  etone,  wood,  or 
any  otha  material,  shall,  on  tl^  day  of  judnnent^ 
be  asked  to  endow  his  creatian  with  life  and  aoul, 
and,  on  hia  protealiDg  hia  inability  of  doing  ao,  ahall 
undergo  the  ponisbment  of  hell  ior  a  oertam  period. 

I^  civil  and  criminal  lawa  ol  MohammeJanism, 
founded  both  on  the  Koran  and  tiie  Tiaditions 
(Amna),  are,  in  aome  instancea,  when  the  latter  of 
the  written  or  oislprecept  allows  (rf  various  ezplsna' 
turns,  or  where  the  esse  m  question  ia  not  foreseen, 
interpreted  according  to  the  opinion  of  one  of  the 
four  gnat  masten  of  Islam :  Abu  Hanifa,  Malec 
Ibn  Ana,  Sbifel,  Ifan  Haubal,  within  the  pale  of 
their  respective  sects.  The  principal  points,  how- 
upon    which    all    Mohammedana    agree    are 


jftic 


1I0HAUUEDAHI8H. 


three,  or  four ;  bat  if  ys  fear  that  ye  cannot  *ct 
equitably,  one ;  or  those  vhom  yonr  li^t  hondi 
have  tKqaired ' — L  e.,  yonr  lUres.  These  are  the 
explicit  word*  of  the  Koran  (iv.  3),  ao  that  tour 
wiTie,  tud  a  certain  nombec  of  coacubine  akves, 
ia  -Uie  whole  extent  to  which  a  Moslem  may  legally 
gft.  The  Prophet's  example  proves  nothing  to  the 
oontrary,  since  he  was  endowed  with  special  piivi- 
leg«a,  and  not  mbject  to  the  common  law  in  many 
tMpaiot&  It  is,  moreover,  added,  as  on  advice,  that 
to  many  one  or  two  is  quite  ei^cient  for  a  man, 
if  lie  ai^irehend  any  inconvenience  from  a  kuver 
ntunber  of  wives.  A  Moslem  maj',  if  nrged  by 
exceanve  love,  or  if  nnable  to  obtain  a  wife  of  hu 
own  creed,  marry  a  Christian  woman  or  a  Jewess, 
bnt  a  Mohammedan  woman  is  not,  onder  aoy  cir- 
oninstance*^  to  marry  an  nnbeliever.  In  all  cases, 
however,  the  child  bom  of  a  Moslem,  whatever 
the  moUur't  faith,  ii  a  Moslem  j   nor  does   the 

Owho  ii  an  imbeliever,  inherit  at  her  hna- 
'■  deat^L  Forbidden  degrees  ore :  the  mother, 
danshter,  sister,  half-sister,  aunt,  niece,  foster- 
mother,  or  a  woman  related  to  the  faithful  'by 
milk  in  any  of  the  degree*  which  would  preclude 
his  marriage  with  her,  if  she  were  similarly  related 
to  Tiim  by  consanguinity ; '  the  mother  of  his  wife, 
even  if  be  be  not  properly  married  to  the  latter  yet; 
the  daughter  of  hia  wife,  if  the  latter  still  be  his 
legal  wife ;  his  father's  wife  and  his  son'a  wife ;  or 
two  sister*  at  the  same  time ;  or  wives  who  stand 
to  each  other  in  the  relation  lA  aunt  and  niece ;  or 
tJia  nnemoncipated  slave,  or  another  man's  slavey  if 
he  hara  already  a  free  wife.  A  ample  declaration 
of  a  man  and  woman  at  the  age  at  pnberty,  before 
two  witnewee,  of  their  intention  to  marry  each 
other,  and  the  payment  of  part  of  the  dowr?  (which 
i*  indispensable,  and  must  amount  to  at  least  ten 
diriiemB,  or  about  five  shillings),  is  suffici^t  for  a 
l^al  marriage.  A  girl  under  a^  i*  given  away  by 
h^  natural  or  appomted  KUardiau,  with  or  witnout 
her  consent  To  see  the  face  of  any  woman  who  is 
nedther  his  wife  nor  his  ooncubine,  nor  belong  to 
any  of  the  forbidden  degrees,  is  strictly  forbidden 
to  the  believer.  Divorce  is  a  comjiatatively  light 
matter  with  the  Mohammedans.  Twice,  a  man  may 
■end  away  his  wife  and  take  hei  '  ' 
ont  aay  ceremony . 
nnite  the  triple  divorce 
— he  dare  not  receive  ber  again  in  wedlock  natil 
■he  have  been  married  properly  to  another  man  in 
the  meantixoa.  Mere  dislike  is  sufficient  reason  for 
a  man  to  dissolve  the  conjugal  ties,  and  his  saying : 
'Thou  art  divorced,'  or  *I  divorce  thee,'  together 
with  ihe  payment  of  part  of  the  wife's  dowry,  is  all 
that  is  required  from  him  by  the  law.  A  wife,  on 
the  other  hood,  is  bound  to  her  husband  for  sver, 
Dnless  she  con  prove  some  flagrant  ill-usage  or 
neglect  of  ooujugsl  doty  on  bis  pa^;  and  even  then, 
she  foifeita  part,  or  the  whole,  of  her  dowry.  A 
divorced  WMnan  is  obliged  to  wort,  Uke  a  indow, 
for  a  certain  period  before  manying  again  ;  if  prez- 
nant,  nntil  delivery ;  three  months,  or  four  months 
and  ten  days,  acconling  to  cinmmstancea.  If  she 
have  a  young  child,  she  ia  to  suckle  it  until  it  be 
two  years  old,  and  the  father  is  to  bear  all  the 
expense*  of  the  maiutenauce  of  mother  and  child. 
A  woman  proving  disobedient  to  her  husband,  may 
bo  declared  by  the  kadi  '  nfisbizd,'  i.  &,  rebellious, 
and  die  busbuid  i*  no  longer  bound  to  m«int«;ii  her. 
Yet,  he  cauiot  be  forced  to  divorce  her  nnder  these 
drcnmstancc^  oo  that  tiie  woman  is  generally  in  to 
•ON  a  pligjit  that  she  is  obliged  to  promise  good- 
behaviour  for  the  fntut«,  and  uie  husband  has  thei 
either  to  take  her  back  to  his  house,  or  to  sei 
her  free  by  a  formal  divorce.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
often  happens  tiiat  a 


continoingto  live  withherbnibandj  in  which 
'  hraelf,  of  her  own  accord,  inscribed 
If  a  slave  becomes  a  ■nother  by  ber 
master,  and  he  acknowledge*  the  child  to  be  hi)  «<ra, 
the  latter  i«  free,  and  the  motJier  is  to  be  enunri- 
pated  at  the  master's  death,  and  may  not  be  given 
away,  or  otherwise  disposed  of  by  him,  daring  hii 
lifetime.  A  free  person,  wishing  to  many  bis  oi  ber 
slave,  must  first  emaocipato  this  slave ;  and  if  tlie 
slave  of  another  penon  bos  been  married  by  >  free 
and  afterwards  becomee  the  Utter'* 
Ullage  becomes  ill^;al,  and  can  only 
renewed  by  a  legal  contract  and  emancipat' 
The  privilege  of  primogeniture  does  not  «■ 
the  MonammMaa  law,  but  males  generally  rei 


legal  heirs.  Children,  whether  begotten  witn  tbe 
legal  wife,  or  slave,  or  concnWne,  or  only  adopted, 
and  their  descendants,  are  the  fltst  heirs ;  next  conu 
the  claims  of  wives,  parents,  brothers,  siste  . 
their  order.  Where  there  is  no  legal  heir,  tha 
property  falls  to  the  crown. 

The  law  is  very  lenient  towarda  debtms,  t^ 
Koran  leoommendmg  the  creditor  to  remit  a  debt 
'  OS  alms.'  Insolvency  and  inability  to  work  for  tbs 
discbarge  of  the  claim,  solve  all  further  obligatioiii 
The  mMt  oonacientiou*  petformanc«  of  all  private 
contracts,  however,  i*  oonstautly  recommended  -~ 
the  Koran. 

Murder  is  either  punished  with  deatb,  or  by  the 
payment  of  a  fine  to  the  family  of  the  deceisad, 
according  to  their  own  pleMore.  There  must,  hor- 
ever,  be  palliating  circumstances  in  the  latter  cut 
The  Bedawis,  however,  have  expanded  die  lav  d 
blood-revenge  in  a  terrible  manner,  and  up  to  llu> 
day  the  '  vendetta '  often  tagea  not  only  betTees 
family  and  family,  but  between  whole  ttiliei, 
village*,  and  provinces.  Unintentional  homicide  is 
eipiated  by  freeine  a  believer  from  slavery,  sad 
paying  to  Uie  family  a  certain  sum  in  proportion  to 
the  r^ik  and  sex  oE  tbe  deceased.  He  who  hss  not 
the  means  of  freeing  a  believer,  is  to  fast  for  two 
months,  by  way  of  penance.  According  to  the  etiict 
letter  of  Uie  law,  a  man  is  not  liaUe  to  capital 
punishment  for  killiag  bis  own  child  or  an  infidel ; 
bnt^  practicatly,  no  dmetence  is  generally  made  b; 
the  Mohammedan  governments  {chiefly  tiie  TnriLJih) 
in  our  day.  Murder  ia  punished  wiUi  death,  and  no 
fine  frees  the  culprit. 

Tbe  Mosaic  law  of  retaliation,  in  case  of  »«l»' 
tionai  wounds  and  mutilation,  holds  eood  also  fcr 
Islam;  that  is  (not,  as  has  isnoranQy  been  sup- 
posed, that  the  corresponding  Lmb  of  the  offender 
IS  to  be  cut  ofi^,  a  certain  proportianate  fine  is 
money  is  to  be  paid  to  the  ininred.  QThe  payment 
for  any  of  the  sbgle  limbe  of  the  human  boay—e-^n 
the  nose— is  the  full  price  of  blood,  as  for  a  homi- 
cide ;  for  a  limb  which  is  found  twice,  like  hand  o( 
foot,  half ;  for  a  finger  or  toe,  the  f«nth  part,  ^ 
Women  and  slaves  nave  smaller  claims.  lojcn^ 
of  a  daugraouB,  or  otherwise  grievous  nature,  paj 
the  full  price ;  those  of  on  inferior  kind,  howew 
bring  the  peipatrator  within  die  province  of  »• 
lash  or  cndget  which  is  supposed  to  have  '(^"^ 
down  from  heaven,  to  be  used  by  tbe  judge  for  IW 
promotion  of  virtue  and  duty.' 

The  Koran  orders  theft— of  no  less  than  the  valw 
of  balf-a-crown— to  be  punidied  by  cutting  ofF  tbe 
chief  oETending  limb,  the  right  bond ;  the  aceona 
theft  i*  punisfiOde  by  tha  be*  of  the  left  foot ;  «» 
third,  of  the  left  hand ;  the  fourth,  of  the  right  foA 
Ac. ;  but  the  ordinary  punishments  of  imprisonm^ 
hard  labour,  and  the  bastinado,  have  been  buWU' 
tuted  in  our  days.  The  property  stolen  must  ni* 
however,  have  been  of  easy  access  to  die  thief,  no* 


ivC.ooglc- 


HOHAUUEDAKIBH. 


must  it  have  cooaieted  of  food,  sioce  he  msy  have 
tftkeD  this  to  Mtlsfy  the  craving  of  his  tmnger. 

TJnchastity  on  the  part  of  a  woman  was,  in  the 
eomraenceiaent  of  Islam,  punished  by  impriaonment 
for  life,  for  which  afterwwdB,  however,  atoning  was 
substituted  in  the  cose  of  a  married  troman ;  and 
a  hundred  itripes  and  a  year's  exile  in  the  cMe 
of  on  QDmanieil  free  woman;  a  alave  to  undergo 
onl;  half  of  that  paaiahnient.  Yet,  it  is  necesaary 
that  he  who  accuses  a  'woman  of  repatation'  of 
adultery  or  fomicattan,  shall  produce  font  (mote) 
witnesses,  and  if  he  be  not  able  to  do  so,  he  it  to 
receive  foursoore  stripea,  nor  is  his  testimony 
ever  after  to  be  received,  for  he  is  considered  an 
icatot' — uuleM  be 


testimony  may  be  orertbrown  by  the  wife'a 
swearing  four  times  that  he  is  a  liar,  and  imprecating 
the  fifth  time  the  wrath  of  Qod  upon  herself,  if  he 
speak  the  truth.  In  the  latter  case,  she  is  free  from 
punishmeDt ;  the  marria^  however,  is  to  be  dis- 
solved. Fornication  in  either  sex  is,  bv  the  law  of 
the  Koran,  to  be  Tiaited  with  a  hundred  stripes. 

InSdeli^,  or  apoirtaay  from  lalam,  is  a  crime  to 
be  visited  by  the  death  of  the  offender,  if  he  have 
been  warned  thrice  without  recanting.  Severer 
■til],  that  is,  not  to  be  averted  by  repentance  or 
nvocation  of  any  kind,  is  the  punishment  inflicted 
for  blasphemy— agunst  Qod,  Mohammed,  Christ, 
Moses,  or  any  other  propheti  Instantaneous  death 
is  the  doom  of  the  oouider ;  tor  if  aiwatasy  may  be 
caused  by  error  and  misguidance,  'blasphemy  is  the 
sign  of  complete  wickedness  and  thorough  comptioQ 
of  the  soul.' 

A  farther  injunction  of  the  Koran,  for  the  cany- 
ing  oat  of  which,  however,  the  time  has  well-nigh 
gone  by,  is  that  of  making  war  against  the  Infidels. 
He  who  is  ilaiu  while  fighting  m  defence  and  for 
the  propagation  of  Islam,  is  reckoned  a  martyr ; 
while  a  deserter  &om  the  holy  war  is  held  up  at 
an  object  of  execration,  and  has  forieited  his  life 
in  this  world  as  well  as  in  the  world  to  come.  At 
first,  all  the  enemies  taken  in  battle  were  mthleasly 
slain ;  later,  however,  it  became  the  law  to  give 
the  people  of  a  diflcrent  faith  against  whom  war 
was  declared  the  choice  of  three  things ;  either  to 
embraoe  Islam— in  which  case  they  became  Moslems 
•t  once,  free  in  their  peisons  and  fortunes,  and 
entitled  to  all  the  privileges  of  Moslems ;  or  to 
submit  to  pay  tribnte — in  which  case  they  were 
allowed  to  contiuue  in  their  religion,  if  it  did  not 
imply  gross  idolatry  or  otherwise  offended  against 
the  moral  law ;  or  to  decide  the  quarrel  by  the 
fortune  of  wsr — in  which  case  the  captive  women 
and  children  'wtsn  made  slaves,  and  the  men  either 
tlain,  unless  they  became  converts  at  the  last 
moment,  or  otherwise  disposed  of  by  the  prince. 
The  fifth  port  of  the  spoil  belongs  '  to  Ood,'  that  is, 
"--  Sanctuary  (Kaaba,  Ac),  to  the  apostle  and  hit 


a  tystematically  arranged  code,  and  that  all 
laws  and  regnlationa  hitherto  enumerated,  although 
contained  in  it,  either  bodily  or,  as  it  were,  in  germt 
— further  developed  by  the  Snnna  {q.v.)— are  to 
a  great  extent  only  mentioned  in  an  incidental 
manner,  thrown  together  and  mixed  up,  often  in  the 
strangest  manner,  with  the  most  heterogeneous  dicta, 
dogmas,  moral  exhortations,  civil  and  criminal  laws, 
Ac,  and  are  principally  to  be  considered  as  suppte- 
mentuy  to  the  existdnff  laws  and  regulations  wluch 
they    either    abrogated,    confirmed,   ta   extended. 


according  to 
during  &e  I 


the  Prophet,  traditional  oral  dicta  were  taken  as 
the  norm,  and  later  still,  precedents  of  the  KhoUfs 
were  binding.  Hence  ccntradictiont  in  theonr  and 
practice  have  cre^  in,  according  to  the  different 
tradiUont  and  decisions  of  the  Imam*  or  exponnders 
of  the  Law,  besides  the  various  iaterpretationt  put 
upon  the  book  itself  within  the  pale  of  the  different 
Mohammedan  sects.  The  secular  tribunals,  there- 
for^ not  nnfreqaently  differ  in  their  decisions  from 
the  judicial  tribunals ;  and  the  distinction  between 
the  written  civil  Law  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  and 
the  common  Law,  aided  by  the  executive  power,  is, 
fortunately  for  the  cause  ol  hnman  culture^  and  the 
spread  of  civilisation,  getting  clearer  and  clearer 
evay  day. 

That  part  of  Islam,  however,  which  hot  nndersone 
(because  not  to  be  circumscribed  and  defined  by 
doctors)  the  least  changes  in  the  conise  of  time,  and 
which  most  distinctly  reveals  the  mind  of  its  author, 
is  also  its  most  complete  and  its  most  shining 
part— we  mean  the  ethics  of  the  Koran.  They  are 
not  found,  auy  more  than  the  other  laws,  broD^t 
together  in  one,  or  two,  or  three  Surahs,  bat  '  uke 
golden  threads'  they  are  woven  into  the  huge 
:abric  of  the  reli^us  constitution  of  MobommM. 


„  ittorwardncBS,  decency,  love  of 
and  trath,  and  above  all,  trusting  m  GoA,  and  sub- 
mitting to  His  will,  are  consid^^  at  the  pjllan 
of  true  piety,  and  the  principal  ugns  of  a  true 
believer,  Noi  must  we  omit  to  point  out  expressly 
that  Mohammed  never  laid  down  that  doctrine  of 
absolute  predestination  and '  fatality '  which  destroys 
all  human  will  and  freedom,  eioce  the  individual's 
deeds  cannot  alter  one  iota  in  his  destiny  either  in 
this  world  or  in  the  next.  So  far  from  it,  foolhardi- 
ness  it  distinctly  prohibited  in  the  Koran  (iL  196), 
Caution  is  recommended.  Prayer,  the  highest  cei«- 
nionial  law  of  Titlj^m^  £s  modified  in  case  of  danger. 
It  is  legal  to  earn  one's  livelihood  on  Friday  after 
prayer,  and  to  shorten  the  readings  in  the  Koran  for 
the  siJLe  of  attending  to  bosiuess.  All  of  which  is 
enough  to  shew  that  the  Moslem  is  not  to  expect  to 
be  fed  pursuant  to  a  Divine  decree  whether  he  be 
idle  or  not.  On  the  other  hand,  a  glance  at  the 
whole  system  of  faith,  built  on  hope  and  fear, 
rewords  and  punishments,  paradise  and  hell,  both 
to  be  man's  portion  according  to  his  acts  in  this 
life,  and  the  mcessant  exhortations  to  virtue,  and 
denandatious  of  vice,  are  sufficient  to  prove  that 
aboriginal  predestination,  such  as  St  Angustine 
taught  it,  is  not  in  the  Koran,  where  only  submission 
to  Uie  L(»d's  will,  hope  during  misfortune,  modesty 
in  prosperity,  and  entire  confidence  in  the  Divine 
plans,  are  supported  by  the  argument,  that  every- 
thing is  in  the  iiands  of  the  Hi^ett  Beuig,  and  that 
tiiere  is  no  appeal  against  Hia  absolnte  decree*. 

And  this  is  one  instance  of  the  way  in  which  most 
of  Mohammed's  dicta  have  been  developed  and 
expli^ed— both  by  sectarians  and  enemies  within 
and  without  Islam— in  such  a  manner  that  he  has 
often  been  made  t«  teaoh  the  very  reverse  of  what  he 
really  did  teach ;  and  thus  monstrosities  now  found 
in  hi«  creed,  if  caief ullv  traced  back  to  their  original 
sources,  will,  in  most  cases,  be  seen  to  be  the 
growth  of  later  generations,  or  the  very  things 
he  abrogated.  T&t,  again,  the  worst  side  of  his 
character,  ^e  often  wanton  cruelty  with  which  he 

Eisued  his  great  mittion,  the  propagation  of  his 
th,  ahonld  l^  his  saecessors  have  Men  taken  as  a 
thing  to  be  principally  inutat«d,  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at,  0(»iidenDg  how  brilliant  tlM  rwultt  of  thspoli^ 


MOHATE  DESERT— MOHLER 


of  the  bloodv  (word  bad  proved.  Scarcely  a  century 
had  elapsed  tlfter  Uohammed'a  death,  and  Islam 
reigned  snpreme  over  Arabia,  Syria,  Feitda,  Egypt, 
the  whole  of  the  northem  coast  of  Africa,  even  a» 
far  ai  Spain ;  and  DotwiUtitanding  the  sabseqneiit 
strifM  and  diriaions  in  the  interior  of  thii  gigaDtio 
realm,  it  grew  and  grew  outwudly,  until  the  Cres- 
cent WM  made  to  gleam  from  the  spires  of  St 
Sophia  at  Constantinople,  and  the  war-cry  '  Allnh 
fl  Allah  I '  resonnded  ttefora  the  gates  of  Vieniia. 
From  that  time,  however,  the  tpIsndonT  and  the 
power  of  Mohammedaniambe^  to  wane.  Althoogh 
there  are  counted  about  130  millions  thia  day  all  over 
the  ^lobe  who  profess  Islam,  and  although  it  is, 
especially  at  this  present  jnnctnre,  making  great 
progress  among  the  African  races,  yet  the  number 
of  real  and  thorough  believers  is  infinitely  small ; 
aad  sinos  it  has  left  off  conquering,  it  haa  lost  alao 
"    ■  gieat 

1  the 


it  will,  for  good  oi 


Western  oirihsation  which 
mport  into  those  parts. 

uis  place  what  Islam  haa 

done  for  the  caota  of  all  htuaanity,  or,  more  exactly, 
what  was  its  precise  share  in  the  development  of 
science  and  art  in  Europe.  We  refer  to  the 
special  articles  which  treat  of  these  mbjects,  and 
particularly  to  the  biographies  found  in  the  course 
of  thia  work  of  men  eminent  in  every  branch 
of  human  knowledge  who  have  iasiwd  from  the 
ranks  of  Islam.  Broadly  speaking,  the  Mohsm- 
medaoB  may  be  e^d  to  have  been  the  enlightened 
teachers  oE  barbarous  Enrope  from  the  9th  to  the 
13th  century.  It  is  from  the  glorious  days  of  the 
Abbaaide  rulers  that  the  real  Tenaisaance  of  Greek 
ipirit  and  Qre^  culture  it  to  be  dated.  Classiest 
literature,  would  have  been  irredeemably  lost,  bad 
it  not  been  for  the  home  it  found  in  the  schools 
of  the  *  unbelievers '  of  the  '  dark  ages.'  Arabic 
philosophy,  medidne,  natural  history,  geography, 
niatoi^,  grammar,  rhetorio,  and  the  'golden  art  of 
poetiy,'  schooled  by  the  old  Hellenic  masters, 
broodlt  forth  an  abundant  harvest  of  works,  many 
of  which  will  live  and  teach  as  long  a*  there  wiU 
be  senerations  to  be  taodit. 

Bemdei  the  Koran,  the  Snnna,  and  the  native 
(Arabio,  Persiui,  Turkish,  Ac)  writers  on  the  fore- 
going subject,  we  mention  as  further  references  the 
wortEa  of  the  European  scholars  Maracci,  Byde. 
Pridesuz,  Chardm,  Du  Ryer,  Eeland,  D'Herbelofc, 
Ssle,  De  Sacy,  Hammer,  Burckhardt,  Sprenger, 
Burton,  Mnir,  OarciD  de  Tauy,  Lane,  Weil,  Geiger, 
Kmdeke,     See  CxLa,  EoRAir,  Moeaumks,  SmiTES, 

SUMSA  :  MOHAUUEDAN  SVCTS,  in  SlTFf .,  VoL  S.. 

MOHAVE  DESERT.    See  Amkbica. 

MOHAWK,  a  river  of  New  York,  United  States, 
named  from  a  tribe  of  Indians.  It  rises  in  Oneida 
oounty,  and  runs  into  the  Hudson  at  Waterford,  10 
milei  above  Albany.  It  is  136  miles  long,  and  has 
numerous  and  piotnresqne  waterfalls,  especially  at 
Little  Falls,  Cohoea,  and  Waterford,  affording  abun- 
dant water-power.  The  H.  Indians  were  a  tribe  of 
Jroqnois  (see  Ikduns). 

MOHICANS.  MOHEOANS,  or  MAHICAKTJI, 
once  a  powerful  and  warlike  sub-tribe  of  North 
American  Indians,  of  the  great  Algonquin  family, 
which,  in  the  17th  a,  iohobited  the  temtoiy  north- 
north-west  of  Long  Island  Sound,  and  eaat  of  the 
river  Hudson,  now  included  in  the  states  of  New 
Tork,  Connecticnt,  and  Massachuaetta.  Being 
compelled  to  (dve  way  to  the  conquering  Iroquois 
confederacy,  uiey  retired  to  the  valley  of  the 
Hoosatonic  River  in  Connecticnt,  and  were  conse- 
of  the  first  tribes  who  came  into  oolli- 


qaently  oi 


ThOT  mbseqaa 
ithar  tribes,  and 


lived  dispersed  among  Oia  othar  ^bes,  and  all 
traces  of  them  have  now  nearly  disain>earad.  Iheir 
name  has  beoome  widely  known  throndi  Mr  J. 
FeninuH^  Cooper'a  celebrated  novel,  The  La$t  (/  Uu 
Mokiecoii, 

MOHTLET,  or  MOOrLEV,  a  government  of 
European  Rosma,  lyingbetweea  Minsk  and  Smol- 
ensk, contains  18,600  English  square  miles,  with 
a  pop.  (ISSO)  of  l,O9^S0O.  The  inhabitants  aio 
moatly  Rusniakt,  though  there  are  also  many 
Russians,  Oermans,  Jews,  and  even  Bohemiana. 
The  conntry  is  generally  a-  plain,  with  here  and 
there  an  occasioual  nndulation;  the  khI  is  vetv 
fertile,  and  the  climat«  most  agreeably  mild. 
Agriculture  has  here  reached  a  Sigh  degree  of 
perfection,  and  the  same  may  be  Mud  of  orbivi- 
cultnie  and  hortianltttt«.  The  natoral  pastnrags 
i*  of  fine  quality,  and  affords  abundant  nonrion- 
aent  to  immense  herds  of  cattle.  The  forests  are 
extensive.  The  countiy  is  watered  by  the  Dnieper 
and  its  .numerous  affluents,  which  form  th«  means 
of  communication  with  the  Black  Sea  ports,  and 
of  tha  transit  of  com,  timber,  and  masts,  of 
which  lost  large  qnant^ties  are  'annually  floated 
down  to  Kherson.  Bog  iron-ore  is  found  in  abnn- 
danocL  The  inhabitants  are  celebrated  far  their 
activity  and  industry ;  and  M.,  from  its  great  natural 


provinces  of  Russia. 

In  early  times,  M.  belonnd  to  the  territory  <£ 
the  Russian  prince  of  Smdensk,  but  was  subse- 
quently conquered  by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Lithu- 
ania, and  was,  along  with  litfaoania,  onited  to  the 
kingdom  of  Pohuid.  In  1772,  it  waa  seized  t^ 
Euuia  at  the  first  partition  of  Poland ;  and  in  1796, 
was  joined  to  the  government  of  Vitebsk,  under  the 
name  of  W/iile  Suwta;  but  since  180S;  it  has  formed 
a  separate  government 

MOHILEV,  or  MOGILEV,  the  capital  of  ths 
government  of  the  same  name  ia  European  Russia, 
and  one  of  the  finest  towns  of  Russia,  is  situ- 
ated io  the  cenbe  of  the  government,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the-  Dnieper,  100  miles  souUi.wesl  of 
Smolensk.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  archbishop, 
and  of  the  Roman  Catholic  primate  of  Hmvda  and 
Poland,  besides  being  the  tavonnte  MStdenoe  <4 
many  of  Uw  Bnssiaii  nobility.  It  posssoes  a  fine 
Greek  cathedral,  built  in  VJSO,  20  Greek,  mm 
Lntberau,  and  4  Roman  Catholic  <^ur^hes,  Mvnst 
synagogues,  and  a  variety  of  religious,  ednealional, 
and  charitable  institutions.  Its  streets  are  wide, 
straight,  and  well  payed,  and  there  is  a  fine 
promenade  bordered  with  trees,  whence  a  beauti- 
tnl  view  of  the  valley  ol  the  Dnieper  is  obtained. 
Pop.  (1S60)  40,431,  of  whom  one-third  aie  Jews. 
There  is  a  large  export  trade  to  the  chief  ports  of 
the  Baltic  and  Black  Seaa. 

MOHILEV,  or  MOGILOW,  a  district  town  on  the 
south-west  frontier  of  ths  government  td  Podolio, 
Rossia,  is  situated  on  the  I^  bank  of  the  Dntester, 
which  sepatatee  it  from  the  government  of  Bess- 
arabia. Pop.  (1680)  18,130.  It  carries  on  an  active 
trade  with  the  adjacent  Bassian  provinces,  and  to 
some  extent  with  Galida  and  Roumania.  Ihe 
climate  is  so  mild,  that  silk  and  other  products  of 
warm  cUmatee  are  extensively  produced, 

MOHLER,  JouANiT  AsAM,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tingnished  modem  polemical  divines  of  tlie  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  was  bom  of  humble  parentage, 
at  Igershoim,  in  WUrtemberfe  May  6,  1796.  Ha 
received  his  early  education  at  the  gymnasiun  of 
Mergentheim,  whence,  in  hia  ITth  year,  he  was 
tranaferred,  foe  the  higher  studies,  to  tiia  Lyceum 


MOIDOEE-MOLDATIA  AHH  WALACHIA. 


of  MlwaDgm  I  and  soon  aftemtdi  enUred  upon 
l^e  tiiealoj^««l  oontM  ia  the  muveiuty  of  Tubinseo. 
He  reodTM  priwI^B  orders  in  1B19 ;  bhI  for  a  ihort 
time  WM  tanployed  in  miuiooary  duty ;  but,  in 
1821^  bs  ntoned  to  college-lifa,  for  two  yon 
was  cDgifted  M  cUasicftl  tutor ;  but,  in  1822,  tiie 
-offer  of  ft  tbeologiool  aj^Kriotinant  io  the  nniverBity 
of  Tubingen,  finally  decided  Ma  cboice  to  the  atady 
■ot  diTini^.  He  waa  permitted,  before  entering  on 
bia  Btndiea,  to  apend  aome  time  in  nuking  htotelf 
«oquiiited  with  tbe  tontine  of  tiu  tliealogical 
■uuunM  ot  other  nnireraitiet — a*  GSttingoi,  Bralin, 
Fragiu^  VioDna,  and  Landahnt ;  and  in  1823,  he 
-entered  opon  hia  amr  poeition.  In  1828,  in  which 
year  he  waa  alao  admitted  to  tiie  degne  of  Doctor 
<d  Divini^,  he  waa  appointed  ordinary  profeaaor 
of  theology.  Hia  eaiiieit  pablioation  waa  a  traatiae 
On  Ot  Unili/  of  Oui  Churth  (182S).  which  wh  fol- 
lowed, in  lBS7i  by  a  hiibnioo-thecdoKiool  eauy 
on  Athaneubu  and  lie  ChurA  of  li»  Tiine,  in 
Cot^iet  mlA  ArvauttK.  Biit  hia  repatation,  both 
poathmnona  and  among  hia  own  contemporariea, 
teat*  mainly  on  hia  well-known  Sv^ii^wv^;  or 
A«  Doctrinal  I>ifatnce$  beireeen  Caikolie*  and 
ProUtUmU,  a*  ttprt^enied  by  their  Pvhlic  Con- 
famona  of  FaiA  (1832).  Itiii  remarkable  book 
-At  once  fixed  the  attention  of  the  theological 
world.  It  paased  throogh  five  large  editiona  in 
•iz  yean.  It  waa  b&nalated  into  ul  the  leading 
Ungiugea  of  Europe,  and  drew  forth  nnmeron* 
oritudnuB  and  rejoinders,  the  most  considerable 
of  which  ia  that  of  Dr  F.  C.  Baur  (q.  v.),  1833.  To 
Una  H.  replied  in  1834,  by  a  work  entitled,  FuHher 
Btmarchtt  into  At  Doctrinal  DWrtTtea  of  Caiholiet 
mtd  Protakml*.  TIm  polemical  bitteraeaa  evoked 
by  theee  oontrovsrnei  mode  it  desiisble  that  M. 
ttionld  leave  the  nniverrity  of  Tubingen.  Ue  waa 
invited  to  Bredan,  and  alao  to  Bonn,  bat  ultimately 
•elected  (1835)  the  nniveisity  of  Monich,  then  in 
tiio  first  flush  of  its  effioiency,  under  King  Louis. 
His  first  appointment  was  nominally  the  choir  of 
Biblical  EiegeeLs,  but  he  really  devoted  himself 
to  the  department  of  Church  History,  in  which  his 
opening  course  was  eminently  successful ;  but, 
unhappily,  a  naturally  deLcate  constitution  began 
to  give  way  mider  the  constant  fatignea  of  a 
atnaent'a  liM ;  and  olt^ongh  he  contioued,  under 
all  these  disadvttnti^ei,  to  maintain  and  to  add 
to  his  reputation,  and  althongh,  in  1837,  the  invita- 
tion to  the  Bonn  profes«:aship  was  renewed  in  still 
more  fiattating  terms,  he  gradualhr  sank  nader 
oonsQmpti<M],  and  died  April  1%  ISSS.  His  misoel- 
laneons  works  were  eoUeoted  and  peblished  pos- 
thomoDsly,  in  2  vols.  8vo  (1839—1810),  by  his 
friend,  the  now  celebrated  Dr  Dlillinger.  M.  may 
be  legarded  m  at  once  the  moat  acute  and  the 
moat  philoaophicsl  of  tho  modem  controversialistB 
of  his  church.  He  deals  more,  however,  with  the 
«zpoBitian  of  the  points  and  the  grounds  of  the 
doctrinal  differences  of  modem  sects,  than  with 
tiie  discQSsioa  of  the  scriptural  or  traditional 
evidences  of  the  peooliar  doctrines  of  any  among 

HO'IDOBE,  «  former  gold  ooin  of  Portngal,  of 
tile  valuB  of  4800  reis,  or  nearly  27a  steriii^  It 
WMalso  called  Liabonint. 

MOntB,  the  French  name  (formerly  moUr;,  and 
supposed  to  be  taken  from  the  Eng.  mohair,  which 
is  itself  probably  of  Eastern  origin)  applied  to  sitka 
figured  by  the  pecoUar  process  csjled  watering. 
Toe  «Qks  tot  this  purpose  must  be  broad  and  of  a 
good  substantial  nuke;  thin  and  narrow  pieces  will 
not  do :  they  are  wetted,  and  then  folded  with 
puticnlar  care,  to  inaore  the  threads  of  the  fabric 
lying  all  in  the  same  direction,  and  not  crossing 


each  otlier,  exeert  as  in  the  nsnal  way  of  the  web 
and  the  warp.  The  folded  pieces  of  silk  are  then 
submitted  to  an  enormous  pressure,  geoerally  in  a 
hydnuilio  mi-hinn  By  thiB  pressurs,  the  air  ia 
slowly  expelled,  and  in  eacapii^,  draws  the  moisture 
into  curious  waved  lines,  which  leave  the  perma- 
nent marking  called  waterinjt  The  finest  kmds  ot 
wateied  ailke  are  known  as  Hoirja  antiques. — The 
same  ^ocees  baa  been  applied  to  woolleo  fabrics 
called  Moreen,  which  is  only  an  alteration  of  the 

UOIB^E  m£tALLIQUE,  a  French  term 
applied  to  tnn-plate  upon  which  a  peculiar  figuring 
like  that  caused  by  frost  on  windows  is  prMuced 
by  dipping  platee,  in  a  heated  state,  into  nitro- 
muriatio  acid,  and  then  wasbiog  with  water,  to 
remove  the  acid.  When  dry,  the  plates  are  var- 
nished or  lacquered,  and  have  a  pretty  effect.  The 
cheapnees  and  ease  of  the  process  have  made  it  very 
common  for  interior  articles  in  tin. 

MOISSAO,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Taro'et- Garonne,  on  the  river  Tarn,  15  milea 
north-west  of  Montauban.  The  church  d  St  Pierre 
dates  from  the  year  1100,  and  contains  some 
exoelient  carvings  and  ourions  tantastio  sculptures. 
M.  is  the  oentze  of  an  important  trade  in  groin. 
Pop.  6000. 

MOXA,  a  dty  and  seaport  of  the  Italiui  pro- 
viooe  of  Bori,  delightfully  situated  among  garaena 
and  olive  groves,  on  the  Adriotio,  13  miles  frorn 
Bari.  It  oontsjns  fine  churches  and  other  edifices, 
and  ezedlent  streets.  From  oU  oocounta,  it  seems 
to  have  exceedingly  little  trade  of  any  kind.  Popt 
12,18L 

HOLA'SSBa    Bee  Snau. 

UOIiD  (ancisntIy.Vonte.iUo:  Welih,  Wydihrug), 
a  porliomentoi;  borongh  in  the  county  ot  Flint, 
situated  on  the  Alnn,  12  miles  west-south-west  of 
Chester.  Thon^  Flint  is  the  county  town,  the 
assizes  and  quarter-sessions  tor  the  county  are  held 
here.  The  town  possesses  a  good  market,  a  fine 
old  church,  and  several  dissenting  chapels.  It  is 
connected  with  England  by  a  branch  ot  the 
(Sieater  and  Holyhead  Railway.  The  neighbourhood 
abounds  with  mineral  wealth,  cool  and  lead  being  the 
prininpsl  produce ;  it  boa  also  nnmerona  interesting 
relics  of  aotiquity — e.  g.,  so-called  Draidic  circles, 
Boman  roods  and  encampments,  Saxon  eoithworfca, 
an  eminence  called  Bryn  Brili  (formerly  suimounted 
by  a  castle),  and  a  caBteUated  building  known  as 
the  Tower  of  Bheinollt  ab  Gruffydd,  the  two  latter 
having  been  scenes  of  frequent  contenHaus  between 
the  T^gii'T*  and  Welsh.  Many  old  familiee  have 
mansions  in  the  neighbourhood,  whose  ^easing 
variety  ot  scenery  renders  it  attractive.  Pop.  ai 
porliamentoiy  borongh  (1881),  4320. 

MO'LDAU  (Bohemian,  VUava),  the  chief  river 
ot  Bohemia,  and  an  important  tributary  ot  the  Elbe, 
rises  in  the  BShmerwald  Mountains,  on  the  soolli- 
west  frontier,  at  sn  elevation  of  3760  above  the  level 
td  the  sea,  and  flows  south-east  to  Hohenfiirtli,  where 
it  bends  northward,  and  punnes  that  direction  to 
its  confluence  with  the  Elbe  opposite  Melnik,  aft«c 
a  ooone  of  276  miles.  Its  course  to  the  point  ot 
confluence  is  longer  than  that  of  the  Elbe,  and  the 
navigation  of  that  river  is  greatly  taeilitated  by  the 
body  of  water  which  it  contributes.  It  receives  on 
the  left,  the  Wotawa  and  the  Beraun;  and  on  the 
ri^i  the  Luschnit)  and  the  Sazawo.  The  chief 
towns  on  its  banks  are  Kroman,  Budweia,  and 
Prague.    It  becomes  navigobla  from  Budweis. 

MOLDA'VIA  AMD  WALA'CHIA,  two  states 
forming  the  so-called  Damcbian  PriaeipcUiliet,  which, 
since^d  December  1861,  have  been  united  ondeioi 


^ 


MOLDAVIA  AOT)  WALAUHIA. 


prince  and 
the  aingle  i 

tneriy  inbject  to  tbe  J^ort*^  HjHimani.  proeUimed  its 
own  abfloluta  indepeDdeace  in  1677,  >nd  likd  ita  cdaim 
leciwniMd  at  tlie  Beriin  CoDKreM  o(  1S78.  It  wu 
prodiunied  a  kingdom  in  ISSl.  Boamania  obtained 
th«  Dobrndicha  (q.v.)  in  1678,  and  Komnanian  Bess- 
•fabia  (q.T.)  Tai  ceded  to  Bnnia. 


Walacbia,  and  oi 


and  a.  by  Koaaut,  on  Uie  8.  by 
e  W.  by  Hnngary.  Area,  since 
uabia,  abont  15,000  m.  miles. 
The  ooQDtry  fomu,  geographically,  port  of  the  great 
plain  of  Sonth  Ruaaia,  except  towards  the  we«t, 
where  there  are  ipura  from  the  Carpatbiani.  It  is 
watered  by  the  I^th,  the  Sereth,  and  the  Danube, 
and  i*  almott  everywhere  fertile,'  producing  con- 
■iderable  qiuratiUes  of  grain,  froit,  and  wine.  But 
the  riche*  of  the  country  conusl  nuunly  in  its  cattle 
and  hotsea,  of  whioh  '"■"'"■—  numb^  are  reared 
on  ita  (plendid  and  far-alretehing  pastons ;  swine 
and  sheep  are  also  nnmerona ;  and  the  rearing  of 
bees,  owing  to  the  moWtnde  of  lime-treea,  is  exten- 
lively  earned  on.  The  great  plagnei  of  the  land 
are  lociuts  and  earthquakes.  Aunerali  and  precions 
oietali  ore  said  to  be  abundant,  but  they  have  not 
BB  yet  been  worked.  There  are  only  a  few  aalt-pits 
near  Okna,  in  the  Carpathian  Mountains.  Trade  is 
almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  numerous 
Jews,  GennaDS,  Greeks,  and  Russians  who  have 
settled  in  the  country.  The  capital  of  M.  ia  Jaaay 
(q.  V.) ;  but  the  great  centre  of  trade  ia  Galaci 
(q.  v.),  where,  of  Ute,  several  Britiih  merchants 
have  eetabUshed  honsea.  The  principal  exports  are 
gruD,  wool,  lambrf  skins,  hides,  feathers,  maize, 
tar,  tallow,  honey,  leeches,  cattle,  and  salt  (io 
blocks) ;  the  imports  ore  chiefly  the  mannfactnrad 
products  of  Western  Etiropa  M.  is  divided  into  13 
districts,  each  of  which  has  a  prefect  or  governor, 
a  receiver-general  of  taxes,  and  a  civil  tribunal  con- 
■istinaof  a  president  and  two  other  judgea. 

2.  Walickxa,  the  larger  of  the  United  Danubian 
Principalities,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Austrian 
empire  and  Moldavia,  on  the  £.  and  S.  by  the 
Danube,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Austrian  empire 
and  the  Danube.  Length  from  the  western  frontier 
to  Cape  Kaliakra  ou  the  Black  Sea,  305  miles; 
great^  breadth,  130  milea ;  area,  27,900  square 
milei.  The  greater  part  of  W.  ia  quite  flat;  but 
in  the  north,  where  it  horden  on  Hungary  and 
Transylvania,  it  gradually  rises  np  into  a  great 
moantain-wall,  impassable  save  in  five  placee.  It 
ia  destitute  of  wood  throughout  almoat  its  whole 
extent;  and  especially  along  the  banks  of  the 
Daoabe,  ia  covered  with  marshy  swamps,  miles 
upon  miles  in  breadth.  The  principal  river  flowing 
tSrowk  the  country  is  the  Aluta,  which  joina  the 
Danube  at  NikopoL  The  climate  ia  extreme ;  the 
•ummer  heaU  are  intense ;  while  in  winter,  the 
land  lies  under  deep  snow  for  four  montha.  The 
principal  piodDcta  are  com,  maize,  millet,  wine,  flax, 
tobacco,  and  olive-oiL  The  vast  treeleas  heaths 
oBbrd  sustenance  to  ^«at  herda  of  cattle,  sheep, 
and  horses.  As  in  Moldavia,  agriculture  ia  an 
important  branch  of  industry;  and  the  awampy 
distriota  of  the  sonth  are  nannted  by  inunenas 
Dumbera  of  wild  water-fowl.  In  minetola — eape- 
ojally  gold,  ailver,  copper,  and  rock-aolt — the  soil  is 
riob,  hot  only  the  Iwt  of  tjiaaa  is  exlanaivelyworked. 
Bndiftreat  is  the  capital  of  Walachia  and  of  Rumania. 
The  pop.  of  Ramaaia,  though  the  lo«a  of  Bessarabia 
was  not  balanced  by  the  gain  of  the  Dobrodscha, 
was  estimated  in  1880  at  S,376,00a 
AdmMttraiiim.—'aie  King  of  Bnmonia— till  of  late 
styled  t^  the  BnmanaiXnnRuor  J>(RnRitor;  officially 
c^led  by  the  Sublime  Porte,  Woiaod  (Prince) ;  by 


the  Tnrka  generally,  /j 
nnbelievmf;  and  l>y  t 

OoModdf?  (Prince)— IB  nc     ^  — 

dent,  constitatioiiBl,  and  hereditary  miman^y.    By 
-'     '  «aW.of  Paris  (1856)  and  the  Conventitm  (IS58), 


which  had  its 


with  a  special  ministry 

aaaemblies,  and  a  oentral 
seatatFokshani.  Bat  in  Nov.  1861,  the 
tioned  the  administrative  nnionof  the  two statea ;  and 
in  the  following  month,  it  was  publioly  proclaimed 
at  Bnchonat  and  Jassy.  The  &«t  ruler  of  Rumania, 
Prince  Alexander  John  Couia.  was  forced  to  abdicate 
in  1866,  when  Karl  L,  son  of  the  prince  of  Hohen- 
aoUem-Sigmaringen,  waa  chosen  hia  sncceasor.  At 
the  same  time,  a  new  and  more  popular  couatitutian 
waa  adopted  by  a  oonstitnent  assembly  elected  by 
univeraal  suffrage.    The  l^alativa  power  is  vested 

Stwo  lumsea.  a  ae&ate  ana  a  chamber  of  deputies. 
le   former  consiata  of  120  memben,  elected  for 
eight  years ;  and  the  latter  of  183;  elected  for  four 

Star*.  The  membera  of  both  houaea  are  ohosen 
r  indirect  election — L  ai.,  the  first  votera  nominate 
soton^  who  choose  the  membera.  All  citizeoa 
who  have  reached  their  2dth  year,  and  who  can 
read  and  write,  are  votera  in  the  firit  instance^  and 
every  Rumau  who  poseessea  a  small  yearly  income 
ia  eligible  lor  a  seat  in  parliament.  The  kiog  haa 
a  suspensive  veto  over  all  laws  paaaed  by  both 
eluunben.  He  is  also  chief  of  the  executive,  which 
ia  compoaed  of  a  counoil  of  seven  ministera,  heads  of 
the  deportments  of  the  Interior,  of  Foreign  Affairs 
of  War,  of  Finance,  of  Justice,  of  Comnterce  and 
Agricultnre,  and  of  Religion  and  Public  Instmo- 
tion.  Judgea  are  removaUe  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
superior  authorities.  The  legal  codes  are  founded 
npon  the  dvil  law  and  the  cnatoma  of  the  Frin- 
dpalitiea ;  but  though  the  syatem  of  jurisprudence 
hoa  been  much  amended,  many  reforma  remain  to 
be  effected,  eapeoiolly  in  the  administration  of  tliB 
laws,  which  ia  aaid  to  be  moat  ooimpt. 

Be^gion, — The  eatabliahed  religion  ot  Rnmania 
ia  that  of  the  Greek  Charch,  to  which  neariy  the 
whole  population  belong ;  but  all  forms  of  Cbria- 
tionity  ate  tolerated,  and  their  profeasora  enjoy 
equal  political  rights.  At  the  head  of  the  Greek 
clergy  stand  the  metropolitan  archbishops  of  M.  and 
W.,  the  latter  of  whom  ia  animate  of  Romania. 
Svery  bishop  is  aasiBted  by  a  council  of  clergy,  and 
haa  a  seminary  for  prieeta;  the  aaperinteDoent  of 
the  preaching  clergy  is  the  Prolo-papa  of  the 
diooeae.  The  eccleoiastioal  wealth  of  the  oountry 
was  formerly  very  great,  but  the  increased  expendi- 
ture that  followed  the  union  of  the  two  states 
rendered  a  scheme  of  spoliation  the  only  means  left 
to  the  government  to  extricate  itself  from  its  diffi- 
cultiea — in  a  word,  the  oonvent-propertiea  were 
wrested  from  the  hands  of  the  Greek  monks,  and 

D'  !ed  unW  the  administration  of  the  state.  It 
been  the  fashion  to  establish  such  convent*  in 
Turkey  aa  supports  to  the  orthodox  faith,  and  the 
institutions  ia  the  Principality  itself  were  riohly 
endowed  in  land  an^  other  ways :  it  was  resolvtri 
to  apply  the  revenues  to  the  relief  of  national  needs, 
aach  OS  schools,  hospitolB,  the  support  of  the  poor, 
&c,  and  to  give  only  the  overplna  to  the  dergr. 
This  haa  conaiderably  increased  the  revenue  of  the 
state.  The  administration,  however,  is  now  put 
upon  a  better  footing. 

£tf«««ion.— There  are  upwards  of  2700  element, 
ary  achoola,  beaidea  normal  achools,  gymnotia,  pri- 
vate schools,  ka.,  in  all  about  2500  schools.  There 
are  two  universities.  Education  is  gratuitous  and 
compulsoiy.  There  are  numerous  French  boarding- 
schools,  and  French  is  now  the  language  of  toe 
ednoated  circles,  eapecially  lodiea  (i 


^;,,  Google 


MOLDAVU  AND  WALACHU— MOlA 


XiTnj/.— The  military  forces  o£  Enmaaia, 
bv  laws  paned  between  1S6S  and  ISSO,  comprise 
three  olawea  ;  (I)  The  uctiTe  army,  divided  into  thi 
permanent  anny  and  the  lerriloriai  army,  with  thi 
reserve  of  each ;  (2)  the  militia ;  (3)  the  civic  guard 
of  the  towns  and  the  levfe  en  moMe  oC  the  country 
diatricU.  All  Bmnaaiana  from  21  to  46  are  bound 
to  eerve  in  the  active  army  and  its  reserTo  S  yean. 
It  depends  on  the  lot  whether  one  joins  the  per- 
manent or  the  territorial  armiea.  The  militia  is 
composed  of  all  those  who  for  legal  reasons  have 
not  gone  into  the  active  army,  and  of  those  who 
have  served  in  the  active  army  and  the  reserve, 
but  are  not  yet  36  years  of  aga.  The  effective  of 
the  permanent  army  in  time  of  peace  is  about  20,000 
men  ;  but  dnriag  the  war  between  Russia  and 
Turkey,  Rumania  sent  into  the  field  42,000  infantry, 
4O00  cavahy,  and  30  batteries  of  artillery,  besides 
militaiy  tntin,  Ac.  The  territorial  army  counts 
74,000  men,  and  the  militia  has  some  33,000  men, 
Rununia  has  a  navy  of  4  steamers  aud  6  small 
gunboata,  manned  by  ISOO  men  and  30  oiiicers. 

Commerce. — The  total  value  of  the  imports  of 
Rumania  io  1880  amounted  to  £10^13,000  ;  aud  of 
the  eiports,  to  ^8,756,720.  The  principal  article 
□f  export  is  groin,  especially  wheat  and  maize. 
In  18(j9  the  first  line  of  railwajr  was  Lud ;  and  in 
1881,  there  were  890  miles  of  railways  in  Kumania, 
and  about  3250  miles  of  telegraph.  The  estimated 
revenue  in  1881  waa  £4,830,650,  just  balanced  by 
the  expenditure  ;  in  1882,  it  waa  £4,860,000,  as 
Bgunst  £4,847,600  of  expenditure ;  the  public  debt 
was,  in  1880,  about  £24,400,000. 

Saee,  Langaatfe,  and  Lileraiare. — He  great  ma- 
jority of  the  iohabitants  are  known  ia  Western 
Europe  u  Walacht,  but  they  call  themselves 
KomSni  The  'Walatju,  however,  ate  not  coafiDed 
to  the  Principalities,  but  inhabit  also  the  southern 
part  of  Bukowina,  the  greater  part  of  Tranaylvania, 
Eastern  Hongary,  a  part  of  the  Bouat,  Bessarabia, 
some  districts  in  Podolia  and  Kherson,  and  portions 
of  Eastem  Servia.  They  are  also  found  in  Mace- 
donia, Albania,  and  Thessaty.  They  are  a  mixed 
race,  produced  by  the  amalgamation  of  the  Emperor 
Trajan's  Roman  colonists  with  the  orieinal  Dacian 
population,  and  subsequently  modified  by  Greek, 
filavic,  Albanian,  Hungarian,  and  Turkish  elements. 
This  mixture  is  seen  in  their  language,  one  haif  of 
the  words  of  which  are  Latin  (the  Dacian  has  dis- 
appeared), while  tiie  remaindoc  ia  made  up  of  words 
from  the  other  languages.  Rumanian  literature, 
which  may  be  said  to  date  from  the  16th  c,  is 
Heh  in  popular  songs,  a  oollection  of  which  were 
admirably  translated  into  German  by  the  Queen  of 
Rumania  in  1881.  The  chronicles  of  the  country 
are  not  without  interest.  There  are  numerous 
political  aud  other  journals  in  the  Bumanian  tongue. 
For  grammatical  information,  see  Diez,  OrammalU: 
dtr  Sonianitehtn  Sprachea  (4th  ed.  1877) ;  the 
Dictionariul  (1873)  and  the  Glossaries  of  the  Bucha- 
rest Academy ;  and  the  admirable  Dictionnairt 
cCEiymologie  Daco-Eomane  (1880),  by  A.  de  CShao. 

Sociof  CondUkm. — Very  recent  statistics  on  this 

ELut  are  not  attainable.  In  M.,  there  are  rather 
E,  in  W.,  considerably  more  than  3000  bojara, 
besides  whom  there  is  an  extensive  inferior  nobility. 
In  W.,  every  twenty-eighth  man  is  a  nobleman  ; 
eveqr  one  hundred  and  thirty-third,  a  merchant ; 
and  in  the  capital,  every  twentieth  is  a  merchant 
The  free  peasants,  or  yeomen,  called  Saiex/ix,  ore 
not  numeroni— in  aU  W.,  there  are  under  GOOD. 
Gipsy  communities  are  on  important  element  in  the 
population  ;  upwards  of  150,000  ot  this  mysterious 
race  are  or  were  serfs  belonging  to  the  riui  bojart 


and  the  monasteries.  In  1844,  about  30,000  wei» 
emancipated,  aud  settled  in  colonies  in  different 
parts  of  the  land .-  they  call  themselves  SomnitoAtl 
or  JtooinL  The  common  people  are  on  the  whole 
good-humoured,  frugal,  sober,  and  cleanly ;  murder 
and  larceny  are  almost  unknown.  Their  dwellingi, 
however,  are,  as  may  be  supposed,  ot  the  most 
wretched  description ;  oomrMjsed  chiefly  of  inter- 
laced willow- withes,  covered  with  mud,  cane,  and 

SitUiry. — In  andent  times,  M.  and  W.  formed  an 
important  part  of  Dacia  (q.  v.),  and  the  two  coimtriea 
have  in  general  experienced  the  some  vicissitudes. 
At  the  period  of  the  migration  of  nations,  and  in  the 
following  centuries,  they  were  the  scene  of  the 
■tru^les  between  the  Gothic,  Hunnic,  Bulgarian, 
and  Slavic  races— the  Avari,  Chaiars,  Petschenegi, 
Uzi,  and  Magyars,  who  alternately  ruled  or  were 
expelled  from  the  country.  These  peoplee  all  left 
nome  traces  (more  or  less)  of  themsetvee  among  the 
Bomanised  Dacian  inhabitants,  and  thus  helped  to 
form  that  composite  people,  '&b  modem  Walachs, 
who,  in  the  11th  c,  were  converted  to  the  Chris- 
tianity of  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Church.  Their 
incursiona,  however,  frightfully  devastated  the 
country.  In  the  11th  c,  the  Knmans,  a  Turkish 
race,  established  in  M.  a  kingdom  of  their  own. 
Two  centuries  later,  the  great  storm  oC  Mongols 
broke  over  the  land.  It  now  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  No^  Tartars,  who  left  it  utterly  wasted,  so 
in  the  forests  and  monntmns  waa  any 

_._.  of  Uie  native  Walachian  population.     In 

the  latter  half  of  the  13tb  c,  a  petty  Walach  chief 
of  Transylvania,  Badu  Negru  of  fogaraach,  entered 
W.,  took  poaaeaaion  of  a  portion  of  the  counby, 
divided  it  among  his  bojars  [noble  followera), 
founded  a  senate  of  12  members,  and  an  elective 
monarchy;  and  gradually  conquered  the  whole  of 
WaUchio.  Bather  less  than  a  century  later  (13S4), 
a  similu'  attempt,  also  suocesaful,  was  made  by  a 
Walach  chief  of  the  Hungarian  Marmaroah,  of 
the  name  of  Bwdan,  to  re-people  Mohlavia.  Ia 
the  beginning  of  the  16th  c.,  both  Principalities 
placed  thcmWves  under  the  protection  of  the 
Porte,  and  gradually  the  bojars  lost  the  right  ot 
ilecting  their  own  ruler,  whose  office  waa  bought  in 
CoDstaatinoEJe.  After  1711,  the  Turks  governed 
the  countries  by  Fanariot  princes  (see  Fanamots), 
who  in  reality  only  farmed  the  revenues,  enriched 
themselves,  and  impoverished  the  land.  In  1802, 
the  Euaaiana  wrested  from  Turkey  the  ri^t  of  sur- 
veillance over  the  Principalities.  A  great  number 
of  the  nobles — tJirough  family  marriages  with  the 
Fanariots — were  now  of  Greek  descent,  the  court- 
tongue  was  Greek,  and  the  religious  and  political 
rpathies  of  the  country  were  the  same.  Henoa 
effort  of  the  Principalities  in  1821  to  emaudpate 
themselves  from  Turkish  authority,  which  was  only 
the  prelude  to  the  greater  and  more  snccessfiU 
itnugle  in  Greece  itielf.  In  1822,  Russia  forced 
Tnrk^  to  choose  the  princes  or  bospodan  of  W. 
and  M.  &om  natives,  and  not  from  the  corrupt 
Greeks  of  Constantinople ;  and  after  1829,  to  allow 
them  to  hold  licir  dignity  for  life.     The  Prinoi- 

Eilities,  united  under  one  ruler  in  18S8,  were 
ronght  under  one  ndministiation  in  18GI,  and  pro- 
claimi;d  a  kingdom  in  1881.  For  subsequent  hiatoi;, 
e  BnuAMiA,  in  Scpp.,  VoL  X, 
MOL^  Louis  Matthibu,  Uohtb,  a  statesman, 
descendant  of  the  magistrate,  Matthien  MoM  (1534 — 
1663),  was  born  at  Paris,  24th  January  1781.  Uia 
father.  President  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  died  by 
Uie  guillotine  in  1794.  His  mother  was  a  daughter 
of  MalesherbesL    M.  was  for  the  most  part  his  own 

E receptor,  and  displayed  a  wonderfully  precocious 
ive    ot   bard  work   and   independent    reflectioi). 


u^ 


Emperor  wu  drawn  to  him ;  he  was  appointed 
ioui  o£cea  in  aucceasian,  and  raised  to  the 


dicnitf  of  a  ooant,  and  to  a  place  in  tke  cabinet 
Alter  Napoleoa'a  retom  from  Elba,  he  refuled  to 
■abacribe  the  declaration  of  the  Council  of  State 
haniahing  the  Bonrbona  fot  ever  from  Fiance,  and 
declined  to  talre  hii  seat  in  tbe  Chamber  of  Peers, 
In  1S16,  Lonii  XVIIL  made  him  a  peer,  and  ha 
voted  for  the  death  of  Nejr.  In  ISIT,  ha  wu  for  a 
■hort  time  Miniater  of  Marine,  but  aftarwarda  acted 
independoitlT  of  party,  and  wu  one  of  the  principal 
onton  in  the  Chamber  of  Feen.  In  1330,  he 
became  Miniiter  of  Foreign  ASun  in  Louis 
Philippe's  first  cabinet,  bnt  onlj  for  a  abort  time. 
In  1^6,  be  cocceeded  Thiers  as  prime  ministeri  bat 
in  tiie  eyes  of  the  liberal  puiy,  be  displayed  too 
entire  a  derotednaaa  to  the  wishes  ct  i£a  king, 
and  thns  rendered  bis  miniitrf  very  nnpopolar, 
so  that  ia  1839  hs  felt  it  necessaiy  to  resign.  ^ 
1840,  he  was  chosen  ■  member  (d  the  A<xidi7nit 
^anfaUe,  From  that  time  he  took  little  part  in 
political  aSairs,  bnt  after  the  revolntion  of  1S4S 
exerted  himself,  but  in  Tun,  to  rally  and  nnite  the 
party  of  order  in  the  assembly  to  which  he  had 
been  elected.  He  died  at  Champl&trettx,  23d 
November  1S56.  M.  was  fieroelj  attacked  and 
abiued  in  tbe  latter  part  of  his  pobtiool  career,  but 
it  is  not  now  believed  that  he  was  aervile  towards 
the  oourL  He  deteated  anarchy,  and  believed  in 
the  neoessily  of  a  strong  goveniment ;  bnt  he  loved 
gennine  libwt^,  and  always  plaoed  the  canstituHott 
above  the  kine.  When  Louis  Napoleon's  amp 
cTtlal  exdngui^ed  the  repablic,  M.  prondlv  said, 
that  henoeforth  be  could  have  nothing  to  ilo  with 
politics. 

MOIiB  (Talpa),  a  genus  of  qoadrnpeds  of  the 
order  ImeeHeora,  and  family  ToXjndti.  All  the 
Talpida  live  chiefly  undergroand,  and  thur  atruc- 
tnte  is  adapted  to  their  mode  of  life,  bi  their 
genei^  form,  the  character  of  their  fur,  the  ahort- 
nees  of  their  limbs,  the  great  muacular  strength  of 
the  fore-parts,  and  great  breadth  of  the  fore-paws, 
the  elongated  head,  the  elongated  and  flexible  snout, 
the  smaUneas  of  the  eyes,  and  the  complete  conceal- 
ment of  the  ears,  they  all  resemble  the  Cohmon  M. 
{T.  Bicropaa),  with  which  also  they  pretty  nearly 
agree  in  the  nature  of  their  food,  their  mode  of 
seeking  it,  their  dentition,  and  the  shortness  of 
their  alimentary  conaL — The  Common  M.  ia  abund- 
ant in  most  piuia  of  Eimtpe,  except  the  utmaat 
north  and  ntmost  south.  In  Britain,  it  is  very  plen- 
tiful, eicept  in  the  north  of  Scotland ;  but  is  not 
fonnd  in  Ireland  nor  in  same  of  the  Scottish  islands. 
Instead  of  its  ordinary  uniform  black  colour,  it  ia 
occasionally  found  yellowish  white,  or  gray,  and 
even  orange.  Its  silky  or  velvety  fur  lies  smoothly 
in  every  direction,  the  short  hairs  growing  perpen- 
dionlaTly  from  the  skin ;  a  peculiarity  which  preserves 
it  clean  ss  the  animal  moves  either  backwards  or 
forwarda  in  its  subterranean  gaUeriei.  The  fore, 
paws  are  not  only  very  broad,  out  ore  turned  out- 
wards, for  the  better  throwing  back  of  the  earth  in 
burrowing.  They  are  terminated  by  five  long  and 
strong  claws.  The  phalangeal  bones  are  remarkable 
for  breadth,  and  an  elongated  bane  of  the  carpoa 
gjves  additional  streogtii  to  tbe  lower  edge  ot  the 
paw.  The  two  bonea  of  the  forearm  are  fastened 
together.  The  shoulder-blades  and  the  olavicles  are 
very  Isirm  ;  and  the  sternum  has  an  elevat«d  ridge 
•■  in  biraa  and  bats,  for  the  attaclmient  of  powerful 
muscles.  The  muscles  which  move  Uie  head  are 
also  very  powerful,  and  the  cervio^  ligament  is  even 
strengthened  by  a  peculi^  bone ;  the  ML  making 


much  use  of  its  flexible  snout  in  burrowing.  The 
hinder  limbs  are  comparatively  feeble,  and  the  feet 
small,  with  five  toee.  The  eyes  are  black  and  vet; 
small,  capable  of  bein£  partially  retracted  and 
exserted.  The  senses  of  neuing,  taste,  and  smell  are 
very  strongly  developed  in  the  mole.  The  cntting- 
tecth  ore  very  small  and  sharp ;  the  canines  long 
and  sharp ;  the  true  molora  broad,  with  many  sharp 
conical  elevations.  This  dentition  adapts  the  animal 
for  feeding  not  only  on  worms  and  grabs,  bnt  also 
on  frogs,  birds,  and  amall  quadrupeds,  which  BCOord* 
ingly  are  its  occasional  prey,  although  earthworms 
are  ita  chief  food.  The  M.  Is  an  eicosaively  vora- 
ciona  animal ;  digestion  is  rapid,  and  no  long  interval 
can  be  endured  between  meals,  hunger  soon  ending 
in  death.  When  prteaed  by  hunger,  it  will  attack 
aod  devoor  even  one  of  its  own  kmd ;  and  ita  prac- 
tice ia  immediately  to  tear  open  the  belly  of  any 
bird  or  quadrapad  which  it  has  kiUed,  and,  inserting 
its  head,  to  aaSate  itself  with  the  blood.  In  eatjng 
earthworms,  it  skins  them  with  remarkable  dex- 
terity. In  quest  of  them,  it  works  its  way  nnder> 
grouni^  throwing  np  the  earth  in  mole-tulls ;  mom 
rarely  in  the  fine  nights  of  summer  it  seeks  for  them 
on  the  surface  of  ^e  ground,  when  it  is  itself  apt 
to  be  picked  np  by  on  owl  eqn&lly  in  want  of  foi^ 
The  habitatian  of  the  M.  is  of  very  remariLoble  con- 
stmction  :  a  hillock  of  earth  larEer  than  an  ordinary 
mole-hill,  and  containing  two  cucnlor  galleries,  one 
above  the  other,  with  five  connecting  paiaages,  and 
a  central  chamber  which  has  aoceas  to  the  upper 
gallery  bv  three  pasaaoes;  whilst  about  nine  paa- 
sages  leaa  away  from  the  lower  gallery  in  diffecent 
directions.    The  end  of  a  paaaago  entering  a  galleiy 


on  one  side  ia  never  opposite  to  the  end  of  a  nassa^ 
entering  on  the  other.  To  afford  all  facility  of 
escape  m  case  of  anv  alarm,  a  passage  leads  at  first 
downwards  from  the  central  chamber,  and  then 
upwards  anun  till  it  joins  one  of  the  high  roads 
whioh  the  AL  keeps  always  open,  which  are  framed 
by  pressing  the  earth  till  it  beoomai  amooQi  and 
compact,  and  are  not  marked  by  any  mole-hills 
thrown  up,  and  which  not  only  serve  for  eacape 
when  necessary,  hat  lead  to  tboae  parts  ot  the 
creature's  appropriated  domain  where  the  onlinafy 
mining  for  worms  ia  to  be  proaecntad.  The  neat 
in  which  the  female  M.  produces  her  young  ia  not 
thia  habitation,  but  is  lonned  generally  under  ji 
mole-hill  rather  larger  than  usual,  where  two  or 
three  runa  meet,  and  ia  lined  with  leaves  and  other 
wann  materiala     The  M.  breeds  bo$  in  spring  i 

-:i t:  .oi-Mir.- 


^^ 


MOLB-MOLBSWOBIH. 


•eems  to  be  ctniDg,  bat  traiuitoiy. 

It  haa  been  Mmatiniea  aUeged  that  molea  eat 
T^table  aa  well  aa  aaimal  foo^  and  tiiat  they  ara 
iiijurioiu  to  Aumen,  by  dBTouriog  mirota  and  other 
ntots ;  bnt  it  appear*  rathei  that  they  only  gnaw 
root*  when  in  the  way  of  their  miniiiR  operatioiu,  or 
perhapl,  alio,  in  qoert  of  grabi  which  uiey  oontain. 
Molea  are  ganBralty  regarded  aa  a  peat  I^  farmer* 
and  gardenen,  owing  to  the  injury  wbioh  mole-hilk 
do  to  lawni  andpaaturee,  the  burying  up  of  young 
planti^  and  th»  diaturbanoa  id  their  roots.  Box  they 
an  ontainly  of  nae  in  the  eoonomy  of  nature  in 
preventing  tlia  motann  inoreate  of  looie  other 
oreatoTM ;  and  probably  alao  oontribnte  to  the  fer- 
tility ot  Boine  paatnrea,  by  tiie  oontinoal  tillage 
wliich  Uiey  oarry  on.  Mole-ttapa  of  ntriona  kindi 
are  in  oae,  which  are  planted,  if  the  mole-oatoher  ia 
•kiliol,  in  the  often'traveraed  roada  of  the  a-nim.!. 
Mole-catduag  ha*  long  been  a  diatinot  trade  in 

The  name  M.  if  abbraviatad  from  the  old  Eng- 
liih  name  Mouldioarp,  or  Jtfovidiwarp,  atill  provitt- 
eially  naed,  and  which  ia  derived  from  the  Angler- 
Saxon  laMe,  moold,  and  totorTNin,  to  throw  do. 

'    ■■'■      ■---'--  of  WL  (3". «*») ia  found  in  the 


Common  M.,  .  . 

eye  alwayi  oovered  by  the  eyelid,  so  aa  to  juatify 
Anatotle'i  atatement,  that  tho  M.  ia  blind.— A 
(peciea,  alio  very  limilar  to  the  Conuncn  M.,  i* 
found  in  North  America. 

Amoiif  the  other  Talpida  are  the  Chanoubli 
M.,  or  CAP!  M.  {Cfftrytochlori*  Odptntit)  of  South 
Afrtoa,  nhioh  ia  lemancable  aa  the  only  one  of  the 
mamnuliftthat  ezhibiti  the  aplendid  metallic  reQec- 
tioni  to  frequently  aeen  in  aome  other  otaiaea  of 
animala ;  the  Shkrw  M.  {q.  *.)  and  ^  Stak-nou 
(q.  T.)  <rf  Nortik  Amerioa. 

HOLB,    See  SkVfm. 


OrgUida),  remarkable  for  burrowing  habits,  and  I 
the  great  atrength  and  breadth  of  the  fore-len. 
The  other  legi  are  alao  large  and  atrong,  but  of  the 


Hole-Criakel,  and  E 


1  {CtrySoliUpa  vulgarit). 


form  oanal  in  tha  family. — The  belt  known  ap 
((7.  wlgttrii) — oommon  in  many  parte  of  Enrope,  and 
pretty  abundant  in  iome  placea  in  f^gland,  bnt 
very  looal — ia  almoat  two  inchea  long ;  of  a  velvety 
brown  oolonr )  the  winsa,  when  folded,  do  not  oover 
much  more  tiiian  one-huf  of  the  abdomen,  although 
large  when  expaodad.  It  naai  ita  fore-Ie^  not  ouy 
for  digstng  bnrrowa  in  earth,  bat  for  cutting  throojiin 
or  teoru^  off  the  roots  of  plant*  which  oome  in  it* 


aubatancea,  and  often  does  no  amaU  mjury  to  oropa. 

The  chiipiug,  and  aomewliat  musical  call  of  the  £, 

produced  in  the  same  way  aa  that  of  the  oommon 

cricket,  ia  heard  chiedy  in  the  eod  of  ipring  and 

rinning  ot  summer,  and  only  in  the  evening  or  at 

pit.     JJi  (ome  pariA  of  England,  thia  sound  ha* 

ined  it  the  name  of  Okur-aorm,    Another  local 

Lgliih  name  i*  Croaitr. — The  feiiuile  M.  prepares 

curioua  neat,  a  tounded  sabterranean  ceU,  about 

large  a*  a  heu'a  egg,  iiaving  a  oomplioated  ayitmn 

— ;„j; J  .(^  jpij  cocnmnnioating 

[Kwils  from  100  to  400 
„  '       w  time  in  aociety.   They 

run  aetively,  both  in  the  larva  and  pnpaatatea.  The 
M.  ia  veiy  cimibative,  and  the  victor  generally  eat* 
the  vtuu^uished. — A  tpeciei  of  M.  {O.  didaetyla)  doea 
great  injury  to  the  plantation*  of  lugar-oanB*  in  the 
West  Indie*. — A  cnrioua  Indian  insult,  of  a  cloaely 
allied  genos  (&Ai£oda«lyZiu  vtorulroau),  ha*  pro- 
digioo^  lone  wing*,  which,  as  well  a*  the  wwg- 
Oovar*,  are  ruled  into  apiral  coila  at  the  tip*. 

HOLE-RAT  {Spalax  or  AnxUax),  a  genua  of 
rodent  quadrupeds  of  the  family  Muridie,  having 
teeth  almoat  like  those  of  rata,  but  in  many  respect* 
resembling  moles,  at  in  general  form,  ahortnes*  of 
limbo,  concealment  of  ears,  smallness  or  even  rudi- 
mentary  condition  of  eyea,  and  bnrrowing  habits — 
althougn  their  food  is  altogether  different,  consisting 
wholly  ol  vegetable  subat^oes,  and  chiefly  of  roots. 
One  spedea  $.  tj/jAlia)  inhabit  the  south  of  Russia 
and  aome  part*  of  Asia.  It  ia  also  known  aa  the 
Podolkm  Mamtot,  Blind  Rat,  Slepet,  Zaani,  fto. 
The  M.  makes  tunnels  and  throws  up  hillocks  Uks 
the  mole,  but  its  hillocks  are  mach  lai^er. — Another 
specie*,  found  in  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  ia  as  larga 
as  a  rabbit. — Nearly  allied  is  the  Coast  Eat  or 
Sand  Molb  of  S.  Africa  {Balhyergna  maritimiu),  al*o 
aa  large  aa  a  rabbit,  with  other  species  of  the  same 
cenuB,  also  natives  of  S.  Afrioa,  which  drive  tunnels 
uirough  the  sandy  soil,  and  throw  up  large  hillocks. 
MOLESKIN.  See  SuPF.,  VoL  X 
UOLESTATION,  m  Scotch  Law,  means  distorb- 
ing  the  posBoasion  <^  heritage,  and  an  action  of 
molestation  is  a  remedy  for  the  trespass. 

MOLESWORTH,  Sm  William,  Rioht  Hohour- 
AXLi  (eighth  baronet),  English  stateeman,  was  bom  in 
1610.  Lmeally  descendedlrom  an  old  Cornish  family 


id),  he  early 


and  mbieqnently  governor  of  that  ia 
•hewed  promise  of  dittinotion.  Hia  lu 
at  Cambridge  was,  however,  out  short  by  hia  •"ruKna 
(under  oiRnimstances  of  great  provocation)  a  chaT 
lenge  to  his  tutor  to  fight  a  dueL  He  oontinued  liis 
education  at  the  nniveraity  of  Edinbnreh,  and  aub- 
•eqnently  at  a  Oerxosn  umveiiity.  Alter  making 
tha  onial  tour  of  Europe,  he  returned  home,  and 
threw  liiiii«jTf,  in  1831,  into  the  movement  for  par- 
liamentary reform.  Next  year,  althongh  oily  ]u*t 
of  age,  he  waa  elected  member  of  parliament  for 
Cornwall  (East).  He  *at  for  Leeds  from  1837  to 
IS41,  and  then  remained  out  of  pailiamant  fonr 
yean,  during  which  interval  be  need  to  say  he  gave 
liim^«'l>  a  aacond  and  soonder  political  edno^iott. 
He  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Bentham  and  Jamea 
Mill,  and  was  regarded  a*  the  parliamentary  refm- 
tentative  of  the  '  philosophioal  Badioal*'  Having 
been  a  great  admirer  of  Hobbea,  he  aoonmolated 
materials  for  a  life  of  the  'Philosopher  of  Malmes- 
bury,'  which  remains  in  MS.  oncompLeted,  In  1S3S, 
he  oommenoed  and  carried  to  ocMnpletioii,  at  a  coat 
ot  many  thonaand  ponnda,  a  reprint  of  the  entire 
misoellaoeon*  and  volnminous  writings  of  that 
eminut  author.     The  poblioatin  wm  a  TaluUf 

.^SS^ 


MOLFETTA— MOLI^E. 


ooDtributioii  to  the  republic  of  letters,  and  the  works 
of  Hobbes  were  pUced  by  M.'l  mnniliceDce  in  matt 
ot  our  nnivenity  and  provincial  pubUo  libnuies. 
"lilt  publication,  however,  did  him  great  diraervice 
ID  pablio  life,  bia  opponeotl  endearoiiring  to  identify 
him  with  the  freethiuking  opinions  of  Hobbea  in 
religion,  ai  well  aa  with  the  great  philosapher's 
conclnsiona  in  favonr  of  despotic  goTemmeat  Id 
1S15,  be  wu  elected  for  iSouthwark  (which  be 
continued  to  represent  until  hia  death),  and  eotered 
upon  a  parliamentary  career  of  the  greatest  energy 
and  neefolneav.  He  wa«  the  first  w  coll  attention 
to  the  abuses  connected  with  the  transportatioii  of 
crimiDals,  and  aa  chairman  of  a  parliamentary  coni' 
mitt«e  broDght  to  light  all  the  horrors  ot  the  coi 
•vstem.  He  pointM  out  the  maladmJniEtratio 
Uie  colonial  office,  explained  the  true  principli 
colonial  telf-goTemment,  prepared  draught  conatitu- 
tiona  for  remote  dependencies,  and  investigated  the 
true  and  natural  t«]atiou8  between  the  imperial 
govenunent  and  ita  colonial  empire.  M.'s  views, 
although  at  first  unpalatable  to  the  legislature,  have 
been  adopted  by  auccesaive  adminiatntions,  and  are 
now  part  and  parcel  ot  the  colonial  policy  of  Qreat 
Britain.  Id  January  1S53,  be  accepted  the  office  of 
First  Commissioner  of  Public  Works,  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen;  oud  in  1S55,  Uie 
post  of  Secretary  of  State  tor  the  Colonies,  in  that  of 
Viscouat  Palmerston.  This  appointment  gave  great 
■atistactioa  to  our  dependencies ;  but  before  be  could 
give  proof  of  bia  admiuistrative  capacity,  be  was 
TOctober  22,  1856)  atnick  by  the  hand  of  death, 
while  yet  in  the  full  vigoni'  of  Ufa  and  intellect  He 
established  the  iMndon  JUvieiii,  a  new  quarterly,  in 
133S;  and  afterwards  purchaaed  the  Weitnuiula- 
Jteviea,  the  organ  of  the  '  philoaophical  Radicals.' 


M.  contributed  to  it  many  able  utialea  o_  , 

and  political  economy. 

HOLFFTTA,  a  city  of  Soothem  Italy,  in  the 

Bvviuoe  of  Bari,  situated  on  the  Adriatic,  IS  miles 
.-■W.ofBariipop.(lS81)29,697.  The  neighbour- 
hood yields  eic^ent  fruits,  especially  almonds  and 
oranges,  and  has  eztoDsive  olive  plantatioas.  Fish 
abound  along  the  ooast.  The  city  contains  a  mag- 
nificent cathedral,  and  is  partly  enclosed  by  walls ; 
it  is  conjectured  that  it  occupies  the  aifa  of  acme 
early  forgotten  town,  from  the  numerous  vases,  urns, 
and  other  relics  of  antiquity  found  in  it*  vicinity. 

MOLI^BE,  JxAX  Bapitstb  (properly,  Jtaii  Bap- 
littt  Poqudin — tbs  name  of  Moliire  not  having  been 
aasumed  till  he  bad  commenoed  authorship),  was 
bom  at  Paris,  ISth  JaDuary  1622.  Hi*  father,  Jean 
Poquelin,  was  then  an  uTiholaterer,  but  subsequently 
be<ume  a  Talet-de-ohambre  to  the  king.  Besarding 
the  boyhood  of  M.,  almost  nothing  is  known,  but  his 
crediHoni  biographers  have  put  together  whatever 
traditionary  gossip  they  could  find  Soating  on  the 
breath  of  society.  Voltaire,  while  recording  these 
eonta  popuiaira,  as  he  calls  them,  pronounces  them 
irit-Jaux.  All  that  we  really  are  certain  of  is,  that 
in  bis  14th  year  he  was  sent  to  the  Jesuit  CoUfge 
de  Cleimont  in  Paris,  where  he  had  for  a  fcjlow- 
student  Prince  Aimand  de  Conti,  and  that,  on 
leaving  the  CoU6ge,  he  attended  for  some  tine  the 
lectures  of  Ganendi  He  was  charmed,  we  are  told, 
hy  the  freedom  of  thought  permitted  in  speculative 
•deoce,  and,  in  partionlar,  conceived  a  great  admi- 
ration for  Lacretins.  the  Roman  poet-philosopher, 
whom  he  undertook  to  translate.  Of  this  translatioa, 
only  a  single  passa^  remains,  intercalated  in  the 
HitatUArvpt  (act  iL  scene  4).  About  IMl,  he 
commenoed  the  stndy  of  law,  and  appeus  to  have 
even  jawed  aa  bd  mv 


Mvocato;  but  the  statement  ( 


Tsllement  de*  Biauz  that  he  aotnally  ventured  into 
Uie  prodncta  of  theology,  is  generally  rejected. 
M.  detested  priests.  So  gay,  humorous,  and  sharp. 
eyed  a  humanitarian  would  have  felt  quite  miserable 
ouder  the  Kstnunta  of  a  monkish  lif&  In  164fi,  he 
suddenly  appeared  upon  the  stage  as  member  of  a 
company  of  atroUing  players,  which  took  the  name 
of  the  fUiutrs  Thidtre,  and  performed  at  first  in  the 
fanboui;gs  of  Paris,  and  afterwards  in  the  provinces. 
For  the  next  12  years,  we  can  onlv  catch  an  occa- 
sional glimpse  of  him.  Be  was  playing  at  Nantes 
and  Bordeaux  in  1648,  at  Narbonae  and  Toulouse 
in  1649,  at  Lyon  in  1653  (where  his  first  piece, 
L'EtoaTdi,  a  comedy  of  intrigue,  waa  broiuht  out), 
at  Lyon  and  Narbonne  again  in  ISfifi^  >t  Grenoble 
during  the  carnival,  and  also  at  Bonen  in  1658. 
Daring  these  now  obscure  peregrinations,  he  seems, 
although  an  industrious  actor,  to  have  been  also  a 
diligent  student  He  read  Plautns,  Terence,  Babe- 
lais,  aod  the  Italian  and  Spanish  comedies,  besides 
— without  which,  indeed,  all  the  rest  would  have 
been  of  little  av^— malcing  a  constant  nss  of  as 
qui(^  eyes  as  ever  glittered  in  a  Frenchman's  head. 
At  Pans,  by  the  powerful  recommendation  of  his 
old  sohoolfellow,  the  Prince  de  Conti,  M.'b  company 
got  permission  to  act  before  the  king,  who  waa  so 
highly  pleased,  that  he  allowed  them  to  establish 
themselves  in  the  city  under  the  title  of  the  Trtmpt 
de  Montietof.  In  1659,  M.  brought  out  La  Prf- 
deuta  Ridicula,  the  fine  satire  of  which— lapsing  st 
times,  however,  into  caricature — vas  tnstanUy  per- 
ceived and  relished.  'Courage,  MoUirel'  cried  an 
old  man  on  its  first  representation;  'vtnUlaviri&Me 
eomfdie.'  The  old  man  was  a  prophet.  Veritable 
comedy  dated  in  France  from  tlwt  night.  M£nag^ 
the  cntic,  is  reported  to  have  said  to  Chapelam 
the  poet,  OS  they  were  going  out  of  tiie  theatre : 
'Henceforth  [as  St  Bemi  said  to  Clovis],  we  must 
bum  what  we  have  worshipped,  and  worship  what 
we  have  burned.'  In  1660  appeared  SgaiaardU,  mt 
If  Cocu  tmaniTiairt;  and  in  1661,  L'BoU  da  Mori* — 

Krtly  founded  on  the  AddpM  of  Terence,  in  which 
.  completely  passes  out  of  the  reeton  of  farce  into 
that  ot  pure  comic  satire — and  La  FAdieaic  In 
the  tallowing  year,  M.  married  Annande-Gr^sinde 
BSjait,  either  the  sister  or  daughter  (for  it  is  still 
undetermined)  ot  Madeleine  Bfijart,  an  actress  of  his 
troupe,  with  whom  be  bad  formerly  lived  in  what 
the  French  politely  call '  intiniate  wlrtiona.'  Tho^ 
however,  there  is  the  slightest  ground  for  supposing 
that  the  great  comedian  incestuously  married  bis 
own  dan^ter,  nobody  now  believes,  though  the 
revolting  calomny  was  freely  ciniulated  even  in 
M.'s  lifetime.  Sie  Lterary  activity  contdnned  as 
brisk  as  before.  Among  several  pieces  bdonging 
to  this  year,  the  most  celebrated  is  L'Scote  da 
Femma,  which  excited,  not  without  reason,  the 
moet  violent  indignation  among  the  clergy  and  the 
devout,  for  there  was  an  excessive  indecency  in  tiie 
expression,  and  the  author  indulged  in  a  caricatni« 
of  religious  mysteries  that  oould  not  but  be  offen- 
sive.  M.  defended  himself  with  incredible  audadty 
in  bis  Impromptu  de  VertaUUt.  Le  Tartu/e,  written 
in  1664,  was  prohibited  from  being  brought  upon  the 
st^e ;  but  bL  was  invited  by  his  literary  friends, 
Bouean  and  others,  to  read  it  in  a  semi-pubUs 
manner,  which  he  did  with  the  greatest  appro- 
bation. In  166S,  Louis  XIV.  b«dj>wed  a  pension 
of  TOOO  livres  on  M.'s  company,  which  now  called 
itsdf  the  Trovpe  da  Boi.  Next  year  oppeared 
Le  Slitanihrope,  the  most  artistic  of  all  his  comedies  ; 
shortly  after  followed  by  Le  Midedn  Malgri  Ltd. 
When  Tartufe  waa  at  last  bronght  upon  tbe  stage 
in  1669,  it  obtained  a  superb  succms.  The  tra^ 
the  varied,  the  contrast  ot  the  characters,  ths 
exquisite   ui   shewn  in  the  msnMpMft^nt  of   ths 


Lilt]  II, 


;7«©Og 


UOLIHA— MOUNOa. 


tnoidents,  tha  ftbondance  o(  ths  MntimentB,  tnd 
the  wonderful  altenutioiu  of  feeling — langbter, 
an^er,  indigoation,  tendemeei,  nuJce  this,  in  the 
opinion  of  moeb  critica,  M.'a  maater-piecG.  To  the 
game  jeax  belongs  L'Avare,  In  1S70  appeared 
Le  Bourgtoi*  OenlUiiompK,  a  reiy  pleasant  Batire 
cm  a  very  prevalent  vice  among  wealthy  tradesmen 
— viz.,  tiie  vulgar  ambition  to  pass  for  fine  gentle- 
men.  Then  came  £et  F(mrtiene$  de  5<»pin  (ICTl), 
followed  by  Lit  Femma  Savantea  (1672),  full  of 
admirable  passages;  and  Lc  Maiade  Imaginaire 
(1673),  Uie  most  popular,  if  not  the  besb  of  all  M.'b 
comedies.  While  acting  in  thi«  piece,  ha  wu  seized 
with  severe  pains,  wUdi,  however,  be  managed  to 
conceal  from  the  audience;  but  on  being  carried 
home,  luemorrbage  eniued,  and  he  eipired  at  ten 
o'clock  at  night  (nth  Febniary  1673).  As  M.  had 
died  in  »  state  o(  exoommnnication,  and  without 
having  received  tha  last  aids  of  rehsion — which, 
however,  he  had  implored — the  Arcbbiuiop  of  Paris 
refused  to  let  him  he  buried  in  consecrated  ground ; 
but  ths  king  interiered — a  compromise  was  effected, 
and  he  was  privately  interted  in  the  cemetery  of  St 
Joseph,  being  fallowed  to  the  tomb  by  a  hundred 
of  his  inea&  with  lighted  torches.  la  1792,  hi» 
remains  were  transferred  to  tha  Museum  of  Freoch 
MoQumentSt  from  which  they  were  removed  to 
P^re  Lachajsa  in  1817.  M.  ronka  as  the  greatest 
Frencli  oomio  dramatist — perhapa  the  great^  of  a!t 
comic  dnunatisto.  Among  tha  beet  editions  of  iL'a 
works  are  those  of  Anger  (1819—1826),  Aimd- 
Martin  (1833-6),  Moland  (1671),  and  Despois  (1874 
tt  uq.).  A  complete  English  tranilation  of  M.'s 
works  is  that  by  Van  Laun,  in  6  vols.  (Edin.  1875-6). 
The  best  biographieB  are  by  Taschereaa  (1826-7), 
and  Bazin  (1851).  Sea  the  exceUent  Bibhosrai^M 
MoUlrtaqvt  of  Panl  Lacroix  (1876). 

MOLINA,  LomB,  a  celebrated  Spanish  •TeBuit 
theologian,  was  bom  at  Cnanfa,  in  New  Castile,  in 
the  year  1635 ;  and  having  entered  the  Jetmit 
Society  in  his  18th  year,  studied  at  Coimbra,  and 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Theology  at  Evora, 
where  he  continued  to  teach  for  20  yeats:  He  died 
at  Madrid  in  IGOO,  in  the  6Sth  year  of  his  age 
M.'s  celebrity  is  mainly  confined  to  the  theological 
schools.  His  principal  writings  are  a  commentaiy 
on  the  Summa  of  St  Thomas  (Cnen^B,  2  vole.  1593) ; 
a  minute  and  comprehensiva  treatise  On  Justice 
and  Bight  (Cuenva,  6  vols.  1692 ;  reprinted  at 
Mainz  in  1669) ;  and  the  celebrated  treausa  on  The 
Seeoneiiiaiioa  of  Cfrae*  and  I'ree-ieiU,  which  was 
printed  at  Lisbon  in  1588,  with  an  appendix,  printed 
ID  the  following  year.  Although  it  is  to  the  last- 
named  wivk  that  M.'s  celebrity  is  mainly  due,  we 
most  be  content  with  a  vary  brief  notice  of  it. 
The  problem  which  it  is  meant  to  resolve  is  almost 
*a  old  as  the  origin  of  human  thoo^t  itself,  and 
had  already  led,  m  the  4th  e.,  to  the  well-known 
FsUkQiAS  CoNTBOVKBST  (q.  T.).  In  recondting 
with  the  freedom  of  man's  will  the  predeetinatiou 
oE  the  elect  to  hapfdnesa,  and  of  the  reprobate  to 
punishment,  M  asBerta  that  the  predestination 
IS  consequent  on  Ood's  foreknowledge  oE  the  free 
deteimination  of  man's  will,  and,  therefore,  that 
it  in  no  way  affects  the  freedom  of  the  particular 
actions,  in  requital  of  which  mam  is  predeatioed 
whether  to  punishment  or  to  reward.  Qod,  in  M.'s 
view,  gives  to  all  men  sofficient  grace  whereby 
to  live  virtoonsly,  and  merit  happmeaa.  Certain 
individuals  freely  co-operate  with  this  grace ;  cer- 
tain others  resist  it.  God  foresee*  both  connee, 
and  this  foreknowledge  is  the  foandation  of  one  or 
of  the  other  deoree.  This  exposition  was  at  once 
assailed  in  the  schools  on  two  groonda— ^first  as 
a  revival  of  tha  Pelagian  heresy,  inasmuch  as  it 
appear*  to  pUoe  the  eSovsf  erf  gf»eo  ia  the  wwMot 


of  man's  will,  and  thus  to  recognise  a  natural  poww 
in  man  to  ehcit  supernatural  acts ;  second,  as  Mtting 
asida  altogether  what  tha  Scriptures  represent  as 
the  s^iiS  election  of  the  predestined,  by  making 
each  mdividual,  according  as  he  freely  accepts  or 
refuses  the  grace  offered  to  all  in  common,  tha 
arbiter  of  his  own  predeetinatioa  or  reprobation. 
Hence  arose  the  celebrated  dispute  between  the 
MouNisi?  and  the  Tkouists.  It  wa*  first 
brought  tmder  the  oognizanoe  of  the  Inquisitor- 
general  of  Spain,  by  whom  it  woa  referred  to  Pope 
Clement  VIlL  ^niis  jiontiff,  in  1697,  appointed 
tha  celebrated  coogr^ation,  Dt  AvxiliU,  to  consider 
the  entire  question  ;  but  notwithstanding  many 
lengthened  aiscnasiona,  no  decision  was  arrived  at 
during  tlie  lifetime  of  Gl^nent;  and  although  tho 
congregation  waa  oontinued  nnder  Paul  V.,  the  only 
reamt  was  a  decree  in  1607>  permitting  both  opinions 
to  be  taoght  tiy  Ouar  respective  advocatea,  and 
prohibiting  each  ^u^  from  acousing  the  adversaries 
of  heresy.  The  dispute,  in  some  ol  its  leading  fea- 
tures, was  revived  in  the  Janseuist  controversy 
(see  JuiSEM) ;  but  with  this  striking  difference,  that 
whereas  the  rigorous  Jansenists  denied  the  freedom 
of  the  will  when  acted  on  by  efficacious  gT*ce,  all 
the  disputants  in  the  acholoatia  controversy- 
the  Thomiste — mointaxn  that,  ii      "     ' 


of  efficacious  groctb    See  AauniAS. 

UO'LINISM,  the  name  given  to  the  Bystem 
of  grace  and  election  taught  by  Louis  Molina 
(q.  v.).  This  system  has  been  commonly  taught 
in  the  Jesuit  schools  j  but  a  modificalJon  of  it  was 
introduced  by  the  celebrated  Spanish  divine  Snorez 
(q.  v.),  in  order  to  save  the  doctrine  of  special  eleelion. 
Suarez  held,  that  although  God  gives  to  all  grace 
absolutely  sufBcient  for  their  salvation,  yet  he  gives 
to  the  elect  a  grace  which  is  not  atone  in  itself  suffi- 
cient, but  which  is  so  attempered  to  their  dispoei- 
tion,  their  opportunities,  and  other  circumstances, 
that  they  inf^bly,  although  yet  quite  freely,  yield 
to  its  influence.  This  modmcatioii  of  Molina'a 
system  is  called  CoNORtniuf.  Molinism  must  not 
be  confoimded  either  with  Pelagianism  or  semi- 
Pelagianism,  inasmuch  as  Molinism  distinctly  sup- 
poses the  inability  of  man  to  do  any  anpernatural 
act  without  Oeacb  (q.  v.). 

MOIjINOS,  Micbael  DC,  waa  bom  of  noble 
parentage  at  Patacina,  in  the  kingdom  of  Aragon, 
December  21,  1627.  He  received  holy  orders  and 
was  educated  at  Pompeluno,  and  afterwards  at 
Coimbro,  at  which  university  be  obtuned  bis 
theological  degree.  After  a  career  of  considenble 
distinctioD  in  his  native  country,  M.  went  to 
Boine,  where  he  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation 
OS  a  director  of  conscience  and  a  master  ot  the 
spiritual  life.  His  private  character  was  in  keeping 
with  this  public  repntatioD.  He  steadily  dcclmed 
all  ecclesiaatical  preferment,  and  oonHaeu  himself 
entirely  to  his  duties  in  the  confessional,  and  in 
the  direction  of  souls.  An  ascetical  treatise  which 
he  published,  under  the  title  of  TAe  Anrituol 
Ouide,  added  largely  to  the  popularity  which  he 
had  acquired  in  nls  personal  relations ;  bat  then 
wore  not  wanting  many  who,  in  the  speciouB,  but 
visioDonr  prindplea  of  this  work,  diacoveied  the 
seeds  of  a  dangerous  and  seductive  error.  Among 
theae,  the  celebrated  preacher,  F.  Hegneri,  was 
tlie  first  who  ventured  publicly  to  call  Uiem  into 
qnestdon ;  but  hu  strictures  were  by  the  friends 
of  U.  ascribed  to  jealousy  d  the  influence  which 
M.  had  acquired  with  IJie  people.  By  degree^ 
however,  reports  unfavourable  to  the  practical 
lesuUa  of  thn  teaching  and  em  to  tiie  personal 


HOLLAH— HOLLUSCA. 


eondncrt  and  obanoter  of  H.,  or  of  hi*  followen, 
began  to  find  ciranlBtion ;  and  aVBatuilly,  in  the 
few  1686,  ha  wu  cited  befol«  the  Holy  Office,  and 
•abmitted  to  oIdm  impnioumeut  and  exaaination. 
In  addition  to  the  opmiom  contained  in  hii  book, 
a  prodigiona  maat  of  papen  and  letters,  ' 
nomber,  it  ii  said,  of  20,000,  found  b  hia  ...  .. 
vere  prodaced  af^aioit  bun,  and  he  wat  himielf 
rignrouily  examined  aa  to  hia  opituona.  The  temlt 
of  the  trial  naa  a  aolemn  oondemDatiaa  ot  tixt}'- 
eight  propovitions,  partly  extracted  from  biM.Spiri- 
luoj  Qvide,  jNutly,  it  woold  appear,  drawn  from  his 

Ktfen  or  hu  peraonal  prcfeanona.    Tbew  dootrinea 
waa  required  pnblioly  to  abjnMy  and  he 


was  detained  nntU  hia  death  in  1696,  when  he  had 
entered  on  hii  70th  year.  The  opinima  impnted  to 
M.  may  bedeeoribeda*  an  ezaffgoatioii  ot  the  wont 
and  moet  objectionable  prindfSra  of  QuicnflM  (q.T.). 
According  to  the  propontiona  which  were  condemned 
by  the  Inqoiaiiioa,  M.  poaked  to  loob  an  estmne 
the  eontemplative  repooa  which  It  the  common 
oharactaiatic  of  Qniettini,  ••  to  teach  the  ntter 
indifference  <A  the  aonl,  in  a  atate  of  perfect  oon- 
templation,  to  all  external  thinga,  and  ila  oitire 
independenoe  of  the  onter  world,  even  of  the 
action!  ol  the  Tery  body  which  it  aoiniatea ;  inao- 
mach  that  thi*  internal  perfection  ia  compatible 
with  the  wont  external   eioeaseA     Theae  oonae- 

2uenceB  are  by  no  meani  openly  avowed  in  the 
'pintaal  Guide,  but  they  appear  to  foUow  almoot 
neoeaaarily  from  aome  of  ita  nuudma,  and  they  are 
iaid  to  have  been  plainly  contained  in  the  papen 
ot  U.,  which  were  produced  at  hi*  trial,  and  to  nave 
been  adnutted  by  tiiineelf.    After  the  death  of  M., 


•npBiior  judge.  The  Mollaha  are  divided  into  two 
clMaeai  the  first  of  theae— four  in  nnmber,  from 
whom  the  UoUaha  at  the  oonrt  of  the  Padithah 
are  alectad,  poaseuea  joriedictioii  over  the  man 
iupcrtaot  paehalika  (Adrianople,  Bnua,  Damaacna, 
Cairo);  ana  the  aecond,  who  only  hold  their  office 
for  wa  apace  of  a  lunar  month  at  a  time,  and  the 
lowert  ruik  of  whom  ie  formed  l:^  the  naiba,  over 
the  inferior  provinces,  towna,  and  villagea.  The 
Mollah  ia  an  expounder  of  civil  and  criminal  law, 
and  of  the  religion  of  the  etate;  he  ia  therefore 
necessarily  both  a  lawyer  and  an  eccleBiaetic  Under 
him  ii  the  Cadi  or  judge,  who  administen  the  law, 
and  luperior  to  him  are  the  Kodhiaeker  and  the 
Mufti  (n.  v.).  They  all  are,  however,  sabjact  to  the 
BheUch  Al  lalam  or  supreme  MuftL  In  Persia,  the 
office  of  moUah  ia  similar  to  what  it  ia  in  Turkey; 
bnt  his  suptrior  ia  there  the  'Sadr,'  or  oMet  <rf  the 
Uolloha.  In  the  states  of  Torkestan,  the  Mollaha 
have  the  whole  government  in  their  hands. 

MOIiIjASSE,  an  extensive  Miocene  or  Middle 
Tertiary  deposit,  occupying  the  central  lake-region 
of  Switzerlajid  between  the  Alps  and  the  Jura,  It 
consists  chiefly  of  a  loose  aano,  but  at  the  foot  of 
the  Alpa  it  naually  takes  the  form  of  a  oonglomerate 
called  'Nagel-due,'  which  ia  aaid  to  attain  the 
astoni^iing  thichneee  of  from  6000  to  SOOO  feet  in 
the  RighL  near  Lucerne,  and  in  the  Speer,  near 
Weaea.  The  moUasae  containa  a  few  ahella  and 
aome  vegetable  remaioa,  amcmg  which  an  aevKal 
palma. 

HOLLU'SOA,  one  of  the  great  animal  sub-king, 
doms,  inclading  so  wide  a  range  of  distinct  forma, 
tiiat  it  ia  difficolt  to  frame  a  definition  that  shall  be 
applicable  to  all  of  them.  The  lowest  forma,  termed 
Fdyco*  (q.  V.)  or  Styoioa,  preaent  ao  atrong  a 


whilst,  on  the  other 


hand,  in  a 

Bub-kinfflii  .         >       . 

able  analogy  to  the  vertebrated  series,  a*  ia  shewn 
bytbe  preaeace  ot  a  radimentary  cartJlaginona  brun- 
case,  and  by  l^e  remarkably  highdevelopment  of  the 
nervous  system.  The  bilateral  symmetoy  of  external 
form  which  Is  almost  mtiveraal  in  articulated  and 
.vertebrated  aoimals,  la  here  frequently  modified; 
and  taking  them  aa  a  whole,  the  M.  are  charac- 
terised by  tha  abaenoe  rather  than  by  the  pres«nce 


Sdmnite  fonn.  Tha  bodiea  of  these  "''"■I* 
w»7i  cf  *  aott  conaiatenoe — a  propertr  to 
which  they  owe  their  name,  irtiioh  waa  deviaad  for 
them  by  Covio',  before  whose  tdme  they  wen 
included  in  the  Vtrnte*  of  linnsua's  arrangemai^ 
The  iHeU,  when  it  existt,  ia  not  to  be  regwled  aa 
an  exo-skalston  giving  attaohment  to  muscles,  aod 
regnlating  the  f<nm  M  the  animal,  bnt  merely  aa 
an  appendage  designed  for  the  proteation  of  the 
body  &om  which  it  derivee  ite  ahape;  indeed,  it  it 
only  lAere  the  body  ia  uncovered  bv  a  ahell,  or 
where  the  locomotive  organs  can  m  projected 
beyond  it,  that  any  active  movements  can  be 
ejected.  The  iriiole  fabric  is  endoaed  in  a  thick, 
•oft,  flmdble  akin,  called  the  matttU,  and  it  ia  on 
the  smfaoe  of  thia  envelope  that  the  dtell  is  fonned 
by  the  developnient  and  anbaeqaent  ealdfiestion  of 
epithelial  oella.  In  many  of  the  M,  the  ahell  is 
eompoeed  of  a  single  piece,  which  is  nsnally  a  spiral 
tube,  cloaed  at  one  end,  and  gradoally  increasing 
in  size  towards  the  open  extremi^,  from  which  the 
animal  is  able  to  protrude  itsell  Bhella  of  this 
deeoription  are  called  ttnitxUvta,  In  others,  the 
shell  IS  oompcaed  of  two  pieces  ot  valves,  attached 
to  each  other  at  one  point  by  a  binge,  which  is 
fomiahed  with  an  elastic  ligammit  that  serves  to 
open  the  valves,  when  it  is  not  'opposed  by  the 
action  of  the  adduebv  muscles,  whose  office  it  is  to 
keep  the  shell  closed.  Shell*  of  this  kind  are 
termed  Mtoioes.  These  differences  in  the  dutiacter 
of  the  shell  oorrespond  with  differanoea  in  the 
conformation  ot  the  animals  inhabiting  them.  The 
bivalve  M.  odubit  no  tnces  of  a  head,  and  hence 
are  teimed  Aa^alotu  M.:  while  flu  univalvo 
have  a  distinct  head,  provided  with  oi^gana  of  the 
special  aensea,  and  hnice,  by  way  of  distinction, 
some  writen  have  termed  them  Cmhali>phora  (or 
heod-beorinff).  Many  M.  are  altogether  nnprovidad 
with  a  sheU,  or  have  only  a  amaU  calcareous  plate 
embedded  within  the  mantleL  These  are  termed 
naied  moUusoa.  It  ia  worthy  of  notice  that  the 
young  molluao,  whUe  «tiU  in  the  ^m,  ia  afancst  always 
fnmiiQied  with  a  delicate  pellatnd  aheU,  even  when 
ultimately  to  be  naked,  in  which  case  the 
shell  is  cast  off  soon  after  the  animal 
makes  Ita  escape  from  the  tga.  For  the  mode  ci 
fomuticn,  ftc  of  the  shell,  teeSHXLL. 

Hie  movements  ot  many  .of  the  H.  are  axeonted 
by  means  of  a  muscular  sfaucture  developed  in 
the  middle  of  the  ventral  siufaoe  of  the  boay,  and 
termed  the  /bot.  In  aome  (tha  OastSMpoda),  the 
toot  forma  a  sort  ot  flattened  disc,  by  tha  alternate 
contraction  and  expansion  of  dtfferant  parta  of 
which  the  animal  can  alowlyorawl  forwards;  whilst 
in  othen  (tha  froe-moving  bivalves)  it  is  a  tongue- 
like  organ,  which  can  M  protmded  between  tb« 
valvea,  and  by  Hs  sudden  extension,  aftor  being 

!ireviouily  beat  upon  ttaelf,  can  enable  its  possiiiMOi 
^e  oommoD  cockle,  tor  example)  to  take  oonaider- 
able  leaps.  The  foot  is  also  the  nsfiai  by  meana  <4 
which  certain  speoiea  burrow  in  Uie  sand  or  mud, 
and  others  bore  into  the  solid  rock.  Many  M., 
however,  are  firmly  attached  to  a  single  spot,  ampt 
dnhng  their  larval  state  I  aod  aa  tbay  do  not  TC^um 


U0LLU8CA. 


a  foot,  w«  find  it  either  altogether  nndeTeloped  (i 

in  tha  oTstei),  or  aerTiiig  to  support  »  gluidular 
o^ui,  from  whioh  filamenta  of  alky  or  homj  matter 
(called  the  bytta4)  ore  aecreted,  which  Berre  to 
attach  tba  animal  (the  common  mowel,  lor  example) 
to  rocks,  atoDea,  Ac,  beneath  the  wat«r.  Man^  of 
the  luMiTiiioDi  of  the  M.  present  modes  of  loco- 
motion altogether  independent  of  a  foot,  la,  for 
example,  the  Bipkora,  which  are  described  in  the 
article  Tuviciati.;  those  bivalves  which  possess 
a  branchial  or  lespirator^  chamber,  into  which 
a  drawn,  and  uain  expelled  by  mnacnlar 
action,  a  recoil  being  ^na  proanoed  which  serves 
to  drive  the  ammal  Uuoogb  the  water;  tite  PterO' 
V°^  (l-  *']>  which  are  fnmished  with  a  pair  of 
broad  flattened  tins  {which  are  possibly  procesus 
of  a  moditied  foot)  at  the  sides  of  the  head,  by 
Ls  of  which  the^  swim  with  tolerable  rapidity; 


The  nernous  tj/drm __.   __    __ 

accordance  with  two  distinct  types.    In  the  lowest 
f^np  of  this  sab-hio^om  (the  MoUnsooids),  there 
■■  only  a  single  ganghon  with  afferent  and  efferent 
6brea  radiating  in  every 
direction;   while  in  the 
higha  gronpe  there  are 
several      guigUa      lying 
somewhat  irr^olu'ly  in 
'    different    parta    of    the 
°   body,  and  commnnicatini; 
by  nervona  threads  with 
'   a  larger  mass  plaoed  in 
the     Dead,    or     in    the 
Deighbonrhood     of     the 
cesophagns.      This    mass 
ooDStsta  of  se  veral^ganglia, 
which  from   their    posi- 
tion aro  termed  tajrma- 
lopfiageal,  and  ia  united 
by  filamenta  with  other 
ganglia  lying  below  the 
ccsophagns,  so  h  to  form 
a  nng  or  collar  aromul 
that  oi;gan.    The 


always  present  Thay  nsnally  coniiBt  of  romid 
veaioles  m  the  nelghhonrhood  of  the  ceaophageal 
ring,  from  which  thent  receive  a  Dsrvoos  filament. 
They  contain  a  olear  fluid  and  a  smaU  ooncretion  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  whioh  is  sometimes  ronndiah,  and 
sometimes  of  a  crystalline  form,  and  is  in  a  perpe- 
tual state  of  vibration,  in  consequence  oE  ciliary 
action  in  the  interior  of  the  vesiole.  Whether  there 
are  any  special  or^ns  t^  smeU  and  latle  in  the  i£^ 
ia  ttiil  undecided. 

The  organs  of  mgetaliva  life  (of  dirastdon,  circula- 
tion, &c)  are  mooh  more  fully  devebped  in  the  M. 
than  those  of  anttnoJ  life.  The  alimentary  canal, 
which  presents  almost  every  variety  of  form  from  a 
umple  cavity  to  •  complicated  iuteetine,  ia  always 


that  oi;gan.    The  snpra- 
'  (esophageal   ganglia  fnr- 


1  the  I 


)  the 


special    organs 
sense*.     Moat  of  the  M. 
possess  special  orj^ans  of 
touch  in  the  form  of  lips 
or  ot  special  lobes  aronnd 
Hg.   1. — Nervous  Sfstem  the  month;  of  tentacles 
of  the  Aplviia,  a  Qu.  or  arms  npon  the  lead, 
teropodoiu  HoIIdbo  i         qc  of  cirrhi  npon   other 
B,Hntinlgui|Ua;v.thiiraoiii  puts  ot  the  body;    and 
"  M^i^'^SlS'iSSS^d'  "     addition     to     these 
towthaoKptaagui  J.taHiJ  Special   organs,   the  akin 
(ugUai  (.riagtralBugllaii.  appears  to   possess  con- 
siderable sensibility. 
When  tentacles  are  preeent,  they  are   either  two 
or  four  in  nnmber;   and  they  can  be  protruded 
and   retracted    at   pleasure,   as    every   one    most 
have  noticed  in  the  case  of  these  organs  (popu- 
larly known  aa  Aottis)  in  the  enall.      Organi  of 
tight  are  not  universally  preaent.     In  many  M., 
thet«  is  only  a  single  miUmeutary  eye,  while  in 
others  there  is  a  large  nnmber  of  imperfect  ayes 
(termed  oceUi),  which  do  not  of  necesaity  lie  in  " 
region  ot  the  head.    In  the  higher  M.,  there 
two  eyes,  sometdmea  placed  diKctlv  on  the  head, 
led  sometimes  on  the  tentacles ;  and  in  the  highest 
[roup   (the  Cepholopods),  the    eyes   are   as  fully 
leveloped  as  in  fishes. 
Organi  q/"  AtariHjj,  in  a  simple  form,  M«  almost 


Tig.  2. — Anatomy  of  the  Snail : 


,  luppl^liig  Oa 


provided  with  two  distinct  openings,  a  mouth  and 

an  anus,  the  latter  being  often  situated  (as  in  the 

Gasteropoda  and  Pterop^a)  on  the  right  aide  of  the 

anterior  part  of  tie  body.     The  hver  is  alwDva 

preeent,  existing  in  a  mere  radimentvy  form  in  the 

Polyzoa.  oonstituting  a  large  part  of  tlie  body  in  the 

:ephalons  bivalve  M.  {as  the  mussel  and  cookie), 

id  a  still  larger  part  m  the  Oaateropoda  (aa  the 

sn^),  while  in  the  Cephalopoda  it  ia  constmcted 

npon  nearly  the  same  plan  aa  in  fishes.      Other 

secreting  organs,  such  as  salivary  glands,  pancreaa, 

'  orinory  organs,  are  also  present  in  the  more 

ly  developed  mollusca. 

le  circulation  of  the  blood  is  effected  (except  in 
the  Polyzoa)  by  means  of  a  distinct  heart,  vrhich 
usually  communicates  with  a  regular,  closed  vascular 
system ;  but  in  some  oases  the  venous  system  is 
imperfect,  and  the  blood  which  has  been  trans- 
mitted by  the  arteries  to  the  system  in  general  is 
not  con&ied  within  distinct  vessels,  but  meanders 


j^  than  it  reaches  the  respiratory  appa- 
ratus, whence  it  is  transmitted  by  dosed  veescla 
(veins)  to  the  heart  The  blood  Is  nearly  oolourlem 
(sometimes  of  light  blue  or  green  tint),  Mid  contains 
but  few  floating  corpuscles.  In  all  but  the  very 
lowest  M.,  there  is  a  distdnet  respiratory  apparatus, 
which,  excepting  in  the  case  of  the  terrestrial 
Gasteropoda  (as,  for  example,  the  snail),  is  con- 
stmotea  vrith  a  view  to  aquatic  reamration,  and  is 
composed  of  AroncAIo^  or  gills.  These  branohin 
nsnidly  oonsist  of  a  series  of  memhronoua  plates 
(arranged  like  the  leavea  of  a  book  or  the  teeth  of 
a  comb),  over  which  the  water  flowa.  They  are 
sometimes  attached  to  the  snriace  of  the  body,  but 
are  most  commonly  enclosed  within  the  mantle,  or 
placed  in  a  cavi^  in  its  interior  called  the  branchial 
or  respintor;f  chamber.    In  many  of  tlis  bivalrea^ 

. ^ ■■■■  "e^" 


ths  «pemiisi  for  the  lagraBa  and  sgnn  of  water  are 
prolonged  mto  tubei  or  lyphonB,  which  are  some- 
times  of  coiudderable  lenrth;  the  tube  through 
which  the  water  eaten  beins  termed  the  trrai 
■fphon,  while  that  through  whioh  it  CBcapei  i* 
termed  the  anal  ^phon  (lee  fig.  9.    In  all  the 


Fig.  3.— Anatomy  of  an  Aosphalmu  Mollnso  {Afurtra] 
m,  mouUiL  t,  itomaoh^  ii.  Inlstiae  i  aff,  matflrior  iuikIIdiii 
fV.  poaurioT  fuglloiui  nu,  muaolu;  a,  $mai  A,hfiftrt 

ttintunila  i  r,  oral«  or  retpinXerj  lyphoa ;  t,  aiul  lyphDai 

aqnatio  M.  except  the  Cephalopoda,  the  renewal  of 

the  water  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  gilla  is 
mainly  due  to  ciliuy  action.  In  the  olr-breiLtlung 
goiteropodoiu  M.  (of  which  the  ehuIb  and  slugs  are 
well-known  elamplea),  there  ia  a  pulmonary  eao  or 
bag,  into  which  the  air  penetrates  by  an  opening  on 
the  right  aide  of  the  body  near  the  neck. 

There  are  connderabU  differencea  in  the  modes  of 
propagalion  of  the  mollnsoa.  In  the  MoUuacoidt — 
the  Folfzoa  and  Tunicata — there  ia  both  propaga- 
tion by  gemmation  (like  that  of  Zoophytea,  q.  v.)  and 
■eznal  reproduction,  the  lexea  bein^  distinct  in  l^e 
Polyzoa,  and  united  in  the  same  mdividual  (con- 
aUtutiug  Hermaphroditism,  q.  v.)  in  the  Tunicata. 
In  the  Lamellibranchiata,  or  biTiilre  M.,  and  in  the 
Cephalopoda,  the  seiei  are  separate ;  while  in  the 
Gasteropoda  the  texea  are  moat  commonly  separate, 
altboagh  a  considerable  number  are  hermaphroditeB, 
whioh,  however,  require  mutnal  impregnation  to 
fertiliao  the  ova.  Tiie  eggs  vary  greatly  in  form ; 
in  some  caaea,  they  are  Uid  separately,  but  moat 
commonly  they  are  agglutinated  together  in  a  masa; 
while  in  lome  marine  species  many  eggs  are  enclosed 
in  »  leathery  capsule,  while  numoroua  capsules  are 
united  to  form  b  lorae  mass.  A  comparatively  few 
M.  produce  living  oflspring,  the  ova  Ereing  retained 
in  the  oviduct  until  the  extrusion  of  uie  young 
animals. 

The  M.  are  widely  diffused  through  time  and  apace. 
They  were  amongst  the  earliest  animal  inhabitanta 
of  our  globe,  and  are  everywhere  found  in  fresh  and 
snlt  water  (except  at  great  depths),  and  in  eveiy 
latitude  of  the  earth.  The  great  majority  are 
marine  animals,  and  it  ia  in  the  tropical  regiona  that 
the  largest  and  most  beautiful  furms  are  devel- 
oped. It  is  impossible  to  form  even  an  approiimatc 
estimate  of  the  number  of  mollusca.  According  to 
L.-unis  (Sjpioptie  da-  drd  Jfaturreiche;  enter  7%eU, 


ISGO,  p.  77),  there  are  16,732  living,  and  4590  foasU 

species,  exclusive  of  Folyzoa ;  and  it  ia  probablo 
that  only  a  noall  proportion  of  the  naked  or  ahell- 
lesa  M.  IB  yet  known. 

The  uses  of  many  species  of  U.  for  food  are  too 
well  known  to  require  notice ;  and  aa  bait  for 
fishing,  mossals  and  some  other  M,  are  of  great 

The  animal"  of  this  sub-kingdom  are  divisible  into 
the  MoUuioaidt  and  the  true  2£olhuca,  the  former 
being  distinguished  from  the  Utter  by  the  vmy  low 
devuopmont  of  the  nervous  system,  which  is  com- 
posed of  only  a  single  ganglion,  giving  off  nerves  in 
different  directions ;  and  by  their  propagating  by  gem- 
mation. The  Molluacoids  are  mvisible  into :  Clasa 
1.  PoLVEOA  or  Beyozoa.  ExampleB—PlumaieUa, 
Flustra.  Claas  2.  Tdmici.t^  Eamplea—Atadia, 
Salpa.  The  true  Mollusca  are  divisible  into :  Class  3. 
Brachiofoda.  or  PituoBaiNOHiATA.  Eiample — 
Tetvbraiula.  Class  4.  Lauellibbakchuta.  it^um- 
ples — Oyaler,  Mvaitl,  CodcU.  Class  6.  Oabikbofoda. 
Example* — Snail,  Cowry,  Limpet,  Dorit.  Class  6. 
PrcROPODA.  Examples — Clio,  Jlyalta.  Claas  7. 
CiPHALOPODA.  Kiamples — CutiU-Jieh,  Navi^v. 
Recent  classifications  transfer  both  Fdyzoa  and 
Brachiopoda  to  Verma,  and  constitute  Tunicata  a 
separate  sub-kingdom.  (See  Zooloot  ;  and  see  the 
separate  articles  on  the  various  classee.) 

The  litecatute  of  this  subject  is  very  extensive 
and  includes  Cuvier,  tfimoirtl  pour  lervir  d 
rHUIoire  el  d  eAnaUmU  det  Moilaaqiia  (Pari^ 
1817,  4to);  Lamarck,  Hiel.  A'ai.  da  AniToaux  not 
YerUbru,  Sd  edit.,  by  Deshayes  and  Milne-Ed ivards 
(11  vols.  8vo);  Woodward,  Jfammio/ tie  if oJ/u«ca; 
and  the  third  volume  (by  Keferstein)  of  Sraan's 

Ct  work,  Clattea  umi  Orrfnunjen  da  TMarddtt; 
ley,  Morpkotom/  of  Cepohut  it. ;  works  by 
Owen,  lacaze-Duthiers,  Kowalewsky,  Kolliker ; 
Hooley,  Moliuswtis  A  nimob  ai^  tiieir  Shdlt  (4  vols. 
8vo) ;  Gosse,  A  Manital  qf  Marine  Zooiom  for  Uie 
Briiiih  Islet;  and  Aider  and  Hancock,  IfudU/ran- 
eliiale  Moibuca  (published  by  the  Ray  Society). 

Foatil  MoUvMo.  — The  bard  shells  of  most  U. 
fit  them  for  long  preservation,  and  make  them  the 
most  frequent  organic  remains  in  the  fossiliferons 
rocks  from  the  Silurian  upwards.  The  tunicata  and 
the  Dudibranchiato  gasteropoda,  having  no  bard  parts 
that  could  be  preserved,  are  without  fossil  repre- 
aentativea  ;  the  glassy  and  translucent  fragile  sbell 
of  the  pteropoda  is  only  known  fossil  from  a  few 
species  u  the  Tertiary  strata ;  unless,  indeed,  the 
comparatively  large  forms  {Conaalaria  and  Theea) 
from  Uie  older  rocks  have  been  rightly  referred  to 
this  order.  The  remaining  fonr  orders — the  Cephal- 
opoda, Gasteropoda,  Brachiopoda,  and  Lamdhbnm- 
chiata— have  existed  together  from  the  earliest  period. 
The  tetrabranchiate  Cephalopoda  were  developed 
in  great  profusion  and  variety  in  the  Paheozoic 
and  Secondary  periods ;  and  as  they  decreased,  the 
dibrantjiiate  group  took  their  place,  and  continued 
to  increase  in  numbers  until  it  reached  its  greatest 
development  in  the  seas  of  onr  own  day.  Of  the 
chambered  shells  like  the  pearly  naatilus,  it  is 
estimated  that  over  1400  species  are  known,  of 
which  only  five  or  six  exist  in  the  ooean  now ;  ths 
cuttle-fishes  and  squids,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
represented  in  the  Secondary  and  Tertiat;  rocks  by 
about  100  species,  while  at  least  twice  aa  many 
arc  known  aa  living  species. 

The  living  Gasteropoda  exceed  the  fossil  in  the 
proportion  of  4  to  3.  This  disproportion  will 
appear  greater  when  we  remember  that  the  fauna  of 
the  present  seas  is  set  ag^nat  the  faunas  of  some 
thirty  different  periods,  yet  it  must  not  be  fonotten 
that  we  can  never  be  acquainted  with  mote  than  a 
fractioa  of  tiie   entire  animal  life   of  any  bypast 


MOLLWrra-MOLOGA. 


•ge.  Almoet  contempotaaeoiu  with  the  first  liviiig 
orgoniBiiiB,  this  group  has  gone  on  incTeaaing  to  tha 
preieat  time,  when  the  numbers  are  to  gieat  that 
more  than  8000  living  ipecies  have  been  recorded. 
A  genui  of  air-breathing  Dnivolret  hM  been  de- 
scribed by  Lyell,  from  tiie  coal-messurei  of  Nova 
Scotia.  A  liogle  species^a  modem-lookiog  Pht/ia 
— boa  been  obtained  from  the  Furbeclc  lioiestoae, 
the  newest  of  the  Secondly  roclu.  They  ore  more 
freqnent  in  Tertiary  beds. 

The  Bnchiopoda,  or  Lomp-shellB,  like  the  aaatilus 
groiip,  have  their  history  chiefly  written  in  the  rocky 
tnbleta  of  the  oorUi.  Of  1300  known  species,  rally 
75  ore  living,  and  these  ore  comparatively  rare,  or 
ore  at  leoat  foDnd  in  inaccessible  localities,  whereas,  in 
soma  periods  of  the  earth's  hiatory,  as  when  the  chalk 
and  mountain  limeatone  beds  were  being  formed,  and 
eapeciaUy  during  the  Devonian  period,  tha  indivi- 
duals abounded  to  an  enormoua  extent.  The  genus 
Linguia,  seven  speciee  of  which  live  in  the  modem 
seas,  can  be  traced  through  the  intervening  strata, 
down  to  the  firat  fossiiiferous  bed.  to  which,  iodeed,  it 
gives  the  name  of  '  Lingula  Bed  ;'  but  this  species, 
Uough  externally  not  to  ba  distiaguished  from  the 
oxistmg  shell,  has  a  Pedicle  groove  in  the  venW 
valve — a  character  svifficient,  perhaps,  for  the  estab- 
lishment oE  a  different  genus.  Indeed,  none  of  the 
genera  of  tha  Paheozoio  rocks  still  exist  j  tbe  want 
of  eiaot  infoimatioD  is  the  only  excuse  for  the 
continued  application  of  the  names  of  recent  genera 
to  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  tbe  globe. 

The  CoDchifera  have  been  gradually  increasing  in 
Dumbem  and  importance  from  the  earliest  period, 
and  they  attain  their  maiimom  development  in 
the  existing  seas.  Tbe  more  simple  forms,  with  aa 
open  mantie,  are  common  in  tbe  Faleozoio  strata ; 
the  siphooated  families,  nnknown  in  the  older  rocks, 
appear  in  coDsiderable  number  in  the  Secondaiy 
strata,  and  continue  to  increase  upwards.  The 
recent  ipecies  number  about  3O0O,  while  the  fossil 
are  nearly  twice  as  many. 


„  Pop.  619.  To  the  east  of  it  lies  the  cele- 
brated battle-field  where  Frederick  IL  of  Prussia 
Saioed  his  first  victory  over  the  Aostrians  nnder 
(arshal  Keipperg,  April  10,  1741.  According  to 
tiie  usual  accouDt,  Frederick,  on  seeing  his  right 
wing  and  centra  thrown  into  confnsion  and  routed, 
put  spurs  to  hi*  charger,  and  fied  from  the  fidd ; 
but  tha  advance  of  three  battalions  of  Pnuodan 
infantry  stopped  the  Austrians,  while  by  this  time 
Marshal  Schwerin,  who  commanded  on  the  Pmssjaa 
left,  routed  the  Austrian  right  wing,  and  compeUed 
the  whole  to  retreat.  The  Austnaus  suffer^  im- 
mense loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners.  The 
immediate  resnlt  of  this  victory  was  an  alliance 
between  pRuica  and  Prtuita,  to  dinolve  which 
Austria  was  compelled  to  mrreoder  th*  province  of 
Silesia  to  Frederick,  in  1742. 

MOLO,  a  city  of  tbe  Philippine  Island^  on  on 
island  of  tiie  soma  name,  four  miles  from  BoUo.  See 
pHlUFFlHza;    la  ancient  times,  it  was  a  Chinese 


Chinese  blood.    Pop.  16,000. 

H  O  L  O  C  H  (more  correctlv  Molkcb),  also 
MiucoH,  Malkoh  {liieir  king),  from  Heb.  MtUc/i, 
king,  tiie  chief  Ammonite  dei^  (tha  Chemoah  of  the 
Moabitea),  whose  worship  consisted  chieSy  of 
humoD  sacrifices,  parificaboos,  and  ordeals  by  fire, 
mutilatioti,  perpetual  virginity,  and  the  like  ;  prac- 
tices specialty  inveighed  against  in  the  Hoeuc 
reoords.  Even  the  stranger  who  should  devote  his 
oaring  to  this  idol  was  to  b«  pat  to  death  by 


atoning.  It  is  not  quite  certain  which  was  tha 
particular  manner  of  this  sacrifice.  Rabbinical  tradi- 
tion represents  Moloch  oa  a  human  figure  of  brass 
or  clay,  with  a  crowned  bull's  head,  upon  whose 
extended  arms  were  laid  the  doomed  duldrui. 
A  fitv  within  the  hollow  statue  soon  scorched 
them  to  death,  while  their  shrieks  of  agony  wers 
deadened  by  a  loud  noise  made  by  the  pnesta  upon 
various  instruments.  But  although  this  descrip- 
tion nearly  coincides  with  that  oE  the  statue  of 
tbe  Carthaginian  Kronos,  and  although  so  lata  a 
traveller  even  as  Benjamin  de  Tndda  speaks  ot 
having  seen  the  remains  of  on  ancient  Ammonite 
temple  at  Gebol,  with  the  fragments  of  an  idol 
somewhat  corresponding  to  the  above  teprescnta- 
tion,  yet  nothing  certain  is  known  obout  this  point 
at  present;  nay,  even  the  burning  of  the  children 
itself  has  been  questioned ;  and  it  is  contended,  yet 
without  much  show  of  reason,  that  the  victims  were 
merely  carried  through  two  pyres  of  fire  by  way  of 
solemn  puritlcation  or  baptism.  It  seems,  however, 
certain  that  the  worship  of  M.,  in  whatever  shape 
it  may  have  been,  was  common  throughout  the 
Couaanite  nations.  The  Carthaginians,  through 
whom  it  was  probaUy  spread  over  the  whole  East, 
worshipped  Kronos  in  rites  of  fire  and  bloodshed  ; 
and  human  beings,  children  or  grown-up  persons, 
prisoners  or  virgins,  were,  either  on  certain  periodi- 
cal festivals,  or  on  sudden  emergenciet,  oGTered  up 
throughout  almost  all  the  lands  and  islands  which 
the  merchant-people  of  antiquity  may  be  supposed  to 
have  touched  at.  The  description  of  the  Sroniso 
statue,  as  given  by  classical  writers,  differs  only  in 
that  small  respect  from  tha  one  given  above,  that 
the  child  fell,  according  to  the  former,  from  the 
hands  of  the  god  Into  a  burning  fire  below,  instead 
of  being  slowly  burned  to  deat£.  On  fire-worship 
in  general,  whioh  is  the  main  idea  of  'Moloch' — 
probably  worshipped  originally  as  the  symbol  of  the 
sun — we  have  spoken  under  GuEBBBS.  The  name  iiaelt 
gives  no  clue  to  its  special  nature,  nor  does  sny  com- 
parison with  cognate  roots  lead  any  further.  Molech, 
or  Melech,  is  Uie  supreme  king  or  deity  of  the 
people,  who  have  enthroned  him  as  their  tutelary 
god.  Naturally,  the  princes  otAmmon  are  die  princes 
of  Maidiam  =  their  (the  Ammonites')  king  or  god, 
and  his  priests  were  high  in  social  rank. 

Respecting  the  special  history  of  this  worship 
among  the  Croelites,  we  can  only  say  that,  although 
we  do  not  see  any  more  reason  to  presuppoBe  its 
wide  spread  at  early  times  (on  account  of  the  fre- 
qnent occurrence  of  the  word  '  king '  in  doubtful 
pOBsagea),  than  there  is  the  slightest  ground  for 
assummg  (aa  haa  been  done  by  Damner  and  others) 
that  the  whole  Mosaic  rehgion  originated  in  a 
Molocb^crvice  (a  notion  which  hardfy  required  k 
serious  refutation  for  its  instant  explosion) — yet 
there  ia  no  doubt  that  it  had  its  secret,  oHhough 
few  adhetents,  even  before  the  Canaanite  women  in 
Solomon'sharem  reintroduced  it  publicly.  TheVolley 
of  Hionom  and  the  Mount  of  Olives  were  the  chief 
places  of  these  abominable  rites ;  tha  f  onner  being 
ofterwuda  adopted  aa  the  name  for  Hell,  even  in 
Islam.  Not  until  the  time  of  Josiah  was  it  rooted 
out  from  among  the  people.  The  word  has  now 
become  a  designation  for  a  kind  of  irresistible  dread 
influence,  at  whose  shrine  everything  would  be 
sacrificed,  even  as  the  deluded  faOier  offered  his 
own  child  to  the  terrible  idoL 

MOLO'OA,  a  district  town  in  the  west  of  the 
government  of  Jaroatav,  in  European  Rusma,  is 
situated  near  iJie  confluence  of  the  Mologa  and 
Volga,  68  miles  west-north-west  of  Jaroslav.  It  is 
•  town  of  great  antiquity,  and  first  belonged  to  the 
-irindpolity  of  Rostof,  alterwarda  to  Yaroslaf,  but 
rom  IKI  till  1471,  it  had  iU  own  ^iuNB.  Then 
^ ^iiift^^^ 


MOLTKB-MOL0CCAa 


wu  fimnerir  *a  exteniire  fair  at  Mologtb  The 
tunber-trade^  and  the  ouTiage  of  giwda  W  river 
boita  and  rafts,  now  oooupy  tha  majority  of  tlia  in. 
liabibMitB.  Pop.  (1880)  4440.— The  river  Mologa  ii 
one  of  the  linlu  between  the  Volga  and  the  Neva. 
MOLTKB,  Hkllkuth  von.  See  Supp,,  VoL  X. 
MOLTT'OCAS,  or  Eoval  Ialashs,  properiy 
called  are  Temate,  Tidore,  Mokian,  Motir,  a 
Batjan,  lying  to  the  weat  of  Gilolo,  and  waahod  by 
the  Moluccaa  Stmt  or  Fanase,  which  seporatcfl 
Oilolo  from  Celebes. — Temate,  the  mort  important, 
ii  a  volcanic  mountain  with  pUinn  at  ita  baee.  The 
top  i»  in  Cr  48"  30'  N,  lat,  and  127°  26'  30"  E.  long. 
Area,  331^.  m.  Pop.  S594,  of  whom  100  are  Buro- 
peani.  The  town  it  on  the  eait  side  and  coDtains 
tha  iiiltan'i  palace,  the  Dutch  reflideacv,  Proteatant 
chnrch,  government  school,  &o.  The  iaUnd  is  fertile 
and  weU  watered ;  the  native!  peaceful.  They 
cultivate,  rice,  cotton,  tobuoo,  &c,  trade  with  the 
adjacent  iiUnds,  and  build  vessels,  from  the  light 
skiff  and  the  tent-boat  to  the  war-galley  of  GO  or  80 
rowers,  carrying  two  ormore  pieces  of  light  artillay. 
— TiiJore  is  south  of  Temate,  ita  north  point  being 
I*  11'  N.  Ut  and  128°  7'  R  long.  Area,  33  aq.  m. 
Pop.  8C0O.  The  island  is  a  volcano,  B532  feet  high, 
aad  fertile  for  3000  feet  The  native*  are  Ibm 
gentle,  but  more  induatriona  than  thoae  of  Tcrnate, 
and  diligently  cultivate  the  soil,  weave,  and  &ih. 
They  are  MoDammedans,  and  have  manv  mosques. 
The  enltans  of  Temate  and  Tidore  are  subsidised  b^ 
and  sobjeot  to  the  Netherlands,  eiercisiag  their 
authority  under  the  mrveillaDce  of  tha  Basident. — 
Makianlieain  0*  IffSff'N.  lai.  and  12r24'  E.  long, 
1«  very  fertile,  yielda  mnoh  sago,  rice,  tobacco, 
caoaiy-oil,  ix.,  and  haa  important  fishings.  Pop. 
6000.  The  natives  are  industrious,  make  good  net^ 
apin  yams,  and  weave  Coarga  rtriped  (abnca.— Fur- 
ther north,  in  0*  SS*  N.  lat.,  and  127°  29*  30*  B.  long., 
ll  Motir,  wbich  formerly  yielded  a  conaideraUa 
quantity  of  cloves,  and  later,  sent  mneh  earthenware 
to  all  the  Spice  lalauda. 


long.,  is  SO  miles  in  length,  and  IS  in  breadth,  haa 
many  moDntun  peaks  mmi  1500  to  4000  feet  in 
height,  tiie  aonroea  of  Dumerona  rivers.  The  greatest 
part  of  this  beaatitul  island  is  covered  with  ebony, 
satin-wood,  and  other  valuable  timber  trees,  wbich 

five  shelter  to  nnmereus  beaatiful-^omaged  birds, 
e«r,  wild  hogs,  and  reptilea.  Sago,  rice,  oocoa- 
nuta,  clovea,  tiah,  and  fowls  are  ^entiful,  and  a 
little  coffee  is  cultivated.  Coal  is  abundant,  gold 
and  copper  in  small  quantities.  The  inhabitants, 
ISOO,  who  are  laz^  and  sensual,  are  a  mixed  race  of 
Portngnese,  Spaniards,  Dutch,  and  nativea.  These 
islands  are  all  volcanic,  Temate  being  a  monn- 
tain,  sloping  upwards  to  6563  feet,  to  which 
Tidore  bean  a  sbikiDg  resembluiae,  Makiao  is  an 
active  volcano,  whidi,  so  late  m  December  1861, 
threw  forth  immense  quantities  of  lara  and  asbea, 
by  which  326  hves  were  lost,  and  IG  villages  in  part 
or  in  whole  deativved.  Motir  is  a  trachyte  moun- 
tain, 2296  feet  in  neight ;  and  Batian,  a  chain  with 
several  lofty  peaks.  Total  population  at  the  H. 
Proper,  2^01X1. 

To  the  south-west  of  Batjan  lie  the  Obi  group, 
consisting  of  Obi  Major,  Obi  Minor,  ^I^ha,  Oon- 
oma,  Pisang,  and  Maya,  of  which  Obi  Major,  in  1° 
36'  S,  lat,  and  from  127"  to  128*  E.  long.,  is  by  far 
the  largest,  having  an  area  of  G98  "Qoare  miles.  It 
is  hilly  and  fertile,  being  covered,  Uke  the  smaller 
islands  of  the  group,  with  sago  and  nutmeg  trees. 
They  are  uninhabited,  and  serve  aa  lurking-placea 
(or  pirates  and  escaped  convicts.  In  1671,  the 
Dutch  built  a  block-house,  called  the  Bril ;  and  a 
lew  years  later,  the  Sultan  of  Batjan  add  the  group 


to  than  tor  800  doUan ;  but  the  station  being  found 
unhealthy,  tii«  company  abandoned  it  in  1738. 

The  MToLUCOia,  or  Sfioi  IsiJfm,  in  the  broad  nae 
of  the  term,  lie  to  the  east  of  Celebes,  scattered  over 
nearly  eleven  degrees  of  lab  and  long.,  between 
3°  8.-8*  N.  lat,  and  126°— 136*  E.  long,  including 
all  the  territoriea  formerly  ruled  over  by  the  sultana 
of  Temate  and  Tidore.  They  are  divided  iato  the 
reaidenciee  of  Ambojoa  (q.v.),  Banda  (q.v.),  and 
Temate  ;  a  fourth  residency  being  Menado  (q,  v. ). 
Over  the  northern  groups  of  tha  Spice  lalands,  the 
Netherlands  exercise  an  indiroct  government,  the 
sultans  of  Temate  and  Tidore  nnmring  to  have  all 
their  appoiptmenta  of  native  officuja  rotifled  by  the 
Resident.  The  aoutbem  gronps  are  directly  under 
European  rule.  The  residency  of  Amboyna  contsina 
that  island,  sometimes  called  Ley-Timor,  or  Hitu, 
from  tha  two  peninsulas  of  which  it  is  formed,  Buro, 
the  UliasMrs  group,  and  the  west  part  of  Ceram. 
That  of  Banda  includes  the  Banda,  Keffing,  Key, 
Arm,  and  other  islands,  also  the  eastern  portion  of 
Ceram.  Under  the  reaidenoy  of  Temate  are  placed 
the  M.  Proner,  Qilolo,  the  neighboming  islands, 
and  the  north-weat  nf  Papna.  Popoktion  of  the  M. 
and  dependencies  about  6000  Eon^ieana  and  800,000 

Amboyna,  the  Bauda  and  UUasaer  Islands,,  chiefly 
supply  the  cloves,  natmega,  and  maoe  which  form 
the  staple  exports.  The  Banda  Islands  are  Neira 
or  Banda-Neira,  Great  Banda,  Ay  or  Way,  Bhun, 
Bozingain,  and  Ooenong-Api,  containing  an  ore* 
of  688  square  miles.  Fopuhition  7000,  of  whom 
600  are  Europeans;  that  of  the  whole  residency, 
150,000,  including  the  eastem  paii  of  Ceram.  The 
nrincipsLl  ialaud  of  the  groap  is  Neira,  south-east 
from  Amboyna,  in  4°  Sff  a  lat,  and  180°  E,  long, 
separated  by  narrow  straits  from  Goenong-Api  on 
the  west  and  Oreat  Banda  on  the  east  The  coast 
is  steep,  and  snnnoiuited  by  several  forta  and  tMtt- 
teriee,  which  oommand  the  straits  and  roadstead. 
The  town  of  Neira,  on  the  south  side  of  the  island, 
ia  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  residency  of  Banda, 
haa  a  Proteatant  churoh,  school,  and  hospital  The 
Banda  lalands  have  a  rich  soil,  and  are  plaotod 
witii  nutmeg-treea,  which  produce  in  one  year  np- 
ward*  of  a  million  lbs.  of  nut^  and  near  300,000  Iba. 
of  mace.  The  culture  has  nearly  doubled  dnce  ISSl. 
Pine-apples,  tha  vine,  banana,  cocoa-nut,  and  other 
fruit-trees  thrive,  and   are  abundant    Ay  Is  the 


hogs,  and  deer ;  sea-carp  and  mackerel,  which  last 
are  dried,  and  form  with  sago  the  food  of  the  slaves. 
The  east  monsoon  begins  m  May,  and  the  weat  in 
December,  and  are  accompanied  with  rain  and 
storms.     The  climate  is  not  particularly  healthy. 

The  Uliassen,  which,  with  Amboyna,  produce  the 
doves  of  oommerae,  an  Sapsrooa,  Oma  or  Harookoo, 
andNooaa-lAut.  TbeyUe  to  the  east  of  Amboyna,  in 
r  4ff  S.  lat,  and  12r  33'  E.  lo^tode,  and  have  an 
area  of  107}  square  miles.  Saparooa  la  the  largest 
and  is  formed  of  two  mountunonB  peninsulas,  jomed 


SSM 

villages. 

It  is  monntainons  in  the  south,  and  haa  several 
rivers  and  sulphurous  springs.  The  produce  of 
cloves  haa  amounted  in  one  year  to  40,000  lbs.;  and 
the  villagers  possess  60,000  oocoa  palms,  beside* 
other  fruit-treea.  The  woods  abound  witli  daerand 
wild  hogs,  the  riven  with  Sah.    Si^  iipowii,  but 


HOLYBDEHmi-HOMBHTUH. 


not  in  anfficient  qnaatitiei  to  meet  tlie  wants  of  the 
people,  who  draw  further  snpplieB  from  Cerara,  The 
beaubiful  Tillage  of  Haronka,  on  tbe  weat  coast,  is 
the  reiidence  of  the  Batch  Postholder,  who  ia  pre- 
aident  of  the  oooncil  of  chiefs.  Here  is  the  head 
office  of  the  cloTo-prodace^  There  are  two  forti  on 
Omo,  aeTeral  ohnrohes,  and  ax  Bchooli,  with  700 
tmpilB.  Pop.  7600,  one-half  ChriotiaQS,  the  other 
Mohammedana — Nousa-Laut  Uea  to  the  Eoath-east 
of  SAparona.  It  is  planted  with  cloTe-tress,  which 
in  one  year  produced  120,000  Ibt  There  are  op- 
wnrda  of  30,000  cocoa-nut  treea.  Ths  inhahitanta, 
trho  formerly  were  piratee  and  cannitxtia,  amount  to 
S47S  sonla,  are  all  Chriatiuia,  and  have  Khoola  in 
eyeiT  Tillage— in  1859,  they  were  attended  by  870 

The  cloTe'tree  and  the  nntmeg  are  indi^enooa  to 
all  the  Spice  Islanda,  but  the  doTe-cnltiTation  ia 
confined  to  Amboynn  and  the  Uliaasera,  the 
nutmeg  to  the  Banda  lalandc  Till  1824,  the 
Dutoh  prohibited  the  planting  of  tbeie  trees  in 
vther  miTti,  and  caused  those  of  native  growtii  to 
be  nxAed  out,  in  order  to  prevent  smngRlinc,  and 
to  retain  the  ■°pply  <^  theae  apioea  to  lue  Euro- 
pean market.  The  Spioe  lalanda  are  Benerally 
nealthy  both  for  European*  and  Asiatioa ;  and 
though  the  pluns  are  sometimee  rery  hot,  mountains 
are  always  near,  where  it  ia  pleaBantly  cool  in  the 
mornings  and  eTeninga,  Besides  the  apice-treea, 
the  bread-fruit,  sago,  cocoa-nnt,  banana,  orange, 
gnaTs,  p^w,  also  ebony,  iron-wood,  and  other 
Talnable  tunber-trees,  are  abundant.  The  natives  of 
Borne  of  the  islands  are  Alfoer* ;  of  others,  Malaya 
on  the  ooasta,  and  Alfoers  in  tha  interior.  In 
Certun  are  also  Papuan  negroea,  brought  originBlly 
from  Bali  and  Papua  aa  slaves. 

The  Resident  and  other  Dutoh  officials  rends  in 
the  city  of  Amboyna,  the  atreets  of  which  are  broad, 
planted  with  rows  of  beautiful  trees,  and  cut  each 
other  at  ri>;ht  ancles,     See  AMBOmi. 

The  native  inhabitants  of  the  Moluccas,  in  tha 
wider  sense,  belong  to  two  or  three  difieront  stocks, 
now  tnnch  intenuingled  with  each  other,  Malays, 
Papuans,  and  perhaps  also  Polynesiatis.  There  are 
numerous  deaoendaiits  of  the  early  Portuguese 
settlers,  known  aa  Orangtirani,  ie.,  Hazarenea,  and 
Bpeaking  a  bimruags  oompannded  of  Malay  and 
Portuguese.  Tney  ue  now  moatly  Protestants. 
SlsTery  has  introduced  numerous  foreign  elements 
into  Uie  population.  Everywhere  Chinese  are 
found  i  and  often  Arab  merobaata,  hanng  native 
wives.     A  great  volcanio  belt  paases  throogh  the 

seem  to  be  non-Toloamo  „  „  . 

aa  a  whole  is  extremely  rich,  but  has  not  yet  beoi 
thoroughly  investigatail  The  animal  life  belongs 
to  the  Australian  type,  and  closely  resembles  that 
of  New  Ouiue^  Some  Asiatic  nuLtmnal.  such  as 
deer,  are  fonnd,  especially  on  the  large  islands. 
Noue  of  the  islands  out  Batjan  has  any  monkeys ; 
and  tlie  mammals  are  altogether  few  in  number. 
Birds  are  numerons  and  varied.  Of  200  species  of 
land-birds,  140  are  peculiar  to  the  islands ;  parrots, 
pigeons,  and  kingtuaers  are  by  far  the  most  Dume- 
rous  kinds,  and  constitute  a  third  of  the  whole. 

In  1621,  Antonio  de  Brito  first  appeared  to  take 
poeneaaion  of  the  H.  in  the  name  of  the  king  of 
Portugal;  and  after  a  long  period  of  violence, 
iotriTua,  and  perfidy,  the  Portuguese  were  driven 
out  by  the  Dutch  and  nativee,  at  Oia  beginning  of 
the  17th  century.  The  change  was  of  no  advantsoe 
to  the  natives^  for  the  Dutch,  having  obtained  the 
exclusive  right  of  buying  all  the  cloves,  at  a  nominal 
value,  a  senes  of  wars  ensued,  which  resulted  in 
th^  inhjugation  of  Uie  Spice  lalanda  Beoently,  new 


mltans  of  Temate  and  Tidore  have  been  appointed, 
with  less  power  than  their  predecessora ;  and  the 
wars  with  ths  Alfoers  of  Cemm,  in  1859  and  1860, 
have  brought  them  more  folly  under  Dutch  rule. 

MOLTBDETTTJM  ^tu.  Mo  j  equiv.  4S^di;w 
system,  96  j  sp.  grav.  8-6SJ  is  a  rare  metal,  which,  in 
a  state  of  puntjf,  is  of  a  silvery  white  colour,  has  a 
atrongly  metaJlio  lustre,  ia  brittle,  and  very  difficult  of 
fusion.  It  never  occurs  native,  and  its  principal  ore 
is  the  bisulphide,  which  much  resemblea  graphite. 
It  is  also  oooasionally  found  oxidised,  in  molyodnte 
of  lead.  The  metal  may  be  obtained  by  roasting 
the  bisulphide  in  a  free  current  of  air,  when  the 
sulfur  goes  off  oxidised  as  sulphurous  acid,  and  tlie 
M.  is  also  oxidised  into  Motybdic  Acid  (MoOg),  and 
remains  in  the  vesseL  By  the  action  of  chanxul, 
the  r^ttced  metal  is  then  obtwned  from  the  acid. 

IS.  forms  three  oompouuds  with  oxygen — the 
protoxide  (MoO),  the  binoxide  (HoOJ,andmolybdia 
acid  (MoO,].  Of  these  three,  Uie  last  aloue  has  any 
practical  value.  Molybdic  acid  is  a  white,  clisten- 
mg,  crystalline  powder,  which  is  aLmost  insoluble  in 
water,  fuses  at  a  red  heat,  and  unites  with  bases  to 
form  well-marked  salts,  Uie  molybdates,  which  are 
either  colourless  or  yellow.  A  solution  of  molyb- 
date  of  ammonia  is  one  of  the  moat  delicate  t^ts 
for  phosjit 

chlorine,  &..., __   _ 

importance,  except  the  native  bisulpliidi 

MOMENT,  ot  any  pkyaioal  agency,  is  its  impor- 
nce  with  reference  to  some  special  appUcatioa. 
Thns.  ths  moment  of  a  faros  applied  (perpendi- 
oularly)  to  a  lever,  is  the  importaooe  of  the  finoe  as 
regards  taming  the  lever  aboat  ita  fulcmin.  It  is, 
•s  ws  know  (see  Lktxr),  propoitMiMl  to  the  pro- 
doot  of  the  force  by  the  distanoe  ot  ita  point  of 
application  from  the  fnloram.  The  moment  of  a 
foroa  ihoat   any  axis   (to  which  its  direction   is 


.  and  a  similar  definition 
leut  of  velocity  and  moment 
easy  to  set  (see  MoHxtrnm) 
that  in  any  i^iteai  ol  mntually  acting  bodies  ths 
moment  of  momentum  nbont  any  axis  lemoins  oon- 
•tant,  sinco  tho  equal  mutoal  loroea  measnre  the 
momentum  tmisfsn«d  from  one  bod^  to  another, 
and  the  moments  of  these  foroea  are  m  ^airs  equal 
and  opposite.  A  particular  case  of  this  is  Kejuei's 
law,  that  each  planet  describes  eqnal  areas  in  equal 
times  about  the  sun. 


,   Uimr  corresponding  distutces 
_   .1. .   _.  i-jj^  pf  jj 

a  qnuitify. 


MOMENTUM,  or  QTTAMTITT  OP  MOTION, 
is  defined  by  Newton  as  proportional  to  the  mass 
moving,  and  its  velocity,  conjointly.  If  we  assume 
unit  ofmomentum  to  be  that  of  nnit  of  mass  moving 
with  unit  ot  velocity,  we  shall  evidently  have,  for 
the  momentum  of  a  moss  M,  moving  with  velodty 
Y,  tbe  expression  HV.  And  such  is  the  nnit  gena- 
rally  adopted. 

It  is  shewn  by  experiment  that,  when  force  pro- 
daceo  motion  in  any  oody,  the  momentum  produced 
;_  ....  _..»j  |g  proportional  to  the  force — and,  '- 


MOUMSEN— HOHACmSU. 


if  mUdk  for  one  Hcond  on  MKh  of  %  nnmbw  of 
bodies,  produces  in  them  velocitiea  whiob  nr 
innarady  m  their  niBssei.  Also  when,  as  in  thi 
cue  of  falliDB  bodiai,  the  velocitiea  prodnced  in  oni 
MGond  are  we  same  in  all,  we  conclude  that  the 
forces  are  proportional  to  the  masses ;  and,  in  fact, 
thij  is  the  pbymoal  proof  that  the  weight  of  a 
body  is  pioporbon^  to  its  masi.  Again,  it  different 
foTDea  act,  each  for  a  second,  on  the  tamt  mass,  the 
Telooities  prodaced  are  proportjoool  to  the  forces. 
All  these  are  bat  difTerent  model  of  statement  of 
the  experimental  fact,  that  force  is  proportioaol  to 
the  momentam  it  produces  in  unit  of  time ;  which 
forms  a  part  of  Newton'i  second  Iaw  of  Motion. 

When  two  masses  act  on  each  other,  Newton's 
third  Law  of  Motion  (see  Motion,  Laws  op)  shews 
that  the  forces  they  mutually  exert  are  equal  and 
opposite.  The  momenta  produced  by  these  must 
therefore  be  equal  and  opposite.  Thns,  in  attraction 
or  impact  of  two  masses,  no  vwmeitnm  U  fori  /  since 
what  IB  lost  by  one  is  gained  by  the  other. 

The  momentam  of  a  systein  of  bodies  can  be 
resolved  (as  velocity  is  r^olved)  into  components 
in  any  assigned  directions,  and  the  mutual  forces  of 
Uie  system  may  be  tlias  likewise  resolved.  Apply- 
ing the  previous  result,  we  see  at  ooce  that  in  any 
system  of  lautaally  acting  bodies  (such,  for  instance, 
M  the  solar  system),  no  momentum  is,  od  tbe  whole, 
either  gained  or  lost  in  any  particular  direction, 
it  is  merely  transferred  from  one  part  of  the  system 
to  another. 

This  foc^  called  the  Conservation  of  Momentnni, 
haa  cansed  great  contusion  in  tbe  minds  of  paeudo- 
phyaicists,  who  oonstontly  confound  it  with  Conser- 
vation of  Work  or  Energy,  a  totally  different  thing. 

The  momentum  produced  by  a  force  in  any  period 
of  time  is  meosnred  by  tbe  product  of  the  force  and 
the  lime  during  which  it  hat  orferf— tbe  energy  or 
work  done  by  a  force  is  measured  by  the  product 
of  the  force  and  the  tpace  through  tchich  it  has  acUd. 
Momentum  ia  prop<^tional  to  the  simple  velocity 
of  a  body,  and  oon  nerer,  by  a«g  knmm  proeeti, 
be  Iran^ormed  into  onyMng  dt.  Energy,  when 
depending  on  velocity  (see  Fdbcb,  Cohsebvation 
o*],  is  proportional  to  the  tquart^  the  velocity,  and 
is  in  die  natural  world  eomtanllll  bting  lral^tfo^med 
/tojh  itt  aetu-cd  or  tineUe  form  la  iia  potential  form, 
and  btui  Ofiain,  or  to  tome  other  kinetic  form  meh 
at  halt,  andfinaJly  mutt  become  heal.    Momentum, 


!T  altered,  either  in  kind  c 


in  knoijang  doum  a  wall,  or  in  staving  in  the 
whole  side  of  a  ahip,  the  battering-ram  of  the 
ancients  (when  constrncted  of  sufficient  mass,  and 
worked  by  Uie  proper  number  of  men  or  aniinols) 
was  probably  neuly  as  effective  as  the  best  modem 
•rtilkry.  Bnt  in  m^ing  a  brtaA  in  a  wall,  or  in 
punching  a  hole  in  the  ormoor  of  on  iron-clad,  mere 
massive  shot  with  low  velocities  (such  as  those  of 
tbe  Dohlgren  guns)  are  comparatively  ineffective, 
howeva  great  their  momentnm  ;  while  an  Arm- 
■troag  or  wlkitworth  projectile,  with  a,  fraction  of 
the  momentum,  but  with  greater  velocity,  and,  for 
ita  sizc^  much  gretiter  kinetio  energy,  effects  the 
object  with  esse. 

In  many  evef7-day  phenomena,  we  see  most  dis- 
tinctly the  difference  between  these  two  affections 
of  matter.  Thus,  a  blow  delivered  from  the  shoulder 
by  a  fcotv  pogiUst,  even  if  it  be  eluggishlv  given, 
generally  floors  its  man,  without  doing  much  other 


injury  ;'but  a  sharp  stroke  administered  by  a  light 
"light,   while   hardly  diaturbinj    "         '  ' 


;  the    odversory'i 


'?  * 
equilibrium,  inflicts  serious  puniahmi 

MOMMSEN,  Thbodob,  a  distinguished  writer 
on  the  history  and  polity  of  ancient  Home,  was  born 
in  iSli  at  Garding,  in  iWvig,  where  his  father 


a  pastor  in  the  Lotheran  Chnrch.    M.  studied  fint 

at  Altona,  and  subsequently  at  the  imivereity  of 
Kiel,  where  be  graduated  in  arts  in  1S43.  Having 
obtained  some  asaiatanoe  from  the  Academy  u 
Berlin  to  defray  the  expenats  of  a  prolonged  couree 
of  travels,  M.  spent  tiiree  years  m  investigating 
Roman  inscriptions  in  France  and  Italy,  and  from 
time  to  time  published  the  result  of  tua  investiga- 
tions in  the  AqdoIb  of  the  Arclueologica]  Institute  of 
Rome  and  the  Horculanean  Academy  of  Naplea. 
The  political  disturbances  of  1S4S  diverted  M.  from 
his  uivourite  pursuits ;  and  for  a  time  he  devoted 
himself  to  politicB,  taking  upon  himself  the  editor- 
ship of  the  leading  Slesvig-Hoktein  paper,  for  which 
he  wrote  the  leading  uiicles  in  the  summer  of 
1818.  M.  helil  for  a  short  time  a  choir  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Leipsic,  but  bis  appotatmeut  was  cancelled 
on  account  oE  his  strong  political  tendencies.  He 
was  mode  Titular  Prober  of  Law  at  Zurich  in 
1S62,  and  at  Breslau  in  IS54  ;  while,  since  135S.  he 
has  flUed  the  ohair  of  Boman  Law  at  Berlin.  His 
attention  has  long  been  devoted  to  those  branches 
of  arclueology  and  ancient  history  with  wMch  his 
name  is  now  so  honourably  associated.  Among  his 
most  valuable  contribntions  to  these  departments  of 
knowledge,  special  mention  most  he  made  of  the 
following  :  Die  Unieritalixhen  Dialeite  (Leip,  1650), 
Corput  Interipttonum  iftapolUananim  (Leip.  1861) ; 
his  monographs  oa  T/itChronographj/i^  tie  year  35i, 
and  Roman  Coina  [Leip.  1860)  ;  the  edict  of  Dio<Ja- 
iixa,I>ePreliitRenim.VmaUiim  A.  301  (Leip.IS5I): 
Intcriptionet  Begni  NcapoUt.-LiUiiuK,  1862 ;  Die 
Reddifrfige  aniKhta  Catar  vnd  d.  Benat,  1357  ( 
his  great  work  on  Roman  Uiatory,  MBm.  OtschichU, 
1851-56,  7th  ed,  1881  (ably  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  W.  P.  Dickson]  ;  ROmiache  ForKltungtA 
(18W)  i  Ret  Gettce  Divi  Avgvtti  (1865) ;  ROmitches 
Slaaiartcht  (2d  ed.  1ST7) ;  Die  ErziUiluag  von.  Cuius 
Marliua  Coriolanuf ;  and  his  DigesCa  Jasliiiiani 
Avgviti  (1863— IS72).  llis  very  valuable  library 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1380. 

HOMO'BDICA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Cvairbilacea,  having  lateral  tendrils, 
and  the  fruit  splitting  when  ripe.  if.  BalxiTiunii, 
a  native  of  the  sollt£  of  Europe  and  of  the  East, 
produces  a  curious,  oblong,  modi-worted  fruit,  called 
the  Balsam  Apple,  which,  when  green,  is  infused 
in  oil,  to  form  a  vulnerary  much  esteemed  in  Syria 
and  some  other  oountriea.  The  ripe  fruit  is  a  dan- 
gerous nnson.  The  plant  is  used  to  form  arbours. 
— The  large,  red,  tiiomy  fruit  of  Jf.  msdo,  called 
Ool-taJera  in  India,  is  there  used  for  food. — Sf. 
etMnaia  a  called  the  OooaAerrs  Oourd,  because  its 
fmit,  which  is  covered  with  bristles,  is  about  the 
size  and  shape  of  a  iMge  gooseberry.  The  unripe 
fruit  is  used  for  pickling,  and  is  sometimes  to  Im 
seen  in  Covent  Ovden  market. 


col  fliMds,  rises  12  or  15  feet  above  its 
and  the  quay  and  custom-house  of  M.  are  bttilt 
unusually  high,  in  order  to  provide  against  this 
emergency.  All  the  foreign  goods  dcstinod  for  the 
consumption  of  the  Valley  o?  the  MagdsJena  psaa 
through  this  town.    Pop.  estimated  atlo,000. 

MO'NACHISM  (Qr.  mona^iae,  a  monk,  from 
monoi,  alone)  may  in  general  be  described  as  a  state 
of  rehgious  retirement^  more  or  less  complete,  accom- 
panied by  contemplation,  and  by  various  devotional, 
ascetical,  and  pemtentisJ  practices.  It  is,  in  truth, 
AscnrgiBic  (q.  v.),  with  the  element  of  religious 
solitude  superadded.  The  institution  of  monachisai 
haa,  under  different  forms,  entered  into  sevenl 
religious  systems,  andent  and  modem.  That  it  waa 


"^  "cS" 


HONACmSM; 


knowD  unong  tiie  Jew*  before  ttM  oonung  of  .  _ 
Lord,  ^ipmn  from  the  esunple  of  the  prophat  Eliu, 
and  frcon  that  of  the  Eraenuuu ;  and  it  is  probablr 
thst  religiouB  aeoiiiEioii  farmed  port  of  the  pnotiot 
of  the  NAziAim  (q.  t.),  at  least  in  the  later ^periodt  of 
Jewish  hittoiy.  In  the  Brahmaiiical  religion,  it  haa 
h«dft  prominent  place;  andevento  tbepreaeat  day, 
the  kanaterUt  of  Tibet  may  be  said  to  rival  id 
number  and  extent  the  monaEteriea  of  Italy  or 
Spain.  The  Chriitiaa  advocates  of  monachimn  find 
in  the  goapel  exbortatiom  to  volimtMy  povertv 
(Matt  &.  21)  (uid  to  ceUbftojr  (1  Cor.  viL  37),  at 
once  the  jostification  and  the  origin  of  the  primitive 
institiition.  Its  first  form  appears  in  the  practice 
of  Biceticiam,  of  which  we  find  frequent  mention  in 
the  ewly  part  of  the  2d  century.  The  primitive 
osceticB,  however,  lived  among  the  brethren,  and 


the  following  centnry  that  the  peonliar 

itio  of  monBchism  begwa  to  appear.    The 

earliest  fonn  of  Chiistian  monaolUBm  is  alao  the  meet 


characteristio  of  ir 


complete — that  already  deaoribed  under  the  head 
AnoKOItmB  (q.  V.) ;  and  is  commonly  believed  to 
have  in  put  originated  in  the  perwoutianB,  from  whicb 
ChrittiMuwere  forced  to  retin  into  deserts  and  soli- 
fauy  plaoca.  The  anchored  maintained  from  choices 
after  the  cenation  of  the  perBeontions,  the  sednsion 
to  which  they  had  originally  resorted  as  an  expedient 
of  lecnri^ ;  Mtd  «  later  aavelopment  of  the  sane 
principle  is  found  in  the  still  more  remarkable 
psychological  phenomenon  of  the  celebrated  Pillas- 

aiiwra  (q.  v.).  After  a  time,  however,  the    ""'"" 

of  the  religione  life  itself — m  the  atie 
public  worship,  the  participation  of  the 
the  desire  for  mutual  instruction  and  edification — led 
to  modificatioDB  of  the  degree  and  of  the  nature  of  the 
solitude.  First  came  the  simplest  form  of  common 
life,  which  sought  to  combine  the  personal  seclusiou 
of  individuals  with  the  common  exercise  of  all  the 
public  duties  ;  an  a«xregation  of  separate  ceUs  into 
the  same  district,  called  by  the  name  Laura,  with  a 
common  church,  in  which  all  Msembled  for  prayer 
and  public  worship.  From  the  union  of  the  conuaon 
life  with  personal  solitude  is  derived  the  name 
ixrtobiU  (Or.  koinot  bum,  common  life),  by  nhioh  this 
class  of  monks  is  distinguiabed  from  the  strict  soli- 
taries, as  the  anchorets  or  eremites,  and  in  which  is 
involved,  in  addition  to  the  obligations  of  poverty 
and  chastity,  which  were  vowed  by  the  anchorets, 
a  third  obhj^tion  of  obedience  to  a  superior,  which, 
in  conjunction  with  the  two  former,  his  ever  since 
beem  held  to  constitute  the  essence  of  the  reli^ous 
or  monastic  life.  The  first  origin  of  the  strictly 
cenobitical  or  monastic  life  has  been  detailed  under 
the  name  of  Saiht  Antony  (g-'O.  'who  may  be 
regarded  as  its  founder  in  the  East,  either  by  him- 
seS  or  bv  his  disciples.  So  rapid  was  its  progress, 
that  his  first  disciple,  PACHOMlus(q.  v.),  lived  to  find 
himself  the  superior  of  7000.  In  the  single  district  of 
Nitria,  there  were  no  fewer  than  60  monaateries 
(Sozomen,  ^ccZm.  ffiatory,  vi.  31),  and  before  lonff,  the 
civil  authorities  judrnd  it  expedient  to  place  restrio- 
tions  on  their  excessive  multiplication.  It  seems  to 
be  admitted,  that,  in  the  East,  where  asceticism  has 
always  been  held  in  high  estimation,  the  example  of 
Christian  monasticism  had  a  poverFul  infinence  in 
forwarding  the  progress  of  Chriatianity  ;  although  it 
is  also  certiun  tiiat  the  admiration  vrbicb  it  excited 
occasioni^y  led  to  its  natural  consequence  among 
the  members,  by  eliciting  a  spirit  of  pnde  and  osten* 
tation,  and  by  provoking,  sometimes  to  fanatical 
excesses  of  anaterit^sometimes  to  hypocritical  simu- 
lations of  rigour.  The  abuses  which  arose,  even  iu 
the  early  stages  of  monachism,  ore  deplored  by  the 
very  Fathers  who  are  roost  eloquent  in  their  praises 
of  the  institution  itself.  These  abuses  prevailed 
chiefly  in  a  elasi  of  monks  colled  SarabaUa,  who . 


liTed  in  small  commnnitiea  of  three  or  fbnr,  and 
sometimes  led  a  wondering  and  irregular  life.  On 
the  Other  hand,  a  most  extraordinary  picture  is 
drown  by  Theodoret,  in  his  RtUgiinu  Bvtoria,  c* 
the  rigour  and  mortification  practised  in  soxne  of 
tbs  greater  monasteries.  The  monks  were  oom- 
monlyEealots  in  religion ;  and  much  of  t^  bitterness 
of  tlw  religions  oonteovernes  of  the  Esst  was  due  to 
that  imrestrained  seal ;  and  it  may  be  added  that 
the  opiniona  which  led  to  these  controveraies  origin- 
ated for  the  moat  part  among  the  theologians  of  the 
cloisters.  Mo«t  famous  among  these  were  an  order 
called  Aecemelai  (Qt.  sleepless),  from  their  maintain- 
ing the  public  services  of  the  church  day  and  night 
without  interruption.    See  Mohofhtsttb,  Moho- 

THBLISH,  NBSTORUJIB.  IMAOK-WoRSEIP. 

It  was  in  the  cenobitic  rather  than  the  eremitie 
form  that  monachism  was  first  introduced  into  the 
West,  at  Bomo  and  in  Northern  Italy  by  Athanaains, 
in  A^ca  by  St  AugustinB,  and  afterwards  in  Qonl 
by  St  Martin  of  Tonra.  Here  also  the  inititnta 
spread  randly  under  the  same  general  forms  in  which 
it  is  found  in  the  Esstem  Chwil)  [  but  considerable 
relaxations  wa«  grodoally  introduced,  and  it  was 
not  until  the  thorough  ruormation,  and,  as  it  nay 
be  called,  religious  revival  effected  by  the  oelebrated 
Si  BxNXDicr  (q.  v.),  in  the  beginning  of  the  6th  c, 
that  w««teni  monaohism  astmned  its  peculiar  and 
permanent  form.  In  some  of  the  mors  isolated 
churches,  as,  for  instance,  that  of  Britain,  it  would 
I  that  the  reformations  of  St  Benedict  were 
introduced  until  a  late  period ;  and  in  that 
chui«h,  as  well  as  in  the  church  of  Ireland,  tb^ 
were  a  subject  of  connderable  controversy.  One  of 
the  most  important  modifications  of  monaohism  in 
the  West,  regarded  the  notnre  of  the  occupation  in 
which  the  monks  were  to  be  engaged  during  the 
times  not  directly  devoted  to  pnyer,  meditation,  or 
other  spiritual  exercises.  In  the  uwt,  manual  labour 
formed  the  chief,  if  not  the  sole  ext«nial  occupation 
prescribed  to  the  monks ;  it  being  held  as  a  funda- 
mental principle,  that  for  each  individual  the  main 
business  of  life  was  the  sanctiGcation  of  bis  own 
s«iL  In  the  West,  besides  the  labour  of  the  hands, 
mental  occupation  vaa  also  prescribed,  not,  it  is 
all,  but  for  those  for  whom  it  was  eepedally 
calculated.    From  an  early  period,  therefore,  the 


Ireland,  .     . 

as  lona  and  Lindiifsrae,  become  schools  of  learning, 
and  training-honsao  for  the  clergy.  At  a  later 
period,  most  monasteries  possessed  a  scriptorium,  or 
writing-room,  in  which  the  monks  were  employed 


_ .  -lolors  of  the  cloister  we  owe  the  preservation  of 
most  of  those  omong  the  master-pieoet  of  okssia 
literature  which  hav«  reoched  our  age. 

In  the  remarkable  religious  movement  which 
characterised  the  church  of  the  12th  c  (see  Fbahcd 
OS  AflSBi,  FjLUJciacANB),  the  princiiJe  of  mona- 
chism undenrent  a  further  modification.  The  tptri' 
tual  egotitm,  so  to  speak,  of  the  early  monachism, 
which  in  some  sen^e  limited  the  work  of  the  cloister 
to  the  sonctification  of  the  individual,  gave  place 
to  Uie  more  comprehenaiTe  range  of  spiritual  duty, 
which,  in  the  institute  of  the  varions  bodies  of  FnuRS 
(q.  V.)  which  that  age  {nodnced,  made  the  spiritual 
and  even  the  temponl  necessities  of  one'a  ueif^iboor 
equally  with,  if  not  more  than,  one's  own,  the 
object  of  tiie  woric  of  tlie  cloister.  The  pronvss  of 
thess  various  bodies,  both  in  the  12th  c  and  since 
that  age,  is  detailed  under  their  several  titii 
only  lemains  to  detail  tlw  later  histof;' 


onof  moDacIiisnt, 

C,oftgl( 


MONACO— MONAD, 


mopofy  «o  called.  Tha  monulia  iiwtittitM  of  Uia 
West  are  almost  all  offidiooti  or  modifioatioiu  <d 
the  BiNKDicnina  (q.T.) ;  of  Uusa,  tlw  mort  renurk- 
«Ub  an  the  Caktocbuns,  CiBnKOUin^  Gbakd- 
HOHmm,  CLUONUOi,  PBiMOKBrRA.TKiiBuin,  and 
above  lU  Mi.[tiun&  or  B«ti«diotiiiea  (q.T.)  of  St 
Manr.  Id  mora  modmi  tirns^  other  ioffcitnte*  have 
been  founded  for  the  lervioa  <rf  the  aick,  for  the 
education  of  the  poor,  and  otiiar  (iinilar  worki  of 
mercj,  which  Me  also  cUMed  mider  the  denomina- 
tioD  of  monks.  The  most  importHit  id  these 
dcMiibed  tuder  their  levsral  beads. 

The  enolanve  within  wbinb  a  commniiifrf  of  monka 
leude  M  called  a  Hohabtkbt  (q.  v.)— Or.  nunuu- 
Urion,  I«t.  Momuteriitm.  By  tbe  itnct  law  of  the 
ohnich,  called  tlie  law  of  ouwiter  or  enoloann,  it 
it  fraluddcn  to  all  esoept  memben  of  the  order  to 
enter  »  mooMtay)  aoA  in  almOBt  all  the  order*, 
thia  pHihibitkai  la  rigidly  enforced  a*  regards  the 
adiiiiBv<n)  of  female*  to  the  mratMteries  of  men. 
To  anoli  a  length  U  this  earned  in  tiie  Greek  Charch, 
that  in  the  edebrated  enobanra  of  Honnt  Athos, 
not  only  women,  but  all  animab  of  tl  ' 
are  rifonnwly  excluded.  The  Ant 
admission  to  a  mtmastio  order  is  the  a^iroval  of  the 
snperior,  ftfler  which  tiie  oandidatee  remain  for  a 
short  time  as  pottaJmU,  After  this  preliminary 
trisl,  they  enter  on  what  is  called  the  noeiliale,  the 
lenaih  of  which  in  different  orders  varies  from  one 
to  three  years ;  and  at  its  oloees  they  an  admitted 
to  the  profsBuon,  at  which  ths  Bolemn  tows  are 
taken.  The  age  for  proEeasion  has  varied  at  different 
timee  and  in  different  orders;  the  Cotuunl  of  I^nt, 
however,  has  fixed  16  at  the  mlniTnnni  agg.  Origiit- 
ally,  all  monks  wen  laymen ;  bat  after  a  time,  the 
ai^eriota,  and  by  degress  other  more  meritorioos 
members^  were  admitted  to  holy  order*.  The  dis- 
tinction of  priest-monk*  and  lay-lnvthers  has  been 
already  extdained  under  the  head  Fbuk;  bat  in 
both  uike,  irtisre  the  order  is  one  of  those  solemnly 
nproved  by  the  diurch,  the  eng^ment  taken  at 
the  final  loofession  is  life-long  and  irrevooable. 

The  " 


well  as  men.  llie  former 
were  called  in  Greek  by  the  naus  rtoni*  or  nonno, 
and  in  Latin  noiMO  (from  which  the  English  nun), 
as  also  mnetimornaiit.  The  cloistered  reeidenoe  of 
nans  is  oallad  by  vsiiooa  names,  as  NumsBir, 
CoimNT,  a  name  also  applied  to  the  hoosea  of 
1DSXL  Th&  general  ehanoteristioa  of  tha  monastio 
institnte  for  femalea  are  subvtantiBlIv  identical 
with  those  of  ths  male  orden ;  and  aa  tAe  prinoipal 
vaiietisB  of  institute  are  detailed  under  their 
reapective  heads,  it  is  needless  to  partacnlarise  them 

It  la  hardly  neoosaaiy  to  say  that  the  reformed 
churchea  in  the  16th  c  discarded  the  praotice  of 
monachism,  and  anppnased  the  monaatic  honaea, 
In  some  of  tbe  German  sUtea,  the  temporaUties  of 
the  suppressed  mooaateries  were  ratained,  anid  were 
granted  at  pleasure  1^  the  sovereign,  to  be  enjoyed 
together  wtth  the  titular  dignity.  Some  of  the 
German  chnrchea,  however,  m  later  times,  have 
revived  the  institute  both  for  men  and  for  women, 
as  has  also  been  done  in  the  Anglican  Choroh  both 
in  the  time  of  Land  and  in  onr  own  day.  In  all  these 
Protestant  rerivsla  of  monachism,  however,  the 
engagement  ia  revocable  tt  the  will  of  the  indi- 
vidnaJ.  At  the  French  Bevolation,  the  monastio 
establishments  of  Fiance  were  ntterly  aappreased ; 
and  in  moat  of  the  other  Catholic  countries  ti 
iple  haa  been  followed  to  a  neater 


French  territory,  o: 
mUcs  N.E.  of  Nioe. 


anull  principality  surronnded  by 

~~  '■\>  Mediterranean  ooaat,  a  (ew 

a  notorioua  for  the  puliio 


of  liie  town  of  Honaoa  The  climate  ia'  Sub, 
BO  that  palms  and  sloea  grow  Inxnriantly.  Frran 
tiie   10th   to  the  J8th  c,  M.   waa   held  by  the 

Hioe,  bnt  reeerved  to  ita^  the  ri^  <d  gairisoning 
the  town  of  Monaco.  At  tiii*  pattod,  it  consisted  (3 
three  oommunes — Monaco,  Mentone,  and    Bocea- 


bruna,  with  an  • 


IS48, 


Boccabnina  were  anniued  to  Sardinia,  ia  mte  of  > 
protest  by  his  '  Serene  ^'g''"°t^/  Cario  QouOTio, 
third  prince  of  Uonaoo.  "At  Italian  wv  t^  1859 
^aeed  the  whole  territorr  for  a  briaE  pniod  under 
Victor  Emmanuel ;  but  Oario  Honorio  ecjd  Men- 
tone  and  Boocabruna  (1661)  to  the  EVench  emperor  for 
4,000,000  franoa.  M-ibidf  is  now  also  under  Flench 
protection.  The  sovereign  prince  of  M.  poaseasM 
nothing  bnt  the  oity  and  a  small  patdh  of  territory, 
with  a  total  area  (d  6  sq.  m.  i  pop.  (1883)  10,108. 
Hie  town  ia  a  beautifnl  plaoe  on  a  looky  pimnon- 
tory,  with  2870  iDhabitanta. 

MOTfAD  (Or.  momu,  unity),  a  term  borrowed 
from  the  Peripatetio  philosoplyf,  although  employed 
^y  modems  m  a  Bense  different  from  that  of  the 
^pateticB,  who  used  it  to  designate  the  uaiverae, 
understood  io  the  pantheistic  sense.  By  moderns, 
and  especially  by  LsiBNrra  (q.v.),  from  whose 
system  alone  the  name  has  derived  importance,  it  is 
used  to  describe  the  primary  elements  of  all  matter. 
The  monads  are  simple  nncom^Kinnded  snbetanoes, 
without  figure,  without  extenaion,  without  divid- 
hility,  by  tha  aggregation  of  which  all  bodies  are 
formed,  and  into  which  all  compouuded  thinp  may 
viltimately  bo  resolved.  Tha  monads  are  created 
things,  but  as  being  oncompoimded,  are  indestruct- 
ible ;  and  although  subject  to  change,  the  change  is 
but  eiternal  or  lelative.  They  are  of  two  classes — 
the  first  are  destitute  of  conscicninea^  althonsh 
possessing  an  internal  activity  which  is  called  by 
the  name  of  perception ;  the  second  possess,  in  addi- 
tion to  perception,  a  certain  conscdoaanei^  which  is 
called  by  the  name  'apperception'  or  conscious- 
perception.  The  monada  of  this  <dsas  are  souls, 
and  according  to  the  degree  of  their  consciousnesa 
is  the  distinction  between  the  souls  of  the  higher 
and  those  oE  the  lower  intelligences.  The  Deity  is 
the  Primb  Moitad,  or  Monad  or  Momaj>&  The 
theory  of  monads  enters  largely  into  the  philosophio 
Bystem  of  Leibnitz,  and  indeed  fumiahee  the  key  to 
'  I  in  that  system  which  is  otiierwiae  obscure. 


MONAD  (I 

kinds  of  mior 
supposed  also 


generic  name  of  many 
organisms,  vary  minute,  and 
of  very  simple  oiganiiation. 


They  appear,  even  under  a  powerful  midoaocme,  aa 

points,  moving  rapidly  through  tiie  fldd  in 

■  ■        •  oft*     "  ■  " 


...  .  _      .lidly  through       .   _ 

which  they  exist,  and  often  becoming  ag^r^ptad  in 
olnsten;   or  they  are  seen  to  be  gelatinous  and 

8 lobular,  or  nearly  so,  with  a  tail  or  thong-like 
lament,  by  the  vibrations  of  which  they  move. 
When  the  fluid  ia  tinted  by  means  of  some  harmless 
colouring  matter,  tiie  existence  of  several  cells  or 
vosiclea  ia  discerned  within  the  miuuta  body. 
Ehrenberg  therefore  classed  them  among  Poly- 
castrio  IrSusoria  (see  Ihtosobu),  and  no  naturalist 
doubted  their  right  to  a  place,  althongh  one  of  the 
lowest,  in  the  animal  kingdom.  Tney  are  now 
'   '    IB  vegetable,  and  are  ranked 


nniversally  regarded  as  vegetable,  a 

among  al^     Tha  or—-' —  ' 

Globe  Animalcules  ( V< 


I  ^isters  of  nmtuidfl 


MONADNOCK— MONASTERY, 


prodneed  bfgenmktion  from  ODatand  inTMt«d  irith 
■  oommon  envelopa.  Monad*  are  of  varioiu  colonn. 
Their  gemnutioii  takM  ]^aM  aeocffding  to  fixed 
lawM,  to  that  the  gnmpa  aeiDine  partiouar  forma, 
chanwtoistio  of  the  different  kiniu.  Tbiui  in  the 
'  Breaat-plate  Anunaloole '  [Qonium  peeioraie),  ao 
called  from  the  fomi  which  the  gronp  frequently 
preunti,  a  diviiion  takei  plaoe  into  four,  and  the 
number  in  a  group  U  always  either  four  or  Eoxteen, 
a  group  of  nxteen  alwaye  dividing  into  four  parti, 
•aoh  of  which  oontaina  four  monads. — The  minute 
moving  points  often  asen  under  the  micioecope 
are  pnbahlf  often   not  monad*,  biU  iporea  or 

UONAVNOOK,  Ouvn,  a  monntain  in  tlie 
aonth-weat  mmer  of  New  Hampshire,  United  State* 
of  Amerjoa,  whioh  from  a  base  td  6hy3  milea,  rise* 
to  a  height  of  84flO  feet.  It  i*  oampoaed  of  tolo, 
miea,  and  slate,  can  be  sesn  from  tha  State  Bonsa  at 
Boston,  and  U  a  landmark  at  ssa.  Thirty  lakes. 
i*laad(,  oan  be  aesQ  from 


MO'NAOHAN,  an  inland  county  of  the  provinoe 
of  Ulster,  Ireland,  situated  between  Tyrone  on  the 
N.,  Armagh  and  Louth  on  the  E.,  Ueath  and  Cavan 
on  the  8.,  and  Fertnansgh  on  the  Vf.  Its  greatest 
length  from  north  to  soutli  is  37  miles ;  its  greatest 
breadth,  east  and  west,  is  28  ;  the  total  area  beini 
BOO  square  miles,  or  319,767  acres,  of  which  285,880 
aro  arable.  Hie  popnUdoo,  whioh  in  1861  was 
126,340,  had  fallen  in  1881  to  102,748.  The  general 
■otface  is  nndnlatory,  the  hills,  except  in  the  north- 
west and  east,  beine  of  small  elevation,  alUioiigh 
often  abrupt ;  tiie  highest  point  does  not  exceed 
12M  feet  aboTe  the  se*.  It  is  intenpened  witii 
lakes  of  small  extent,  and  for  the  most  part  of  little 
depth,  and  atthon^  the  streams  are  nnmeion*,  tiiera 
is  no  navigable  nver  within  its  boundaries.  In  its 
gaologioal  structure,  tb«  level  country  belongs  to  the 
great  oentral limestone  district;  the  rest  is  '  " 
same  trooaition  formation  which  is  met  with 
northern  tract  of  Lunster. 


found  profitable  to  work.  The  soil  is  very  varied  in 
its  character,  and  for  the  most  part  is  wet  and  im- 
perfeotly  drained,  although  commonly  capable  of 
much  improvement ;  but  m  general  it  u  found  suit- 
able for  tha  production  of  oereal  erops  (with  tike 
exoeption  of  wheat,  whioh  is  little  eultiv^»d),  and 
of  flax.  The  total  area  under  crops  in  18S1  vaa 
138,223  aoe*.  There  were  55,96S  aoies  under 
oats,  and  15,687  aores  onder  flax.  The  cattle  in 
tha  same  year  numbered  70,282;  aheap,  11,313 ; 
pigM,  19,966.  The  annual  valuation  of  property  in 
1^  was  £264,969.  U.  is  weU  suppliid  with 
good  roads,  and  is  connected  by  rouway  with 
Dublin,  Belfast,  and  Galway,  and  directly  with 
the  coast  at  Dundalk.  The  Ulster  Canal  passes 
through  the  conntiy.  The  principal  towns  of  this 
county  are  Mom^bon  (q.  v.),  Carrickmacross, 
Clones  and  Cwrtle-BIayney.  It  returns  two  mem- 
bers to  parliament,  the  constitnency  bein^^  at  the 
enumeration  of  1880-81,  6496.  M.,  at  the  invasion, 
fonned  part  of  the  grant  of  Henry  IL  to  De  Courcey, 
and  w~-  - — '■-" '-■ * ' —  ■-'—     ■^ -'■  -'  —   '■' 


sept  MacMahon,  by  whom  (with 
of  re-conquest)  it  was  held  till  the 
when  it  was  erected  into  a  shire,  fiven  still,  how- 
ever, the  authority  of  the  English  was  in  many  places 
Lttle  more  than  nominal,  especially  in  the  north ; 
and  in  the  rising  of  1641,  the  JlacMahooa  again 
resumed  the  temtorial  sovereignty.  The  histonoal 
antiquities  of  the  coonty  are  of  little  intercat  or 


unportance.  It  possesses  two  round  towers,  one 
very  oomplete,  at  Clones,  the  othm  at  Inniskeenj 
and  then  aro  many  remains  of  the  ancient  earth- 
works oommonlyreierredto  the  ante- English  period. 
Of  the  population  73  per  oent.  are  Catholiee,  and  IS 
per  cent.  Episcopalians.  The  name  Monaghan  is 
derived  from  the  Irish  Muinechan, '  Monkatown,'  a 
monastery  having  stood  het«  at  a  very  early  date. 

HONAGHAN,  obiet  town  of  the  oountf  of  tha 
same  name,  is  situated  on  the  great  north  Ime  from 
Dublin  to  Londonderry,  distant  from  the  former  76 
milea  north-north-west.  Pop.  in  1881,  3369.  M., 
before  the  Union,  was  a  tomi  of  some  importance, 
having  a  charter  from  Jamea  1,  and  retunuDK  two 
memben  to  the  Irish  parliament.  It  is  stiS  the 
centra  of  an  adtive  inland  toade,  and  can  boast  some 
public  building  of  considemble  pretension*,  among 
whioh  ara  the  jail,  market-hansci  and  oourt-honse. 
A  Roman  CathiJio  college  and  a  cathedral  dedioated 
to  8t  Mao  Carthtun,  also  deeeire  spedol  notice. 
The  general  market  is  on  Monday ;  3  markets  for 
agricultural  produce  are  held  weekly,  and  there  is 
b!^  a  monthly  fair. 

MO'NARCHY  (Gr.  moncarMa,  from  moniM,  alone, 
and  areiiS,  to  govern ;  literally,  the  government  of  a 
single  individual)  is  that  form  of  government  in  a 
community  by  which  one  person  exercises  the  eove- 
rdgu  oulbonty.  It  is  only  when  the  kins,  or  chief 
magistrate  of  the  oommunity,  possesses  uie  entire 
"''i"g  power,  tlkat  he  is  in  the  proper  acceptation  of 
the  term  a  monarch.  Most  of  the  oriental  govern- 
ments past  and  preaent,  RiLsria  at  present,  and  Spain 
and  Fiimce  as  they  were  in  the  last  century,  ara  in 
this  sbict  sense  monarchies.  The  degenerate  form 
of  monarchy  is  tyranny,  or  government  for  the 
exclusive  benefit  of  the  ruler.  When  the  head  of 
the  -state,  still  possasaing  the  status  and  dignity  of 
lyalty,  diares  the  supreme  power  with  a  class  of 
ibles,  with  a  papular  Dcdy,  or  with  both,  as  in  our 
vn  conntry,  the  government,  though  no  longer  in 
strictness  monarchical,  is  called  in  popular  language 
mixed  or  limited  monarchy,  tha  term  absolute 
inarchy  beingapplied  to  a  government  properly 
—  juarchioaL  The  highest  ideal  of  government 
would  perhaps  be  attained  by  an  absolute  monarohy, 
if  thero  were  uiy  security  tor  always  posieasing  a 
thoronghly  wise  and  good  monarch ;  but  this  con- 
dition IS  obviously  nnattainable,  and  a  bod  despot 
has  it  in  his  power  to  indict  infinite  eviL  It  there- 
fore becomes  desirable  that  a  governing  class,  com- 
posed, if  possible,  of  the  wisest  and  most  enlightened 
IQ  the  country,  shouhl  shora  the  supreme  power 
with  the  sovereign.  A  limited  monarchy  has  this 
advantage  over  an  aristocratJo  npnblic,  that  in 
difficult  crises  of  the  nation'*  existenoe  royalty 
becomes  a  neutral  and  guiding  power,  raised  above 
the  accidents  and  struggles  of  political  life. 

Monarohy,  most  usually  hereditary,  has  somettmes 
been  elective,  a  condition  generally  attended  with 
feods  and  distractions,  as  was  the  case  in  Poland. 
The  elective  system  is  still  followed  in  the  choice  of 
the  pope.  Constitutional  monarchy  may  be  in  its 
origin  elective,  or  combine  both  systems,  as  when 
one  family  is  disinherited,  and  the  sceptre  declared 
hereditary  in  the  hands  of  another  under  certain 
conditions.    See  Kofa,  Rxfdblio. 

MO'NASTEBY  has  bean  described  under  the 
head  of  MoHAOHISU  (q.  v.)  as  the  generic  name  <^ 
the  reaidenoe  of  any  body  of  men,  or  even,  thon^ 
more  rarely,  of  women,  biMind  by  mooaitia  vow*.  It 
may  be  useful,  however,  to  detul  the  various  nliimrs 
of  monaatie  establishments  of  the  Western  Church, 
and  to  point  out  the  leading  obaraoteristioB  of  each. 
The  name,  in  it*  moot  atriol  acceptation,  is  confined 
■    "         ■•  •    lonki, properly         "  ' 


rly  SD  tailed,  or  fi 


U0NA8TIB-U0KE7. 


nuu  of  the  cognate  order*  (as  tbe  Benedictine),  and 
M  mch,  it  compriua  two  great  olmet,  the  A  bbey 
•nd  the  Priory.  The  fonner  name  was  giTen  only  to 
wtabliabmenta  o[  the  faiehett  rank,  zoTemed  by  an 
•bbot,  who  waa  coDuaonly  uuiBted  by  a  prior,  eub- 
prior,  and  other  minor  tunctionariea.  An  abb«7 
alwaya  included  a  church,  and  the  English  word 
Mimttr,  althoo^  like  the  ct^ate  German  MUtulfr 
it  haa  now  ioat  ita  apedfic  application,  has  ita  origin 
in  the  Latin  mcmufta-ium.  A  Priory  snppoBed  a 
leaa  extensive  ajid  low  Dameniaa  oommimity.  It  vraa 
governed  hy  a  Prior,  and  waa  orisinally,  although  by 
no  neana  uniformly,  at  least  in  uter  timea,  subjeob 
to  Um  joriidkitioD  of  an  ahbey.  Many  prioriea  poa- 
■eiaed  eztanaiira  territMial  domuna,  and  of  thsae,  not 
a  few  beoama  entirdy  independent.    The  distinction 


of  Commandery  and  Prtctpiory  correaponded  with 
thoae  of  abbey  and  priorv  in  the  monaatic  orders. 
The  astabliabments  of  the  Uendicant,  and,  in  general, 
of  the  modeni  orders,  are  aometunea,  though  less 
properly,  e^ed  mouuterio*.  Their  more  cbarac- 
tenstio  appellation  is  Frtary  or  Comitnt,  and  they 
are  commonly  distinguiahed  into  Profuatd  Jlouset 
(called  also  itesideitca),  NoeiliaCa,  aiul  Coliega,  or 
ScMiuiie  Bouta.  The  names  of  the  saperiois  of 
■nch  hoosea  differ  in  the  different  orders.  The 
common  name  is  Rector,  but  in  some  orders  the 
superior  is  called  Qvardian  (as  in  the  Fnmciscui),  or 
MoMtet,  Miyor,  Fallia-  Superior,  to.  The  houses  of 
females — except  in  the  Benedictine  or  Cistercian 
order* — are  called  indifferently  Convent  and  Nunnery, 
the  head  of  which  is  styled  Moticr  Suptrior,  or 
Raxrend  MoOtar.  The  name  CtoiAer  properly  means 
the  enclosure ;  but  it  is  popularly  used  to  desij~~'~ 
•ometimea  the  arcaded  ambu^tory  which 
around  the  inner  coort  of  the  buildme.  somei 
in  the  mare  general  sense  of  the  entire  building 
when  it  may  be  considered  as  B3monymoas  wi 
CoDvaU. 

MOSASTIH  (ToLi-MoMAsnit,  or  Bnotu), 
town  of  Enrop^  Turkey,  capital  of  the  vilayet 
named  after  i^  i*  situated  in  a  broad  vallev  of  the 
Niji  Monntains,  00  miles  north-north-east  of  Janina, 
and  about  the  same  diltanoe  west -north- west  of  Salo- 
niki.    It  is  an  important  place,  is  the  residence  of  the 

STemor.general,  and  commands  the  routes  between 
aoedonia  and  Northem  Albania.  The  inhabitant* 
Me  mostly  Oreeka  and  Bulgarians.  M.  has  11 
mosques,  uid  carries  on  a  laive  trade  with  Constan- 
tinople, Haloniki,  Vienna,  and  Trieste.  From  Con- 
stantinople alone  it  annually  buys  goods  to  the 
value  of  £1,800,000.  Its  bazaar*,  containing  more 
than  2200  diope,  ara  well  stocked  with  tiie  products 
of  Western  Snrope  and  the  colonies,  as  also  with 
natiTe  manufactures.  Yet  it  is  one  of  the  worst 
built  aod  moat  tasteless  towns  in  all  Tnrkey.    Pop, 

Hooa 

MONBODDO,  Jauss  Bi^inet.  Lord,  a  Scottish 
lawyer  and  author,  was  bom  at  Monboddo,  in  Kin- 
cardineshire, in  1714,  educated  at  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen,  where  he  displayed  a  great  fondness  for 
the  Greek  philosophera,  and  afterwards  studied  law 
for  three  years  at  Groningeu,  in  Holland.  In  1737, 
he  became  a  member  of  Uie  Scottish  bar,  and  soon 
obtained  considerable  practice ;  but  the  first  thing 
that  brought  him  prominently  into  notice  was  bis 
connection  with  the  celebrated  Dondas  case,  in 
which  Mr  Burnet  acted  aa  counsel  for  Mr  Douglas. 
In  1767,  he  waa  raised  to  tiie  bench  by  the  title  of 
Lotd  Monboddo.  He  died  26th  May  1799.  IiL's 
first  work,  on  the  Origin  and  Progreu  of  Langvage 
(1771—1776),  i»  a  very  learned,  heretical,  and  eccen- 
tric prodaction ;  yet  in  the  midat  of  ibi  grotesque 


crotchet*  there  oocasionaLy  flashea  out  a  wonderfully 
acute  obserration,  that  makea  one  regret  the  dis- 
torted and  misapplied  talent  of  the  author.  The 
notion  that  mea  have  sprang  from  monkeys,  is 
perhaps  that  which  is  most  commonly  associated 
with  the  name  of  M,,  who  gravely  asserted  that  the 
orang-outanm  are  members  of  Uie  human  speciei^ 
and  that  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal  there  exiata  a  nation 
of  human  creatures  with  tails,  and  l^t  we  have 
only  worn  away  ours  by  Bitting  on  them,  but  that 
the  stumps  may  still  be  felt  M.  wrote  another 
work,  entitled  Ancient  Mtiaphygict,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  6  vols.  (1779-99). 

MONOADA,  DoK  Frutcibco  m,  Coirss  di 
OSONA,  an  historian,  and  one  of  the  Spanish  clasuca^ 
bom  29th  December  15S6,  at  Valencia,  where  his 
grandfather  was  then  viceroy.    Descended  from  one 


Ue  distingnished  himself  both  as  a  statesman  aivl  ^ 
soldier.  He  fell  at  the  siege  of  Goch,  a  fortress  in 
the  duchy  of  Clevea,  in  1635,  Bin  Sittoria  de  la 
Bxpedidoa  de  Catalona y  Aragonaa  eontra  Turroa 
yQriegoi  (Barcelona,  1623,  and  frequently  reprinted), 
IS  a  master-piece  in  liveliness  and  elegance  of  style. 

MONOALIE'BI.  a  town  of  Italy  in  the  provfaco 
of  Turin,  situated  finely  on  the  slope  of  a  bill,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Fo,  five  miles  above  Turin. 
Pop.  ^30l  M.  is  the  first  railway  station  between 
Turin  and  Genoa,  and  communicates  daily  with 
Turin  by  frequent  omnibose* ;  it  has  fine  boildinf^ 
including  apalace  lately  embellished  for  Uie  reai- 
dence  of  King  Victor  EmmanueL  Tbe  annual 
cattio-foir  held  in  October,  at  tL,  is  the  most 
important  of  the  north  of  Italy. 

MOITDO'VI,  a  town  in  Cuneo,  one  of  the 
northem  provinces  of  Italy,  on  the  shoiUder  oE  a 
hill  60  miles  south  of  Turin.  It  is  divided  into  four 
sections :  the  Piacea,  and  three  saburba.  There 
are  manufactures  of  cloth  and  silli.  The  Piazza 
contains  a  fine  catbedr^  with  rich  paintings ;  an 
episcopal  palace,  with  a  noble  gallery  of  portraits ; 
and  the  various  judicial  and  educational  halls.  Fop. 
(1S8I)  9637.  At  the  Uttle  of  M.,  22d  April  1796. 
the  Saidinians  were  totally  defeated  by  Bonapartci 

MONB'RA,  a  class  of  Protozoa  (q.  v.)  propMed 
by  Haeckel  to  include  the  very  lowest  organisms 
known — mere  masses  of  undifferentiated  protoplasm, 
resembling  Amaba  (see  pBorica),  bat  unprovided 
with  a  nucleus.    Tbe  M.  present  specific  and 


generic 


distinctions.     ProCamo^  and  Prolomyia 


.._.  jples  of  M.    The  glairy  mud  found 

the  calcareous  sediment  that  covec*  great  part  of 
the  bed  of  the  North  Atlantic,  was  at  one  time 
referred  to  the  Monera,  and  caUed  Bathybiiu, 
Professor  Huxley,  who  conferred  tiie  name,  now 
denies  its  organic  nature. 

MONB'SIA  BARK,  the  bark  of  a  tree  IChryto- 
pliyUum  glycyphkeuTn,  or  0.  BuTaiJieim),  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  Star  Apple  (q.  v.),  a  native  of  the 
south  of  BcBziL  The  bark  is  lact^ent ;  but  when 
dried,  it  is  thick,  flat,  compact,  heavy,  brown,  and 
bard,  with  a  taste  at  first  sweet,  afterwards  astrin- 
gent and  bitter.  A  subetonce  called  Manain  is 
extracted  from  it,  which  is  olioost  black,  at  first 
sweet,  then  astringent,  and  finally  acrid.  It  is  used 
aa  a  stomachic  and  alterative  in  leucorrhma,  chronic 
diarrhcea,  £c.  It  contains,  in  small  quantity,  a 
principle  called  Montmn. 

MONET,  in  Political  Economy.  This  is  a  word 
1  continual  use  all  over  the  civilised  world,  and 
of  which 


(  .nnglp 


MONET— MONGE. 


«Mmectioa  with  thabiuiii«w  they  luve  in  httod  ia  more 
diatinotly  naderatood  by  those  who  use  it ;  and  yet, 
on  the  otlier  hand,  there  ia  cone  of  which  it  is  more 
difficult  to  rave  &  comprehensive  occouut  or  a  etrict 
definition.  Presuming,  then,  that  every  one  knows 
the  practioal  nse  of  the  word  in  the  aSain  of  oom- 
mon  life,  the  best  thin^  to  be  done  here  will  be  to 
point  out  a  few  diehnctiona  which  may  teod  to 
obviate  confusioD  in  the  com^reheneive  uee  of  the 
term  as  an  element  in  economic  science. 

Money  ia  often  spokeD  of  loosely  as  the  game 
thing  with  capital;  but  they  are  diaerent.  Before 
anything  ia  money,  it  most  be  anch  that  you  can  go 
'~~o  the  market  and  immediately  nae  it  in  purchas- 


a  fuU  u 


a  they 


,  ..  e  capital,  and  are  capital  whici 

probably  haa  once  been  money — but  they  are  money 
no  loiter,  because  you  cannot  use  them  in  making 
paymenta,  though  they  have  perhaps  become  more 
valuable  than  ever  they  were.  The  confuaioa  of 
capital  with  money  was  the  mistake  made  in  issuing 
the  French  assignata  on  the  sccority  of  the  forfeited 
landed  estates.    Each  assigaat  was  a  promise  to 

Ky;  but  when  payment  was  demanded,  it  could  not 
made,  because  land  waa  not  a  medium  for 
making  it.  It  is  of  the  essence  of  money,  'Uien, 
that  it  is  capable  of  making  immediate  payment 
either  to  iatiafy  »  eellec  or  a  creditor.  But  an 
article  may  be  money  though  it  will  not  aatJafy 
everybody ;  and  articles  av^able  aa  money — even 
those  most  imivetsaUy  accepted  as  such — are  avail- 
able for  other  pnrposee.  What  we  ore  familiar  with 
as  the  moat  approved  form  of  money — aa  the  thing 
that  will  be  most  certainly  received  in  payment  oU 
over  the  world— is  coin  of  the  precious  metala. 
The  reason  why  the  claim  of  these  is  so  universally 
accepted  is,  that  they  do  uot  merely  reprtMoi  value, 
as  we  ehall  find  other  kinda  of  money  do,  but  they 
realty  are  value.  If  the  dealer  sella  a  hat  for  a 
sovereign,  he  knows  that  the  sovereign  does  not 
depend,  like  a  pound-note,  on  the  solvency  of  the 
issuer,  but  that  it  haa  got  value  put  into  it  by 
costing  about  aa  much  labour  and  skill  in  brin^g 
it  into  eitatence  as  tlie  hat  he  gives  for  jL  £ut 
even  all  coins  perfectly  available  for  mooey  are  not 
of  the  intrinsic  value  of  their  denomiiiation.  The 
silver  for  making  20  shillings  ia  a  good  deal  less 
vatuabte  as  a  commodity  than  the  gold  in  a 
•over^gn;  and  ia  the  same  way,  240  pence,  which 
are  as  money  equal  to  a  sovereign,  only  make 
a  percentage  of  it  in  value  aa  merchandise.  The 
oon  venience  of  their  use  for  small  trauBOCtious  makes 
up  for  depredation  in  value  of  coins  of  the  inferior 
metals,  when  gold  ia  a  etandord;  and  to  prevent 
incidental  abuses,  the  law  limits  the  extent  to  which 
they  ore  a  legal  tender  aa  good  money. 

Mnoey  transactionB  are  distinguished  from  barter, 
in  which  one  commodity  is  tnmaferred  for  another, 
as  where  the  shepherd,  in  primitive  times,  may  be 
supposed  to  have  given  the  a^cultiirist  a  sheep  for 
a  measure  of  com.  Tlue  dietinction  is  extremely 
useful,  since  the  invention  of  a  circulating  medium, 
which  supersedes  the  narrow,  cumbrous  process  of 
barter,  by  focibtating  transactions  of  every  variety 
of  importance  among  all  sorts  of  people,  ia  a  grand 
type  of  advance  in  civilisation.  Xike  many  other 
lUstinctions,  however,  it  has  not  an  absolute  hne  of 
demarcation.  The  precious  metals  hold  their  value 
by  their  being  commodities  as  well  as  beinu  money, 
and  coins  are  frequently  used  up  for  plate  and 
jewellery.  Where  money  is  only  available  within 
one  narrow  region,  its  use  verges  on  barter.  In 
Central  Africa,  pnrchasea  ore  made  and  debts  paid 
by  strings  of  beads  or  coils  of  brass  wire.  An  ivory 
qierchant  or  a  tntvellei  wiU  If  y  in  A  stock  9^  tbeaft 

m 


JDst  as  in  Europe  he  would  cony  gold  or  aiicnlar< 
notes.  They  are  commodities,  being  used  as  orna- 
ments by  the  inhabitants.  But  they  are  distributed 
to  an  extent  far  beyond  the  demand  in  this  ahape, 
and  that  they  absolutely  constitute  money  is  shewn 


that  the  merchant  who  chooses  the  wrong  kind, 
thongh  be  have  full  value  in  merchandise,  has  not 
taken  with  him  a  supply  of  available  cash. 

Under  the  head  of  BnuJON',  it  is  shewn  how  the 
precious  metala  are  an  expensive  form  of  money,  which 
there  is  a  temptation  to  supersede  by  paper-money. 
For  the  various  opinions  adopted  by  diSeront  cloHses 
of  economists  on  pai>er-money,  and  the  devices 
for  getting  over  the  great  difficulty  of  rendering 
this  kind  of  money  secure,  and  equal  in  value  to 
bullion,  reference  is  made  to  the  article  CtritRENcr. 
It  may  here  be  proper  to  state,  that  paper-money, 
or  money  founded  on  credit^ — one  of  the  resources  of 
advanced  civilisation  and  complicated  commerce — 
introduces  a  class  of  moneys  so  eirtenaive  and 
voriaiis,  Uiat  it  is  impossible  to  mark  the  limits 
of  its  extent,  or  enumerate  the  shapes  it  may 
take.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to  get  rid  of 
all  difficulties  by  saying  that  a  promise  to  pay  is 
only  the  representative  of  money.  But  if  it  serve 
the  purpose  of  buying  or  paying  debt,  it  reaUy  ia 
money.  No  one  hesitates  m  counting  a  £5  Bank 
of  England  note  aa  money.  But  a  cheque  by  a 
person  known  to  have  a  balance  or  credit  at  a 
solvent  bonk,  is  equally  money ;  and  though  it 
is  on  order  to  pay,  no  actual  bullion  need  ever 
be  given  for  it,  for  the  payment  may  be  in  notes, 
or  the  holder  may  hand  it  over  to  his  own 
banker,  in  whose  accounts  it  will  be  credited 
to  the  holder,  and  debited  against  the  banker 
on  whom  it  is  drawn.  The  special  difficulty 
as  to  psner-money  is,  that  it  may  be  mistakeu  for 
money  wben  it  is  none,  aa  in  the  case  of  a  cheque 
';  honoured  by  payment ;  or,  that  it  may  be  of  less 
rinsio  value  than  it  professes  to  ba,  aa  when  there 
what  ia  called  on  over-issue  (see  Cdrkency). 
There  are  thus  great  risks  attached  to  the  use  of 
pa;)er-moDey ;  but  there  ore  also  risks  specially 
ipplicalile  to  bullion-money,  as  light  weight,  base 
■.o\a,  and  the  absence  of  those  facilities  for  detection 
n  theft  or  fraud,  which  are  among  the  advantages 
of  paper-money.  The  special  risks  attending  the 
use  of  paper  have  been  shewn  in  practice  to  ne  so 
capable  of  remedy  by  legislative  precautions,  that  at 
present,  in  Scotland,  one- pound  notes  are  taken  with 
less  suspicion  than  sovereigus.  On  trausautions  in 
general,  the  chance  of  loss  from  forgery  or  insolvency 
--  deemed  less  than  the  chances  from  light  weight, 
en  if  the  risk  of  base  coinage  should  not  come 
to  consideration. 

Making  ollowanee  for  coins  sent  abroad  or  used 
„  metal,  the  monev  of  Britain  is  calculated  at : 
goId,aeventy-five  millions;  silver  and  copper,  thirteen 
millions ;  and  notes,  forty-two  miUions— in  all, 
one  hundred  and  thirty  niUlions.  But  so  largo  is 
the  extent  of  paper-money,  in  the  shape  of  drafts 
and  bills,  that  of  these  payments,  to  the  extent 
of  more  than  two  thousand  millions  in  a  year  are 
settled  at  the  London  clearing-houses,  or  the  estab- 
bshments  where  the  London  banks,  and  those 
dealing  with  them,  clear  olf  their  mutual  obligations 
by  paying  over  the  balances, 

MONGE,  Gasfabd,  Comtb  db  Fi3.nsE,  a  French 
mathematician  and  physicist,  was  bom  of  humble 
Eu^ntage  at  Beaime,  in  the  department  of  COte 
'Or,  lOth  May  1746.  When  only  fifteen,  he  went 
)  study  natural  phUosophy  at  the  Oraterion  Coliego 
,i  Lyon,  and  afterwards  obtained  admission  into 
the  famous    artilleiy  achool  at  MSziires,  whe 


res,  when 


MONGHTR— MONGOLS. 


he  mvented  the  metliod  known  u  '  Detcriptive 
G«ometi7.'  In  17B0,  ha  -wu  chcaen  a  member  of 
the  French  Academj' ;  and  wai  called  to  Faria  as 
Profeaeor  of  HydrodyDaniicB.  During  the  heat  of 
tha  Bevolution,  ha  became  Minuter  of  Mariae,  but 
eoon  took  duiroe  of  tha  great  miuinfKtoriea  for 
aopplying  republican  France  witli  orme  and  gun- 
powder. After  he  bad  founded  the  Nicole  Folytech- 
niqae,  lie  was  oent  by  the  Directoiy  to  Italy. 
Het«  he  formed  a  close  friendlhip  vith  Bonaparte, 
«hom  ha  followed  to  Egypt;  and  Dodertook  Uie 
management  of  the  Egyptum  Institute.  On  hie 
return  to  France,  he  resumed  hia  fonctionB  aa 
Profauor  in  the  £oole  Folytechnique,  and,  though 
hia  reverence  for  Napoleon  continaed  unabated,  he 
hotly  oppoeed  his  anatocratio  and  dyoaBtio  views. 
The  title  of  Comte  de  P^luso  (Pelnsmni)  wu  con- 
ferred on  him  by  Napoleon.  He  died  28th  July 
1818.  M.'s  principal  works  are:  TraUi  EUmentaire 
de  Statiqve  (Tth  edit  Paris,  1834) ;  Ltforu  de  Qio- 
mtirie  liacriptive  ;  t.ndi  Application  d«  tAmUyae  A 
la  Q(omitrie  de»  Sur/acet  iiuletdu2  Dt<p-i. 

MONOHT'B,  a  city  of  India,  capital  of  a  district 
which  a  in  Behar,  Lower  Bengal,  is  situated  on  the 
rii;ht  bank  of  the  Gauged,  30  miles  west-north-west 
of  Bhagulpnc.  It  is  a  large  and  thriving  town,  and 
carries  on  manufactures  i^  hardware  and  firearms. 
It  is  a  favourite  residenoe  of  invalided  miUtary  men 
and  their  families.  Fop.  (ISSl)  65,372.  The  dis- 
trict has  an  area  of  3921  square  miles,  with  a  pop. 
of  1,969,774. 

MCNOOIJS,  tho  name  used  with  an  inconTenient 

variety  of  applications  for  larger  or  smaller  groups  of 
races  or  tribca.  In  Blumenbach'a  fivefold  classifica- 
tion of  mankind  the  Monj^la  were  one  branch,  aa 
in  lAtham'a  threefold  division  the  Mongolids?  con- 
stitnted  one.  Id  this  sense  tha  Mongols  cortcspoud 
to  those  races  speakiogTuranian  Languagea  (q.  v. ; 
and  see  Ethholooy,  Thiluloov)— almost  all  the 
Asiatic  peovles  not  AJyan  or  Semitic  Thus  taken, 
the  name  MoDgulia  may  be  used  for  tha  yellow  type 
of  man,  as  distinguished  from  the  Cancasic  or  fair 
type,  but  should  not  beondentood  as  implying  racial 
relationahip  or  direct  connection  between  their  lan- 
guage* They  have  been  thus  grouped :  I.  Tibeto- 
Bnrman;  2.  Khssi,  and  3.  Mon  (in  Assam  and 
Pegu) ;  4.  Tai  (including  Siamese,  Shans,  and  Laos) ; 

5.  Sinico-ADnamitiD    (Chinese,    Tonquinese,   Ac) ; 

6.  KoreoJapancaa;  7.  Ural- Altaic ;  and  H.  Malayan. 
The  seventh  gronp,  Ural-Altaic,  embraces  Mongols 
in  the  stricter  sense  ;  as  well  as  Tungns  (q.  v.)  and 
Mantcfans  (see  Mantohdria),  Turkish  races  (see 
TuRKxaTAi',  ToKKs),  Samojedes  (q.  v.)  and  Ugrians, 
including  Finns  (q.  v.)  and  Hangarians.     The  Mon- 

SIs  proper  fall  into  an  eastern  branch,  inhabiting 
angoha  (the  northern  section  of  the  Central  Aaiao 
plateau,  between  the  Kuen-lim  and  tha  Altai  (q.  v. } 
system,  including  the  Shamo  desert,  and  divided 
into  Eastern  aed  Western  Mongolia) ;  a  western 
branch,  of  which  the  Kalmucks  (q.  v.)  are  the 
[iriucipal  representative ;  and  the  Buriate  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Altai,  east  and  west  of  Lake  Baikal 
The  Eastern  M.,  who  occupy  the  original  seat  of 
the  race,  remain  the  moat  characteristic  race ;  of 
whom  the  Khalkhas,  in  the  north  of  Mongolia,  are 
the  chief  tribe.  Kiey  are  thoroughly  nomadic, 
living  in  tente  of  felt,  and  moving  about  as  the 
pasture  becomes  used  up.  They  are  frank,  hospi- 
table, temperate,  and  (t£ongh  their  ancestors  were 
long  the  terror  of  the  world)  peaceable,  but  lazy  and 
dirty.  Their  wealth  is  in  flocks  of  sheep,  camels, 
horses,  and  cattle;  and  they  live  mainly  on  flesh, 
milk,  cheese,  and  batter,  liiey  pay  yearly  tribute 
to  China,  and  have  Chineee  eokauate  scattered 
amongst  them. 

m 


The  face  of  the  typical  Mongolian  is  broad  and 
flat,  because  the  cheek-bones  stand  out  laterally, 
and  the  nasal  bones  are  depressed.  Tha  eyes  are 
oblique,  and  wide  apart.  The  eyebrows  are  scanty. 
The  iris  is  dark,  tha  cornea  yellow.  The  complexion 
is  tawny,  the  statare  low.  Tha  ears  are  large, 
standing  ont  from  the  head;  tha  lips  thick,  the 
forehead  low  and  flat,  and  the  hair  lank  and  thin. 
Of  course,  this  does  not  apply  to  the  more  civilised 
nations  of  Mongolic  affinities,  sach  as  the  Turks 
and  M^yars,  especially  the  latter,  who,  in  physical 
appearance,  differ  but  little  from  other  Emropeaa 
natbuK  The  name  of  Tartar,  or  rather  Tatar, 
belonged  originally  to  the  M.  proper,  but  passed 
later  to  the  Turks  and  Tungusia  peoples. 

Early  in  ancient  history  we  find  a  Turanian  ncs 
( Accadians — perhaps  Turkish)  constituting  the  more 
cultored  section  of  the  Babylonian  state.  Anoth« 
great  offshoot  from  the  Mongolic  stock  founded  an 
empire  in  China.  In  ear^  Greek  history,  the 
Mongols  or  Tatars  figure  as  Scythians,  and  in 
late  B<nnBn,  as  Hans,  carrying  terror  and  desola- 
tion over  the  civilised  world.  The  history  of  tha 
M.  begins  in  the  13th  c,  when  Genghis-Khan, 
origin^y  the  chief  of  a  small  Mongol  horde, 
gradually  united  various  Mongol  and  Tatar  tribe& 
and  conquered  almost  the  whole  of  Central  and 
Eastern  Asia.  For  his  conquests,  see  j  the  article 
under  his  name,  Hia  sons  and  grandsons  were 
equally  successful,  and  in  1240 — 1241,  the  Mongol 
empire  extended  from  tha  sea-board  of  China  to 
the  frontiers  id  Germany  and  Poland,  including 
Rneaia  and  Hungary,  and  the  whole  of  Asia,  wiu 
the  exception  of  Asia  Minor,  Arabia,  India  and 
the  Indo-Chinese  states,  and  Northern  Siberia. 
Tha  capital  was  Karakorum  (q.  v.).  In  the  bloody 
battle  of  Wahlstatt  in  SUo^  (1241),  Qermau* 
and  Polea  checked  Hie  westward  conrae  of  the 
orientals.  The  M  became  partly  Buddhists,  partly 
Moslems ;  and  the  vast  empire  soon  broke  ap  into 
a  number  of  independent  kingdoms  (see  K.UBl.ai 
Kaax,  ElPTCHAK).  The  M.  were  driven  ont  of 
China  in  I3fl3,  and  in  tha  16th  c  their  domain  in 
HuBsia  ceased.  From  Turkestan,  however,  aHiM 
another  tide  of  Mongol  and  Turiush  invasioll 
under  the  guidance  of  TimUr  (q.v.)  oi  Tamer- 
lane, who,  in  the  later  jart  of  the  14th  c., 
reduced  Turkestan,  Persia,  Hindustan,  Asia  Minor, 
and  Georgia  under  bis  sway,  and  broke,  for  a 
time,  the  Turkish  power.  This  empire  was  finally 
absorbed  bythePcrsiauB  and  Usbcka;  butano&hoot 
of  Timflr'a  family  founded,  in  the  ICth  c,  the  great 
Mongol  empire  of  Delhi,  hence  called  Mogul  or 
Mughal,  another  way  of  writing  Mongol  (see 
Baber).  After  the  decline  of  Timttr's  empire,  the 
Turks  spread  terror  to  the  very  heart  of  Woitem 
Europe.  In  the  9th  c.,  the  Magyars,  a  tribe  of 
Ugrians,  esteblished  themselves  in  Hungary,  See 
Turks,  Ottoman  Ehfikk,  and  Hdmoabv. 

For  the  various  Mongoloid  peoples,  their  character, 
language,  and  religions,  reference  must  be  made 
to  the  numerous  articles  which  describe  them,  at 
the  Doimtries  where  they  are  found.   The  most  recent 


stocks  formerly  accounted 
Mongol,  or  even  called  Turanian.  Thus  the 
Dravidian  and  Kolarian  races  of  Southon  India  am 
set  down  as  of  doubtful  affinity ;  aa  also  the  Sin- 
ghalese, the  Khmer  in  Cambodia,  the  Ainos  in 
Yesso,  the  Chukchia,   Koriaki^  Kuntschadales  in 

The  first  five  groups  of  the  Mongolia  races  uso 
the  languages  known  aa  Isolating  or  Monos^Uabio 
(see  FiULULOGy),  though  no  positive  relaUunship 
can  be  proved  to  exist  Detwoeu^enwiad^vuioiig 

Ijii;  u/i;r  ;,vA 


jiiiJ^ 


MONGOOSli— MUNITOUIAL  SYSTEM. 


of  these  tongaet;  the  remttining  gronpa  hava  tiie 
tongues  known  aa  agglutinating,  Tha  Ungoage*  of 
the  Ural-Altaic  peoples  (to  which  the  name  of 
Turanian  may  with  advantage  bo  confined)  are  now 
generally  held  to  bo  fnndamentally  related,  and  are 
typically  aggiutinativa.  It  Beems  lesa  clear  that  the 
nations  who  apeak  them  are  of  one  blood ;  as  much 
intermixture  with  Caucasio  peopiea  hai  brought 
about  great  diTersity  of  type.  The  Korean  and 
Japanese,  also  agglutinative,  shew  no  affioitie*  to 
the  Ural-Altaio  speech. 

In  religion,  a  large  portion  of  the  Mongoloid  peoples 
are  Buddhiit  (see  BintDHiaM,  Lamaibu),  though 
heathenism,  Mohammedanion,  and  Christianity 
have  their  followers.  The  Mongola  proper 
mainly  Bnddhirt  ;  many  are  Shamans  (see  Shj>  ,, 
ISM),  and  some  of  the  Buriata  have  conformed  to  the 
Greek  church.  See  Howorth,  History  qf  the  M. 
(1880) ;  Oitmonr,  Among  the  M.  (188"' 

MON'OOOSE.    See  IcmranMos. 
MONIMIA'CEjG,  a  natural  order 


having  an  aromatic  fragrance.  There  are  about  40 
known  species,  nativeg  chiefly  of  South  America. 
The  fruit  of  the  Boldu  [Boldoa/ragrant),  ft  shrub 
or  small  tree,  a  native  of  Chili,  is  eaten. 

MONITEUR,  Le,  a  celebrated  French  ionmal, 
started  by  the  publisher,  Charles  Joseph  I'anckoucke, 
6th  May  1789,  under  the  title  of  the  Qioftle 
Nationaie,  ou  U  Monileur  Unino'ad.  During  the 
Itevolution  its  importance  immensely  increased. 
In  ISOO,  it  divided  itself  into  two  halves,  of  which 
t^e  hrst  oontained  the  Acta  du.  OouvemtiaenL 
Thia  change  imported  to  the  joomal  something  of 
an  official  character.  After  Janoary  I,  1811,  it 
dropped  the  title  of  OazeUe  JfatioinU,  retaimng 
only  that  of  AfoniUur  Uaiverid.  After  the  Resto- 
ration, it  became  the  govemment  organ,  which  it 
continued  to  be  until  1869,  when  its  official  connec- 
tion was  discontinned. 
HOITITOB,  •  n 


monitor  [JET.  WOotieat). 

CJata.  Among  them  ore  some  of  large  nze,  the 
rgest  of  eiisting  sanrians  except  those  of  the 
crocodile  tribe.  Ite  tail  of  the  neater  number  is 
laterally  comprsMed,  the  better  to  adapt  tbem  to 
■qnatic  habits.  They  receive  the  name  M.  from  a 
notion  that  they  give  warning  by  a  hissing  soand 
of  the  approach  oi  a  crocodile  or  alligator.  For  the 
same  reason,  some  of  the  Amerioan  species  receive 
the  French  name  Sauvegarde.  Those  of  the  Old 
World  form  the  family  JHoniloridte,  and  those 
Americft  tha  family  TtMa  ot  Mm 


There  are  ■ereral  genera  of  both. — The  M.  v 
Yasim  or  TKB  Mtut  (Jtf.  Ifiioticas)  is  of  a  rather 
slender  form.  Mid  has  a  long  taiL  It  is  olive  gray, 
mottled  with  black.  It  attuna  a  length  of  five  or 
six  feet  Ciooodiletf  eggs  form  part  of  its  food.  The 
TsQUSXiH  [Ttiut  Tegutxin)  of  Broiil  and  Qniana  i« 
of  similar  sisa.  It  preys  on  aquatio  aniinKls.  Other 
large  species  are  plentifnl  in  almost  aU  tropical 
countries.  They  are  powerful  animals,  have  strong 
teeth,  and  defend  theinselves  vigorously  if  attacked 
Some  oomparstively  small  speciea,  feeding  chieUy 
on  insects,  are  found  in  dry  situations,  ^me  of 
the  large  South  American  species  are  used  for  food. 

MOMITOB.    See  TusKBi^Smp. 

MONITO'KIAL  SYSTEM,  or  MUTUAL 
INSTBUCTION.  It  first  occurred  to  Dr  BeU 
(q.T.),  when  tupcniutendent  of  the  Orphan  HoBpital, 


u  IT95,  to  make  uso  of  the  n 


e  advanced 


method  was  eagerly  adopted  by  Joseph  Lancaster, 
who  in  the  first  year*  of  the  present  century  did  so 
much  for  the  extension  of  popular  education;  and 
from  him  and  ths  originator,  the  system  was  called 
indifferently  the  Madraa  and  the  Lancaatriao,  oa 
the  Monitorial  or  Mutual  System.  The 
,' supposed, 
method  of  teachmg ;   it  is  simply  a  method  of 


weU 
monitorial  s; 


organising  schools,  and  of  providing  ths  neoeasary 
teaching  power.  At  a  time  when  the  whole 
question  M  primary  education  was  in  its  infancy, 
Uie  state  refusing  to  promote  it  on  tlie  ground  that 
it  was  dangerous  to  society,  and  the  public  Uttle 
disposed  to  contrihnto  towarda  its  extension,  it 
was  of  great  importance  that  a  system  should  bo 
adopted  which  should  recommend  itself  as  at  onos 
effectual  and  economicaL  It  wsa  manifest  that 
even  with  the  most  skilful  arrangement  of  classes, 
a  single  teacher  could  not  ondertake  the  tnition  ot 
more  than  60  or  90  pupils ;  while,  by  the  judidouB 
emptoymeut  of  the  deverer  boys  under  the  genend 
direction  of  the  master,  the  stJiool  might  be  made 
almost  self-working,  and  300  or  400  children  taught 
where  there  was  only  one  adutt  superintendent. 
The  novelty  and  economy  of  this  plan,  and  we  may 
add  also,  ite  temporary  snccess,  gained  for  it  a  larg« 
and  enthusiastic  support  both  in  Britain  and  m 
Oermany.  But  the  unportutce  of  the  system  as  aa 
educational  agency  was  univeisaUy  over-rated,  for 
although  it  is  to  he  admitted  that,  imdBr  an  able  and 
SDthnsiastio  nwater,  boys  mar  be  insjured  to  teach 
well  all  technical  and  rote  suSjeots  (aa,  for  example 
in  the  I^tin  and  Greek  classes  under  Dr  Fillans  of 
the  iCdinburah  High  School),  yet  it  is  manifest  that 
children  so  metmcted  are  not  in  any  sense  of  the 
word  educated.  Their  monitor  necessarily  lacki 
the  matnrity  of  mind  which  is  indispensable  to  ths 
inatructor,  whose  bosinros  it  is  to  arouse  in  the 
child  those  mental  operations  which  have  taken 
plaoe  within  himself,  and  so  lead  him  to  an  intelli- 
gent and  rational  grasp  of  intellectual  and  moral 
and  physical  truths,  lio  amount  of  private  instrao- 
tioQ  from  the  master,  no  enthusiasm  oculd  over 
enable  a  boy  to  do  tli'",  and  oonsequsntly  ths 
system  broke  down,  titer  having  done  its  work 
l^  being  the  engine  whereby  •  large  interest  was 
starred  np  in  the  education  of  the  masses,  and 
whereby  the  reijaisites  of  a  primary  teacher  were 
bronght  into  view.  Tha  reaction  against  the 
system,  however,  was  not  so  violent  in  Great  Britain 
or  in  Holland  and  France,  aa  in  Germany.  In 
England,  the  monitorial  system  was  modified  in 
auch  a  way  as  to  secure  for  the  master  ths  aid 
of  tlie  mora  clever  boys  in  teaching  rote  subjects, 
in  revising  lessons,  keeping  registers,  and  supervis- 
ing ths  work  of  tbow  olawes  not  dir«ctly  under 

*"     C^ 


MONK-MONKBY. 


tha  matter'a  tuition.  In  thu  way  Tere  afforded 
the  meaiu  of  truning  for  the  teaching  profession 
bojs  who  seemed  fitted  hy  natural  eodownient 
for  the  nork.    Hence  the  prevalent  employment 


IS.O'SK,  Gbobob,  Duke  of  Albemarle,  was 
the  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Monk  of  Potberidse,  in 
Devonshire,  and  was  bom  at  his  father's  residence, 
6th  December  1608.  He  spent  some  of  hia  earlier 
vean  in  the  service  of  Bolland,  retnrned  to  Bag- 
land  when  about  the  age  of  30,  and  served  in  the 
king's  army  against  the  Scota  in  1G39,  attaining 
the  rank  of  lieutenant- colonel  On  the  breaking 
ont  of  the  Irish  rebellion,  in  1642,  he  was  appointed 
colonel  of  Lord  Leiceater's  troops,  sent  to  crush  it. 
Wlien  the  civil  war  began,  these  troo[is  were 
recalled,  and  U,  waa  imiirieoned  on  account  of 
being  supposed  to  favonr  llie  cause  of  the  Parlia- 
ment but  was  soon  aft«r  released.  In  1G14,  he 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  Fairfax,  and 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  from  whion  he  was  liber- 
ated, after  two  years,  on  his  swearing  the  Covenant. 
Clarendon  hint^  that  he  sold  hinuelf  for  money. 
He  was  now  intrusted  with  the  command  in  the 
north  of  Ireland.  CromweU  had  a  high  opinion  of 
his  militaiT  talents,  and  mode  him  his  Keutenant- 
generol  and  commandant  of  artillery ;  and  the  service 
which  he  rendered  at  the  battle  of  Dunbar  was  so 
great,  that  he  was  intrusted  with  the  chief  com- 
mand in  Scotland.  In  1653,  he  was  joined  with 
Admiml  Bloke  in  an  expedition  against  the 
Dutch,  and  with  his  division  of  the  fleet,  consisting 
of  lUO  ships,  defeated  Admiral  Van  Tromp  aS 
Nicnwpoort,  and  fought  another  battle  with  him 
off  Katwijk,  in  which  the  victory  was  doubtful, 
but  Van  Tromp  lost  his  life.  In  April  16S4, 
CromweU  sent  him  to  Scotland  aa  governor,  in 
which  difficult  o&<»  be  conducted  himoelf  with 
vigour,  moderation,  and  equity.  Even  the  High- 
lands, those  immemorial  '  sanctuaries  of  plunder,' 
oa  Cuizot  calls  them,  were  reduced  to  order.  His 
principal  residence  was  Dalkoitli,  where  he  spent 
his  leisure  boura  in  gardening,  of  which  he  was 
very  fond.  When,  aftOT  Cromwell's  death,  he  saw 
eveivthing  in  confusion,  and  felt  his  own  poaitioa 

Kriloua,  he  crossed  the  English  border,  lat  January 
eo,  with  6000  meo,  united  hia  troops  with  those 
which  Fairfax  had  collected  for  Charles  IL,  and 
entered  London  unopposed,  although  as  yet  he 
kept  hia  views  profoundly  secret.  Hia  powers  of 
dissimulatiou  and  reticence  Were  immense.  Every- 
body felt  that  the  decision  lay  with  'Old  George,' 
aa  his  soldiers  used  to  call  liim  ;  every  party  courted 
him ;  be  was  even  offered  the  protectorate  ;  bnt 
while  he  offended  nobody,  he  declined  to  connect 
himself  with  any  of  toe  sectaries,  and  waited 
patiently  the  course  of  events.  His  own  wiah 
(though  it  did  not  proceed  from  any  very  high- 
miaded  motive)  was  to  bring  bock  the  Stuarts ; 
and  before  long,  he  saw  that  the  nation  in  general 
was  thoroughly  with  him.  On  the  Slst  of  February 
he  called  together  the  remaining  members  of  the 
parliament  which  had  been  violently  driven  out 
twelve  years  before,  and  Charles  IL  was  presently 
recalled.  M.  was  now  made  Duke  of  Albemarle, 
loaded  with  honoun,  and  intrusted  with  the  highest 
offices  in  the  state.  But  he  Boon  retired  from 
political  affairs.  In  lG6o,  when  the  pl^ue  ravaged 
London,  and  every  one  Bed  that  could,  *  Old  George,' 
OS  governor  of  the  City,  bravely  atnck  to  his  poat, 
"''   '     allay  the  terror   and 


and  did  what   he  coiUd  t 


Dand  of  the  Ueet  sent  under  tl 


against  the  Dutch ;  and  was  defeated  by  Von 
Ruyter  in  a  sea-tight  off  Dunkirk,  but  soon  after 
gained  a  bloody  victory  over  him  off  North  Foi«. 
Wd.  He  died  3d  January  IGTO.  Guizot  describea 
him  OS  a  *  man  capable  of  great  things,  lliough 
he  hod  no  greatness  of  sonL'  See  Guizot's  3£o^ 
Chute  de  la  Re^ubliqiM,  Skinnei's  Lift  of  Monk, 
HoUam's  Conatitutionai  Hittory,  and  Macaulay'i 
HUtory  of  England. 

MONKEY  (Simia],  a  Linnteon  genna  of  Mam- 
Toalxa,  of  the  Linnsaa  order  Primalet,  and  of 
Cuvier's  order  Quadrumana,  now  constituting  the 
family  Sitniada.  The  word  M.  was  formerly  of 
almost,  if  not  altogether,  the  vune  aignification  witb 
Ape;  but  the  name  ape  ia  now  more  geneiolly 
applied  to  those  Sitniada  which  have  no  tail,  and 
DO  cheek- pouches;  the  name  M.  to  those  which 
have  cheek-poaches  and  long  tails,  prehensile  ty. 
not  prehensile ;  whilst  the  name  Baboon  (q.  v.)  i 
applied  to  creatures  considerably  different  from 
both.  The  smaller  tailless  Siraiada  are,  however, 
atill  not  unfreqnently  apoken  of  as  monkeya,  and 
the  term  is  also  someldmea  used  to  comprehend  all 
the  Simiada^ 

Of  all  animals,  the  Simiada  exhibit  the  greatest 
resemblance  to  man,  both  in  their  general  form  and 
their  anatomical  structure.  Thia  ia  particuloiiy  the 
case  with  some  of  the  larger  apes.  In  Don<  ' 
them,  however,  is  there  a  natural  adaptation 
the  erect  position  so  choracteristio  of  man,  which 
is  assumed  rarely,  and  in  general  only  by  captive 
individuals,  as  the  rcaidt  of  training  and  constraint, 
all  of  the  M-  tribe  preferring  to  walk  on  four  feet 
rather  than  on  two,  but  all  of  them  being  adapted 
for  living  chiefly  among  the  branches  of  trees,  or — 


make  use  of  the  four  extremities  for  prehension, 
OS  hands.  Most  of  them  leap  from  branch  to  branch 
with  wonderful  agility,  and  some  also  awing  them- 


thumb,  in  all  the  four  extremities,  is  opposable 
the  fingera,  which  are  long  and  flexible:  but  there 
are  some  monkeys  which  want  the  thumb  of  the 
fore-limbs,  or  have  it  merely  rudimentary,  whilst 
the  hind-limbs  are  always  fumiabed  with  perfect 
hands.  In  attempting  to  walk  erect,  an  ape  neces- 
aarily  treads,  not  on  the  soles,  but  on  the  sides  of 
its  feet,  which  are  turned  inwards,  and  ^e  muscles 
of  the  legs  do  not  enable  it  to  mointslin  an  erect 
poaition  long  or  easily,  Thia  difficulty  is  increased 
by  the  way  in  which  the  head  is  affixed  to  the 
vertebral  column,  the  occipUai  foramen  being  further 
bock  than  in  man,  so  that  the  weight  of  the  head  ia 
thrown   forward.— The  face  of   a   M.   exhibits   a 

Ctesque  resemblaace  to  that  of  man;  but  the 
er  forehead,  the  less  perfect  nose,  and  the  more 
S rejecting  jawa,  give  it  a  brutal  character.  The 
entition  of  monkeys  is  so  similar  to  that  of  man, 
that  the  dental  formula  for  very  many  is  the  same, 
although  many  others  have  an  additional  molar  on 
each  side  of  each  jaw ;  but  in  many,  the  great  siza 
of  the  canine  teeth  is  a  marked  bniUd  characteristic. 
— The  digeetivB  organs  ore  generally  very  similar  to 
those  of  man,  but  in  some  of  the  Sitniada,  more 
exclusively  conlined  to  vegetable  food,  there  ia 
■  remarkable  difference  in  a  peculiar  and  very 
complicated  rtructure  of  the  stomach. — The  food  ot 
monkeys  consists  chiefly  of  fruits,  com,  and  other 
vegetable  substances  ;  but  most  of  them  also  catch 
and  eat  inseeta,  and  even  birds,  of  the  egge  of  which 
they  are  also  very  fond.  In  captivity,  they  leom 
to  eat  and  drink  almost  everything  that  is  used  by 
man,  and  shew  a  great  fondness  &r  sweot  things, 
4it4  fvt  i4col>olip  liquors.— The  akin  of  ^[ikeys  \fk 


llONKBT  POTS— MOKUOUTH. 


nmerallj  oorered  in  all  pnta  with  hair,  bat  lotna 
nave  the  face  partially  naked,  and  manj  bave 
naked  oaUoiitiw  oa  tna  bnttocks. — Many  bave 
capacious  cheek -poachet,  in  wbioh  they  itow  away 
food  which  they  cannot  consume  with  sufficient 
expedition.  They  are  moatly  gregarioni,  althonsh 
to  tbU  there  are  tome  exceptiona.  Man^  of  t£e 
•pecies  diagday  strong  attachmeat  to  thew  mate* 
and  to  their  oSspring.  One  or  two  youns  are 
generally  produced  at  a  birth.  They  display  a 
roniM'kjible  propensity  and  talent  for  imitation ; 
aDd  this,  with  their  extreme  a^ity,  their  cnrions 
prying  dispomtion,  and  their  love  of  trick  or  nuBchief, 
makes  them  Tery  amusing,  whether  in  a  wild 
or  a  captive  st«t«.  Many  of  the  stories  told  of 
monkeys  manifest  alio  a  high  degree  of  intelligence. 
although  it  may  be  doubted  if  the  intelligence  of 
any  of  the  species  exceeds  that  of  the  dog  or  the 
elephant.  Notwitbatandins  their  rosemblance  to 
the  human  form,  their  imitative  propensity,  and 
their  intelligence,  none  of  the  monkeys  shew  the 
Btnalleet  capacity  for  imitating  the  human  voice ; 
and   their  'chattering'  is  very  uulika    articulate 

The  species  of  this  family  are  Tcry  numerous, 
bat  are  all  coDlined  to  the  warm  parts  of  the  world ; 
Australia,  however,  and  the  South  Sea  Islands  being 
destitute  of  them.  They  are  divided  int«  a  number 
of  eeoera,  some  of  which  belong  exclusively  to 
particular  portions  of  the  worl£  But  in  this 
respect,  the  most  remarkable  circamstanca  is  the 
difference  between  those  of  the  Old  World  and 
those  of  America,  the  geographical  diatribntion 
correBponding  with  the  division  of  the  family  into 
two  principal  groups — the  monket^  of  the  Old 
World  (CatarrKini  of  some  naturalisU),  to  which 
alone  tbs  name  Simiada  is  sametimes  restricted, 
having  the  nostrils  separated  only  by  a  narrow 
septum,  and  the  tail  wantiug,  short,  or  long,  but 
never  prehensile ;  the  monkeys  of  the  New  Worid 
{Plat^prhiai),  the  family  CebidtE  of  some  natnmlists, 
having  the  nostrils  widely  separated,  the  tail  always 
lonft  and  often  prehensile,  most  of  them  having 
also  the  four  additioniu  molar  teeth  already  noticed, 
which  none  of  the  monkeys  of  the  Old  World 
possess;  but  none  of  them  having  cheek- pouches, 
which  many  of  the  monkeys  of  the  Old  World 
bave.  The  most  interesting  genera  and  species  of 
M.  are  noticed  in  separate  ifticle*. 

HONKEY  POTS.    See  Lbc;tthidacb& 

MONK'8-HOOD.    See  Acosm. 

UONK'S  BHUBAKB.    See  Bock. 

MO'KMOUTH,  a  parliamentary  and  mnnicipol 
borough  and  market-town  of  £n)(land,  capital  of  the 
couuty  of  Uis  same  name,  stands,  amid  beautiful 
scenery,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Monnow  and  the 
Wye,  21  mile*  west-south-west  of  (iloucester.  Its 
church,  dating  from  the  14th  c,  is  sunnoimted  by  a 
lofty  spire.  Of  its  castle,  the  favourite  residence  of 
Joh^  of  Oannt,  and  the  birthplace  of  Henry  V.,  the 
niins  only  remain.  A  building,  said  to  be  the  study 
ol  Geoffry  oC  Monmouth,  is  all  that  exists  of  the 
Benedictine  monastery.  Bailways  connect  the 
town  with  Newport  on  the  W.  and  Boss  on  the  E. 
Ironworks,  employing  a  number  of  workmen,  are 
in  operation.  F^p.  (1S8I)  6112.  U.  umtes  with  New- 
port and  Usk  in  sending  a  member  to  pariiamenL 

HOMMOUTH,  a  maritime  couuty  in  the  west  of 
England,  bounded  on  the  S.  by  the  estuary  oE  the 
Severn,  and  on  the  W.  by  Glamor^n.  Area, 
S68,3»9  acres.  Pop.  (1671)  1B3,448 ;  (ISSl)  211,374. 
Tho  chief  rivers  are  Uia  Usk,   the  Wye  —  "- 


indented  only  at  the  mouth  of  the  Usk  (which  ii 
navigable  for  vesida  of  the  bu-geat  size  to  Newport), 
and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wye,  which  vessels  ascend 
to  Chepstow.  The  surfaoe  is  elevated  ia  the  north 
and  north-west  (the  t>ugar-loa£  is  11154  feet  high), 
but  the  coast  districts,  comprising  the  Wentloog  and 
the  Caldecot  Levels,  are  low  and  rich,  aad  ore  pro- 
tected from  the  wash  of  the  sea  by  sea-walls  and 
earthworks.  In  the  fertile  valleys  of  the  Usk  and 
Wyt^  wheat  is  the  principal  crop  ;  but  in  the  leas 
favoured  localities,  barley  and  oats  cbleily  are  grown. 
Coal,  limestone,  and  iroustone  abound  in  the  mineral 
district  of  M.,  in  the  north-west  of  the  countif. 
This  district,  comprising  S9,000  acres,  abounds  in 
collieries  and  ironworks,  and  is  a  perfect  network 
of  railways.  M.  was  a  Welsh  county  until  the 
reign  of  Uenry  VIII.,  but  the  ancient  largiuge  is 
now  heard  only  in  a  few  western  districts.  The 
scenery  of  this  county  is  unusually  beautiful ;  and  in 
no  part  of  Endand  are  to  be  found  so  many  remains 
of  feudal  castles  as  in  the  eastern  districts  of  thia 
county.  The  chief  remains  ore  Baglon,  Caldecot, 
and  Chepstow  castles  ;  and  Llauthony  and  Tiotem 
abbeys  (q.  v.).  Roman  antiquities  are  numerous. 
The  county  sends  tliree  mcuibera  to  purliament. 

MONMOUTH,  James,  Dinu  or,  natural  son 
of  Charles  IL,  was  born  at  Botterdam  in  1649. 
His  mother,  Lncy  Walters,  according  to  Evelyn, 
a  'browns,  beautiful,  bolde,  but  insipid  creature,' 
came  to  ^utand  with  her  son  in  1656,  during  tiia 
CommouweaJth.  She  is  said  to  have  been  treated 
as  though  she  had  been  the  king's  wife,  and  waa  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower ;  but  was  soon  allowed  to  retire 
to  France,  where  die  died.  Charles  sought  out  the 
boy,  and  committed  him  to  the  care  of  Lord  Crofts, 
who  gave  him  his  own  name.  On  the  Restoration, 
M.,  then  'Mr  James  Crofts,'  came  to  England  with 
the  queen-dowager,  and  was  handsomety  lodged  at 
Hampton  Court  and  WhitehalL  These  honours 
were,  in  aftei^years,  referred  to  by  his  followers  as 
justifying  their  belief  that  he  was  indeed  the  king's 
legitimate  son.  A  wealthy  heireaa,  Anne,  daughter 
of  the  Earl  of  Buccleucli,  was  selected  for  his 
wife;  and  before  he  hod  completed  his  ISth  year, 
he  was  married  to  her,  and  was  created  Buke  of 
Monmouth.  About  the  year  1G70,  Shaftesbury  put 
M.  forward  as  the  head  of  the  popular  party,  and  rival 
of  the  Duke  of  York  (afterwards  James  II,).  At 
the  period  of  the  Titus  Gates'  plot  (167S).  nimonrs 
that  the  'Protestant  Duke'  was  indeed  the  kin^s 
legitimate  son  spread  far  and  wide.  The  Duke  of 
York  was  compelled  to  quit  the  kingdom ;   and 

Cliament  brought  forward  a  bill  for  excluding  him 
n  the  succession,  when  Charles  suddenly  dissolved 
it.  A  document  was  at  the  same  timo  issued  by  the 
king,  solemnly  declaring  that  bo  bod  never  been 
married  to  Lucy  Walters.  M.  was  sent  into  Scotland, 
in  1679,  to  quell  the  rebellion.  He  defeated  the 
Covenanters  at  Bothwell  Bridge  ;  but  his  hiunanity 
to  the  fleeing  and  wounded  was  so  conspicuous, 
and  his  recommendations  to  pardon  the  prisoners 
were  so  urgent,  as  to  bring  upon  him  the  violent 
censures  of  the  king  and  Lauderdale.  He  thus 
became  the  idol  of  the  English  Nonconformists. 
The  return  of  the  Duke  of  York,  and  the  exile 
of  M.,  soon  followed.  In  Holknd,  he  allied  him- 
self to  the  leaden  of  the  Nonconformist  party, 
exiled  like  himself;  and  when  he  was  allowed  to 
return  to  London,  he  was  received  with  such 
demonstrations  of  joy,  that  M.  felt  that  he  was 
the  people's  choice.  In  16S0,  he  mode  a  semi- 
royal  progress  through  the  west  of  England,  with 
the  design,  probably,  of  courting  the  Nonconformists, 
who  were  more  numerous  there  than  in  any  otiier 
part  of  the  country,  except  London  and  Easex.  Id 
1<^  he  tzaveiwd  some  of  the  northern  countisft 


ItOHOCSOSD-ltOltOOSAlt. 


A  cowardly  < 
■Unahteraa  lil 
feUu  thelw 


m  dengn  to  ieiza  the  king**  penon,  and  mbvert  hii 
govemment.  The  king  psrdoDed  him,  on  his  lolemu 
promiMi  to  ba  a  loyal  mbject  to  the  Duke  of  York, 
in  oaae  Um  latter  abould  (orviTe  the  king.  In  16S4, 
M.  fled  to  Antwerp!  mhI  remaioed  abroad  nntil  the 
death  of  the  kinft  when  he  reaolred  to  embark 
forEnglaikd.  He  landed  (Jone  11,  16S5)  at  Lyme- 
Begii,  tu>d  iwned  »  pianifeato  deolariog  Jamee  to  be 
*  mniderer  and  oaorper,  ohargiag  him  with  inbo> 
doome  popery  and  arbitnry  power,  and  tusertdug  hii 
own  iesibmaoy  and  ri^ht  t^  blood  to  bs  kin^  of 
Ea^and.  He  wm  reoeived  with  ^reat  aoolamationa 
»t  Tatmton,  where  he  waa  procUmied  aa  Jamea  H. 
At  Frome,  he  heard  the  news  of  the  defeat  of 
Argyle,  who,  at  the  bead  of  the  Scottith  exiles,  had 
attempted  io  raiaa  an  ininrrection  in  ScoUsnd. 
Money  and  men  were  now  abnndaiit;  bnt  arm* 
were  wanting,  and  thonaanda  went  home  for  want 
of  them.  On  the  Sth  July,  he  waa  pennaded,  wi<^ 
only  2S00  foot  and  600  hoiM^  to  attack  the  kin^a 
forcee,  which,  under  the  oommand  of  the  Earl  of 
Favenham,  were  encamped  at  Sedgemoor,  near 
Bridgewater.  liL'a  troops  were  nnable  to  cross 
a  mnning  itream  or  wid«  ditch  which  protected  the 
camp,  and  w«r«  mowed  down  by  the  king's  artillery. 
Their  ammunition  aoon  failed ;  and  M.  having  set 

" "-  example    of    flight,    hi«   troops  were 

like  sheep.  About  3(X>  of  ii.'t  followers 
._.  battle ;  bnt  1000  were  massacred  in  the 
pntsnit.  M.  was  found  concealed  in  a  ditch,  and 
was  broaght  to  London.  He  made  the  moet 
hnmiliating  sabmiBsiona,  and  obtained  a  personal 
interview  with  James.  '  He  clnog,'  tays  Maoanlay, 
'in  agonies  of  sappUcations  round  the  knees 
of  the  stem  uncle  be  had  wronged,  and  tasted  a 
bitterness  worse  than  that  of  death,  the  bitterness  of 
knowing  that  he  had  hninbled  himself  in  vaia.' 
Even  his  praver  for  'one  day  mor^'  that  be  might 
'go  ont  of  the  world  as  a  Christian  ought,'  was 
brutally  refused.  On  ths  Ifitb  June,  be  was  bron^t 
to  the  Boaffold,  and  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill;^e 
exeenlioner  perfonniug  his  office  so  nnakiUiilly  that 
fire  blows  wwo  stmek  before  the  head  was  severed. 
Ilia  '  Bloody  Assizs '  afterwards  commenced  under 
Judge  JeSr^s,  lAen  M-'s  adherents  paid  a  fearful 
penal^  for  their  participation  in  his  rash  and  ill- 
advised  rebellion. 

MOVOOHORD,  an  appantos  constmeted  to 
exhibit  the  mathematical  proportions  of  musical 
{□terrali.  It  consists  of  a  flat  b^rd  of  four  or 
eight  feet  long,  better  16  feet,  where  space  can  be 
spared.  The  br«adth  of  the  board  is  aooording 
to  the  number  of  the  strings,  whidi  are  from 
two  to  sit  The  board  i*  covered  with  finewbite 
paper.  A  straight  line  is  drawn  from  end  to  end 
below  each  "tnn^  and  each  line  is  accurately 
divided  into  the  di^erent  proportions  into  which  the 
full  length  of  the  string,  as  a  fundamental  sound, 
barmomcally  divides  it^lt  See  Harmohich.  The 
string  is  fixed  at  one  end,  and  rests  on  a  bridge ; 
while  at  the  other  end,  where  it  also  rests  on  a 
bridge,  it  is  stretched  by  a  tnning-pc^  or  by  a 
wei^t.    The  sounds  from  the  strings  are  produced 

Ka  violin-bow.    The  monochord  is  chiefly  used  in 
uttratiDB  aoonsticsl  experiments  in  the  proportion 
of  intemus  and  temperament. 


MONOOOTTLEUOKODS  PLANTS,  plants 
in  which  ths  embrpo  has  one  and  only  one 
Co^ledon  (q.  v.).  The  oolylBdott  in  these  planU 
Tanas  extrranely  in  form,  snd  is  often  comparatively 
CJ  grant  size,  but  has  always  a  slit,  from  whtoh,  as 


feotly  M  any  struotnn 
Of  ths  fossil  n 


germination  takw  plaoe,  the  genunule  sprouts. 

Smmnle  in  elongating  assumes  an  acuminated  shapea 
onocotyledonons  plants  are  all  Endogenous  (q.  T.)  } 
except  the  Dictyogens  (q.  v.),  in  which  the  endo- 
genous stmotnre  is  not  perfectly  exhibited.  They 
are  also  aidorhical  (Gr.  endim,  within,  rhiza,  a  root) ; 
that  ia,  the  radicle  ia  covered  with  a  oeUolar  sheath, 
and  gives  rise  to  fibrils  similar  to  itsdf  in  structora. 
The  leaves  are  Mnsrally  sheathing  at  the  base,  and 
there  embraoa  Us  stsm ;  Qmj  s£o  genetall^  b»v« 
simple  parallel  nerves  oonneoted  by  cross  veins,  ths 
leaves  of  dictyogens  alone  being  reticulated,  Tha 
number  of  the  [urts  of  the  flower  is  generally  threes 
or  a  multiple  of  three.  The  floral  envelopes,  often 
splendid,  aa  in  lilies,  tulips,  ftc — are  generally  united 
as  a  Ferionth  (q.v.),  instead  of  forming  a  distinct 
calyx  and  corolla.  The  principal  natural  orders  of 
monocoMedonons  plants  are  Grasses,  Oj/peroMt^ 
Palms,  Orchids,  SeUaminat,  ATumiwe,  LUiaeecc,  and 
Itidaaea.  The  general  appoaraiioe  of  monoootyU- 
almost  as  per- 

of  ths  T^[etable  kingdom, 

uiQ  Bmau^n  poraon  coomsts  of   monoC0^1e£m0UB 

idanta,  both  aoo^ledonous  and  dioo^ledono*ia  plaata 
being  much  more  abundant. 

HOItODOTf.    BeeNABWHAL. 

MONCE'CIOTJS  (Or.  monos,  one,  and  otUnn,  a 
habitation),  the  term  used  in  botany  to  describe 
those  plants  which  have  the  male  and  female  parts 
of  fructiScadoQ  (rinmau  and  pittiU)  in  different 
flowers,  but  upon  the  same  plant.  The  flowera  o( 
such  plants  are  also  s^d  to  be  moaadoat.  Uonce- 
cioos  plants  form  one  of  t&e  classes  of  the  Tinnman 
artificial  system,  but  mimy  occasional  instances  of 
moncecioua  species  are  to  be  found  in  genera  belong- 
ing to  other  classes.  Mon<Bciuus  plants  often  have 
the  flowers  io  catkins,  sometimes  the  male  flowen 
only ;  and  often  in  spikes,  the  male  flowers  some- 
times occupying  the  upper,  and  sometimes  the 
under  part  of  the  same  sinke  with  the  female 
flowers,  and  sometimes  distinct  spikea  upon  the 

plants  are  the  hop,  box,  birch,  beech,  alder,  oak, 
and  luuel. 

UO^OORAH  (Or.  monos,  alone,  and  gramma, 
letter),  a  character  composed  of  two  or  mora  letters 
of  the  alphabet  often  interiaeed  with  other  lines, 
and  used  as  a  cipher  or  abbreviation  of  a  name.  A 
perfect  monogram  is  one  in  which  all  ths  letten  of 
the  word  are  to  be  traced.  The  use  of  monograms 
b^an  at  a  veiy  early  date.  They  are  found  on 
Greek  coins,  medals,  and  seals,  and  are  particularly 
numerous  on  the  coins  of  Macedonia  and  Sicily. 
Both  on  ooins  and  in  M33.,  it  was  the  practioe  to 


s  of  e 


known,  but 
Monograms  occur  on 
the  family  coins  of  Borne,  bnt  not  on  the  otnns  irf 
the  earlier  Roman  emperors.  Constantine  placed 
on  his  coins  ana  of  the  earliest  of  Christian  tnmio- 
grams,  which  is  to  be  traced  in  the  recesses  of  tbe 
itactnnbs,  composed  of  the  first  and  second  letters 
XPimr  (Christus),  a  monogram  which  also 
appeared  on  the  lAbarum  (q.  v.),  and  was  continued 
on  the  coins  of  the  succeeding  emperors  of  ths 
East  down  to  Alexander  Comnenus  and  Theodoras 
lAScaris.  We  often  find  it  corolnned  with  the  first 
ist  letters  of  the  Greek  alphaltet  (B«t.  l  8). 
Fig.  1.  Another  well-known  monogram  is 
that  of  the  name  of  Jesus,  IHS,  from  tha  firat  three 


Pope 


n  the  jiraotioe  of 


DO  of  using  s  mono- 


U0t(0SttAl#-U0ttOtIAlttl. 


the  coiiu  of  tb«  Frenali  king*  of  the  C&rlovingian 
race  bear  their  respective  moDOgrami,  aa  alao  do 
thoaeof  AJfred  andmneot  tha  other  8uon  kingi 

AX* 


Karolut  oAn  be  traced. 

Paiuten  and  engraven  in  GoniBiif  and  Italy 

have  used  monagranu  to  a  large  extent  aa  a  maana 

of  diBtiogaiaUn^  their  wotlu. 

n  In   tiiese,  the   initial  letten 

pis  of   theii   namea    were   often 

■  A  I  interwoven  with  figorea  of  a 
I  M  JL  aymbolical  cbamcter,  to  aa  to 
m£f^^^9^J^   '°"°  '  rebna  on  tlie  artiafa 

■  '%  \^  O  °Biii&  ^'  3  >■  ^B  mOQOgram 
I  \  iT  "^  Albert  DUrer;  fl^  4,  of 
'                I  Lodger  nun  Bins,    llie  fint 

ll  tvpognpher*       ffiatingniBhed 

'™"  tneir  publioationa  hy  wood-cut 

¥\g.  2:  vignetteo,  whoee  invention  ia 

aacribed  to  the  elder  Aldua ; 

but  bendea  theae,  each  made  naa  of  a  monogram 

or  didier,  a  aeriea  of  which,  well  known  to  the 

bibliographer,   flxea   the   identity  of    the  andect 

edition%  German,  ItaliUL  and  tlngliah^  from  the 


»»& 


Re.  4. 


r%.  E. 


Kg.& 


Invention  of  printing  down  to  tlie  middle  or  end 
of  the  16<^  oentury.  Fig*  B  u  the  monoonun  of 
Andrea  Tnrreiano  d'AaoIa,  father-in-law  of  Aldna 
Manntiot;  Fig.  0,of  Lnca  Antonio  Gionta,  a  cele- 
brated printer  of 
Venice  between 
1489  and  1500; 
Fig.  7,  of  William 
Caxton.  For  a 
detailed  account 
Fig.  7.  of  the  monograms 

of  eariy  prmten 
and  other*,  see  Bmlliot,  DieSomiairt  da  Mimogmm- 
im»  (Mnnioh,  1832—1834);  Bome'a  Introduclion 
to  BibliographB,  voL  iL ;  and  Herbert's  and  Ames's 
Typo^pvpliKoi  AniifptitUt. 

MO'NOOKAPH,  a  work  in  which  a  particokr 
■abject  in  any  Hcieoce  is  treated  by  itself,  and  forms 
the  wbole  aubject  of  the  work.  Monographs  are 
entirely  of  recent  date,  and  iisve  coutribatea  much 
to  the  progreaa  of  aoleace.  In  botany  eepeciallj, 
monognpha  of  oldere  and  genera  are  very  nnmeroUB ; 
and  some  of  them  are  among  the  moat  splendid  and 
sumptuous  of  Eoientific  works. 

MONOLITH,  a  monument,  column,  obelisk, 
statue,  or  other  structnre  formed  of  a  single  atone- 
In  India,  there  are  examples  of  mondiOiio  templea, 
the  wbolo  being  out  oat  ol  the  solid  took. 


MOKOMAITIA  has  loosely  been  made  to  represent 


single  faculty,  or  olasa  of  faenltiea  <it  associations,  be- 
oome  diseMed,  the  mind  geoenlly  remaining  heallliy. 
Slight  and  aditaty  aberrations,  inch  •■  where  » 
eavaga  antipathy  to  cats  ooezists  with  a  lore  tor 
human  kind ;  where  there  appeaii  to  be  an  inoon- 
troUable  tendency  to  steal,  to  aqoander,  to  drink,  to 
destroy,  are  of  common  occurrence,  and  are  sapposed 
to  be  compatible  with  the  exercise  of  inteUiKence, 
and  with  the  discharge  of  manv  of  the  ordinary 
duties  of  life.  By  a  mare  strict  hmitation,  the  term 
bo*  been  oonHned  to  such  affections  aa  invcdva  the 
emotions  and  propensitiea  alone.  It  is,  however, 
held  that,  notwithstanding  its  apparent  integrity, 
the  whole  mind  is  involved  or  uillnenced  by  Uia 
preaenoa  of  such  mortnd  oonditiona,  at  least  while 
they  are  predominant.  It  is  undoubtedly  difficult 
to  point  out  in  what  manner  the  belief,  e.  g.,  that 
a  particnlai  oroan  has  been  transmuted  into  glan, 
can  interfere  with  or  render  the  memory,  or  the 
power  of  institating  oomparieouB,  defective  and 
nntmstwOrthy ;    yet   it   is    Intimate  to   receive 


^ and  abrarditiea  with  which  thev  are  asso 

oiated;  or,  having  detected  the  real  character  of 
theaa  errora,  are  unable  or  unwilling  to  cast  them 
ont,  4>t  to  disregard  them.  There  ia  much  oounte- 
given  to  this  theory  by  facta  which  indicate 

iveD  trivial  forma  of   mental  obliqnitv  ore 

oonneoted  with  an  onaonnd  wganisation ;  and  that 
particnlar  and  rarely  recognised  monomanias  are 
mvariably  associated  with  tiie  tame  structural 
alteration.  The  unhealthy  elevation  of  the  aenti- 
~  cantioasnees,  for  example,  espedallv  where 
nta  to  fear  of  death,  panic,  or  panptiobia,  ia 
symptom  of  diaeaae  of  the  heart  and  loi^  blood- 
eesels;    while    the    monomania   of   ambition,    or 

rjmism,  as  it  hat  been  styled,  is  the  conoomitont 
the  general  paralyais  of  the  inaonaL  It  will  be 
obvious,  from  the  definitiona  previooaly  introduced, 
that  the  speciea  or  varieties  of  monomania  most 
conespoiid  to  the  facnltiea  or  phaaea  of  the  hnman 
mind,  and  to  their  combiuabona.  Several  great 
divisions,  however,  have  been  aignalioed,  bot£  on 
account  of  their  frequency  and  of  their  influecice 
upon  the  individual  and  upon  aodety.  L  Mono- 
mania of  Suspicion,  comprehending  doubta  in  the 
fidelity  and  honesty  of  friends  and  those  around, 
belief  in  plots  and  congpiraciefi,  the  dread  of  poison  ; 
and  where,  as  is  often  the  case,  it  ia  conjoined  with 
:unniug,  the  propensity  to  conceal,  mystify,  and 
leceivch  This  malady  haa  frequently  been  obaerved 
n  intimate  connection  with  cancer  and  malignant 
•Towtha.  2.  Monomania  of  Superstition  and  Unseen 
■Lgendes,  where  orednlity,  minted  with  religious 
awe,  peoples  the  external  world  with  spectres,  omeo^ 
mysteriea,  magnetism ;  and  the  imagination  with 
horrors  or  ecstatio  reveries.  Insensibility  to  ™n,  or 
indifference  to  external  iniuriea,  haa  been  observed 
oharacteristio  of  individuals  affected  witb  this 

ose.      3,   Monomania  of  Vanity,   or  Euphoria, 

where  display  and  ostentation  are  indulged,  without 
referenoe  to  the  position  and  means  of  the  patient. 
4.  Monomania  of  Fear.  0.  Monomuiia  of  Pnde  and 
Ambition.  6.  Kleptomania  (q.  v.).  7-  Dipsomania 
(q.  v.).  If  it  can  be  proved  that  sach  morbid 
tendencies,  as  have  been  here  mentioned,  and  othen 
atill  lea*  prominent,  are  merely  salient  point*  of 
a  great  breadth  and  depdi  of  mental  disease,  the 
pl^  of  insanity  may  justifiably  be  employed  more 
bequently  in  the  consideration   of  cnminal  acta. 

Esqnirol,  La  Monotnanie ;   Bayle,  JUaladU*  d» 

CarBea»;  Stephens's  OrinuiudLawufSngiand,^  92. 

t  Google 


MONONGAHEtA— MONOPOLY. 


MONONGAHE'LA,  »  river  which  riaes  ii 
Alleghany  Moontaina  in  Virginin,  United  States  of 
America,  and  flowing  north  into  Pennsylviinia,  aniten 
with  the  Alleghany  at  Pittsburg  to  form  the  Ohio. 
Ito  whole  length  i»  300  milca.  It  ia  navigable  for 
iteam-boals  to  Brownsville,  60  milea,  with  danu 
loctu  for  low  water.  Vast  seams  of  eoot  open  . 
high  banks,  from  which  flat  boata  are  loaded, 
floated  dowD  with  the  correitt  through  the  Ohio 
and  MisiissippL 

MONOPE'TRAL,  a  temple  formed  of  an  open 
drcle  of  columns  carrying  a  roof,  and  without  a  celL 


haa  only  one  nature  (Or.  mmoa,  one ;  physit,  nature), 
a  human  nature  become  divine.  Monophysite  viewa 
were  firet  dei^idcdly  put  forward  in  the  controversy 
against  Nettorius.  Cyril  having  eipresaed  the 
opinion  that  the  fleah  of  the  Lo^  woe  eaaenlial  to 
his  personality,  the  archinmndnte  Eutychet  (□■  v.) 
went  on  to  assert  a  dei&cation  or  apotheoiia  of  the 
fleah  of  Christ,  and  obtained  the  conaent  of  a  synod 
at  Ephesui,  in  449,  conimonly  called  the  '  Synod  of 
Robbers,'  to  this  doctrine ;  but  he  and  his  adherents 
(at  Grat  colled  after  him  KtrrycRiAN'B)  were  con- 
demned aa  heretics  by  the  Cooncil  of  tiialcadon  in 
451.  It  was  after  this  council  that  the  name  Jfono- 
phyiila  began  to  be  used.  The  decision  of  the  council, 
however — viz.,  tbnt  in  Christ  Ivio  notores,  neither 
interfused,  changed,  nor  divided,  were  united  in  one 
person,  and  constittited  one  hypostasis — was  not 
calculated  to  allay,  but  rather  to  increase  discord. 
Accordinglv,  the  strife  grew  hotter.  The  Aaiatic 
and  Egyptian,  clergy,  stronoly  opposed  to  Neatori- 
onism,  were  genenilly  inSined  to  Monophysite 
views,  and  received  countenance  from  the  fSnperor 
Baailiacus.    After  long,  and  often  bloody  contests 


This  separ^ion  took  place  in  the  first  half  of  the 
6th  c,  when  the  imperial  protection  hitherto 
boatowed  npon  them  was  lost  by  the  alliance  of  the 
emperon  Justin  and  Justinian  with  the  Latin 
Church.  Besides,  they  hod  not  maintained  unity 
among  themselves.  Aa  early  as  4S2,  when  the 
Emperor  Zeno  published  his  famous  Henotiam,  or 
formula  of  concord,  it  was  accepted  by  several  of 
the  more  moderate  MonophysiteB.  This  roused  the 
indignation  of  the  extrcmcr  sectaries ;  they  renoucced 
fellowship  with  their  laier  brethren,  and  formed  a 
■ect  of  their  own.  They  were  called  A  tfphaloi,  and 
formed  the  ultnu  among  the  Monophysites.  Con- 
troversies  arose  also  in  619  on  the  question,  whether 
or  not  the  body  of  Christ  was  corruptible.  The 
Severians — adherents  of  Severus,  a  deposed  bishop 
of  Antioch — aHirmed  that  it  was  ;  the  Julianista,  or 
Oajanitea,  followcis  of  Bishop  Julianns  or  Gajanus, 
denied  it.  The  former  were  consequently  called 
(Or.)  PhthartolalTvtt,  (Lat)  Corruplicola  (Worship- 
pert  of  the  corrupt) ;  the  latter,  AphtiiaTlodoceUx 
(Believen  or  Teachers  of  Incormption),  and  some- 
times — aa    an    incorruptible   body  could   only   be 

Parent,  and  not  real — Fhaaiaaaxtt.  The  AphUuzr- 
>tela  split  again  on  Hi*  other  point— whether  or 
not  Christ's  bmly  was  created  ;  the  Aldittetai  (Or. 
ilfuo,  to  create)  asserting  that  it  was  not  created, 
and  the  KlitloiatTUii,  that  it  tmu.  The  Severiana, 
called  also,  after  one  of  their  bishops,  Theodaaiant, 
finally  got  the  upper  hand,  aud  eicommumcated . 
their  opponents,  including  another  sect,  the 
Agnofioi,  who  denied  that  Christ  as  a  man  was 
omniscient.  About  560,  the  Monophysite  Askus- 
nat;es,  and  after  hint  the  Christian  philosopher 
Philoponus,  ventured  to  apeak  of  tha  Tnree 
Persona  in  the  Godhead  a*  Three  Oodai     This,. 


however,   wo*   reekoned   heretical    even    by   tlio 

M.  themselves,  and  was  the  occasion  of  a  large 
recession  to  the  bosom  of  the  Catholic  Chnrt^ 
Monophysite  communities  continued  strongest  i: 
Egypt,  Syria,  and  Mesopotamia,  where  they  DUux 
tamed  a  regular  eoclcaiastical  order  nnder  their  own 
patriarchs  oC  Alexandria  and  Antioch ;  and  after 
the  Syrian,  Jakob  Baradxus  (Al-Baradai,  died  about 
678),  hod  drawn  np  for  them  an  ecclesiastical  consti* 
tution,  they  formed  the  independent  churches  of  the 
JtKobila  (q- V.)  ond  Armfiiiant.  See  AMtKSuii 
CauRCU.  The  Coptic  and  Abyssinian  churches  ai 
also  Monophysite  in  doctrine. 

MONOTOLI,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy  in  th 
province  of  Bari,  sitoated  on  the  Adriatic  fiore,  iu  _ 
pleasant  and  healthy  plain,  2S  milea  east'Sonth-east 
of  Ban.  Pop.  about  14,000.  It  ia  supposed  to  be  of 
Grecian  origin,  the  name  in  Greek  signifying  the 
tolitary  city.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  has  a  fort- 
ressoonstructedinlddSbyChorlesV.  The neichbonr- 
ing  territory  yields  an  immense  quantity  of  diveoil. 
MONO'POLY,  from  the  Greek,  signiGea  sola 
■etling  or  individual  selling,  and  has  uways  been 
used  to  express  a  limitation  to  one  or  more  pen 
of  the  right  or  power  to  conduct  business  ■ 
trader,  it  is  ^nerally_  used  in  a  bad  feiwe 
express  somethmg  injurious,  but  ecoDomio  scie 
has  lately  very  much  narrowed  the  field  over  which 
■■*-  injurious  character  is  supposed  to  extend.  In 
first  place,  it  must  be  created  by  force ;  if  it 
le  in  the  natural  course  of  trade,  it  is  generally 
beneficiaL  Thus,  to  a  village  where  three  or  four 
traders  have  conducted  a  small  lazy  bi;siness,  draw- 
ing larf;o  profits,  there  comes  a  capitalist,  who  sets 
up  a  large  concern  on  the  ready-money  system,  and, 
by  selling  good  articles  at  a  low  rate,  abeorbs  all 
the  business.  He  is  of  course  abused  aa  a  monopo- 
list \,y  the  ineflective  persons  he  hoa  superseded; 
but  his  presence  is  a  blessing  to  tUa  community 
generally.  If,  however,  he  bod  gone  to  the  village, 
"^ot  to  compete  with  others,  but  with  a  royal  patent 
a  his  pocket  securing  to  him  the  exclusive  ^adc  of  the 
village,  as  he  could  sell  at  his  own  price,  snd  make 
a  fortune  without  trouble,  he  would  of  conise  be,  lika 
the  old  royal  monopolists,  a  calamity  to  the  people. 
A  careful  distinction  must  be  preserved  between 
monopoly  and  praperty^that  is  to  say,  an  exclusive 
right  to  trade  must  be  separated  from  an  exclusive 
right  to  potltM — for,  while  the  law  of  property 
exists,  possession  will  alwaya  be  exclusive.  1^ 
then,  a  trade  can  only  be  conducted  with  large 
capital,  it  must  fall  to  those  who  either  singly,  or 
'  — o-operation,  can  Command  that  capital ;  and  the 
rer  to  all  complaints  on  the  port  of  others  is, 
since  capitalists  can  best  serve  the  publio,  it  ia 

for  the  public  that  canitalists  should  be  allowed 

to  do  so.  'The  old  corn-laws  and  landed  proper^ 
conjoined  to  produce  one  of  the  beat  illustrationa  <H 
the  distinction.  The  power  of  producing  grain 
within  Britain  has  always  been  of  neceaaity  limited 
*">  those  who  have,  eith^  as  owners  or  tenants,  1^ 
immondof  the  land.  Forfeit  all  tlie  land  in  ~ 
inntry  to-morrow,  and  proclaim  the  production 
grain  to  be  free,  the  result  would  only  be  a  chongo 
of  ownership  {  for  those  who  by  their  vood-luck, 
or  more  probably  by  their  power,  cot  hold,  of  rich 
old  wbi^t'landa,  would  produce  their  grain  much 
cheaper  than  those  who  got  the  poor  lands,  and, 
selling  the  produce  at  the  same  price,'  would  pocket 
the  (CfTercnce,  which  would,  in  fact,  juat  be  rent 

ned  by  them  as  the  new  landlords.     Bat  when 
ers  offered  the  people  groin  from  abroad,  and 
the  corn-laws  rendered  it  impossible  to  sell  that 


,,  Google 


MONOSTOMA-UONOTBfllfA'rA. 


artiSeUlly  ndtiiig  pricei,  and  ottwrwise  dutnrbing 
trade. 

A  deal  of  legialstioo  was  waited  by  our  anceBton 
in  enoctmetits  to  prohibit  people  from  creating 
monopoUea  by  that  fair  eompebtion  which  is  now 
cooaiaered  the  true  healthy  development  of  trader 


fonnd  in  the  article  Ekobossino.  Wien  ^tish 
trade  was  increasing  in  the  li6tb  &',  it  found  some  old 
jHiwers  aUeged  to  be  inherent  in  the  royal  prero^a- 
tivB  for  conferring  exclusive  trodii^  Tigl'ts,  which 
led  to  tDQch  oppressioD  and  loss.  In  Queen  Eliza- 
beth's parlinmant  of  1597,  a  complaint  waa  made 
that,  for  the  benefit  of  favoured  courtiers,  oppressive 
nonopoliefl  had  been  granted,  not  only  for  the  sale 
of  foreign  luiuriea.  but  for  salt,  leather,  cool,  and 
other  ortictes  of  ordinary  consumntion.  Queen 
Eliabeth  said  ahe  'hoped  her  dutiful  and  loving 
■nbjecta  wonld  not  take  away  her  prerogative, 
which  ia  the  choicest  flower  in  her  garden,  and  the 
rnincipal  and  head  pearl  in  her  crown  and  diadem.' 
Parliunent  returned  to  the  charge,  however,  in 
1601,  when,  on  the  reading  over  of  the  list  of  mon- 
opoliea,  a  theatrical  scene  occurred  by  a  member 
calling  ont :  'la  not  bread  among  the  number!' 
and  on  tbil  prodacinK  a  sensation,  continiiing ; 
'Nay,  if  no  remedy  is  found,  bread  will  be  there 
before  the  next  parliament.'  In  1621,  parlianient 
took  proceedings  against  Sir  Oilei  Mompeason, 
charged  with  an  oppressive  use  of  his  patent's 
monopoly.  Four  years  afterwards,  an  act  was 
passed  limiting  this  power  in  the  crown.  It  leaves 
only  the  right  to  grant  a  limited  monopoly  in  the 
manufacture  of  his  invention  to  any  inventor,  and 
this  is  the  origin  of  the  present  patent  law,  See 
Patett. 

MONCySTOMA,  a  Renns  of  Trematoid  worms,  so 
called  from  having  only  a  single  luckeT,  which  is 
situated  anteriorly,  and  surrounds  the  mouth.  It 
belones  to  the  Tranaioda  Diggaea  (of  Van  Beneden), 
alt  of  which  present  the  phenomena  of  alternation 
of  generatJons,  the  earlier  or  larval  forms  occurring 
chietly  in  molluscs,  while  the  iierfect  worms  ore 
found,  for  the  moat  port,  in  vertebrated  onimala. 
Among  the  species  of  this  genas  occur  Jf.  yfapiim, 
found  in  waterfowl  (the  larva  being  the  Cercaria 
tphemera,  which  ia  common  in  PlaBiMiis,  &c).  M. 
mMtabUe,  found  in  various  birds,  and  M.  knlU.  The 
lost-named  species  derives  its  apecilic  name  from 
its  having  been  found  bv  Von  Nordmann  in  •  lens 
extracted  in  a  case  ol  calaiaA  Cobbold  and 
other  distinguished  helminthologists  are  inclined  to 
believe  that  this  is  not  an  independent  species,  bnt 
that  it  ia  identical  with  the  IHdoma  ophOaimiobmm 
of  Diesing. 

MO'NOTHEISM,  the  term  naually  employed  to 
denote  a  belief  in  the  numerical  unity  (uniM  tiumero) 
of  the  Oodhead,  or  belief  in  and  worship  of  one  Ood. 
It  is  thus  the  opposite  of  Pot^iAeism  (q.v.).  See 
God.  The  'doctrme  of  the  Trmity'  is  thought  by 
(ome  to  be  incompatible  with  the  monotheism  taught 
by  Jesus  Christ,  and  ia  therefore  rejected  as  no  port 
of  his  teaching.  See  Unitarians.  Mohammedans 
and  Jews  hold  tbe  doctrine  of  the  '  unity  of  God,' 
even  more  rigorously  in  some  respccta  than  modern 
Christians,  at  least  they  reject  with  vehemence  the 
least  approach  to  a  Irinitoriaa  conception  of  the 
Deity.    The  majority  of  mankind  are  polytheists. 

MONO'THELISM  (Or.  monot,  wngle,  and 
(Affcin,  to  will),  a  modification  of  Eutychianiam, 
which  was  introduced  after  the  condemnation  of 
that  doctrine  by  the  Council  of  Cholcedon.  It  con- 
usted  in  maintuning  that,  although  Christ  had  two 
natures,  yet,  these  natorea  possessed  or  acted  by  but 
ft  tingle  will,  the  hnmon  wdl  being  merged  in  tlie 


divine,  or  absorbed  by  it.  The  author,  or  at  least 
the  most  active  propagandist  of  this  doctrine,  was 

Sercius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who  obtained 
for  It  the  support  of  the  Emperor  HerooUus ;  and 
its  progress  was  materially  forwarded  by  the  sUence 
which,  at  the  instance  of  Sergius,  and  nnder  hi* 
representations,  the  pope,  Honorius  (q.  v.),  was 
induced  to  maintain  regaiding  the  question.  The 
doctrine  was  formally  condemned  in  the  sixth 
general  council  held  at  Constantinople  in  the  year 
6S0.  with  which  condemnation  it  is  commonly  said 
that  the  early  controversies  on  the  incamatioD  ware 
ended.     See  Edtvchks  ond  Momophthitib, 

MONOTRB'MATA  (Or.  mono.,  single,  Irhna,  an 
opening),  the  lowest  order  of  mammalia,  in  many  of 
their  characteristic  points  indicate  an  approiimation 
to  birds.  The  skull  is  smooth ;  the  brain.cose  ver? 
amaU  as  compared  to  the  face ;  the  snout  much 
prolonged,  and  the  jaws  unprovided  with  soft 
movable  lipe,  and  not  furniabed  with  teeth.  {In  the 
omithorbynchos,  there  ore  two  homy  plates  in  each 
balf-jaw,  which  act  as  teeth,  while  in  the  echidna 
even  these  substitutes  for  teeth  are  wanting.)  The 
cranial  bones  coalesce,  as  a  bird's,  at  a  very  early 
period,  and  leave  no  signs  of  sutures.  The  eiteniM 
ear  is  altogether  absent;  while  the  eyes,  though 
amall,  are  perfectly  developed. 

The  bones  of  the  shonlder,  forming  the  scapnlor 
BTcb,  ore  unhke  those  of  any  other  mammals,  and 
in  some  respects  resemble  those  of  birds,  and  in  other 
respects  those  of  reptiles.  At  the  top  of  the  Btemam 
ia  a  T-shaped  bone,  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
two  olavicles,  corresponding  to  the  fiirculum  in  tbe 
bird's  skeleton.  The  coracoid  bones,  which  in  other 
mammnlB  an  mere  piooeaaea  of  die  scapula,  are 
hen  extremelr  la^^  and  awnst^ 


e  scapula,  are 
I  m  Virda,  in 


Honotremata : 

The  btetit-boae  Hid  nllir-boDa  of  the  Eehldoi. 

(From  Af  Una  Edward '1  Zoology.) 

cromL  or  procesi  oC  Btspnla]  d,  bone  oomBpondlDff 


strengthening  the  scapular  arch ;  while  the  scapnloi 
themsalves  ore  produced  beyond  the  socket  of  the 
humems  (the  glenoid  cavity),  so  as  to  articulate 
with  the  sternum. 

The  pelvis  ia  provided  with  marsupial  bones, 
klthoagh  these  animals  do  not  possess  a  pouch. 

The  leet  have  five  toes,  armed  with  long  nails ;  in 
addition  to  which,  the  hind-feet  of  the  males  are 
provided  with  a  perforated  spur-lite  weapon,  which 
IS  connected  witli  a  gland.  The  AustrsJian  abori- 
gines believe  the  wonnda  made  by  this  aj^ur  ta  be 
poisonous;  but  tbere  is  no  scientific  evidence  of 
the  f set. 

lie  ovaries  tn  uudogooa  to  tiioieof  birds,  tha 

..CnoB.jld 


■Tr 


ItOKOT&OPACK^-liOlffiOti. 


rigbt  oraxf  beiiig  compantivdy  nndaveloped,  while 
the  left  fomu  a  rmoemifomi  maaa.  The  orificta  of 
the  nrinuy  caiula,  the  intoitiiul  cuul,  nod  the 
genentiTe  ctuul,  open,  »■  in  birds,  into  ft  oommoD 
cloaoi,  froiB  which  oircuiiutance  the  order  Mono- 
ftwula  derivea  ita  nune.  The  mumnoiy  glands, 
of  which  there  ia  onlj  one  on  each  aide,  are  not 
provided  with  nipplee,  bnt  open  by  aimpla  aUta  on 
each  aide  of  the  abdomen. 

Tliis  order  imoludea  onlj'  twa  or  three  ipedes,  all 
nativea  of  Australia  or  Van  Diemen'a  Land,  which, 
however,  form  two  families — the  OmttAorAyncAitfa 
(•M  Ddck-biu.),  and  the  EdMnida  (see  Eohidiia). 

No  fesail  reauuna  ol  any  *"■""■'■  of  thia  older 
kave  ••  yet  been  discovered. 

HONOTBOPA'<m£,  a  small  natnril  order  of 
axogenoiu  planti,  allied  to  EriiMi  and  Ptjrdacem  : 
bnt  remarkably  differing  from  both  in  their  habit. 
They  are  herbsoeons  plants  with  scales  instead  of 
leave*,  and  grow  paraaiticsUy  on  the  roots  of  pines 
and  other  trees,  in  the  northern  parta  of  the  world. 
Tie  only  Britiah  species  is  Monotropa  hypopUyt, 
aometimaa  oalled  TWoa,  BiriSt  Ntd.  The  whole 
plant  has  a  ptesMiut  smelL 

MOKRBAXlg,  a  dty  of  the  island  of  Sicny, 
province  of  Palermo,  and  6  miles  south-west  of  the 
city  of  that  name,  on  the  flank  of  a  ateep  hilL 
Pop.  1.1.496.  It  baa  a  cathedral,  a  palace,  aeveral 
conveutoa]  eatablishmenta,  and  posaesses  a  healthy 
climate.  Ita  chief  aonrce  of  wealth  is  its  export 
trade  in  oil,  com,  and  fmit,  almonds  being  one  of 
ita  moat  important  prodncta. 

HONBO,  Alkxaitdkb,  an  eminent  aoatomist, 
and  founder  <i  the  medical  achool  of  Edin- 
bni^k,  styled  primtu  to  distinguish  him  from  his 
eon  and  aocceasor,  waa  bora  at  London,  September 
8,  1697.  Hia  grandfather,  Sir  Alexander  Monro 
li  Bearcrofts,  a  eolooel  in  the  army  of  Charles  IL 
at  the  battle  of  Worceater  in  1851,  was  afterward* 
an  ftdvocate  at  the  Scottish  bar;  and  his  father, 
John  Monro,  for  some  years  a  sorKeon  in  the  army 
of  King  William,  in  Flanders,  on  leaving  it,  entered 
into  practice  in  Edinburgh.  Alexander  studied  at 
London  under  Cheselden,  at  Paris  under  Bonquet, 
and  at  Leyden  under  Boerhaave,  and  in  1T19  passed 
aa  a  anrgeon  at  Edinburgh.  In  January  1720,  he 
waa  elected  by  the  town.connoil  flret  Professor  of 
Anatomy  In  the  nnirenity.  Of  the  establiahment 
and  building  of  the  Royal  Infirmary  of  Edinbiin;li,  he 
was  one  of  the  two  principal  promoten,  and  after  it 
was  opened,  he  delivered  clinical  lecturea  there  for 
the  benefit  of  the  students.  In  Jannoty  1766,  he 
received  the  degree  of  M.D.,  and  in  March  follow- 
iug  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Coll»e  of 
PhyaidanB  of  Edinbnr^jti.  In  1760,  he  resigned  the 
anatomical  chair  to  his  yonngest  son,  the  subject 
ol  tiie  following  notice,  but  continned  Us  elinical 
leoturea  at  the  Infirmary.  His  principal  works 
an—Otleologg,  or  TrtatiM  on  tht  Anaiomy  of  tiie 
BoMi  (Edin.  1726,  Svo) ;  Btmy  on  Cot^xxnOiBe 
AJtalomy  (Lond.  1744,  8vo)  ;  Ohurtaliemt,  Ana- 
tomical and  Phytt'ologieal  (Edin.  1769,  Svo);  and  an 
Aeccunt  oj  tht  8iuxt*»  of  InoailaHon  of  BmaU-pax 
in  BcoUand  (Bdin.  1766,  Svo).  He  waa  secretary 
of  a  Society  at  Edioburgh,  which  published  six 
Tolomas  of  iftdicai  Etaaya  and  Ohtervatioiu,  many 
of  them  contributed  by  hiinaelf.  Two  more  volume* 
of  B»»ay»,  Phyaeal  avd  Literary,  were  subsequently 
inned  by  tlie  same  Socie^,  under  the  name  of  the 
PhUoeo^iiaal  Sooie^.  Dr  M.  died  July  10,  1767. 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Iloyal  Society  of  London, 
and  a  membo'  of  the  Koyal  Academy  of  Snrgei;  of 
Paris. 

MONKO,  AtKXAmiEB,  seeundus,  an  eminent 
phyncian  and  medical  professor,  youngest  son  of 


and  in  October  17S5,  obtained  the  d^ree  of  M.D. 
lu  July  followini,  he  waa  appointed  jomt  ProfeaaoF 
ot  Anatomy  and  Surgeiy  with  his  father  in  tha 
university  of  Edinborgh.  He  attended  lor  some 
time  the  anatomical  lectures  of  Professor  Meckell 
at  the  university  of  Berlin.  He  abo  visited  Levden, 
Admitted  a  licentiate  of  the  Edinburah  Boyal 
College  of  PhyaiciauB,  1768,  he  waa  dected  a 
Fellow,  1769,  and  was  afterwards  pr«eident.  On 
the  resignation  of  hia  father  in  the  latter  year, 
be  became  full  Profeasor  of  Anatoi^,  and  alao 
succeeded  him  aa  Secretary  ot  the  Fhilaai^hical 
Society,  which  in  1783  waa  incorporated  l^  royal 
charter,  and  took  the  name  of  the  Boyal  Socie^  of 
Edinburgh.  In  1767,  he  published  at  Berlin  a  abort 
treatise,  De  VenU  LympIuUicii  ValtnJoti*,  in  support 
of  the  tiieory,  that  the  valvular  lymphatias  over  tha 
whole  of  the  animal  body  are  one  general  aystam 
of  abeorbenta ;  which  led  to  a  controversy  with  Dr 
William  Hunter  of  Landon.  Among  his  other  works 
are— 0*  t/ie  Slrudure  and  Functiinu  of  lAe  Senoa* 
Byatem,  a  large  illoatrated  folio  volume  (Edin.  17S3) ; 
On  the  Struclure  and  Phyaiolagy  of  FiAet,  also  am 
illustrated  folio  volume  (E^iio.  17S6);  Iktcrij^im 
<f  all  Hie  BtiTta  Sfaeota  qf  lie  Htanan  Body  (Edin. 
1738) ;  and  Thru  Trealiset  on  Ae  Brain,  the  Eye, 
aitd  the  Ear,  illustrated  by  plates  (Edin.  1797, 4to). 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Koyal  Academies  of  Paris, 
Madrid,  Berlin,  Moscow,  and  other  learned  insti- 
tutiooB,  aod  one  of  the  first  Fellows  of  the  Hoyal 


practioa.     He  died  October  2,  1817,  in  his  87tli 

HONKO,  Ai.BXAirDSB,  fcrfwis,  anatomical  pn>- 
feasor,  son  of  Dr  Alexander  Monro,  teaatdm,  bora 
at  E<Unbnivh,  November  6,  1773,  was  educ^ed  at 
the  High  School  and  university  of  that  city,  and 
studied  medicine,  anatomy,  and  largely  in  London. 
In  1798,  be  beoune  joint  Rnfesaor  td  Anatotn^ 
with  hia  father,  and  the  following  year  he  took  hia 
degree  of  M.D.  In  1603,  he  instituted  the  dsaa 
of  Practical  Anatomy  in  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh ;  and  in  1608  he  sucoeeded  his  fathw 
in  the  anatomical  chair.  In  1828,  he  waa  Presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  College  of  Phyaicians  <tf  Edin* 
burgh ;  and  he  contribnted  many  valuable  papers 
to  its  Traiuaaiont.  He  was  also  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  He  retired  &om  his 
chur  in  1S47,  with  the  title  of  Emeritus  Professor 
of  Anatomy;  and  thus  ended  the  oonnection  between 
the  college  of  Edinburgh  and  the  family  of  Uoniu^ 
which  larted  for  more  tban  a  century  and  a  quarter. 
He  died  at  his  seat  of  CnuHlockart,  near  Edinburgh, 
March  10. 1859.  He  was  the  author  of  Obtervalioiu 
on  Crural  fl'enito,  plates  (Edin.  1803)  :  The  Mortnd 
Anatomy  nf  (he    Gullet,  SlomaA,    and   InleaUaes, 

plates  (Edin.  ISl"      " 

Ilumaa  Body  (4 
profeaaional  works, 

MONROE',  a  city  of  Michigan,  TJuited  States  at 
America,  is  situated  cm  tha  river  Raisin,  2  miles 
from  Lake  Erie,  and  32  miles  south- weat  of  Detroit. 
It  ia  the  eastern  terminne  of  the  Michigan  Southern 
Railway-  It  hae  a  large  court-house,  7  churches, 
woollen  manufactures,  flour-milla.  So.  Pop.  (1830) 
4930.    M.  was  settled  by  the  French  in  1776. 

MOHROB,  JAitia,  fifth  preaident  of  the  TJnitad 
States  of  America,  was  born  in  Westmoreland 
County,  Virginia,  April  28, 1758.   He  waa  deaoended 


ifOHS-UOHSOOK. 


tnta  a  C^iUin  Monroe  of  the  army  of  CtBrlea  L,  who 
emigrated,  witji  other  Cavaliera,  to  Virginia,  Jarne* 
M.  entered  the  revolntioiiary  army  at  uio  $>ge  o( 
ac  a  cadet,  and  waa  presaDt  at  eeveral  bstUea; 
having  lost  hia  tank  in  the  amiy  by  aervine  aa  ai 
de-camp,  fae  oonunenced  to  study  law  with  JefTeraon. 
In  1782,  he  waa  eleoted  to  the  Assembly  of  Virginia, 
•nd  at  the  age  of  23,  to  the  BzecnUve  Counoil 
Next  year  he  waa  elected  to  Congreaa,  where  he  took 
ma  aotiTe  part  in  the  movementa  for  framing  a  new 
oonstitiitian.  He  joined  with  Patrick  Henry  and 
other  leadingStatea'  Bighta  men  in  oppoaing  the 
ratifioation.  He  feared  tM  power  and  encioaclunent 
of  the  Fedeml  govemtnenL  Be  was  afterwards 
sent  by  Washington  aa  nunister  to  Trance,  and 
waa  received  with  singular  enthiuiaBm  by  the 
reTolntionary  goremiaent.  He  waa,  however,  soon 
recalled,  for  having  too  decided  French  sympathies 
Ja  1799,  he  waa  ^ected  governor  of  Virgipia ;  and 
in  1803  sent  ^i</  Jefferson  as  minister  to  France,  to 

torchase  LouistaDO,  which  vait  territory  he  secnred 
ir  15,000,000  dollars.  He  was  now  empbyed  far 
several  years  in  diplomacy  in  Enfiland  and  Spain. 
On  the  election  of  Mr  Madison  to  the  preeidency,  he 
was  made  Secretary  of  State,  and  also  performed  the 
duties  of  Secretary  of  War.  In  IS16,  his  eminent 
•ervicea  were  rewuded  by  his  being  elected  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  by  the  Democratio  Repub- 
lican party,  and  be  made  hunself  very  popular.  The 
acquisition  of  Florida  from  Spain,  and  Ute  settle- 
ment of  the  vexed  miestiiHl  teepectillg  the  extension 
of  slavery  by  the  MissooH  Compromise^  by  which, 
after  the  reception  of  Miaaonri  as  a  slave  atatci  the 
institution  was  prohibited  above  the  line  of  latitude 
36°  Sff,  helped  to  secure  hia  re-election  in  182a  His 
most  popular  acts,  perhaps,  were  the  recognition  of 
the  independence  of  Mexico  and  the  Sonth  Ameri- 
can republics,  and  the  promulgation  of  what  has 
since  b«en  called  the '  Monroe  Doctrine,'  in  which  he 
declared  the  American  policy  of  '  neither  entangling 
ourselves  in  the  broils  of  Europe,  nor  Buffering  the 
power*  of  the  Old  World  to  interfere  with  the 
afFaii*  ot  the  New,'  and  that  *  any  attempt  to  extend 
their  system  to  any  portion  of  this  hemisphere,  would 
be  dangerous  to  our  peace  and  safety.'  In  1826,  he 
retired  to  hia  seat  at  Oak  Hill,  Loudoon  County, 
Virginia;  bat  he  still  continued  in  the  pnbUo 
service.  After  being  twice  president,  he  acted  aa 
justice  of  the  peace,  a  visitor  of  the  university  of 
Virginia^  and  member  of  a  State  Convention;  bnt 
A  profoae  generonty  and  hospitality  caused  hun  to 
be  overwhelmed  wiUt  debt,  and  he  found  refuge 
with  hia  relations  in  New  York,  where  he  died 
in  ISni — like  his  predeoeasora,  Adams  and  Jeffeison, 
on  the  4th  of  July.  He  was  an  honourable  and 
Me  aCatesman,  though  not  a  speaker  or  ft  man  of 

UONS  (Flem.  Berehai),  an  important  town  of 
Belgium  (formerly  fortified),  capital  of  the  province 
of  Hainanlt,  on  the  Trotulle,  3S  miles  south-west 
of  Brussels.  Its  fortiflcations  were  renewed  and 
strengthened  since  1813,  but  in  1866,  in  accordance 
with  the  new  arrangement  for  the  defence  of  the 
oonntry,  they  were  demolished.  The  immediate 
Ticinity  can  be  laid  under  water  by  altering  the 
course  ot  the  Trouille.  The  Canal  de,  Condi  con- 
nects the  town  with  the  Scheldt,  and  there  is  com- 
mnnication  by  railway  with  Brussels,  Valenciennes, 
Charleroi,  &a.  Its  principal  architectural  ornament 
is  the  cathedral  of  St  Waudni,  datine  from  the  15th 
and  16th  centaries— a  masterpiece  of  Gothic.  Tho 
chief  manufactures  are  woollen  and  cotton  goods, 
cutlery,  small- wares,  and  sugar- refining.  The 
vicinity  forms  an  extensive  cow-field,  with  about 
'  ''~  A  large  trade  is  carried  on  in  coals, 
^cattle.    Fop.  (1881)  2^103. 


)  pits.      A  large   trac 
t,  hemp,  hones,  and  ci 


ML,  supposed  to  ooonpy  the  site  of  a  Roman 
station,  was  made  the  capita]  of  Haiikault  by 
Charlemagne  in  801  During  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries,  it  was  froqnently  the  object  of  contest 
between  France  and  Anstria. 

MONSOO'N  (Mola^^n,  Jfusfm)  is  derived  from 
the  Arabic  word  Matuim,  a  set  time  or  season  of  the 
year,  and  is  applied  to  those  winds  prevailing  iu  the 
Indian  Ocean  which  blow  from  the  sonth-west  from 
April  to  October,  and  from  toe  opposite  direction, 
or  north-east,  from  October  to  ApnL  The  existence 
of  these  winds  was  made  known  to  the  Greeks 
daring  the  Indian  expeditions  of  Alexander,  and  by 
this  knowledge,  Hippalns  waa  emboldened  to  sail 
across  the  open  sea  to  Muzeris,  the  emporium  of 
Malabar.  The  monsoons  depend,  in  common  with 
all  winds  whether  regular  or  irregular,  on  the 
inequahty  of  heat  at  different  places  and  the  earth's 
rotation  on  ita  axis ;  bnt  more  partionlariy  they  are 
occasioned  by  the  same  circumstances  which  produce 
the  trade-winds  and  the  land  and  sea  breezes,  beii^ 
in  fact,  the  combined  effect  of  toese  two  sets  of 

U  the  eqnatorisl  n^ns  of  the  earth  were  entirely 

covered  with  water,  the  trade-winds  (see  Tradx- 
wmta)  would  blow  constantly  from  the  north-east 
in  the  north,  and  from  the  south-east  in  the  south 
of  the  torrid  sone,  with  a  belt  of  variable  winds 
and  calms  interposed ;  the  whole  system,  follow- 
ing the  sun's  coune,  moving  northward  from 
December  to  June,  and  southward  from  June  to 
December.  But,  especially  in  the  eastern  hemi- 
sphere, large  tracts  of  land  str«toh  into  the 
tropica,  and  give  rise  to  the  extensive  atmospheric 
disturbances  for  which  toose  parts  of  the  earth  are 
BO  remarkable.  During  the  snmmer  half  of  the 
Tear,  the  north  of  Africa  and  the  souto  of  Asia  are 
heated  to  a  higher  degree  than  the  Indian  Ocean, 
while  AustrHilia  and  South  Africa  are  mnch  colder. 
As  the  heated  air  of  Southern  Asia  expands  and 
les,  and  the  colder  air  from  the  sonth  flows  in  to 
ipply  its  place,  a  general  movement  of  the  atmo- 
sphere of  the  Indian  Ocean  sets  in  towards  tiie 
-  ->rth,  thus  giving  a  uniiherly  direction  to  the  wind ; 
it  as  the  air  comes  from  those  parte  of  the 
globe  which  revolve  qaicker  to  those  which  revolve 
alowly,  on  easterly  direction  will  be  communi- 
to  the  wind ;  and  the  combination  of  these 
two  directions  results  in  the  south-west  monsoon, 
which  previuls  there  in  summer.  Since,  daring 
winter.  South  Asia  is  colder  than  the  Indian  Ocean, 
which,  again,  in  its  turn,  is  colder  than  Souto  Africa, 
a  general  motion  of  toe  atmosphere  sets  in  towards 
the  souto  and  west.  As  this  is  in  the  same  direction 
as  toe  ordinary  trade-wind,  the  effect  in  winter 
is  not  to  change  the  direction,  but  only  to  increase 
the  velocity  of  the  trade-wind.  Thus,  while  souto 
of  the  equator,  owing  to  toe  absence  of  sufficiently 
large  tracts  of  lane^  toe  aouto-east  trade-winds 
prevail  throughout  the  year ;  on  the  north  of  the 
equator  we  find  toe  sontn-west  monsoon  in  snmmer, 
and  the  norto-eoat  in  winter;  it  being  only  in 
summer  and  north  of  the  equator  that  great 
changea  are  effected  in  the  direotion  of  the  Inde- 

Similar,  though  lesa  strongly-marked  monsooBa 
prevail  off  the  coasts  ot  Upper  Quinea  in  Africa, 
and  Mexico  in  America.  The  east  and  west 
direction  of  the  shorea  of  toeae  countriea,  or  the 
large  heated  surfaces  to  toe  north  of  toe  seta  which 
wa^  toeir  coasts,  produce,  precisely  s«  in  the  case 
of  Sonto  Asia,  a  south-west  monsoon  in  sommer. 
Aa  might  have  been  expected,  the  monsoon  off  toe 
coast  of  Mozambique  is  easterly,  and  that  off 
toe  coast  of  West  Australia  north-westerly.  The 
tiado-winda  also  suffer  consiilETable  change  in  their 


MONSTEANCE-MONSTEOSmr. 


direction  on  ths  cooata  of  Brazil,  Pern,  Lower 
Quinek,  Ac  Theie,  though  sometiuieB  conaidered 
moiuoonB,  &re  not  truly  Buch.  for  they  do  not 
efajuge  their  directiong  periodical!)',  lo  as  to  be 
oppoeite  to  each  other,  Uka  true  montoon*,  but 
only  Teer  through  a  few  poiuti  of  the  compow. 
For  a  fuller  account  of  these  partial  defleotiona,  aee 
Trade- WIKD3. 

In  April,  the  north-eut  monioon  changes  into  tha 
•outh-west ;  and  in  October,  the  ■outh-weat  into  the 
aortb-eMb  Tbeae  timea  depending  an  the  course 
of  the   aun,  and   oonaeqaeotly  varring  with   tb« 

latitnde,  are  called  the  breaking  np  of  the 

and  are  generally  aocompanicd  by  vorial 


Monsooni,  vhen  compared  irith  the  trade-winda, 
wilt  be  fonnd  to  play  a  inoet  beneticial  and  import- 
Mit  part  in  the  economy  of  the  globe.  Their 
greater  velocity,  and  the  periodical  changea  which 
take  riace  in  their  direction,  aecure  increaaed  fiwi- 
lity  U  commercial  iDtercourse  between  diSereat 
countriei.  But  the  full  beuefita  following  in  tbeir 
train  ate  not  aeen  unless  they  be  considered  in  their 
relatioil  to  the  rainfall  of  Southern  Asia.  Indeed, 
the  fertility  o(  the  greater  part  of  this  line  region  is 
entirely  due  to  the  monaoona  ;  for  if  the  north-east 
trade-wind  hod  prevailed  there  throughout  the  year. 
Central  and  Western  India,  and  many  other  places, 
woold  only  have  been  scorched  and  barren  aabaroa. 
5Tie  rainffUl  of  India  depend*  entirely  on  the  mon- 
aoona. The  cowt  of  Malabar  baa  its  rainy  season 
during  the  south-weet  monsoon,  which  brinfa  thither 
the  rapoura  of  the  ocean.  On  the  Coromandel  coast, 
00  the  other  hand,  it  ia  the  north-eaatmonaoon  which 
bringa  tho  rain  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  The  two 
ooaats  of  Hinduatan  have  therefore  their  aeaaona 
reversed,  the  dry  season  of  the  one  corresponding 
with  tiie  wet  eeaaon  of  the  other. 

MO'NfiTRANCB  (Lat  motulrart,  to  shew), 
called  alto  Ostkhsokt,  the  aacrsd  utensil  employed 
in  the  Boman  Catholic  Church  for  the  purpoae  of 
presenting  the  conaeciated  host  for  the  adoration  of 
tha  people,  M  wdt  while  it  ia  carried  in  procession, 
aa  when  it  ia  eipoied  npon  the  attar  on  occoaionB  of 
apecial  aolemnity  and 
prayer.  The  nae  of  the 
luonetrance  probably 
datea  from  the  eatab- 
liahment  of  the  featival 
of  Corpna  Christi  in  the 
13th  century.  It  con- 
■iata  of  two  parte,  the 
foot  or  stand  upon 
which  it  rests,  and  the 
repoaitory  or  case  in 
which  the  host  is 
exhibited.  The  latter 
contuna  a  small  aemi- 
circular  holder  called 
the  lunula,  or  crescent, 
in  which  the  host  ia 
fixed ;  and  it  appears 
anciently  to  have  oeen 
of  a  cylindrical  or 
tower-shaped  fonn,  in  the  central  portion  of  which, 
oonristing  of  a  glasa  or  crystal  i^linder,  the  host 
was  placed.  At  present,  it  is  more  commonly  in 
the  form  of  a  star  or  aun  with  raya,  the  central 
portion  of  which  is  of  claaa  or  cryatal,  and  aerves 
to  permit  the  hoat  to  be  aeen.  Thia  portion,  or 
»t  leaat  the  creaoent,  ia  of  gold  or  of  silver  gUt ; 
the  rest  is  generally  either  of  the  precious  metala, 
or  at  least  gilt  or  silvered,  although  the  lower  por- 
tion ia  occasionally  of  l»onze  artistically  wrought. 
In  many  eaae«,  it  is  of  moat  costly  materiaU  and 


by  a  bishop,  or  a  prieet  delegated  by  a  bishop     By 
a  peculiar  uaa^  of  the  city  of  Lucerne,  in  Switzi 
bod,  the  EuoWist  is  alwaya  carried  in  the  ma 
strance,  when  being  boma  to  the  sick. 

MOHSTHO'SITT,    in    Anatomy.       When 
infant,  or  the  young  of  any  animal,  comes  into  the 


observed  that  thay  have  originated  in  the  same  way 
after  birth,  such  an  infant  or  young  animal  is  said 
to  be  a  monster  or  monstrosity.  Monsters  wcr« 
formerly  regarded  as  prodigies  of  nature ; 
the  dark  ages,  their  occurrence  in  the  human  species 
was  usually  ascribed  to  the  intercourse  of  demons 
snd  witches.  It  is  now  perfectly  understood  that 
the  formation  of  those  apparently  anamalous  beings 
may  be  accounted  for  by  the  same  lawa  ea  thoae 
which  govern  the  formation  of  perfect  individuala — 
the  only  difference  being,  that  these  lawa  in  the 
case  of  monstrosity  are  mora  or  leas  arrested  or 
otherwise  perverted. 

Amount  tha  principal  causes  of  monstrosity  may 
be  mentioned ;  1.  Something  deficient  or  abnormal  in 
the  generative  matter  of  one  or  bothnarents,  because, 
OS  has  been  shewn  in  the  article  Hereditajun^s, 
malf ormationa  are  frequently  transmitted  from  parents 
to  the  children.  Here  the  morbid  change  ia  impressed 
npon  the  fietua  at  the  moment  of  impregnation.  7 
Some  morbid  condition  of  the  luHtemal  organs  o 
conatitution  may  exercise  a  disturbing  influenc 
upon  developments  3.  Diseases  and  abnormal  states 
of  the  placenta,  of  tho  membranes  of  the  ovum,  and 
of  the  umbilical  cord,  may  induce  an  arrest  of  devel- 
opment ;  for  example,  it  may  lie  easUy  noderatood 
how  abnormal  sboitnesa  of  the  cord  may  favour  Uie 
origin  of  fissure  of  the  abdomen ;  while  a  cord  oC 
disproportional  length  may  coil  round  one  of  the 


directly  on  the  fcetus,  as  mechanical  injuries  a 
diseases  affecting  it,  are  the  most  frequent  causes 
nalfonnatiooa.  From  the  eiperimenta  of  several 
observers,  it  haa  been  shewn,  that  by  anbmitting 
hens'  eggs  to  various  mechanical  influences  dnring 
incubation,  the  development  of  the  embryo  may  be 
interrupted,  or  modified  in  snch  a  manner  as  to  give 
rise  to  malformations  ;  and  many  observatlona  tend 
to  prove,  that  mechanical  influences  affecting  the 
womb  (kicks,  blows,  or  falls)  in  the  early  monthi 
of  pregnancy,  produce  certain  malformations,  by 


triplet  pregnandea,  favoun  the  view, 
that  oertain  monstrosities  are  due  to  pressure  and 
confined  space. 

Of  the  various  classifications  of  monstrosities,  the 
following  is  perhaps  tha  best :  1.  Malformations  In 
which  c^toin  ports  of  tha  normal  body  are  entirely 
abseut,  or  ore  too  small  2,  Malformatioua  produced 
by  fusion  or  coalescence  of  organa.  3.  Malformatioua 
in  which  parte  naturally  united,  aa  in  the  mesial  line 
of  tha  body,  are  separated,  and  clefts  of  1 
occur.  4.  Malformations  in  which  natiml  opeuina 
are  closed.  5.  Malfonnatiooa  of  excess,  or  in  whioli 
certain  parts  have  attained  a  disproportional  siza. 
6.  Malformations  in  which  one  or  more  parta  bava 
an  abnonnol  position.  7.  Malformations  d  tbe 
generative  organs. 

The  _first  dau  includes  (I]  completely  sbapelesi 
malformations,  in  which  the  monster  preaento  the 
appearance  of  a  lump  or  mass,  with  no  mdication  of 


head  or  extremitiea;  (3)  tmnkleM  nuwrtn^  i 


MONSTROSITT— MONTAGNAEDS. 


vhich  tbe  infefior  porta  of  the  body  ^ 

uid  little  more  tiian  &  rodimaiitar^  head  is  preaent, 
which,  initekd  of  neck  and  trunk,  a  furnished  with 
a  pouch-Iika  appendage,  containiug  rudimentary 
viscera  and  pieces  of  oone ;  (4)  Tnalfonsatioii*  in 
which  the  head,  and  Bometiinei  a  part  of  the  apper 
part  of  the  body,  are  wanting,  conetitutins  aoepbolic 
monstera,  which  ore  by  no  means  rare,  the  number 
of  Kcorded  cMea  in  Uie  human  subject  beiog  over 
100;  (G)  malformaUons  in  which  the  whole  head  is 
not  absent,  but  some  of  its  component  parts  are 
wanting — as,  for  example,  the  brain,  some  of  the 
cranial  bones,  the  note,  or  the  eyes ;  (G)  cases  in 
which  tbe  extremities  are  absent  or  iniperiect  to  a 
greater  or  leu  d^ree — for  example,  they  may  be 
mere  stamps,  with  the  fingera  sod  toea  either  absent 
fa  rudimentary,  or  the  bands  and  feet  may  appear 
to  exist  independently  of  arm*  and  legs,  and  to  be 
inserted  immediately  into  the  tnmk;  (7)  cose*  in 
which  ttU  the  organ*  may  be  present,  bat  some  of 
them  may  be  too  small — Uius,  there  may  be  geneial 
dworfishness,  or  the  head  or  limbs  may  be  abnor- 
mally smaU.  None  of  tbe  monstera  of  thii  class, 
except  those  included  in  the  lost  two  groups,  are 

In  the  lecond  da**  tire  included  such  cases  as  (1) 
Che  various  forms  of  cyclopia,  or  coalescence  of  the 
eyes ;  these  malformations  are  not  very  rare  in  the 
human  subject,  and  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in 
pi^  and  otlier  ftnimnlw ;  although  usually  bom 
alivc^  these  monsters  are  not  viable  ;  (2)  coolescenoe 
of  the  lower  eztremitioi  either  into  a  common  limb, 
which  supports  two  feet,  or  into  on  undedned  tail- 
like  niaai ;  (3)  minor  amalgamationa,  which  do  not 
affect  vitali^,  as  more  or  less  perfect  coalescence  of 
the  lingers  and  toea. 

The  Ihird  elats  embraces  such  coae*  a*  (1)  fissures 
of  the  cranium,  which  are  generally  due  to  hydro- 
cephalus in  tbe  f ostus ;  (2)  harelip  and  cleft  puate ; 
(3J  fissures  on  the  neck,  whose  origin  is  due  to  the 
respiratory  clefts — which,  durina  the  formation  of  the 
embtyo,  ajipear  in  the  cervical  region,  not  uniting 
•t  an  early  stage,  as  In  the  normal  condition,  but 
remaining  more  or  leas  open ;  (4)  fissures  of  the 
vertebral  arches  oC  the  ipmal  column,  occaaionioK 
the  oSectiou  known  as  tpiaa  bifida;  (S)  fissures  of 
the  thorax,  in  which  case  the  lungs  or  heart  ore  more 
or  leas  exposed ;  (G)  lissnree  of  the  abdomen. 

The  malformations  of  the  foarth  daei  include 
congenital  closure  of  the  onus,  the  mouth,  the 
nostrils,  ka. 

The  molformationa  of  the  ^/Ih  dam  may  be 
arranged  in  two  divisions,  according  as  certain  ports 
ore  too  large,  or  there  are  sapemomeroiy  organs. 

The  A&  dan  is  Tory  extensive,  and  embraces 
many  varieties.  One  or  mure  ports  may  be  dispro- 
portionally  large — as,  for  example,  the  head  in  cases 
of  congenital  hydrocephalus ;  or  there  may  be  one 
or  several  supemumerory  orsans — a  sub-closs  which 
presents  a  very  greot  range,  from  the  simplest  coses, 
u  which  a  single  joint  of  a  fioger  is  supernumerary, 
to  those  of  a  uighly  complicated  nature,  when  two 
or  even  three  bc^es  are  united  by  some  one  point. 
There  may  be  a  single  head  and  trunk  ond  super- 
numerary parts— OH,  tor  example,  supernumerary 
teeth,  v^tebite  (giving  rise  to  the  formation  of  a  tad 
in  the  human  subject),  ribs,  mamnue,  fingers,  toes, 
&C.;  or  there  may  be  malformations  with  more 
than  one  bead  ond  trunk-— double,  or  even  triplet 
monsters.  This  sub-class  is  divisible  into  two 
groups,  according  as  the  onited  individuols  ore 
equally  developed  or  aa  only  one  is  developed  ;  the 
second  Ijebg  mora  or  less  atrophied,  and  forming  a 
parasitio  ap]iendage  to  the  first  As  examples  of  the 
first  gruu]>,  we  mention  (1)  dupUcation  of  the  head 
ipd  upper  piut  of  the  vert^bi^  c«lumn  j  (?)  dup li- 


oatioa  of  the  head,  neck,  and  upper  extremities, 
while  the  chest  and  abdomen  are  single,  or  fused  into 
one  another  (in  this  group,  we  must  place  the  twin- 
monster,  Bita  Chriatma,  who  was  bom  in  Sardinia 
in  March  1829,  and  was  brought  ^ve  to  Paris, 
whera  sbe  died  in  tbe  November  of  that  year] ;  (3) 
almost  complete  duplication,  with  separation  of  tlie 
two  bodies,  eicG^  at  o  ain^e  spot,  as  in  Uie  case  of 
the  Siamese  twma ;  (4)  tnplet  monsters,  such  as 
the  child  with  three  heads  bom  in  18^2  in  Catania 
(see  Geo£&oy  St  Hilaire,  HisUnre  des  AitOTWitiei  da 
tOrgaiaaation,  toL  iiL  p.  327).  To  the  second  gronp 
belong  such  cases  as  the  following :  (1)  a  perfect 
individuol  may  bear  on  its  head  another  head,  with 
traces  of  the  rest  of  the  body ;  (2)  on  a  well-devel- 
oped body,  a  second,  smaller  and  defective  one,  may 
be  situated,  wJiich,  after  birth,  does  not  increose  in 
size  1  (3)  in  a  more  or  less  perfectly  developed 
individuol,  there  moy  be  concealed,  commonly  in  the 
abdomen,  ports  of  a  second  individuol — a  condition 
which  has  received  the  name  of  /telua  in  /letu,  and 
which  is  moat  probably  caused  by  the  inclusion  of 
one  germ  by  another. 

To  the  (EclA  tloM  belong  (I)  those  casea  in  which 
there  is  a  reverrang  of  the  positiou  of  the  intemol 
organs — when  the  heart  and  spleen  lie  upon  the 
ri^t,  and  the  liver  and  cscom  on  the  left  side ;  (2) 
anomahes  in  the  course  and  distribution  of  indi- 
Tidual  vessels. 

The  malformations  constituting  the  tenenih  dots 
have  been  sufficiently  noticed  in  the  article  Heb- 


The  term  Teraloto[fy  (from  the  Greek  words  IXraa, 
a  prodigy,  and  idgo»t  a  disconroe)  is  now  frequently 
applied  to  the  history  and  science  of  monstrosities. 
—For  further  information  on  this  subject,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  Geoffroy  St  Hilaire  (lt;.t2— 1836) ; 
Otto  (1841) ;  to  tbe  ortiole  '  TeratolotV.'  by  Vrolik, 
in  The  Cyclopadia  of  Anatomy  and  PhyiiaUi'jy  ;  to 
tbe  Qermon  works  of  Fiirster  (ISSl)  on  human,  ond 
Qurlt  (1877)  on  animal  monsters. 

MONSTROSITY,  in  Botany,  is  a  malformation 
or  abnormal  development  of  ony  i>art  of  a  plant  It 
may  toke  place,  however,  at  sBy  period  of  the 
Growth  of  a  pUnt,  as  to  any  new  organ  that  is 
devoluped,  ond  sometimes  merely  oflTects  a  parti- 
cutor  orgou  or  some  portion  of  a  plant,  as  a  particular 
leaf,  fiower,  petal,  sepal,  Ac,  or  the  leaves  or  flowera 
of  a  particuhir  branii,  whilst  in  other  cases  nU  the 
organs  of  the  same  kind  exhibit  the  same  abnormal 
character.  As  in  animals,  it  is  now  well  known 
that  monstrosities  in  plants  oro  the  result  of  special 
conditions  affecting  the  operation  of  ordinary 
natural  lows;  and  the  study  of  monatroaitiea  is 
very  important  in  relation  to  that  of  the  nature, 
development,  and  metamorphosis  of  organs.  In  the 
article  Mbixuobpbosis  of  Oboans,  soma  oC  the  most 
frequent  monstrosities  are  alluded  to.  Monstrosities 
in  plants  are  not  always,  as  in  onimals,  reckoned 
deturmilJes.  i>ouA2«/own'>  afford  o  familiar  example 
of  an  opposite  kind ;  although  with  regard  to  the 
plant  itself  they  have  tbe  ^ect  of  unfitting  it  for 
one  of  the  fonctions  of  »  perfect  plant,  teproduc- 
tion  by  seed. 

MONTAGNA'NA,  a  town  of  Korthem  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Padua,  sitootcd  pleasontly  on 
iha  bonks  of  a  canal,  11  Fiumicello,  32  miles 
south-west  of  Padua.  It  is  still  protected  by  wolls 
and  towers,  and  has  a  fine  cotbedrol  and  pahica. 
Pop.  7657.  Its  chief  trade  is  in  apun-silk,  wool, 
hemp,  and  coarse  cotton  textures. 

MONTAGNAEDS,  or  simply  Montaqi™,  'the 
Mountain,'  the  name  given  to  the  extreme  democratio 
politicians  in  the  first  French  Revolution,  because 
Uiey  seoted  themselves  on  ttie  lugheT  benches  of 


■>o»glc 


MOSTAGU— MONTAIGNE. 


p»rty  0 


the  hall  in  vhioh  the  Xationai  Convention  meL 
Their  princiiMl  metnben  were  Dutton,  Must, 
Bobe^Heire,  St  Just,  and  CoUot  d'Hnboia,  the  meo 
who  introduoed  'the  Keim  of  Temn-.'  The  oppomto 
y  of  the  '  Plain '  (Plaine)  were  the  OirondiEtB 
'.},  who  sat  on  the  loweat  benchea  on  the 
noor  o£  the  house.  After  the  overthrow  of  the 
Girondista,  this  part  of  the  home  was  s^led  the 
'toftrtih  or  swamp'  (marau),  and  incladed  all  the 
■ubseTrient  members  whose  votes  were  under  the 
control   ot  '  the  Mountain.'    A  few  leading  men 

Sve  all  its  strength  and  foroiidahle  character  to 
a  partyof  the  Mountain. — After  1S4S,  the  extreme 
pari^'  in  the  Naiional  Astembly,  composed  of  revo- 
lutionaiv  democmtt  and  conunnnista,  sometimes 
flattered  itself  with  the  designation  of  'the  Moun- 
tain ; '  but  events  proved  that  it  poBSessed  nothing 
of  the  genins,  though  it  shewed  all  the  malignity 
of  its  terrible  predecaHOb 

MO^fTAGU,  Fahilt  ot.  This  noble  familr 
are  said,  by  Burke,  to  derive  their  name,  which  in 
Latin  was  and  is  always  written  De  Mont«  Acuto, 
from  a  place  in  Normandy ;  and  the  firtt  of  the 
Montagu*  who  settled  in  England  was  a  warrior 
who  came  over  in  the  traon  of  Robert  Earl  of 
Moreton  at  the  Conquesl  Five.centariee  later,  we 
find  his  descendant,  8ir  Edward  Montagn,  Lord 
ChJef-juBtice,  in  succeesion,  of  the  courts  of  King's 
Bench  and  Common  Pleas  under  Henry  VIIL,  w%o 
also  appointed  him  one  of  the  executors  of  his  will 
and  guardians  of  his  son  Edward.  His  grandson, 
who  was  a  distinguished  orator,  repreaented  the 
etty  of  London  in  parliament;  and  havinc  been 
Lord  Chief-justioe  of  the  Court  of  King's  Bench, 
and  Lord  Treasnrer  ot  the  kingdom,  was  raised  to 
the  peen^  as  Earl  of  Moachester.  The  second  earl 
gained  distinction  as  a  genentl  in  the  Parliamen- 
tary army,  and  more  particularly  by  his  victory  over 
Pnnee  Eupert  at  Maraton  Moot;  but  he  scrupled 
to  take  put  in  the  oondemaation  aud  execution  of 
Charles,  and  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
House  of  Peers  who  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  Charles 
n.  on  his  restoration.  This  nobleman's  jgrandson 
enthusiastically  espoused  the  cause  of  WilEam  III., 
under  whom  he  fouRht  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne, 
and  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Limerick.  He  woa 
subsequently  sent  as  ambassador  to  Venice,  and  to 
the  courts  of  France  aod  Vienna,  «"d  eventually 
was  raised  to  the  dukedom  of  Manchester  by 
George  L  The  title  is  still  enjoyed  by  his  descend- 
ant, the  7th  duke.  Other  branches  of  the  M. 
family  were  ennobled  in  the  persons  of  the  Earl 
of  Sandwich,  the  Earl  of  Halifax,  and  the  Duke 
of  Montaffu,  but  the  lost  two  titles  both  became 
eitiiict  bdore  the  close  of  the  ISth  centuiy. 

MONTAOtT,  LiDT  Maet  Wortlkt,  wm  eldest 
daughtei"  o(  Evelyn,  Earl,  and  afterwards  (1713) 
Duke  of  Kingston.  She  was  bom  about  169U,  and 
is  said  to  have  received  a  classical  education.  When 
only  eight  years  of  age,  she  was  introdneed  by  her 
father  to  the  famoos  Kit-Cat  CM,  and  formally 
admitted  a  member.  Her  fond  and  pleasure-loving 
father  allowed  her  to  educate  herselL  She  is  even 
■aid  to  have  taught  herself  Latin,  She  became 
attached  to  Mr  E.  Wortley  Montagn,  a  member  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  whine  cousin,  Charles  Mon- 
tagu, WM  created  Earl  of  Halifax,  and  appointed 
First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  by  George  L  As  the 
match  was  diupproved  of  by  the  fuoilies,  the  was 
obliged  to  elope  before  she  could  marry  him.  On 
the  accession  of  George  L,  she  come  to  London 
with  her  husband,  who  was  a  Whig.  Lady  Mail's 
beauty  and  wit  attracted  nnivcreal  admitntion  at 
court  She  wss  in  habits  of  familiar  acquaintance 
with  Addisoa  and  Pope,  tiie  latter  becoming  her 


enthusiaatio  admirer,  and  writing  *  flamea  and  ra|>> 
turea'  Cor  her,  until  his  passion  'came  to  a  clhnax 
in  an  impertinenoe,  and  wm  extinguished  by  • 
box  on  the  ear,  or  some  such  nbvit'  In  1716, 
Mr  Wortley  Montagu  waa  appointed  «mbBnMior 
to  ConBtantino;J&  He  wm  accompanied  by 
Lady  Mary,  who,  on  her  journey,  and  during  her 
reaidenoe  in  the  Levant,  wrote  the  well-known 
Lettert,  which  form  one  ot  the  moat  delight- 
ful books  in  our  language.  The  weakneasea  ot  • 
somewhat  vain  and  caiiricious  temper  fads  into 
forjcetfulnes^  when  we  remember  the  ateong  sense, 
enlightened  courage,  and  generous  peraeveronce 
which  introduced  into  Europe  the  pnii^oe  of 
inoculation,  which  she  witnessed  in  Turkey.  She 
had  so  much  faith  in  its  safety,  that  she  tried  it  first 
on  her  own  son.  See  iHOCinATiON.  After  her 
return  to  England,  ahe  fixed  her  residence  at  Twick- 
enham, and  renewed  her  intimooy  with  Fope.  But 
poUticol  soon  led  to  personal  diSelvncea,  and  Ureae 
resulted  in  one  of  the  moat  famous  literMy  fend*  of 
the  ISth  century.    The  immediate  oocaaion  of  it  waa 


and  was  not  slow  to  retaliate.  In  1737,  she  left  her 
country  and  her  hnsband  (for  reasons  that  ore  not 
known),  and  lived  for  many  years  in  Italy,  chicSy 
at  Lovero,  in  the  province  <A  Venice.  Her  husband 
died  in  17G1.  At  the  request  of  her  daughter,  after- 
words wife  of  the  Earl  of  Bute,  she  returned  to  Eng- 
land, where  she  died  21st  August  1762.  A  collected 
edition  of  her  works,  with  fife,  was  published  by 
her  great-grandson,  the  late  Lord  Whamcliffe,  in 
1836,  of  which  a  third  edition  appeared  in  1861. 

HONTAIONE,  Michel  Etquxx  ds,  a  distjn- 
euisbed  French  moral  philosopher,  was  bom  in 
1633,  at  his  paternal  home  of  Montaigne,  in  Peri- 
gord.  In  accordance  with  his  fathoms  eecentrie 
ideas  on  education,  he  was  taught,  and  suSered  only 
to  speak  I^tin  from  his  earliest  infan(^,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  acquired  each  a  perfect  mastery 
over  the  language,  that  when,  in  his  tenth  year, 
he  entered  the  college  oE  Bordeaux,  his  masters, 
Grouchi,  Buchanan,  and  Muret,  were  almost  afraid 
to  address  bim.  On  the  expiration  of  his  course  ot 
studies,  which  were  directed  to  law,  he  received,  in 
1554,  the  appointment  of  councillor  iu  the  parha- 
ment  of  Boraeaux ;  but  being  possessed  of  ample 
means,  and  having  no  indination  for  a  pubfic  life, 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  varioua 
schools  of  Greek  and  Boman  philosophy ;  and  on  the 
death  of  his  father,  in  compliance  with  whose  wish 
he  had  mode  a  translation  of  the  natural  theology 
of  Kaymundus  Sebondus  {Paris,  1569),  ho  retired  to 
his  ancestral  estate,  where  he  fived  in  returanent 
during  the  terrible  season  of  religious  oppreasian 
which  desolated  France  for  so  many  years.  During 
this  period,  1580,  he  composed  the  first  two  booln 
of  his  celebratral  Mssaia,  the  third  portion  of  which 
appeared  in  1688,  after  his  return  from  an  extensive 
course  of  travchi,  which  he  had  undertaken  partly 
escape  from   the   placue,  and   part]j|  for   ttie 


health,  and  during  which 
be  visited  Rome,  and  was  received  with  signal 
favour  by  the  pope.  M.'s  Enai*,  although  not 
conceived  in  the  spirit  of  a  befieving  Christian,  or 
marked  by  the  reticence  and  delicacy  of  expres- 
sion which  modem  relinemect  demands,  are  very 
extraordinary  productions,  not  only  for  the  learning 
and  sound  reasoning  which  tbcy  manifest,  but  also 
for  the  frank  and  hberal  tone  in  which  social  ques- 
tions ore  discussed,  notwithstanding  that  the  author 
wrote  at  a  period  when  retigioua  differences  and 
party  feelings  bfinded  the  judgments  of  men.  M.'s 
ethics  were  those  of  Seneca  and  the  other  philoeo- 
pheis  of  ancient  timea,  whoM  worlu  be  Itad  so 


MOSTAIOINO— MONTAWUa 


1  from  our  point 


aoroDghljr  mutered ;  uid,  jn 
of  view,  bJB  morality  is  tWt  of  a,  Tirtuoni  pagan 
merely;  bat  when  we  bew  ia  mind  tbatmmoilof 
civil  war,  and  the  consequant  disoigooiBation  of 
■ooiety,  together  with  the  low  ebb  of  literature  in 
FMoce  at  that  period,  wa  mutt  do  justice  to  the 
great  Merit  of  the  writer,  twd  the  influences  for 
good  wbkh  bia  writingB  exerted.  M.  wai  a  constant, 
and  oocadoiially  a  aoaieasfiil  mediator  between  the 
party  of  Henrj'  of  N»TBtl«  and  that  of  the  Gnisee, 
and  stood  in  relations  of  friendship  with  men  of  all 
oreedi.  He  died  in  1G92,  ai  an  avowed  member  of 
the  Chorch  of  Kome^  in  whotie  doctrines  he  pro- 
feoed  implioit  faith,  notwithstanding  the  iceptical 
bias  which  he  had  through  life  been  at  no  paiDS  to 
conoeaL  Numerous  editions  have  appeared  of  his 
Eiaait,  among  which  wb  may  inatance  those  of  Le 
Clero  {Par.  m2G),  and  MM,  Courh«taDdRoyer(Par. 
1873-77).  Nearly  200  years  after  hU  death,  the  diB- 
ooven  was  made  at  Montaigne  of  the  MS.  of  his 
travels,  which  woa  published  at  Paris  in  1774,  under 
the  title  of  Jtmrnal  de  Voyage  de  M.  dt  M.  en 
ItaJie  par  la  Siiiue  tt  FAUemagne.  Translations 
of  the  £»iaii  exist  in  aliooet  all  the  European 
language*;  the  beat  English  translation  it  that  by 
Cotton.  The  best  biographies  of  M.  are  by  OrUn 
{Paris,  1855};  Payen  IPans,  18"'  ■  -     ■     ->■ 

John  (Lend.  1857}. 

UONTALOI'HO,  a  town  in  the  province  of 
Siena,  Central  Italy,  22  miles  south.south-eost  of 
the  town  of  Siena,  stands  on  a  hill  in  the  midst 
of  "all^a,  and  enjoys  a  fine  equable  climate.  Pop. 
7640.  The  wine  of  M.  is  in  high  repute  thniughout 
Tuscany. 

MONTALEMBERT,  Ceuxbi  Forbes,  Cohtk 
DE,  was  bora  29th  May  1810  of  an  aucient  family  of 
Putton.  His  father  was  created  a  peer  of  France 
Under  the  Beatoration,  and  for  a  considerable  time 
was  minister  of  the  French  court  in  Sweden.  Tfi^ 
mother  was  of  the  Soottish  family  of  Forbes,  to 
which  circumstance  may  be  ascribed  M.'h  remark- 
able familiarity  with  the  English  lau^uage,  and  hid 
intimate  knowledge  and  strong  admiratioQ  of  the 
social  and  politioaliuBtitutionaoiBngland.  Although 
his  more  advanced  etudlea  were  earned  on  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Paris,  a  considerable  part  of  his  youth  was 
spent  in  Sweden ;  and  the  fiiat  work  by  which  he 
was  brought  int«  notice,  was  a  pamphlet  on  Sweden, 
which  he  published  in  his  nineteenth  year.  On 
tiie  death  of  his  father,  M.  succeeded  to  his  honours, 
and  to  his  seat  in  tiie  Chamber  of  Peers.  But  his 
earliest  pubUo  appearance  was  in  what  may  be  truly 
considered  as  the  great  labour  of  his  life,  a  joint 
effort  in  which  he  associated  himself  with  the  AbbS 
Jjaoordaire  (q.  v.}  and  other  friends,  tor  the  purpose 
of  taking  advantage  of  the  recent  charter,  by  estab- 
lishing a  free  school  for  CathoUc  education,  inde- 
pendent, as  well  of  the  nniveraity,  as  of  all  other 
state  influence.  An  attempt  on  the  port  of  the 
police  to  intorfere  arbitrarily  with  this  project, 
be^une  Uie  sabject  of  a  trial  before  the  Chamber  of 
Feeis,  which  M.  rendered  memorable  by  his  fitat 
■peeoh,  one  of  the  most  brilliant  upon  record,  and  a 
cleu-  foreshadowing,  not  alone  of  the  eloquence,  but 
of  the  bold  and  uncompromising  eamestnesH  in  the 
cause  of  his  cbaroh  and  of  the  common  interests  of 
religions  liberty,  which  have  constantly  characterised 
faislater  career.  Of  the  struggle  of  the  CathoUc 
party  in  France  against  what  Mey  regarded  as  the 
arbitrary  monopoly  of  education  which  was  claimed 
for  the  university,  M.  was  for  many  years  the  leader 
and  the  champion ;  and  in  the  various  works  in  the 
iparation  of  wtuch  he  employed  all  bis  leisure 
*■  .i,^_  !_.;.-  u:.  7-->.  .t  n.  ElaabeUt  of 
jlfuefm,  an4 


bata   pnUio  duties,   his   L\/e   of  SI 
Pungary,  hia  L^  and  Timei  of  Si 


abore  all,insnappealOi>(A<2>uty(/(7alAoU«on<A« 
QaeMim  of  FreMom  nf  Edvcaiiaa,  which  he  wrote 
during  a  visit  to  the  island  of  Madeira  for  the 
reoovery  of  his  health  in  1S13,  he  never  ceased  h> 

advocate  the  some  principles.  After  the  revolu- 
tion of  1548,  M.,  true  to  bis  former  profeuioua, 
was  one  of  the  first  of  his  party  to  accept  of  the 
new  state  of  things,  and  to  use  the  actual  means 
at  his  disposal  for  the  furtheranoe  of  the  viewa 
which  be  had  consistently  advocated.  He  waa 
elected  member  of  the  National,  and  afterwards 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly  ;  and  for  a  time 
contrived,  while  he  continued  the  wune  line  of 
pohoy  as  regards  chnrch  interests,  to  give  a  seneral 
•upport  to  the  government  of  Louis  NapoWn  as 
president  of  the  rapublia  His  first  break  with  that 
government  was  on  the  question  of  the  proposed 
oonfiscation  of  the  Orleans  property ;  and  after  the 
amp  ^ttat  of  December,  the  breach  became  irrecon- 
oilable.  From  that  time,  M.  oontinued  to  be  the 
implacable  assailant  of  the  arbitrary  repression  of 
public  opinion  which  characterised  some  mM*ures 
of  Nanoleon  Iff. ;  and  the  brilliant  and  euthusl- 
tioally  admiring  picture*,  which  in  his  Political 
uture  <ff  England,  he  has  drawn  of  its  social  and 
ilitical  institutions,  derive  much  of  their  vigour 
[tm  the  covert  but  palpable  contrast  with  the 
condition  of  France  which  points  them  all  Beaidee 
numerous  articles  contributed  by  him  to  the  Seme 
da  Jieiix-Moitda,  the  Encj/eioptdit  CatAoUqut,  and 
the  CorrMpontfoRt, he  alsovrrotei  L'Avemr p<^liqitK 
de  VAngUUrre  [18(5} ;  Lt»  Motna  ^OcadaU  depuU 
8l  Berwtt  jutm' &  Si  Bernard  {18S0— 1361 ;  English 
translation,  7  vols.  1S61— 18791 ;  Cne  Ifalion  in 
rfeuU,  la  Pologne  en  1861 :  L'Eglite  libre  dane  FElat 
libre  (1863} ;  Le  Pape  tt  la  Poiogrn  (1864),  fa).  He 
died  13th  March  1870.  See  Memoir  by  Mrs 
Oliphant,  2  vols.  (1872). 

MONTA'NA,  a  territory  of  the  United  States, 
formed  in  1864  on  the  Canadian  frontier,  and  inter- 
sected by  the  Rocky  Mountains ;  it  lies  between 
Idijio  and  Dakota.  Since  1875,  Helena  is  tike 
capital  Its  average  length  is  470  miles,  its  average 
bri^th  275  miles,  and  its  area  146,080  sq.  miles:  of 
these  9,349,200  acres,  only  84,674  wers  under  culti- 
vation in  1670;  in  ISSO,  405,683.  M.  has  great 
mineral  wealth,  not  yet  fully  taken  advantage  of, 
including  gold,  silver,  galena,  copper,  coal,  and 
precious  stones.  Its  yield  of  bullion  in  I8GG  was 
valued  at  $16,500,000 ;  in  1881,  $4,800,000.  It  is 
exceedingly  well  watered,  the  chief  rivers  being 
the  Missouri  and  Yellowstone,  with  their  affluents, 
and  the  Columbia.  M,  is  well  adapted  for  grazing, 
and  cattle  ranches  have  rapidly  extended.  Poji. 
(1870)20,595,  besides  22,486  tribal  Indians;  (1889} 
"9,157,  without  Indians. 

M:ONTA'NnS,  an  heresiaroh  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian Chnrch,  was  a  Phrygian  by  birth,  and  appeared 
about   160  A.r).   at  Ardabar,   on  the   confmes    of 
Phrygia  and  Mysia.    He  was  brought  up  in  heathen- 
'  IL  but  embraced  Christianity  with  all  the  fanatical 
thusiasm  for  which  his  countrymen  were  noted. 
M.'s  stand-point  was,  in  tluory,  the  exact  opposite 
id  that  oocupied  by  the    Gnostic  sects;    yet,   in 
practioe,    it    ted   to    a   similar   exclusiveness    and 
sectarianism.      He   believed   in  the   constancy   of 
>ranaturat  phenomena  iniUaa  the  church.     The 
miraculous    element,    particularly    the    prophetio 
itasy,  was  not  removed ;   on  the  contrary,   the 
necessity  for  it  was  greater  than  over.    He  con- 
sidered those  only  to  be  true  or  perfect  Christians 
who  poBoessed  the  inward  prophetic  illumination  of 
the  Holy  Spirit — they  were  the  true  church;  and 
the  more  highly  gifted  were  to  be  looked  upon  aa 
the  genuine  snocessoia  of  the  i^ostles,  in  preference 


M0NTARGI8— MONTB-CATnn. 


to  the  men  outwudly  oaniecnted  bUhopi.  Thiu, 
they  formed  »  religioiu  tuiabocncy,  u  urogont  u 
the  Onoetioe ;  the  difference  between  the  two 
umplj  beuiBt  that  the  Montantsta  prided  themselvei 
OD  A  kind  of  inflamed  inspintioa,  and  the  Gootttcs 
on  n  ctJm  and  serene  illmniDatioD  of  the  reason. 
Neither  party  wished  to  recede  from  the  Catholic 
Obnroh,  liut  rather  to  eiiat  as  an  eBoterio  body 
within  ita  paltt  It  waa  penecntioo,  oaoeed,  no 
doabt,  by  their  own  insolent  obatiniKy,  that  forced 
them  into  a  eeetarian  course.  M.  did  not  meddle 
directly  with  the  creed  of  the  church ;  in  fact,  he 
waa  not  a  thinker,  nor  a  man  of  almost  any  Import- 
Mice  iatellectaally.  His  efforts  were  confined  to 
■tirring  up  the  Cmutians  generally  to  fresh  religious 
life^ — to  •  belief  in  a  fresh  outpouring  of  the  Holy 
Qbort.  At  first,  M.  coDtented  himself  with  pre- 
dicting freah  penecutiona,  exhorting  men  to  great«r 
strictness  and  holiness  of  life,  and  announcing 
fndgmenta  to  ooma  upon  the  persecutors ;  but  his 
idea  of  his  own  mission  aEterwarda  became  more 
exalted,  and  be  clumed  to  be  in  a  very  special  sense 
a  prophet  oE  God — the  organ  chosen  by  the  Holy 


ascetio  mode  of  Ufe,  scorn  of  pene- 
oution,  and  love  of  martyrdom ;  connected  with 
these,   and,   indeed,    flowing  from  them,  waa  an 

■     second  marriages,  sad  to  the 

JAP3ED  (q.vO-  Like  other  ent 
;re  firm  believers  in  the  near  i  _ , 
of  the  Milleonium  (q.  t.),  and  in  the  penioaal 
advent  of  Christ  Two  'prophetesses,'  Priscilla  and 
Maritnilla,  were  associated  with  M.  in  his  work. 


A  decree  for  the  exjmlsion  of  M.  and  bis  followers 
from  the  communion  of  the  Catholic  Church 
waa  issued  by  Eleutherus,  Bishop  of  Rome.  The 
Moatanieta  at  oace  proceeded  to  organise  them- 
•elvea  aa  a  distinct  sect  They  found  a  singularly 
able  apologist  in  Tertullian  (who  became  a  Montanist 
about  200  ±J>.),  and  contjnued  to  exist  till  the  Cth 
oentury, 

MOITTAKGIS,  a  town  of  Franoe,  department  of 
Loiret,  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  canals  of 
Orleans  and  Briare  with  that  of  Loiog,  40  miles 
aaat-north-east  of  the  city  of  Orleans.  M.  has  some 
cloth  and  leather  niaoiuactiires,  and  considerable 
trade  in  corn,  cattle,  ko.  I'op.  <18S1)  11,104.  In  iti 
vicinity  is  ao  extensive  forest  of  the  same  name. 

MONTAUBAN  (Lat.  Moiti  Atbamu),  a  town 
of  Prance,  capital  of  the  department  of  Tam-ct- 
Garonna,  is  situated  in  a  rich  and  beautiful  country 
on  a  plateau  between  the  rivers  Tarn  and  Tcscou, 
S2  miles  north  of  Toulouse.  It  is  the  scat  of  a 
bishop,  has  a  fine  cathedral  in  the  Italian  atyle, 
finished  in  1739,  built  on  the  site  of  a  still  older 
monastery,  the  Jfoiu  Avreobu  (Golden  Hill),  and 
is  a  well-built,  handsome  town.  The  houses  are 
mostly  of  brick.  Besides  having  consideraUe 
manufactures,  it  carries  on  a  great  trade  in  wine, 
grain,  leather,  Ac.  M.  was  founded  in  1144 
by  Count  AJphonse  of  Toulouse,  became  the 
---^.  of  A  bishop  in  1317,  embraced  the  Rcfotma- 
.  in  1672,  and  suffered  severely  in  the  civil 
..-.a  that  enaued.  It  has  acquired  historical  cele- 
brity aa  the  great  stroncliold  of  the  Hu^enots. 
Protestantism  still  exists  here,  auJ  maintains  both 
an  academy  and  a  thcnlouicnl  college.  I'op.  (18S1), 
20,840,  nearly  one-half  of  whom  are  Protestants. 

MONTBELIARD  (Ger.  AfSmpdtjardj,  a  town 
of  France,  in  the  depELttment  of  Doubs,  .3Q  miles 
north-east  of  Besaufon.  It  lies  in  a  vallty  between 
the  Vosecs  and  Jura  Mountains,  is  surmounted  by 
Ml  old  cMteau,  now  used  as  a  prison,  and  carries  on 
maniiractures  of  cotton  goods,  hosiccy,  and  (ilka. 


Clocks,  watches,  and  agricultnral  implementa  an 

also  made.    Pop.  (1831)  7482. 

HONT  BLANC,  tbo  highest  mountain  in 
Europe,  and,  according  to  the  latest  measurements, 
19,781  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Meditemoeaa 
Sea,  is  one  of  the  Graian  Alps,  and  is  dtnated  in 
the  department  of  Haute-Savoie,  Franoe,  close  to 
the  Itahan  frontier,  and  37  miles  south  of  the  eiat  end 
of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  The  valea  of  Cbamonni 
and  Mountjoie  Ue  ou  the  west,  and  those  of  Ferret 
and  AUfie  Blanche  on  the  east  side  of  ib  The 
waters  which  spring  from  its  western  slopes  are 
drained  oflT  to  the  Arve,  and  thence  to  the  Rhone, 
while  those  which  rise  on  the  east  side  are  feeders 
of  the  Dora  Baltea,  a  tributary  of  the  Po.  It  has  3 
snoW'Clad  peaks,  and  36  glaciers,  of  which  10  lie  on 
the  north,  and  20  on  the  south  side.  The  highect 
summit  is  a  narrow  ridge  SO  yards  by  16,  callM  La 
Bone  da  Drrmtedaxre,  covered  with  firm  snow,  and 
very  steep  towards  the  north.  In  1700,  Sansanre 
offered  a  prize  for  the  discovery  of  a  practicable 
route  to  the  summit  of  Mont  B.,  which  was  gained, 
in  June  1780,  by  Jacques  Balmat,  a  guide.  Saus- 
sure  himself  ascended  the  mountain  the  following 
vear;  and  the  same  feat  hos  since  been  perfoimed 
by  many,  especially  since  Albert  Smith  published 
the  well-known  pictorial  and  dramatic  description 
of  his  ascent  in  185L 

MOHTCENIS.    SeeCENIS. 

MONT  DE  PifeTE,  called  in  Italy  Montk  di 
PlBT.t,  a  charitable  institution,  the  object  of  which 
is  to  lend  money  to  the  very  poor  at  a  moderate 
rate  of  interest  It  had  its  origin  at  the  close  of  the 
medieval  period,  when  all  such  transactions  were  in 
the  hands  of  usurers,  to  whom  the  necessities  of  the 
poor  were  but  an  induooment  to  the  moat  oppresaive 
extortion.  The  eaihest  of  these  charitable  banka 
appeals  to  have  been  that  founded  at  Padua  in 
1491,  which  waa  so  successful  as  t«  lead,  according 
to  contemporary  writer^  to  the  closing  of  tha 
Jewish  banks  in  that  city.  The  fiiet  opened  at 
Rome  was  under  Leo  X. ;  and  the  Roman  Monti  di 
Pietli  are  confessed  to  have  been  at  all  times  the 
most  successful  and  the  best  managed  in  Italy. 
The  institution  extended  to  Florence,  Milan, 
Naples,  and  other  cities.  The  principle  of  all  was 
to  advance  smalt  sums  on  the  security  of  pledges, 
but  at  a  rate  of  interest  barely  suAicient  to  cover 
the  working  eijienses.  Should  any  surplus  remain, 
it  was  to  be  expended  for  charitable  purposes.  The 
Mont  de  l'i4ti  system  was  introduced  aba  in  Spain, 
Franc^  Belgium,  Oermany,  and  tlie  Netherlands.  In 
1873,  there  were  in  France  4G  Monts  de  Pi£t6,  mak- 
ing yearly  loans  of  00,000  francs.  It  formed  the 
model  of  the  Loon  Fund  Board  of  Ireland,  estab- 
lished by  6  and  7  Vict,  c  91,    See  P*.wiJBitaKUio. 

MONTEBELLO  CASTE'GGIO,  a  village  of 
Northern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Pavia,  23  miles 
east- north -east  of  Alessandria.  It  stands  in  a 
plain  on  tbe  banks  of  the  torrent  Schizzola.  Here 
the  Austriana  were  defeated  by  a  French  army 
under  General  Lanncs,  after  a  desperate  conflict,  9th 
June  1600.  The  title  of  Duko  of  Montebello  waa 
conferred  on  the  victorious  French  ceneral  five  years 
later.  In  May  ISoO  tlie  Austnans  were  again 
defeated  here  by  the  united  armies  of  the  French 
and  Piedmontow.    See  CASTBacio. 

MONTE  CARLO,  a  small  town  in  the  territory 
of  Monaco  (i],  v.),  close  to  the  town  of  Monaco, 
notorious  on  accotmt  of  its  gaming-tables. 

M0NT6-CASI'N0.    See  Casino,  Montil 

MONTE-CATI'NI,  a  village  ol  Tuscany,  on  a 
spur  of  the  Aiiennincs,  29  ra.  W.  of  Florence.  In  the 
vicinity  of  the  town  ve  the  famous  mineral  springs 

I'lni-rnAl.O.OgJC 


MONTfi  CHlAEO-MONTENEGEO. 


of  same  mtma,  id  hish  repnto  for  their  cmatiTe 
prDperCiea,  especially  in  diBeaiei  of  the  liver  and 
digestioD.  Excellent  MconunodatioD  c«n  be  liad  by 
Tiaiton  both  in  pri-rate  atabliihineiite  uid  those 
Doder  govemmeDt  direction. 

MOHT^  CHIA'BO,  A  town  of  Northern  It»ly,  in 
the  province  of  Brescia,  situated  on  a  height  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Chiese,  in  the  centra  of  an  amphi- 
theatre of  hills.  Top.  6933.  The  chief  taannfactore 
LB  silk.  In  1796,  the  Anatiiaiu  were  defeated  here 
by  a  French  army. 

MOKT]^  CHRI'STO,  a  small  island,  belougiag 
to  Italy,  26  miles  south  of  Elba.  It  consiita  of  a 
mountain  of  granite  19S3  feet  above  Uie  level  of  the 
■ea,  and  is  uninhabited  except  by  wild  goats  and 
other  animalt.  It  is  inaccessible  except  by  one 
narrow  lundiog- place.  M.  C.  baa  given  Dame  to 
Dnmas's  well-knowD  BOveL 

MOHTECUCULI,  Raihondo,  Count,  bom  new 
Uodena,  1608,  and  entered  the  Austrian  artillery 
a«  a  volunteer  under  hin  uncle,  Ernesto,  Count 
Montecaculi.  in  1G2T.  Daring  the  Thirty  Yeart' 
War  he  found  many  opportunitiei  of  diatinguishing 
himself,  received  rapid  promotion,  and  waa  employed 
in  variona  services,  milLtory  and  diplomatic  In 
1657,  be  was  sent  to  support  the  king  of  Poland, 
John  Caaimir,  aoainst  the  Swedes  and  R&k6c2y, 
which  be  did  wiUi  great  effect,  compelliDg  Eikficzy 
to  make  peace  with  Polaod,  and  to  break  his  alliance 
with  the  Swedes.  In  the  following  year,  he  waa 
made  a  field-manhal,  and  was  sent  to  aid  the  Dane* 
against  the  Swedes,  in  which  also  he  was  eminently 
•ucoessfnl  In  1664,  he  commanded  the  army  sent 
to  oppose  the  Turks,  who  had  broken  into  Tnuuyl- 
vania,  and  skilfully  kept  them  in  check  till  the 
arrival  of  the  French,  with  whose  asaistanca  he  woo 
the  great  battle  of  St  Ootthard,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Haab,  1st  Au^^t  1664 — the  first  decided  triumph 
of  Europeao  tactics  and  discipline  over  the  mere 
□nmbei*  (uid  daring  of  the  OttomBo  booto.  When 
the  war  broke  out  between  France  and  Holland, 
in  which  the  emperor  took  port  with  Holland,  M. 
received  the  command  of  the  imperial  army  in 
1G72.  He  took  Bonn,  and  notwithstanding  the 
endeavours  ol  Turenne  to  prevent  it.  effected  a 
junction  with  the  Prince  of  Orange.  In  1G75,  he 
was  opposed  to  Tarenne  on  the  Rhine,  and  ^ey 
spent  four  months  in  manceuvrea  in  which  neither 
could  gain  any  advontageL  After  this  campaign, 
M.  apent  the  remjundcr  of  his  days  at  the  imperial 
court  and  in  the  society  of  learned  men.  He  was 
himself  a  man  of  learning  and  various  accom- 
plishments, and  bos  left  works  on  the  art  of  war, 
on  the  Turkish  war,  and  on  the  war  of  1604,  and 
also  sonnets.  The  Emperor  Leopold  made  him 
a  prince  of  the  empire,  and  the  king  of  Naples 
bestowed  on  him  the  duchy  of  Melfi.  He  lost  his 
life  by  the  foil  of  a  beam  as  he  was  entering  Linz 
with  the  impenal  conrt,  IGth  October  16aa  HU 
writings  were  published  in  the  original  Italian  by 
Ugo  Foscolo  (2  vols.  Milan,  1807) ;  and  by  J.  Grassi 
(2  vols.  Turin,  1821).  See  Campori,  M.,  la  taa 
Famyjlia  e  i  tuoi  Tempi  (1877). 

MONTEFIORE.    See  Sdpp.,  Vol.  X. 

MONTK'GO  BAY,  a  smaU  but  flonrishmg 
•eaport  on  the  north  coast  of  the  island  of  Jamaica, 
17  miles  west  of  Falmouth.  It  has  a  harbour 
protected  by  a  breakwater,  is  defeudod  by  a  battery, 
and  cairies  on  a  general  trade  of  some  importance. 
More  than  100  vessels  annually  enter  and  clear  the 
port,    Fopnlation  variously  stated  at  from  4000  to 

fiooa 

MOKTELIMAB,  aa  andent  town  of  France, 
in  the  dntartment  of  Drome,  about  two  miles  from 
the  left  bank  of  the  Blione,  and  S6  miles  aontli  of 

so 


Valence.  It  stands  on  the  slope  of  a  lull  covered 
with  vineyarda  There  are  factories  for  silk  and 
ootton  goods;  tanneries,  Ac.    Pop.  (1B61)  10,240. 

MO'NTEH  CUSTOM  wai  a  triennial 

of  the  Eton  boys,  on  Whit- Tuesday,  to 

mouod  {ad  Monlem)  known  aa  the  Salt  Hill,  near 
the  Bath  Road,  and  which  was  doubtless  go  called 
because  certain  of  the  boya  levied  tribute  (for  tall, 
aa  the  phcaae  went]  from  every  person  present,  and 
even  from  any  chance  passer.  These  juvenile  tax- 
gatherers  were  attired  in  fancy  dresses  of  silk.  The 
king  and  queen,  besides  many  members  of  the 
nobility,  frequently  honoured  the  procession  with 
their  presence ;  and  on  snch  occasions,  as  much  as 
XIOOO  has  been  collected,  which  was  given  to  the 
senior  scholar  to  support  him  at  Cambridge.  Tiia 
origin  of  the  custom  ia  unknown.  It  waa  ditoon- 
tinned  in  1847. 

MONTENE'GBO  (an  Italian  translation  of 
the  native  name  CzettHAOOiu,  ■  Black  Moun- 
tain') is  a  small  but  independent  and  recently 
extended  principality  situated  between  Bosnia  and 
Albania.  Till  1S78  it  was  separated  from  the 
Adriatic  by  a  narrow  strip  of  foreign  territory  ;  bnt 
the  Berlin  Conference  assigned  to  M.  the  port  and 
district  of  Antivari,  white  closing  it  against  the 
war-ships  of  all  nations.  Towards  the  end  of  1880, 
the  port  and  district  of  Dulciguojq.v.),  heretofore 
Albanian,  became  Montenegrin.  The  latter  plaeo 
Turkey  agreed  to  cede  instead  of  an  inland  district 
indicated  by  the  Berlin  Contereoco;  bnt  the  per- 
siatent  delay  of  the  Porto  to  transfer  Dulcigno  led 
to  strong  pressure  and  a  naval  demonstration  by 
the  Weiomi  Powers.  Area  of  M.,  3485  sqaare 
miles;  pop.  about  236,000. 

The  country,  traversed  by  branches  of  the  Dinoric 
Alps,  is  very  mountainous,  the  highest  points  being 
Dormitor  in  the  north  (3146  feet),  and  Kom  in  the 
east  (8031).  In  the  east  and  south,  the  hills  are 
partly  dad  with  forests.  But  the  higher  ridges 
and  plateaus  are  bare  of  vegetation ;  and  being 
generally  covered  with  loose  masses  of  rock,  give  to 
M.  an  aspect  of  peculiar  sterility  and  desolation. 
Yet  the  valleys  are  highly  fertile  ;  those  of  the 
Morafacha  and  Zeta,  with  the  low  land  on  the  lake 
of  Scutari  (into  which  the  chief  streams  of  M.  de- 
bouch), form  the  granary  of  the  land.  The  chmate 
uf  the  hilt  country,  which  is  M.  proper,  is  ungenial ; 
that  of  the  great  valley  and  its  connected  region  ia 
delightful.  The  fisheries  of  the  lake  are  produc- 
tive. A(;riculture  is  carried  ou  wherever  practi- 
cable. The  exports,  which  may  be  valued  at  about 
£200,000,  consist  mainly  of  hides,  wool,  sheefL 
smoked  mutton  and  bacon,  samodi,  oheese  and 
fruit ;  bnt  as  there  are  hardly  any  roads  save  mere 
tracks,  exports  and  imports  have  alike  to  be  con- 
veyed on  the  backs  of  mules,  or  of  porters,  nsnally 
women.  The  capital  of  M.,  Cettigne  or  Cetinji, 
ia  a  village  of  20(K>  inhabitants.  The  chief  towns, 
mostly  in  the  newly- acquired  territory,  are  Antivan 
12500),  Podgoritza  [4OO0|,  Dulcigao  (3000),  Hiksik 
(3000),  DanUograd  (15DU),  Spuz,  Zabliak,  Kolasin. 

The  Montenegrins  or  Zniagorzes  are  Slava  of  the 
Servian  stock,  and  constituto  almost  the  whole 
population  of  the  country,  the  exception  being  soma 
Albanians  and  others  in  the  new  territory.  The 
natives  are  handsome,  alhletic,  and  very  hardy- 
They  have  many  noble  charactenstica ;  their  morals 
are  pore,  and  their  family  affection  strong.  They  are 
brave  and  patriotic  to  a  degree,  but  somewhat  rock- 
leas,  pasaionata,  and  fierce.  Their  modes  of  warFar^ 
onoe  savage,  have  yielded  to  civilised  methods. 
Th^  dan  system  lends  itself  to  the  perpetuation 
of  daw  alliances  and  bitter  feuds,  and  the  bereditaij 
obli^lioD  to  ftvenge  blood  U  fully  recognised. 

^ '• Celbgl 


HONTENOTT^— MOHTEBST. 


The  vonititiltioii  of  the  conntrj  ii  nltully  called 
Lraitod  monarohT ;  prabablj'  it  would  be  lafai  to 
■peak  of  aa  abn>lnle  monaroliy,  in  wbich  ths 
Council  of  State  aud  the  National  Auembly  have 
ooniiilerahle  influence  on  the  decisions  of  the  prince. 
From  1516  till  ISfil,  the  head  of  the  sovemment 
was  the  Vladiia  or  nrince-biahop,  who,  tiesidea  hia 
proper  ofEce  aa  eccleaiaitical  superior,  exercised  at  the 
aame  time  those  ol  chief  ruler,  lawgiver,  judge,  and 
inilitar;  leader.  In  1S51,  the  two  ofBcee  were  dia- 
joioed,  and  the  vladika  was  restricted  to  bis  ecclesi- 
astical office,  while  the  carei  of  government  were 
left  to  the  Ooapodar  (hoapodar)  or  prince.  Since 
1S79  the  State  Council  ooOBists  of  eight  membera, 
of  whom  half  are  appointed  bf  tbe  prince.  The 
country  is  now  divided  into  eighty  districts  and 
four  militarj'  oommands.  BcBides  this,  there  exist 
the  time-honoured  patriarchal  institutiooi.  An 
'  elder '  preudea  over  each  village  commanity ; 
these  sniall  commnnitjea  constitute  forty  or  mora 
tribes  or  clans,  each  of  which  has  agun  an  '  elder ' 
at  its  head  ;  and  group*  of  allied  cUds  chooae  a 
htjat.  AH  llhese  various  local  dignitaries  come  to- 
gether to  form  tbe  Stitptchlma  oc  National  Assembly. 

The  language  of  the  Mootenegrins  is  a  verr 
pure  dialect  of  the  Servo- lUyrian  Slavonic  With 
the  eicoption  of  7000  Catholics  and  3000  Moham- 
medans in  the  new  territory,  the  Montenegrins 
belong  to  the  orthodox  Greek  Church.  There  me 
abont  2000  Monteaegrins  soattered  in  Austria, 
Turkey,  and  Russia  ;  besides  small  Montenegrin 
coloniea  in  Alexandria  and  San  Francisca 

The  public  income  amounts  to  about  £800,000, 
and  exceeds  the  expenditure.  The  pnblic  debt  was 
|>ud  oEF  by  HossU  in  1876.  The  prince's  civil  list 
include*  £360  from  home  sources,  £1400  from 
Bnitia,  and  £2000  from  Anstria.  Except  the 
body-gnard  of  the  prttioe,  tbera  ii  do  standing 
army.  But  as  all  Uie  inhabitants  are  trained  to 
arms,  they  form  a  permanent  militia,  and  are  easily 
transformed  into  an  army  of  neat  30,000  exoellent 
soldiers.  According  te  a  plan  of  reorganisation  con- 
teDiptated  in  1880,  there  would  be  a  first '  ban  '  of 
26,000  men,  and  a  second  '  ban '  or  reserve  of  B400. 

Consult  Andric,  Oisch.  dtt  FflrttmUaima  M. 
(1863)  !  Dntsohitsch,  Zma  Gora  (1874)  ;  Qopoevio, 
M.»lk*  Montmtgrita  (1877) ;  Denton,  M.  (1877). 

HftUtry. — M.  belonged  in  Uie  middle  ages  to  the 
great  Servian  kingdom,  but  after  the  dismember- 


of  Cnnol*,  ud  otiier  »chieTementB.  FiatM  IL, 
who  mled  ftom  1890  to  ISSl,  mad*  grest  effort*  to 
civilise  hia  people,  and  improve  their  condition. 
He  eatablished  the  sanat^  inta«daeed  sohoola,  and 
eadeavoni«d,  though  nnsaoosaafidly,  to  put  am  end 
to  internal  feuds^  and  predatoi;  azpei£tions  into 
the  neighbouring  provinces.  Some  Turkish  districts 
having  joined  M.,  the  Turks  attacked  the  latter  in 
1832,  l)ut  were  repulsed.  A  dispute  with  Austria 
regaiding  tha  boundary  resulted  in  a  war,  which 
was  terminated  by  treaty  in  184a  In  18C1,  ths 
last  prinoe-bishi^  died,  and  hia  succesaor,  Donilo  L, 
sepvated  the  rehgians  from  tiie  secular  supremacy, 
retaining  the  latter  under  the  title  of  Gospod«r. 


by  the  Czar  Alexander  IL), 

taxes  thus  rendered  necessai;,  caused  ^"^^t  con- 
fusion. This  was  token  advautife  of  by  the  Turks, 
who,  under  Omar  Pasha,  invaded  the  country ;  but 
the  intervention  of  the  Great  Powers  compelled  a 
treaty,  Febniary  13,  18S3.  Danib  want  in  vain  to 
the  Poriti  conference  in  1857,  seeking  tha  recognition 
independent.  In  1800,  we  Montenegrins 
.- >.■__  — -'nrt  the  Turkish  rule  in 


they  wen  glad  to  ame  to  a  treaty  (18^  by  which 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Sublime  Foiie  over  M.  was 
recognised.  Fresh  complications  caused  M.  to  de- 
clare wu  against  Turkey  ia  Jan.  1875,  but  a  com- 
promise was  effected.     M.,  however,  supported  the 


t^Ki 


of  the  latter,  and  it*  conquest  by  the  Turk* 
e  battle  of  Koasovo  (1389),  the  Monten^rins, 
under  their  prince,  who  was  of  the  roj»l  blood  of 


Servia,  maintained  their  independenoe,  though 
pelled  to  rehmjuish  the  level  tracts  about  Scnuin, 
with  their  chief  fortress  of  Zabliak,  and  confine 
themselves  to  the  mountains  (148S).  In  1616,  their 
last  secular  prioce  resigned  his  office,  and  trans- 
ferred the  government  to  the  vladika.  The  Porte 
oontinued  te  assert  its  claim  to  M.,  and  indnded  it 
in  the  pashalik  of  Scutari;  but  the  country  was  not 
oononered  till  1714,  and  on  tbe  withdrawal  of  the 
Turks  soon  afterwards,  it  resumed  its  independenoe. 
In  1710,  they  had  sought  and  obtained  the  protec- 
tion of  Itussio,  the  ccar  agreeing  to  grant  an  annual 
subsidy  oa  condition  of  their  lutfassing  tbe  Turks 
by  inroads,  and  this  compact  has,  down  to  the  pre- 
sent time,  been  fiiithfully  observed  by  both  parties. 
Another  part  of  the  agreement  was,  that  the  arch- 
bishop or  vladika  was  to  be  consecrated  by  the 
czar.  In  1796,  the  Prince-bishop,  Pietro  L,  defeated 
the  Pasha  of  Scutari,  who  had  invaded  M.,  with 
the  loBs  of  30,000  men ;  and  for  the  next  quarter- 
centuy  we  hear  no  more  of  Tnrkisb  invasions.  The 
Montefiegrins  rendered  important  aid  to  Russia  in 
1803  agamst  the  French  in  Dalmatia,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  attack  on  Bagusa,  the  capture 


insurrection  against  Turkey  that  broke  out 

Hersegovina  a  little  later,  and  in  July  1876  waa 
'  WOT.  The  Montenegrins  oo-operated  with 
lians  against  their  hereditary  enemy  during 

.  ._  of  1377—1878;  and  the  Berhn  Conf  ecenoa 

(1878)  recognised  the  independence  of  M.,  and 
i^teed  to  an  important  extensian  oi  Monten^rio 
turitory. 

MOlfTENOTT^  a  small  village  of  Northern 
Italy,  26  miles  west  of  Genoa,  where  the  Austrions 
wet«  defeated  by  the  French  on  the  12th  April  1790. 

MONTEPULCIATIO.  a  dty  of  Italy  in  tha 
province  of  Siena,  situated  on  a  high  hill,  66  milea 
south-south-east  of  Florence.  Pop.  about  3000, 
Numerous  Etruscan  remains  have  neen  excavated 
in  the  neighbourhood.    The  wines  of  M.  are  famous. 

MONTEREA'Lfi,  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  in  the  pro- 
vinoa,  and  14  m.  N.W.  of  the  town,  of  Aquilo.  Fop. 
6014.  It  atouda  on  a  hill  in  the  midst  of  a  vast 
plain,  and  has  several  elegant  churohes.  There  are 
vast  chestnut-groves  nearM-,  which  fumlah  ths  poor 
inhabitants  with  tha  chief  article  of  their  subaistenca. 

MONTEREAU,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  dn>art> 
ment  of  Stiine-et-Mams,  at  the  confluence  of  tbe 
Seine  and  Yonne,  46  miles  south-east  of  Paris,  with 
whioh  there  is  commnnication  by  steam-boat.  Tha 
manufactures  are  earthenware  and  leather.  Here, 
in  1419,  Jean-sans-Penr,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  waa 
assassinated,  at  the  iostiaatioo  and  in  the  presencs 
of  the  Dauphin,  afterward  Charles  Vll. ;  and  in  the 
immediate  vicinity,  Napoleon,  Feb.  18,  1314,  gwied 
his  last  victory  over  the  allies.    Pop.  (1881)  7107. 

MONTEREY',  the  most  thriving  city  of  Northern 
Mexico,  capital  of  the  state  of  Nuevo  Leon,  on  the 
San  Juan,  a  tributary  of  the  Rio  Grande,  176  miles 
west  of  Matamoras.  It  is  well  paved  and  dean, 
stand*  on  a  broad  plain,  1626  feet  above  sea-Ievel, 
and  i*  (urrounded  by  beautiful  gardens  and 
orchard*.  Pop.  in  ISSO,  33,811.  From  its  situation, 
its  facihties  for  commerce  are  great ;  and  it  i*  tha 
entrepSt  for  the  transport  of  American  goods  fnnn 
the  ^o  Grande  to  the  inland  states  of  Durango  and 
Zaratooa*.    In  the  war  betwew  tiie  VniM  3M« 


rXlOO^ 


■cf^ 


MONTfi  ROSA— MONTEZUMA. 


and  Henoo,  M  o»pitnI«ted,  21th  September  184S, 
after  a  «iege  of  tour  dayi,  to  the  American  foraai 
under  General  Taylor. 

MONTE  BaSA,  the  Mm*  Bplviiu  of  the 
ancient*,  u  tb«  higbeit  monntain  in  Europe  after 
Mont  Blane,  It  U  aituated  in  the  angle  n-here  the 
west  end  nl  the  Fenoine  meet*  the  Lepontic  Alpa, 
and  eeparatea  the  canton  of  ValaiB  from  Italy,  lie 
northern  portion  of  the  monntun  i*  hiahevt,  and 
forme  nine  peaki,  the  highest  of  which  ia  forked  and 
precipitong,  and  attains  an  altitude  of  1G,210  feat 
above  tea-leveL  Many  attempt*  were  made  to 
ascend  thia  peak,  but  none  were  auooesifnl  till  1855. 
The  mountam  appear*  to  oonnst  of  mioa-ilatfi.  in 
•ome  pUoea  alternating  wilji  gneiM.  It  ii  rich  la 
metallte  ore*,  and  aeTcnl  mine*  of  gold,  copper,  and 
iruQ  are  worked.      The  higheit  mine   i*  b  ' 

10,000  and  11,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and 

region  of  perpetual  auow.  Rye  ripeoB  np  to  an 
elevation  of  6000  feet ;  and  the  vine  ia  found  a*  far 
upsa  3200  feet ;  but  tWe  ia  a  difference  of  nearly 
lOOO  feet  in  the  altitude  of  tiie  correeponding  vege- 
tation en  the  north  and  couth  «ide*. 

MO'NTfi  SANT'  A'NGBLO,  a  city  of  Sonthem 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Foegia  (formerly  Capita- 
Data),  28  mQes  nortb-eaet  of  Foggia.  It  atande  on 
one  of  the  Qargano  group  of  hOla,  at  a  height  of 
2790  feat,  and  haa  nameroua  fine  churohea.  It  is 
fumed  for  ita  exquuita  honey,  gathered  bom  the 
odoriferou*  alpine  plauta  of  the  moontain,  Pop> 
14,036. 

MOTfT^  SAN  GIULIA'NO,  a  town  of  the 
iilond  of  Sicily,  proviuce  of  Trapani,  aituated  on  a 
high  mountain  4  milea  east-north-east  of  the  town 
of  TrapanL  On  the  mountain  (oncieDtly  Brgx) 
are  the  remuna  of  a  once  famoiu  temple  o(  Veooa. 
Pop.  -iiSO. 

KONTt  SAHCHIO,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Benevento,  13  mites  north-weatof 
Avellino,  on  the  torrent  Correo.     Pop.  060a 

MONTESQITIEtr,  Charles  sb  Secondat, 
Baroh  di  LA  Br^dk  et  db,  one  of  the  moat  cele- 
brated antiiore  and  politiaal  philosophers  of  France, 
boTD  18th  Januai;  1689,  at  his  father's  chftteau  of 
Bride  near  Bordeaux,  and  deaccnded  from  one  of  the 
most  diatingnished  families  of  Guienne.  In  his 
youth  be  WAS  a  hard  itndent  of  jurisprudence,  lite- 
rature, and  philosophy.  His  love  of  the  olaaaical 
authors  was  so  great,  that  at  the  age  of  twenty  he 
oomposed  a  work  intended  to  shew  that  they  did 
not  deserve  eternal  damnation  for  being  pagans.  In 
1714,  he  was  appointed  a  councillor  ih  the  parliv 
ment  of  Bordesux,  and  two  yean  after,  preaident 
of  the  parliament.  His  first  (published)  work  was 
hi*  famous  Leitre*  Peraana  (Par,  1721),  in  which, 
in  the  oharacter  of  a  Persian,  he  ridicules,  with 
■xguisite  humour,  and  clear,  sharp  criticism,  tbe 
religious,  political,  social,  and  literary  life  of  bis 
countrymen.  Although  he  did  not  spare  the  Aca- 
demy u  these  Leltra,  he  waa  admitted  a  mem- 
ber of  it  in  1728,  and  would  have  been  admitted 
•ooner,  if  Cardinal  Fleuiy  had  not  objected  on  the 
ground  of  hi*  jeata  against  r^lgion.  In  172S,  M. 
resigned  hia  office  in  the  parliament  of  Bordeaux, 
and  spent  some  year*  in  foreign  countries.  In 
England,  ha  spent  two  years,  during  which  he  was 
mocb  in  the  company  of  Lord  Chesterlield,  and  was 
treated  with  the  greatest  respect  by  the  most  dis- 
tinguiahed  paisonages.  After  his  return  to  BrMe, 
he  published  hia  Coruidiratioiu  tur  la  Cavta  dt 
la  Orandeur  A  dt  la  Dtcadence  dei  Bomaint  (Par. 
1734),  a  mssteily  view  ot  Boman  history,  expressed 
in  a  sententious,  oracular,  and  vigorous  style.  It  was 
followed,  after  *  long  interval  by  his  Diaiogaa 
d*  SgUa  d  de  Lymnaqut   (Far.   1748],  pubUshed 


under  an  assnmed  name,  in  which  the  motivea  and 

feelings  of  a  despot  are  skilfully  analysed.  In 
tie  same  year  appeared  his  great  work,  on  which 
he  had  been  engaged  for  twenty  years,  the  Bmrit 
da  Loie  (2  vols.  Geneva,  1748),  m  which  it  wa* 
attempted  to  exhibit  the  relation  between  the  law* 
of  different  countrie*   and  their  local  and 


_. immensely  popular.      No 

fewer  than  twenty-two  editions  were  published  in 
eighteen  months,  and  it  was  translated  into  variou* 
European  laiiRuagaa.  The  Etprit  dea  Loit  is  a  won- 
derfully good  bout,  considering  the  age  in  which 
it  appeared.  Without  adopting  Volture'a  hypei^ 
eulogistic  criticism,  that '  when  the  human  race  had 
lost  their  charters,  Montesquieu  rediscovered  and 
restored  them,'  it  may  be  said  that  it  was  the  first 
work  in  which  the  questions  of  civil  liberty  were 
ever  treated  in  an  enlightened  and  systematio 
manner,  and  to  M.,  more  than  to  any  other  man,  ia 
it  owing  that  the  sdance  of  politics  has  become  a 
favourite  subject  of  study  with  the  educated  public. 
M.  died  at  Paris,  10th  Febmaiy  1755.  Of  numerous 
editions  of  his  works,  by  far  the  best  is  that  by 
Edouard  Laboulaye  (7  vols.  Par.  1875-79).  See 
hia  life  by  Louis  Vian  (2d  ed.  Par.  1879) ;  and 
Dangean's  M^  Bibtiogra^de  dt>  se*  tZuvra  itar 
1874).  ^ 

H0NT£  VI'DEO,  8ak  FtuPB  b^  the  ea|dtal 
of  the  republic  of  Umgoay,  in  South  America,  is 
■itoated  on  the  norUi  Uiore  of  the  eatnary  of  the 
Bio  de  la  Plata  (which  is  here  60  miles  wide),  and 
132  mile«  east-bv-south  from  Buenos  Ayres.  It 
stand*  on  a  amall  peninsnla,  and  is  surrounded  by 

wall  and  fortil^cations.  The  bouses  are  mostly  of 
one  story,  with  flat  roofs.  The  only  pablio  buildmgi 
worthy  of  notice  are  the  cathedral  and  the  town- 
hall.  The  climate  i*  healthy ;  but,  as  there  ara  no 
rivers  near  the  town,  water  is  scarce,  and  it  is  only 
obtainable  from  wells,  or  by  collecting  rain-watar 
in  cistema.  The  bay  or  harbour,  which  is  about  3^ 
miles  long  by  2  broad,  presents  excellent  facilities 
for  building  wharfs,  docks,  S^c.,  is  sheltered  from  oU 
but  the  south-west  galea,  and  averages  16  or  17 
feet  in  depth.  The  trade  of  M.  V.  is  extensive  ;  the 
exports  consisting  of  wool,  hides,  hair,  tallow,  salt 
and  dried  beef,  bones,  &c.  ;  and  the  imjiorts,  of 
cotton  and  woollen  fabrics,  hardware,  also  fiour, 

ne,  spirits,  and  other  provisions.     The  chief  trade 

with  Great  Britain.  M.  V,  has  steam-communi- 
cation with  the  United  States,  Kio  Janeiro,  Britain, 
and  Genoa,  and  besides  these,  carries  on  a  con- 
siderable trade  with  France,  Spain,  I^  Plata,  and 
Italy.  The  population  in  1862  (inclusive  of  the 
smul  suburbs  ot  Cordon  and  Aguada)  was  45,760  ; 
and  in  1877,  110,167.  In  1880.  1076  vessels,  of 
734,443  toiis.entered,aadS71,of713,177  tons,  cleared 
the  port.  The  imports  for  18SU  amounted  to  about 
£3,323,102;  and  the  exports  to  about  ^104,593. 
For  the  history  of  M.  V,  see  Uboodas. 

MONTEZUMA,  the  name  of  two  of  the 
emperors  of  Mexico. — M.  L,  the  most  able  of  the 
Mexican  emperors,  ascended  the  throne  about  1437, 
and  soon  after,  commenced  a  war  with  the  neigh- 
bouring monarch  of  Chalco,  which  resulted  in  the 
annexation  of  that  kingdom  to  Mexico.  Tlateloloo, 
Cuihixoas,  and  Tzompahuacaji  were  nett  annexed. 
Some  reverses  which  bis  arms  now  suffered,  led  to  a 
confederacy  of  the  Tlascalans  and  two  other  power- 
ful tribes  against  him;  but  in  the  war  which  fol- 
lowed, M.'»  arms  were  again  signally  triumphant, 
and  the  territories  of  the  conquered  tribes  increased 
the  domain  of  the  now  all-powerful  Monteiuma. 
After  several  other  successful  wars,  he  died  in  1471. 

-M.  II.,  the  last  of  the  Mexican  emperors,  before  its 

ibjugation  by  the  Spaniards,  anooeeded   to  the 

^■^*^" 


MONTFEBBAT— MONTPORT. 


throne  in  1602.  Ea  hitd  duttDj^ouhed  hiiDBelf  u  ti 
warrior  during  the  reigD  of  hu  predeceaior,  and 
kfter  hil  accession,  carried  the  terror  oE  his  antu 
to  ibe  fiMntien  of  Nicaragua  and  Honduras.  He 
WM  at  the  Bams  time  a  member  of  the  priestly 
order,  and  did  not  demit  his  functions  on  his 
Bcceasioo.  He  devoted  his  chief  attention  to  the 
improvement  of  the  laws,  and  of  the  internal 
■dministratioD,  and  displayed  his  taste  for  pomp 
and  luxury  by  the  magnificence  of  bis  household 
arransemeDts,  and  a  profoae  embelliBbment  of  his 
capitM.  This  Deceiaitated  heavy  taxation,  which, 
oombined  with  the  strictness  of  bis  administration, 
led  to  continual  revolts  among  his  subjects,  especi- 
ally tbosa  who  had  lately  come  under  bis  sway. 
When  Cortes  landed  in  Mexico  with  his  small  array 
ia  1619,  M.,  blinded  by  an  old  prophecy,  and  by  the 
appearance  of  the  invaders,  acknowledged 
1  l>eings  of  a  siiiierinr  order,  ood  ob  his 
(see  CoRTFs).  The  inhabitants  of  Mexico 
having  ris^n  against  Cortes,  the  tatter  caused  M., 
who  was  then  Dis  prisoner,  to  apjiear  in  order  to 
pacify  them ;  but  being  wounded  accidentally  by  a 
stone  Sung  from  amoogat  the  crowd  of  his  own 
■ubjects,  he  so  keenly  fm  the  indignities  which  ha 
had  suffered,  that  he  repeatedly  tore  the  dressing 
from  his  wound,  and  soon  after  died,  June  30, 
1620.  Some  of  his  children  adopted  the  Christian 
religion,  and  his  eldest  son  received  from  Charles  V. 
the  title  of  Count  of  Montezuma.  One  of  his  descen- 
danta  was  viceroy  of  Mexico  from  1C97  to  ITOl, 
His  last  descendant,  Don  Marailio  de  Teruel,  Count 
of  Hontezuma,  was  banished  from  Spain  by  Fer- 
diouid  VIL,  and  afterwords  from  Mexico,  on  account 
of  hit  liberal  opiuioiu,  and  died  at  New  Orleans  in 
183& 

UONTFEBKA'T,  formeHy  an  independent 
duchy  oE    Italy,  between    Piedmont,   Milan,   and 

Genoa,  now  forming  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 
It  consisted  of  two  separate  portions,  Cosale  and 
Acqui,  lyin^  between  the  Maritime  Alps  and  the 
Fo,  and  having  an  area  of  over  1300  square  miles. 
The  capital  was  Casate.  M.,  after  the  downfall  of 
the  Frankish  empire,  was  ruled  by  its  own  mar- 
frravES  till  the  beginning  of  the  Hth  century.  This 
illustrious  house  for  a  long  time  disputed  the 
sovereignty  of  Kedmont  with  the  House  of  Savoy, 
and  sent  to  the  crusades  more  heroes  than  any  otlier 
soverei^  house  in  Europe.  Members  of  the  family 
ruled  smiultancously  in  M.,  Thessaly,  and  Jerusalem, 
On  the  death  of  tlie  Marquis  John  I.  in  1305,  hU 
sister^  lolande  or  Irene,  who  was  Empress  of  Con- 
stantioople,  succeeded  to  M, ;  and  her  second  ton 
became  the  founder  of  the  family  of  Montferrat- 
PaUeologns,  which  became  extinct  in  1933,  and  M. 
passed  to  the  Oonzagas  of  Mantua.  In  1631,  the 
dukes  of  Savoy  obtained  possession  of  a  portion  of 
M.,  and  in  1703,  with  the  consent  of  the  (ierman 
Emperor,  the  remaining  portion  paased  under  their 
sway,  and  waa  inoorporated  with  their  own  domi- 

MONTFORT,the  name  of  a  noble  French  house, 
descended,  according  tu  the  moat  probable  opinion, 
from  Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders,  and  Judith, 
daughter  of  Charles  the  Bald.   Amadbi  2d,  Seigneur 


history.  He  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  11th 
century.  His  son,  SIUOH  Ist,  had  for  his  third  wife 
Agnes,  daughter  of  Richard  Comte  d'Evreux.  He 
tett  four  tons,  of  whom  only  An auri  4th  had  issue. 
The  grandson  of  this  Amauri,  Sihdm  3d,  sumomed 
the  Said,  Comte  de  Montfort  and  Evreui,  married 
Amicie,  daughter  of  Robert  de  Beaumont,  Earl 
of  Leiceater.     Hi*  second  un  ww  the  famoui 


L.  in  izmf.  ne  vma.  pari  m  me  war  oi 
n  against  the  Albigensea.  He  signal- 
:  by  his  relentless  ferocity,  and  bis 
sesses,  but  was  killed  by  a  ttone  at  th« 


Snioit  4tb,  Comte  de  Montfort,  and  Eari  <tt 
Leicester,  lubaeqnently  Comte  da  Tonloase.  Thit 
nobleman,  so  conspicnooB  in  the  terrible  crusade 
against  the  Albigensea  (q.  v.),  wss  bom  abont  the 
Tear  1150.  In  1198,  ha  went  to  Palestine  at  the 
head  of  a  troop  of  French  knights,  but  failed  in 
doing  anything  against  the  Saracens,  and  was 
obliged  to  return.  In  1202,  he  joined  the  4th 
orusade,  which,  however,  had  no  religious  design  at 
all  (see  CRuaiDEa),  in  consequence  of  which  M. 
abandoned  it.  In  1209,  he  took  port  in  the 
extermination        •     ■   -■      -"■  " 

ised  himself  ._ 
brilliant  successes, 
siege  of  Toulouse,  25th  June  121S. 

MONTFORT,  Simoit  ds.  Earl  of  LeScestra-, 
the  fourth  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  in 
France  about  1203.  The  title  of  Earl  of  Leicester 
came  to  him  by  bis  grandmother,  Amicie  de  Beau- 
mont, sister  and  heiress  of  Robert  Earl  of  Leicester, 
but  be  did  not  directly  or  immediately  inherit  it, 
for,  during  the  reign  or  King  John,  it  was  borne  by 
Rauulf,  Earl  of  Chester.  Some  time  after  the  deaUl 
of  Rannl^  M  came  to  England,  and  offered  his 
services  to  Henry  III.  Already  he  enjoyed  a  great 
reputation  as  a  warrior,  and  Henry  waa  so  highly 

iileased  with  the  young  French  noble,  that  he  c»n- 
erred  on  him  the  title  of  Earl  of  Leicester.  Little 
did  Henry  think  that  the  stranger  was  to  prove 
against  himself  a  great  founder  and  champion  of 
English  constitutional  liberty.  He  married  Elinor, 
sister  to  King  Henry  HI.,  and  the  youthful  widow 
of  that  Earf  of  Pembroke  to  whom,  mote  than 
to  any  other,  the  people  of  England  owe  Magna 
Charta.  After  this  marriage — which  was  viewed 
with  disfavour  by  tile  king— De  M.  became  a  stead- 
fast advocate  of  the  English  Charter,  and  of  the 
liberties  of  the  people.  After  visiting  the  East,  he 
was  sent  by  the  king  to  undertake  the  command  of 
Gascony.  In  I25T,  the  king's  debts  were  so  great, 
and  the  rapacity  of  his  foreign  relations  so  unbear- 
able, that  the  people  were  in  a  state  of  insurrection. 
The  barons  asBembled,  and,  nndcr  the  direction  o[ 
De  M.,  held  the  celebrated  parliament  at  Oxford. 


absolved  from  his  oath.  The  bull  of  absolution 
arrived.  Uenry  set  his  barons  at  defiance,  shut 
himself  np  in  the  Tower,  and  appealed  to  Louis  of 
France.  England  was  now  in  anna.  The  whola 
middle  class  looked  up  to  De  M.  as  their  champion 
and  leader,  and  the  war  began  with  the  battle  of 
Northampton.  The  wars  of  the  barons,  nnder  Da 
M.,  have  been  superficiaLy  viewed  but  as  the  strife 
of  turbulent  nobles,  who,  in  the  abacnce  of  foreign 
wariarei  employed  themselves  in  getting  np  a 
contest  at  home.  Later  researches,  however,  have 
shewn  that  but  for  the  struggles  of  De  M. 
and  the  barons,  the  conceasions  at  Rnnnymede 
would  have  been  a  mere  worthless  parchment 
At  Lewes,  the  royal  forces  were  signally  diacom- 
fited,  and  the  king  taken  captive.  A  French 
chronicler,  who  praises  De  M  as  '  noble,  chivalrous, 
and  the  ablest  man  of  the  age,'  expressly  odds  that 
he  was  '  backed  by  the  general  favour  of  the  people,' 
who  at  this  time  were  so  '  unspeakably  tnm^sd 
under  foot,  and  deprived  of  all  their  libertiee.'  The 
conditions  exacted  from  the  king  were,  that  he 
should  observe  Magna  Charta  and  the  Charter  of 
the  Forests ;  be  moderate  in  his  expenses  and 
grants,  until  his  old  debts  were  paid  off,  and  he  was 
enabled  to  live  on  his  own  property,  without 
oppression  of  merchants  or  the  poor ;  and  that 
Englishmen  only  should  be  chosen  oounsellors.  No 
new  pretensions  were   iotroduced,   eren   at  tfaii 


MONTGOLPIER-lfOimiOlfER?. 


moment  of  triuiaph,  tod  the  cotutitatioiul  m&xim 
of  respecting  the  person  of  the  king  vu  ouefuUy 
upheld.  The  queen  (Elioor  of  Provence),  irho  wm 
in  Fnnoe,  now  occupied  henelf  in  collecting  a  luxe 
umy.  To  deliberate  upon  the  toeuoM*  to  be 
adopted  ftt  till*  gre>t  crioa,  writs  were  issued  to  the 
■herifft,  in  1265,  by  De  AL,  directing  them  to  return 
two  knights  for  esch  coontj.  Mid  two  citizens  or 
bnrgesses  for  erery  city  ana  borough;  and  from 
this  time  may  be  clearly  dated  the  leoo^tion  of 
the  Commons  at  an  estata  of  the  realm  in  psrlia' 
meat.  Ooardians  had  been  appointed  by  the  baroni 
to  watch  over  the  eieontion  of  Muna  Charta,  but 
fifty  years  of  encraochment  on  ^e  part  of  the 
crown,  convinced  De  M.  that  a  stronger  and  more 
enduring  security  would  be  to  commit  the  oare  ol 
constitutional  freedom  thenceforth  to  the  peoplt 
themeelvei,  whose  interests  tbe  barons  tiius  iden- 
tified witb  their  own.  Mr  Blnauw,  who,  in  his 
Sarong  War,  presents  De  M.  almost  for  the  Grst 
time  in  his  true  character,  adds,  that '  it  should  be 
an  honest  pride  to  ua  in  after-times  that  English 
liberty  thus  owes  its  birth  to  the  noblest  parentage, 
confidence  in  the  people.'  A  second  war  broke  out, 
and  this  time  the  popular  cause  was  weakened  by 
defection  and  treachery.  Prince  Edwud  (after- 
wards Edward  I.)  encountered  the  barons  at  Evea- 
ham,  with  a  greatly  superior  army.  When  defeat 
was  inevitable,  the  great  leader  refused  to  flpe.  He 
'fought  itoutlv  liko  a  giant  for  tlie  liberties  of 
England,'  but  lell,  overwhelmed  by  numbers.  The 
dentil-  of  De  M.  filled  the  whole  land  with  mourning. 
Like  Cromwell,  whose  career  in  many  respects 
resembles  his  own,  he  was  denied  a  grave  b;  the 
royotlsta,  his  head  being  sent  to  Wigmore  Castle, 
and  his  mutilated  limba  to  different  towns  ;  but  the 
people  bewailed  their  dead  champion,  and  the  oteiw 
pointed  to  his  glorified  spirit  in  heaven.  The  in- 
Hueoce  of  De  M.  was  felt  after  his  deatb.  No  baron 
was  executed  for  bearing  arms  against  his  sovereign, 
and  although  the  OxFord  tStatntes  were  formiSlr 
rescinded,  their  spirit  remained.  See  lA/e,  by  St 
Creighton  (1876) ;  and  Simon  de  Montfort  by  Pauli, 
translated  by  Una  M.  Ooodwin  (1S76). 

MONTGOLFIBR,  Jacqdbs  EnsMn  and  Joseph 
UiCHAU,  two  brothers,  distinguished  oa  the 
inventors  of  the  first  kind  of  Balloon*  (q.  v.).  They 
were  the  ton*  of  a  celebrated  paper- mouuf net  urer  at 
Annonay,  in  the  department  of  ArdKcbe,  and  early 
mgaged  themselves  in  the  same  branch  of  industry. 
Btienne,  after  a  few  successful  experiments  with  the 
balloon,  repaired  to  Paris ;  but  though  his  discovery 
created  a  great  sensation,  and  was  followed  ont  In 
praotiee  by  many  eminent  men,  he  obtained  little 
peonniorv  aid  in  carrying  on  hts  experiments,  and 
at  length  retired  to  hi*  native  town,  where  he 
resumed  the  manufacture  of  paper,  and  died  at 
Servieres,  in  1799. — His  elder  brother,  Joseph,  the 
■barer  of  his  labours  and  his  glory,  wa*  a  man  of 
much  genius  and  little  education ;  but  the  two 
brothers  were   fitted   to   supplement  each  other's 


French  Academy.  Joseph  invent«d  tbe  bydraulio 
•crew,  the  calorimeter,  &c,  and  in  the  latter  part  of 
hi*  life,  filled  a  post  in  tbe  department  of  Arbi  and 
Uonufacturea.    He  died  at  Paris  in  1810. 

HONTGOHERY.  Gabbih,  Comtb  db,  a  French 
knight  of  Scottish  extraetion,  and  an  officer  in  the 
Scottish  Lifeguard  of  the  king  of  France,  was  bom 
«bcDtl630.  At  a  tournament  given,  30tb  June  1559, 
1^  Henr^  IL  in  honour  of  his  daughter's  marriage 
with  Philip  of  Spain,  the  king  insisted  upon  yoimg 
M.  entering  the  lista  with  him.  M.  reluctantly  com- 
plied, sad  the  shaft  of  hi*  broken  lanoe  entenng  the 


king's  visor  at  the  eye,  Henry  II.  was  borne  insensible 
from  the  Round,  aud  so  continued  for  eleven  days, 
when  he  died.  M.,  although  blameless,  left  Prance, 
and  soon  after  embraced  Protestantism  in  England, 
On  the  commencement  of  the  religious  wars  in  1562, 
he  returned  to  his  native  eonutly  to  support  the 
Protestant  cause,  and  defended  Bouen  with  great 
bravery.  In  the  tbird  religions  war,  he  was  one 
of  tbe  leaders  of  the  Protestants,  and  gained  many 
advantages  over  the  royalists  in  Languedoc  and 
Bfam.  During  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew, 
ha  happened  to  bo  at  Paris,  and  owed  his  escape  to 
the  awiftnesa  of  his  horse,  and  fled  to  England.  In 
April  1G73,  be  appeared  off  Bochella  wiUi  a  small 
fieet,  but  failed  in  accompllahing  anything,  and  wa* 
obliged  to  retire.  Next  year,  at  the  head  of  a 
band  of  Huguenot*,  he  landed  in  Normandy,  and 
commenced  war  there  ;  but  being  compelled  at  last 
to  surrender  the  csstle  of  Domfront,  he  w>*  carried 
to  Paris ;  and  although  the  general  to  whom  he 
surrendered  had  assured  him  of  his  life,  be  was 
beheaded,  after  long  imprisonraent,  27lh  May  1674. 
Brantome  describes  him  ss  naturally  the  most  non- 
chalant and  pleasure-loving  of  men,  hut  that,  when 
once  he  had  mounted  his  saddle,  there  was  not  a 
more  daring  or  vigilant  warrior  ii 


MONTGOHEKY,  Jakes,  a  minor  British  poet, 
the  son  of  a  Moravian  preacher,  was  born  at  Irvine, 
Ayrshire,  November  4, 1771,  and  at  the  age  of  seven 
was  sent  to  the  Moravian  settlement  at  Fulueok, 
near  Leeds,  in  order  to  complete  his  education  for 
tbe  Moravian  pastorate.  At  Fulneck,  the  course  of 
study  seems  to  have  been  too  severe  in  its  character 
for  the  young  poet ;  the  imaginative  side  of  bis  mind 
was  alfoweo  no  recojjnition,  and  it  was  only  by 
stealth  that  he  read  Cowpcr's  poems  and  HoliiuoTi 
Cnuot.  Much  of  his  leisure  time  at  &cLool  wo* 
employed  iu  the  composition  of  verges  and  of  music, 
in  which  he  took  much  delii-ht  In  1789.  ho  ran 
away,  and,  after  four  ycni's  of  various  employment, 
beciune  enga^d  as  clerk  to  Mr  Oalcs.  editor  of  The 
Slifffield  HegxtUr,  for  whicli  he  soon  began  to  write 
political  articles.  In  17!)4,  he  commenced  a  news- 
paper of  his  own.  The  Slt^ffidd  Irit,  which  he  con- 
tinued to  edit  till  1S2S,  when  he  retired.  Diirine 
the  period  of  his  editorship,  M.  was  twice  subjected 
■  fine  and  imprisonment,  by  government  In  1795, 
was  lined  £StO,  and  sentenced  to  three  months' 
[irisonment.  for  printing  off  some  copies  of  a 
miserable  ballad  in  which  government  suspected 
that  sedition  lurked,  and  in  179G,  he  was  fined  £30, 
imprisoned  for  six  months,  for  giving  an 
int  of  a  Sheffield  riot.  He  received  a  govern- 
ment pension  of  £150  in  1835,  and  he  died  at 
hia  own  house  in  Sheffield,  April  30,  1854  His 
principol  works  are— Tie  Wanderer  df  Simlurlami 
(180G);  The  Wat  India  (1809);  The  World  b-ifore 
the  Flood  (1812) ;  and  Tlie  PeUcan  lAaad,  and  other 
Poems  (1827).  A  collected  edition  of  his  minor 
poems  appeared  in  1861 ;  and  in  1863,  his  Ordinal 
Hymns  fir  Pabtic,  PrivaU,  and  BocUd  JDenolioa, 
closed  the  series.    See  his  Memoirs  (7  vola.  1  S56~A8). 

Hi*  poems  ore  melodious,  full  of  pictnresqQA 
description,  and  the  gentiest  human  feeling.  The 
personages  introduced  in  his  poems  are,  however, 
only  sluulows,  or  touched  with  the  faintest  oolour  of 
character.  But  ha  olums  a  well-defined  poeition 
among  the  favourite  poete  of  his  ooontiy  by  sevenJ 
of  bis  hymns  and  minor  poems,  and  by  his  exqaisito 
verses  on  Home,  which  commence  tha  third  part  ol 
Tie  Wedlndiea. 

MONTGOMERY,  Rosebt,  a  preacher  and 
.  jrse-maker,  who  has  gained  notoriety,  if  not  fame, 
was  bom  at  Bath  in  1S07.  He  graduated  B-A.  at 
Oxford  in  1833,  M.A.  in  1S3B,  and  wM  ordained  in, 


MOlitooirtaif-Moim. 


1835.  In  1836,  lie  became  tnjnuter  of  Percy  Street 
EpiMopitl  Clwpel,  London  :  he  aftenvEvd*  lemoved 
to  Glaeanir,  wbero  be  preached  Cor  four  years,  but 
returned  to  Loodon,  and  reaumed  office  at  Percy 
Street  Chapel  in  184a  He  died  December  3,  18S5. 
H.'i  works  compriM  a  Urge  number  of  Tolumei  '" 
prou  and  varae,  on  themea  more  or  leu  sacred.  I 
u  best  known  by  hii  poems.  The  OmniprtMna  of 
Vie  DeUy  (1g28)  has  paraed  through  26  editions. 
But  hi«  celebrity  m&y  be  said  to  have  died  with 
him,  and  his  works  have  alreadv  become  part  o:~ 
lumber  of  libraries.  This  result  has  been  bro  .^ 
about  to  some  eitent  by  the  jadgment  which 
Macaulay  passed  upon  7^  Omitiprttenea  and  other 
works  by  tnia  author. 

MONTOO'MERT,  a  dty  and  the  capital  of 
Alabama,  United  States,  is  on  the  left  bauk  of  the 
Alabama  Rirer,  416  miles  above  Mobile,  at  the  head 
of  steam-boat  navigation.  The  city  ia  very  hand' 
Bomely  buill^  with  elegant  residenoet  and  gardeoi 
on  a  cluster  of  hills,  on  one  of  which  is  a  luuidsome 
•tate-hoase.  It  ha*  a  law-school,  several  academies, 
fourteen  churches,  five  banks,  four  papers,  marble- 
works,  iroa-foundries,   and  is  one  of  the  largest 


n  the  s 


M.   L 


with 


four  lioes  of  railway.  It  became,  in  1S60,  the 
capital  of  the  Confederate  States,  and  continaed 
to  be  the  seat  oF  goverament  nntil,  on  the  secession 
of  Virjiinia,  it  wna  removed  to  Richmond.  Pop,  in 
1870,  10,588  i  in  1860,  16,714. 

HONTGUMEltYSHIRE,  an  inland  oonni;  of 
North  Wales,  between  Shropshire  on  the  K,  and 
the  Welsh  oountiea,  MerioDoth  and  Cardigan. 
the  W.  Area,  4S3,.^3  acree,  of  which  about 
811,000  are  under  tillngo  ;  pop.  (1871)  67,623  ;  (1881) 
65,798.  The  surface  is  almost  wholly  mountainoos, 
a  large  portion  CDnsistins  of  bleak  elevated  m 
lands ;  but  toward  the  Eneliib  border,  there  _  _ 
several  warm,  fertile,  and  well-wooded  valleva.  The 
Severn,  the  Vyrnwy,  and  the  Dovey   " "  ' 


theb 


llie  county  belongs  almost  entirely  to 
a  of  the  Severn.    The  mineral  wealth  of  M. 


ia  not  great,  but  copper,  lead,  and  xinc  are  procured, 
and  rmllstunes,  slates,  and  limestone  are  quarried. 
On  the  uplands,  the  soil  is  poor,  and  suited  princi. 
pally  for  mountiun  pasture  ;  but  in  the  valleys,  graia 
and  flax  are  raised.  Cattle  and  sheep,  and  the  pure 
breed  of  Welsh  ponies  called  '  Merlins,'  are  reared. 
The  Welah-flamiel  manufacture  is  extpusively  car- 
ity.      The  capital  is  Mootaomery 


been  wrested  during  the  previous  year  by  the 
Welsh  from  the  fonnder.  Baldwin,  lieutenant  of  the 
Marches  to  William  the  Conqueror  and  William 
Bufus.  The  county  sends  ous  member  to  the  House 
of  Commooa.  The  county  bnsinesi  is  carri«l  on  at 
Welshpool  and  Newtowu  alternately.  There  ia  an 
excellent  trade  in  cattle  and  horses  Offa'a  Dyke 
traversea  the  south-east  comer. 

MONTH,  originally  tbe  period  of  Uta  moon's 
rerolntion  round  the  earth.  If  this  is  reckoned 
from  the  position  of  tbe  moon  among  the  stars  to 
her  return  to  tbe  same  position,  the  period  is  called 
•  tidertid  month,  and  consists  of  27  days,  7 
hours,  43  tniuutes,  11}  seconds;  but  if  from  new 
noon  to  new  moon,  it  is  longer,  being  29  days,  12 
hours,  44  minutes.  3  seconds ;  wis  is  caUed  a  tgnodie 
month  (see  Moon).  The  latter  period  forms  one  of 
the  three  natural  meaaorea  of  the  lapse  of  time,  and, 
notwithstanding  that  its  efficiency  depends  on  the 
rtate  of  the  atmosphere,  it  ranks  next  to  the  day  in 
importanoe.    There  are  Mveral  other  perioda  used 


by  BStronomen  to  vliiah  this  name  is  applied,  as 
the  tropiaU  or  periodic  month  (27  days,  7  nonta,  43 
miautn,  4-7  seconds),  reckoned  front  the  mooo'a 
passing  the  equinox  till  her  retom  to  the  sama 
point ;  the  iiodai  month  (27  days,  6  hours,  5 
minutoi,  29  seconds],  from  sacecidin^  nods  t» 
asoending  node ;  the  aitojialitiie 


29  minntes,  an< 
is  the  eivU  or  ealatdar  month,  fixed  by  law  for  otdi- 
nary  purposes,  and  consisting  of  a  fixed  number  of 
days— from  28  to  31— according  to  the  particular 
month.  The  calendar  monl^  with  the  uumbec  of 
days  belonging  to  each,  on  aa  follow  i 

1.  Juinar;,     .       .       31    |    T.  'slT.         ■  ■       » 

t.  Pabroarj,               .Hi.  AsfiiM,  .       .    It 

■       (lapjian.)  W   1     Ri  BeptembM,  .       3> 

3;  Much,        .       .        a       Id.  OMotKT,  .       .   « 

4.  April,     .       .       .    n       11.  Noramber,  .       m 

(.  Mtj,   .       .               n        11.  BMamlMr,  .        .    11 

See  also  the  separate  months  under  thdr  own  heads. 
The  names  by  which  the  montha  are  designated 
throughout  Cnristendom  were  given  them  by  the 
Komaos ;  and  though  Charlemagne  in  the  9th  c 
and  the  French  Directory  in  the  end  of  laab  cen* 
tnry,  attempted  to  substitnte  descriptive  epithet^ 
the  old-established  namea  continue  to  ne  preferred. 

HONTHOLON,  Ceabus  TiuBTaiT  d^  ComU, 
afterwu:ds  Marquit  de,  descended  from  an  ancient 
French  family,  wa*  bom  at  Paris,  1782.     At  the 
age  of  ten  he  entered  the  navy,  but  exchanged  it 
for  the  army  in  1708.     His  nse  was  rapid.     Ha 
displayed  great  xeal  on  behalf  of  the  First  Consul 
in  tha  revolution  of  18tb  Bmmaire,  in  the  capacity 
of  cA/^tTetcadron.     He  served  in  a  nnmber  of  cam- 
paigns,  and   was    severely  wounded   at  Wagram. 
K^Hileon  made  him  his  chamberlain  in  180!).     He 
was  made  a  general  of  brigade  in  1814,  and  appointed 
to  the  chief  command  in  the  department  of  Loire. 
On  Napoleon's  abdioation,  M.  remained  in  ^anct^ 
but  held  aloof  from  the  Bourbons.     No  sooner  had 
the  Emperor   escaped   from  Elba   and   landed  at 
Frejus,  than  M  hastened  to  join  him.      He  waa 
present  at  Waterloo,   and  accompanied  NapoleoB 
to  St  Helena,   continuing  his    devoted  attentions 
to  him  till  he  breathed  ms  last,  and  being  named 
in  his  will  as  one  of  his  tniatees,  spared  no  eiertioD 
to   carry   its  provisions  into   efhcb      Along  with 
General  Oourgaud,    be  published  Jffmoire*   pour 
'    i  CHi^nre  de  Fraitre  aom  NapcUon,  teriU 
..   ....   nelMe  *mu  M   diette   (8   vols.   Par.  1823). 

He  afterwards  published  a  wotk  entitled  RkMo  d* 
la  CapHeiti  de  Sle.-HtUM  (Lond.  1847).  In  ths 
proclamationa  which  Louis  Naptdeon  issned  on  hit 
landing  at  Boulogne  in  1840,  M.  was  named  ohisf  of 
his  sta^  and  on  this  aoconut  be  was  condemned  bf 
the  Chamber  of  Peers  to  20  years' 
was  afterwards  pardoned. 
August  1853^ 

MONTI,  TnTCBino,  the  great  resenerator  of 
modem  Italian  poetry,  was  bora  19u  February 
17^  in  the  Boman  province  of  Ferrara,  and  etodiM 
in  tbe  university  of  Ferraia.  On  the  tenninatloD 
of  his  studies,  ha  repaired  to  Bome  (1T78],  where  the 
patronage  of  friends  obtMoed  for  him  the  post  of 
-  ^retaty  to  the  pope's  nephew.  During  bis  abode 
Rome,  he  became  involved  in  a  bitter  sqnabbla 
with  AlSeri,  whose  fame  as  the  master- tragedian  d 
Italy  was  then  high  in  tbe  ascendant—*  fact  which 
may  have  bean  unpalatable  to  M.,  in  consequenes 
of  the  &ilnre  of  his  own  dramatio  attempts.  Ttm 
'    Man  <d  BasnlK  the  lepaUicaa  wunj  d 


imprisoDmi 
Ha  died 


li01WitJj.-itoK*patttBfi. 


Fnnoe,  afforded  to  M.  >  mbject  tor  iaa  poem.  La 
Batviiiiaita,  His  two  Kacneeaing  poema,  tbe  Jfiuo- 
fonia  ftnd  tha  FenmiaiU,  CDDtained  tbe  bitterart 
■nTeotiTea  Kgoiast  Franoe  Mid  Bonapute ;  but  an 
tbe  appcaruice  of  a  French  armj  before  Rome,  M^ 
-with  tAe  iueicoMbla  uuxnaoKtHacj  which  chano- 
teriaed  hii  poUtioal  conduct  throuahout,  hastened 
to  eaponae  Uie  cauie  of  Fraoce,  and  to  invoke  tbe 
protection  of  Bonaparte.  M.  waa  ahortly  after 
appointed  aeoretary  of  the  Ciaalpine  Direotorr ;  and 
in  17S9  repaired  to  Fraoco,  where  be  nndertook 
tbe  tranalation  of  Voltaire's  poetical  works.  On 
returning  to  Italy,  he  was  appointed  profeaaor  is 
*■■ ■ ity  of  Paria;  and  in  1805,  on  Bonaparte 


being  moclaimed  king  of  Italy,  M.  was  afpomted 
Btate  hiatoriwrapha'.  On  the  fall  of  the  fimpire, 
M.  beoame  the  eulogist  ot  IJm  Aosthan  poasessora 


of  his  coimtiy.    In  t 


I  midst  of  all  these  poUtical 


the  claaaica,  and  accompliahed  one  of  hia  greateat 
worka,  the  tmiuilBtiou  of  the  Iliad  into  Italian 
yerae.  M.  died  at  Milan,  13th  October  1828,  of 
an  apoplectic  stroke,  and  was  sincerely  lamented, 
notvnthstanding  the  many  opponents  his  hasty 
suscejitibility  had  created  in  life.  The  beat  editions 
of  his  works  are  those  of  Milan  (1825—1827, 8  vols.), 
and  his  O/iere  InrdUe  t  Rare  (Milan.  1332—1833, 
6  vols.).  M.  had  a  warm  admiration  of  Dante,  and 
partook,  in  some  degree,  of  the  spirit  of  the  great 
master.  His  dhief  wor^  are  diatinguiahed  by  sus- 
tained grandeur  of  imagery  and  diction,  by  daring 
flights  of  imagination,  and  by  the  delioaOT,  elevation, 
and  fire  of  the  sentimenta  expressed,  "niey  are  too 
numerous  for  separate  notice,  but  the  beat  of  them 
rank    among  toe   noblest    produddoos  of    Italian 

MONTI'LLA,  a  town  of  S^aia,  in  the  modem 
province  of  Cordova,  and  20  miles  south- south -paat 
of  the  city  of  that  name.  It  stands  on  a  hillside 
rising  from  the  south  bank  of  a  tributary  of  the 
XenQ.  Manufactures  of  coarse  linen  and  earthen- 
ware are  carried  on,  and  oil-mitla  are  in  operaUon. 
A  famous  wine  is  grown  in  the  Ticinity.  M.  ia 
the  birthplace  of  Onnzalo  de  Cordova,  the  'Great 
Captain.'    Pop.  (1877)  13,207. 

MONTJOIB  ST  DENIS,  the  war-cry  ot  the 
old  kings  of  France,  aaid  to  be  as  ancient  as  the 
days  ol  Clovis,  and  from  which  the  king-of-arma, 
Montjoie,  who  had  ezclonve  jurisdiction  m  France, 
^rived  his  title. ' 

MONTL'tJ90N,  a  town  of  France,  department 
of  Altier,  is  picturesqaely  situated  on  a  h^  on  the 
rifiht  bank  of  the  Cher,  40  miles  west-south -weat  of 
Moulina.  It  has  aome  coarse  cloth  manufacturea, 
and  bade  in  corn,  wine,  and  fruita.  It  has  also 
iron-warka  and  pUte-glass  manufsctoriec  Pop. 
(1881)  24,767.  At  a  dutance  of  10  mQea  are  the 
wells  of  Ndria-les-Baina,  celebrated  in  the  time  of 
the  Bomans — of  whom  many  traoes  are  left — and 
still  much  frequented  by  invalids. 

MONTMABTRB.    See  Piaa. 

MONTMORBMoy,  Aiikb.  first  DtiODS,  Marahol 
and  Constable  of  France,  born  March  1493,  belonged 
to  one  of  the  oldest  and  n«ateet  of  the  noble  families 
of  France.  He  receivM,  it  ia  aaid,  the  name  of 
^nns    from    his    godmother,    Anne    of    Brittany. 


many ;  and  the  auspictona  of  the  king  having  beea 
aronaed  a^nst  him,  he  was  suddenly  banished  from 
oourt  in  1541,  and  passed  ten  years  on  his  estate^ 
till  the  aoceoaion  of  Henry  II.,  when  he  oatne  again 
to  the  head  of  affaita.  In  1657,  he  oommanded  tbe 
French  army  which  auffered  the  terrible  defeat  of  St 
Quentin,  in  which  be  was  taken  prisoner.  During  the 
minority  of  Chartea  IX.,  M.,  with  tbe  Duke  of  Ouise 
and  the  Mai«bal  St  Andri,  composed  the  famoua 
triumvirate  which  resisted  Catharine  de'  Medici. 


In  1662  and  1507,  he  commanded  tbe  royal  army 
asainst  the  Huouenota,  and  in  both  wars  gained 
victoriea  over  them,  but  received  a  fatal  wound  at 


Bmperor 
with  hia 


.  v.,  and  waa  taken  prisoner  along 

-ipn  in  the  battle  of  Pavia,  which 

fought  uainst   his   advice.      He    afterwards 

beoatne   the   kader   of   tiie   French   govemmeDt, 
ahewing  great  ability  in  matters   of  nnanoe  and 


Denia,  and  died  at  Paiia 
12th  November  1667- 

HOKTMORENOT,  Henbi,  aeoond  Dm  va, 
grandson  of  the  famona  Conatable  de  Montmorenoy, 
bom  at  ChantiUy,  SOth  April  159&  His  godfather 
waa  the  great  Hrnri  QuMre,  who  always  called  him 
his 'son.'  When  he  waa  17  years  of  age,  Louis  XllL 
made  him  Admind,  and  he  defeated  the  Huguenot* 
in  Languedoc,  and  took  the  laid  of  lU  bum  those 
of  Itochelle.  He  afterwards  gained  other  Tietoriea 
over  them,  and  in  1630  received  the  chief  oonunand 
of  the  French  ttoopa  in  Piedmont,  where  he  defeated 
the  Spaniards,  for  which  he  received  a  marshal's 
baton.  Unhappily  for  himself  he  ventured  to  oppose 
Richelieu,  who  had  always  been  hia  enemy,  add 
espoused  the  canae  of  Qaston,  Duke  of  Orleana ;  for 
this  he  was  declared  guilty  of  high  treaaon,  and 
Marshal  Schomberg  being  sent  gainst  him,  defeated 
him  at  Caatalnan^jy,  uid  took  Um  priwnier.  M., 
altboogh  almost  roortally  wounded,  waa  ouried  to 
Toulouse,  sentenced  to  death  by  the  pailiameDt,  and 
notwithaUnding  hia  expresaiona  of  penitenoe,  and 
the  most  powerful  intercession  made  for  him — for 
example,  by  King  Cbsilee  L  of  England,  the  pope, 
the  Venetian  Hepublio,  and  the  Duke  <rf  Savoy- 
was  beheaded,  SOth  October  1632.  M.  was  distin- 
guislied  for  hu  amiability  and  the  conrteay  of  his 
~~anners,  as  well  as  for  his  valour, 

HONTO'RO,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  in  the  pro- 

nce  of  Avellino,  built  portly  on  the  slope  and 
partly  amnnd  the  base  of  a  hill,  12  miles  north  of 
Saleroo.  Pop.  4731.  It  forma  tiie  central  point  of 
sevcnd  villagee,  and  ha*  large  markets  and  aome 
linen  and  cloth  manufacturea. 

MONTORO,  a  pleasant  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
modem  province  of  Cordova,  built  on  a  rocky  ridge 
around  which  winda  the  Guadalquiver,  26  milea 
east-north-east  of  Cordova.  It  contains  one  of  the 
best  hospitals  in  Andalusia,    Hardly  any  drinkable 

_... 1  be  obtained  within  the  town.  Theheights 

cinity  are  clothed  with  olive  plantations, 
is  largely  exported  from  this  qnarter. 
Woollens  and  euthenware  are  mannfaotured.  Pop^ 
(1877)  13.293. 

MONTPE'LIER,  the  capital  of  Vermont,  United 
States  of  America,  ia  on  the  Winooaki  River, 
215  miles  north-north-west  of  Boston.  It  is  a 
[US  village,  with  a  handsome  state-house, 
les,  2  banks,  4  newspapers,  iron-foundry, 
flour-mills,  and  manufactures  of  carriages,  hats, 
lumber,  Sc     Pop.  (1830)  3219. 

HOKTFELLIER  (I^t.  Moat  mnlanti*  or 
pueOarum),  a  city  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
teraolt,  in  43°  36'  N.  lat,  and  3*  60'  K  long.  Pop. 
(1881)  <^  the  town  alone,  62,67^  Seen  from  a 
distance,  M.  has  au  imposing  appeannce,  from 
the  munber  of  its  towers,  steeples,  and  cnpolaa ; 
but  alUiongh  its  auburba  are  clean  and  well  huil^ 
the  interior  of  the  old  town  diaappoints  expecta- 
ttMl,  being  chiefly  remarkable  for  it*  crooked,  dark, 
narrow,  and  duty  streets.  The  public  walks. 
known  ••  thoae  of  the  Peyroii,  and  aome  ol 
'■■:: C^oflblc 


MONTraLLnsu-uoimtfiAi.. 


tha  other  mon  eleratad  poi 
views,  tmhitidns  tha  MMitammean,  the  Alps, 
the  Ceveimaa,  and  the  Pyieaees.  The  moat  nota- 
worthy  boildm^  ue  the  cathedrkl,  the  theatre,  the 


fouodM  in  1196,  U  composed  of  three  facuttiee 
— that  of  medidDe,  founded  in  the  12th  o.  by  Ara- 
bian phjiicians,  and  itill  ranking  among  tha  best  in 
Europe— that  of  the  exact,  and  Uiat  of  the  phyaical 
■cienoea.  M.  haa  a  botaoical  garden,  the  oldeit  ' 
Europe ;  a  public  library  of  50,000  volumes,  and 
"'■" -"-~™itical  aohool ;  admirable  muBeomi,  natur&l 


pharmaoantic 
Aiitory  and  { 


.  ....  and  fine  art  collections,  Ac  The  indnitriil 
pioduots  of  M.  are  pigment*  and  other  chemical 
preparations,  brandy,  liqueurs,  perfumes,  soap, 
corka,  ingar,  oottou,  woollen,  and  fine  leather  goods  ; 
and  the  trade,  which  is  very  important,  indudea 
beaide*  these  articles,  wine,  seeds,  otiTe-oil,  aof 
fmits.  Railways  to  Marseille,  Cette,  and  other 
ports,  beiides  Tarious  canals,  facilitate  commercial 
and  social  inter«onne,  and  few  cities  of  the  empire 
bold  out  sreatw  atbactiou  in  regard  to  intellectual 
onltun  than  Montpellier.  Its  geographical  position 
baa  led  to  its  being  selected  as  a  ^ace  of  residence 
fur  conininptiTe  patients ;  but  the  extreme  cleamesB, 
and  even  saarpness  of  the  air  in  the  more  elevated 
parts  of  the  town,  the  occasiaiial  occurrence  of  the 
icy  wind  known  as  the  JHUiral,  and  the  sudden 
aooession  of  overpowering  heats,  would  seam  very 
materially  to  counteract  some  of  its  long  reputed 
advantages. 

MONTREA'L,  the  largest  city  of  the  Dominion  of 
Caaada,  in  Quebec  proviace,  lies  in  Ut  46*  31'  K,,  long. 
73*  35'  W.,  on  the  eastern  aide  of  an  island  (q.  v. 
below)  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ottawa  with  the  St 
Lawrenoa;  and  baa  a  noble  situation,  being  built 
on  a  succession  of  terraces  on  the  side  of  a  hill. 
Its  eastern  suburb,  called  Hochelaga,  was  origin- 
ally the  site  of  an  Indian  village  of  the  same 
name,  disoovered  in  September  1S36  by  Jacques 
Cartier ;  and  it  ia  from  hu  admiring  exclamation  at 
tha  view  obtained  from  the  neighbouring  hill,  that  M. 
(compted  from  Mont  Boyol)  derives  its  name. 
The  westemmovt  permanent  settlement  which  the 
French  obtained  m  Canada,  it  was  under  them 
luerely  an  outpost  of  Quebec,  and  continued  to  be 
such  under  Bntlah  rule  till  1832,  when  it  became 
a  separate  port  Since  then,  tlie  rapidity  of  its 
progress  hat  t>een  astonishing  By  the  deepening  of 
the  shallower  parts  of  the  river  above  Quebec,  M.  is 
now  accessible  to  vessels  of  over  3000  tons  burden, 
and  drawing  from  19  to  22  feet.  Ite  harbour,  lined 
with  wharfs  for  a  mile  and  a  quarter,  at  which 
125  ships  could  lie  at  one  time,  is,  from  its  inland 
position  (90  miles  above  the  influence  of  the  tides), 
perfectly  safct  Sitnatad  at  the  bead  of  the  ocean- 
navigation  of  the  St  Lawrence,  ML  has  naturally 
become  the  d£p4t  for  the  exports  and  imports  of  ail 
the  Canadas.  At  tha  same  time,  the  obstmotion  to 
vessels  sailing  further  up  the  river,  caused  by  the 
rapids,  has  been  surmounted  by  magnificent  canals. 
The  lAchine  Canal  avoids  the  Locbine  Bapids,  and 
simplifies  direct  communication  with  Lake  Ontario, 
which  is  accessible  from  Ottawa  by  the  Bideau 
Biver  and  Canal.  The  Welland  Canal  connects  Lakes 
Ontario  and  Brie ;  so  that  M.  is  at  the  foot  of  an 
improved  chain  of  inland  waters  extending  to  Lake 
Superior.  The  canals  connecting  M.  with  Lake 
Ontario  have  locks  of  200  feet  by  lo,  with  9  feet  of 
water  on  the  sills  ;  the  locks  of  the  Welland  Canal 
are  rather  smaller.  By  means  of  the  Ottawa,  M. 
is  in  contact  with  the  vast  tumber-countiy 
adjoining  that  river  and  its  tributaries.  It  is 
ISO  miles  above  Quebec,  200  below  Lake  Ontario, 
400  from  New  York,  nearly  1000  from  the  Atlantic, 


open,  an  extensive         ,  ,     , 

steamers  and  tailing-vessels  of  every  deecriptiOD, 
with  Lake  Ontario  and  tlie  Ottawa  district,  as  well 
as  with  the  Lower  8t  IsLwrence  ;  and  the  shi[is  of 
the  Montreal  Ocean  Steam-ship  Company,  by  ud  of 
a  tnbtidy  from  the  Canadian  government,  keep  np  a 
weekly  oommnnication  with  Liverpool,  while  at 
the  same  tuna  the  harbour  it  conttantly  crowded 
with  vessels  from  otlier  foreign  ports.  After  the 
navigation  of  tha  8t  Lawrence  is  closed,  tha  ooesn- 
tteamers  find  a  harbour  at  Portland,  Maine,  which 
is  connected  with  M.  by  a  railway  of  292  miles. 
This  line  belongs  to  tlie  Grand  Trank  K^way 
CompODV,  and  otosbbs  the  St  Idwrenca  at  M.  by 
the  celebrated  tubular  Victoria  Bridge,  the  lengtn 
of  which,  including  its  two  abutments  and  24  piers, 
is  above  a  mile  and  three-qDorters.  By  the  lines  of 
the  same  oompany,  M.  has  railway  communicatioii 
with  Dpper  Csnada,  the  western  states,  and  Lower 
Canada,  while  the  Intercolonial  Bailway  opens  up 
oommuDication  with  Halifax  and  St  John.  Several 
other  lines  afford  direct  communication  with  all  the 
important  cities  and  towns  in  New  York  state  and 
the  states  of  New  England.  The  position,  there* 
fore,  of  M.  OS  a  cent^  of  commerce  is  perhaps 
unequalled,  and  its  rapid  advance  in  oonsequanca 
hot  plaoed  it,  within  the  last  few  years,  among 
the  first  commercial  cities  of  the  American  con- 
tinent— second  perbftps  only  to  New  York.  ITie 
developmeat  of  Manitoba  and  the  Canadian  North- 
West,  and  the  progreis  of  the  Cacoda  Pacific 
Bailway,  tend  to  morease  its  commercial  importance. 
In  the  three  years  1ST9  to  ISSl,  the  total  exports 
varied  from  f21,OOD,000  to  $31,000,000 ;  and  the 
imports,  from  $27,000,000  to  $44,O00,O0a  The 
harbour  is  open  on  an  average  about  eight  months, 
from  the  latter  half  of  April  to  the  Deginning  of 
December.  The  manufactures  of  M.  are  consider- 
able, the  principal  being  saws  and  axes,  steam- 
engines,  type.  India-rubber  shoes,  paper,  fiimitnr^ 
woollens,  cordage,  and  flour.  Pop.  (1779)  7000  y 
(1840)  about  27,U00  ;  (1850)  57,000  ;  (1861)  90.323  ; 
(1871)  107,225;  (1881)  140.863. 

'Ilie  public  buildings  of  M.  are  numerous  and 
haudsome.  Amongst  them  are  Bonsecours  Market, 
the  Court  House,  the  City  Hall,  and  the  Bank  of 
M.  It  ia,  however,  for  the  size  and  mB^6cenca  of 
its  churches  that  M.  is  most  remarkable.  The 
huge  Cathedral  of  St  Peter,  still  in  course  of  erection 
in  tSSO,  is  after  the  plan  of  St  Peter's  at  Bome ;  it 
ia  3O0  feet  Ipng  by  226  wide  at  the  transepts,  and  is 
crowned  by  five  domes,  one  of  them  to  bo  250  feet 
high.  Tbongh  smaller  than  this,  the  church  of 
Notre  Dame,  hitherto  serving  as  cathedral,  is  also  a 
very  large  building,  and  it  is  certainly  one  of  the 
finest  chnrolies  on  the  continent  of  America.  Built 
in  the  Gothic  style  of  the  13th  century,  it  can 
accommodate  between  10,000  and  12,000  people.  It 
.  six  towers,  of  which  the  three  on  the  mam  front 
220  feet  in  height ;  and  ita  chief  window  is  64 
feet  high,  and  32  brood.  There  are  several  other 
Roman  Catholic  churches  belonging  to  the  order 
of  St  Sulpice,  to  whose  members  diiefly  M.  owes 
its  foundation,  and  who  still  hold  the  seigniory 
of  the  island  on  which  the  dty  is  built.  Adjoin- 
ing the  cathedral,  ia  the  seminary  of  St  Sulpice, 
to  which  a  large  addition  has  been  built  within 
the  laat  few  years  at  a  coat  of  £S00a  The 
city  contains  also  some  of  the  largest  conventual 
HBtahlishmentB  in  the  world.  The  general  wealth, 
'  ideed,  of  the  Boman  Catholic  Church  in  M.  ius 
grown  enormoat  in  consequence  of  the  increased 
value  of  the  property  given  to  it  during  the  early 
settlements  of  the  French.  The  Churoh  of  England 
hat  roc«ntl]r  erected,  at  on  e:q>ense  of  above  £20,000,  . 


MOKTBEAI^MOlItrROSS. 


ft  new  cathednl.  St  Andrew's  Chnrch  (PTCsbv- 
terian)  is  also  a  chute  Gothio  atractare ;  and  the 
Mcthodiati  have  a  bHadgome  oharch  in  florid 
Gathio.  Of  the  whole  population,  103,600  are 
lUiinan  Catholics  (79,000  beinz  of  French,  and 
30,000  of  Irish  origiti).  Besides  Uie  Roman  Cstholio 
college  and  St  Msjy's  College  of  the  Jesuits, 
there  are  theological  colleges  of  the  Church  of 
England,  the  Presbyterian,  Methodist,  and  Con- 
gr^ational  churches.  M.  possesses  an  important 
tmiversity  under  the  nune  of  UNJill  Colle^ 
Foanded  by  «  bequest  of  the  Hon.  James  IfGill  m 
1811,  erected  into  a  nniveiBitjf  by  royal  charter  in 
1821,  and  reorganised  by  an  amended  charter  in 
1SG2,  it  haa  now,  besides  its  principal,  the  dis- 
tinenished  naturalist,  Dr  Dawson,  a  staff  of  29 
pnSessoTS,  and  has  an  attendance  of  upwards  of  300 
students.  M.  is  supplied  with  water  bymagnific«nt 
worlu,  which  cost  about  £120,000.  The  water  is 
brought  from  the  St  Lawrence  above  the  Lochine 
RapMs  by  an  aqneduct  five  miles  Ions  to  a  pond, 
from  which  it  is  forced  np  by  power  derived  from 
part  of  its  surplus  waters  into  reservoirs  oaiable  of 
oontaining  20  millions  of  gallons,  and  situated  200 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  river.  Along  the  side  of 
the  'Mountain,'  there  is  a  line  of  mansions,  which 
command  the  view  that  aBtonished  J.  Cartier,  and 
which  may  compare  with  the  suburban  mansions  of 
thewealtiiiestcitiee  in  £arope  or  America.  M.  returns 
three  members  to  the  provincial  parliament. 

UONTKEAL,  the  large  and  fertile  island  on 
which  the  city  of  the  same  name  is  built,  is  30  miles 
long,  10  miles  at  its  greatest  breadth,  and  contains 
107  square  miles.  Formed  by  the  separation  of  the 
two  (±annels  by  which  Uie  Ottawa  issues  into  the 
8t  I^wrcnce.  its  surface,  except  at  Mount  Royal,  is 
only  diversified  by  gentle  undulations. 

MONTREUX,  a  village  on  the  north  shore  of 
the  Lake  of  Geneva,  14  miles  S.E.  of  Lansnune. 
Its  beautiful  situation  and  mild  climate  attract 
many  visitors,  and  the  place  abounds  with  peuaioiu. 
The  commune  of  M.  has  a  total  pop.  of  about  SOOO. 

MONTRO'SE,  a  royal  and  parliamentsrv  burgh 
and  seaport  on  the  north-east  coast  of  Scotland,  m 
tiie  county  of  Forfar,  and  situated  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  South  Eak,  about  80  miles  north-east  of 
Edinburgh,  and  40  miles  south  of  Aberdeen.  It 
stands  on  a  level  peninsula  between  Montrose  Basin 
[a  tidal  loch,  7  miles  in  circumference,  but  almost  dry 
at  low  water)  and  the  mouth  of  tbe  river  South  Esk. 
A  fine  suspension-bridge,  432  feet  long  and  26  feet 
broad— erected,  in  1828—1829  at  a  coat  of  nearly 
£23,000 — connects  tbe  town  with  Hossie  Island, 
which  is  again  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  small 
drowbridge.  The  Royal  Lunatic  Asylum,  opened  m 
1S68  at  a  cost  of  upwards  of  £30,000,  accommodates 
about  400  patients.  Between  the  town  and  the 
shore  are  the  'Links'  or  downs,  among  the  finest 
in  ScoUand  for  golHng  or  cricketing.  The  harbour 
affords  eiceUent  accommodation  to  vessels  of  large 
tonnage,  there  being  18  feet  of  water  on  the  bar  at 
low.waber  of  spring-tides,  and  ia  one  of  the  best  on 
the  east  ooast.  Two  lighthouses  stand  in  a  line  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  nver,  about  400  yards  apart ; 
while  a  magnificent  tower,  named  the  Scurdyntss 
Lighthouse,  erected  by  the  Board  of  Trade  in  1870 
at  a  coet  of  nearly  £2700 — exhibiting  a  clear  white 
light,  visible  at  nearly  20  miles  distance — stands  at^ 
tiie  mouth  of  the  river.  Flax-spineing  is  the  chief 
manufacture  in  the  town,  there  being  3  factories  of 
about  600  horse-power  in  the  aggregate,  eroiJoying 
upwards  of  2000  hands,  at  a  weekly  cost  of  aboot 
£1500.  There  is  also  a  hu-ge  saw-mill,  giving  em- 
ployment to  nearly  300  men  and  boys.  Ship  and 
boat  building,  formerly  a  staple  trade  of  the  town. 


are  now  extanct.  There  are  good  schools  and  ao 
academy.  In  ISSO,  740  vessels,  of  94,000  tons, 
entered  and  cleared  the  porb  Imports — coal,  lime, 
slate,  iron,  flax,  and  manures ;  exports — manufac- 
tured goods,  salmon,  herring,  dnssed  wood,  and  agri- 
cultural  produce.  In  1880,  the  value  of  the  imporle 
and  exports  was  £293,795.  Pop.  (1871)  14.B48 ; 
(1881)  14,994.  M.  unites  with  Arbroath,  Brechin, 
Forfar,  and  Bervie  to  send  a  member  to  parliament. 
MONTROSE,  JiUES  Orarau,  first  Muiouis 
OF,  belonged  to  a  family  that  con  be  traced  back 
to  the  year  1128.  Its  first  notable  member  was 
Sir  John  Ok-xmb  of  DundofT,  who  fell  at  the  battle 
of  Falkirk,  22d  July  129&  Early  in  the  15th  &, 
Sir  William  Graham  married  for  his  second  wife  a 
daughter  of  Robert  III.  Robebt,  tbe  eldest  aon 
of  this  marriage,  was  ancestor  of  the  Grahams  of 
Glaverhouse.  The  third  Lord  Graham,  created 
Earl  of  Montrose  by  James  IV.,  fell  at  Flodden; 
his  eldest  son  at  Finkie.  The  next  in  snccetsion 
became  viceroy  of  Scotland  after  James  VL  had 
ascended  tbe  throne  of  England.  His  eldest  son, 
John,  who  succeeded  to  the  earldom  in  1616, 
married  Lady  Margaret  Buthven,  eldest  daughter 
of  William,  iir«t  Earl  of  Gowrie,  and  sister  of  the 
unfortunate  nobleman  who  gives  name  to  the 
Gowrfa  Conspiracy.  The  issue  of  this  union  wa* 
five  daughters  and  one  son,  James,  the  'great 
Marquis,'  who  was  born  in  1612  at  Old  Montrose,  in 
Maryton  parish,  near  Montrose  town.  His  mother 
died  in  1618,  his  father  in  1626.  In  tbe  follovring 
year,  the  boy  was  sent  to  the  university  of  ^ 
Andrews  by  his  guardian  and  brother-in-law, 
Archibald,  lird  Napier,  son  of  the  famous  inventor 
of  logarithms.  Be  was  an  apt,  if  not  an  ardent 
student,  and  during  the  two  or  three  sessions  of 
his  attendance  at  colleoe,  acquired  a  very  respsct- 
able  amount  of  classical  Knowledge,  besides  exhibit- 
ing a  genuine  predilection  for  literature,  which 
the  stormy  character  of  his  after-life  never  quite 
destroyed.  In  his  17th  year,  be  married  Magdalene 
Carnegie,  daughter  of  Lord  Carnegie  of  Kinnaird, 
on  which  occasion  he  had  his  portrait  painted  by 
Jameson,  the  pupil  of  Van  Dyck.  For  the  next 
three  years  he  lived  quietly  at  Kinnaird  Castle, 
pursning  his  studies.  On  attaining  his  majority, 
he  left  Scotlond,  to  travel  on  the  continent,  visitBd 
the  academies  of  France  and  Italy,  and  perfected 
himself  in  all  the  accomplishments  becoming  a 
gentleman  and  a  soldier.  On  his  return,  he  wsa 
mtroduced  to  King  Charles  L,  but  owing,  it  is  said, 
to  the  machinations  of  the  Marquis  of  Hamilton, 
was  coldly  received  by  that  monarch,  and  had 
no  sooner  reached  Scotland,  than  he  joined  the 
ranks  of   the    king's    opponent^    which    at    this 

rod  comprehended  the  majority  of  Scotchmen, 
come  back  in  the  very  year  (1637)  when 
the  tumults  broke  out  in  Edinburgh  on  the 
attempt  to  introduce  the  Prayer-Book.  Whether 
his  conduct  at  this  moment  was  the  result  of 
chagrin,  or  whether  be  was  carried  away  by  tbe 
prevailing  enthusiasm,  or  by  the  persuasions  of 
craftier  persons  than  himself,  is  diflicult  to  say. 
Baillie  speaks  of  his  having  been  '  brought  in '  by 
'  the  eanainat  of  Botbes,'  a  phrase  which  appears  to 
Mr  Mark  Napier  to  indicate  that  he  was  trepanned 
with  difficulty  into  joining  the  Leagua.  At  auymte, 
the  youthful  nobleman  soon  became  to  appearance 
one  of  the  moat  zealous  of  the  Covenontmg  lords. 
He  was  one  of  the  four  noblemen  selected  to  com- 
pose the  '  Table  '  of  the  nobility,  which,  along  with 


Covenant  (see  Covenajjts),  sworn  to  by  all  ranks  at 
Edinburgh  in  the  spring  Ot  1633.  M.  was  appointed 
in  the  fiulowing  summer  to  agitate  for  lubscriptiona 


UOltttlMft 


-°*l 


in  Aberdaeniliite,  where  the  influence  of  the 
Harqnit  of  Huntly  was  eieroUed  on  the  lide  of 
the  king.  He  did  not,  however,  meet  with  great 
mcoea&  In  1639,  be  made  three  military  expedi' 
tiona  to  Aberdeenahire  to  OTerawe  tiie  royBliEta. 
Tb«  latter  were  in  oonaiderable  foroe  nnder  the 
Marquia  of  Hantly,  but  owing  to  the  timid,  if  not 
treaouerooi  ordera  of  the  Marqoii  of  Hamilton,  then 
Bovemor  of  Scotiand,  thev  wer*  alwayi  forced  to 
disband.  M.  twice  took  the  oitr  of  Aberdeen.  Oa 
the  Srat  oecaaion  (29th  March),  he  compelled  the 
inhabitaiibi  to  aubeoribe  the  Covenant,  but  did  no 
injury  to  the  city.  H>e  'too  great*  homanity  ia 
even  lamented  by  Boillie.  On  the  Kcond  (^tb 
May),  he  imnoaed  on  the  city  »  Sne  of  10,000 
merks ;  but  though  hia  aoldiers  pillaged  the  place, 
he  honourably  resisted  the  importonitiet  of  the 
zealots  among  the  Preebyterian  clergy,  who  wished 
to  eipoee  it  to  the  horrors  of  conflagration.  Baillie 
nenia  oomnlains  ol  liia  *  too  great  lenity  in  iporing 
the  enemas  hoosa.'  The  arriral  at  Aberdeen  by 
aea  of  the  Earl  of  Aboyne — CharlM'a  Ueatenaot  M 
tbe  north — with  some  reinfiocementi^  induced  M. 
to  retreat,  who  was  followed  by  the  earl  and  the 
Gordon  HighUndere.  At  Meagra  Hill,  near  Stone- 
haven, a  battle  was  fought  {16t£  Jane)  between  Hie 
two  anniee,  in  which  M.  obtained  *  oomplete 
Tictory ;  four  days  later,  he  waa  again  master  of 
Aberdeen,  after  a  fleroe  atmggle  at  the  paassge  of 
the  Dee.  The  oituens  were  stricken  with  a&rm, 
expecting  some  bloody  poniahment  for  their  veil- 
known  Episcopalian  leiamngs,  but  U.  agreeably  dis- 
appointed their  fears.     At  a  snbseguent  period,  he 


'  the  pacification  of  Berwick ' 
Aberdeen,  and  terminated  the  atru^e  in  the 
north.  Charles  inTited  several  of  the  Covenanting 
nobles  to  meet  him  at  Berwick,  where  he  was  then 
holding  his  coort,  and  to  consult  with  him  about 
Scottish  aCTainu  Among  those  who  went  waa  M., 
and  the  Preabyteriana  dated  what  they  regarded 
ai  his  apoctuy  from  that  interview.  Be  that  •« 
it  may,  tiia  political  poeition  waa  certainly  diffe- 
rent after  hia  return.  In  the  Qeneral  Aasembly 
which  net^  Augnat  13, 1639,  noder  the  preoidency 
of  the  Earl  <A  Traquair,  ••  myal  oommiiaioner, 
he  ahewed  symptoms  of  disaffeclioa  towarda  the 
Covenant,  and  was  the  object  of  much  popular 
obloquy.  One  night  be  ia  aaid  to  have  fonnd 
affixed  upon  his  chamber-door  a  p<^>er  bearing 
these  words,  Inviettu  armu,  verbii  ninctfur.  Tbe 
dissolution  of  the  parliament,  in  June  1S40,  led 
to  an  open  rupttue  between  the  king  and  tbe 
Cnvenantera,  ood  both  parties  prepared  to  decide 
Uieir  quarrel  by  force  of  ones.  Tbe  former 
assembled  at  Toric  on  army  of  21,000  horse  and 
foot ;  tbe  Utt«r  another  of  26,000,  which,  ander  the 
command  of  Leslie,  crossed  the  Tweed,  21it  August 
1640.  M.  was  the  tirst  man  that  forded  tbe  stream. 
The  nicce»»  of  the  Scots,  aa  is  well  known,  aoon 
forced  Charles  to  aunimon  a  new  parliament  for  the 
settlement  of  the  notional  grievonoei.  Meanwhile 
M.,  along  with  several  other  influential  nobles,  hod 
entered  into  a  secret  engagement  at  Cumbernauld, 
for  the  purpose  of  frustnting  what  they  regarded 
as  tbe  factious  deainu  of  the  extreme  Covenanting 
leaders.  H'«  oondact  in  England,  too,  had  been 
BQapicions.  It  waa  aocidentally  discovered  that  he 
bod  been  eecret^  communicating  with  the  kin^ ; 
and  when  the  porlismant  assembled  (November 
1640),  he  was  cited  to  appear  before  a  committee. 
The  aflair  of  the  Oumbernauid  Bond,  discovered 
by  the  ingennity  of  Argylc^  waa  bronght  Dp ;  but 
M.   defended    lua    oonduct   and  that   of   his   col- 


flery  apirita  among  the  clerK7,  says  Onthrie, '  i»Maed 
that  uieir  lives  might  go  for  iV  In  tJie  following 
June,  M.  and  some  othen  were  accused  of  plottii^ 
against  Argyle,  and  were  confined  in  Edmbur^ 
Castle,  when  they  remained  till  tbe  b^inning  of 
1642,  when  they  were  set  at  lilierty  in  return  for 
the  ooncessions  which  Charles  hod  made  hia  Scottish 
subjecta.  Although  they  hod  been  frequently 
examined,  nothing  definite  had  been  proved  againrt 
them.  The  accusation  that  M.  had  offered  to  the 
king  to  asaassinate  Arg^Ie,  ia  not  htitoricaUy  sub- 
stantiated, and  is  intrinaically  impralwble.  iWiog 
the  next  two  or  three  years,  he  kept  aloof,  out- 
wardly, from  public  afiutt,  but  he  had  finallj 
broken  with  the  Covenouten,  and  had  privately 
ranged  himself  on  the  side  of  the  king.  The  civil 
war  in  Ekig^and  hod  now  bttdun  out,  and  waa  being 
carried  on  with  duMous  soiMeas.  Charles  and  hia 
advieen  resolved  to  cruah  the  Frelbyterian  leaders 
in  Scotland,  who  were  abetting  the  efforts  of  the 
English  Fariiomentoriaiia.    In  the  spring  of  1G44, 


a  the  royolSti 
the  north.  The  battle  of  Monton  Moor  for  % 
mraaent  paralysed  him,  but  his  resolution  speedily 
returned.  He  threw  himself  into  the  Hignlandu^ 
and  after  skulking  about  the  hill*  for  gome  time  in 
disguise,  met  at  Sair-Athol  some  Irish  anziliaiie* 
and  a  body  of  Highlander  under  Atloster  MoccoU 
Keitache  Macdouald,  better  known  as  CoiHuo,  who 
had  forced  their  way  thither  from  the  Western 
Isles  in  hopes  of  joinmg  him,  M  instantly  placed 
himself  at  their  head,  and  tbe  clans  quickly  rallied 
round  his  standard.  Marching  south,  he  fell 
suddenly  (1st  September)  on  the  Covenanting  army 
commanded  by  Lord  Elcho,  at  Tippermoir,  near 
Perth,  and  gained  a  complete  victoir.  Not  k 
single  royalist  waa  slain.  The  some  nighty  It. 
entered  Perth,  where  he  temained  for  three  days, 
levying  a  fine  of  BOOO  merks  on  the  iuhabitants. 
He  then  set  out  for  the  north,  defeated  a  force  of 
Covenaotera  under  Lord  Borleif^  at  Aberdeen 
(September  13),  and  took  poaaesaion  of  the  dty, 
which  wsa  abandoned  for  fonr  days  to  all  the 
-  -     *"  .     .  -    .     yj^  ^j  y^ 

force*  were 


horrota  of  war.    The  approach  of  At^le,  i 
head  of  4000'men,  compelled  M.,  whoae  forcea 


far  inferior  in  numbers  and  discipline,  to  rstn*t 
He  now  plunged  into  the  wilds  of  Badenoch, 
recreated  the  Grampians,  and  suddenly  appeared  in 


Angus,  where  be  irasted  the  eatales  of  mmv  than 
one  Covenanting  nobleman.  Having  obtained  fresh 
snjnihes,  he  onoe  more  returned  to  Aberdeensliire, 
with  the  view  of  raising  the  Gordons,  narrowly 
eacaped  defeat  at  Fyvie  in  the  and  of  October,  rad 
again  withdrew  into  the  fastneesee  of  the  mountains. 
Argyle,  baffled  in  all  bis  attempts  to  capture  or 
crush  M.,  returned  to  Edinburgh,  and  threw  up  hia 


HU 


is  opponent,  receiving  large  a 
Highland  clans,  planned  a  w 
ed  aouth- westward  into  the  con 


siona  from  the 

campaign,  marcbed  aouth- westward  into  the  country 
of  Vie  Campbells,  devastated  it  frightfulty,  drove 
Argyle  himself  from  his  castle  at  Inverary,  and  then 
wheeled  north,  intending  to  attack  Inverness,  where 
tbe  Covenanters  were  posted  in  strong  force  under 
the  Earl  of  Seafortb.  The  '  EsUtea  >  at  Edinbnrgh 
were  greatly  alarmed,  and  raising  a  fresh  army, 
placed  it  under  the  command  of  General  BoilUe,  a 
natural  son  of  Sir  William  Baillie  of  Lamington. 
After  consulting  with  Argyle,  it  wot  arrangol  that 
he  should  proceed  by  way  of  Perth,  and  take  M  in 
front,  while  Argyle  should  rally  his  vast  array  of 
vassals,  and  attack  him  in  tbe  rear.  The  tvyolist 
leader  waa  in  the  great  glen  of  Albin — the  boain  of 
the  Caledonian  Canal— on  his  way  to  InvemeM, 
when  ha  heard  that  Aigyla  itm  f^Uowinx  hioL    Ha 

^    ---  ^-.oogl 


UONTsSttft&t— tiOKKA. 


,  turned  on  hi*  ptmoor,  tall  apon 
nnaxmctedlf  M  loTerlocliy,  February  2,  164fi,  and 
nttaiiy  roDted  hU  iarcea.  FkEteen  hundred  of  the 
CuDpbelli  wer«  ilun,  ami  only  four  of  M.'a  men. 
He  then  returned  hia  nuui^h  northwuda,  but  did  not 


.  .  HWolt  Invemeaa — hia  wild 
being  adminbl;  fitted  for  npid  irregular  wtirfaje, 
Imt  not  tor  the  alow  work  ot  bele*gaerment.  Direct- 
ing hia  coorae  to  the  Mat,  he  paand — with  flt«  kod 
■word— thronghEl^D  and  Banff  into  Aberdeeadiire, 
which  (affsr^  a  aimilor  fate.  Baillie,  and  hia 
lientanaut,  Hnny,  were  at  Breohin,  but  M.,  by  a 
dexterous  moTement,  eluded  them,  captured  and 
piUaged  tiie  oity  of  Dundee  (April  8),  and  eacaped 
•afely  into  the  Orampiuu,  On  the  4tk  of  Hay,  he 
attained  and  routed  Hony  at  Auldeara,  near  Nairn ; 
aikd  after  enjoying  a  ahort  reirate  with  hia  fierce 
Teterana  in  BMenooh,  again  tMned  from  his  wildi,  and 
Inflicted  a  atill  more  diMUtrooa  defeat  on  BaiUia 
himaeU  at  Alford,  in  Aberdeenihire  (July  2). 
There  waa  now  nothing  to  pravent  hu  march 
■outh,  and  about  the  end  ol  the  month,  ha  tet 
ont  witii  a  force  of  from  6000  to  6000 
He  waa  followed  by  Baillie,  who  picked  up 
forcementa  on  his  way,  and  on  the  loth  of 
August  agun  risked  a  battle  at  Kilayth,  buC  waa 
defeated  with  fnzhtful  loei—SOOO  of  the  Covenantee 
being  alain.  Tha  oaoaa  of  Charlea  waa  for  the 
moment  triumphant ;  H.  waa  rirtually  master  of 
the  country.  Th*  king  rornully  appointed  him 
lientenant-gOTenMr  ol  Bootlaod,  ana  commander' 
in-chief  ti  the  royal  tane^  All  the  prtncipal  cities 
in  the  wert  baatoied  to  proclaim  their  fidelity,  and 
bid  the  blame  of  the  reoent  troublea  on  the  unfor- 
tamate  Preabyteriaa  clergy.  But  aSain  soon  took 
a  vary  different  turn.  Qt«at  nnmben  of  the  High- 
landers  rctuned  honM — we  mi^t  eren  tay,  deserted 
— burdened  with  mnltifaiioua  plandw;  and  the 
Eari  of  Aboyna  withdraw  with  all  his  cavalry.  M.'b 
position  in  a  disfiiot  tanning  irith  enemies,  was 
growing  eritiaal,  and  on  the  4th  of  Septemlrar  he 
broke  np  hia  camp  at  Bothwell,  and  marched  for 
the  eastern  counbea,  where  Charlea  had  informed 
him  that  the  Earls  of  Tnquair,  Hone,  and  Rox- 
bnigh  ware  ready  to  joui  him.  In  this  hs  was  disap- 
point«d,  and  on  the  13th  of  the  same  month  he 
was  tnrprited  at  Philiphaugh,  near  Selkirk,  by 
David  Leslie,  who  fell  apoa  the  relics  of  M.B 
vnty  and  his  raw  levies  with  6000  cavalry — the 
flower  of  the  Scottish  foicea  then  servmg  in 
England— who  had  been  hurriedly  despatched 
home  on  the  news  of  M.'s  startling  saccesneE.  Leslie 
oompletely  annihilated  his  □pponent.  '  On  Fbilip- 
Imugb.'  says  Sir  W.  Scott,  'H.  lost  the  fruit  of 
six  splendid  victories.'  Escaping  froD  the  field  of 
battle,  he  mads  his  way  to  Athol,  and  acain  endea- 
Tonrtid,  bat  in  vain,  to  rouse  the  HigUands ;  and 
at  last  Charles^  now  beginning  to  cet  the  worst  of 
it  in  the  dvil  war,  was  i&dnoed  to  order  him  to 
withdnw  from  the  kingdom.  On  the  3d  of  Sep- 
tember IMS,  he  sailed  for  Norway,  whence  he 
proceeded  to  Paris.  Here  he  endeavoured,  but  in 
Tsin,  to  induce  Henrietta  Maria  to  bestir  herself 
on  behalf  of  her  husband.  Hie  queen  coldly  received 
all  hia  snggeations,  and  at  last  M.,  in  despair,  betook 
himself  to  Germany,  in  hope  of  service  nnder  the 
emperor,  bnt  soon  after  returned  to  Holland,  and 
entved  into  eranmonicatioiis  with  the  Prince  ot 
Wales,  aftvwards  Chadsi  IL  It  vras  here  that 
newa  ot  Charlea  L's  eseonliau  reached  him.  M. 
fainted  on  receipt  of  the  dreadful  intelligenoe,  and 

tave  way  to  the  most  passionate  rwreta.  Charles 
L  now  re-inverted  him  with  the  dignity  of  lieu- 
tenant-governor of  Scotland,  and  M.  undertook  a 
fresh  invasion  on  behalf  of  the  exiled  monarch. 
U  Uanh  1«0,  U  aniv^  at  the  Oriuutys  with 


a  small  force,  and  after  the  lajise  ot  three  weeks, 

proceeded  to  Caithness  j  bnt  neither  the  gentlemen 

the  commons  would  rise  at  his  cslL     He  forced 


to  pieces  st  a  place  called  Corbiesdale,  near  the  pass 
of  Invercarren,  by  *  powerful  body  of  cavalt;  ondar 
Colonel  StnchaiL  M.  fled  into  the  wilds  of  AssynL 
where  he  was  nesrly  starred  to  death,  when  he  feU 
into  the  hands  of  M'Leod  of  Aisynt,  who  delivered 
him  np  to  General  Leslie,  by  whom  he  waa  tMvnght 
to  Edmburgh.  Condemned  to  death  as  a  tnitor  to 
theCovensnt,hewasexecuted,  3IitMayl6da  Hi* 
demeanour  in  his  last  momenta  was  very  noble  and 
dignified. 

MOKTSBRRAX  one  of  the  Lesser  Antdlla, 
belonging  to  Britain,  lies  43  miles  north-west  of 
Guadeloupe,  and  at  a  mmilar  distance  from  Antigua 
and  St  Kitts.  It  is  about  11  miles  in  length,  7  in 
breadth,  and  contains  an  area  of  32  EnglisE  square 
mites.  The  population  in  1881  was  lO.OsCthe  females 
exceeding  the  males  by  806.  About  two-tliirds  ot 
the  surface  is  mouutamous  and  barren,  the  rest  is 
well  oaltivBted.  The  chief  prodncts  are  sugar, 
limes,  mm,  and  molasses ;  but  cotton,  arrow-root, 
and  tamariuda  are  also  exported.  The  island  forms 
a  portion  of  the  government  of  the  Leeward  Isles, 
and  is  directly  ruled  by  a  president,  aided  by  a 
council  and  house  of  assembly.  The  chief  town  is 
Plymouth,  on  tbe  soatb  coast  The  ravenne  of  M. 
in  ISaO  amounted  to  £6617,  and  the  expenditure  to 
£G997.  In  1380,  the  tonnage  of  vessela'  which 
entered  and  cleared  ita  port  was  13,484;  and  the 
total  values  of  imports  and  exports  in  18S0  were 
respectively  ^£25,364  and  £29,121. 

MONTSBRRAT  (Lat  Jfoni  Serraitu,  so  named 
from  having  jagged  ridges  Uhe  iie  teeth  iff  a  saio),  a 
mountain  of  Catalonia,  in  the  north-east  of  Spain, 
about  30  milea  from  Barcelona.  Ita  height  is 
""1  feet.  'It*  outline,' says  Ford  {Handbook  for 
!?>,  voL  L  p  419),  'is  mort  fantastic,  consisting 

M>neB,   yy "^"    *"  " ~" "~"     

loaves,  which 


filled  with  box-trees,  ivy,  and 

n ji  the  topmoat  height,  the  eye 

wandere  over  all  Catalonia,  and  from  tbe  sea  the  ridge 
looks  like  an  immense  wall  with  seven  pyramidal 
peaks.  The  mountain,  however,  owes  its  celebrity 
not  to  its  extraordinary  appeorence,  bnt  to  the 
Benedictine  Abbey  built  upon  it,  at  sd  elevation  of 
1200  feet,  and  to  the  13  hermitages  formerly  perched 
like  eagles'  nests  on  almost  inaccessible  pinnacles. 
In  1811,  the  French,  nnder  Suohet,  plundered  the 
abbey,  burned  the  libnuy,  shot  the  hermits,  and 
hung  the  monks  (who  had  given  shelter  to  their 
ein^rant  brethren  at  the  Revolution).  The  place 
suEtered  still  more  in  1627,  when  it  become  the 
stronghold  of  the  Carliat  inaan«ction. 

MONUMENT  (Lat.  monunaiifam,  from  vtoneo, 
remind),  anything  durable  made  or  erected  to 
perpetuate  the  memory  of  persons  or  events.  The 
chief  kinds  of  monumeott  ore  described  under  their 
special  names.  SeeCAJRN;  Croklbch;  Sxpdlohrai. 
Mounds  ;  Pillak  ;  Obelise  ;  PntAinD ;  Arch, 
Triuhphal;  Bbasbib;  Tomb;  Stuta;  Mauso- 
LBUM,  ftO. 

MCNZ  A  (anc  IfodaHa),  chief  town  of  a  district  ID 
the  prorince  ot  Milan,  stands  on  Vbe  river  Lsmbro, 
10  miles  north- north-east  of  Milan,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  railway.  Pop.  {1881)  17,077.  It  is 
essentially  a  town  of  Lombard  growth,  and  nndsr 


the  Lombard  soverNgn*  wu  oi^til  of  tiiejr  kingdom. 


.ot"y 


UOKZA— UOON. 


It  oves  much  of  iti  early  impotianoe,  und  ita 
chief  public  editicei,  to  TbeodoliDda,  the  grekt  queea 
of  the  Lombu-d  dynoity.  In  the  middle  agei,  M, 
wu  coDspiciiou*  for  the  wealth  of  its  nnmeniiu 
ciCizeiu  uid  Doblee,  and  the  extent  of  it»  e!otb-tr«da. 
It  has  undergone  .32  eiegee.  The  cathedral,  founded 
In  the  6th  c.  by  Theodolinda,  containa  many 
iatereating  memonale  of  thia  great  queen.  The 
famouB  Iron  Crown  (q.  y.)  tmd  regiilia  of  Lombardy, 
employed  at  the  coronation  of  the  German  emperors 
aa  kinga  of  Italy,  were  remoyed  from  Lombardy  by 
the  Auatriana  in  1S59,  on  the  ceasion  of  that  province 
to  £^nca  The  town  haa  a  good  gymnaaium,  » 
theatre,  two  hoapitaJa,  and  a  philharmonic  inrtitn- 
tioQ.  Ita  preaent  manufactorea  of  cottona,  hats, 
aiid  preaeryed  meata  aro  daily  increasing.  M.  ia 
aurrounded  hy  an  exuberantly  fertile  district, 
which  yields  abundance  of  grain,  fruits,  wine,  and 
dlk,  and  posaeasaa  great  Iwauty  of  acenery  and 
cUmate. 

HOON,  Thi,  the  satellite  of  the  earth,  revolving 
round  the  earth  from  weat  to  eaat  in  a  period  of  one 
MonA  (q.  v.),  and  in  conaequence  accompanying  the 
earth  in  its  motion  round  the  aun.  Aa  the  moon, 
to  BD  observer  on  the  earth,  advancea  more  than  13° 
to  the  eaet  doily,  whilst  the  corresponding  advance 
of  the  aun  ia  barely  1°,  her  proeress  among  the 
atara  is  much  more  notable  than  that  of  the  Utter. 
This  rapid  angular  motion,  the  continual  and  reguiar 
variation  of  her  illuminated  aurioce,  and  her  loKe 
apparent  aize  (being  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the 
aun),  have  rendered  the  moon  an  object  of  general 
interest  ;  while  her  importance  oa  the  principal 
nocturnal  substitute  far  the  aun,  and  her  special 
value  to  navigators  and  geograpben,  in  the  deter- 
mination of  longitudes  (see  Latitude  and  Lokoi- 
TtTDE),  have  rendered  the  lunar  l/ieory  the  object  of 
the  most  thorough  and  careful  investigation. 

Phtuet  of  Ihe  Mooa. — The  Grat  peculiarity  about 
the  moon  that  strikea  a  casual  observer,  ia  the 
coDstADt  and  regular  change  of  her  illnminated 
aurfacQ  from  a  thin  crescent  to  a  circle,  and  vkt 
vend,  and  a  corresponding  change  in  the  time  of 
her  appearance  above  the  horizon.  Theaa  changes 
depend  upon  the  position  of  the  moon  relative  to 
the  earth  and  the  sun  (fig.  1),  for  it  ia  only  the  half 


'■-®-^- 


B,  poslliDB  of  sun ; 


of  the  moon  fikcing  the  ana  that  ia  illuminated  by 
hia  rays,  and  the  whole  of  this  iUuminated  portion 
nan  only  be  seen  from  the  earth  when  the  sun, 
earth,  and  moon  ore  in  a  atraight  line,  3,  A,  B,  F  (the 
Mm  ^  »!py^f«],  and  the  earth  is  between  the  son 
and  moon.  When  the  moon  ia  in  the  line  of  syzygiea, 
but  hetwcen  the  earth  and  the  aun.  no  part  of  her 
illnminated  ditc  can  be  aeen  from  the  entb.  A'.    In 


the  fanner  case,  the  moon  ia  said  to  be  /uU,  and  in 
the  latter,  new,  A  few  hours  after  '  newmoon,'  the 
moon  appears  a  little  to  the  auI  of  the  sun  as  a  thin 
descent,  with  the  home  pointing  towards  the  sm*, 
and  OB  she  increasea  her  angular  distance  from  the  aim 
at  the  rate  of  about  12°  daily,  the  crescent  of  light 
becomes  broader,  till,  after  the  lapae  of  a  little  mors 
than  seven  days,  at  which  time  ah*  ia  90*  in  adr>ne« 
of  the  aun,  she  presents  the  appearance  of  a  aemi- 
circle  of  light,  &.  The  moon  la  then  said  to  han 
completed  her  j!rv(  quarter.  Continuing  her  comae, 
ahe  becomes  'Qibboos'  (q.  v.) ;  and  at  the  15th  or 
16th  day  from  new  moon,  attains  a  position  180*  in 
advance  of  the  sno,  and  now  presents  the  appearanoa 
known  oa  Jail  moon,  Ef,  From  thia  point  aha  begina 
to  approach  the  mm,  again  appearing  gibbons,  and 
after  a  third  period  of  more  than  seven  days,  teachea 
a  point  90°  west  of  him,  and  enters  her  tatt  jHOrfer, 
U.  Here,  again,  she  appears  as  a  aemiarcls  of 
light,  the  illuminated  portion  being  that  which  waa 
not  iilumioated  at  the  end  of  the  first  quarter.  Tha 
moon  now  rapidly  approacbia^  the  aun,  reamnea  tha 
crescent  form,  but  this  time  with  the  horns  pointing 
uetfiDoni^  the  creaoent  beooming  thinnn  and  thinner. 


Fig;  Z— Crescent  Mooik 

till  the  moon  reaches  the  position  of  new  moon,  and 
disappears.  From  '  fall  moon '  to  '  new  moon,'  tha 
moon  is  said  to  be  looninn;  and  from  'new  moon'  to 
'full  moon,'  aaxitig.  The  earth  aa  seen  from  tha 
moon  presents  similar  phases,  and  boa,  conaequently. 
at  the  time  of  new  moon,  the  appearance  of  a  roojul 
illuminated  disc,  and  at  full  moon,  is  invisible. 
This  explains  the  peculiar  phenomenon  oocaaionally 
observed  when  the  moon  is  near  the  aun  (eitluT 
before  or  after  new  moon),  of  the  part  of  the  moon'a 
face  which  is  nnillnminated  by  the  sun  appearing 
faintly  visible,  owing  to  the  reflection  upon  it  a 
strong  eaitii-lighL  This  phenomenon  ia  designated 
by  the  Scottish  peasantry  aa  '  the  new  mune  wi* 


0  auld  I 


At  n 


comes  above  the  horieon  about  tha 
some  time  as  the  sun,  and  sets  with  him,  but  rises 
each  day  about  60  minutes  later  than  on  the  day 
previous,  and  at  the  end  of  the  first  quarter,  riaSB  at 
mid-day,  and  sets  at  midnight,  continning  to  laj| 
behind  iJie  sun.  When  at  t£e  full,  she  rises  abont 
sunset,  and  sets  about  sunrise,  and  at  the  commence- 
ment of  her  last  quarter,  she  tiaes  at  midnight,  and 
seta  at  mid-day. 

DiaiaiKe  and  Jfo  jnifurft— From  repeated  observa- 
tions of  the  moan's  horizontal  Pta^iUax  (q.  v.),  and 
o!  the  oceoltations  by  her  of  the  fixed  ataia,  hev 


mekD  disUnce*  from  ttis  earth  hu  been  eitimated  at 
237,600  tnileB,  and  u  her  angular  diameter  averagea 
31'  26",  her  actual  diameter  tg  2163  milea,  or  a  little 
leaa  than  ^ths  of  the  earth'a  diameter.  Her  volume 
ii  therefore  about  ^th  of  that  of  the  earth,  and  het 
deniity  being  only  "577  (that  of  the  earth  being 
token  M  unity),  her  moss  is  only  -^th  of  the  earth'i 
mam ;  oonBequently,  the  force  of  gravity  at  he: 
■uiface  ia  so  much  leaa  than  it  ia  at  the  surface  o 
the  earth,  that  ■  body  which  weighi  1000  pounda 
here,  would  at  the  moon  weigh  onlv  103  pounda. 

Orbit — The  moon  revolva  round  the  earth  in  an 
dli^o  orbit,  with  the  earth  in  the  focua;  the  eccec- 
bicity  of  the  eUipae  being  equal  to  -05491  of  half  ita 
■BBJor  axia,  or  more  than  31  umea  that  of  the  earth's 
orbit.  The  plane  of  her  oroit  does  aot  coincide  with 
the  eoliptia,  but  ia  inolined  to  it  at  an  angle  of 
6*  8'  4T'9",  and  interaecta  it  in  two  opposite  points, 
which  are  called  the  Nodes  (q.  v.).  The  point  at 
which  the  moon  ia  nearest  to  the  earth  is  called  her 
perigee,  and  that  at  which  she  is  farthest  from  it  her 
apoffet,  and  the  line  joining  these  two  points  ig 
called  the  line  of  apaidit.  Were  the  moon's  orbit 
a  true  allipae,  which,  owing  to  various  irregularities 
known  a*  ptrtuT^tioaa,  ii  is  not,  the  tunar  theory 
would  be  exceedingly  aimple ;  but  these  perturba- 
tions, which,  in  the  cose  of  tiie  planets,  produce  a 
■ensible  variation  in  their  orbit  only  after  many 
revolntiODs,  cause,  in  the  case  of  the  moon,  a  distinct 
and  well-marked  deviation  from  her  previous  course 
in  a  lingile  revolution.  The  retrogndation  of  her 
node*  o^ng  the  ecliptic  canses  a  contioual  change 
in  the  plane  of  her  orbit,  so  that  if,  during  one 
nvolution  round  the  earth,  she  occulta  certain  stan, 
•t  the  next  revelation  she  will  pass  to  oae  side  of 
them,  and  will  remove  further  and  further  from 
tiiem  in  each  successive  revolution.  A  little  con* 
lideration  wiU  shew  that  by  this  oontdnuBl  change 
of  her  orbit,  the  moon  will,  in  course  of  time,  pan 
over  or  occult  every  star  situated  within  6°  24'  30" 
of  the  ecliptic  The  motion  of  the  nodes  is  so  rapid 
that  they  perform  a  complete  circuit  of  the  orbit  in 
6793'39  mean  solar  days,  or  18'6  years.  Another 
important  change  in  the  moon'a  orbit  ia  the  revolu- 
tion of  the  line  of  apsides,  by  which  the  perigee 
and  apogee  are  coutiouoUy  changing  their  position 
relative  to  the  earth  and  aun.  (his  revolution  is 
more  than  twice  aa  rapid  as  that  of  the  nodes, 
being  performed  in  3232'S7  mean  solar  days,  or 
8'85  souu'  yean.  Ai  this  motion  is  common  to  all 
the  heavenly  bodies,  its  nature  and  origin  will  be 
treated  of  under  the  head  of  Perturbations  (q.  v,|. 
Its  effect  upon  the  moon  is  to  produce  a  variation 
in  her  distance  from  the  earth,  independent  of  that 
produced  by  her  elliptic  motion. 

Edipsu. — Aa  the  moon  io  her  couna  paosea  tha 
aun  at  the  commencement  of  every  (synodic)  month, 
•nd  by  the  middle  of  the  month  has  [ilaoed  the 
earth  between  hnaelf  and  the  aun,  it  is  evident  that 
if  she  moved  is  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  thei«  would 
be  eiUier  a  total  or  an  annular  ee^pac  of  lh»  «un  at 
the  commencement,  and  a  Mid  tdipte  of  Iht  moon  in 
the  middle  of  every  month.  The  inclination  of  her 
orbit  allowing  her  to  pasa  the  son  5'  O*  to  tha  north 
ta  south  of  his  track,  prevents  such  a  fraqnent 
occurrence  of  eclipMt.  If  the  moon,  when  in  cou- 
jnootion,  is  at  either  of  her  nodal  poinia,  and  at  the 
Huna  time  near  her  perigee,  a  total  eolipse  of  tha  aun 


_   ..  ,  meaauTod 

from  the  earth  ooniequBnt&  varioi  from  28"  4B"  to 
33'  30",  and  for  a  partionlai  da;  ii  ereatest  when  she  is 
on  the  meridian,  oa  in  this  ease  she  ia  nearer 
■peetator  ty  about  4000  milM,  than  when  she  is 


takes  place ;  but  if  near  her  apogee,  the  eclipse 
is  only  annular,  for  at  that  time  her  apparent 
diameter  is  less  than  the  sun's.  If,  also,  at  her 
conjunction,  her  latitude  north  or  south  ia  less 
than  the  sum  of  her  semidiameter  and  of  that  of  the 
sun,  a  partiai  eclipse  takes  place,  and  is  greater 
the  nearer  the  moon  ia  to  her  node.  These  par- 
tial eclipses  are  celdom  seen  from  oU  parts  of  the 
earth's  illuminated  surface,  but  are  coaGned  to  a 
portion  of  it,  which  is  greater  or  less  according  to 
the  exteot  of  the  eclljiae.  Lunar  eclipses,  which 
occor  when  the  moon  is  in  opposition  (L  e..  Bit  full 
moon),  are  aeen  equally  from  ttA  porta  of  tho  earth's 
surface  which  ore  turned  towards  her.  The  conical 
shadow  of  the  earth  which  ia  projected  into  apace 
on  the  side  opposite  to  the  sun,  is  in  length  equal  to 
about  3\  times  the  moon's  mean  diatance,  aod  a 
section  of  it  at  the  moon's  distance  ta  1*  23*  in 
diameter.  If,  then,  the  moon,  which  is  never  mors 
than  33i'  in  diameter,  happens  to  be  at  or  near  her 
node,  a  total  eclipae  will  take  pUc«^  and  in  no  cose 
can  it  be  annular,  aa  is  sometimes  the  eaa«  with 
those  of  the  aun.  Even  during  total  eclipses,  tha 
seldom  quite  invisible,  but  generally  ah 


moon,  like  ail  other  satellites,  aa  for 
as  at  present  known,  revolves  round  her  own  axis  in 
precisely  the  same  time  that  she  revolvei  round  the 
earth ;  ^e  thas  presents  always  the  same  face  to  us, 
and  consequently,  though  her  comparative  proximity 
has  enablnl  na  to  beoome  better  acquainted  with  her 
surface  than  with  that  of  any  other  heavenly  body, 
our  knowledge  ia  oon&ned  to  one-half  of  her  surface, 
with  the  slight  exception  of  the  knowledge  obtained 
from  her  LAratitm  (q.  v.).  To  the  inhabitants  of  the 
side  of  the  moon  next  the  earth— if  tha  '    ' 


lovably  &xed  in  their  sky,  or  at  least  changing  its 
position  only  to  tha  extent  due  to  the  moon'a  hhra- 
tion.  The  earth  would  thus  seem  to  them  to  have 
a  diso  about  16  times  larger  than  that  of  the  sun. 

PhytieaX  Ftatarea. — "fkt  anrfaoe  of  the  moon, 
aa  seen  from  the  earth,  presenta  a  moat  irregular 
grouping  of  light  and  shade  (Hg.   3).     The  dark 


portions  were  named  b^  the  earlier  astrosomen 
as  i«sa,  lakes,  Ac,  and  still  retain  these  names, 
althon^  there  ia  atrong  evidence  againat  the  aDi>- 
pocition  that  ti>e  noon,  or  at  least  twt  portion  of  tt 


^■^-■f'-. 


pnMnted  to  ni,  containi  any  wmtar.  ^Hie  biigbter 
porta  of  the  moon  are  monotunoui,  »  it  pi«TM  by 
the  fact  of  their  oaHting  sbodawB  when  the  aiui  a 
rays  fall   apon  tbetn  ooliquely,  and  also  by  the 

zed  appearance  presented  by  the  interior  iUmnin- 

1  bonier  ot  the  moon,  aa  ihewn  in  Sa.  2,  an 
appearance  which  can  only  be  aatiaUMtorily 
•cconeted  foe  on  the  mppoaition  that  the  lurCace 
of  the  moon  is  not  level,  m  which  caie  the  higher 
portiooi  will  be  illuminated  loms  time  before  the 
tight  reachea  the  level  parte;  and  it  ia  obeerred 
but  u  the  illumination  proceeda,  bright  apots 
atart  up  in  advance  of  it,  and  when  the  moon  ia  on 
the  wane,  theae  aame  apota  continue  to  ihine  for 

le  time  after  the  turroonding  surface  ia  immersed 

gloom.  The  mountaina  occur  either  singly, 
when  they  are  generally  of  a  circular  form,  and 
are  called  eraUri,  ot  in  group*,  which  ate  mostly 
annular,  and  form  a  sort  oE  wall  eDclosing  a  deep 
depreaaion  <»  pUin,  in  which  are  situated  one 
or  more  oonicu  mouotuna.  The  craters  are  not 
nnfrequently  8  or  10  uilea  in  diameter,  and  some  of 
tiie  walled  plains   meaaore  more  than   100  mile* 

Ma.  The  principal  mountain  range  is  the  Apen- 
nines, which  eroaees  the  suiface  from  north-east  to 
aouth-weat,  and  attains,  according  to  soma  autho- 
riUea,  an  altitude  of  about  30,000  feet,  tbonsh  Sir 
John  Herschel  gives  about  3  miles  as  the  probable 
limit  ot  elevation  above  the  moon's  surface.  The 
height*  ar«  estimated  fnim  a  mierooietrio  ine«Miute- 
ment  of  the  length  of  thair  shadows,  a  method  not, 
in  this  esse,  soaoeptible  of  muoh  aocniai^.  The 
moon  averywhere  preaenta  faacea  of  volcanio  agenoy, 
but  no  score  roloanoe*  have  yrt  been  disoovered, 
■tor  ia  there  any  aign  ot  recent  volcanio  action, 
tieen  through  the  teleecope,  ahe  preaeata  a  bleak, 
'    )date  appe^vnoe,  without  indicatioas  ot  animal 

Tegetable  exiatenca.  She  ^peaia  to  be  devoid 
of  an  atmosjphere,  or  if  one  exists,  it  must  be  of 
— eeding  rarity, 

lie  umnenoe  of  the  moon  in  eaoaing  Tide»  (q.  v.) 
boa  bng  been  well  known,  and  thero  ia  some  reason 
for  anpposing  that  she  produoea  a  similar  effect  on 
the  atmoaphere,  oombining  with  other  causes  in  the 
generation  of  winda  Those  winda  which  {wevail 
about  the  time  of  new  and  full  moon,  and  at  the 
Teroal  and  sutumnal  eqninoxea,  are  partionlarly 
aacribed  to  her  influence.  On  the  anppoaitian  that 
moon  might  also  affect  organic  nature,  e>p«l^- 
ments  were  matituted  by  Mead,  Hoffmann,  aod 
othen;  but  no  certain  results  were  attained.  The 
periodicity  which  haa  often  been  notioed  in  cer- 
tain diaeaaea,  eapecially  in  insanity  (hence  called 
htHoq/),  was  long  supposed  to  have  soroa  connection 
Vith  lunar  influence,  and  thia  opinion  it  held  to 
aome  extent  at  the  present  day.  The  chemical 
aflacta  ot  the  moon's  rays  are,  so  far  as  ia  at  preaent 
knoirn,  feeble,  though  in  particular  inatanees  they 
exhibit  an  octmim  a«  xuwerful  as  that  of  the  eon. 
Decorapodtion  of  animal  matter  take*  |Jace  more 
rapidly  in  moonahina  than  in  dnrhnnss.  and  the 
moon's  rays,  when  concentaated,  have  a  aeosible 
effeet  on  the  thermometer. 

The  beet  map  of  the  moon  is  the  large  and  aocn- 
nte  one  of  MM.  Baer  and  KUdler,  w£oh  presents 

no«t  minutely  debuled   iiictnre  of   her  visible 

tao*)  the  map  ia  S  feet  in  diameter.    See,  for 

further  infotmation,  the  articlea  Fertubbationb  ; 
^IBBATIOH  ;  Nonas;  Etkttioh;  Metokio  Cyclb; 
Tables,  Luhar,  Ac 

Snperttltiomi  regarding  ffie  Moon The  moon  was 

anciently  an  object  of  worship,  and  even  in  the  I7th 
c  ahe  waa  supposed,  by  the  oonunon  people  of  Eng- 
land, to  exercise  great  inSuence  over  human  affairs. 
The  times  tor  kuling  animals  for  food,  gathering 
herbs,  cutting  down  wood  for  fuel,  sowing  seeds  M 


uenoea  from  any  oocurreooe  being  {wadicted 
ing  to  the  aee  of  the  moon  at  the  time  it 
happened.    Throughout  Scotland,  the 


ignoranoe  or  nefSect  ot  them  to  be  in^JliUy  pro- 
thictive  of  loaa.  There  were  aimilarly  defined  periods 
for  taking  particular  medicine*,  and  attempt- 
ing the  cure  of  particular  diseaaea.  Many  such 
superstttioaa  prevailed  till  a  recent  neriod  in  tlia 
Eighlsjids  of  Scotland,  favourable 


oonsidered  to  have  an  evil  influence,  and  full  or 
new  moon  to  be  the  moat  aoapiciouB  aeaaon  for 
commendng  any  enterprise.  The  same  opinion  wa* 
held  in  Scandinavia  and  Germany,  and  tne  hiatmy 
ot  all  nations  teems  with  iinular  tnpentitiona.  Bm 
the  article  EoLiPHBa, 

In  the  Edda,  we  read  that '  MundilfSri  had  two 
children — a  son.  Mini  (mooD),  and  a  daughter,  84) 
(sun);'  and  inOermM>,th*  moon  is  laaaoBline and 
the  son  feminine  to  this  day.  It  was  the  asms  in 
Ang.-Sax. :  although  modern  Bngliah  haa  in  this 
mattar  followed  the  olaasio  mTthology,  in  whioh 
FhcebuB  and  Sol  are  goda ;  and  Selene,  Luna,  and 
Diana,  are  goddesses  ;  Qiimm  {Daitddie  JHflhoiegit, 
p.  666)  quotes  an  old  invocation  to  the  '  New  Moon, 
gracious  lord'  (Nener  Mon,  holder  bei^  l<a 
mcreaee  ot  wealth  ;  and  down  to  reoent  times  the 
Qerman  people  were  fond  of  speaking  ot  '  fan 
tonne,'  and   'herr   mond'  ('lad^  aun,'   and  "     ' 


__  ,. _ . ,.._  it  appean  to  ua)  of 

gender  ia  found  among  the  Lithuaniana  and  Ar^ 
biant,  and  even  the  ancient  Mexican  Meztle  (moon) 
waa  masculine.  Among  the  Slave*,  aooording  to 
Grimm,  the  moon  is  mns.,  a  star  fem.,  and  the  ton 
neut.  In  Hindu  MTthology,alao,the  moon— Chandra 
or  Soma — ia  a  male  deity,  represented  by  one  myth 
aa  the  son  of  the  patriarch  Atri,  who  prooTe«ted  him 
tram  his  eyes,  but  by  another,  aa  arising  from  the 
milk-sea  i^ien  it  was  churned  by  the  gMs  for  the 
attainment  of  the  beverage  ot  immortality.  Hi* 
wives  are  the  27  daughters  of  the  pabiarch 
Daksha,  known  aa  the  nympht  of  the  lunar 
oonstellationa  By  one  of  them,  Bohin'l,  he  had  m 
aon  Budha  (not  to  be  oonfounded  with  Buddha), 
the  regent  of  the  planet  Merenry,  who  begot  on 
Hi,  a  son,  FurOraTas,  who  became  the  anoestor  of 
a  royal  family,  bence  called  the  lunar  dynasty. — 
The  moon  is  generally  represented  as  wearing  white 
garmenta,  with  a  mace  m  one  hand,  and  ridii^in 
a  chariot  drawn  by  tea  honea  or  antelopes.  The 
animal  sacred  t«  him  is  the  bare  (the  Hindus  believ- 
ing that  an  outline  like  that  ot  a  hare  ia  visible 
on  the  moon);  and  the  plants  under  his  tpecitl 
patronage  are  a  certain  variety  of  the  lotua,  which 
nowen  when  the  moon  rises,  and  the  Soma  plan^ 
or  A»d^>iaM  acida.  As  the  receptacle  of  the 
bevenwe  of  immortality,  he  is  thus  described  in 
the  Vishn'a-Pnrftn'a :  '  The  radiant  sun  supplies  tha 
moon,  when  reduced  by  the  draught*  of  the  goda 


tjie  gods  drink  the 
lated  in  the  moon  during  half  the  month ;  and 
from  this  being  their  food,  they  are  immortal: 
83,000,  3300,  and  33  divinities  drink  the  Innar 
nectar.  When  two  digits  remun,  the  moon  enteia 
the  orbit  of  the  sun,  and  abides  in  the  ray  oalled 
AmJL  ....  In  that  orbit,  the  moon  is  immersed  for 
a  day  and  night  in  the  water,  thence  it  enters  the 
branches  and  shoots  of  the  trees,  and  thence  goes  to 
the  aon. ....  When  the  remaining  portion  ot  the 
moon  ooDsiat*  of  but  a  Iftth  part,  the  mane* 
approach  it  in  the  afternoon,  and  drink  the  last 


:ai: 


UOOK— MOOBE. 


poitiaii,  that  ucred  digit  whioh  ii  oomjxiied  of 
nectar. ....  la  thia  msiuier  the  moon,  vith  ita 
cooliDK  r»jB,  DOiuiahe*  the  god*  in  the  light  fort- 
Bight  (or  ihe  15  cUyl  of  lh«  mooa't  increase},  the 
inanss  iu  the  dark  fortnight  (when  in  the  wane) ; 
vegetable!,  with  the  cool  nectaiy  aqueona  atomi  it 
sheda  upon  tham ;  and  through  their  developmsnt 
it  aoBtains  men,  animals,  and  inMOts,  At  ttM  unw 
time  grstifying  them  by  ita  radiance^' 

MOON,  MouNTATSS  o»  THK.  The  '  Mountains  of 
the  Moon '  have  ever  played  an  ijnportauit  part  in 
the  history  of  African  geography,  and  have  given 
rise  to  many  oarious  hypotheiKa.  Ptolemy,  and 
nntU  lately,  many  of  the  ablest  geographers,  snp- 
posed  that  a  venr  high  chain  of  motmbunt  crossed 
the  ooadnent  of  Africa  from  east  to  wMt ;  and 
Uiey  have  continued  to  shift  these  mountains  from 
one  latitude  to  another,  ranging  from  10*  north  to 
10°  south,  but  still  keeping  Uiem  within  nearly  ths 
stuns  meridional  bounds.  Dr  Beke,  from  his  own 
researches  and  a  minute  study  of  the  geography 
of  Eastern  Africa,  propounded  the  theory,  that 
Uie  so-called  Mountains  of  the  M.  mn  from 
north  to  south  parallel  to  the  coast  of  Zanzibar, 
instead  of  from  east  to  west ;  forming,  in  fact,  a 
continuation  of  the  great  Abyrainiao  tabte-land, 
and  embracing  the  snow-capped  mountains  of 
Kenia  and  Kimnandjaro,  which  liaTc  an  altitude  of 
S0,000  feet 

The  mass  of  moimtwns  diacovered  by  Captain 
Speke  in  1858,  round  the  head  of  Lake  Tanganyika, 
is  consideTed  by  him,  both  from  its  crescent  form 
and  its  position,  to  be  part  of  the  Mountains  of  the 
M.  of  Ptolemy ;  but  mountaioB  of  this  hekht  (6000 
to  10,000  feet)  could  never  be  saow-clad  so  near 
the  parallel  of  the  equator. 

MOCNJAH,  MUNJAH,  or  MOONYAH 
(Sacdiarum  ifunja),  a  j^rass  of  the  siime  genus  with 
the  sugar-cane,  a  native  of  India,  the  leaves  of 
which  afford  a  useful  fibre,  ol  which  ropes  are 
made.  The  M.  grows  in  vast  abundance  in  the 
neighlx>arhood  of  the  Ganges,  Indus,  and  other 
rivers.  The  fibre  oE  the  M.  ia  very  tough  and 
strong.  No  projier  trial  seenu  vet  to  have  been 
made  of  the  qualities  of  the  M.  fibre,  more  carelully 
prepared ;  but  considering  the  fiioiUty  with  which 
it  could  be  obtained  in  any  desirable  quantity,  it 
seems  to  deserve  attention.^ Vary  similar  to  the  M. 
is  the  Saio.  or  SauK  of  Bengal  {Siuxiarum  Sara), 
another  species  of  the  sams  genus,  the  leaves  of 
which  are  employed  in  the  same  way. 

UOONSTONE.    See  Pbi^ar. 


Moore,  an  Eutcopaliau  clergyman,  ws«  bom  at 
Btirling,  in  1730:  Educated  at  the  nnivetsity  of 
Glasgow,  he  began  the  study  of  medicine  and 
auraeiy  under  Dr  Gordon,  surgeon,  of  that  city, 
which  study  be  followed  up  in  Eollaod,  London, 
and  Paris,  and  then,  as  tlie  partner  at  his  oJd 
■utter,  Dr  Gordon,  began  to  practise  in  Glasgow. 
As  medical  attendaiit  to  the  Duke  of  Hamilton,  he 
spent  five  years  in  travelling  on  the  continent,  and 
on  his  return  in  1778,  setUed  in  London.  In  1779, 
be  published  A  Viae  of  Society  and  Mamterl  in 
Franix,  Svriiierland,  aiid  Otmtant  (Lend.  2  vole. 
8vo).  In  1761,  appeared  A  Viae  of  Soaety  and 
Mamitrt  in  lUd]/  (S  vols.  Svo] ;  in  1736,  his  Medical 
Sketclia,  in  two  |«rtsi  and  in  1789,  Zeiuco,  a  novel 
{2  vols.  8vo)— the  principal,  or,  at  anyrate,  the  most 
popular  of  his  works.  His  other  works  are — A 
Journal  during  a  Bemdeace  in  Frana,  1792  (2  vols. 
Lond.),  descriptive  of  scenes  witnessed  while  at  Paris 
in  the  autumn  of  that  year  as  medical  attendant  of 
tha  Earl  of  Laa<)eidaU;  A  Vieao/  At  Oauta  and 


Proffre-  oftlis  FrauA  Rea^tUion  (2  vols.  Land.  1709) ; 

Edward,  a  novel  (Loud.  1796) ;  and  XontmaU,  a 
novel  (Lond.  1800,  3  vols.  Svo).  He  also  edited  a 
ooUeoted  edition  of  Smollett's  works,  with  a  life  of 
the  author.    He  died  at  Biehmond  in  Surrey,  febw 

20,1802. 

HOOKE,  Sm  Joan,  English  genaral,  bom  »t 
Glasgow,  1761,  was  eldest  son  of  the  preceding 
He  entered  the  army  aa  ensign  when  only  IS,  ai^ 

served  with  distinction  in  Corsica,  as  colonel ;  in  tha 
West  Indies,  as  bri^dier-gencral ;  in  Ireland  daring 
the  rebellion  of  ^798,  and  in  the  expedition  to 
Hollatid.  as  a  general  of  staft  He  was  in  Egypt 
with  the  army  under  Aberoromby,  and  obtamed 
the  order  of  the  Bath  for  his  services  in  command 
of  the  reserve.  When  war  again  broke  out  in  1802, 
M.  served  in  Sicily  and  Sweden.  In  1608,  he  was 
sent  with  a  corps  of  10,000  men  to  strengthen  the 
English  army  m  the  Peninsula.  He  arrived  in 
Mondego  Bay,  August  10,  and  assumed  the  chief 
command  on  the  return  to  England  of  Sir  H.  Burrard. 
In  October  he  received  instructions  to  co-operate 
with  the  forces  of  Spain  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
French  from  tbe  Peninsula.  He  moved  his  army 
from  Lisbon,  with  the  intention  of  advancing  by 
Valladolid,  to  unite  himself  with  the  Spanish  generu 
Bomana,  and  threaten  the  communications  between 
Madrid  and  Fronce.  But  tha  a;>atliy  of  the 
Spaciards,  and  the  successes  of  the  French  in 
various  parte  of  the  Peninsula,  soon  placed  him  in 
a  critical  position.  Yet  he  had  determined  to  make 
a  bold  advance  from  Salamanca  to  attack  Soult, 
when  the  news  reached  ^™  that  Madrid  had  fallen, 
and  that  Napoleon  was  marching  to  crush  him  at 
the  head  of  70,000  men.  M-'fl  forces  amounted  to 
only  26,000  men,  and  he  waa  consequently  forced  to 
retreat.  In  December,  he  began  a  disastrous  march 
from  Astorga  to  Corufla,  a  route  of  near  250  mites, 
through  a  desolate  and  mountainous  oountry,  made 
almost  impassable  by  snow  and  rain,  and  harassed 
by  the  enemy.  The  soldiers  suffered  intolerable 
hardBhipa,  and  arrived  at  Coruiia  in  a  very  distressed 
state-  It  was  impossible  to  embark  without  fight- 
ing, and  Soult  was  in  readiness  te  attack  as  soon  as 
the  troops  should  begin  to  embark.  The  battle  was 
mainly  one  of  infantry,  for  the  cavalry,  after 
destroying  their  horses,  had  gone  on  board,  and  the 
bulk  of  the  artillery,  for  which  the  ground  was  not 
adapted,  had  also  been  withdrawn.  On  the  I6th 
January  1809,  the  French  came  on  in  four  stroug 
columno.  A  desperate  battle  ensued.  Wjijle  ani- 
mating the  42d  Regiment  in  a  brilliant  charge  in  an 
early  stage  of  the  action,  M.  was  struck  by  a  cannon- 
ball  on  the  left  Eboulder,  and  died  in  the  moment  of 
victory.  The  fVench  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of 
2000  men ;  and  the  funeral  obsequies  of  the  deceased 
soldier  were  performed  with  melancholy  solemnity 
just  before  the  embarkation  of  his  troops.  The 
British  army  iu  this  expedition  lost  tiieir  magazines 
and  6000  soldiei«.  A  monument  was  erected  to  M.'s 
memory  in  St  Paul's  Cathedral 

HOORE,  Thohas,  the  son  of  a  small  tradesman, 
who,  through  the  influence  of  Lord  Moiro,  after- 
wards became  a  barrack-msster  in  the  army,  wsa 
bom  in  Dublin  on  the  28(h  May  1779.  At  an  early 
age,  he  was  placed  at  a  school  in  which  Sheridan 
hod  formerly  been  a  pupiL  In  1793,  he  was  sent 
to  the  Dublin  [Jniversity,  where  he  ultimately  took 
the  degree  of  B.A.  Before  entering  the  univenity, 
he  had  written  verses  for  a  Dnblin  magazine;  and 
while  there,  be  translated  the  Oda  of  Anaonon, 
in  the  hope  of  obtaining  a  classical  premium,  in 
which,  however,  he  was  disappointed.  In  Dublin, 
be  acquired  Italian  and  French,  and  being  fond 
of   music,  he  learned  to  play  on  tba  piano— an 


MOOKFOWL— MOOEINO. 


■ocompluhmMtt  vhieh  wm  of  Mrnoe  to  him  in  hii 

In  1T9S,  with  hia  transIatdDn  of  Anacreon  ia  hi« 
pocket,  be  oome  to  London  to  study  law,  and 
entered  hiniKlf  in  the  Middle  Temple.  In  1600,  he 
publiihed  his  tninaUtianB.  dedicated  to  Geor^  IV., 
then  Prince  of  WoIcl  In  1S02,  he  produot:d  his 
Pottiad  Work*  of  the  Late  Tliomiui  lAUie — s  volume 
of  sweet  but  licentious  verse,  which  wu  a  good  deal 
bUmed,  and  yay  widely  read.  In  1S03,  through 
the  inflnence  of  Lord  Moira,  he  wu  appointed  to  a 

Svemment  post  at  Bermuda.  He  arrived  there  in 
nuarylSIM;  but  findine  his  tituatioo  disagreeable, 
he  committed  hii  duties  mto  the  bands  of  a  deputy, 
and  travelled  in  America  previous  to  his  return  to 
England.  His  traneatlatttio  experience  seems  to 
have  cored  bim  of  the  democratic  ideas  which  ho 
had  imbibed  in  Dublin.  On  bia  return  to  England, 
ho  published  Odet  and  Epiitia,  for  which  he  was 
■harply  taken  to  task  iu  the  Edinburgh  Jteeiete. 
A  duel  between  himself  and  Jeffrey  was  the  conse- 
quence—over which  Byron  made  eo  much  mirth — 
and  which  resulted  in  the  combatanta  becoming 
the  moat  excellent  friends.  In  1807,  he  engaged 
with  Mr  Power  to  produce  the  /mA  ifeiodia,  and 
on  this  work  he  was  engaged  at  interval*  up  till 
1834.  In  1811.  be  married,  and  shortly  after,  he 
went  to  reside  in  Derbyihire,  where  in  1813  he  pro- 
duced TAe  Twopenny  Pott-bag,  full  of  brilliant  fancy 
— in  which  the  tropes  not  only  ghttered  hut  stung. 

Ai  DP  to  this  time  he  had  produced  nothiog 
bat  fugitive  pieces,  he  became  anxiona  to  emulate 
hii  br^hien,  who  wrote  long  poemi,  and  published 
in  quarto*.  Ha  fixed  on  an  oriental  subject,  and 
the  Measn  Longman  agreed  to  purchase  the  poem 
for  3000  Kuineaa.  In  1817,  the  long-expected 
LtUla  Roo&  appeared — brilliant  as  a  orefly,  and 
the  whole  Enguah  world  apiilauded.     After  the 

5ublication,  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  wrote 
'he  Fudge  FamUy,  which  appeared  in  1818.  At 
this  time,  he  learned  that  his  deputy  in  Bermuda 
had  misconducted  himself,  and  that  he  had  become 
liable  for  a  large  sum,  which  was  afterwojds, 
however,  considerably  reduced.  Lord  Laosdnwna 
paid  the  claim,  and  M.  repaid  hii  lordship  olter- 

In  1819,  M.  went  to  Paris  with  Lord  John  Husaell, 
and  extended  his  tour  to  Italy,  and  saw  Lord 
Byron  at  Venice.  He  returned  to  Paris,  where  he 
brought  his  family,  and  Hied  his  residence  till  1822. 
Here  he  wrote  TIte  Lova  of  (tit  AngeU,  which 
appeared  in  182.7,  and  JVie  Spieurean,  a  prose 
romance,  which  was  not  published  till  1827-  On 
his  return  to  Engbuid,  be  fixed  his  abode  at  Sloperton 
Cotta^  near  Bowood,  and  issued  the  Memoirt  of 
Captain  Sofk  iu  1824,  and  the  Life  qf  Slitridan  in 
1825. 

Byron  bad  banded  over  to  M.,  for  bia  own  especial 
benefit,  a  maDUscript  autobiograpby.  on  tjie  condi- 
tion that  it  should  not  aee  Uie  light  till  after  its 
anthor'a  death.  Byron  died  in  1824,  and  sa,  at  the 
request  of  bis  lordship's  relatives,  the  manuscript 
woa  deatroyed,  M.  then  entered  into  amngemeols 
with  Murray  to  produce  a  life  of  the  deceased  poet. 


L^t  of  Lord  Byron  was  published  in  1830  i 
two  volumes.    Next  year,  he  published  the  L\fe  of 
Lord  Edajard  FUzgerald.     His  lost  important  work 
' '    '     a  Lardntr't 

ciuiferred  on  him  in  1835.  In  1841,  he  broiuht  out 
an  edition  of  his  entire  poetical  works.  For  the 
three  years  precediog  his  death,  be  was  afilicted 
with  softening  of  the  brain.  He  died  on  tbe  25th 
February  18S2.  His  friend.  Lord  John  Kusiell, 
published  his  Mtmairs,  J/mmal,  and  Corrupond- 
tnce.  in  8  rolumM  (1352— -1856), 


can  hardly  I: 
HU  I 


a  the  rank  of  g 


graceful,  but  nothing  more.  Hia  most  ambitious 
work.  The  Lovet  of  l/ie  AngeU,  is  far  beneath  the 
Miltonic,  or  even  the  Byronio  standard.  Laiia 
Sookh  is  brilliant,  but  fatiguing.  Ho  is  most  sncceaa- 
f ul  in  polished  satire  snd  the  lighter  seotiments ; 
and  his  reputation  will  ultimately  rest  on  The  Tuxh 
penny  Pott-bag  and  the  frith  2I^odiet. 

MOGRFOWL,  RED  GROUSE,  or,  in  books  ol 


liar  to  tbe  British  Islands,  and  atTording  more 
amusement  to  sportsmen  than  any  other  kind  of 
featbered  game  m  Britain.  It  is  the  binl  gener- 
ally known  in  Britain  by  tbe  name  (hvtut, 
alUiough  not  a  true  species  of  Grouse,  but  rather 
of  Ptarmigan  (q.  v.).  The  Uyet  are  completely 
feathered,  as  well  as  the  legs ;  the  bill  ia  very 
short,  and  its  base  much  concealed  by  featheia. 
The  leogth  of  the  M.  is  about  sixteen  inches,  of 
which  about  four  inches  belong  to  the  tail.  Tbe 
tail  is  nearly  square.  The  winga  are  short  The 
plumage  ia  of  a  deep  chestnut-brown  colour,  marked 
on  the  back  and  wmg-coverta  with  black  spots,  and 
on  the  under-parta  witb  undulating  black  linea ;  the 
four  middle  tail-feathers  are  abo  marked  with 
tianaveiie  black  line*.    Above  the  eyes  is  a  naked 


Mooifowl,  or  Bad  Grouse  {Lagoput  Seotietu). 

space  (the  cere),  of  a  bright  scarlet  ooIoDr,  The  M. 
'~  ~>lentiful  in  tbe  moota  of  Sootlaod  and  the 
irides,  Wales,  tbe  north  of  England,  and  Ireland. 
It  feeds  on  the  lender  tops  of  heath,  crowbenie^ 
bilberriea,  Ac ;  and  not  nnfreqnentl^  visits  tbe 
fields  of  oats  and  other  grain  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
moors,  particularly  when  the  itookt  remain  long  in 
tbe  field  in  late  and  rainy  barvesta.  Tbe  M.  is  not 
polygunoua,  and  pairs  in  spring,  when  the  plumage 

3articularly  of  tbe  male— assumes  a  lighter  and 
der  tint.  The  female  lays  from  eight  to  fifteen 
eggs.  Tbe  nest  is  on  tbe  ground,  often  under  shelter 
ofa  toft  of  heath.  Tbe  young  run  about  veiy  soon 
after  tbey  are  hatched.  'Qrousa'  remain  in  etraei* 
(broods)  from  the  time  they  are  hatched  till  late  in 
the  autumn,  after  which  they  'pack'  or  aasemhla  in 
large  bodies. — A  cream-coloured  variety  of  M.  ia 
sometimes  found  in  the  north  of  England. — Tlie  M. 
iV  eaaily  domesticated,  and  breeds  readily  in  an 
aviary,  if  auppUed  with  heatb  for  food. 

MOORHEN.     See  Galukuu. 

MOORING  (allied  probably  to  Dutch  marrvn, 
to  delay,  fasten;  Eng.  marline,  for  faatening  Uie 
sail  to  the  bolt-rope ;  Lat.  mora,  delay),  a  faatening 


MOORISH  ARCHITECniEE-MORAINE. 


common  meuun^  of  the  tenn)  by  fixed  and  p«r- 
maoent  buoy,  whieh,  on  ita  part,  ii  oachored  to  tbs 
bottom.  A  chaia- mooring  u  where  a  itrong  chun 
ia  Btretched  for  some  distance  on  the  bottom,  beii^ 
■ecurelj  anchored  or  otherwise  made  fast  at  each 
end,  and  perhaps  in  intermediato  pUces.  Numerous 
baoys  are  tliea  floated  from  it,  and  it  becomes  the 
mooring-groand  for  many  veseiels.  Chain-moorings 
are  frequent  in  all  large  harbours  where  compara- 
tively small  veisela  require  to  ride. 


MOOBS  (Lat.  Ifauri,  meaniiu  dark;  Spanish, 
Morot)  ore  a  people  who  form  ^e  great  majority 
of  the  population  of  Barbarv.  Their  appeumce 
indicates   their   origin,    whidi    is    a    mixture    of 

the  Mauri  (from  whom  they  derive  their  name), 
Numidians,  Pbixmcians,  Romans,  and  Arabs,  who 
have  successively  held  possession  of  the  counby. 
In  consequence,  they  are  found  to  vary  coosidarably 
iu  appearance  and  character  in  different  parts  of 
Borbiuy,  but  all  abew  more  or  less  Btronoly  the 
sympb^ns  ot  a  oonsidemble  infusion  of  Arabian 
Uood.  They  are  a  well-formed  race,  with  fine 
oriental  features,  and  a  mild  and  melancholy  ex- 
pression of  connteoanoe.  They  are  more  friendly 
and  sociable  than  the  Bedouins  and  Berbers,  who 
iohiibit  the  deserts  and  mountains ;  but  are  inferior 
to  them  in  mental  ability,  besides  beins  volaptuoua 
and  cruel.  They  consbtnte,  general^  speaking, 
the  tradesmen,  artiaans,  merc£ant&  and  agriciU- 
tnrists  of  Barbory ;  but  a  considerable  namber  lead 
a  pastoral  life.  The  dress  of  the  M.  consists  of  a 
piece  of  woollen  cloth,  five  oils  in  length  b;^  one  and 
4  half  in  breadth,  callod  a '  haiquc,'  which  is  thrown 
over  the  shoulders,  and  fastened  round  the  body ; 
it  also  Bcrveji  as  a  covering  by  nigbti  This,  when 
sapplemeotod  by  a  pair  of  olippetB,  a  red  cap,  and  a 
hood,  coostitutes  the  sole  habiliment  of  the  people 
generally.  In  the  towns,  the  'caftan'  is  generally 
worn  over  the  haiqae.  The  M.  employ  the  Arabic 
language,  but  with  many  corruptians  and  deviations 
from  the  original,  and  these  appear  to  increase 
towards  the  west. 

As  the  Arab  conqnerore  of  Spun  inToded  that 
country  from  Africa,  where  they  bad  hugely  recruited 
their  forces,  they  were  naturally  enon^  caUed  Moors, 
and  in  Sponiab  history  the  terms  Moors,  Soraceoi, 
and  Arabs  are  synonymona.  From  this  mixed 
Moorish-Arab  nice  sprang  the  Morimoee,  who  were 
permitted  by  Ferdioand  the  Catholic  to  remain 
in  Spain  after  the  expulsion  of  their  countrymen, 
on  condition  of  their  embracing  Christianity.  A 
cruel  peiseoution,  which  wm  originated  by  Philip 
IL,  drove  them  to  rebellion  (1567—70),  and  in  1G71, 
many  emigrated  to  Africa ;  those  who  remained 
being,  to  the  number  of  500,000,  expelled  in  1610 
by  Hiilip  HI. 

The  M.  first  appear  in  modem  histoiy  as  the 
allies  of  the  Vandals  in  their  invasion  of  Africa,  aod 
were  continually  rebelling  against  the  Byzantine 
emperor.  They  were  nex^  after  a  severe  struggle, 
conquered  and  converted  by  the  Arabs  in  707.  In 
1091,  they  were  summoned  Dy  the  latter  into  Spain, 
to  aid  in  stemming  the  tide  of  Christian  conquest ; 
and  after  faillifuliy  supporting  the  Arab  calif  of 
Cordova,  kc,  till  his  dominions  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  king  of  Leon  and  Castile,  they  retired,  in 
123S,  to  Gionada,  where  they  founded  tiieir  kiug- 
dom.  The  kings  of  Qranoda  carried  on  a  vigorous, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  chivalrous  warfare  \nth  the 
kings  of  Castile ;  but  at  length,  weakened  by 
int^^ial  discord,  were  eompell^  to  suocumb  to 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic  in  1492.  The  M.,  or  at 
least  that  portion  of  them  who  refused  to  adopt 
2tl0 


Christianity,  were  then  expelled  from  Spain,  and, 
in  revenge,  founded  in  1518  the  piratical  atatea 
of  Algiers  and  Tunis.  Their  subsequent  history 
cannot  be  separated  from  that  of  AJgiers,  Tunis, 
and  Morocco  (q.  v. ;  as  aUo  BAKB4Ry,  BkiLBBEij). 

MOORTTK  [Camiariua  Benneaii),  a  recently  dis- 
covered bird  of  the  some  genus  with  the  Cassowary 
{q.  v.),  of  which  it  was  at  first  remuded  as  a  mere 
varied,  a  native  of  the  island  of  Hew  Britain.  It 
is  about  five  feet  in  full  height,  three  feet  to  the  top 
of  tiie  back,  ia  of  a  red<£sh   colour,  mixed  with 


Uoomk  (QutiaKHi  Bametlif). 

black,  and  has  a  homy  plate  instead  of  a  helmet- 
like  protuberance  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The 
claw  of  the  inner  toe  of  each  foot  is  very  long.  It 
I  and  familiar  in  captivity ; 
potatoes,  maize,  or  any  similar  food  ; 
__  . ,  1  prove  troublesome  by  swallowing 
anything,  however  indigestible,  that  may  come  iu 
^•i  way. 

MOOSE.    See  Elk. 

MOltA  (Lat)  is  a  word  often  used  in  Scotch 
law  to   denote   delay  caused  by  i   ^ 
England  and   Ireland,  the   oorrosponc 
Ladies  (q.  v.]. 

MORA,  a  genns  of  trees  of  tlie  natuial  order 
Ltffuminosa,  sub-order  Caaalpiniea,  containing  only 
one  known  species,  if.  exeeUa,  discovered  by  Sir  iC 
Schombnrgk,  and  described  by  bim  as  the  most 
majeatio  b«e  of  Guiana.  The  timber  is  said  to  be 
equal  to  oak  of  the  finest  quality.  It  is  already  a 
considerable  article  of  commerce,  under  the  name  of 
Mora  uKwd.  It  is  darker  than  mahogany.  It  ii 
valued  for  ship-bnilding. 

MOBA'CE^  a  natoral  order  of  exogenona  plants, 

,  according  to  many  botanists,  a  sub-ordec  of 
UrtKta  (q.  v.].  The  M.  are  trees  or  shrube  witli 
rough  leaves  and  sometimes  with  climbing  stems ; 
they  have  a  milky  juice;  the  flowers  are  very  snudl ; 
the  fruits  of  many  flowers  are  ofton  enclosed  in  > 
succulent  recejitacle,  or  the  calyx  becoming  fleshy, 
all  the  fruits  of  a  head  or  spike  become  combined 
into  onci  There  are  about  200  known  species, 
natives  of  temperate  and  tropical  climates.  Some 
are  valuable  for  their  fruit,  some  for  the  caoutchono 
obtained  from  their  milky  juice,  and  different  parts 
of  others  are  applied  to  various  uses.  Among  tiie 
species  ore  figs,  mnlberriea,  Osage  orange,  fustic, 
and  contrayerva. 

MORAIIfE.  Themaneaof  n>ckwhicli,byatmo*. 

leric  action,  ore  aeporeted  from  the  mountains 

landing  the  valleys  along  which  glaciera  flow,  find 

a  temporary  resting-plaoa  on  the  surfa^  iA  the  f™ 


e  surface  tA.  the  ice, 


HORALITIBS-UOBAVIA. 


lioa  along  Mch  mu-gin.  TheM  linea  of  dgbrig 
called  la&ral  moraine*.  When  two  gUcien  unite, 
tlia  two  innsT  morainea  tmite  also,  and  fotm  one 
large  tnil  in  the  "'''^'^l^  of  the  trunk  glacier,  and 
this  ia  ealled  a  medial  monune,  A  large  portion  of 
thcoe  rocky  fraemaot*  at  lenath  reaohea  tiie  end  of 
the  glacier,  and  here  the  mating  ioe  leavea  it  ae  a 
hoge  moniid,  which  ia  known  at  a  temmal  mm 
SeeQucmt. 

HOBAIJTIES.    SeeMTSTzais& 

HOBAia    SeeEimoB. 


•ilk,  oottoQ,  and  woollen  fabrics. 

HORAT  (I^t.  Moratimt,  Gcr.  JTitrtsn),  a  town 
ol  abont  2350  inhabitanta,  in  the  canton  of  fVeiboi^ 
Switterland,  on  ttie  L^a  of  Morat,  about  twelve 
miles  from  Bern,  famous  for  tiie  victor?  of  the 
Swiss  and  their  allies  over  Charles  the  Bold,  Duke 
of  Bnrgnndy,  June  22,  1470.  The  duke^  exasper- 
ated by  his  defeat  at  Qrandson,  in  March,  appeared 
before  the  gates  of  M.  with  40,000  men.  The  Swia» 
were  aided  by  Strasbnrg,  Basel,  Cobnar,  and  other 
Hheniah  citiea,  and  by  Duke  BenS  of  Lorraine, 
whom  the  Doke  of  Bargandy  bad  driven  from  his 
possessions ;  but  the  superiority  of  nnmbers  was 
greath'  on  the  side  of  the  Doke  of  Burgandy.  The 
assault  of  the  Swiss,  however,  wan  very  impetaoos, 
and  their  victory  complete)  the  dukes  camp  fell 
into  their  bauds,  and  he  himadi  only  escapad  by  the 
Bwiftneat  of  his  botae. 

MORATIV,  LuilSBO  FEBIUnDES  DB,  the  most 
eminent  comio  poet  that  Spain  has  prodaced  in 
recent  time*,  was  bom  at  Madrid,  Haroh  10,  1760. 
Hit  father,  Nioolaa  Fernandez  de  Moratin,  was  tdso 
•  poet  of  soma  eminence,  bnt  having  found  that 
IHeroiT  tabonra  oBorded  a  precarioua  supporl^  he 
wished  hii  son  to  learn  the  trade  of  a  jeweller,  by 
which,  after  his  faUker's  death,  he,  in  faet,  for  aome 
time  supported  himself  and  his  mother.  In  1790, 
^leored  his  first  and  best  comedy,  Ei  Yitjo  y  la 
Stna;  it  wat  followed  by  La  Comedia  niuwa  JEt 
Banm,  La  ilogigata,  and  Eindelat  NiSat.  Prince 
Oodoy  oonferred  seveml  ecclesiastical  beaefioea  upon 
bim,  though  the  Inquisitioa  set  its  evil  eye  upon 
the  poet.  Joseph  Bonaparte  made  him  chief  royal 
libnuian  i  and  after  1S14,  he  took  refuge  in  Paris. 
Hit  last  work  was  the  Origtne*  dd  Teatro  EtpadoL 
He  died  in  Paris,  June  21,  1S28. 

IICKAVA,  the  chief  river  of  Servla.  It  in 
formed  by  the  unioo  of  two  head  streams — the 


irBulsa 


1  M.,  which  rise*  in  the  a 


intaii 


of  the  new  southern  frontier  of  Servia  ; 
and  the  western  or  Servian  M.,  which  rises  on  tiie 
western  frontier.  The  united  stream  Hows  north- 
ward to  the  Danube,  and  has  a  total  length  of  about 


origin  on  the  southern  slone  of  the  Schneeberg,  on 
the  borders  of  Prussian  Silesia,  3S82  feet  above  sea- 
level.  It  is  the  chief  river  of  MoraTia,  to  which  it 
nves  ita  name,  and  flows  soath  throng  that  crown- 
land,  receiving  on  the  right  the  Thaya,  and  falling 
into  the  Danube,  eight  miles  above  Presburg.  In 
its  lower  couTM^  it  forms  the  boundary  btSween 
Lower  Austria  and  Eongary.  Its  course  is  184 
miles  in  length,  and  it  is  navigable  from  O0din£ 
upwards  of  OO  miles  from  ita  month. 


MOBATIA  (Oer.  MUhrea),  a  orown-land  of 
the  Austrian  empire,  situated  In  48°  •^—W  N. 
lab,  and  16*  B'~1S*  4S  E.  long.    It  is  bonnded 


N.  1^  Prusstan  and  Austrian  Bileaia,  K  by  Hungarv 
and  C^cio,  8.  by  the  doohy  oC  Austria,  and  W, 
by  Bohemia    The  snperfldal  area  is  obont  S480 


square  miles ;  and  tha  population  in  1870 
2,017,974,  while  in  1880  it  was  2,1S3,406. 
'*'  it  enokwed  and  traversed  ob  Hi  aides  by 
ains,  beiiu  aeparated  from  Silesia  by  the 
of  tiie  Sut&tes;  from  Bohemia,  by  the  Mora- 


range  of  the  ijudetes ;  from  Bohemia,  by 
viari  chain ;  and  from  Hungary,  by  the  Carpathian 
Mountains ;  while  branches  of  these  variont  chuns 
intersect  the  whole  country  except  in  the  south, 
where  the  land  oonusts  of  extensive  plains,  lying 
•bout  800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  tea.  The 
nnmerous  small  rivers  of  the  interior  follow  a  south- 
east direction,  and  fall  into  the  March  or  Morav^ 
from  which  the  country  derives  ita  name,  and  then 
flow  together  with  the  latter  into  the  Danube.  Ths 
Oder,  and  iti  afQuenta  tha  Elaa  and  Owa,  rise 
among  ths  monntains  on  the  north-eas^  from 
whence  their  conrse  is  soon  tnnied  directly  awqr 
from  the  Monvion  territoi;.  lliere  aia  few  exten- 
sive lakes,  but  Damerousponda  and  amall  Btreamt, 
which  abonnd  in  flih.  llie  more  elevated  parts  of 
the  counbyare  not  fertile,  and  the  climate  is  severe; 
but  in  the  mountain  valleys  and  on  the  southern 
plains,  the  soil  is  remarkably  rich,  and  tha  tempen- 
tora  more  genial  than  in  other  European  conntrias 
lying  in  the  some  paralleL  M.,  which  ranks  at 
one  of  the  richest  ol  ths  Austrian  dominions,  baa 
half  of  its  area  in  arable  land.  It  yidds  fins 
crops  of  groin,  and  among  tiie  other  natmal  prtt- 
ducts  grown  for  e]^ottation,  we  may  instanoe  hops, 
mustard,  potatoes  clorer-aeed,  beet-root;  and  in  tbe 
south,  maize,  graiMS,  chestnuts,  ud  many  other  <rf 


Important  branch  td 
idustiy ;  in  the  southern  distncts  of  the  Hanna 
(a  plain  famous  for  ita  fertility),  horses  are  bred  fw 
exportation.  Geese  and  fowu  are  Kored  in  large 
numbers  for  the  sake  of  tbdr  feathers,  and  t£a 
keeping  of  beee  is  condnoted  witii  gnat  ancoeas. 
The  mmeral  {«oducta  include  iron,  alum,  saltpeb«v 
coal,  graphite,  whetstones,  snlpbar,  vitriol,  pipa-day, 
marble,  and  topaiea,  ganieb^  and  oUiei  precions 

Induitrp,  Ac — The  principal  branehea  of  industry 
« thejnannfactore  M  linen  and  Uiread,  which  now 
enjoy  a  European  reputation,  and  those  for  cotton 
goods  at  Sternberg.  M.  has  long  been  noted  for  the 
excellenoe  of  itadoths,  flannels,  and  other  wodlen 
fabrics,  and  for  its  leather  goods.  The  minerals  of 
M,,  especially  cosl  and  iron,  are  important,  and  are 
extensiTely  wrought.  Beet-sagar  i>  hu^y  manu- 
factured. Brltno  (q.v.),  the  capital,  is  Om  chief 
emporium  for  the  mannfacturing  trader  and  Olmuti 
'  [.v.]  the  principal  oattle-mart. 

Tbe  educational  wants  of  the  novince  an  pro- 
vided for  by  12  gymnasia  and  about  1900  sdiods. 
The  former  university  at  Olmbts  is  now  repm- 
sented  by  a  theological  facultgr,  and  by  a  lartra 
technical  institute.  Tbe  majority  of  t£a  peo^e 
belong  to  the  Church  at  Rome.  Thera  are  about 
Protostantn  and  40,000  Jewi. 
i^gard  to  nationality,  tbe  popnlatioa  may 
be  divided  u  follows:  About  000,000  Germans, 
nearly  a  milhon  and  a  half  of  SUn  and  C0,000 
belonging  to  other  race*  (including  Jews).  The 
Slavs  <^  M.  are  mostly  Caeobs,  with  Poles 
and  a  few  Croats.  The  Czechs  are  inferior 
in  all  respects  to  their  brethren  in  Bohemia. 
The  Moravian  Pole^  although  inferior  to  tbe 
Germans  as  regards  indusb;  and  odltintioa,  aca 


MORAVIA— MORATIAN& 


a    phynoallr    well     dsreloped,    ommgeont,    and 
Mtterinuiiig  people. 

HigloTv. — M.  WM  aaaieiitly  oocaraed  b;  tlu 
Qiudi,  who,  on  their  migratiOD  in  the  fitii  o.  to  Qanl 
MiclS^ud»,wei«ceplaoed  fint  l^the  Bngii,  next 
bjr  the  Hcnndi  aod  Loiuobaidi,  and  floaUy  by 
ooloay  ot  SlftvonmnB,  who,  on  their  aettlemsnt  i 
the  conntrj,  took  the  name  of  MoraTiatu^  from  the 
river  Moravh  Charlemagne,  who  brongbt  the 
people  nnder  nominal  lut^ectioii  after  they  had 
spread  thenuelvea  over  a  territoir  greater  than 
the  present  M.,  oonstrained  their  king,  Samoalav, 
to  receive  baptiim  ;  bat  Clu-iatJanity  vaa  first 
formal]^  estalilisbed  in  the  middle  of  the  9th  e. 
l^  Cyrtl,  who  mnst  be  re«;arded  aa  the  tme  apoatla 
of  the  Ivid.  M.  was  maiM  tcibatarf  to  the  German 
emigre  before  the  oloee  of  the  oentoiy;  bnttn  1029, 
it  was  ineorporated  with  Bohemia,  uter  hanng  for 
a  time  been  a  prey  to  the  inonrsiTe  attacks  <u  i'~ 
SlaTonio  and  Tentonio  nei^bonn.  At  the  close 
tiia  12th  e^  H.  wm  ereot«3  into  a  matmviate,  and 
deolued  a  fief  of  Bohemia,  to  be  hud  from  the 
crown  by  the  yonnger  branches  of  the  royal  Honse. 
On  the  death  of  Lewis  IL  at  the  battle  of  Mohacz 
in  1526,  M.,  with  aU  the  other  Bohemiao  Undt, 
fell  to  AoEtria,  in  aeoordaDce  with 


the 


oompaot  of  succession  between  the  royal  Hoi 
Since   then,   it   has   shaied   the  fortunes  of 


crownland, 
MORAVIAHS    (called    also    Umted 

Moravian  Brtlhren,  or  Bohemian  Brethrm),  a  reli- 
moas  oommnnity,  tracing  its  origin  to  the  fbl- 
wwers  of  John  Hn^  who  were  expelled  by 
peraeontiMi  from  Bohemia  and  Horavia  in  the 
beginning  (d  the  ISth  a,  and  of  whom  a  small 
oompany,  consisting  at  first  of  only  ten  peraons, 
received  pennisdon  from  Connt  Zinzendori  (q.  r.), 
in  1722,  to  settle  on  hi*  estate  of  Berthelsdorf,  in 
Saxony.  To  this  settlement  they  gave  the  name 
of  Hermlmt,  whence  they  are  ooiomoiily  known 
in  GGimany  as  Hermhutcrs.  It  rapidly  incrensed, 
not  only  b^  the  accession  of  additional  Bohemian 
and  Moravian  refuseea,  bnt  also  of  other  Christians, 
who  were  attract^  by  the  faith  and  piety  which 
remarkably  prevailed  m  it  Zinzendorf  joined  the 
little  brotherhood,  devoted  bis  whole  estate  to  the 
propagation  of  Christianity,  and  imdertook  the 
wo»  ot  Ute  ministry.  The  doctrines  which  they 
received  being  those  of  the  Annbiug  Confession, 
it  waa  proposed  tliat  they  ahonld  tudte  themselves 
with  Uia  Latheran  Church;  bnt  a  difference 
oF  opinion  existing  on  this  point,  it  was  derided, 
M  mfScnlt  questions  still  sometdmea  are  among 
tiie  IS.,  hy  an  appeal  to  the  lot;  and  the  remit 
was,  that  the  Vnitwl  BrtUiTtJi,  or  UMom  Fro- 
trvm,  as  they  termed  themselves,  remained  a 
distinct  community,  and  adopted  an  organisation 
Till  Zinzendorf*  ds-"-  '"   ' —    "- 


of  their  own. 


*  death  in  1760.  he 


was  completed  by  synods  held  in  1704  and 
1769. 

The  M.  are  reoognised  by  the  state  in  Germany, 
as  Protestants  attached  to  the  Angaburg  Confe*. 
eioQ.  They  have  no  symbolical  boou  of  their  own, 
slthoogh  they  drew  ap  a  simple  and  brief  confession 
of  their  faith  in  1727,  and  ■  brief  statement  of  prin- 
ciples was  emitted  by  a  synod  held  in  177S. 

The  M.  profess  to  be  connected  with  the  Bohe- 
mian or  Honvian  Brethren  of  former  times  ^  a 
regular  Buccesrion  of  bishops.  The  bishops,  how- 
..  _  g^ajopj  authority,  and  their  chief 


.. famifyonoe  in  three  monthly 

and  to  report  oonoeming  the  mainteoanoe  of  family 
worship,  and  the  oondnot  of  the  brethrao.  It  li 
also  their  dnty  to  visit  the  rick,  and  to  aid  the 
poor  with  money  contributed  by  ths  other  brethren. 
The  whole  chnrch  is  governed  by  synods,  which 
meet — always  in  Qermany — at  intervals  of  ten  or 
twelve  years,  and  are  composed  not  only  of  bi^ps, 
bnt  al»a  of  other  membem  of  the  brotherhood. 
Between  one  nnod  and  another,  all  affair*  are 
managed  by  a  Conference  qf  Elder*  appointed  by 
the  synod. 

M.  are  to  some  extent  Mattered  amount  the 
general  population  of  the  ooontriei  in  whidi  they 
dwell,  aa  Britain  and  Amerieai  but  they  prefer, 
where  it  is  paesiU&  to  live  in  colonies,  or  separate 
■ooietiea,  and  in  these  they  carry  out  soma  very 
peonliar  parts  of  their  ar^uiisation,  particularly  a 
divimon  mto  diotrt  of  children,  youths,  maidens, 
unmarried  brethren,  unmarried  sisters,  widoweia, 
and  widows,  each  having  a  separate  leader  or 
pastor.  Unmarried  brethren,  unmarried  aisten, 
widowers,  sod  widows,  reside  in  separata  houses; 
married  oooples  in  houses  of  thmr  own.  Colonies 
of  M.  exist  in  England,  America,  Holland,  and 
othw  coantriea,  but  are  most  numerous  in  Germany. 
The  most  impntant  eoUmiea,  however,  are  perbapt 
those  in  the  misdon-fields.  The  Brethren  early 
entered  on  minionaty  work,  and  all  the  proniarity 
of  their  ohnrch  has  Men  evidently  eonneoted  wita 
their  earnest  prosecution  of  it.  Their  first  missioa 
wBspUnted,  m  17SS;  in  the  island  of  atTbranoa, 
in  the  West  Indies;  the  misaionarie*  who  went 
thither  expreaaing  their  resolution  to  beoome  alaves, 


misnon  to  Gresnland, 
sacceaaful,  and  may  be  aaid  to  have  made  Green- 
land a  duistian  country,  was  oommenoed  in  1733. 
They  have  alao  interesting  missions  in  Labrador 
andat  the<^kpeof  GoodHope,andin  other  heathen 
oountrieo.  lie  M.  have  at  their  mission-stations 
about  70,000  oonverts  from  heathenism.  One  of 
the  most  interesting  of  their  stations  U  at  Sorepts, 
in  the  government  of  Saratov,  in  Bossio,  by  which 
they  are  ooonected  with  the  Tartars  and  Elalmncks. 
In  all  tikrir  settlementa,  tiie  education  of  the  young 
reoeivcB  the  utmost  attention. 

The  reli^ous  serrices  of  the  M.  are  oondacted 
with  great  simplicity.  They  meet  for  worship  daily, 
in  the  evening  the  service  being  much  like  that  of 
a  prager-meetlng  amongst  other  Christiaiia.  They 
uae  a  litany  on  the  Lord'a  Day,  but  extemporary 
prayer  i*  frequent  They  admit  the  use  of  instru- 
mental mnric.  They  maintain  the  practice  of 
washing  the  feet,  both  in  choirs  and  in  congre- 
gation*; before  the  communion.  Ihey  mert  on  the 
Ust  day  of  the  year,  to  bring  in  the  New  Year 
with  prayer  and  other  exercises  of  reli^on.    On 


brother  i*  made  known  in  tlu  chief 
•oond  of  trumpets,  a*  if  fw  victory. 

In  the  three  home  provinces  (German,  Bngliah, 
American]  there  were,  in  1S8I,  in  all,  10  bishops 
joesbyters  and  deaoons,  and  near  20,000 
Ants.  In  foreign  nii««<™»  [including  one  in 
Bohemia  and  Moravia)  were  3  bisht^  170  miasion- 
ariee,  110  female  agents,  ICfiO  native  aoenta;  and 
27,000  communicants.    See  histories  in  German  by 

~    "        "  '- ■    ~       ■   ">y  Boat 

Hohne* 


^nyGOO^I' 


MORAY  KETH-MOM. 


MOltAT  PIBTH,  an  indeatatioa  of  the  Gennaii 
Ocean,  on  tfao  north-eut  coast  of  Sootlaiid.  Its 
north-weat  shore  is  formed  by  tiie  conntiea  of  Rom 
■nd  Cronuutj,  ftnd  extendi  from  Kesaock  Ferrj, 
oppodta  laveraesa,  to  Tarllet  Neu.  Its  aoath-east 
•hore  extendi  from  InTsmeBi  to  Bnrghesd,  in 
Elgintbire.  The  entrance  of  the  firth  between 
Burghead  »nd  Tarbet  Hem  u  Id  milea  in  width 
and  from  ita  entrance  to  Inveniess  it  i»  31  milei 
in  extent.  The  firth  ii  continued  westnaid  from 
InvameH  by  a  branch  called  Beauly  Basin. 

MOKAYSHIRE,    See  BLOiUBBStE; 

MORBID  APPETITES  may  conaist  of  a  dedre 
which  ie,  in  character,  natural  and  necessary  to  the 
animal  economy,  bnt  becomes  unhealthy  when  exces- 
■ive  and  irreBietible.  Of  this,  the  hunger  which 
attends  marasmus,  and  the  thint  which  attends  dia- 
betes, may  be  cited  as  illustrationa.  They  may  con- 
■ist  further,  in  a  craving  for  articles  or  objects  not 
in  reality  deleterious  or  detriment^,  bat  which  do 
not  constitate  the  ordinary  gratification  of  the 
appetite,  such  as  tlie  desire  for  chalk  and  lime 
experienced  by  chlorotio  and  hysterical  women. 
They  may,  tliirdly,  consist  in  the  longings,  often 
eompUcated  with  delnsionE,  felt  by  pregnant  women 
and  others,  which  are  injurious,  repugnant  to 
oatnie,  and  reroltine.  Oeorget  gives  an  instance 
where  a  wife  covetea  the  shoulder  of  her  husband, 
killed  him  in  order  to  obtain  the  morael,  and 
salted  the  body  in  order  to  prolong  the  hideous 
cannibalism,  iii  such  a  case,  the  gross  longing  may 
be  said  to  constitute  the  disease  ;  but  mere  are 
others  in  which  it  is  one  of  many  symptoms 
demonstrating  the  degradation  of  the  mind  under 
general  disease,  as  when  the  insane  devour  garbage, 
excrement,  or  swallow  giBst,  hair,  stones.— Georget, 
Diet,  dg  liedeeint;  Feuchtenleben,  p.  278. 

MORBIHAN,  a  maritime  department  in  the 
north-west  of  Trance,  formed  out  of  ancient  Bre- 
tagne.  Area,  2615  eq.  miles;  pop.  (1881)  621,614. 
The  coast  is  much  indented,  and  bos  a  maltitude 
of  bays,  roadsteads,  harbours,  and  islands.  The 
largest  island  is  Belle  Isle  (q.  v.).  The  department 
has  a  somewhat  hilly  appearance,  but  towards  the 
eea,  the  bnd  etretohes  out  in  rich  plains,  interrupted, 
however,  by  ^at  tracts  of  heath  and  marsh.  The 
climate  is  mild,  bat  moist  .The  soil  is  not  well 
cultivated,  but  yields  sufficient  groin  for  home 
Kie  heaths  afibrd  fine  pasturage, 
-eat  herds  of  homed  cattle,  sheep, 
rearing  of  bees  is  a  source  of  very 


oonsumptii 
and  support 
and  hoisec 
considerable 


I   the  I 


coast  fisheries.  The  trade  in  sardines  fe  particularly 
extensive.  The  want  of  wood  is  bo  great,  that  the 
peasants  are  obliged  to  bom  dung  extensively.  The 
chief  mineral  is  iron,  bnt  there  are  almost  no  maua- 
factures.  M.  Is  divided  into  the  four  orrondisse- 
ments  of  Vannes,  L'Orienti  Ploennel,  and  Fontivy, 
The  chief  town  is  Vaunea  <q.  v.),  bnt  the  most 
populous  is  L'Orient  (q.  v.). 

MOHDANTR    SeeDrEOia. 

MORDAUNT.  Czablb,  Earl  of  Peterborongb, 
military  and  naval  comaiaDder,  and  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  Englishmen  of  his  time,  was  the  son  of  John 
Lord  Mordaun^  and  was  bom  in  165S,  some  say  1662; 
He  served  as  a  boy  in  the  navy,  and  then  entered 
ttie  army.  He  took  part  against  James  IL,  and 
was  made  Earl  of  Monmoutli  by  William  IlL,  snc- 
oeeding  afterwards  to  the  earldom  of  Peterborough, 
as  heir  to  his  uncle.  During  the  war  of  the  Spauisb 
Succession,  the  English  government  determined  to 
■end  an  expedition  to  Spain.  It  nsi  placed  under 
the  command  of 'M. ;  and  in  June  1705,  he  arrived 
in  Lisbon  with  fiOOO  Dutch  and  I'lngli'h  soldiers. 


armament  proceeded  to  Valencia.  Here  U.,  with 
characteristic  daring,  conceived  the  idea  of  making 
a  dash  at  Madrid,  and  finishing  the  war  at  one 
blow.  He  was  overruled  by  the  archduke  and  the 
Prince  of  Hesse,  and  compelled  to  besiege  Barcelona, 
which  was  defended  on  one  side  by  the  sea,  and 
on  the  other  bythe  strong  fortifications  of  Monjuich. 

S""  r  a  coup  de  main,  he  made  himself  master  of 
anjuich.  Barcelona  fell,  and  M.,  with  a  handful 
of  men,  entered  one  of  the  strongest  cities  of 
Europe.  He  pushed  his  successes  into  the  interior. 
Several  towns  submitted.  He  marched  to  Valencia 
in  the  depth  of  winter,  and  at  the  head  oE  1200 
men  defeated  a  Spanish  force  of  4000.  The  Spaniards 
sent  a  large  army  into  Catalonia,  and  a  French  fleet 
appeared  off  B^celomh  M.  harassed  the  enemy's 
army,  and  putting  himself  on  board  the  EnelMi 
squadron,  duvcted  a  movement  which,  had  it  been 
executed  a  few  hoars  earlier,  wonld  have  resulted  in 
the  capture  of  the  whole  French  fleet  The  French- 
men put  to  eeo,  and  Barcelona  was  saved.  M.  again 
wished  to  march  towards  Madrid,  but  his  plan  for 
gaining  possession  of  the  capital  was  once  more 
rejects!  by  Charles.  He  accordingly  left  the  army 
in  a  fit  of  piqae,  and  went  to  Italy.  In  1707,  he 
returned  to  Valencia  as  a  volunteer,  and  gave 
excellent  advice,  which  was  not  followed.  He  was 
recalled  to  England,  and  from  that  moment  the 
tide  of  fortune  ran  strong  agunst  the  Austrian 
cause.  Few  generals  have  done  so  mach  with  means 
so  small,  ot  displayed  equal  originality  or  boldness. 
His  fertility  and  activity  of  mmd  were  admirably 
seconded  by  a  most  intrepid  spirit.  His  splendid 
talents,  on  the  other  hand,  were  disfigured  by 
vainglory,  and  a  morbid  craving  for  novelty  and 
excitemenL  He  loved  to  fly  rotma  Europe,  and  wa* 
said  to  have  seen  more  kmgs  and  postilions  thiai 
any  other  man  of  his  day.  On  his  return,  be  mode 
common  cause  with  the  Tories,  to  epite  the  Duke 
of  Marlborough,  and  received  the  Garter  and  otiier 
dignities  for  nia  services.  On  the  accossioa  of 
George  L,  be  was  appointed  commander-in-chief 
of  the  naval  forces  of  Great  Britain  ;  but  was  never 
again  employed  in  active  service.  He  died  at 
Lisbon  25th  October  1736.  His  witty,  yet  affec- 
tionate letters  to  Pope,  Swift,  Prior,  4c,  give  a 
fine  insight  into  his  private  character.  See  Eliot 
Warburtou's  Memoir  of  Charie*  Mardaimt,  Earl  oj 
PeterboroKgh  laid  Jfonmottii,  triiA  SeUdioTufix/mlui 
Correspondence,  2  vols.  <1863).  His  character  has 
been  sketched  by  Horace  Walpole,  in  his  Catalogue 
of  Royal  asd  2foble  Authort ;  and  with  still  grerier 
force  and  picturesquenesa  by  Hocanlay. 

MORE,  Sm  TnouAS,  Lord  ChanceU(»'.  and  one 
of  England's  worthiest  eons,  was  bom  in  Milk  Street, 
London,  in  I47S,  eon  of  Sir  John  More,  Justice 
of  the  Queen's  Bench.  He  was  edncated  at  St 
Anthony's  School,  Threadneedle  Street ;  and  in  his 
fifteenth  year  was  placed  in  the  house  of  Cardinal 
Morton,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  used  to  say 
of  him :  *  This  child  here  waiting  at  the  tabl^  who- 
soever shall  live  to  see  it,  will  prove  a  morvelloaB 
man.'  Dean  Colet,  too,  was  wont  to  oay :  '  There 
was  bat  one  wit  in  England,  and  that  was  young 
Thomas  More.'  In  1497,  M,  went  to  Oxford,  where 
ha  mode  the  friendship  of  Erasmus.  He  then 
applied  himself  to  the  law,  and  studied  first  at  New 
Inn,  and  afterwards  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  He  was 
appointed  reader  at  Fumivol's  Inn,  where  he 
lectured  for  three  yenrs.  At  the  accession  of  Henry 
VIIL,  his  professional  practice  was  oonsiderable,  and 
he  also  held  the  office  of  judge  of  the  ^eriCTs  Court 
in  the  city — his  income  frrai  theM  sources  being 
equivalent  to  MXa  at  £6000  U  our  preaent  money. 
'-'=  '■■■■■■■■■■   ^■^'V'-S'- 


uob:&-uoheatt. 


mbn>Bd  for  tlia  Udk. 
and  in  1016  «rw  nude  a  privy-eonndlloT.  Hw 
pnblio  life  now  began.  He  became  so  great  a 
laTonrita  irith  Henrj  TIIL,  that,  in  the  worda  of 

Erunnii*,  'the  king  would  tcoioely  ever  mffer 
the  philoeopber  to  quit  him.*  Eeniy  Tiiited  him 
uninvited  at*  Cfaelsaa,  nnd  walked  with  bim  by  the 
hoiir  in  hii  garden, '  holding  hia  arm  abont  hU  neck.' 
Yet  M.  had  a  true  inright  into  Heniya  character, 
for  being  congratulated  on  the  king's  favour  by  bis 
ton-in-law,  Boper,  he  replied ;  '  If  my  head  would 
win  him  a  castle  in  France,  when  there  waa  war 
between  ns,  it  ahonld  not  foil  to  go.'  M.  ia  the  first 
person  in  British  bigtoi?  distinguished  by  the  faculty 
of  pnblio  speaking,  and  remarkable  for  the  success- 
ful employment  of  it  in  partiament  against  a  lavish 
grant  of  money  to  the  crown.  Being  dected  Speaker 
of  the  EoojN  of  Commons  in  1623.  he  vindicated  the 
ancient  liberties  and  privilegea  of  t^e  houas  against 
Cardinal  Wolaey,  who  rather  feared  than  liked  him. 
Id  1629,  when  the  prosecntioa  waa  opened  agwnat 
Wolsey,  Om  king  delivered  the  Great  Seal  to  M.  at 
Greenwich,  constitulaiig  him  Lord  Chancellor,  a 
dignity  that  bad  gemeraUy  been  held  by  ecaleaiaatics, 
and  bad  never  yet  been  filled  by  *  oomtoon  lawyer. 
When  he  waa  seated  in  his  Court  of  Chancery,  his 
father.  Sir  John  More,  who  was  nearly  nine^,  i 
theoldest  judge  of  the  King's  Bench.  Itwaaabeai 
lul  spectacle  to  '  see  the  son  ask  the  bleaaing  of  the 
father  every  day  upon  his  knees,  before  he  sat  upon 
his  own  seat.'  Unlike  the  honghty  Wolsey,  whom 
no  suitor  could  approach  without  offerings,  M.  sat 
daily  in  an  open  hall,  that  he  might  receive  in 
person  the  petitions  of  the  poor.  He  despatched 
the  causes  so  speedily  and  dibgently,  that  on  aekiag 
for  the  next,  he  was  told  that  none  remained. 
Heni^  in  vain  endeavoured  to  obtain  M.'s  authority 
for  his  divorce  with  Catharine  of  Aragon,  and  his 
marriage  with  Anne  Bcleyn,  upon  whi^  he  had  set 
his  heart.  As  toon  m  the  progress  of  the  marriage 
waa  so  far  odvont^  that  the  active  co-oneration  of 
a  chancellor  was  required,  M.  obtained  leave  to 
resign  the  great  seaL  When  the  king '  by  no  gentle- 
ness could  win  him,'  his  favour  turned  to  fury.  M. 
refused  to  take  an  oath  which  pledged  him  to  the 
lawfulness  of  the  king's  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn. 
He  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  where  he  remained 
thirteen  months.  On  the  6th  of  May  1636,  he  was 
brought  to  trial  at  Westminster.  It  ttas  been  truly 
niduiat  'no  such  culprit  had  stood  at  any  European 
bar  tor  a  thousand  years.'  He  was  convicted  by 
the  most  flagrant  perjury  and  injustice,  and  sen- 
tenced to  the  savage  punishment  for  high  treason. 
He  suffered  death  in  the  Tower,  July  6,  1635.  In 
the  words  of  Addison :  '  Hie  inoocent  mirth  which 
had  been  so  conspicnoua  in  his  life  did  not  foraake 
him  to  tiie  last.  Wlien  he  laid  bis  head  on  the 
block,  he  desiied  the  ezecutioDer  to  wait  unlal  he 
had  removed  his  baud, "  for  Uiot  bad  never  offended 
his  Highneaa."'  His  head  waa  placed  on  London 
Bridge,  but  wm  taken  down  ana  preserved  by  his 
favourite  daiuhter,  the  admirable  Hot^aret  Roper, 
the  story  of  whose  tenderness  and  devotion  will  live 
aa  long  aa  the  English  language  endnrea.  His 
Utopia  is  the  concej^on  of  ou  imaginary  oommon- 
weatth,  in  which  opinions  are  exjiressed  of  great 
baldness  and  originality,  and  especially  favonroble 
to  freedom  of  inqniry,  even  in  religion.  He,  how- 
ever, wrote  against  the  Lutherans,  and  corrected 
the  MS.  of  Henry's  ansirer  to  Luther.  The  terse- 
ness and  liveliness  of  his  sayings,  bis  swMt  temper 
and  affeotionate  diaposition,  hia  blameless  life,  his 
learning  and  probity,  combine  to  make  a  union  of 
perfect  nmplici^  with  moral  and  intellectual  great- 
ness, which  will  for  ever  endear  his  memory  to  hia 
countrymen  of  every  Mct  and  party. 


villag* 

■choolmaater,  near  Bristol,  was  bom  in  1745. 
wrote  verse  at  an  early  age ;  and  in  1773, 
published  a  paatoiol  drama  entitled  The  Search 
afltr  Happiaeti;  and  the  year  after,  her  tragedy  of 
Segulua.  Under  the  idea  that  she  was  possessed  of 
dramatic  talent,  she  waa  introdnoed  to  Oarrick,  and 
through  him  became  acquainted  with  Dr  Johnaon, 
Burke,  and  Sir  Joshua  Beynolds.  Deeply  impreased 
with  the  importance  of  rehgion,  she  gradually 
resigned  her  arabition  to  shine  as  a  writer  for  the 
stage,  and  after  the  pablication  of  her  Sacred 
Dranvu,  she  retired  io  the  country,  and  busied  her- 
self with  the  compositioD  of  works  oE  a  more  aerions 
and  practical  cast,  the  beet  remembered  of  which 
ore,  CaUbtinStarchofa  H't/'e,  and  Tkt  Shepherd  <if 
Salubary  Plain.  She  died  at  Clifton,  on  SeptembOT 
7,  1833.  Her  Memoir*  and  Com^tondence  wete 
published  in  the  following  year,  in  four  volnmea. 

MOBE'A,  the  name  borne  by  the  ancient  Felo- 
poonesns  (q.v.)  since  the  middle  ages,  if  not  from 
OS  early  a  period  as  the  4th  century.  It  is  usually 
said  to  be  derived  from  moria,  a  mulberry — the 
outline  of  the  peninsula  bearing  a  resembluice  to 
the  leaf  of  that  tree;  others,  however,  such  as 
Fallmerayer,  trace  it  hack  to  the  Slavic  word  more, 
the  sea,  which  nearly  encircles  the  Morea.  The  M. 
forma  the  moat  southern  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Greece,  and  is  divided  mto  the  nomarchiee  of 
Argolia,  Corinth,  lAoonia,  Measenia,  Arcadia, 
Achaja,  and  EUs. 

Overrun  by  the  Goths  and  Vandals,  it  became  a 
pr^,  in  the  second  half  of  the  8th  c,  to  bonds 
of  Slavic  invaders,  who  found  it  wasted  by  war  and 
pestilence.  Gradually,  however,  these  barbarians 
were  subdued  and  Orecianiaed  by  the  Byzantine 
emperors.    Nevertheless,   the  numerous  names  of 

Elaees,  rivers,  ftc,  in  the  M.  of  Slavic  origin,  prove 
ow  Urmly  they  had  rooted  themselves,  and  that 
the  Moreotes  are  anything  but  pure  Greeks.  In 
1207,  iJie  peninsida  was  conquered  '\sj  French 
knights,  and  Achaia  waa  formed  into  a  principality 
with  all  the  feudal  institntionB  of  the  west  After 
1261,  the  Byzantine  emperor,  Michael  VIII.  Palm- 
ologus,  reconquered  part  of  the  country ;  but  the 
principality  of  Achaia  remained  in  the  family  of 
Villehudouin  till  1346,  when  the  male  line  became 
extinct  Various  clomtants  now  arose,  and  muck 
strife  and  confusion  ensued.  At  length,  in  1460, 
the  greater  portion  of  the  M.  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Turks,  who  retained  possession  of  it  down  to 
the  period  of  the  Greek  revolution,  except  from 
1687  to  1716,  when  it  waa  held  by  the  Venetians. 
Tlie  long  stmggle  between  the  Tntks  and  Venetians 
diminished  the  population  to  mnch  that  in  1719  it 
had  only  200,000  inhaldtants,  and  the  plagnea  of 
17S6  and  17S2  even  rednoed  it  to  half  this  number. 
Alter  the  French  Ravolntion,  however,  it  began  to 
increase ;  at  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  Ini^wnd- 
ence,  in  1827,  it  had  reached  300,000,  of  whom  only 
(me-sixth  were  Turks;  and  in  1880,  it  was  746,000. 


11th  August  1763,  at  Morlaix,  in  Bretogne ;  was  the 
son  of  an  advocate,  and  was  tent  to  study  law  at 
Bennes.  He  took  the  side  of  the  Bcvolution,  was 
chosen  to  command  the  battalion  of  Tolunteen  from 
Bennes,  served  under  Dumouriez  in  1793,  and 
displayed  such  military  talent,  that  in  1794  be  was 
made  a  general  of  division.  His  father  waa  put  to 
death  by  the  guillotbe  under  the  Keign  of  Teiror, 
and  M.  hesitated  for  a  moment,  but  resolved  that 
he  could  not  withdraw  from  the  Bervice  of  hia 
country.  When  Fichegm  fell  under  fuajncion,  the 
Directory  appointed  l£,  in  the  spring  of  1796,  to 


MORECAUBE  BAY— MORBtON-BAY  CHESTNtTT. 


the  chief  command  on  the  Rhine  uid  Moaelle. 
eroaed  the  Bhine  &t  Eahl,  dafrated  I^tonr  at 
Butadt,  Bad  the  Arcbdoks  Chu-le*  kt  Ettluuen, 
and  drove  the  AmtriuiH  back  to  the  Duinbe.  Bat, 
owing  to  erntn  in  the  plan  of  the  campaign,  ufaijiBt 
wbieh  he  had  in  -nin  remonstrated  with  tba 
Direetorj,  M.  fcmnd  himielf  in  danger  of  being  ci 
off  from  the  Rhine,  and  wai  obliged  to  mue 
dcaperate  effort  to  regain  that  nver,  which  he 
MoomptUhed,  notwithttandiug  great  difficultiea.  by 
a  march  of  fortj  days.  This  re&eat  ertablijihed  hia 
reputation  for  genenlship  more  than  all  hia  previous 
victonea. 

A  nispidon  of  participation  in  the  plota  of 
Pichegm  led  to  hia  being  deprir«d  of  hia  commaad, 
after  the  coup  ^ftat  of  18th  Fmottdor.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year,  he  mcceeded  Schfirer  in  the  command 
of  tlie  army  in  Italy,  when  it  was  hard  pressed  I^ 
the    Rosaians    and   AnitrianB,   26,000 


whioh  he  even 
sained  viotoriea,  be  uved  the  French  army  from 
oeatruetioiL  The  Directory,  nevertheleat,  deprived 
him  of  the  diief  command,  and  gave  it  to  Joubert. 
Bat  M.  remained  with  the  army,  and  uded  that 
yoang  gesend  to  the  atmoat;  and  after  his 
death  at  Novi,  again  aasiuned  the  oommand*  aod 
condacted  the  (Ufeated  troops  to  Fnnoe.  The 
noble  disinterestedneu  of  M.'b  ohaiacter,  his  mili- 
tuy  talent^  and  bis  political  moderation,  indnced 
the  party  which  overthrew  the  Directory,  to  offer 
him  the  diotatonhip  of  Ptanoe,  which  he  declined, 
and  lent  hia  aarinanoe  to  Bonaparte  m  18th 
Brtmuure.  ReoeiTlllg  the  commuid  of  the  army  of 
the  Rhine,  U.  gained  victory  after  victory  over  the 
Aattriani  in  the  campaign  of  1800,  and  at  last  won 
the  great  and  decisive  bfttUe  of  Hobenlinden  {q.  v.). 
A  etrona  feeling  of  mutual  disbuit  now  arose 
between  M.  and  Bonaparte,  who  sooght  in  vain  to 
win  him  to  himself;  and  ilL'n  eonutry-seat,  to 
whioh  he  retired,  beoame  the  gathering-place  of  the 
diaoontented.  BoDaparte  aurrounded  bim  with  spiee, 
and  ere  long  he  waa  aocosed  of  pariddpation  in  the 


to  trial,  and  found  gnUty  on  10th  June  1804, 
although  the  evidence  againit  him  waa  utterly 
Insuffioicait.    But  Bomqwrte  ooold  not  venture  upon 


mat  d 


therefore  pronoaaced,  wbiol 
oommnted  into  banialuaent,  tutd  M.  went  to  America, 
—'-  —  ^  be  aetlied  in  New  Jeraey.     Regarding  with 
dtiHrrtiafintitm  Hks  whole  of  Baoaparte^a  for- 
oaraer,  he  thooght  it  his  doty  to  Frmaix  to  give 

.  aid  to  tbe  allies  in  the  campaign  of  1813,  and 
leaving  the  United  Statea  in  'me  company  of  a 
Buaaian  agent,  he  landed  at  Gothenbarg,  niul  iw 
intarview  with  the  Crown  Prince  of  Sweden,  tbe 
foimer  Oeneial  Bemadotte,  and  accompooied  the 
emperor  of  Bnana  and  tbe  king  of  Pmasia  in  tbe 
maioh  againat  DteedcD,  where,  aa  he  stood  with  the 
Emperor  Alexander  on  a  height  at  Raeckoitz,  on 
S7t&  Angnat,  a  French  cannon-ball  broke  both  hia 
legs.  Ampntation  wu  perfonoed,  bnt  he  died  at 
lAun  in  Bohemia,  2d  September  1813L 

MOltSOAMBB  BAT,  an  inlet  of  the  Irish  Sea, 
on  the  north-weat  coast  of  EugUnd,  separates  the 
main    portion   of   Lancashire    from  the    detached 

ertion  ot  Fumeea.    It  ii  about  10  miles  in  avenue 
eadUi,  ftnd  is  16  miles  in  length.    It  receive*  l£o 
Leven,  the  Kent,  and  the  Lone.    Tlie  depth  of 


entirely  withdraws  for  tbe  time,  and  there  is  a  road. 


HOBBETIT.    Bee  Monu. 

MOBBi:'  IMonMla),  m  ^enna  of  fttogi,  ot  ttte 
division  Hymenomyeela,  having  a  fistolar  atalk,  and 
a  roundish  or  conical  piUii»,  the  upper  surface  of 
whioh  is  divided  into  an  irregular  net-work  of  cella 
or  piti^  and  bean  the  hj/menhaa.  They  grow  on  the 
ground,  and  have  a  more  or  less  agreeable  smell  and 
tute.  Some  of  them  are  reckon^  among  esculent 
fungi,  of  which  the  beat  known  ia  the  Comioii  H. 
(Jf.  aeuienta),  a  fungns  rare  in  Britain,  but  common 


Cammon  Morel  {HorAttla  aealtTila). 

in  msDv  parts  of  the  middle  and  south  of  Snropa. 
Ita  stalk  ia  only  about  aa  inch  hi(^  and  it  has  a 
oundiah,  oval,  oblong,  or  conical,  yellowiah  or  brown 
ileus.  It  ia  nutritions,  and  not  dimcult  of  digestion ; 
lUt  ia  ohiefly  need  in  sauoea  and  gravies,  on  account 
of  its  pleannt  flavonr.  It  ia  nwd  either  freah  or 
dried,  end  is  often  brought  to  market  in  a  dried 
atBt&  It  grows  in  lawns,  and  among  fallen  leave* 
in  the  thinner  parts  of  woods  where  t£e  soil  is  light, 
and  makes  its  appearance  in  spring.  It  makes 
excellent  ketchnp.  In  Germany,  the  M.  is  highly 
priied,  and  as  it  very  often  aiiringe  up  when  put  of 
a  forest  baa  been  bnrued,  tbe  forest*  of  Ommany 
were  often  destroyed  for  its  aake,  till  Uus  practice 
was  reatrained  by  severe  penalties.  Ita  cultivation 
has  oot  been  attWpted,  although  probably  it  would 
not  be  difficult. — A  very  similar  specdeB  ia  M.  potato, 
which  ia  used  in  the  same  way ;  as  is  also  the 
BoHEHUN  M.  (M.  BoAemica),  which  bss  a  stem 
4 — B  iochoi  high,  and  a  thimble- shaped,  obtuse, 
white-margined  pilens,  with  longlsh  narrow  _fat8  of 
many  various  forms ;  abundant  ia  Bobania,  and 
when  dried  in  a  baker's  oven,  a  oousideralde  artdele 
of  export.  The  name  M.  (Morehet]  is  extended  in 
Oennany  to  some  of  the  edible  specie*  <rf  StbxOa 
tq.T.).  "^ 

MORB^UE.  See  Ajubsqux,  Orotboux. 
M<yRETON  BAT,  on  the  ewA  coaat  of  Qneena- 
land,  Australia,  is  formed  inside  tbe  iibuids  ot 
Moreton  and  Stradbroke,  tbe  former  83  miles,  and 
the  latter  36  miles  in  length,  and  both  abont  6 
milee  in  greatest  breadth.  It  is  60  mjlea  in  length 
pat.  27'— 27°  OS*  S.)  by  23  miles  in  greatest 
1th.  Ita  shores  are  nch  in  soil,  and  admiraUy 
adapted  for  agriculture.  Ita  appeeranee  ia  reodered 
picturesque  and  beautifal  by  tbe  nometims  islets, 
some  of  them  capable  of  profitable  oultivatiiHV  with 
which  it  ia  dotted  over.  Into  this  bay  fiv*  navi- 
gable rivers,  the  Arrowsmith,  Logan,  BnabMoe,  finei 

and  Cabooltnre  pour  their  watoa.     TiK  — ' 

at  the  north  end  is  practicable  at  all 
vessels  of  the  lareest  siae ;  the  entrsnci 
Moreton  and  Stradbroke  is  narrow,  and  lea*  safbi 
MORETON-BAY   CHESTITIJT   {Otukmotptr' 
um  AiiitraU),  a  tree  of  the  natural  ccdv  I/taumt- 
nota,  inb-mder  Pe^titionaeete,  a  native  ot  Qneendand, 


HOBOAN-HOBOHEir. 


Atutnlii.  It  Attaim  *  hei^t  of  70—100  feet,  hu 
wide-cpiesding  bnnoliea,  pmute  Imvbb,  and  larae 
racemu  of  bMntiful  red  and  fellow  flower*.  TEa 
podi  KTB  ax  or  Mven  budiei  in  laiwtli,  and  the  aeed* 
ftie  in  (iw  and  quality  tomewbAt  Hke  ohertnnte. 


in  1786,  but 

birth,  'becsQBe  dates  are  w  cold,  false,  and  erro- 
neons,'  the  reader  of  her  aatobiography  will  do  well 
to  add  aboot  ten  years  to  her  ace.  Her  bthei  fell 
into  peooniaiy  difoonltiei,  and  the  derer,  bold,  and 
Lvelj  ydung  woman  reaolTed  to  sappoit  uie  fortanea 
of  the  famiSr,  first  aa  gorcmet*,  and  then  u  author. 
She  wrote  The  WHd  IriA  OM  in  1806.  A  lady- 
novelist  was  then  nm  ud  Iriah  sabjeota  were  len 
haokntred  than  Ouay  h»v8  aince  become.  Sydney 
Owenion  obtained  a  footing  in  the  honsahotd  of  the 
Marquis  ot  Abenom,  in  whow  eatablishment  her 
fntnre  hosband,  Dr  Morgan,  held  the  poet  of  priTata 
phTsiciaiL  The  Lord  Lieatenant  was  peniuuled  to 
make  a  knight  of  Br  Morgae,  and  the  newly 
wedded  pur  set  np  for  themselve*  in  Dublin.  Here 
■he  wrote  the  (ybonnel.  The  opening  of  the  con- 
tinent in  ISHattntoted  the  Morgans  to  Pari*.  Lady 
H.  obtained  admission  into  the  highest  sooie^,  cone- 
■putded  with  MTeral  celebritit^  and  wrote  a  work  on 
Frame,  which  was  eaceriy  receiTod,  and  nhementfy 
praised  and  censnred  Dy  critioa  of  difliercnt  piJitical 


6ir  Charles  was  to  contribnte  dtaptars  no  politics, 
■cience,  and  edncation.    Lady  M.  was  received  with 

great  hoetdlality  by  the  IttUioo  nobility,  and  the 
foreign  TisitorB  at  Borne.  Her  llalg  appeared  in 
1821,  and  proved  one  of  the  most  snoceesful  and 
remunerative  of  her  works.  In  1824,  the  Morgans 
came  to  London,  and  in  1826,  Lady  M.  be^n  to 
keep  a  diaiy,  which  oontains  some  amusing  bits  of 
literary,  fashionable,  ut&  political  gossip.  Her 
reputation  as  an  authoress  became  obscured,  but  she 
continuad  to  the  end  of  her  career  to  assame  the 
twofold  character  of  the  lady  of  fashion  and  the 
woman  of  zeniua,  She  socceeded  in  obtaining 
bom  the  Whig  government  a  pension  of  £300  a  year, 
in  acknowlc^ment  of  her  literwy  merits,  and 
partly,  also,  in  recognition  of  the  onjuet  and  virulent 
attadca  to  whitji  die  had  been  subjected  for  having, 
in  her  earlier  works,  exposed  the  wrongs  ot  her 
native  country.  8he  died  in  ISfifl,  having  oontinued 
hwsj  with  her  pen  and  her  tongno  to  the  last ;  and 
le-aving  behind  a  great  mass  at  correej>oadence  of 
litUe  mtrinsio  -ralue  and  interest,  which,  with  a 
memoir,  her  autobiognphy,  and  diary,  was  pnblished 
in  1862,  in  2  vols.  Her  descriptiiW  ot  nigh  life 
have  mnch  raciness  and  vigour,  and  her  Irish 
sketches— the  famous  'Juz-day,'  in  The  &  Brian 
and  the  OTlahertyt,  deserving  special  mention— are 
perhaps  the  best  account  of  that  rackety,  humorous, 
sentiinental  eziatence  which  was  at  once  the  charm 
and  bane  of  Ireland,  and  which  baa  but  lately 
passed  away. 

MOBGANATIO  MARRIAGE  (Goth,  morgjatt, 
to  curtail,  limit),  sometimes  called  Lefi-lumded  mar- 
Tioae,  a  lower  sort  of  matrimomal  muon,  which,  as  a 
<nv3  engagement,  is  completely  binding,  but  fuls  to 
confer  on  the  wife  the  title  or  fortune  of  her  hus- 
band, and  on  the  children  the  full  status  ot  Inti- 
macy or  right  of  Buccessiou.  The  members  of  the 
German  princely  houses  have  for  centuriee  been  in 
the  practice  of  entering  into  morrisfee  of  this  kind 
with  their  iofenorB  in  rank.  Out  of  this  ORSge  has 
gradually  epmng  a  code  ot  matrimonial  law,  by 
which  tae  onion  of  prinoes  witii  penona  of  lower 


The  penalty  of  death  was  actually  enforced  in  the 
case  of  the  beautiful  and  unfortunate  Agnes  Ber- 
nauer  (q.  v.).  In  the  16th  and  ITth  centuries,  a 
fashion  began  among  German  princes  of  taking 
a  morganatio  wife  in  addition  to  one  who  enioyea 
the  eimiplete  matrimonial  status — landgrave  Philip 
of  Heus  setting  the  example,  witli  ■  very  quah- 
Bed  disapprobation  on  the  part  of  the  leading 
Reformers.  An  energetio  at^mpt  was  made  in 
the  firat  half  of  the  last  century  by  Anton 
Uhrich,  Dnke  of  Saie-Meiningen,  to  ufwet  the 
established  practice,  and  obtain  for  his  mor- 
ganatic wife  the  rank  of  ducheas,  and  for  hex 
children  the  right  of  snooession.  In  daferenoe  to 
the  united  oppoeitioD  of  the  whole  princedom  <rf 
Uermany,  the  emperor  refused  the  duke's  suit, 
declaring  that  there  could  be  no  marriage  in  princely 
families  without  *  Ebenblirtigkeit,'  or  eqnality  oi 
birth.  In  the  present  century,  morganatic  mar- 
riages are  by  no  means  on  the  decline  among  the 
German  reignina  houses — one  of  the  beet  known 
and  most  remarkable  instances  being  the  union  of 
the  late  Archduke  John,  the  *  Beichsverweser'  ot 
1848,  with  the  daoghtet  <rf  the  postanarter  of  Anssne, 
in  Styria,  aftetmrds  oreated  Conutes*  ti  Heran. 
Moiganatia  marri^es  are  recognised  not  only  among 
the  [nincely  f^m''"",  but  among  the  higher  aristoo 
racy  of  ue  empire ;  and  in  Prussia,  even  the 
'  Kiedere  Adel,'  or  inferus  '""+'™  •««—  nnT.t*>A* 


the  hand-fast«d  ^de  coold  be  put  away,  and  a  fresh 
union  formed,  with  tbe  foil  status  cl  matrimony. 
Unlike  the  case  of  German  motj^natia  marriages,  the 
issue  were  often  acoovnted  Intimate,  even  to  the 
prejudice  of  tbe  children  of  the  more  regular  nnioa 
that  foUowed.  The  £oyal  Marriage  Act,  12  Geo. 
m.  0.  11,  reduces  to  a  position  somewhat  like  that 
of  morganatic  ntuons  every  morrisee  in  the  royal 
family  of  Great  Brit^  not  previously  i^iproved  by 
the  sovereign  nnder  the  Great  Seal,  provided  the 
prince  entraing  into  it  is  under  2S,  and  every  such 
marriage  of  a  prince  above  25  which  is  disapproved 


a  theai 


MORGA-ETEN,      _ 

margin  of  Lake  £^eri,  in  the  canton  ot  Zng,  Switzer- 
land, has  acquired  a  world-wide  celebrity  as  the  scene 
of  a  great  victory  won  by  the  Swiss  Forest  Cantons 
over  the  Austrians,  November  16, 1316.  The  Swiss, 
who  had  oonunand  both  of  the  nairow  pass  which 
wound  between  Morgarten  Hill  and  the  lake,  and  of 
the  adjoining  heighte,  numbered  only  1400  men,  while 
the  Anstriana  amounted  to  16,000,  and  were  led 
by  Duke  Leopold,  brother  of  the  German  Emperor. 
Wbea  the  Austrioo  troops  had  foirly  entered  the 
pass,  those  of  the  Swiss  posted  on  the  rocks  above 
hnrled  down  great  masses  of  itone,  which  threw 
the  enemy's  cavalry  into  oonfusion,  besides  killing 
immense  nnmbers  of  tiiem.  Ilieir  oomrades  who 
fadd  the  pass,  taking  advantage  ot  the  disorder, 
now  charged  the  Austrians  repeatedly,  and  utterly 
touted  them.  Onlv  a  few  esot^ied,  among  whom 
was  Duke  Leopold  nimaflt. 

MORGHEN,  Rateasi.  Saireio  Cavaijkbb,  n 
famous  engraver,  was  bom  at  Florence,  June  19, 
1758.  His  first  instmctor  in  the  art  of  engrav- 
ioK  was  his  father,  who,  aocording  to  some,  was 
oberman,  or  the  son  of  a  Getman.  The  indi- 
cations of  talent  that  he  gave  were  such  as  to 
induce  his  faUier  to  place  nim  undoi  Volpato  at 
Rome.  Hia  progress  then  became  ve^  mailed. 
Baphad's   oebbtated   figures   in    the   Vatican   of 

C,nfVo}e 


HOSOtTE-MOaUOKS. 


.    aiterwarda   p^uced    a 

.f  engmvingi  of  *  very  high  cltut  from 

many  of  the  tnaster-faecea  of  *rt :  amanKit  these 
Buy  be  enamsTated  hii  printi  from  Kaphael's 
*  Madoiina  della  S^siola  ; '  the  '  Madoniui  del 
Sacco,'  by  Andrea  ddSftrto ;  the  ' Ttiuafignuition,' 
t^  BapWl  i  the  '  Duke  of  Moncodo,'  by  Vbd 
I^ok ;  ftnd  b^  his  borin,  Da  Vinot'a  *  Lut  Supper,' 
nottrithitanding  ita  decay,  boa  been  rendeied  with 
auch  contummate  ekill,  aa  to  leasea  the  regret  felt 
for  the  evaneaoent  coDditinn  of  the  original  work. 
Be  accepted  an  invitatioa  from  the  Grand  Duke  to 
reude  at  Florence,  with  a  penaioD  of  400  acudi,  and 
a  free  reaidence,  under  condition  of  keeping  a  pnblic 
■chool ;  and  reoeiTed  marked  attentions  from  the 
Emperor  Napoleon,  to  whom  he  dedicated  his 
engraving  from  the  '  Trannfiguration.'  M.  died  at 
Florence  on  8th  April  1833.  He  had  married  a 
daughter  of  Tolpato's  in  17SI.  His  Life,  witb  a 
porinut,  and  a  catalogne  of  hia  works,  was  pub- 
lished by  bis  pupil,  Niucolo  Polmatiiu).  From  this 
work,  it  appean  that  he  has  engraved  73  portraita, 
47  religious,  and  44  historical  and  mythological 
pieces,  24  views  and  laodacapes,  and  13  vignettes, 
crests,  Ac— 201  in  tB.  The  worics  of  M.  will 
always  hold  a  very  prominent  place  in  the  hia- 
tory  of  engraving.  About  the  middle  of  last 
century.  Strange  had  added  a  new  feature  to 
the  art,  by  introducing,  in  a  remarkable  way, 
what  is  technically  called  by  engravers  '  colour,' 
or  the  art  of  producing  by  monaaemcnt  and 
variety  of  line,  a  teitiire  or  quality  that  compen- 
sates to  some  extent  for  the  want  of  the  actual 
colonrs  in  a  picture.  This  influenced  the  style  of 
Volpato,  Cunego,  and  other  Italian  engravers  of 
the  period,  who   imitated,   thoogh  with   no  very 

rt  success,  the  brilliuicy  produced  by  Stmnge. 
however,  went  far  beyond  these  Italian  en- 
gravera,  for  in  his  works  he  united  much  that  was 
good  in  the  engravings  of  Strange  witb  a  more 
correct  and  a  purer  style  of  drawing,  and  thus 
brought  out  in  a  very  high  degree  all  the  import- 
ant qualities  for  which  Uiose  master-pieces  he  so 
skilfully  rendered,  are  distinguished. 

MORGUE,  a  French  word,  denoting  the  inner 
wicket  of  a  prison,  at  which  persons  accused  or 
condemned  are  kept  for  soma  time,  in  order  that 
the  jailers  and  tm-nkeyt  may  examine  them  at 
their  leisure,  so  as  to  be  able  to  recognise  them 
when  occasion  requires.  Hence  iJie  application  of 
the  word  to  a  certain  building  {La  Morgue)  in  the 
'City'  {La  Citf\  al  Paris,  at  the  extremity  of  the 
Ik  d«  la  OiU,  just  behind  the  cathedral  of  Notre 
Dtme,  where  the  dead  bodies  of  persons  nnknown, 
fonnd  either  in  the  river  (Seine)  or  in  the  streets, 
are  exposed  to  public  view  for  three  days.  The 
ooipees  are  put  under  a  glass  case,  on  a  sloping 
■lab  of  black  marble.  When  a  corpee  is  recognised, 
it  is  handed  over  to  the  relatives  or  friends  of  the 
deoesMd,  on  payment  of  costs  and  dues — otherwise, 
it  is  interred  at  the  expense  of  the  citv.  The  num- 
ber of  bodies  yearly  exposed  in  the  Mfrrg^a  is  about 
SOO,  of  which  five-sixths  are  those  of  males. — There 
ore  morgUM  in  New  York,  Brooklyn,  Chicago,  and 
other  American  towns. 

^^  HO'RION,  an  iron  or  steel  head- 

jK^^mt       piece  worn  by  a  man-at-arms  in  the 

^^L^^?^^*    was  distinguished  from  the  helmets 

Horion.        of  the  knights  and  eequires  in  having 

neither  visor  nor   beaver.     Under 


UORIBOK,  BoBUtT,  M.D,  one  of  the   most 


eminent  botaotsts  of  the  17th  C  *>■  a  native  of 

Aberdeen,  and  having  home  arms  aa  a  royalist 
in  the  civil  wars,  retired  to  France  about  1660,  and 
became  superintendent  of  the  garden  formed  at 
Blois  by  Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans.  After  the 
Eestoration,  ha  was  appointed  by  Charles  XL  one 
of  his  physicians,  and  'botanist  rffval,'  and  became 
Professor  of  Botany  at  Oxford.  He  died  in  1683. 
His  great  work  is  Pianfarum  Sitloria  Vnivtnalu 
OxonuniU  (2  vols,,  1C76— 1699). 

MOBISCOS.    SeeMoosa. 

MORISO'NIANISM,  a  name  freely  used  to 
designate  the  distinctive  tenets  of  the  Evang^cal 
Union  (q,  v.),  but  never  accepted  by  that  religious 
body.  Tiie  system  of  doctrine  io  designated  is  fully 
enunciated  in  an  anthoritative  document  entitled 
Doetrmai  DtclaraUon,  which  was  issued  by  ths 
Evangelical  Union  Conference  of  ISCS — not  as  a 
fixed  creed,  but  as  a  testimony  to  their  distinctive 
faith.  Being  a  recoil  from  the  dominant  Calvinism 
of  Scotland,  it  is  of  the  Arminian  type,  but  without 
any  latitudinarian  savour.     The  charge  of  Pela- 

r'  aism  often  urged  against  it  is  indi^^ntJy  repu- 
ted by  Evangelical  Uoionista,  and,  with  rrference 
to  some  modem  aspects  of  Cidvinisuii,  is  bj^  them 
spiritedly  retorted  It  is  a  form  of  doctrine,  in 
fact,  which  very  nearly  corresponds  to  that  type  of 
Evangelical  Anninianism  whiob  obtains  among  the 
Wesleyans.  Like  that,  it  originated  in  an  element 
of  revival ;  and  now,  after  the  lapse  of  a  generation, 
these  same  tenets  are  largely  insisted  on  ny  revival 
proachers  of  the  orthodoibodies  at  the  present  day. 
This  coinddenco  is  expl^oed  by  the  felt  need,  in  dl 
efforts  to  bring  men  to  reli^ous  dedsiou,  to  give 

Srominenca  to  the  universalities  of  gospel  grace,  the 
uty  of  immediate  faith,  and  the  importance  of 
peace  wilji  God  as  a  subjective  condition  of  the 
Christian  life.  It  was  theae,  and  especially  the 
dootrina  that  Christ  died  as  an  atonement  in  the 
same  plenary  sense  for  all  men,  which  led  to  the 
separation,  in  1841,  of  the  Kev.  James  Morisou  of 
Kilmarnock  (now  Dr  Morison  of  Glasgow)  from 
the  United  Secession  Church,  and  of  other  three 
ministers  at  subsequent  synods,  and  to  the  forma- 
tion by  them  of  the  Evangelical  Union  io  May 
18*3.  A  Theological  Academy  was  at  the  same 
time  instituted,  presided  over  by  Dr  Morisou,  at 
which  from  twenty  to  thirty  students  annually 
receive  training  for  the  ministry.  Many  of  these 
have  gone  to  England,  and  eome  have  attained  ^ood 
positions  among  the  Nonconformists  there.  The 
Evangelical  Umon  now  embraoea  about  fourscore 
ministers  and  churches,  all  Independent  in  poUty, 
but  many  having  ruling  elders.  In  brief,  the  most 
distinctive  dootnne  of  Evangelical  Unionists  is  that 
which  they  prominently  exhibit  as  the  three  great 
universalities  of  gospel  crace— namely,  the  Divine 
Father  lov«  all,  flieDivine  Saviour  died  for  all  the 
Divine  Spirit  strives  for  the  salvation  of  oU.  Believ- 
ing  in  tlie  entire  freedom  of  the  human  will,  th^ 
hdd  predestination  to  be  conditional  On  such 
cardinal  doctrines  as  the  Trinity,  Atonement,  Justi- 
fication, and  the  like,  they  symbolise  with  other 
bodies  known  ss  Evangelical 

MORLAIZ,  a  seaport  of  France,  in  the  depL  of 
FinistJre,  45  miles  north- north-east  of  Quimiier. 
Vessels  of  41)0  tons  can  reach  the  quays  of  the  town. 
Pop,  (1881)  13,788. 

MOrRMONS,"  or,  aa  they  c«U  themselves,  Ths 

CKITRCH   01   JES173  CHRIST  OF   LaTTBR-DAT  SUHTB, 

are  a  religious  sect  foundsd  by  a  native  of  the 
United  States,  named  Joseph  Smith.  Smith  was 
the  sou  of  a  farmer,  and  was  bom  in  the  town  of 


*  The  orifiin  of  this  a 


le  wis  appear  in  the  sequoL 

uiii,,-,'C.ooglc 


ShtkTOD,  Windior  CoodI;,  Vennont^  33d  Dec«mber 
180S.  When  he  bad  reached  the  tga  of  l«ii,  hij 
pareata  remored  to  Pklcayn,  in  the  lUta  of  New 
lorlc.  Bud  four  yean  later,  to  the  town  of  Mui- 
chevter,  abont  liz  inileB  □£  The  Tepntation  of  the 
family  ia  said  to  have  been  of  the  wont  kind ;  we 
are  told  that  they  avoided  honert  labour,  were 
intemperate,  aotruthful,  and  aiupect«d  of  aheep- 
atealins  and  other  offenoee.  Thcie  accusations  are 
gcner^v  denied  by  M.,  but  Smith  himself  partly 
admitted  them,  affirming  that  he  '  had  never  done 
anything  so  bod  aa  was  reported  of  King  David, 
the  nun  according  to  God'a  own  heart.'  Severthe- 
leaa,  a  rude  seimal  religiosity  appeals  to  have  been 
mixed  up  with  his  mora  canisi  conducL  There  ia 
the  most  satiafactory  evidenca-_that  of  hit  enemies 
— to  shew  that  from  an  early  period  be  was 
regarded  as  a  visionary  and  a  fanabo.  This  fact  is 
«f  the  utmost  importance  as  affording  a  otue  to  his 
Foit   character,  and  an  explanation  of  that  other- 


ipoetor—L  e.,  a  person  who  did  not, 
i  or  other,  partly  believe  in  his  o' 
miasion,  but  who,  on  the  coutnuy,  felt  that  he  wi 
simply  the  liar  and  oheat  that  people  called  him- 
woiud  ilave  broken  down  under  snch  a  tempest  of 
opposition  and  hate  as  Smith's  preaching  eidt«d. 
*  When  abont  fourbwn  venm  of  am>'  ftmith  jui< 


*When  abont  fourteen  yeara  of  age,'  SmiUi  says, 
- 1  began  to  reflect  npon  the  importance  of  being 

C pared  for  a  fatore  state.'  Ho  then  describea  how 
went  from  one  rehgious  denomination  to  another, 
bnt  could  find  nothing  satisfactory — nothing  but '  a 
great  clash  in  religions  sentiment'  Then  he  began 
to  withdraw  ialo  Secret  places,  to  spend  hours  in 
prayer  and  meditation,  and  to  receive  ongeho  viaits. 
Jhe  second  of  these  happened  on  the  evening  of  the 
21at  September  1S23,  when  it  seemed  aa  though  the 
house  was  filled  with  'consuming  lire.'  In  a  moment, 
a  'peraona^'  stood  before  him,  'with  a  countenance 
like  lightning,'  and  '  visible  to  the  extremities  of  the 
body,'  who  '  proclaimed  himself  to  be  an  angel  of 
God.'  He  informed  Smith  of  various  important 
particolars,  as, '  that  his  aina  were  forgiven,  and  hia 


uah  was  speedily  to  commence  ;  that  th( 

at  liand  for  the  Gospel  to  be  preached 

power  and  fidness  to  all  the  nations ;  and  that 
tjmith  was  choeen  to  be  an  instrument  in  the  Imids 
of  God,  to  bring  about  aome  of  his  purposes  in  this 
glorious  dispensation.'  Besides  all  this,  the  angel 
gave  him,  by  way  of  appendix,  'a  brief  sketch  of 
the  origin,  progress,  cIviBaation,  lawa,  and  govern- 
ments' of  the  aboriginal  inhabibmts  of  America — 'of 
their  righteousness  and  iniquity  ;  and  the  blesaiuga 
of  God  being  finally  withdrawn  from  them.'  He 
was  also  informed  where  some  plates  were  deporited, 
containing  an  abridgment  of  the  records  of  the 
ancient  propheta  that  had  existed  on  the  American 
(Mutinent.  The  angel  appeared  to  Smith  thrice  that 
night,  and  afterwards  paid  him  many  visits.  He 
told  him  where  the  records  were  deposited,  '  on  the 
west  side  of  a  hill,  not  far  from  the  top,  abont  four 
miles  from  Palmyra,  in  the  county  of  Ontario,  and 
near  the  mul-road,  which  leads  thence  to  the  little 
town  of  Manchester.'  He  advised  him  to  go  and 
view  them,  which  Smith  did ;  bnt  (ha  prophet  was 
not  yet  holy  enough  to  obtain  possession  of  them. 

At  lengUi,  after  due  disciplinary  probation,  the 
■ngel  of  the  Lord,  on  the  22d  of  September  1827, 
plMed  in  Smith's  hands  the  won^iful  records. 
They  were  engraven  on  plates  nearly  eight  inches 
long  by  seven  wide,  a  httle  thinner  than  ordinary 
tin,  and   boond  together  by   three   rings  running 


through  the  whole.  The  volume  was  altogether 
about  six  inches  in  thickness,  a  part  of  whiiSi  was 
sealed.  The  characters,  letl«t^  or  hien^yphics 
npon  the  nnaealed  part  were  small,  and  beautifully 
engraved.  They  represented  an  nnknown  language 
oafied  the  'Reformed  Egyptian.'  Along  witE^e 
records  was  found  a  cnnoua  ingtronen^  called  by 
Smith '  UrimandTbummim,'oonaiatingof  two  tj'ans- 
parent  stones,  set  in  the  rim  on  a  bow  fasttned  to  a 
breastplate.  By  means  of  these  stone-spectacle^ 
God  enabled  him  to  nndeistand  and  translate  the 
ancient  records  into  Buch  bumble  English  as  the 
'prophet'  (who  had  received  almost  no  achool- 
education,  and  could  read  with  difficulty)  was  master 
of.  The  records  contain  the  primitive  histoijr  of 
America,  from  its  first  settlement  by  a  colony  that 
came  from  the  Tower  of  Babel,  at  the  confusion  of 
languages,  to  the  beginning  of  the  Gth  c  of  the 
Chnatian  era.  These  primitive  colonists  were  calli^ 
Jareditee  ;  they  were  a  wicked  and  bloody  race,  and 
finally,  like  the  Kilkenny  cats,  mutnally  destroyed 
each  other,  milliona  being  slaughtered  in  the  mial 
oonflicts.  Silence  again  settled  down  upon  America. 
Buta "      "    '         -         ■         ■      ■ 


fonr  BonSj  Laman,  Lemuel,  Sam,  and  Nepht,  together 
with  then  four  wives ;  two  '  aona  of  Ishmaey  ■nJ 
their  two  wives ;  Zonun,  a  tervimt,  and  hia  wife ; 
in  all,  sixteen  men  and  women.  They  are  sup- 
posed to  have  landed  on  the  coast  of  Chili,  After 
the  death  of  Lehi,  quarrels  broke  oat  among  the 
brothers.  The  Lord  bad  appointed  Nephi  to 
be  the  ruler  of  the  new  race  of  colonists,  but  his 
elder  brothers  would  not  hear  of  it ;  aa  a  punish- 
ment for  which,  thev  and  oU  Uieir  posterity  were 
condemned  to  have  dark  skins,  and '  to  become  an 
idle  people,  full  of  mischief  and  subtlety,  which  did 
seek  in  the  wildemoaa  for  beasts  of  prey.'  They  are 
the  ancestors  of  the  American  Indians,  who  are  thua, 
according  to  Smith's  records,  simply  bad  Hebrews. 
The  descendants  both  of  Nephi  and  of  hia  rebellious 
brothers,  increased  and  multiplied,  but  were  ahnost 
continusJly  at  war  with  each  other.  In  Iho  time  of 
Nephi  the  second,  an  awful  earthquake  announced 
the  Cmcifixion.  Three  days  afterword,  Christ  him- 
self appeared  out  of  heaven ;  shewed  the  Nephitea  bii 
ided  side  and  the  print  of  the  noils  ;  instructed 


sacrament,  and  planted  churches,  with  apostles, 
prophets,  pastors,  teachers,  and  evangelisto— the 
same  order,  the  aama  prieetbood,  the  same  ordin- 
ances, gifts,  powers,  ana  blessing  as  was  enjoy^ed  on 
the  eastern  continent.  Eostihties,  however,  between 
the  Nephites  and  their  dark-skinned  brethren  con- 
tinued to  rage  as  fiercely  aa  ever;  gradually  the  purity 
of  their  faiUi  declined;  and  linMly.  in  334  A.D.,  a 
decisive  conOict  took  place  at  the  hitl  Cumonth,  in 
Western  New  York,  where  the  Christian  Nepl^tes 
were  nearly  annihilated  ;  miracles  now  ceased,  and 
unbelief  gradually  became  supreme.  Shortly  before 
this,  however,  a  prophet  called  Mormon  had  been 
lissioncd  by  God  to  write  an  abridgment  of  all 
prophecies,  histories,  tc,  and  to  hide  it  in  the 
earth,  till  Ood  should  see  fit  to  bring  it  forth,  and 
'  unite  it  with  the  Bible  for  the  accomplishment  of 
his  purposes  in  the  .lost  days.'  This  is  the  famous 
Book  or  Mobhon,  believed  by  the  followers  of 
Smith  (hence  called  Mottuotia  and  Mobmonites]  to 
be  of  equal  authority  with  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
Scriptures,  and  to  form  sn  indispensable  sapplemeut 
to  ttem,  containing  God's  revelations  to  the  New, 
as  the  others  to  the  Old  WorkL  In  420  a.  d.,  they 
were  finally  sealed  up  where  Smith  found  theio,  by 
Moroni,  one  of  the  few  survivon  of  the  battle  w 
Ctunotah. 


,,Go«gli 


Tli0  w»7  in  wUch  Smith  translated 
followB !  ne  rat  behind  %  blanket  Irang  u 
KKm  to  keep  the  Mored  reooidi  from  |«ofHw 
ma^  ud  TMd  off  hjf  tho  help  of  hii  '  Unm  and 
ninmmini,'  to  one  Oliver  Cowdeiy,  who  wnto  down 
iriut  the  iDTiaible  'prophet'  gave  m  k  tranoUtion 
— Smith  himeelf  bemg,  m  he  oonfesMe,  but  %  'poor 
writs.'  A  fumer,  ot  the  name  of  Martin  Hmtii, 
■npplied  Bmith  with  the  neceauiy  fonda  to  nrt 
the  work  printed.  The  Book  of  Mormon  findly 
appeared  before  the  world  in  1B30,  with  the  name* 
of  Oliver  Cowdeir,  Martin  Harria,  and  David 
Whitmer  ^)p«nded  to  a  atatement,  that  an  angel  of 
Ood  had  ootna  down  from,  heavoi  and  ahewn  them 
the  orisinal  plates.  Thia  waa  imnwdiately  followed 
up  l^  &t  teatimony  of  eight  other  witnwaoB.  among 
whom  were  Smitii  a  own  &ther  and  two  brMbcn 
(■oipected,  however,  it  mnrt  not  be  forgotten,  of 
being  addicted  to  aheep-ttealins  and  othnr  nefariona 
praoticee),  who  afflmedthat '  Joeeph  Smith,  Jnnior,' 
had  ihewn  tiicm  tile  myateriotn  plate*.  Theae, 
however,  are  the  only  peisona  who  hAV«  been  eo 
mivOeged.  No  other  hmnan  being  haa  ever  eoesi 
them.  like  MacphenoQ'g  Owiania  USS.,  th^ 
have  never  been  forthoomino,  however  loadly 
demanded,  and  ot  late  yean,  alfknowledge  of  than 
hat  become  traditional 

Attention  waa  soon  drawn  to  the  newly-pablithed 
woric,  and  a  cfnttroyercy  iprung  up  regarding  ita 
real  aathorahip.  Evidence  wu  brought  forward  by 
the  o[)ponent«  of  Smith  to  ahew  that  with  'the 
exception  ot  eert^  illiterate  and  nngrammiitical 
inten>o1ationi,  bearing  on  religious  matters,  the 
ao-caUed  Book  of  Xormon  waa  really  borrowed  or 
atolen  nearly  vaiatim  iKim  a  MS.  romance  written 
by  a  qnondam  clergyman,  named  Solomon  Spalding, 
who  (ued  in  1816.  It  ia  nnneoeaaary  to  go  over  the 
argomenta  pro  and  eon.  Snffiee  it  to  say,  that  anti- 
Mormona  Kenerally  think  them  conclmiTe ;  while 
the  '  Sainta*  consider  the  whole  rtory  of  SpCding"* 
MS.  romance  a  acaadatons  fabrication.  Aboat 
1629,  Smith  became  acquainted  with  one  Sidney 
Rigdon,  orij^jiallj  a  compoBitor  and  preacher,  bnt 
who  by  thia  time  had  began  to  promnlgate  a  species 
ot  incipient  Mormonism,  and  had  managed  to  found 
B  little  sect  of  his  own.  It  is  conjectored  by  the 
opponents  of  Mormooism  that  Bigdon  {into  whose 
hands  Spalding's  romance  ia  auppoged  to  have 
fallen  for  lome  time)  gave  it  to  his  new  associate  to 
farther  his  pnrposes,  and  that  the  latter — in  whoM 
•ool  there  may  have  been  (according  to  onr  theory 
of  his  ebanwter)  some  rude  and  gross  reUgioni 
notions  and  feelinj^ — devised  the  ungr«umatic«l 
interpolations.  This  theory  acqaires  some  pro- 
tebility  from  the  fact,  that  these  reli^ons  passages 
do  not  refer  to  old-world  faiths  and  the  practices  of 
an  ancient  ritiuJ,  bat  to  quite  modem  questiona, 
such,  we  are  told,  as  were  rife  in  the  vulages  of 
Wratem  New  York  abont  1830.  Calvmiani, 
Universalism,  Methodism,  MillenarianiBXi,  Boman 
Catholiciim,  are  discussed,  if  not  in  name,  yet  in 
reahty.  Infant  baptism  is  oondemned ;  so,  strange 
to  say,  are  polygamy  and  free-masonry. 

Undeterred,  nevertheless,  by  enoeure,  ridicule, 
and  hoslilit;.  Smith  and  his  associates  persevered 
in  preaching  their  '  doctrine,'  which  woa  a  new 
AmericaniaM  phase  of  millenarianism.  They 
declared  that  tbe  miUennium  waa  close  at  hand, 
that  the  Indiana  were  soon  to  be  converted,  and 
that  HiB  New  Jerusalem — the  final  gathering-place 


of  the  Saints — was  t> 


le  someiAere  m  tiie  heart  of 


frequently  beset  by  mobs,  and  evil- ^ ^^ , 

aevsal  tunes  he  waa  shot  at,  and  very  narrowly 
escaped ; '  bnt  hi*  fearless  conrsge  continned  to  bring 
him  disciples;  and  on  April  ^  183%  tbe  OhtrA  ^ 


&n^  waa  fieroelj  sttaokad  by  Ui«  leader*  Mid 
masohera  of  the  other  mli^oo*  denominatioiu,  hot 
he  kevt  hi*  gronnd  atnbbmily,  argued  pretty  well, 
and  wnen  sif;oment  fuled,  had  reoonrse  to  s  style 
<rf  cealous  prophetio  asseveration,  which  is  ganenilly 
irresistible  with  weak  and  ignorant  people.  H  tl>e 
orthodox  preachet*,  however,  conld  not  bofSe  him 
in  speech,  they  knew  how  to  inflame  their  hearera 
witil  the  most  ferocioaa  animosity  against  the  new 
sect ;  and  in  January  16SI,  Smith  and  his  ftdlowen 
considered  it  prudent  to  remove  to  a  distant  part  of 
the  county.  They  established  themaelves  at  Eirt- 
land,  in  Ohio^  which  was  to  b*  Uu  aeat  of  the  New 
Jemaalem.  They  now  made  ■"""""*  progress. 
Their  missionariea  were  full  ot  teal  (none  more  ao, 
however,  than  Smith  himself),  ocmverts  wen  made 
in  great  nnmber*,  and  ehniohea  were  establishad  in 
the  states  tt.  Ohio^  Peimaylvania,  New  York, 
Indiana,  Ulintna,  Ao.  Still  this  eyes  i&  the  new  sect 
tnrned  westward — to  the  region  of  the  great  prairie^ 
where  they  might  be  allowed  to  work  out  tiiedr 
system  in  pe«ce  and  freedom.  In  the  autumn  of 
1831,  a  oolony  was  estabUahod  in  Jackaon  Cimnty, 
Misaouri,  wMi^  a  'revelation'  given  to  SmiUi 
assured  the  Sainta  waa  '  the  land  of  pnsnise  and 
the  ^aee  for  the  dty  ot  Zion.'  Land  was  largely 
bon^;  prsaohing  waa  Tinroualy  oaniad  on,  a 
printing-press  was  establish^  a  monthly  periodical. 
The  Moming  and  Evatutg  Star,  and  a  weekly 
newspaper.  The  Upper  Mittouri  AdBOtiter,  were 
started  to  propagate  the  doctrines  of  the  new  sect ; 
everywhere  was  visible  a  spirit  of  industry,  sobriety, 
fmler,  and  cleaolines*.  It  is  only  fair  to  the  M. 
to  state  these  things.  Aooount  for  it  how  we  may, 
they  were,  in  many  important  respects,  morally, 
socJaUy,  and  indosbially,  fsr  in  advance  of  th^ 
neighbours.  When  Smith  returned  to  KirtUnd,  h* 
Bet  up  a  Tnill,  a  store,  and  a  bank,  and  continued  his 


the  nigttt  of  March  22,  1832.  s  mob  ot  Methodists, 

"     'arts,    Campbellitcs,    and   other   misoallaneoos 

its,  broke  mto  the  prophet's  house,  ton  him 


Bapti^    I 
sealots,  br 


meadow,  and  tarred  and  feathered  himi     , 

Rigdon  was  similarly  handled,  and  rendered  tem. 

porarily  insane.      Smith,  however,   undaunted  fay 

this  bratal  treatment,  preached  nui  day  with  hu 

hall  scarified  and  defaced,' and  proved  the  folly 


ooutinned  to  prosper,  but  this  very  oironmstanoe 
deepened  tiie  animosity  towards  them  of  all  wIki 
were  not  Hormons.  whispers  also  b^;an  to  be 
Bpread  about  their  indulging  in  a  oommnnity  of 
wives.  The  rnmonr  was  not  true,  but  it  probsUy 
originated  in  Rigdon's  tiieory  ol  the  ■  gpjrituBl  wif^' 
which  Smith  at  first  denonnoed,  bnt  aftwwards 
accepted,  and  thereafter  oommenced  'sealing  wives* 
to  himi^  in  some  mrsterions  way  that  Oentiles 
oaimot  yet  fathom,  llua  first  atqi  towards  pdy^ 
gamy — a  doctrine  not  yet  revealed,  howsver  [in  faet^ 
contrary  to  the '  revealed '  docfarine  on  the  ml^eo^, 
materially  bdped  to  inSame  the  hostility  of  the  im- 
pulsive and  unBCrnpulons  backwoodsmen.  Seeretaoei- 
eties  (aocording  to  Smith,  composed  'of  the  bssest 
of  men')  were  formed  to  expel  the  M.  from  Miaaonri ; 
their  periodicals  were  stopped,  their  printing^prea* 
con^Bcated,  their  bishops  tajred  and  feathered,  and 
numberless  other  outrages  were  oommitted  Finally, 
the  h^esa  '  Saints '  were  oinnpcUed  to  flee  across 
the  Miasonri  River,  and  men,  women,  and  obildren 
bad  to  encamp  in  tiie  open  inldemess  on  a  winter, 
night  in  1633.    Thqr  inbseqnently  settled  in  CUy 


gr  subsequently  settled  in  CU] 


B  it&ta,  irtieTe  Omj  iflnuined 


npwardi  of  thres  year*.  In  July  1834,  th^  wen 
viait«d  hj  tha  'propliet'  liimsel^  Moompaiued  by 
100  penom,   mostly  jonng   men,  and  nsKlj  lU 


.  mostly  jonBg  men,  and  netily 
iriesta,  dMMOiu^  tesoliera,  t£d  officer*  of  the  cWdt 
I>iiring  m  brief  reddenoe  of  one  week  among  tbem, 
be  aooompliihed  much  in  tlie  way  of  Tigonmi 
vrganisatlon ;  next  year,  I83G,  a  farther  >tep  wai 
taken  in  the  development  of  a  hieiarchy  by  the 
institution  of  a  body  of  apostles — twelTS  in  number 
— who  were  sent  ont  to  preach  the  new  dootrlnea 
KBoag  tile  Gentiles  One  of  tiiese  twelve  was  the 
bmouB  Brigham  Young,  who  had  become  a  OMveii 
about  the  oloee  of  1832,  and  had  soon  shewn  himself 
to  be  a  man  of  wonderful  sagacity  and  force  of 
ehoracter.    He  was  ordered  down  east  among  tile 

Tonkee*.  and  made  nmneroos  convertB  even  i 

this  acute  people.  In  1837i  Orson  Hyde 
Heber  0.  Kimball  were  despatched  as  miasio 
to  England,  where  thev  received  large  accesiioDS  to 
theic  numbers,  especiallj  fn>m  the  masses  in  the  great 
manufacturing  and  oommeroial  towiks,  Uanchester, 
Liverpool,  Leeds,  Birmin^iam,  Glasgow,  and,  above 
all,  from  the  miniog  disbicti  of  SouUi  Wales,  where 


nave  azteaded  their  strange  evangdisation  to  the 
East  Indies,  Anstralia,  the  iilaadi  of  the  Paciflo, 
Z^ypt,  Palestine,  Turkey,  and  almost  every  oonntry 
on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

About  Hie  dose  of  1837,  or  the  beginning   __ 
""i,the  bank  at  Eirtland  stopped  payment,  and 


K; 


mote  alacrity  that  internal  disorders  had  painfully 
manifeated  uiemselves  in  the  new  colony.    These 
were  at  but  healed;  but  the  conflict  between  the 
Bainla  and  the  other  Missonrians  became  fiercer, 
more  envenomed,  more  sanguinary  than  ever,  assum- 
ing, in  fact,  almost  the  proportions  of  a  dvil  war. 
The  ^ophet  and  Bigdon  were  thrown  into  prison, 
and  finally,  towards  the  cloee  of  1S3S,  Uie  whole 
body  of  Saints,  about  15,000,  qnittel  Missouri,  ai 
took  refuge  in  lllinoia.     Eere  they  obtained  a  gra 
of  land  in  tiie  vicinity  of  the  little  town  of  Coi 
meroe,  a  name  which  the  M.,  in  obedience  to 
'revdation' given  to  Smith,  changed  to  Noavoo, 
The  City  of  Beauty.    The   country  was   a   me 
wilderness  when  the  M.  settled  in  it :  it  soon  beg; 
to  rejoice  and  blossom  as  the   rose.     Lieutenant 
Gunnison  {a  most  intelligent  and  imf«rtial  writer)  is 
forced  by  fad»  to  be  eloquent  in  praise  of  Mormon 
industry,  and  gives  ua  a  perfectljr  enchantiiu!  pctore 
of   the   new   colony.      The  legislature   ot    niinois 
granted  a  cbaiter  to  Nsuvoo ;  a  body  of  Mormon 
militia  was  formed,  under  tiie  name  oE  tlie  Nauvoo 
Legion,  of  which  the  prophet  was  appointed 


Ury,  as  well  as  religious.  But  the  doctrine  of 
'•ealing  wives*  once  more  ronaed  the  wrath  of  the 
neighbourhood,  and  serious  disturbaooes  took  plnc^ 
the  oltiioate  result  of  which  was  that  the  projJiet 
and  his  brother  Hyram  were  thrown  into  prison  at 

Carthago.    After    a   short '     ' 

nunoured  that  the  governor 

of  lettina  the  two  Smiths  e«.._,      ,__ 

of  '  rou3ls^  about  200  in  number,  broke  ii 

jail,  2Tui  June  1811,  and  shot  them.     Disastrous 


•elf,  there  cannot  be  the  shadow  of  a  donbt  that  it 
«a«  a  moot  fortnnate  thina  for  the  system  which  he 
fofuded.  'Hu  blood  of  themar^n  is  the  seed  of 
the  chnroh,'    A  halo  of  sdemn  and  tender  glory 


now  encirelea  tiie  memory  of  one  who  stood 

in  need  of  this  spiritaal  tranedgnration.     L 

here  be  stated  that  it  cannot  be  ahewn  that  Smith 
was  a  no^gamist,  tn  onr  sense  of  the  word.  Years 
after  his  d^th,  Bri^^uun  Yoang  prodnoed  a  paper 
wbidi  he  said  wu  a  copy  of  a '  revelation '  made  to 
Josai^  at  Nanvoo,  oommanding  him  to  toks  as 
many  wives  as  Qod  should  give  him.  Bnt  it  was 
not  till  August  20j  1S&2,  at  a  pabUo  meetiDg  held 
in  the  Salt  Id^  Oit;,  that  tiie  'rerelatioa'  was  for- 
mally received. 

Sinith'i  death  <m«ted  great  witatioa  and  oon- 
fnsion  among  his  followen.  Bi£iey  Bigdon  and 
othen  aspired  to  succeed  him,  bnt  the  Council  of 
the  Twelve  Apostles  nnanimoDsly  deoted  Brigham 
Yonng,  and  events  hare  shewn  the  wisdom  of  their 
choice.  The  legislature  of  lllinoia  having  revoked, 
in  1645,  the  chuter  given  to  the  dty  of  !Nauvoo,  and 
the  hostility  of  their  ndghboats  not  having  in  the 
least  abated,  the  8aints  roolved  to  emigrate  far 
beyond  the  botmdaiiea  of  dvilisation,  and  to  seek  a 
new  home  amid  Uie  solitndes  of  the  Bocky  Monn- 
taina,  where  they  might  p«M  thdr  livM  in  unmolested 
peace.  Ebplorera  were  sent  out  to  examine  the 
country,  and  brought  back  a  favourable  report  ot 
the  Great  Salt  Lake  Valley.  See  GkB4T  Salt  hjtxx, 
axvc  Lakx  Onr,  and  Utah.  In  Febrnary  184«, 
the  first  emigrants  enwsed  the  ioe-bonnd  HissianpTri, 
settled  for  a  year  in  Iowa,  and  than  maiohed  nndcr 
the  stricteet  i£scipUne  across  the  great  wilderneMes. 
Agricultural  operations  were  commenced  almost  the 
instant  they  arrived  at  the  shores  of  the  Salt  Lake. 
Hie  cheerfulnes«,  intelligenee,  and  seil  Kthibited 
on  all  mdes,  were  truly  admirable.  The  world  haa 
never  seen  swifter,  more  active,  more  dad-hearted 
coloniste  Qian  these  singnlar  'Saints;'  It  wonld  be 
unfair  to  shut  onr  <;e8  to  such  facts.  In  jadfpng 
Mormmism,  we  must  keep  than  constantly  m  view, 
to  prevent  na  from  forming  mere  abstract  and  theo- 
retical decisions,  which  wul  not  in  the  least  affwt 
the  fatore  of  Mormonism.  Brigham  Young  arrived 
in  the  Valley,  July  24,  1847,  and  the  main  body  ol 
the  M.  in  the  autumn  of  1S4&  The  Salt  Lake  Ciir 
was  soon  founded,  on  emigration  fund  establiBhed, 
and  settlers  poured  in  from  all  parts  of  Europe  and 
America ;  and  perhaps  a  greater  amount  of  pny^J 
comfort  VBS  enjoyed  here  than  in  any  other  ^^  of 
the  world.  In  18S0,  the  government  of  the  United 
"'"'is  admitted  the  r^on  occnpted  by  the  M^ 
the  Unicm,  as  m  territory,  nnder  the  name  of 


Utah,  and  BrifrhMU  Yonng  was  appointed  governor 
by  President  Fillmore.  Distriot  judges  were  also 
appointed  by  the  federal  government,  but  these  were 
looEed  upon  with  mat  snspicion  oud  mistrust  by 
the  SaintB,  who  fin^y  drove  them  out  of  the  conntty 
in  1851.  Brig^uun  Young  was  now  suspended  from 
hil  office  of  governor,  and  Colonel  Steptoe  of  the 
Uniled  States  army  was  appointed  his  ■uccesBor. 
He  arrived  in  Utah  in  1S54,  bnt  found  it  prudent 
after  some  time  to  withdraw  from  the  connfay. 
g  the  next  two  yean,  the  colliaiona  between 
nited  States  officers  and  the  Saints  became 
md  more  frequent,  and  in  the  spring  of  1856, 
the  whole  of  the  former  were  forced  to  See  from  the 
torritory.  A  new  governor,  Alfred  Cnmming,  was 
-ppointed  bv  the  anthoritieB  at  Washington  in 
857,  and  also  a  new  superintendent  of  Indian 
AJfoirs ;  besides,  a  force  oE^  2900  men  was  sent  to 
enforce  obedience  to  the  laws  of  the  United  States. 
The  Saints  attacked  their  supply-trains,  and  com- 
pelled the  enemy  to  winter  at  some  distanoe  from 
Uie  Salt  Lake.  In  the  eariy  part  of  next  year, 
negotiationa  were  entered  into  between  the  con- 
tending partiea ;  tiie  M.  submitted  to  die  federaJ 
authon^,  and  the  federal  troops  were  allowed  to 
encamp  im  the  western  side  of  Lake  Utah,  about 


forty  mileB  from  Salt  I^ka  Oitr,  where  they  i«- 
mained  till  1660,  when  they  withdrew.  After  the 
close  of  the  Civil  War,  the  United  States  seemed 
detennined  to  insist  on  its  aaUiority.    A  Federal 

Swernor  was  again  appointed,  and  polygamy  was 
ec1«red  in  1871  to  be  a  criminal  practdce  coatnuy 
to  the  laws  of  the  United  States ;  Brigham  Young 
was  even  arrested.  One  of  the  most  notable  events 
in  the  recent  hiitorv  of  the  M.  took  place  in  the 
year  of  Brigham  Young's  death  (1S77).  John  D. 
Lee,  a  Mormon  bishop,  was  brought  to  trial  and 
executed  for  his  share  m  a  orime  tiii  then  uninvosti- 
gated.  Id  1357  a  party  of  M.  and  Indiang,  uiid< 
Lee's  command,  assaulted  a  train  of  l&O  noi 
Mormoa  emigrants  at  Mountain  Meadows,  ner 
Utab,  and  massacred  every  soul  of  them.  In  1S8 
the  U.S.  House  of  Bepreseatatives  opened  its  loug 
tbreatened  campaign  against  the  M.,  and  by  a 
majority  of  nearly  four  to  one,  passed  a  bill  pro- 
hibiting polygamy  within  the  Union. 

HierareJueal  OrjoniMfHm,— Mormonism  is  a  pare 
theocracy;  its  priesthood,  who  rule  in  matters  tem- 
poral and  ecolesiastical,  are  divided  into  various 
orders.  The  highest  is  the  FirBlPrttideaey,  composed 
of  three  persons,  who  are  (be  sncceasora  of  Peter, 
landJohniatbeOospe] Church.  Oftheae,! 


Brigham  Young  was  nominally  mly  , 

para.  The  first  presidency  is  elected  Dy  the 

(he  chnrch,  and  possesses  suprems  authority.    T^ha 


teoond  office  in  point  of  digni^  is  that  of  PairianA, 
whose  chief  daty  is  to  administer  blessings.  Then 
follows  the  council  of  'The  Twelve,'  whose  functiona 
are  of  great  practical  importance.  They  ordain  all 
other  officers,  elders,  priests,  teachers,  aad  deacons ; 
they  baptise,  administer  the  sacraments,  and  take 
the  lead  in  all  meeting*.  Next  come  the  Sfvattiee 
(of  whom  there  ara  many).  They  are  nnder  the 
direction  of  the  'Twelve  Apostlee' — and  are  the 

rt  propagandists,  miasionsnes,  and  pn^chen  of 
body.  The  fifth  order  is  that  of  High-pHali, 
composed  usually  of  men  advanced  in  yean.  Their 
duty  is  to  officiate  in  all  the  offices  of  the  chnrch 
when  there  are  no  higher  aotboritjes  present;  After 
these  come  the  B'whopt,  who  are  '  overseers '  of  the 
ohnnh  chiefly  in  secular  matters,  attending  to  the 
registration  of  births,  msTriagei,  and  deaths,  the 

1  _.  '  literary  concerns '  (rioh  as  newspapera 

--'    house-visiting,  (he  settlement  of 


irata  grievaiices,  and  the  care  of  the 


Snd. 


,  aoeording  to  Dixon  (ilTeio  Ameriea,  voL  _,  ^. 
260),  'a  bishop's  main  function  is  to  see  that  no 
man  in  his  ward,  in  his  county,  is  in  want  of  food 
Mid  raiment.*  The  duties  of  the  Elders  are  not  very 
predse ;  thev  are  charged  with  the  conduct  of 
meetings,  ana  exercise  a  general  surveillance  over 
the  Fneiu,  who  correspond  to  the  '  fixed  ministry ' 
of  other  sects,  i.  e.,  th^  preach,  exhort,  and  ex- 
pound the  Scriptures.  The  lowest  orders  are  (he 
Ttachera  and  Dtaamt;  the  former  are  simply  as- 
■isbints  to  the  priest^  elders,  and  bishops,  and 
act  a«  catechists;  the  latter  are  church- collectors, 
treasurers,  A«. — The  whole  priestLhood  is  divided 
into  two  classes,  Uie  Melcbisedek  and  the  Aaronia 
To  the  first  belong  the  oflices  of  apostle,  seventy, 
patriarch,  bigh-pnest,  and  elder;  to  the  second, 
those  of  bishop,  priest,  teacher,  and  deacon.  The 
lattM  can  be  held  only  by  'literal  descendants  of 
Aaron,'  who  ara  pointed  out  by  special  revelation. 

D(KiTVK.  —  The  Saints  are  almoet  incredibly 
materialistic  in  their  doctrines.  Their  Godhead  is 
formed  on  Buddhistic  principles.  While  pratessiug 
to  believe  in  the  Trini^,  they  explain  that  Qod  was 
once  a  man,  who  has,  however,  so  advanced  in 
iotelligcnce  and  power,  that  he  may  now  be  called 
(comparatively  speaking)  perfect,  infinite,  ftc,,  bat 
that  he  has  stall  the  form  and  figure  of  a  man ;  he 


leading  scholar  of  the  Mormon  Church '}  from  his 
appearance  to  Abraham ;  though  he  has  this  ad- 
vantage over  his  creature,  that  he  can  move  ap  or 
down  through  the  air  without  using  them.*  Christ 
is  the  olFspring  of  the  '  material  union,  on  the 
plains  of  Palestme,  of  God  and  the  Virgin  Mary— 
the  latter  being  duly  married  after  betrothal  by  the 
angel  QabrieL  Yet  he  is  believed  to  have  had  a 
previous  existence,  to  have  even  made  tbe  anlverse 
out  of  '  unformed  chaotic  matter  as  old  as  God,'  and 
his  worship  is  enjoined  as  Lord  of  alL  The  Para- 
clete  is  vaguely  described,  but  is  aUo  material  It 
woold  appear,  however,  that  there  is  an  older 
Trinity,  that  of  'Elohim,  Jehovah,  and  Michael, 
which  is  Adam.'  Adam,  again,  is  declared  to  be 
the  '  god '  of  Jesus  Christ ;  Jesus  Christ,  the  god  of 
Joseph  Smith ;  and  Joseph  Smith  is  now  the  g  ' 
of  this  generatioQ  ;  bnt  the  whole  affair  is  a  mass 
unintelligible  rubbish.  The  human  intellect  p . 
bably  never  sank  into  more  abysmal  nonsense  ;  all 
that  can  be  definitely  set  before  the  mind  is,  that 
M.  believe  that  by  faith,  obedience,  holiness,  any 
may  rise  into  a  deity,  and  acquire  the 
:  of  making,  peopling,  and  rulim;  a  '  world ' 
er  I  The  tteond  article  of  the  Uonnon  creed 
affirms  that  '  mea  will  be  punished  for  their  own 
una,  and  not  for  Adam's  trangressions ;  the  third 
artiele  states  that '  through  the  atonement  of  Christ, 
all  mankind  may  be  savM.  by  obedience  to  the  laws 
and  ordinances  of  the  Gospel.'  The/oartA  article 
affirms  these  'ordinances'  to  be:  1.  Faith  in  the 
Lord  Jesua.  2.  Bepentanc&  3.  Baiitism.  i.  Im- 
position of  hands  by  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
5.  The  Lord's  Supper,  administered  kneeling.  The 
Ssints,  who  are  much  averse  to  strong  drinks, 
use  water  instead  of  wine  in  the  sacrament,  wbich 
is  taken  every  week.  The  ^fth  article  declares 
that  'men  must  be  called  to  the  work  of  Cod 
by  inapiration;'  the  axthy  that  the  same  organi- 
sation must  now  exist  that  existed  in  the  primi- 
tive chnrch;  (he  aeiierUA,  that  miracnlons  gifta — 
'  discerning  of  spirits,  prophecy,  revelations,  Tidons, 
healing,  tongues,'  &c.  —  have  not  ceased.  The 
'  discerning  of  spirits '  led  Smith,  or  rather  his 
friends  Bogdon,  Pratt,  &e.,  who  are  undetstood  to 
he  the  real  authors  of  tjie  metapbytics,  into  • 
"variety  of  curious  speculatious.  They  believe  that 
the  soul  of  man  was  not  created,  init  '  coexisted 
iual  with  God.'  The  aglith  article  is  decidedly 
xial  i  it  expresBBA  a  belief  that  the  word  of  God 
recorded  not  only  in  the  Bible  and  the  Book  of 
Mormon,  bnt  in  '  aU  other  good  books.'  As  for  the 
contradictions  that  exist  m  the  first,  tiley  are  ad- 
mitted, bnt  it  is  alleged  that  they  are  '  corrnp- 
tioni,'   and   that   they   can    be   removed  by  any 

Dihet's    inspired   explanations.      On   the    other 
d,  the  statement  that  tbe   Saints  pretend  to 
have  a  new  and  inspired  translatiou  of  the  Bible 


with  Dixon  (A^etc  Jme™»,ToLl,  p.216-217).    The 

ninth  article  expresses  a  belief  in  all  that  Qod  has 

~    'ealed,  is  revealing,  or  will  yetreveaL     The  tattk 

rms  the  literal  gathering  of  Israel,  the  restora- 

n  of  the  Ten  !mbes   (the   '  American  Lidians,' 

o  are,  in  consequeuoe,  treated  with  oonaider«blo 

humanity  by  the  Saints ;  the  Negro,  on  the  other 

hand,  being  excluded  from  the  Mormon  Church,  as 

descendant  of  Cain),  the  establishment  of  the  New 

lion  on  the  western  conltaent — the  millennial  reign 

of  Christ  on  earth,  and  the  transformation  of  earth 

into  a  Paradise.    The  devtnlh  article  maintains  '  the 

literal   resurrection    of   the    body.'      The    tvxVth 

article  asserts  the  absolnte  liberty  of  private  jndg- 

mt  in  matters  of  religion  ;  the  thirleejilh  declares 

the  duty  of   the  Sunta  and  all  others  to  be 


.Lioogic 


HORHYBIDJU-HOROCCO. 


'  Bubject  to  the  power*  that  bo,'  whether  monwoh- 
ical  or  repnblicsn.  The  fourleenth  &nd  lut  U 
worthy  of  Doing  imiTOisftlly  accepted  :  *  We  belisve 
in  being  honest,  tme,  ahaste,  tompenite,  benevolent, 
Tlttnoiu,  tod  npright ;  and  in  dtnng  good  to  all 
men;'  iJeo  th«t  'an  idle  or  lazy  person  cannot  be  a 
Cbriitian,  neither  have  salnttioo. 

The  gnat  aocial  peouliarilf  of  tho  sect  ia  theb 
practdoe  of  polymmy.  It  waa  not  so,  however,  at 
Brat  Rigdon,  Kimnall,  Pratl^  Hrds,  and  Yoan;; 
are  ita  tma  originaton ;  Smraa,  wife  and  widow  i^ 
the  prophet,  atontly  denied  that  her  husband  ever 
had  any  wife  bat  herselL  Yoong'a  'tevelalion'  she 
declared  to  be  a  frand,and  in  oonaeaoenoe  she  with- 
drew to  Nauvoo.  Her  fonr  lona  followed  her,  and 
have  now  founded  a  moaoganuo  Mormon  com- 
munity, called  the  JoaepMtu.  Another  branch  of 
the  M.  (who  altogetlier  may  number  200,000 
■oula)  haa  recently  aettled  at  Independence,  Mia- 
aouti,  the  propoeed  site  of  the  'Hew  *  '  ' 
Salt  Lake   — 

^     y  of  " 
the  number  of  their 

praotice  is  aUi ^ „ 

that  their  community  ia  free  of  the  horrible 
ain  and  viciousneaa  that  prevail  elaewheis  ;  fornica- 
tion and  a4nltery,  wiUi  their  guilty  paniona  and 
abandoned  conduct,  are  declared  to  be  noknown ; 
their  wivea  are  asaerted  (Bnrton  and  othete  are  very 
Btrone  on  this  point)  to  be  happf ,  virtnona,  and 
heal^y,  and  tin?  chaUenee  companaon  in  r^rd  to 
their  domeatic  uid  aodal  polity  and  felicit?  with 
any  monogamio  oommnnity  in  tike  world.  Dizon 
atrongly  recogniaes  their  virtaes.  Mr  Fhil.  Bobinaon, 
in  hia  &itni«  and  A'twier*  (1883),  gives  ft  very  favour- 
able account  of  the  M.  in  all  but  their  polygamy, 
which  he  deteata.  In  Utah,  the  '  Qentiles,'  or  non- 
UormonB,'are  bat  17  per  cent,  of  the  population,  but 
oontributa' moat  of  the  vice  and  crime.  Of  120,000  M. 
in  Utah,  only  1^000  are  bij;;amists  or  poljgamiste. 

Bes  Boi>t^Jfoniw»(I830) ;  Book  i^Doctrintand 
CoBf»anta,  consisting  of  select  'ravelationa'  given  to 
Smith  (1832) )  The  Pearl  of  Ortai  Price,  also  by 
Smith  (Gnt  published,  liverp.  1361) ;  Journal  qf 
Diacotma,  by  Brigham  Young  and  others  (ISM  et 
tea.)  i  TAa  Exf^artUion  and  Survey  of  the  Great  SaU 
L^e,  by  Captain  Stansbury  (IMS) ;  The  Mormtme, 
or  iAifl«r-ftoyfauifa,  by  lieatenantQunnisonoI  the 
United  States  Topographical  Engineers  (1862) ;  TAe 
MarmoM,  by  CoL  T.  L.  Kane  (1850);  TU  Mormom, 
or  LaUer-day  Sointo,  uilA  Memoiri  qf  At  Lf/i  oj 
JoeepK  SmilA ;  Voyage  av  Pagi  du  Mormtyaa.  par 
Jules  Kemy  (I860) ;  The  CUy  qf  the  SainU,  by  K. 
F.  Barton  (1861);  Diion'a  New  Amerioa  (1867); 
BuBch,  GeechkliU  der  Mormmten  (Ldpa.  1870)  i 
Mrs  Stenhonae  (a  convert  from  Uormoniam),  An 
£jt3lithv>omaa  in  Utah  (1880). 

HORnnrRID^.  a  famijy  of  malacopterou* 
fishes,  ^ed  to  the  Etocidm,  or  Pike  family ;  having 
longish  compressed  bodies,  and  a  slender  tail, 
Bw^ling  out  at  the  orinn  of  the  caudal  Hn.  The 
skin  of  the  head  is  nak^  enveloping  the  gill-coveia 
and  gill-niya,  leaving  only  a  aht  for  ^1-opening. 
The  month  is  small.  All  the  known  species  inhabit 
the  rivers  of  Africa,     The  Sb4SP-N03ED  MoBKTSiTa 

IMormyma  oxvrAvncAua)  is  regarded  aa  one  of  tbe 
leat  fishes  of  the  Nile.  It  is  canght  by  linea  baited 
with  worms.  The  M.  are  nocturnal  fishes.  They 
are  sometimes  repreeentad  on  Egyptian  monoments, 
and  seem  to  have  been  held  aoered  by  the  imoient 
E^Tptians.  The  modem  Egyptian  name  ia  Miuleh. 
Some  of  the  species  have  electric  organs. 

MOBHT,  Chabus  Adqubtb  Louia  Jobifh. 
CojciB   la,    a   Freneh   atatesman,  of  the   asoond 


Empire,  regarding  whose  parentage  the  biographical 
diotionaties  pabluihed  under  imperial  oensorship  ok 

Comte  de  FlahauH,  and  ooi 

of  Louis  Napoleon.    He  waa 

20,  1811.  The  Comte  de  Momy,  a  French  noblo- 
raon  reaident  in  Manritius,  received  800,000  fnncs 
to  adopt  him  as  hia  eon ;  but  he  was  educated  by 
his  '^ndmother,'  Madame  de  Flahault;  and 
Queen  Hartense  left  him  at  her  death,  in  1837, 
an  amraity  of  40,000  francs.  M.  entered  the  army 
in  1832  aa  a  aab-lieutenant,  and  is  aoid  to  have 
shewn  at  this  early  period  a  predileddoD  for  meta- 
physics and  theology,  which  u  indeed  sufficiently 
Burpriaing,  if  true,  considering  his  subsequent 
thirot  for  material  gratifications.  He  served  with 
some  diatinction  in  Algeria ;  but  he  aoon  abandoned 
ft  milita^  life,  and  in  1S3S,  made  hta  dfibnt  in  the 
world  of  induatrr  aa  ft  manufaoturer  of  l>eet-roat 
angar,  and  published  a  pamplilet  on  the  aobject. 
Ever  after  that  time,  he  woa  mixed  np  in  all  sorta 
of  commercial  and  fioaacial  spcoulations — rulway 
oompaniea,  canal  companies,  French  and  foreign 
™i ;„  iredit  societies,  industrial  enter- 


prominent  pontic 
aptitnde  for  dealing  with  finani-in.1  queationa;  but 
wents  shewed  that  he  waa  not  &ee  from  the 
leckleas  apirit  of  on  adventurer,  and  his  daring  at 
timea  excited  a  suspicion  of  enormooa  swindling 
Bomawhare.  After  the  revolution  of  1848,  be 
becaoia  attached  to  the  cause  of  his  half-brother, 
and  was  the  leader  of  the  subtle  and  treasonable 
policy  of  the  Elys6e.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  coup  dHua.  Hia  rAle  woa  to  exhibit  aang-froid, 
and  to  throw  the  republican  leaders  off  their  guard. 
Nor  did  he  fail  of  aoccesa.  He  posaed  the  evening 
of  December  1  at  the  Op6ra  Comique,  and  yet  by 
six  o'clock  next  morning  the  deed  waa  done,  and  U. 
waa  Miniater  of  the  Interior.  In  1854,  he  became 
preatdent  of  the  Corpt  LlgUlatif,  and  was  smbaa- 
aador  to  Boaaia  during  1856— ISST,  whei«  he 
married  the  rich  and  handsome  Piinceas  TnibetskoL 
The  reanlt  of  his  Bnssian  mission  was  the  establish- 
ment of  intimate  politacal  relations  between  the  two 


a  commercial  treaty  odvantageoua 
He  died  May  1865. 


HORO'OCO,  or  MAROCCO,  called  by  the  natives 
Maghrib^Akta,  'the  extreme  west,"^  or  briefiy 
Maghrib,  an  empire  or  sultanate  in  the  north-weat 
of  Africa,  ia  bounded  on  the  K  by  Algeria,  on  the 
N.  and  W.  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  Atlantic 
Ocean,  and  on  Uie  aouth  by  a  line  which  rans  from 
Cape  Nun  (Ut.  ZS"  46'  43"  N.),  in  an  eaaterly 
direction  through  the  Sahara  to  the  Algerianfrontier 
in  long.  2*  £.  At  the  present  day,  M.  includea 
the  tbee  former  kingdoms  of  Maghrib,  Fez,  and 
Talilelet,  and  ODntama  about  260,000  English 
square  miles,  with  a  nniulation  of  which  the 
estimates  vuy  from  ifiOijXO  to  8,000  OOa 
The  country  ia  generally  mountftinooa,  the  Atlas 
(q.  V.)  range  traversing  it  in  aeveial  parallel 
chaina  from  south-weat  to  north-eaat,  and  sending 
out  numerous  spurs  to  both  Ute  coaat-oountiy 
and  the  desert  There  are,  however,  many  level 
tracts  throughout  M.,  especially  at  ita  weatem 
and  eastern  extremities,  ftod  on  the  bordera  of  the 
deaerb  ^la  centnl  range  of  the  AtUs  fonos  tha 
'  water-shed  sepantinK  uie  ata«ftms  wbieh  Sow 
into  tha  Atlantic  and  Meditetraaeui  from  thoae 
which  run  southward  to  the  deaert.  The  former 
rivets  have  the  shorter  oourae  and  less  volume,  but 
Uiey  are  perennial ;  while  the  latter  beoome  dry  in 
Bummer,  and  even  when  running  He  Icat  in  the 
•and*  of  the  Sahara.      The  ohief  nTsn  are  the 


Hulii;p%  with  iti  faibatuT  tha  Shared  whidi  dnini 
the  DoUi-aMt  of  ths  ooDutr;,  Mid  f«lU  into  Uu 
M«ditecniuftn  after  *  codtm  of  400  milea;  the 
Eo*,  Oom-m-bag,  Bn-Begreb,  Tensift,  Soie,  uid 
Aaulur,  the  Ust  foiming  for  put  of  ita  ooorse  the 
■outhon  boontUiy  of  M.,  dnun  the  oeatnJ  u>d 
wertem  dktiiati,  wid  fall  into  the  Atlaotio;  the 
Diaha,  Fileli,  Zic,  utd  Gir,  inigate  the  dij  pkuu  of 
Tafileleti  and  the  fint-mentioaed  then  einptiea  itself 
into  the  Atlantia  Ocean,  ^w  lubMonent  omieei  of 
the  other  three  riTera  are  not  yet  well  aeoertained. 

The  drnialt  between  the  central  nn^  of  AtUa 
and  the  sea  ia  temperate,  the  thennometm  leldom 
falling  lower  than  40°  F.,  or  rijdsg  above  90°  F., 
owing  parti;  to  the  regul&tiDg  i^oeuoe  of  the 
■ea-breaz^  and  the  ahelter  affo^ed  by  the  moon- 
taini  from  t^  ecorohiiijg  windi  of  the  deeert ;  but 
in  the  loath-eMt  dietnet^  extretnca  ot  heat  and 
wdd  are  aaid  to  prerail,  and  tain  ia  thevo  nnknovi). 

Among  tha  ohief  product*  nE  the  oountay  ai« 
wheat,  bsd^,  rioa,  muie,  dan»,andingar-cane;  and 


hemp,  io,  are  largely  produced  boili  ba — 

and  «zp<»t.  M.  ia  auppoaed  to  be  rich  in  mineral 
treamrea ;  plentiful  anp^^ea  of  copper  are  obtained 
at  Teaelt^ht,  near  the  aource  of  tlte  Aaaakar,  and 
gold  and  aQver  ooonr  in  aeveral  places.  Iron, 
antimony,  lead,  tin,  and  rock-aalt,  the  laat  three 
in  conaidmible  quantity,  ate  alio  found.  Owing  to 
the  diaraeter  of  tha  country  and  ita  thin  pqmlation 
(30  to  the  ^""g'"''  aqnare  mile),  M.  ia  mnoh 
infeated  with  wild  animala.  liona,  mnthera,  hjrenaa, 
wild-boara,  and  variona  kinda  of  deer,  ^aieUea,  fto., 
abonnd  in  anitable  looalitiea,  and  oocaaumal  deraa- 
tationa  aie  oHnmitted  bv  locnitk  Oibichee  are 
f  onnd  in  Tafileleb  Ibe  Mooriah  botaea,  formerly  ao 
fBn^nn.j  are  now  nmoh  d^eperated.  "tim  breeoing 
of  aheep,  axm,  goata,  oamela,  rnnka,  and  aaaea, 
forma  an  impntant  item  of  national  induatty.  Oxen 


and  bulla  are  dueflv  em^oyed  in  fleld-labonr. 

The  inAoNennto,  Uke  taoae  of  Bartiary  in  gsni 
oonaiat  ol  Uoora,  Berbera,  Aiaba,  Negroea,  and  Jewa, 


with 

More  than  two>thirda  of  the  population  bdong  to 
the  raoe  oommonly  called  Moon^  the  remaining 
third  wmninting  mainly  of  Berben  or  Amaaiyeha 
(ioduding  the  Berbera  of  the  Biff  Coast,  and  the 
Sbelluha  of  the  Great  Atlai) ;  Jewt,  estimated  at 
340,000 ;  and  negroea.  Very  few  Enropeana  reaide 
in  MoToooo.  The  atate  of  ciriliaation  la  very  low, 
and  niany  of  the  Amaziyeha  are  complete  lavagea. 
Excepting  the  Jewa  and  the  few  Enropeana,  the 
whole  popdation  i*  MobammedaiL  Negroe*  are 
tom^t  into  the  country  aa  slaves  from  Sudan. 

U.  ia  divided  into  four  tenitoriea — f  es,  Morocco, 
Snac^  and  Tafilelet.  For  convenience  of  adminia- 
tration,  the  empim  ia  anbdivided  into  33  gorertunenta 
or  diatricta  ('ammala'),  each  nnder  the  sapaintmd* 
ence  of  a'caid,'  whoaediief  dnfyit  ia  tooolleci  the 
impoati ;  but  the  aemi-independent  faribee  are  ruled 
by  thdi  own  ohiefa,  and  aMreely  aoknowledgs  the 
authority  of  the  anltan.  The  goremment  is  purely 
deapotie,  and  in  the  abaenoe  of  written  laws,  the 
will  of  Uie  anltan  and  hia  aubordinatea  decidea 
everything.  The  publio  officiala  eke  oat  their 
allowancea  by  pracbsing  extortion  on  those  nnder 
tbdr  charge,  and  are  in  turn  plnndoed  by  their 
anperiota.  The  aorereign  of  M.,  called  by  Enropeana 
the  Emperoc  of  M.,  ia  known  amcHig  hia  anbjeota  aa 
•nltao,  and  asanmea  Hie  title  of  iSiir-nl-mamenin, 
or  'Prince  of  the  Beliavera.'  The  Grand  Cherif 
(Sherif )  at  Tangier,  being  the  chief  deaoendant  of 
the  Fropbet)  baa  leaUy  mora  influence  than  the 

Education  conusta  in  learning  to  read,  write,  and 


redte  portdona  of  the  Koran,  and  thia 
eduoabon  ia  pretty  cenerally  diSoaed  among  th* 
people,  but  the  art  of  printing  ia  unknown,  ai^  Uia 
arts  and  aoienoea  an  i^  a  Toy  low  ebb. 

The  only  industrial  arta  proaeonted  to  any  oon- 
aiderable  extent  are  the  manufaotoma  of  oafa,  fin* 
silks,  and  leather.  Inthepnidnotiono(thiauiat,tha 
Hoora  far  anniaaB  Enropeana,  and  am  able  to  rendar 
any  kind  of  leather  extremely  aoft  and  white,  tjy 
the  use,  it  ia  aaid,  of  two  apaewi  of  plaata  fonnd  in 
the  oovBtry,  and  unknown  to  Ewmeana.  Tbej 
alao  excel  in  the  prodnelaon  of  brilliant  eoloun 
in  leather.  The  yellow  leather  ia  made  in  iS. 
Proper,    the  green   in  TafiUet,   Mid  the   red   in 


u  important  at 
,    and   ^00  w 


aporta,  cotton,  linen,  and  moalin  goods,  sugar,  tea, 
ifiee,  hardwars,  gold-duat,  in£go,  ivory,  A«. 
Mulea,  honea,  and  camels,  form  the  internal  ueana 
of  tnnqiorL  Much  <rf  the  Arabian  trade  ia  carried 
on  bj  ooasting-VGaaela  between  Tangjer  and  Egypt* 
as  the  carriage  acroaa  tJie  deaert  ia  very  ocat^.  At 
the  preaant  times  two-thirda  td  the  entin  tnkde  of 
M.  ia  in  the  hands  ctf  Britiah  nMrchant& 

The  army  oonaista  of  between  SC^OOO  and  80,000 
men,  of  whom  one-half  are  negroea ;  there  is  slao  a 
aortof  militia,  amountina  to  60,000  or  lOO/Kttmen, 
whidh  is  occanonaUy  oaUed  oidk  The  navy  ia  now 
iniii;nificant;  bnt  in  former  times,  eqiecaally  in  tha 
16tn  and  I7th  oentniiea,  it  was  -very  ftamidable  to 
the  maritime  powers  of  Enmpe,  uid  was  chiefly 
occupied  in  piratical  expediiaona.    See  Bm. 

The  hiatory  of  M.  ia,  generallT  speaking,  lamilar 
to  that  of  the  teat  of  Barbaty  (q.  ▼.)  down  to  the 
end  of  the  ISth  oentory.  About  that  time,  it  waa 
formed  into  a  monaroby,  and  notwiUiatandiaig 
internal  diTtaious,  enjoyed  oonnda^ble  prcaperity, 
and  the  confinaa  of  the  empire  were  extended  aa  bi 
south  aa  Timbuktu.  Thia  empre  fell  to  piecea,  and 
was  aaooeeded  in  1047  by  tnst  <^  the  Sherifii  ol 
Tatilelet,  who  couquered  both  M.  Proper  and  Fe^ 
and  united  the  whole  countty  under  ooe  govern- 
ment. Thia  ia  the  present  nmi^  dynasty.  In  tha 
middle  of  the  17th  c,  the  emmre  of  M.  emtoaoed 
part  of  the  present  proviooe  of  Algeria,  and  extended 
aonth  aa  far  aa  Guinea,  where  it  came  into  oolliMon 
with  the  Portneueae  settlements.  Since  the  com- 
mencement  of  the  19th  c,  the  lebelliona  of  tiie  wild 
mountain  tribes,  the  diitorbancee  in  Alalia,  sod 
difficulties  with  foreign  states,  caused  1^  ue  ^gcm- 
dona  of  the  Riff  pirates,  have  greatly  retardMrthe 
well-conceived  measures  of  the  vanoug  rulera  for 
the  development  <^  the  resonrcea,  and  increaae  io 
oivilisatiou  of  Uorocco.  In  1814,  the  slavery  of 
Christians  was  abolished;  and  in  1817,  piracy  waa 
piohibited  throughout  Motccccl  In  1844,  M.  fax^ 
part  in  the  war  of  Abd-el-Kader  against  Uie  Frendi, 
in  the  course  of  which  Tangier  was  bombarded  and 
Mogadon  oooupied ;  but  peaoe  was  condnded  in  the 
same  year.  In  1851  and  1856,  oom^cationa  took 
plaoe  with  France  concerning  some  ^^enoh  vessels 
which  had  been  plnndered  by  the  S^  pirates,  bat  in 
each  case  conpensatioQ  was  given  by  the  aultaiL  In 
1S5S,  the  Spanish  government,  smarting  nnder  a 
series  of  aimilar  outoues,  demanded  compensation, 
and  alao  an  apology  for  an  inault  to  tite  Spanish 
flag  at  Ccuta;  andon  the  aultan'a  disdidmmg  all 
reaponsibilitv  for  these  acts,  war  was  dechoed  by 
Snoin,  October  22,  1859,  and  a  large  force  under 
Marshal  O'Donnell  invaded  Morocco.  Two  battln 
were  fonght,  several  ports  were  bombarded,  and 
Tetnon  token,  and  on  March  2i,  1800,  the  aultai) 
yielded.  A  treaty  was  ocootdinely  aigiked,  April 
27, 1860,  by  which  tha  saltan  oedad  some  portious 


HOBOOOO— HORBISON. 


pnTilegGtf  to  Sp&niali  maraluiit^ 

MOBOCCO  {Arab,  Maraiaih),  tha  capitkl  of  the 
empire  of  the  ume  name,  u  dtnited  in  the  •onUi' 
west  of  ths  caiintt7,  4  miles  ionth  of  the  livei 
Teniift,  and  »t  the  north  end  of  an  Bxtanslve  and 
fertile  [Wo.  It  ia  ■urronnded  by  a  itroiur  lime-ond- 
earth  wall  30  feet  hieh.  The  town  ia  iU  boilt,  the 
atreeta  ikanow,  irreguW,  and  tmpaved ;  tike  houae^ 
generally  bnQt  of  the  eame  matenali  aa  the  wall,  are 
one  story  high,  with  flat  roofi,  and  narrow  openinge 
instead  of  windows.  A  large  portion  of  the  spoca 
within  the  wslla  ia  occnpied  witji  gardens,  open 
areas,  and  mftrket-placta.  In  the  bazaar  and  marfcet- 
placc^  a  1^3°  miaDallaneaiia  toad*  ia  oarried  on.  H. 
poHMwea  SO  naocqnea,  ti  whiob  S  an  remarkable  tot 
QieiT  nze  and  eIegMie&  There  an  aeveral  tannins 
and  leather-dyeing  eetablisbmente,  uotm  of  th»m  of 
great  extent.  The  population  i*  estimated  at  aboat 
60,00a 

On  the  Krath  of  tlie  ci^,  ootside  the  walls,  stands 
a  palaoe  of  the  saltan  in  M.,  oooupying  a  space  of 
■boot  ISOacrca. 

M.  was  founded  m  1072,  and  reached  tb 
of  its  prosperity  in  the  13th  o.,  when  it  ooutained 
more  than  700,000  inhabitants,  aiitce  whidi  time  it 
has  bem  rapidly  decaying.    It  is  now  half  in  ruina. 

HORO^,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  proTince  of 
Seville,  wid  S7  mile*  sooth-esurt  of  the  aty  o!  that 
name,  on  the  Onaddi^    It  is  built  on  irregnlar 
aocIiTitiea,  aad  oontaiiu  the   remains  of   a   oi 
almost  imptesnabte  castle,  erected  by  the  Moors 
Roman  foundations*    The  inhabitants  are  engsti 
in  the  onltnre  aod  prepuation  of  olive-oiL    Fi 

9ooa 

MCRPETH,  a  market-town  and  parlianientsry 


by  the  heat, 
while  the  moiphia  ia  predintsted  in  a  orade  form, 
which  admits  of  eaqr  pnriAoation. 

MMphia  combines  with  MJds  to  f oim  cryitallisable 
■alta,  whidh  ara  readihr  solnUe  in  water  and  in 
aloohoL  Of  th«Mv  the  Hydnxhtorate  (XurUUe)  and 
the  Atttaie,  espeoially  the  former,  are  mnoh  need  in 
medidna 

The  therapentio  naea  of  morrihia  and  its  aalta  ara 
Tery  similar  to  thoee  of  Opium  (q.v.);  bat  the 
preparations  of  moiphia  He  preferable  to  opium  and 
laudanum  in  being  lam  liable  to  oocaaion  naoaea  and 
headache.  The  ordinary  doae  of  morphia,  or  its 
hydroehlorata  or  aoetate,  when  gires  to  an  adult  to 
aUay  pain  or  indnoe  sleep,  ranges  from  a  quarter  of 
a  gram  to  half  a  gi^un.  Hy^>dermie  infection  of 
morphia  (that  ia,  the  iotroduction  of  morphia  beneath 
the  skin  by  a  small  instrument)  ia  not  unosuaL 

MORPHOXOaY.  See  Bioloot,  MmiKoB- 
FHoeis  or  OiuiAsa, 

UOBBIS,  LEWii,  an  Euf^ish  poe^  wna  bom  at 
Carmarthen,  and  educated  at  Ondid.     He  became 

banister,  and  baa  held  numerous  pnblio  appoint- 


Newcaatle.    Of  the  prindpal  bnil_ 

church  dates  from  the  14th  c. ;  the 

Bchool  of  Edward  TL,  founded  in   1B02,  baa  an 

income  from  endowment  of  £650  a  year  ;  the  town- 


_  brewing,  malting, 
earned  on,  and  iron  foundries  and  com-milLi  are  in 
ktion.    M-  returns  one  member  to  the  House  of 
The  pop.  of  the  parliamentary  borough 
33,402. 


operatic 


Somnos  (Sleep),  and  the  god  of 
named,  because  he  shapes  or  moulds  the  dreams 
that  visit  Uie  sleeper.  He  is  flrst  mentioned  by 
Orid,  and  is  represented  aa  an  old  man  wiUt  wingi^ 
pouring  eomnUenias  vapour  out  of  a  horn. 

MaRPHIA  (C,.H,,NO.  +  2  Aq)  deinrea  its 
name  from  Morpheus,  in  allusion  to  its  narcotio 
properties.  It  is  the  most  important  of  the  alkaloids 
exiBtiDg  in  opium,  of  which  it  oonstitntea  from  4th 
to  -jljth  by  weight.  It  oocnrs  in  combination  with 
meconic,  and  sometimea  with  sulphuric  acid.    It  is 


equivalents   ._      .  .._    ._   ._, , 

expelled  at  a  gentle  heat,  when  the  morphia  melts 
into  a  rennoid  *nbstanc»  Morphia  is  salable  in 
about  1000  parts  of  cold  and  in  400  of  boiling  water ; 
boiling  alcohol  disKilTea  it  freelT,  bat  it  ia  insoluble 
in  ether  and  chloroform.  Its  solntioua  have  a  bitter 
taste,  and  change  Ute  yellow  colour  of  tumeric 
paper  to  brown.  Morphia  is  not  so  eaaly  detected 
m  cases  of  poisoning  by  opium  as  Ueconio  Acid 
(q.  v.).  The  following  are  the  otdinary  testa  for  it : 
concentrated  nitric  acid,  when  applied  to  a  orystal 
either  of  morphia  or  of  one  of  its  salts,  produces  aa 


orange  colour.  A  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric 
aoide  colours  it  ereen.  When  It  ia  mixed  with  iodic 
acid,  iodine  is  liberated. 

Morplua  is  the  only  opium-alkaloid  which  ia 
soluble  in  lime-water,  and  thia  property  afforda 
one  of  the  best  means  of  extracting  ii  A  watery 
infusion  of  opium  is  bmled  with  milk  of  lim^  filt«a^ 
mixed  witii  powdered  Bal-anunoniaa,and  again  belled. 
By  this  meana,  the  lime  is  oonverted  into  the 


ntemporary  a 
1S34,  and  e< 


anonymously.  His  Songa  qf  Tvm  Woridt,  Erne  of 
Soda  (Uth  ed.  1SS3),  Gtntu,  tad.  Ode  c/  We,  are 
hisdii^woriu. 

'njAAM,  one  of  the  most  notable  o( 
-li^jlish  poete,  was  bom  near  London 
.  .  ..  educated  as  a  painter.  In  18G3  he 
associated  himseU  with  some  others  to  found  an 
eatablishment  for  designing  and  mannfaoturing 
deoorative  furniture,  wul-paper,  stained  glass,  and 
the  like,  and  has  since  been  actively  engaged  in 
this  bosineea  His  chief  poems  are  3%c  D^eaee  of 
Quenmert  (1858),  JoKm  (1867),  The  EarlMy  Para- 
due  (1870,  composed  of  twenty-foor  li^ndaiT  and 
romantic  take),  Lodb  it  Enough  (1873),  a  tranJation 
o£,Vii^'B..ai«i^andS^w<irt«roi«uw(1877).  He 
has  also  pnUiabed  translations  from  the  loelandii^ 
and  lectures  on  Bopa  and  Fean  /or  Art  (1882). 
He  has  latterly  identified  himself  with  the  Social 
movement  in  En^and,  being  an  ofGce-beiu-er  of  the 
Democratic  Fedwation ;  and  he  cootribatea  largely 
to  Socialist  literature,  both  in  prose  and  verse. 

HO'BBIB-DAHOK  *  fantaatio  dance,  commonly 
pmotiaed  in  the  middle  ages,  and  not  yet  wholly 
lorgottem  in  England.  Its  origin  ia  ascribed  to  the 
Moon.  The  (£iet  performer  waa  the  iobbn-horte, 
BO  called  from  the  light  fnme  of  wickerwork  which 
was  fastened  round  nis  body,  and  supplied  with  a 
pasteboard  head  and  neck,  so  as  to  rive  him  the 
appearance  of  a  man  on  horseback.  B^ls  were  also 
attached  to  his  ankles.  Other  actor*,  after  a  rude 
fashion,  personified  the  characters  of  Maid  M«"bi, 
the  Queen  of  the  May,  Bobin  Hood,  kc ;  and  the 
performance  was  accompanied  by  ludia  moaio. 

M0BBI30N,  BoBEBT,  D.D.,  the  founder  of 
Protestant  miasions  in  China,  waa  bom  of  Scottish 


pendent 
Macao  I 


and  Oanioa   by    the   London   Missionary 
to  leain  the.  Chineoe   langoage,  and   to 


H0KRI8T0WN— HOBSa 


tmul&ts  the  Bible  into  it.  He  readied  Canton  in 
September  1807,  and  in  the  course  of  a  year  wai 
appointed  tmulator  to  the  £aat  India  Company'i 
faetoiTid  Canton.    By  the  year  1814hehadc<- 


1816.  he  acted  as  interpreter  to  Lrad  AmhersL 
1818,  iie  eatabliahed  an  AnsIo.ChineBe  College  at 
Malaooa  for  'Bnyii'T*  and  Cniueaa  literature,  and 
for  the  propagation  of  ChiiatiMuty.  After  a  red- 
denoe  of  17  vean  in  China,  he  returned  to  En^and 
in  18Z4,  and  bionf^  irithhim  a  collection  of  UifiOO 
books  in  the  Chineae  tongue.  In  1826,  he  returned 
to  China.  In  1834,  he  accompanied  Lord  Napier  to 
Canton  as  interpreter,  and  died  there  lab  Angnat 
Besides  the  worlcs  already  mentioned,  he  iff  the 
author  of  ffone  Sinka  (Ixind.  1S12),  being  truis- 
Utions  from  the  popular  litetstare  of  the  Chinese ; 
a  Chinae  Oramnar  (Serampore,  1816),  and  Chinae 
JIuceliany  {IS26).  In  18^.  hia  widow  published 
Memoir*  of  (lie  Life  and  Lahoart  KifjRobtn  Morriion. 

HOURISTOWH,  a  Tillage  of  Now  Jersey, 
United  States,  on  tiie  Wbippany  River,  32  miles 
west  of  Hew  York,  on  an  elevated  pUiu,  command- 
ins  a  fine  prospect.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  rich  i^- 
cultural  district,  and  ■  farourite  summer  resort  of 
New  York  citizens.  The  state  asylum  for  the 
inaane  is  here.    Pop.  (1880)  5418. 

MOHSB,  WALRUS,  ot  SEA-HOESE  ( Tridttau), 
a  genua  of  amphibious  mammalia  of  the  family 
Phocida,  agreeing  with  the  rest  of  that  family — the 
seals — in  lihe  general  form  of  the  body  and  limbs, 
but  widely  differing  from  them  all  in  the  head, 
which  is  remarkatile  for  the  enormous  development 
of  tlie  canine  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  tumid 
appearance  of  Qie  muzzle  caused  by  the  magnitude 
«  their  sodceto,  and  by  the  thickness  of  the  upper 
Up.     These  great   canine    teeth  form    two  tusks 


are  no  oauine  teeth  in  Uu  lower  jaw.    The  in 


Morse  (TrieKtai*  rusniarui). 

teeth  ate  small,  six  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  four  in  the 
lower,  mostly  disappearing  from  adtdt  animala.  The 
inolan — at  &nt,  five  on  oich  aide  in  each  jaw,  but 
fewer  in  the  adult— are  simple,  and  not  large ;  they 
haTB  the  crowns  obliquely  worn.  The  nostrils, 
a*  if  displaoad  by  the  sockets  of  the  tuska,  open 
almoat  upwards,  at  some  distance  from  the  muzzle. 
The  eye*  •»  mall ;  and  the  ean  have  no  auricle, 
—  in  popular  langua^  thera  is  no  ear. — There  is 

'-  Toe  known  apeeiea  (T,  TWmanis),  sor--'^ 

the  Ascito  Walbus,  an  inhabitant 


^^^ 


Arctic  seas  and  of  the  colder  porta  of  the  north 
temperate  zone.  It  sometimes  attains  a  size 
than  that  of  the  lai|;est  oi,  and  the  tusks  ai 
times  two  feet,  or  even  thirty  inches  long ;  but  the 
ordinary  lengUi  of  the  tuska  is  only  about  one  foot. 
The  M.  is  a  gregarious  oniiuiJ,  and  is  often  seen  ic 
great  herds,  which  sometimes  leave  the  water  to 
rest  for  a  while  either  on  the  ice  or  on  the  land, 
where,  however,  their  movements  are  very  awkward 
and  clumsy,  and  the  hunter  assails  them  with  much 
greater  prospect  of  success  than  in  the  water. 
Hundreds  have  thus  been  killed  at  one  time,  although 
the  adventure  is  not  without  danger,  as  they  must 
be  oaaoiled  with  apeam,  their  hide  being  thick 
enough  to  resist  even  a  riHe  bullet  The  M,  n 
tusks  for  protecting  itself  or  young  from  attack, 
for  combiting  with  its  enemy  tha  polar-bear,  fni 
aiding  it  in  dimbing  upon  ice;  but  principally,  H 
is  supposed,  for  tearing  sea-weed  from  submarint 


also  to  proy  on  molluscs,  crustaceans,  and  other 
tnorinc  oninuds.  The  female  M.  shews  great  afFee- 
tioD  for  her  young,  and  will  defend  it  to  the  Inat 
extremity ;  tJie  young  also  remains  beside  the  mother 
even  afti^  ahe  is  killed.  When  one  oE  these  animals 
is  attacked,  the  rest  of  the  herd— at  least  if  in  the 
water—hasten  to  il»  assistojice.  The  M.  is  very 
capable  of  being  tamed. — It  is  much  sought  after 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  most  northern  puis  of  the 
world  for  its  siun,  thongs  of  which  seem  to  have 
been  generally  used  in  former  times  for  ropea  and 
cables — esteemed  io  valuable,  that  the  FinLindtTi 
pud  tribute  in  this  artide ;  whilst  it*  oil — not  veiy 
abundant — is  employed  like  soal  oil ;  and  the  tnslu 
are  very  much  valued  as  ivoiy,  being  superior  in 
compactness  to  those  of  the  elephant  The  flesh  is 
coarse,  but  is  eaten  by  the  Esquimaux.  The  young 
M.  has  not  large  tusks  like  the  adult. 

The  M.  haa  occasionally  been  seen  on  the  Britdsh 
coasts,  prolMbly  transported  on  icebergs  from  tbs 

Tiie  name  M.  is  from  the  Bussian  Jforsa  or  Laipp 
Mortk.  The  name  Walrui  is  Norwegian  {Bval-ro*, 
Whale-hoise).  Another  Norwegian  name  is  Sotmar, 
supposed  to  be  from  the  Teutonic  nu,  horse,  and 
viar,  the  sco. 

MORSE,  Samuel  Fiklet  Brkiss,  LL.D.,  fto. 

merican  artist  and  inveotor,  was  the  ddest  son  of 
Eev,  Jedediah  Morse,  D,D.,  geographer,  and  was 
born  at  Chorlcstown.  Massachusetts,  April  27,  1791. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  ISIO,  and  visited 
Engund  with  the  American  punter  Washington 
AUston,  to  study  pointing  with  him  and  Benjamin 
West  In  1813,  he  received  the  gold  medal  of  the 
Adelphi  Society  of  Arts  for  his  first  effort  in  sculp- 
ture, the  '  Dying  Hercules.'  Betummg  to  New 
York  in  181&,  ^e  necame  the  first  president  of  the 
National  Aoodemy  of  Design,  and  was  appointed 
Professor  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  tlio  university  of 
the  city  of  New  York.  He  md  not  give  his  entire 
attention  to  art,  but  was  interested  in  chemistry, 
and  especially  in  doctricol  and  galvanic   experi- 

"■-    and  on  a  voyage  from  Havre  to  New  York, 

.  he  conceived  the  idea  of  a  magnetic  tdo- 
graph,  which  he  exhibited  to  congress  in  1837.  and 
vunly  attempted  to  potent  in  Engund.  His  cliums 
iority  ol  invention  over  PriSeasor  Wheatstone 
igland  have  been  the  subject  of  considerable 
controversy.     See  TzLEORiPH.     Ha  str — '"   - 

with  soanty  means  untU   1843,  when,  a 

almost  yielded  to  despair,  congress,  at  midjlight, 
and  the  last  moments  of  the  session,  appropriated 
30,000  doUais  for  an  experimental  line  between 
Washington  and  Baltimore.  For  his  tdegrapliic 
inventions,    M>     was     reworded   bj:   testimotur'- 


bj:   testimotuala. 


MOESHANSK— MORTALITT. 


hononn,  oiden  at  nobility,  and  wealth.  Several 
European  rtatea  joioed  in  presenting  him  a  pnne 
of  400,000  trwx,  and  banqaete  were  given  !■■"■  in 
London  aud  Fans.  The  well-known  reoording  in- 
■tiumeot  is  hil  invention.  The  origiaation  of  lab- 
marine  telezraphy  ia  also  claimed  for  M.  He  died 
2d  April  I8T2. 

MORSHA'NSK,  a  towe  in  the  gorenunent  of 
TamboT  in  Ruaaio,  66  tndes  north  of  TamboT, 
is  situated  on  a  feeder  of  the  Oka.  Pop.  (1880) 
19,500.  M.  ia  the  part  for  shipment  of  corn,  the 
shipmenta  annually  amounting  in  valna  to  S,000,000 
rubles.  There  is  ^o  a  large  market  for  the  cattle 
and  abeep  of  the  south-east  provinces,  the  average 
annual  supply  being  20,000  cattle  and  100,000 
aheep;  also  for  melted  grease,  of  which  1,500,000 
rubles  worth  is  sent  yearly  to  8t  Feterebui^  and 
Moscow.    The  trade  of  the  town  itself  is  o£  little 


MORTA'LITY,  Law  of.  While  there  are  few 
future  events  the  date  of  whcae  arrival  is  more 
ODcertain  than  that  of  death  to  any  one  man,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  average  duration  of  a  multitude  of 
human  live*  is  found  to  be  in  sccordance  with  a 
law  which  operates  as  anrely  as  that  of  gravitation. 
If  it  be  asked  how  many  Uvea  must  wa  have,  before 
we  can  depend  on  obtaining  from  them  a  duration 
equal  to  the  ^eral  average,  the  only  answer  t^t 
can  be  given  is,  that  the  more  we  have  the  more 
ueaily  must  we  approach  to  this  result;  the  fluo- 
tuation  oltimately  Mcoming  so  small  as  to  be  prao- 
tically  of  DO  efiecL  So  long  too  as  early  in  the 
17th  &,  a  certain  John  Oiaunt  of  London  published 
what  he  called  Natarid  and  PoUtkal  Ohiavatiim* 
onthaBW*o/Uor1aSty.  This  work  has  been  called 
the  eoriiest  movement  in  eocaomical  arhhmetio. 


and  the  closest  approximation  to  the  data  on  which 
life-assuranoe  is  founded-'  About  the  same  time. 
Sir  William  Petty  gave  ta  the  world  many  curions 
calculations  and  speculations  on  the  same  subject 
In  1693,  Dc  HaUey  published  the  Breslau  tables  of 
mortality,  and  this  was  the  first  work  which  really 
raised  the  subject  to  the  rank  of  a  sinence. 
Halley's  spoculationa  had,  however,  been  preceded 
by  those  of  Pascal  in  France,  and  of  De  Wit  in 
Holland;  and  the  latter  famous  man  it  probably 
entitled  to  be  considered  as  the  first  who  has 
applied  the  dootrine  of  probabilities  to  the  valuation 
of  life  in  the  question  of  annuities.  Hi*  treatise 
will  be  found  in  the  second  volume  of  the  Assurance 
Jfa^ojine,  Halleys  tables  are  printed  in  the  PhU- 
oaophiad  Tranaactioju  for  1G83,  No.  196.  In  1713, 
J.  Bemouilli's  important  work  wo*  published ;  and 
1742,  Dr  Price,  availing  himself  of  the  principles 


laid  down  by  Hallej,  and  of  data  previously  pub- 
lished by  'John  Smart  of  Guildhall,  London,  Gent,' 
iblea  of  mortality  for  London.     In  1746,  M. 


Deparciens  published  at  Paris  his  E»»ai  tur  let 
FrobabiliUi  de  la  Vie  HumaiiK,  in  which  he  gave 
six  valuable  tables.  In  one  of  these,  computed 
from  the  registers  of  different  religious  houses,  it 
was  shewn,  for  the  first  time,  that  female  life  ii 
superior  to  mate.  In  1770,  appeared  the  fint  edition 
of  Price's  Obiertiationt  on  ReBfreionary  PaumatU, 
The  speonlations  of  Buffon,  Simnon,  and  De  Moivra 
about  the  same  ijme  were  oi  much  importance. 
MortaLty  tables  are  tables  shewing  the  operation  of 
the  law  of  mortality.  The  correct  meth(>d  of  fram- 
ingthem  ia  by  analysing  and  collating  accurate  and 
sumciently  extensive  statistica  of  life  and  death. 
They  enable  ns  to  form  a  fair  estimate  of  the 
number  of  human  being*  who  will  die  at  the  end  of 
a  given  period  out  of  a  ^ven  number  olive  at  the 
beginning  of  it;  and  hences  the  chance  id  life  and 


death  to  the  individnal,  and  the  mean  dni*tIon  of 
life  at  any  age.  Tables  shewing  the  mean  dvratioD 
of  life  have  been  constructed  in  two  ways:  1st,  From 
statistics  of  deaths  alone;  and  2d,  Front  itBtistica  of 
life  and  death.  By  the  first  plan,  th«y  would  be 
deduced  as  follows .-  Suppose,  on  searching  a  parislk 
register,  that  we  found  recorded  100  deaths  of 
children  in  their  fiist  year,  we  should  lumiim"  that, 
on  an  average,  }  a  year  of  life  would  have  fallen  to 
eaeh.  This  gives  SO  years  of  life  among  100.  If 
we  fonnd  that  60  bad  died  in  their  second  year, 
assigning  one  year  and  a  half  to  each,  we  should 
have  60  X  1-S  =  90  years  among  the  60 ;  and  so  on 
for  every  ue  up  to  Uie  oldest  on  the  register.  The 
sum  of  oil  the  years  enjoyed,  divided  by  ttia 
numbers  who  have  enjoy^  them,  wiU  give  the 
mean  duration  of  life  ^m  birth ;  and  the  sum  of 
all  the  years  enjoyed  after  a  given  age,  divided  by 
the  numbers  who  nave  enjoyed  them,  will  give  the 
mean  duration  at  the  given  age ;  in  both  cases  as 
nearly  as  the  data  enable  us  to  give  it;  bnt  the 
data  ore  insufficient.  Suppose  we  found  W  a  regis- 
t«r  for  1S73  that  100  children  had  died  in  tiieir  £rt 
year  and  one  man  in  Us  96th,  it  is  plain  that,  to 
make  this  ratio  a  fair  one,  there  ought  to  have  been 
at  many  births  in  1778  as  in  1873.  If  there  have 
been  only  half  as  many  bom  at  ib»  former  date  as 
at  the  latter,  then  we  must  put  two  Uvea  into  the 
calculation  to  make  it  correct ;  and  we  must  pro- 


r  results  similarly   at  all  intermediate 

r  deaths  at  ue  2S  to  be 

t  tell  how  many  of  those  bom 


JBB.    Aeain,  suppose  four  deaths  at 

sgistered,  we  cannot  tell  how  many 

I  1860  may  have  emigrated  from  one  pariah,  nor 

a  we  koow  how  many  bom  elsewhere  in  that  year 
may  have  coma  into  it  For  Uie  rule  and  fwmnla 
for  obtaining  the  mean  duration  of  life  nnder  the 
■eoond  method,  which  is  an  absolutely  certain  one, 
see  I^wt,  MuN  DnuTtoir  or.  The  following  are 
the  tables  now  most  generally  used  by  assuraooe 
and  annuity  offices  in  this  country ;  I.  The  North- 
ampton (Ih'  Price's).  This  table  was  framed  by  Dr 
Price  from  the  register  of  burials  in  the  porislt  of 
All  Saints,  Northampton,  1735— 178a  Being  con- 
structed on  deaths  atane,  it  bos,  as  wna  to  have  been 
expected,  proved  faulty.  It  gives  the  probabilitiee 
of  life  too  low  at  the  younger  and  middle  ages ;  and 
those  offices  which  still  use  it— and  thei«  are  a  gaoi 
many — have  some  diSicnlty  in  keeping  themselves 
right.  II.  The  New  Northampton  (Nob.  1  and  2). 
I^ese  tables  were  constructed  by  Dr  Farr.  See 
Kigfath  Report  of  tho  Registrar-gsneral  for  England, 
pp.  277—348.  No,  2  is  based  on  the  deaths  alone 
m  Northampton  during  the  seven  years  1838 — 1844. 
In  its  results  it  agrees  almost  exactly  with  that  of 
Dr  Price.  No.  1  was  deduced  from  a  comparison 
of  the  deaths  during  1838—1844  with  the  census 
returns  of  1841.  It  difieis  widely  from  No.  2  and 
from  Dr  Prices  By  the  two  latter,  the  mean  dun- 
tion  of  life  is  respectively  found  as  24-8S  years 
and  2518  years.  By  No.  1,  it  is  37*9  years.  IIL 
The  Carlije.  Iliis  table  was  constructed  from 
observations  made  by  Dr  Heysham  at  Carlisle,  1780 
— 1787.  It  is  now  generally  understood  that  the 
mortality  in  towns  ia  underatated  at  ages  16 — 35, 
owing  to  the  immigration  of  healthy  men  and 
women  from  the  country.  Again,  the  female  popu- 
lation of  Carlisle  was  excessive  during  the  period  in 
qnestion,  and  the  extent  of  the  observations  was 
limited.  Owing  to  these  facta,  tbia  table  gives 
rather  too  low  a  rate  of  mortality,  aud  is  a  Bttle 
irrecralar  in  ita  graduation.  Id  a  table  prepared  by 
W,  T.  Thomson,  Esq.,  in  a  Beport  on  the  Ministere' 
Widows'  Fund  of  the  Chureh  of  Scotland,  1861,  he 
shews  that  the  lives  of  the  Scotch  clatOT  ore  about 
half  a  year  better  up  to  44  than  the  Coiusle ;  at  45, 
they  are  equal ;  and  st  45  to  80,  they  ue  half  a  year 

Gn1\' 


"cT 


HORTALITT. 


Mb  nMnafter  thBy  vary.  Sw  vidows  are 
»  vnr  better  up  to  91,  equal  at  62,  and  uearlT 

a  Ae  Md.  FTDbablr  tin  OHlisle  gLna  ■  fur 
f  rata  for  a  betuthilj  auoDmrtatioBd  popn- 
(V.  Ilie  GoTCnmMDt.  Theae  wwa  computed 
1^  Mr  FinlaiMU  Ml  tha  Uraa  of  22,000  nominee*  for 
govecuiMat  M»i»ifci— .  Hiejr  are  obiedf  important 
a*  giTing  a  view  of  the  Talne  of  fomJa  hfe^  Dot  thia 
view  ia  one  whiob  diSera  widely  from  thoae  nna 
«thw  \f  the  'Expedanoa'  or  by  the  'En^iik' 
table.  At  a^  90,  lor  imitanne,  the  mean  dnratirai 
<A  fetnale  life  it,  by  the  Oovcnunent  table,  6f  jeara 
mora  than  the  Bula;  by  the  Sxpoieoce,  it  ia  4 
yean  lea.  In  aoma  meanire  thia  iride  dirergenoa 
may  perhapa  be  aooonnted  for  bv  the  faot  that  the 
Oovenuuent  reenlta  are  deduced  from  annnitanto, 
tlie  Ezperienoe  from  atanred  Utbi.  The  experience 
(rf  kte  yean  haa,  however,  lad  to  acme  modification 
in  the  relaiiTe  raluea  of  male  and  female  life  in 

KTonment  toblea.  T.  The  Bof  liah  (Noa.  I,  %  and 
Ko  i.  ii  dednoad  from  tiia  Lring  by  tiw  oenma 
li  IfMl,  and  from  tha  daatha  at  coireapondinff 
uea  in  the  aame  year.  Bee  titb  and  6th  Reporta  td 
the  Begiabar-MMnl  for  Eb^and,  where  the  tabic* 
will  ba  imanS,  and  tbrir  oonatnietion  ezjdained. 
Ko.  S  ii  dednoed  from  the  living  in  IS<],  and  from 
the  deatha  in  the  aevao  yean  I8SS— 1844  No.  8  ia 
deduced  from  the  population  in  1841  and  in  ISBl, 
and  on  the  deatha  tot  the  17  yean  ISSS—ISMi 
male  and  female  life  htioa  oaloutated  aepaiatalr  and 
in  combination.  Theae  '  Engliih '  table*  probably 
eive  the  reaulta  of  the  average  mortality  of  Eng- 
land more  correctly  than  any  othen  whidk  we 
have.  They  ara  the  reaolt  of  enonnona  labour  on 
the  part  of  Dr  Farr.    The  obeerrationi  were  taken 


on  tne  plan  recommended byProfeaBor de  Morgan 
and  Mr  Oriffith  Daviea.  Vt  The  Experienoa. 
Thcae  were  prepared  by  a  oommittee  ot  emlnut 
actuariea  on  Uie  data  afforded  by  the  combined  ex- 
perience of  IT  life-aamranoe  c&oea.  The  objei^ 
tioM  to  which  tiiey  an  liable  are^  that  cotain  live* 
having  been  more  than  onoe  aatnred  have  aopeared 
twice  or  oftener  a*  elements  in  the  oalmiationi ; 
that  the  average  term  over  which  the  observation 
of  the  office*  extend*  ia  only  eight  and  a  half  year* ; 
and  it  ia  probable  that  ^  mortality  whidi  will 
prevail  in  aaniranoe  Mxdetiea  when  they  have 
reached  matniity  ia  aomewbat  nnderatated.  See 
lett«  by  Dr  Farr  in  Appendix  to  10th  Report  of 
lU^trar-general,  p.  )L  further,  t^e  data  for  old 
agea  were  deficient^  and  thia  of  conne  affeoti  the 
whole.    Many  onriooa  naulti  am  bron^  out  by 


thia  table.  It  ahem  that  'town'  am»rtd  life  ii 
nipaira' to'oaaatar;'  that  female  amured  lifaii  wt 
the  whole  inferior  to  malsi  and  that  Itiab  life  ia 
wont  of  aU.  At  age  SO,  'town'  mean  dnzatioD  ia 
41  Tear«i  S  montiia ;  country,  40  yean,  4  month*  i 
Irian,  S4  yeata,  11  montlii.  The  obaemtion*  M 
the  Standard  Aaiuranoe  Company  do  nol^  however, 
bear  ont  these  reaulta ;  and  they  are  donbtleat  ao 
la^jely  affected  by  the  elements  of  Cart  in  Sd»- 
a*  to  render  it  impoasible  to  found  on  Uiem 
conolunon  of  practioat  value.  A  new  set  of 
irience'  table*  waa  pabliahed  in  1871^  based 
le  mort41ity  experiencea   of   twenty   offices. 


ixperience 


BBoe  tablea.  These  form  a  vi 
'  re  the  results 
Scotch  eiporience  united,  and  of  Scotch  separately. 
In  all  tables  deduced  from  Hie  expencnce  of 
assurance  and  aacuity  societies,  the  fact  of  Kkeiion 
must  not  be  lost  sight  of,  either  in  using  them  for 
the  sake  of  oomparuon,  or  as  the  basis  of  other 
taUea.  Actuaries,  however,  seem  to  be  generally  of 
opinion  that  die  Mlection  exermsed  by  assurance 
Bocietie*  doe*  not  really  lower  their  rate*  cS  mot- 
tality  bdow  the  general  average ;  without  teleotioa, 
Uteir  rate  would  ba  above  liie  general  mean;  for,  it 
will  be  obaerved,  that  the  public  are  continually 
•electing  acajnst  the  offloea  by  offering  inferior  Uvea, 
Ind  good  livee  often  surrender  their  polidea,  wbila 
livea  which  have  beoome  bad  hardly  ever  do  to. 
Agvn,  the  valne  of  medical  eiamiuatian  gradually 
diw^ipears,  and  in  ten  year*  at  ntoat  it  ia  onite 
lost.  Five  to  seven  yean  ii  indeed  now  bala  by 
tile  aasuranoe  offices  to  exhaust  it*  value.  Sea 
Hinnte*  of  the  House  of  Coaimona'  Conunittee  on 
AMunaoe  AMooiatians,  ISfiS ;  and  Life-oontin- 
senoy  l^le*  by  £.  J.  Fatmn,  pp.  iiL — xiil. 
Tlioagh  female  Ufa  ia,  as  a  whde,  undoubtedly 
■upencr  to  male,  yet  as  there  are  mon  oriticM 
periods  in  it,  it  It  probable  that  tJie  pnUla  may 
mora  frequently  select  it  thaa  male  life  agsinst  i^e 
societies.  A  valoalde  report  on  the  Madras  Mili- 
tar;  Fund  (London,  1863)  givea  tablea  oonsbncted 
on  the  mortality  rates  prevailing  among  the  officers, 
wives,  and  widows  interested  in  the  fund.  Aa  they 
have  oeen  prepared  by  emin^t  men  on  very  am^ila 
data,  Uiey  will  probably  be  vary  valuable  tosocietie* 


view  of  the 

and  at  eaoh  d«o«inial  period,  aooc^ding  to 

tiie  tablea  mentiimed  atiove  i 


Tawods  AoTBoarraB. 

CUaun* 

QovcainiBra. 

Ldb  T*«LS.-Ba  F«a. 

•«. 

nsa.'r" 

--rassr 

iBSSi. 

. „ 

im. 

TwLKaim. 

T<n  llHib. 

1        t 

s«kau«. 

BMhStlH. 

ita^ii*. 

a^w^ 

'"•^"^ 

*"*"■ 

kuty,  oUefly  as  it  bew*  on  insunnea  and  j  the  nbjeo^  a*  varying  wtth  oocnpatkn  and  in 


MORTAE—MORTAB- VESSEL. 


HOBTAB.  See  CKHiin& 
HOBT AB,  a  pieot  of  utillery  whioh  diSen  ttoso 
ft  oaunrni  in  ib»  uuve  diuneter  of  ilt  bore  in  pro- 
Mrtion  to  ill  length  and  in  the  droamitance  that 
it  ii  DBiuU^  fii«d  ftt  ■  oonndenbla  angle,  so  Hut 
the  projectile  uuty  ttrike  the  object  aimed  at  in  a 
dii«otton  more  or  !««■  varta- 
caL    The  object  for  which 


13-Iniih  Mortar,  with     iball  completely 
Loadins  AppantiUi      chunber ;     and 


diicharge  of  Live  Shklu 
(q.  V.)  or  careaaea.     Aj  the 

projectile  haa  %  larfp  dia- 
meter, and,  except  in  tare 
iiutonces,  a  very  great  nuige 
is  DDneceoary,  a  compara- 
tively ranall  charge  of  powder 
in  reqniaite.  To  give  thin  ita 
utmort  power  and  concen- 
tration, it  i«  confined  in  % 
hemispherical  chunber  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  bore, 
but  of  leu  diADieter.     The 


when   the 


chamber. 

explosion   _ 

fnU  force  <m  its  oenbe.  In  the  Britiab  lerrice,  the 
ordinsiy  mortara  range  in  diameter  of  bom  from 
5  to  13  inches.  The  13-in<di  mortar  ia  abewn  in 
the  annexed  figure. 

lArger  mortars  have,  however,  been  tried  at 
times,  aa  at  Uie  siege  of  Antwerp  Citadel  in  183S, 
when  the  French  brought  one  of  Z4-in(ihea  bore  to 
the  attack.  Thia  monster,  owing  to  its  anwieldineea 
and  other  caosea,  was  a  faUure.  Larger  still  than 
this,  though  perhapa  more  manageable,  is  Mr 
Uallet'a  great  38-incb  mortar,  conat^cted  in  1855, 
of  iron  parts  welded  together,  and  now  at  Woolwich, 
rather  aa  a  cnriosi^  than  for  use.  As  loaded  sheila 
■re  of  immense  weight,  so  hesvy,  indeed,  as  in  larser 
oalibrM  to  inTolve  the  apparatus  depicted  in  the 
fig.  to  depont  them  in  their  places,  and  the  mortar 
ia  fired  at  high  elevations,  the  reooil  ia  ao  great  and 
ao  nearly  vortical  that  no  carriage  could  withstand 
the  shook ;  it  ia  neceeaary,  therefore,  that  the 
mortar  ahould  be  mounted  on  a  solid  iron  or  timber 
bad,  bf  the  tnmnioDB,  wbiob  are  pUoed  behind  the 
breach,  and  aapported  in  front  by  maaaire  Uocka 
of  wood.  Thia  arrugement  render*  the  aimaratas 
ao  heavy  that  mortara  of  lanje  ain  are  randy  used 
in  field  operationB,  tiidr  orduiary  podtjana  being 
in    defensive  or    dege  worica,   and    in    mortar- 


deving  the  oovert-way  or  £tah  of  a  fortreis.  Thia 
mortar  ia  snfficimitly  email  to  be  managed  by  one 
man,  and  ia  Moounted  useful  in  si^  or  defence 
operations.  Ille  French  use  a  limilar  Lilliputian 
Mdnance,  called  pierriers  or  abone-throwers. 
The  use  of  mortals  is  muoh  less  important  than  it 


efficient  than  h«izontal  or  howitier  shells  fired  from 
the  pivot  guns  of  steam-trigates. 

HOBTARA,  Bdoui,  a  Jewish  boy,  vhoee  caae 
recently  attracted  great  and  painfnl  intereat  thtoudi- 
out  Europe.  The  facta  are  aa  follows  ■  On  uie 
23i  of  Jane  1BS8,  Suniv  Homolo  Mortara,  a  mann- 
factunr  and  wholesale  merchant  of  cloth  in  Bologna, 
and  by  r^igionB  ptofeaaton  a  Jew,  retnining  home 
about  ten  lyolook  at  iiig|h^  found  hia  houae  in  the 
of  the  polka,  who  infoimad  him  tiiat  thejr 


had  orders  from  Padre  Felletia,  inqnialtOT-in-chief 
at  Bolt^na,  to  carry  off  his  son,  Ed^,  who  had 
been  anrrentitioasty  bsptixed  into  Chnstianity  by  a 
Roman  CatboUo  maid-servant.  The  inquisitor  waa 
waited  upon  by  some  friends  of  the  family  a  little 
after  miiuiight,  who  implored  delay.  He  informed 
them  tbat  he  was  acting  under  the  orders  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Bologna,  Mt  consented  to  list  pro- 
cedure till  '  next  eTening.'  The  archbishop,  how- 
ever, was  '  absent '  from  the  dty,  and  next  evening 
the  papal  carbineers  entered  the  boose  and  '  tore  the 
child  oot  of  his  father's  arms.'  They  carried  him  to 
Borne,  where  he  was  immured  in  a  oonvent.  The 
bereaved  faUier  immediately  followed,  obtained 
several  interview*  with  Cantinal  Antonelli,  and 
oC^red  to  prove  that  the  servant  who  stud  she  had 
baptized  Edgar  had  turned  out  to  be  a  worthless 
pcoatitute,  living  in  sin  with  Austrian  officers.  The 
cardinal  declined  to  interfere,  on  the  ground  that  the 
oaae  did  not  come  under  his  jurisdiction,  and  reoom- 
mended  Signer  Mortara  to  apply  to  '  the  proper 
tribunals.'  After  aome  weeka  had  paaaed,  the  child 
waa  removed  to  Alatri,  wUther  hia  father  and  mother 
alao  went,  and  saw  Edgar  in  a  church  among  a 
nnmbtt  of  prieets,  but  had  no  opportunity  of 
apeeking  to  nim.     They  returned  to  Rome,  once 


to  be  brought  back  to  the  city,  and  allowed  hi* 
[larenta  several  times  to  oonverae  witli  him.  Tbaaa 
mterviewi  are  described  aa  agonising,  and  Edgar 
earnestly  entreated  his  father  and  mother  to  take 
him  home,  but  this  of  course  waa  a  hopeless  request. 


laid  tbs  CatboUo  Church  under  Uie  solemn  obll^ 
tiOD  of  protootingita  aon  ttota  Om  snarea  of  parental 
infidelity.  It  dared  not  give  him  up.  Signer 
Mortm  and  his  wife  had  to  go  away  without  tneir 
child.  The  caae  aoon  became  known  throu^iout 
Europe^  and  excited  great  indignation,  more  particu- 
larly in  England.  The  Evangelical  Alliance  drew 
up  a  protest,  which  waa  signed  ny  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  and  above  twenty  other  bishops,  by  a 
lai^  nnmber  of  peers,  members  of  parliament, 
heads  of  colleges,  and  ministers  of  the  gospel,  by 
upwards  of  a  hundred  mayors  and  provosts,  and  by 
many  other  influential  laymen.  It  was  presented  to 
Lord  John  RueselL  The  British  Jews  presented 
another.  Nothing,  however,  was  effected  by  these 
effor(&  Edgar  Mortara  remained,  of  his  own 
ohoioe,  the  result  would  seem  to  prove,  in  the 
hands  of  the  Konmo  Catholic  Church  authorities. 
He  was  educated  for  the  priesthood,  became  an 
Augustine  monk  of  the  monastery  Notre-Dame  da 
Beauchine,  and  preaohed  his  first  senuon  in  1374. 
The  narrative,  which  created  such  excitement  aa 
echoed  this  boy's  name  over  all  the  world,  waa  at 


the  part  of  the  Romaa  authoritiea,  having  ever 
been  made  public 

MORTAR-TBSBEL,  a  class  of  gun-boat  for 
mounting  aea-service  mortara.  Mortar^boats  were  a 
smaller  kind  ;  the  moet  ancient  form  of  mortar- 
vessel  was  the  '  bomb-ketch,'  convenient  because  of 
the  length  of  deck  without  a  mast.  In  the  British 
naval  service  these  several  kinds  of  bomb-ships  have 
censed  to  exist,  though  13-inch  and  10-iach  sea- 
servioe  mortat«  are  still  used  on  board  vaiioas  of 
modem  types  of  war-ships.    To  enable  the 

-}  be  pnqwrly  mauceuvred,  and  to  resist  the 

reooil  from  the  neariy  perpendioular  exploaion,  the 
mortar-veasel  had  considerable  breadth  in  proporldon 
to  her  length.    The  mortar  was  dang  amidanipa  in 


.ajjgk 


HORTQAGB-MOKTMAIN. 


UOHTOAOE,  in  T!";;'''''  L&w,  ia  llie  tomponu; 
pledgiog  of  land  in  lecurity  of  a  debt ;  and  as  the 
^d  caanot  be  dalivered  into  tha  creditoi'i  hand,  ha 
acqnirM  a  hold  over  it  by  a  deed  called  an  inden- 
ture, or  deed  of  mortage.  The  ordinary  form  of  a 
mortgage-deed  reaemblM  an  absolute  conTeyance, 
bnt  it  contains  a  proviso  that  if  the  money  borrowed 
ia  repaid  irithin  a  certain  time,  then  the  mortgagee 
•hall  reconvey  tha  land  to  the  mortgager  or  borrow^'. 
^ere  ia  *  mode  of  eiecntin^  a  mortgage  without 
any  deed,  whicli  ia  common  mth  bankers  and  othen 
who  lend  money.  This  consirta  in  the  borrower 
taking  the  title-deeds  of  his  land  to  tha  banker, 
who  keep*  the  deeds  and  lends  money  on  the  faith 
of  tiiem.  Thia  is  called  an  equitable  mortgage  by 
deposit  of  tiUe-deeds,  but  in  point  of  fact  is  as  good 
•■  any  other  aottagfi.  Mort^;age  deads  do  not 
require  in  Endand  to  be  r^iat«red,  except  in 
Middleaezand  Ytarkshire;  and  nence  ■  person  not 
nikfrequently  nortgagea  hia  property  two  or  three 
time*  over,  thon^  the  aecurity  ia  insufficient  for  all 
the  debt*.  But  m  genraal  this  can  only  happen  by 
the  careleatncM  of  mm  or  other  of  the  mortgaKeee, 
for  the  lint  mortgagee  ought  to  have  the  title-deeds 
in  bis  posBeasion,  and  ought  not  to  part  with  them, 
aa  tiiey  are  hia  chief  protection.  A  mortgagee  can 
asdgn  bis  mortgage  security  to  another  peraon,  who 
thereupon  standi  m  hia  shoeB.  If  the  money  is  not 
paid  at  the  time  (n^gioally  appointed  in  the  deed, 
then  interest  becomes  due,  and  the  deed  is  held 
ity  for  both  prindpal  aod  ioteiesb    The 


fold.  The  mortgagee  may  ezsroise  the  power  which 
the  deed  alwaya  contains  to  sell  the  esUte  and  pay 
himaelf  out  of  the  prDC«eda.  Or  the  mortgagee  may 
enter  into  poMesnon,  and  draw  the  tenn  and, pay 
himself  by  inttalmeutB.  Or  he  majr  farecloMtlie 
mortgage — L  e.,  he  commences  a  suit  m  the  Conrt  of 
Chancery,  tha  effect  of  which  ia  to  allow  a  ahort 
time  to  the  mortgagor  to  pay  the  debt,  failing  which 
tho  court  will  order  it  to  be  sold  to  aatufy  the 
debt.  Another  remedy  is  for  the  mortgagee  to  sue 
the  mor^agor  for  the  money  in  an  ordinary  action. 
All  these  remedies  may  be  pursued  at  one  and  the 
aama  time.  Sometimes  when  a  second  and  third 
mortgage  are  given  over  the  same  estate,  which  is 
often  done  wheia  the  estate  it  large,  compared  with 
the  money  borrowed,  it  happens  that  the  third 
mortgagee  gets  a  prior  title  to  the  second  mortgagee 
by  buymg  up  the  first  mortgage.  On  doing  this, 
he  can  tack  the  third  mortgage  on  to  tha  first  by 
the  doctrine  known  as  the  tacking  of  mortgages. 
As  a  general  rule,  if  nothing  is  said,  the  mratgagor 
or  tiorrower  pays  all  the  costs  of  the  moitgage 
trsn&action.  Until  the  estate  ia  sold,  or  the  security 
foreclosed,  the  mortguor  haa  what  ia  called  the 
equity  of  redemption,  i.  a.  he  can  at  any  time,  on 
payment  of  the  debt,  compel  the  mortgagee  to 
reconvey  the  proper^  to  him.  Mortgages  in  Eng- 
land are  not  a  fiist-cUss  security,  and  nenoa  trustees 
who  are  not  specially  authorised  by  their  deed  or 
will  to  invest  in  mortgage  security  do  it  at  their 
risk,  it  being  assumed  that  the  only  investment 
which  is  absolutely  safe  is  government  stock.  In 
Scotland,  mortgages  are  generally  called  bonds  and 
dispositions  in  securi^,  and  form  a  higher  and 
better  security  than  in  England,  owing  to  there 
being  a  regular  system  of  registration  of  deeds 
affecting  land;  and  hence  trustees  are  entitled  to 
invest  Uieir  funds  there  in  mortgage  security,  which 
is  ooBsidared  as  safe  as  gaverameat  stock,  and 
leas  liable  1«  fiuctuations  of  interest  In  Scotland, 
there  is  no  such  practice  as  mortgaging  lands  with 
banlis  by  merely  depositing  tho  title-deeda.  See 
BoHD,  DiSFOsmoH  nr  SECCBnT. 


MOBTIFICATION,  ia  Sootoh  Uar,  is  a  term 
used  to  denote  lauds  given  for  charitable  or  publio 
uses.  When  lands  are  so  given,  they  are  in  genera] 
formally  conveyed  to  the  Irustees  of  tha  charity,  to 
be  held  blench,  or  in  feu.  When  mortifications  are 
given  in  general  to  the  poor,  without  naming  parti- 
cular ti'usteea,  they  fall  nnder  the  adminiettatioa  of 
the  Court  of  Session.  By  the  statute  1633,  c  6,  it 
wa*  declared  unlawful  to  alter  aoy  mortifications, 
and  the  manager*  were  rendered  liable  to  be  called  to 
account  for  malversation.  Any  person  entitied  to 
the  benefit  of  Hba  fund  can  pursue  actions  of  thia 
kind. 

MO&TIFIOATION,  in  Medicine.    See  Ihjuk- 

HCBTIS  OAU'BA  DEED,  in  Scotch  Law,  is  » 
deed  which  is  mode  with  a  view  to  come  into  effect 
on  the  death  of  the  maker.  Since  in  Scotland  land 
cannot  be  conveyed  by  will,  aa  in  England,  it  ia 
necesaary  to  execute  an  urinary  deed  of  convey* 
•ace,  and  to  reserve  the  maker's  liferent,  and  to 
keep  it  in  his  own  possession  until  his  deaUk— i  e., 
to  suspend  its  effect  during  the  life  of  the  granter. 

MORTISE  AKD  TEiNON  (Fr.  niortam,  prahably 
from  Lat.  mordere,  to  bite ;  tenon,  from  (our,  to 
hold),  a  form  of  joint  in  Carpentry.  The  tcmon 
is  a  projectioD,  generally  rectangular  in  form,  on 


tha  end  of  a  pece  of  wood,  out  ao  aa  to  fit  ezaetly 
iuto  a  deep  groove  (called  the  mortise)  cut  in 
another  piece,  so  that  the  two  are  united  at  a 
reqnired  an^e.  Tha  framing  of  dooiB,  shutters, 
and  snch  piaoee  of  joinery,  is  usually  fitted  together 
with  mortise  and  tenon  joints. 

MOHTMAIN,  TUB  STATUTKa  or  (Fr.  moiH,  dead, 
and  main,  band).  The  object  of  the  statatea  of 
mortmain  is  to  prevent  priesta  and  others  from 
importuning  a  dying  man  to  convey  his  land  for 


knowledge  of  what  ha  does,  devise  \ty  will  all  hi* 
land  to  individuals  absolutely,  it  is  otherwise  if  he 
intend  to  give  the  land  to  trustees  for  a  charitable 
purpose,  as  to  build  a  church,  or  school,  or  bospitaL 
The  statute  of  mortmain,  9  Geo.  IL  c  36  (1736), 
reciting  that  public  mischief  had  greatly  increased 
by  many  large  and  improvident  dispositions  made 
by  languishing  and  dying  persons  to  charitable 
uses,  to  take  place  after  their  deaths  to  the  dis- 
inherison of  their  lawful  heirs,  enacted,  that  in 
future  no  lands  or  sums  of  money  to  be  laid  out 
in  laud  should  ba  given  to  any  person  or  body, 
unless  such  gift  or  conveyance  dionld  be  made  or 
executed  in  presense  M  two  witnesses  twelve 
months  before  the  death  of  the  donor  or  granter, 
and  be  enrolled  in  tha  Court  of  Chancery  within 
six  months  after  the  ozecution.  Therefore,  a  per- 
son on  death-bed  cannot  in  England  give  lan^  or 
money  to  buy  laud,  for  a  charitable  purpose.  It 
can  only  be  done  in  the  life  of  the  donor,  at  least 
twelve  months  before  his  death;  and  the  property 
must  be  completely  alienated,  ao  that  he  has  no 
further  control  over  it  The  deed  must  have  a 
pt«>cnt    operation,   and    mast   wA   ree«m  tay 


UORtOH— MOSCOW. 


life-bterMttotlMdoiioi;  itmnatbedonefttonci  ..  . 
for  ever.  The  pdioy  of  this  statute  hat  aometimes 
been  qturtiooed,  aod  Beveral  well-known  modes  of 
•Tadinsthe  itatata  have  been  adopted  from  time  to 
time.  The  aot  haa  been  held  to  applj  only  to  land 
locaUj  aitnated  in  England ;  and  hence,  if  the  land  ia 
■itnated  in  Scotland,  or  the  colonies,  or  abroad,  a 
will  conT^iag  it  for  charitable  purposed  will  receive 
effect.  In  St^land,  the  mortmun  act  had  no  appli- 
oation ;  bat  it  was  not  needed,  as  the  common  Uw 
of  Scotland  alao  pnt  a  Bimilar  check  on  the  aliena- 
tion of  land  on  death-bed,  which,  however,  has 
been  aboliihed  by  statute.    See  Dkith-bbd,  Itms- 

MOBTON,  Samub.  Qaoftoa,  M.D,,  American 
pbyaician  and  ethnologist,  ton  of  an  Irish  emi- 
grant, was  bom  in  Philadolphta,  Januaiy  26,  1799. 
Be  studied  medicine  in  Philadelphia,  Edinburgh, 
and  Paris,  and  in  I8S4  settled  in  PhiladelpMa. 
where  he  contribnted  papers  on  physiolo^  and 
craniology  to  scientiGo  journals,  la  l^H,  he 
visited  tti«  West  Indies,  and  made  observationB 
on  the  developmeat  of  races.  In  1839,  he  was 
appointed  Profesior  of  Aoatcoay  in  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Medio^  College,  and  published  his  great 
work,  Orania  AnuricaTta,  based  ou  his  collection 
of  867  dasaified  skulls.  In  1844,  he  poblished 
Oraaia  ^ggpliaea,  based  on  the  collection  of 
Qeoive  R.  Gliddon,  Esq. ;  and  in  18^,  his  last  wor^ 
An  tmitlrated  Sgttem  of  Suman  Anatomy,  Speeiat, 
OeaenU,  and  Microtcopie.  He  died  at  PhUadelphia, 
May  16,  ISSl.  M.  may  be  regarded  as  the  first 
American  who  endeavonred  to  place  the  doctrine 
of  the  orif{iDal  diveraity  of  mankind  on  a  scientiflo 
basis.  See  the  Memoir  of  If.  prefixed  to  Nott  and 
OUddon's  Typts  <^  Mankind  (Philadelphia,  1854),  a 
work  largely  iHostrated  1^  aeleotions  from  hia 
unedited  papen. 

HOBTOH,  FomtTH  Eakl  or  (Jaus  DovOlas), 
regent  of  Scotland,  was  the  second  sou  of  Sir 
George  Donglas  of  Pittendriech,  and  in  1S53  suc- 
ceed^ in  right  of  his  wife,  Elizabeth,  daughter 
of  the  third  earl,  to  the  titie  and  estates  of  the 
earldom.  He  early  favoured  the  cause  of  the 
Baformation,  and  in  1567  was  one  of  the  oiigioal 
Lords  of  the  Congregation.  Sworn  a  privv  coon- 
oUor  in  16C1,  he  was  appointed  Lord  Hi^h  Chaa- 
odlor  <rf  Scotland,  January  7,  1663.  Having  been 
one  of  the  cbief  conspirators  against  Bisuo,  the 
Italian  secretary  of  Queen  Mary,  on  his  anassina- 
tion,  Mb  March  1666,  he  fled  with  his  associates  to 
Gn^and,  but.  through  the  interest  of  the  Earl  of 
Bothwkl,  soon  obbdned  bis  pardoD  from  Uie  queen. 
Hod^  privy  to  the  design  tor  the  murder  of 
Darnky,  on  the  manisge  of  the  queen  to  Bothwell, 
he  joined  the  coufederacy  of  the  nobles  against  her. 
He  waa  present  at  Carberry  Hill,  when  Bothwell 
parted  from  the  queen,  and  after  Mary's  iropriaon- 
ment  in  the  Castle  of  IJichleven,  he  was  restored  to 
t^e  office  of  High  Chancellor,  of  which  he  had  been 
deprived,  and  constituted  Lord  High  Admiral  of 
Scothutd.  On  the  death  of  the  Earl  of  Mar,  in 
October  1672,  be  was  elected  r^ent  of  the  kingdum. 
His  rapacity  and  avarice  ma^  him  obnoxious  to 
many  of  the  nobles,  and  as  the  young  king, 
James  VI.,  desired  to  assnme  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment, Morton  resigned  the  regency  in  March 
1678.  Subsequently  obtaiaing  poBsesaioD  of  the 
oiBde  of  Stirbng,  with  the  person  of  the  king,  he 
recovered  his  authority,  but  was  accnscd  of  parti- 
cipating in  the  murder  of  Damley,  and  being  tried 
and  oondemiwd,  was  beheaded  at  Edinburgh,  June 
%1681. 

MOSAIC,  tba  art  of  fnoduoing  artistio  designs 
by  setting  amall  sqaare  pieees  of  stone  or  glaa  of 


different  colours,  so  aa  to  give  the  effect  of  painting. 
The  name  is  from  the  Greek  fnou«dof,  of  the  Muses. 
The  origin  of  the  art  ia  obscure  ;  but  it  was  much 
practised  by  the  Romans,  especiallv  for  orna- 
mental pavements,  specimens  of  which  are  almost 
always  found  whenever  the  remains  of  an  old  Roman 
villa  are  discovered.  Under  the  Byzantine  empire  : 
it  waa  also  much  used  for  the  ornamentation  of 
churches,  in  which  it  formed  a  large  portion  of  the 
wall- decoration.  It  was  re-mtroduced  into  Italy 
for  the  latter  purpose  about  the  middle  of  the  I3th 
c  by  Andrea  Tafi,  who  learned  it  of  some  Qreek 
artists  employed  at  Venice  in  decorating  St  Mark's. 
Since  then  itnas  been  especially  an  Itafian  art,  and 
to  such  wonderfid  perfection  has  it  been  brong^lj 
that  moat  _  minute  pictures  are  yroduood  by  it. 
Within  quite  recent  years,  mosaics  of  surpassing 
beauty,   both  in  design  and  material,  have  beoi 

S reduced  by  Russian  artists  in  the  Imperial  Olaia 
Eannfactory  of  Roaaia ;  thoae  shewn  in  the  Rnsdan 
department  of  the  International  Exhibition  (1662) 


smaltt;  they  are  generally  opaqoe,  and  an  set  in 
cement  in  tiie  same  manner  as  tiles  of  pavement. 
Some  fine  pieces  of  mosuc  pavement  have  lately 
been  produced  in  this  country  by  Messrs  Mintoo 
&  Co.  of  Stoko-npon-Trent,  and  by  Messrs  Maw  of 
Brosely,  proving  that  the  art  only  wants  sufficient 
encouragement  to  obtain  a  hi^  position.  In  Italy 
there  are  two  very  distinct  varieties  of  mosuo  work 
-i.  e.,  the  Florentine  and  the  Roman  ;  the  former 

entirely  formed  of  ^eces  of  stone  or  shell  of  the 
natural  colours,  and  is  limited  in  its  application 
chiefly  to  floral  and  Arabesque  designs.  Hie  latter 
ia  made  of  the  glass  smalts  montdoned  above, 
end  has  so  wide  on  application,  that  most  of  the 
finest  paintings  of  the  beet  old  masters  have 
been  oopied  in  mosaic,  and  the  pictures  bo  token 
form  the  almost  imperishable  decorations  of  the 
finest  churches  of  Italy.  The  manufacture  of  the 
opaque  glass  or  smalts  for  making  the  little  square 
pieces  called  tessene,  of  which  the  pictures  are 
composed,  is  a  very  important  one,  and  is  carried 
on  in  the  Vatican,  where  25,000  shiides  of  the  vari- 
ous kinds  of  coloured  glass  are  produOed. 

MOSAIC  GOLD.    See  Tin. 

MOSAIC  WOOL     See  Sdpp.,  VoL  X. 

M08ATLIMA.    See  SuTP.,  VoL  X. 

MCSCOW,  an  im[)ortant  goveninient  of  Central 
Russia,  lies  immediately  sontb  of  the  govern- 
ments of  Tver  and  Vladimir.  Area,  12,552  sq.  m.  j 
pop.  (I8S0)  1,933,368.  The  surface  is  level  wiUi 
the  exception  of  a  tract  in  the  south-west,  which  ia 
elevated.  It  is  watored  by  the  Moskva  and  the 
Klioima,  while  the  Oka  forms  a  jwrtion  of  its 
southern  boundary.  The  soil,  prineipally  cbyey, 
with  some  sandy  and  stony  tracts,  is,  on  tLe  whole, 
unfertile,  and  barely  supplies  local  consumption. 
Few  of  the  governments  ol  Russia,  however,  equal 
that  of  M.  in  manufactures  and  general  industry.  It 
contains  numerous  cloth,  silk,  brocade,  chintz,  paper, 
and  other  factories.  China-ware  is  manufactMed 
front  the  clay  dug  up  in  the  district  of  Ojelsfc. 
Many  of  its  villages  cairy  on  special  branches  of 
manufactnrc,  of  which  jans,  f^aa»  beads,  and  small 
looking-glasses  for  Asia  is  one.  White  limestone 
is  quarried,  and  is  much  need  for  building  in  the 
capital ;  yJlow  marblo  quarries  occur  on  the  banka 
of  the  Oka.  Feat  is  extensively  used  as  fuel  in  the 
factories.  Among  the  places  historically  celebrated 
are  Uie  monastery  of  St  Serg^ns,  founded  by  one 
of  the  first  Muscovite  prince^  and  famous  for  its 
silver  shrine,  said  to  be  tiie  richest  in  Hie  world  j 
and  the  viUi^  of  Borodino  (q.  t.). 

.  ..C.oogle 


uoscovf-nosmAA 


HOSOOW  (Rom.  ModmS),  tiie  tatarni  otrAUl  of 

Kiuala,  tttA  formerly  the  rendence  of  the  Czan,  ia 
ntiuted  in  a  hishlf-cnltivated  and  fertile  diitriot  on 
Uie  Moak™,  400  miles  wath-eMt  of  St  PetCMbnig, 
with  vhioh  it  is  in  direct  conmanicatioQ  b]?  rail- 
way.  I*t  BF  W  N,  long.  37'  33"  E.  Pop  (1880) 
611,970.  Prerionaly  to  Ua  beins  bomed  in  1612, 
M.  w*«  periiBpa  Uw  moat  iiregiuarly  bailt  oity  in 
Enrope,  and  that  diitinetioD  to  a  gr^t  extent  it 
atill  ntaini ;  for,  aa  Hm  main  objeot  in  1813  waa 
to  tntild  apeedily,  the  ib«eta  roM  again  on  the  old 
model,  mtdnlabng  and  crooked,  and  coniiRting  of 
alternating  bdnfcs,  the  moot  varied  in  ehu-acter  and 

KtentioDS.  Many  improvemeDbt  have,  however, 
n  reoentlv  accompli^ed  in  the  eity.  QM-pipes 
have  been  (aid  along  the  atreeta ;  letter-bozn  are 
plaoed  at  freqnent  intervals ;  the  Bomansaff  Fhtce, 
lonMiIy  to  dirty,  bm  been  oouvertad  into  a  iplendid 
■qnan^  witb  an  omameiital  garden,  aod  the  old 
obdiak,  the  tonnar  monnmeot  of  the  Place, 
■taading  in  the  centre,  with  water  fonotuna 
on  Mcn  aide.  Tb»  gerunl  view  of  the  town, 
Mpecially  tliat  obtained  from  an  eminenoe  on 
ita  MDUiem  nda  aaUed  the  Sparrow  HiUi,  is 
eminentlv  ori^nal  and  pictnreaqne.  Its  hondreda 
of  chnrenes  ud  ooDveiita^  nnDonnted  by  gilt  or 
nriouily-odouMd  domM  j  tta  gardens  and  boole- 
vards;  and,  abora  all,  tii»  high  walla  and  crowded 
yet  stately  towen  of  the  Kteml  or  citadel,  prodnce 
a  mot  atrikiiig  effect  The  Emnl,  aitoatedT  on  the 
northern  bank  of  tha  river,  forma  the  centre  of  the 
town,  sod  armmd  i^  with  >  radini  of  about  a  mile, 
is  a  line  of  boulevard^  extaodiug,  however,  only  on 
the  north  side  of  the  river.  Ontaide  of  thii  line, 
and  oonoentriowith  it.  Is  another  line  of  boulevards, 
with  aradinaof  amileaudaliBlf  J  while  beyond  all, 
and  fonninK  the  girdle  of  the  ci^,  is  the  onter 
rampart^  wiw  a  oncunfereiuM  of  96  Kngli«h  miles. 
The  Ereml  oomprlsea  the  prinotpal  bnlldmgi,  as  the 
Cathedral  ti  tbs  Aimimption  oE  the  Virgin,  toanded 
in  132(L  a  null  but  gorgeonaly-deoorated  edifice; 
the  Cathedral  of  the  Archangel  Michael,  containing 
the  tombs  of  all  tiie  Czan  down  to  the  time  m 
Peter  the  Great,  who  changed  the  royal  biirial-place 
to  St  Petersborg ;  tiie  Church  of  the  Anniinciatioii, 
the  floor  ot  wMch  is  paved  with  jospora,  agatci^ 
and  cameliana  of  vanoos  abapea;  the  tower  of 
Ivan  Veliki,  200  feet  in  height,  and  rormonnted 
bv  a  munilioeiit  gilded  dome,  from  which,  as  from 
all  the  ^mea  of  M.,  rises  the  'honourable  oroia;' 
the  Czar  Kclobol  (king  of  bells),  the  grcat^ 
bell  in  the  woild;  several  palaces,  and  ooUcctions 
of  ancient  anna  and  other  antiquitiei ;  the  ancnal, 
snrroundal  by  the  splendid  trophy  of  850  cannons, 
token  from  the  French ;  and  the  senate.  The  walla 
of  the  Kreml  are  stUTuouated  by  18  towers,  and 
pierced  with  S  gates.  In  the  town,  the  chief  build. 
ings  are  the  oathedral  of  St  Yossili,  remarkable  for 
its  pecnlior  architectnre ;  the  Oostinoi  Dvor,  or 
Basaar ;  and  the  EzchoDgea.  The  Temple  of  the 
Saviour,  commenced  in  1612,  to  immonolise  the 
reputes  of  the  French  invasion,  was  finished  in 
1G31.  It  ia  resplendent  with  eold  and  marble ; 
the  gilding  of  the  fine  cnpolas  ^one  cost  100,000 
silver  roubles.  The  nnivetsity  of  M.,  the  tirst 
in  Eumio,  founded  in  I7S3,  is  attended  by  1800 
students,  and  contains  a  library  of  160,000  volnmea, 
museums  of  Dataral  history,  and  a  botanical  garden. 
As  intermediate  educational  establishments  between 
the  parish  schools  and  the  university,  there  are 

Smvided  S  high  schools  or  gymnaaia  for  male^  and 
for  females ;  special  eatablishments  are  the 
technological,  the  agricnftnral,  the  oriental,  2  com- 
mercial, and  3  toili&y  schools.  There  are  several 
learned  societies  in  M.,  which  is  also  the  seat  of  a 
metropolitan,  one  of  the  three  highest  dignitariee  of 


the  Basdan  ChurdL  The  pablio  mnsenin  and 
library,  which  waa  removed  from  Bt  PeteiBbmv  in 
1861,  occupies  a  large  and  handsome  buil£ng, 
formerly  a  palace,  ia  rich  especially  in  ancient 
Slavonic  MSS.,  and  baa  about  250,000  vols. 

M.  communicatee  by  railway  with  St  Peterabw]^ 
Nijni-Novgorod,  Koslov,  Ac  It  is  the  seat  of  an 
extensive  mumfooturiog  and  commercial  indnatry ; 
it  imports  largely,  and  carriea  on  a  oonaiderable  oz- 
porttnidLesmciallywitb  Asia.  Its  trade  is  chii^y 
in  hides,  leaUier,  oils,  wool,  grease,  idnglaaa,  wax, 
honey,  feathers  and  down,  potMS,  soap,  iron,  and  cop- 
per; cotton  from  Asia,  silks  from  Georgia,  Persia,  and 
Bokhara ;  Caucasian  madder,  home  and  Turkish 
tobacco,  luni,  tea,  chemicals,  and  all  the  prodncta 
of  HuBsian  manufactut^  of  whieh  IL  is  the  actual 
centre.  The  chief  maaufactures  ate  woollen  and 
worsted  goods,  silks,  brocade*,  dyeioft  printiii|^ 
tsoning  and  akin-dressing,  iron,  oopper,  and  ailver 
works,  and  chandleries. 

M.  is  of  ancient  origin  for  a  Rosnan  town.  Its 
site  was  bought  by  Yuri  Dolgoruki,  in  the  12Ui  o_ 
and  a  fortreas  bnDt.  In  the  l4Ui  o.,  not  only  had 
it  become  the  ct^ntsl  of  the  Rnssion  religious  world, 
owing  to  the  reddence  there  of  the  metropolitan, 
but  it  had  also  becoms  the  actual  cstdtal  of  Mus- 
covy. In  1368,  1370,  and  1372,  it  suffered  from  the 
inroads  of  the  Lithuanians ;  in  1381,  it  wss  sacked 
by  the  Tartars.  FnHn  141G  to  1501,  it  was,  on 
foQT  sepante  occasions,  partially  destroyed  by  fires; 
and  it  wu  burned  to  the  gronnd  by  Devlet-Oirey, 
Khan  of  the  Crimean  Tartars,  in  IS71.  It  waa 
taken  by  tlie  Pole*  in  1610^  and  remained  in  their 
pcsaession  till  tluir  expoliion  by  the  Russiana  under 
Minin  and  Pojarsky  in  1612.  In  1682,  I6S9,  and 
1698,  it  was  the  tiieotre  of  the  revolts  of  the  Streliti. 
In  1812,  from  the  14th  September  tUl  the  24lh 
October,  it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Frendi. 

MOSELLE    waa    formerly  a   frontier    depait- 


S'elds  abundance  of  grain,  fniits,_  and 
the  last  is  of  an  inferior  qnali^. 


thongl: 

cultnre  is  in  an  advanced  condition  i 
nnmercms,  and  the  river-navigation  important. 
Coal,  iron,  and  bnilding-stooe  ate  the  most  vain* 
able  minerila.  There  are  also  Unen,  woollen, 
leather,   ghtas,  papier-mlohi,   and  other  msnnfao- 

MOSEIiLE    (Gur.    Moid),  on  afSuent   ol   Oie 
Rhine,  rises  in  the  Vowes  Moontnina,  France,  at  an 

elevation  of  about  22S)  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
leo,  not  for  from  the  sources  of  the  SaSne.  Ita 
:ourse  ia  north-westerly  as  for  as  Poat'<l-Moo(soa, 
n  the  department  of  Meurthe,  where  it  becomes 
[lavigable ;  then  norUi  to  Thionville,  near  tiie  French 
irontier ;  after  which  it  proceeds,  tn  a  north-easterly 
lirectiou  (latterly,  with  many  rigjag  pictnreaqne 
bindings),  tlirougb  Luxemburg  and  Bhenish  Pnmsia, 
joining  the  Rhine  at  Coblentz.  On  its  way,  it  passes 
the  towns  of  Remireraont,  Epinal,  Toul,  Pont-i- 
Honswn,  Metz,  Thionville,  and  Treves.  From  Meta 
to  Treves  it  flows  through  a  brood  valley,  enclosed 
by  rounded  vine-bearing  hiUs.  Its  entire  length 
is  upwards  of  330  miles.  Its  principal  tributanes 
are  the  Meurthe.  the  Seille,  and  the  Sarre  on  the 
right:  and  the  Ome,  the  Sure,  and  the  Eyll  on 
the  left  The  wines  grown  in  t^  basin  of  tha 
MoBclie  are  noted  for  tiieii  lightness  and  their 
delicate  arotaatic  flavour.  Tka  latenur  taaia  are 
liable  to  acir' 


■  Google 


U(ySES  (Hob.  MOJiA;  LXX.  and  Tnl^  Moyia; 
TEcfpt-JTM  taMeaou;  CoptJfo-uiAe,  Le.,  drawn  out 
of  me  water),  prophet  and  lagidator  of  the  laraelitea, 
born  about  1600  b.o.  in  "Egf^  (T  Heliapolu),  during 
the  period  of  their  hard  bondage.  Hi*  father  waa 
Anuim,  his  mother  Jocbebod,  both  o£  tie  tribe 
of  Levi  The  tale  ot  bis  birth  and  earl?  education 
haa,  by  tradition  (Manetho,  Philo,  Josephun,  Mid- 
lash,  Ac.),  received  a  much  more  extraordina^ 
legendary  cbaraoter  than  ia  found  in  Brodus  ;  while 
Qie  main  features  are,  on  the  whole,  the  isme  in 
them  aH  And  there  is  no  reaaon  to  donbt  the 
tmthfulne«g  of  an  acconnt  which  ibewB  us  M.,  like 
many  other  aurreme  benefactora  and  '  anna  '  of 
mankind,  itrugguo^  arainit  an  apparently  adverse 
(ate,  nay  for  very  life,  from  the  inBtant  of  his  birth. 
The  weD-known  narrative,  to  which  late  traditiom 
(contained  in  Fhilo,  Josephua,  the  Fathers,  ka.) 
liave  supplied  qneationable  luune*  and  dates,  is  that 
M.'s  motber,  nnahle  to  bide  the  child— which  waa 
to  have  been  drowned  at  ita  birth— longer  than  for 
the  apace  of  three  months,  put  it  into  a  basket  of 

Epyrua,  and  hid  it  among  the  Nile  rushes,  Miriam, 
I  iister,  watching  it  from  afar.  The  king's 
daughter  (Thermuthis,  or  Merris  T),  coming  down  to 
the  river,  observed  the  weeping  child,  and  was  so 
stnick  with  iti  beanty,  that  she  allowed  Miriam  to 
fetch  a  Hebrew  unne,  Jochebed.  Orown  op,  he  was 
tent  to  the  kjn^a  palaoe  (Heliopolia)  aa  the  adopted 
son  ot  the  prinoeaa,  and  here  seems  to  bav»  enjoyed 
not  only  princely  rank,  bnt  alio  a  priocdy  education. 
He  is  also  aaid  to  hare  become  a  prie«t,  tinder  the 
name  of  Osandph  or  Tiaithen,  and  to  have  been 
a  mighty  adept  in  all  the  aciences  of  ■  Egypt, 
As^na,  and  Chaldea ; '  to  have  led  Egyptian  armies 
asainit  the  Ethiopians,  defeated  them,  and  pursued 
them  to  their  stronghold,  Saba  (\teroe)j  this  place 
being  delivered  ini»  hia  hands  by  Tharbis,  the 
kings  danghtec,  whom  he  subsequently  married. 
The  Bible  contains  nothing  whatever  about  the 
time  of  his  youth.  He  first  reappears  there  as 
the  avenger  of  a  Hebrew  alave,  iU-treated  by  an 
Egyptian  overseer.  Threatened  by  the  discovery 
ofthia  bloody  act,  he  eaoapes  into  Midian,  where 
he  is  boapitably  received  by  Jethro,  the  priest,  and 
married  hia  daiuhter,  Zipporab.  He  stayed  for 
many  years  in  Midian,  tending  the  flocks  of  his 
father-ID- law.  This  most  sudden  transition  from 
the  brilliant  and  refined  life  of  an  Eg}rptian  court, 
of  which  he  had  been  brought  up  a  prmce,  to  the 
etate  ot  a  ^r,  proscribed,  exiled  ahopnerd,  together 
with  the  influences  of  the  vast  deeert  aronnd  him, 
must,  in  M.'s  mind,  have  produced  a  singular  revo- 
Intian.  The  two  names  which  he  gave  to  his  son*, 
strikingly  expreas  part  of  what  ^ed  his  soul— a 
feeling  of  gratitude  for  bis  salvation  from  the 
avenging  hjvud  of  justice,  and  the  deep  woe  of  his 
exile,  ^nie  fate  of  his  brethren  went  now  to  his 
heart  with  greater  force  than  whan  he  waa  a  prince 
and  near  them.  Iliere  rushed  upon  hia  memory 
the  ancient  traditions  of  his  family,  the  promises  <rf 
Jehovah  to  the  miehty  ahttkhs,  his  foreEathras; 
that  they  shonld  become  a  great  and  a  free 
nation,  and  possesB  the  ancient  heritage  of  Canaan ; 
why  sboold  not  he  be  the  instrument  to  carry  ont 
this  promiiet  The  Ekyt  aalter  Ehye  (I  am  tiiat 
I  taa)  appeared  to  him  while  his  mind  was  occupied 
with  such  tiioughti,  and  himself  put  the  office  upon 
his  (honlders.  A  new  king  had  succeeded  in 
Egypt,  his  old  enemies  were  either  dead 


but  of  fine  tongne,  he  oonsnlted  about  the  first  (tepa 


After  ten  distinct  plagnes  (more  or  less  akin 
to  natural  phenomena  peculiar  to  E^pt),  the  last 
being  the  death  lA  all  the  firstborn,  Pharaoh  con- 
aentmi  to  let  his  davet  go  free,  'that  they  mi^t 
serve  their  Ood.'     M.  very  soon  had  occasion  to 

Edve  that  he  wm  not  only  the  God-inspired 
berator  of  hia  people,  who,  in  the  entbusiann 
of  the  moment  had  braved  the  gieat  king  and 
hia  disciplined  armies,  but  that  he  posseased  all 
thoie  rarer  qualities  which  alone  could  enable  a 
man  to  mould  half-brutalised  hordes  of  slavet 
into   a  great  nation.     Calmness,  disinterestedneta, 

Eitience,  perseverance,  meekness,  coupled  with 
een  energy,  rapidity  of  action,  unfailing  coonigo — 
'wisdom  in  council  and  boldness  in  war' — oon- 
atituted  the  immense  power  which  he  held  over 
the  hundreds  of  l^ousands  who  knew  no  law  in 
their  newlj.acquired  liberty,  and  who  were  apt 
to  murmur  and  to  rebel  on  any  or  no  provocation. 
Nor  were  the  hostile  Bedouin  tribes,  whoae  terri- 
tories the  new  emigrants  approached,  easily  over- 
time with  nntrainsd  warriora,  such  as  formed  tha 
ranks  oC  M.'s  army.-  The  Jealousy  of  certain  eldeia 
fostering  saditionE  vrithin,  added  to  his  unceasing 
vexations ;  and  to  fill  the  measure  to  orerflowing 
indeed,  his  own  brother  Aaron,  whom  be  had  made 
his  repiesentatiTe  during  bis  temporary  absence  on 
the  Mount  of  Snal,  himself  asaisted  in  the  fobrioa- 
tion  of  an  idoL  His  sacred  offioe  •■  It^ilator  he  in 
reality  first  assnmed  in  the  third  month  after  tlie 
Exodus^  when,  after  many  hard  and  ttying  mandiea 
and  countermarches-— from  Goshen  to  Sucooth 
(  T  Latopolis,  the  preaent  Old  Cairo) ;  thenoe,  by  a 
debmr,  lo  Ethun  (TRamlieh),  Pi-hachiroth  ( 1  Bedea), 
through  the  Red  Sea,  to  the  Desert  of  Sbnr  (!A1. 
Djofar),  Uarah,  Elim  (Wadi  Gharandel),  Desert  of 
8m  (Wadi  Mooatteb,  or  Wadi  Al-Sheikii),  Dopbka, 
Aius,  Kaphidim  [near  the  Makkad  Sidna  Mousa)— 
made  more  trying  by  want  of  food  and  of  water, 
by  encounteiB  with  Pbaraoh  and  the  Amalekitea, 
having  arrived  near  the  Mount  ot  Sinai,  be  made  the 
people  encamp  all  round,  and  ascended  the  ninunit 
of  the  mountain  by  himself.  On  the  in(udenta  oon- 
nected  with  the  *  RevelatioD '  made  to  Vtia  whole 
people,  we  need  not  dwell  any  more  than  on  any 
other  part  of  this  well-known  narrative.  Suffice  it 
to  point  out  briefly,  that  the  tendency  of  the  whole 
Law  was  to  make  the  Hebrews  a  people  *  consecrated 
to  the  Lord,'  *  a  holy  people,  and  a  kin^om  of 
priests,'  L  e.,  a  people  of  equals  both  before  Ood  and 
the  Law.  Thi^e  distinct  parte  compose  this  Moeuc 
Constitution.  The  doctrme  with  respect  to  Ood 
and  His  attributes ;  the  '  Symbolical '  Law,  as  the 
outward  token  of  His  Doctrme ;  and  the  Moral  and 
SooialLaw.  TheDeoaloBnetonnsakindof aumuiary 
of  all  the  three  :  the  existence  of  Jehovah  as  the 
Absolute  Being,  the  liberation  of  the  people  and  the 
prohibition  of  Folytheism,  and  tbe  Eeyreaentation 
of  the  Divinity  by  visible  imaeea  (i — iiL),  While 
the  institution  of  tbe  Sabbath,  the  symbol  of 
creation  and  the  Creator,  forma  the  basis  of  all 
religious  observances  (iv.),  the  remaining  part  of  the 
laws  relate  to  tbe  intcrcouTBO  among  tbe  memben  of 
the  human  commonwealth ;  the  gratitude  of  children 
is  inculcated ;  murder,  adultery,  theft,  false  witness, 
coveting  of  others'  goods  are  prohibited.  The 
groundwork  of  these  regulations  had  indeed  been 
a  special  inheritance  in  the  family  of  the  Abraham- 
it«s  from  tbe  earliest  times;  but  the  vioiMitadw 
of  fortune,  the  various  migrations,  and  the  eoor- 
mous  increase  of  this  family,  and  its  being  ndzed 
up  for  long  years  with  the  surrounding  idtJaten, 
had  obliterated  nearly  all  traces  of  the  primeval 
pnrity  <A  creed  in  the  pcpulac&  The  wisdom  dis- 
played even  in  the  minor  Tegnlatiot 
dispensation,    with    respect    to    tt 


I  of  tbe  Mosaic 


daptatioi 


,v  Google 


MOSES — U09&EIM. 


to  tha  ptonliMity  of  the  nos,  th*  dimate,  the 
politieal  ttata  of  tiie  country  which,  they  ware  to 
Inhabit ;  in  the  hygiemo  regolationa,  and  the  mlea 
which  treat  ot  the  social  and  domestio  lelationB ; 
and,  above  ali,  the  conatantly-raitented  cantiDn 
from  miTinp  again  with  other  natUini^  iuoh  aa 
Uiey  lottnd  tliem  in  Canaan— and  tiie  neglect  of 
iriuch  saboequently  piored  their  niin— ii  traced 
to  »  diieot  innuenoe  of  JahoTah,  generally  indicated 
by  tlia  wordi,  'And  GoA  spake  to  Uoaea,  apeak 
unto  the  children  of  ImeL'  An  ample  Bitual,  in 
ootmeotioii  with  the  Tabernacle,  or  conatantly- 
vinUe  aymbol  of  a  Divine  DwelliiiK ;  the  allegory 
ot  an  ever-new  coTenant  repreaented  by  Sacrifices, 
Prayen,  Pnrificationa,  kept  the  supreme  task  of 
being  prieeta  and  a  holy  P^ple  unceasingly  before 
the  eye*  of  Om  nation.  The  tribe  of  Levi  (q.  v.]> 
to  a  oertein  dt^^ee  acted  in  this  reapect  as  perma- 
nent re^eMstative* ;  and  not  to  Moae^a  ions, 
bnt  to  his  brother  Am«u  and  his  dcMendaiita^  waa' 
intnisted  the  office  ot  Hi^-pricst 

When  on  the  eve  ot  entering  into  the  pranuaed 
laod,  the  people  broke  ont  in  jopen  rebeluoii,  and 
threatened,  by  »  •pontaneona  retura  to  the  land 
ot  slavery,  to  undo  tiie  entire  woifc  of  M.'a  life. 
Convinoed  that  they  were  not  a«  yet  fit  to  toim  a 
the  liberator   and 


Lawgiver  had  to  postpone,  for  the  long  space  ot  40 
years,  the  crowning  act  of  his  work  j  and,  in  fact, 
did  not  himself  live  to  see  them  talung  possession 
id  tiie  hallowed  territory.  How  those  yeare  of 
nomadic  jonmeying  through  the  Desert  (Et-l^h 
or  Al-Tyh  Beni-Israel)  were  spent,  save  in  reaiing 
tip  a  new  generation  of  a.  more  manly  and  brave, 
a*  well  asmore'dviliBed'  stamp,  we  can  only  cod- 
jectnre.  All  Omme  who  had  left  £^ypt  as  men  were 
doMned  to  die  in  the  desert,  either  bv  a  natural 
death,  dt  by!  b^ng  suddenly  '  cut   oS,'  in  conae- 

Joenoe  ot  their  oprady  dehring  M.,  and  throngli  M., 
ehovah.  The  apparent  laak  of  incidents  during 
this  period  has  indeed  furnished  srounda  for  various 
qieonlationa  on  this  subject,  ana  critics  have  tried 
tr  space,  without,  how- 


snbjeot,  has  endeavoured  to  prove  the  '  forty ' 
•  mythical  ronnd  number,  the  real  time  being  two 
yean,  tia  testimonies  of  the  Hebrew  prophets 
and  hiatorians,  however,  are  perfectly  ananimouB  on 
titt  lubjeot  (cL  Job.  v.  6 ;  xiv.  10 ;  Amos,  iL  10 ;  v. 
26  ;  Fs.  xcv.  10,  to.),  and  modem  criticism  has 
muatly  endorsed  the  number  as  in  keeping  with  the 
oironmstances.  On  the  first  month  of  the  fortieth 
year  after  the  Ezodns,  we  find  M.  at  the  head  of  on 
entirely  new  generation  of  Hebrews  at  Eadesh,  in 
tha  Desert  otPhoroD  or  Zin.  Here  his  sister  Mirinm 
died.  Hei«  alao,  for  the  first  time,  M.,  seeing  the 
new  generation  as  stnbbom  and  'hard-necked'  as 
tiuir  btheia,  is  recorded  to  have  despaired  of  the 
Divino  Providence ;  and  his  disobemenoe  to  the 
letter  of  the  command  given  to  him, '  to  speak  to 
the  nwk,'  is  idleged  as  the  reason  '  that  his  bones 
too  had  to  taU  in  the  deeert.'  His  brother  Aaron 
died  at  Hot  (near  Fetra,  according  to  Josephus  and 
8t  Jerrane),  whither  the  Israelites  had  gone  nett. 
Not  long  afterwards.  M.  once  more  hud  occasion  to 
ptinish  with  relentless  severity  the  idolatrous  tend- 
encies of  tho  people  (Baal  Peer),  thus  i^ewing  that 
age  had  bad  no  power  oC  making  him  relax  his  strong 
ride  over  the  stiU  halE-aaTace  and  sensuous  multi- 
tndcb  Having  finally  fixed  the  Umits  of  the  land  to 
be  conquered,  and  given  the  most  explicit  ordera  to 
Joahna,  to  EUezer,  and  the  chiefs  of  the  ten  tribM, 
retpectin^  ita  division,  he  prepared  tbe  people  tor 
his  own  impending  death.  He  recalled  to  thdr 
^i,^.  ;,.  the  most  impressive  language,  their  mira- 


ouloui  liberation,  and  no  leas  miraoulons  preserva- 
tion in  Uie  dea^t.  Their  happiness — their  lite — 
was  bound  up,  he  told  them,  in  the  Divine  Law, 
commanicated  through  him  by  Jehovah,  A  recapi- 
tulation of  its  principal  ordinancea,  with  their 
several  modifications  and  additions,  and  reiterated 
exhortations  to  piety  and  virtue,  form  tbe  con- 
tent* ot  hia  last  speeches,  which  close  with  one  ot 
the  srandeat  poetical  hymns.  Tbe  law  was  then 
handed  over  to  t^  priests  that  they  might  instruct 
the  people  in  it  henceforth ;  Joshua  was  installed  a* 
■noceasor  (while  his  own  sons  sunk  into  the  obscu- 
rity ot  ordinary  Levit«i),  and  he  blessed  the  whole 
people.  He  uien  aecended  the  Mount  of  Keb<^ 
from  whence  he  cast  a  first  and  last  look  upon  the 
land  towards  whioh  he  had  pined  all  his  ufe,  and 
~~  which  his  feet  were  never  to  tread.  He  died 
jn  this  mountain,  120  years  old,  in  the  full  vieonr 
manhood,  aocording  to  the  Scriptures,  *  and  no 
luiin  knew  his  bnrial-plBce  up  to  this  day ' — so  that 
neither  his  remains  nor  his  tomb  were  desecrated 
by  'Divine  honoura'  being  auperstitiously  paid  to 


perhapa  the  very  doubtful  traditions  ot 

Manetho— -belong,  whatever  may  be  the  date  of  the 
respective  documents  of  the  Pentateuch,  to  a  much 
later  age,  and  bear  the  air  of  tradition  and  l^end, 
grown  out  ot  those  very  documents,  so  plun^  on 
their  face,  that  they  are  oi  about  the  same  import- 
ance for  historical  porposea  as  the  cycle  of  Midraah- 
sagas  that  have  gathered  around  M.,  and  which  are 
reproduced  variously  in  Moslem  Legendaries.  On 
hia  office  as  a  >  prophet .- ' — what  was  the  special 
nature  of  his  revelations,  how  far  the  doctrines 
promulgated  by  him  were  traditional  among  the 
Abrahamitea,  and  how  much  of  hia  laws  is  due  to 
E^;yptian  inQuencea ;  whether  part  of  them  was  first 
inaugurated  by  later  generations  and  ascribed  to 
him,  or  whether  otlierB  were  never  carried  ont  at 
all ;  on  these  and  similar  questions  which  have  been 
abundantly  raiaed,  more  especially  in  recent  times, 
we  must  refer  for  fuller  information  to  the  special 
works  on  the  subject.  Some  notices  of  the  more 
important  points  will  be  found  uoder  GzHRsn,  JKwa, 
Pentatedch,  Dbcaj-oodb,  &c.  There  seems,  how- 
ever, but  one  concluaion.  The  brief  span  of  human 
history  ot  which  we  have  any  knowledge,  shows 
few,  if  any,  men  of  M-'a  towering  grandeur — even 
with  oU  the  deductions  that  the  most  daring 
criticism  has  yet  proposed. 

MOSHEIH,  JoBANN  LoBBHE  vaK,  a  distin- 
guished church  historian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at 
LQbeck  on  9th  October  16M,  and  studied  at  EieL 
In  1723,  he  became  ordinary  professor  of  theology 
at  Helmatedt.  from  which  he  waa  removed  in  1747 
to  a  similar  office  in  Giittingen.  He  died  Chancellor 
of  tie  Univeraity  of  GiitUngen,  9th  September  1765, 
Hia  theological  works  are  uiunerouB,  omoogit  which 
are  a  work  on  Bible  morality,  SiUmlehrt  aer  Halt- 
gen  ScJii-Ol  (new  cd.,  continued  by  J.  P.  Miller, 
9  vola.  HjeUnat  1770— 177S);  and  Discourses,  ff«%ei> 
Sedea  (3  vola.  Homb.  1732,  et  aeq.).  Bnt  hia  most 
important  contribotlons  to  tbeolo^cal  literature 
are  in  the  department  ot  ecclewastical  hiatoiy, 
in  which  his  IiutUnUona  HUtoria  Secletiiutiaa 
(Helmet  1755)  is  familiar  to  every  student  as  a 
work  of  great  learning,  fulness,  and  aocuracy.  It 
has  been  tranalated  from  the  original  very  efwant 
Latin  into  EngUah  and  other  languages.  The  best 
English  tmuBlation  is  that  by  Dr  James  Murdock 
(3  vols.  New  York,  1832),  of  which  there  are  many 
reprints.  Besides  this,  M.  ia  the  author  ot  /n- 
sCitHttonsa  Hiatoria  Chri^anm  Mcgora  (Helmat 
1763);  D«  Rdim  OhiiMiMorKm  ta  ■    ' 


^■v-v-^^,. 


MOSOSAtTBtrS-MOSQUE. 


OOtumeiaarti  (Edinrt.  1753) ;  Dittertationa  ad  ffW, 
Hedaiattkam  ptrUnenttt  (3  voU.  new  ed.  Altooa, 
1767) ;  KUd  Ftrtueh  tinir  vnparieii»ehen  Keliave- 
fcUeke  (2  toIi.  HeJmst  1746—1748).  HU  lUnd-pomt 
ii  that  of  liberal  orthodoxy ;  yet  ha  ii  eeseutially 
dogmalie,aiii  payi  more  regaid.  to  the  mere 'opmions' 
oi  men  than  to  the  duusctar  and  Kenina  ihining 
thronf^  tbem ;  hence,  hia  Church  Sutoiy  ia  fu 
inferior  in  point  of  nchnaM,  depth,  and  anggeatiTe- 
twaa  to  that  of  Neaoder. 

HOSOSATTRUS  (Mxna  Lizakd),  a  genna  of 
ho^  marine  limrda,  irhoae  remains  occnr  m  roeka 
of  oretaoeooa  age.  Three  apedea  are  known,  one 
fnon  the  npper  chalk  of  Soasejc,  a  aecond  from  the 
ontacaooa  beda  of  North  America,  and  tite  tUrd 
from  the  Maettticht  beda.  Thia  laat  (Jf.  Hofmaaii) 
waa  fitat  known  from  a  nearly  perfect  head  dng  oat 


Head  of  Hoacaannu. 

of  St  Peter'a  Momit  in  17S0,  and  popalarly  called 
tiie  gT«at  animal  of  Maastricht.  Originally  the  pro- 
perty of  Hofmnn,  it  waa  taken  from  him,  in  virtne 
fA  aome  danae  in  their  ehnrter,  by  the  eccleaiaatical 
anthoribea  of  Maeatricht,  who,  in  their  turn,  were 
oompelled  to  give  it  np  to  the  victoriona  French 
army,  and  by  them  it  waa  removed  to  Faria.  It  ia 
aaid  that  the  Freuch  cannonien,  when  preparing  for 


towarda  that  part  of  the  town  in  which  the  precion* 
apecimen  waa  depoaited.  IThia  houi  ia  fonr  feet  in 
length,  and  the  animal  to  which  it  belonged  ia  esti- 
mated to  have  been  25  feet  long.  The  total  nmnb^ 
of  the  vertehne  waa  133  ;  they  were  concave  in  front 
and  convex  behind,  and  were  dtted  to  each  other  by 
a  ball-and-Bocket  joints  admitting  of  eaay  and  nnivei^ 
aal  flexion ;  the  aacmm  seems  to  have  been  wanting. 
The  limbe  were  dereloped  into  four  large  paddlea, 
and  these  with  the  comparatively  short  and  strong 
tail,  the  bones  of  which  were  conatracted  to  give 
great  mnscolar  power,  enabled  the  animal  to  move 
quickly  throngn  the  water  in  poisnit  of  its  piey. 
The  jawB  were  furnished  with  a  single  row  of  stroni- 
conical  teeth.  Cuvier  first  shewed  the  affinitiM  M 
the  animnl.  It  ia  most  nearly  related  to  the  modem 
monitor,  but  diOcra  from  aU  modem  lizards  in  ita 
pecnliar  adaptations  for  an  ocean  life,  and  in  Its  great 
size.  The  largest  living  lacertian  is  only  C  feet  in 
length,  and  of  this  a  large  proportion  ia  mode  up  by 
"le  tail ;  the  M.,  with  ita  short  toil,  ia  estimated  to 
tve  been  at  least  25  feet  long. 
HOSQUB,  a  Hohommedoa  hoose  of  prayer.  The 
<xA  is  derived,  throueh  the  Italian  moadiea,  from 
the  Atabia  megid,  a  place  of  prayer.  The  fonn  of 
^e  oldest  moaquea  (at  Jerusalem  and  Cairo)  is  evi- 
dently derived  irom  that  of  the  Christian  Basilica, 
the  narthex  being  the  origin  of  the  court,  with 
its  arcade,  and  the  eaatern.  apses  representing 
the  principal  buildings  of  the  mosque  facing  Mecca. 
The  original  forma  became,  however,  entirely  oblit- 
erated in  the  progress  of  Mohammedan  archi- 
tecture, and  tne  mosqnea,  wit^  their  arcaded 
oonrta,  gateways,  domes,  and  minarets,  became 
the  most  choraoteristio  ediGcea  of  Saracenic  orb 
Wherever  the  Mohammedan  faith  prevailed,  from 
Spain  to  India,  beautiful  examples  of  these  build- 
ing!  exist.     They  voiy   considerably  in  at^le   in 


Orcit  Mosque  at  Delhi,  from  the  North-east. — From  Fergnuon'a  Band-Boel  o/  ArAUc^vrt. 


who  adopted  their  faith.  In  India,  the  mosques 
have  many  feature*  in  oomnon  with  the  temples  of 
the  Jains,  while  in  Turkey  they  resemble  the  Byzan- 
tine architectnre  of  Constantinople.  Everywhere 
the  dome  is  <»ie  of  the  leading  and  most  beaati/ul 
features  of  the  moiquea,  which  commonly  oonsist  of 
porticoes  aarronnding  an  open  aqoare,  in  the  centre 
of  which  ia  a  tank  or  fonntain  for  ablution.    Am- 


... .  the  only  omamenta  of  the  interior.  l£e  floor 
is  generally  covered  with  mats  or  caipeta  ;  there  are 
no  seats.  In  the  aouth-eaat  ia  a  kind  of  pnlptt 
(Mimbar)  for  the  Tm6m  ;  an<l  in  the  direction  in 
which  Mecca  lies  (the  Eibleh),  there  ia  a  niche 
(Mebrab)  towards  which  the  faithful  are  reqoired 
to  look  when  they  pray.     Opposite  the  pulpit,  there 


nCocff^le 


uosQttro-uossss. 


If  ggaamOf  >  platform  fDikkeh),  (Oironiulad  b^  » 
parapet,  wiQi  a  dwk  bearing  the  Korao,  from  vludi 


aolemni^  Mid  decorum  are  preserved  durins 
aervice,  uthoagli  in  the  honn  oi  the  aftemixni  (« 


—_^,  —  __ Mmo*qn«bj  the  whole  coD- 

sr^atioD    -  "-^»  —  "-■  •         •  "  • 

AiMmbl].  ,  .    „ 

•dditioniu  prayers,  and  at  tunes  a  aermon  is  super- 
added to  the  service.  It  is  not  customary  for  women 
to  vimt  the  moaqnea,  and  if  they  do,  they  ai«  aepa- 
rated  from  the  nule  worehippen.     ^e  ntmoat 

-wwship)  people  are  seen  lonn^ing,  chat- 
ting, eren  enmed  in  Uieir  trade,  ia  the  uteriov  of 
the  aacred  buldins.  On  entering  the  moaque,  the 
Uoalem  takes  off  Qa  shoes,  carriea  them  in  his  ~  '~ 
hand,  sols  to  sole,  and  patting  liis  rwht  foot  i 
over  the  tiireshold,  he  then  performs  uie  necesi  , 
aUutiana,  and  finishes  by  pnttiog  his  ahoea  and  any 
anna  he  may  have  with  him  upon  the  matting  before 
him.  The  ooagreeation  generally  arrange  them' 
ielvcB  in  rows  pajauel  to  that  side  of  the  mosqae  ii 
which  is  the  mche,  and  fiusing  that  side.  The  cliiei 
officer  of  a  mosqne  ia  the  Iwir,  nndar  whom  are 
two  [mibna,  a  kind  «f  relii^iraa  <^dal,  in  no  way  to 
be  compared  with  what  we  nndetstand  by  a  derey- 
maa  of  a  creed,  bnt  who  performs  a  cerhun  trnrnMr 
of  religions  ritea,  aa  long  as  the  Nadr  allowa  him  to 
do  BO,  and  who,  being  very  badly  remnnarated, 
generally  has  to  find  some  other  occupation  beoidea. 
There  are  fnrthsr  many  persona  attached  to  • 
moaqne  in  a  lower  capacity,  as  Maeddina  (q.  v.), 
Bowwabs  (door-keepen),  fta,  all  of  whom  at«  pud, 
not  by  contributions  levied  npon  the  people,  bnt 
from  uie  funds  of  the  mosque  itself.  Tha  revenuea 
of  moaqnea  are  derived  from  laada.  With  many  of 
the  lai^   mosqnee,  there  ire  adioola,  academies 

iMedregehs).  and  hospitals  connected,  and  pnblio 
itchenit  in  wliich  food  is  prepared  for  the  poor. 
HOSQTTI'TO  (Span.  gnaCi,  a  name  veiyKenerally 
given  to  the  moat  troubleeome  species  of  (Sdex,  and 
allied  genera.  See  Qvtx.  The  name  M.  ia  given, 
accordmg  to  Humboldt^  in  some  parts  of  tropical 
Sooth  .^erica  to  speciea  of  Simuiia,  which  are 
active  during  the  day,  whil«t  epedea  of  Ouiee,  active 
ehie&y  dming  the  ni^t,  are  called  Zancudoa ;  but 


znat,  bn 


Benerally,  Tba  name  was  probably  first  used  in  the 
westlndiee,whenitparticulariydeaignateaasi~  '  ~ 
((7.  MotquiUt)  very  cimilar  to  tlu  eommoD  gnai 
not  quite  eo  large,  with  black  proboecis,  and  nu 
with  silvery  white  on  ttie  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen. 
It  abonnds  in  the  warm  parts  of  America,  especially 
in  marshy  districts  and  m  the  vicinity  of  stagnant 
watCTB.  It  and  similar  spedea  extend  even  to 
very  northern  regions,  appearing  duriof;  the  heat 
of  aummer  in  prodi^oua  swarms.  Similar  speciea 
are  foDud  also  in  nmilar  ntnatiooa  io  almost  all 
porta  of  the  world,  and  are  almost  aa  great  a  peat  in 
Lapland  as  within  tJie  tropica.  The  bite  whidi  they 
innict  ia  punful,  and  their  incessant  sharp  buziing 
prevents  Bleep.  In  India  and  other  countries  beds  are 
provided  witn  mo^uito  eurtaiiu  of  game,  which  ate 
closely  drawn,  to  protect  the  occnpaut  wh3e  the 
natives  who  cannot  avail  themadvea  of  anoh  pro- 
tection, smear  their  bodies  with  <riL  So  nnmeroua 
are  mosquitoes  in  some  localities  in  South  America, 
that  the  wretched  inhabitants  sleep  vrith  their  lx>diea 
covered  over  with  sand  three  or  four  inches  deen 
the  bead  only  being  left  out,  iriiioh  they  ootw  with 
a  handkerchief ;  and  baveUera  have  been  obliged  to 
have  reconrae  to  the  same  expedients  Even  thiek 
clothes  afford  at  beat  a  veiy  partial  protection 
from  moeqnitoe*  being  TeadQj  penatmted  by  th« 


numerous,  a  lamp  only  oanaea  addit 

Eegate  to  its  neighlMuihood  until  it  is  eitin- 
ec^  aa  ia  often  very  soon  the  esse,  t^  their 
bodies. 
UOSQUnO  OOABT,  HOBQITITO  THSBI< 
TORY,  or  MOBQOmA,  formerly  a  native  hW 
dom,  under  the  protectorate  of  Bntain,  lies  on  the 
cost  coast  of  Central  Amerioa,  baviag  Houdnraa  on 
the  north,  Nicanuna  on  the  w«al^  Mtd  Coata  Riea 
on  Uia  aovtb.  The  area  ia  estimated  a*  ISpOOO 
E^liah  aquare  milea,  bat  aa  20,000  mllaa  of  eon- 
teatod  territory  lie  between  it,  and  Honduras  and 
Nicanena,  its  extent  would  b«  man  oomoOj  gina 
at  2S,Ooa  square  milea.  The  maat  is  low,  wit^  maay 
bays  and  Immea,  and  poaseaHa  a  anmW  of  goM 
harbosra.  Hie  two  pnndpal  riveta  are  tlie  Bio  de 
Segovia  (which  riaea  within  35  miles  of  Uie  Pacific 
Oraan),  and  the  Bio  Escondido,  both  of  which  flow 
into  the  Csribbean  Sea.  Tbe  climate  ia  rainy,  and 
the  temperature,  considering  the  latitude,  is  ood 
and  eanal,  tiie  thermometer  seldom  ri«ng  above  S2* 
or  falling  below  71*>  On  the  whole,  this  territory 
ia  one  oT the  moat  healthy  parte  ol  Central  America. 
Ague  ia  not  nnuanally  common,  epidemics  are 
exoeedin^y  rare,  and  white  people  who  do  not 
rackleaaly  expose  themselves  enjoy  the  bert  health. 
The  awampy  grounds  are  gener^y  covered  with 
dense  foreats,  m  wfaioh  dye-wooda  and  timber-treea 
of  great  value  abomid.  Bice^  main,  manioc,  and 
other  tooinoal  planta,  are  cultivated  The  country 
abounds  in  deer  of  varions  kinds,  half-wild  hnses 
and  oxen  roam  in  the  aavannahs^  which  an  ooreied 
with  tall  graaa,  and  alliMfana  and  aarpents  am 
iim.  The  chief  expons  an  mahogtuv,  cocoa, 
r,  sanapariUa,  and  tortoise-ahelL  but  tha  whole 


IX' 


iuoonaiderable. 


and  mnaway  n^roee ;  they  do  not  number  more 
than  from  10.000  to  18,000  in  all  Their  chief  oocu- 
patioDS  are  hunting  and  fisbiog  bnt  a  little  agrioul- 
tora  and  cattle  breeding  are  also  praotiaed. 


The  M.C.W 


I  discovered  il 


2  by  Columbna, 


,    .,  himaelf  tinder  the  protection  of  Britain. 

Iritisb  ooloniste  at  different  times  attempted  to 
found  aettlcmenta  in  Tarious  parta  of  the  country, 
but  from  various  oanses  were  soon  after  compelled 
to  withdraw.  Of  late  years  they  have  met  with 
lore  succeaa  The  foothold  Britain  thoa  obtained 
I  Cential  America  waa  viewed  with  great  jealousy 
y  the  United  Stete^irtko  left  no  meana  antried  to 
Sect  her  expulsion.  During  the  Britiab  protectorate 
sort  of  constitutional  government  waa  eetabliahed, 
dnsistins  of  a  legislative  body,  and  regular  Jury 
oonrts.  In  July  1S60,  the  United  Stotes  and  Oreat 
Britain  bound  themaelvaa  by  the  Clayton-Bnlwer 
treaty  'not  to  occupy,  fortify,  ooloniae,  or  exercise 
dominion  over  the  M.  C,  or  any  part  of  Central 
America;'  and  in  November  1S59,  Britain  ceded  the 
rotectorate  c^  M.  C-  along  with  the  Bay  Islands  to 
Honduras,  a  proceeding  which  gave  rise  to  much 
discontent  among  the  natives  of  the  coaa^  and  a 
-  ""iplete  rebellion  at  the  islaodeia.  However,  by  a 
sequent  treaty,  coneluded  Z6th  January  1S60, 
the  whole  territory  waa  finally  handed  over  to 
Nicaragua 

.MOSSES  (Uiuett,  an  ordir  irf  aoo^ledoBOW 
planta,  conaiating  Ol  mere  ceUular  tiaane  witlioiit 
veaeels,  and  diatii^Kniabed  from   H^ialiect  (c 

Qie  order  with  which  tlMj — *  -— •-- 

liy  having  alwaya  a  leafy  ati 


ivC.obgIc 


UOfftAlt-UOTKrt. 


capanla  or  am  Uperangium  or  (Aeea),  which  oponi  at 
the  top,  and  ii  filled  wiUi  sporaa  arnuMd  aronnd  » 
oentm  odimui  ieohimeUa).  The  oapaua  U  Mvered 
Inr  ft  hood  {calj/plTa) ;  mhI  when  it  i*  lipe,  and  hai 
^rown  off  the  nlyp^  and  operonlnni,  azhibitt 
uoDDd  ita  raontb  *  vaglt  or  donUe  row  <rf  li^ 
proccasn,  few  or  mimeraiu,  bttt  alwsft  either  four 
□r  &  multiple  of  four,  oolleatively  caJled  the  vtritUnitt. 
These  reprodaobve  orgsu  ua  Tiewed  by  many 
botaniatl  >s  female  flower*  or  ^njtiUUia  /  whilst 
reprodnetdve  orgftnt  of  another  kind,  ■ometimes 
found  on  iJie  «ame  plant,  bat  mora  generally  on 
distinct  planta,  are  regarded  a*  male  flowen  or 
anOiendta.  Theee  are  minute  cyliodrioal  aaca, 
oocnrring  in  the  axila  ot  the  leftTM,  or  oollected  into 
a  head  encloaed  by  variouily  modified  leave 
the  Eommit  of  the  stem,  and  finally  bunting 
discbargiue  a  great  number  of  spherical  or  oval 
vesicles,  throu^  the  bansparent  walls  of  which, 
when  moistened  with  water,  fllamenta  (tperma- 
Uanidg)    coiled   up    within    them    may   be    


■,  brtnchH  otothtd  -with  Imtm;  »,  a 
ipnil*;  if.  OMrenlam,  or  lIiL    3,  truic 

Dtre,    t,  >pi>r*(iln«M,  germtoatlni.   t 


(nppoaed  that  the  ■permatoioidi  oontained  m  them 
may  effect  the  fertiliBation  of  the  spore- producing 
capsiiles ;  but  thia  wanta  confirmation,  and  their 
particular  office  aa  reproductive  organs  ia  not  yet 
fully  ascertained— None  of  the  M.  are  liu^  planta, 
many  are  ver^  smalL  Many  have  elongated  stems, 
often  hmnchina ;  others  have  the  stem  scarcely 
developed,  so  tnat  they  seem  to  consist  ol  a  mere 
tuft  of  leaves.  They  are  generally  social  in  their 
manner  of  growth.  They  are  among  the  first  plants 
which  be^n  to  clothe  the  surface  of  rocks,  sands, 
tmnka  oi  tree*,  to.,  adapting  inorganic  matter  for 
the  snp^tort  of  hisher  kmds  of  vegetation.  They 
love  moistnre,  and  are  generally  more  abuodant  in 
cold  and  temperate  than  in  hot  climates.  They 
rtnig^  for  existence  on  the  atmoet  limits  of  vegB- 
tetion  in  the  polar  regiona  and  od  mountain-tops. 
Tbey  dry  np  and  appear  aa  dead  in  a  very  dry  state 
of  we  atmosphere,  bnt  revive  when  moistnre  retiu'n*. 


nrokeoting  the  roots  <rf  many  planb  tram  oold  and 
from  drought,  and  affbid  harbour  to  mnltitodca  of 
iMMtt.  SooM  of  them  anpoly  food  for  Mittla^  parli- 
cnla^  lor  tha  reindMr,  whmi  nothina  better  is  to 
b*  obtained,  and  a  wretohed  hind  of  Em«d  ia  eresi 
made  I^  some  of  the  dwellers  in  this  Aictio  region*, 
of  speciea  of  Bphafftuan,  Some  ar«  astringent  and 
diuMtio,  but  their  medicinal  vittaee  are  nnimporbuit 
Among  the  other  principal  uses  to  whioh  £liay  are 
applied  by  man  are  tbe  packing  of  things  liable  to 
be  broken,  the  Uttering  of  cattle,  the  covering  ot 
garden  plants  in  winter,  and  tlie  stoSng  of  the  open 
spaoe  in  nxrfs  to  moderate  the  heat  of  attic  rooms  in 
munmer  and  their  cold  in  wioter— perhaps  the  most 
important  nae  to  which  they  are  ever  put,  at  least 
in  Britain,  and  to  which,  aa  the  benefit  i*  great  and 
eaaily  attained,  it  ia  wonderful  that  they  are  not 
mnoh  mora  frequently  applied.  The  abuudance  of 
M.  in  meadows  and  pastures  ia  disagreeable  to 
farmers.  Tha  beet  remedies  are  proper  drainage, 
the  application  of  lime,  and  the  liberal  nae  of  other 
mannrea,  by  which  tbe  soil  may  be  enriched,  so  that 
better  plants  may  grow  with  sufficient  luznriance, 
npon  which  the  M,  are  choked  and  disappear. 

Several  thousand  speciea  of  U.  are  known.  Many 
of  the  M.  are  very  beautiful,  and  their  capsules  and 
other  organs  are  interesting  objects  of  study,  even 
with  an  ordinary  magnifying-gloM. 

HOSTAIl,  a  town  of  Enropeon  Tnrk^,  oaptal 
of  Herzegovina  (q.  v.),  on  the  Narenta,  4S  mile* 
Bonth-we«t  of  Boana-BeraL  It  is  snrrounded  hv 
embattled  walla,  contains  ten  moaqnea,  a  Oreeic 
cbnrch,  and  a  famona  Roman  bridxe  of  one  arch,  9S 
feet  in  span.  Silk,  grapes,  and  wine  an  produced, 
and  knifs-bladea  and  weap<»ka  ore  manufactured. 
M.  is  alsoaplaceof  eonaiderablebade.   Fop.  18,000. 

HO'SUL,  a  town  ol  Aidatio  Turkey,  in  the 
province  of  Al-Jezireh  (andent  Ueaopotamia),  is 
sitaated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tigris,  opposite 
ruins  of  ancient  Nineveh  (q.  v.],  and  180  miles 
^  the  river  fnon  Bagdad.  It  is  surronnded  by 
walls,  and  is  atill  in  a  more  flooriahina  condition 
than  moat  Turkish  towns,  on  account  of  its  caravan- 
trade  with  Diarhekir,  Bagdad,  and  Aleppo,  though 
its  prosperity  ia  nothing  to  what  it  formerly  woa. 
Dnnng  the  Middle  Ages  it  supplied  all  Europe  with 
its  rich  maaafactnres—nitufiru,  according  to  Marco 
Polo,  got  their  name  frem  this  town :  now,  on  tbe 
contrary,  Uie  basaan  of  M.  are  filled  with  tho 
manufactures  of  the  Weet  The  prindpsl  causes  of 
its  diminished  importance  are  the  riaa  of  Abuahehr 
'-  -'  -  emporium  of  trade,  and  the  opening  up 
aea-route  to  India  by  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez.  M.  is  the  seat  of  a  Jacobite  patriarch,  and 
was  formerly  the  great  metropolis  of  all  the  Meso- 
potamian  Christians  (tbe  N^torians,  tbe  United 
Chaldffians,  the  Jacobites,  kc),  but  war,  peetilei 
famine^  Mohammedan  proselytisni,  opprassion,  i 


_ anarchy,  have  greatly  reduced  their  n . 

bers.     Pop.  eatimated  at  from  18,000  to  <IG,000,  of 

hom  about  a  fourth  are  Christians ;  1500  Jews ; 

e  rest  Mobammedans  (Arabs,  Kurds,  and  Turks). 

MOTACI'LLID.^.    See  Waotaii* 

MOTA'ZILITES.     See  Supp.,  VoL  X. 

MOTB'TT,  a  name  applied  to  two  dilfcrent  fonns 

mposition^l.  A  saored  cantata,  coa- 

ini  onoonnectod  movements,  as  a  solo^ 

[uKna^  te. ;  2.  A  choral  composition, 

of  a  sacred  character,  beginning  with 

introduction  in  tbe  form  of  a  song,  perhaps  with 

figurative    accompatument ;    after    wbioh    follow 

several  fngne  subjects,  with  their  expoaitions,  ths 

whole  endmg  either  with  the  exposition  of  the  last 

subject,  a  n^ietition  of  the  introduction,  or  a  spcoia) 

fln^  subject    A  motatt  diSm  in  this  leapect  froB 


aisting  of  m 


MOTH— UOTHBEWELL, 


>  double  or  bijUa  fugue,  that  the  labjaoti  nerei 
amtmt  timnltuieoiulf ,  but  are  intTodaood  one  after 
t£e  other.  In  one  farm  of  the  motett,  the  sucoeedTe 
phnuM  ot  an  entire  chorale  aie  treated  as  lo  many 
ingal  eubject*. 

MOTH,  the  popular  nama   of    all  the  ' 


the  section  Noelama  of  the  order 
Lepidoplera  {a.T.),  Theyfonoed  the  genus /"Aoteito 
of  liniuens,  tmt  are  now  distributed  into  miuiy 
genera  and  families,  the  epecies  bdng  extremely 
tmineroiu.  Among  Uiem  are  the  very  largest 
Ltjndoplera,  and  also  the  smallesL  They  are 
diitingiliBhed  from  Hawk-moths,  and  from  most  of 
tii«  bntterfliei,  by  their  bristle-shaped  antennie, 
tapering  from  base  to  apex.  The  antennre  ore 
freqnenlly  feathered  or  pectinated,  especially  in  the 
males.  The  proboeois  is  generally  liinilaT  to  tiiat  of 
butterflies  ;  but  there  arc  some  groups  of  moths  in 
irbich  it  is  merely  rudimenta^,  and  these  are 
supposed  to  take  no  food  after  they  pass  from  the 
larva  state.  The  thorax  is  genenlly  shorter  and 
more  robust  than  in  bntterffies;  the  tibiae  of  the 
lera  often  bear  a  kind  of  spur ;  the  wings  are  held 
eiuier  in  a  horizontal  or  in  an  inclined  position  when 
at  rest ;  or,  as  in  many  of  the  smaller  moths,  ate 
wrapped  round  the  body.  The  two  wings  of  the 
same  side  ore  generally  hooked  together  m  repose 
by  means  of  bristles  on  the  margin.  The  females 
of  a  few  species  are  wingless. — Moths  are  generally 
nootnmal,  although  to  this  rule  there  are  a  few 
Bzceptions.  They  often  exhibit  great  richness  and 
beanty  of  colours,  olthoagb  in  brightness  of  colour 
they  are  not  generally  equal  to  butterOie*.  Their 
food  is  similsr  to  that  of  butterfiiee. — They  lay 
gnat  nnmbers  of  eggs,  which  exhibit  Tarieties  of 
form  and  colour  as  great  as  those  of  the  insects 
themselves.  Their  caterpillars  are  more  widely 
various  in  form  and  characters  than  tboee  of  butter- 
flies ;  diflTering  from  each  other  in  the  number  of 
their  legs,  and  in  horns,  pDtuhcrancea,  candal 
appendages,  bury  eoyerinf^  *^  Some  are  social 
both  in  the  larva  and  obiysalit  state;  forming,  on 


Mother  Oaraj'B  Chldcen,  or  Storm  Petrel  [iVottttorta 


A,  tb*  brilgf  agBSi 


fnmished   with   ppotnberancea,    and    is    oenerally 
'— -^    -"-    a   silken  cocoon,  pretlgr  dose   and 


inveloped   i 


with  thread*  wluch  cross  each 
other  in  Tuions  directions.  Silk-worm  (q.v.)  moths 
are  among  the  insects  most  useful  to  man ;  but 
moths  in  genera]  aie  renrded  by  him  sa  injurious, 
the  larvn  of  many  feemng  on  leaves  of  various 
kinds,  and  irftan  destroying  valoatds  crops ;   and 


<   of   I 


-lost  splendid  moths  inhabit  tropical  countries. 
Some  of  the  most  interesting  and  important  kinds 
of  moth  are  noticed  in  separate  articles.  Notwith- 
staudinB  a  popular  dislike  of  motlu,  obBervati<Mi 
of  their  nabits  and  of  the  richaeM  of  the  colour  of 
.many  of  them,  is  a  favourite  pursuit  of  naturalists. 
MOTHER  CABBY'S  CHIOKBN,  a  name 
familiarly  eiven  by  sailors  to  the  Stonn  Petrel  and 
other  small  oceanic  specie*  of  Petrel  (q.  t.). — The 


name  Motser  Oasev's  Goobb  is,  ia  like  manner, 
nven  to  the  Oreat  Black  Petrel  or  Oigantio  Fulmar 
[ProceUaTia  gigantea)  oE  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  a  bird 
of  about  three  feet  in  entire  length,  with  very 
long  wings,  and  blackish  gray  plnmsoe,  a  taven- 
oos  feeder  on  dead  whales  and  all  other  animal 
garbage,  and  which  also  kills  and  preys  upon  other 
•ea^birda. 

MOTHER  OF  PEARL,  the  shells  of  the  lam 
bivalve  molluso  Mdtagrina  margarittftni,  which 
also  prodnces  the  preeiouB  pearls.  SeePzABi.  These 
ahelu  tie  collected  in  vast  numbers  in  the  tropical 
seM^  chiefly  on  tiie  coaata  of  Ceylon,  ManiDa,  Cuba, 
Panama,  smd  the  South  Sea  Islands.  Ibose  from 
Panama  are  small  and  thick,  and  are  known  in 
eonunerce  as  'bullock'  shells;  those  from  Manilla 
ore  finest  in  quali^,  often  as  much  as  a  foot  in 
diameter,  round,  and  flat.  There  are  two  varieties 
— the  white  or  silver-lipped,  and  the  hlack-lipped. 
3o  enormoos  is  the  trade  in  these  shells,  that  the 
imports  of  this  couutry  atone  amount  to  3000  tons 
per  annum,  the  valne  of  which  is  nearly  £100,000; 
Although  large  quantities  of  these  shells  are  con- 
sumed in  inlayicj^  fancy  wood-work,  papier  mich$, 
and  in  making  knife- handles  and  other  small  orna- 
mental objects,  by  far  the  greater  portion  ia  required 
for  making  buttons,  chiefly  in  Birmingham. 

MOTHER  WATER,  MOTHER  LYE.  SeeLvft 
MOTHERWELL,  Wiu-uu,  a  Scottish  poet  and 
antiquary,  was  bora  ia  Glasgow,  13th  October  1797, 
and  educated  chiefly  at  tiio  grammar-school  of 
Paisley,  where,  in  his  tifteeath  year,  he  entered 
the  office  of  the  sheriff- clerk.  At  the  i^  of 
twenty-one,  he  was  appointed  sheriff-clerk  depute 
of  the  connty  of  Renfrew.  In  the  foUawing  yesr 
he  published  his  first  work,  the  Harp  qf  Satfrete- 
iliire,  containing  biographical  notices  of  ike  poets  of 
that  district,  from  the  IGth  to  the  19th  century. 
This  work  was  but  the  prdude  to  one  of  Ear  greater 
importance — his  JUiiulrelty,  Ancifnl  and  Modem, 
which  appeared  at  Olaseow  in  1827.  In  1828,  he 
eommenced  the  Paithg  Magaxine,  in  which 


iiz,c»Ci00glc 


MOTHERWELL— MOnbN. 


his  fiii««t  original  pieces  flnt  MM  the  light,  snd  in 
the  ume  year  accepted  the  editonliip  of  uie  Paitleg 
Advertiacr,  a  Coniervatira  joornaL  In  1830.  he 
beoams  editor  of  the  OUugoa  Courier,  He  diei  in 
that  city,  November  1,  1835,  at  the  early  age  of  38. 
M.  diaplaya  in  hii  beat  mooda  (but  only  then)  a 
rich,  b^ntifnl,  and  atroog  innginatiOD,  great  iranath 
and  tendemeaa  of  feeling,  and  a  tiioroogh  Icnoir- 
ledge  of  the  language  of  a  poet.  Hii  Jeanie  MoriMn 
it  nnanrpaned  for  the  mingled  pathoe  aud  pictnr 
eaqne  beaaty  of  its  reminiecences  of  boyiah  love . 
The  Saord-O/iaat  qf  Thorttan  Saudi  a  perhape  the 
moet  heroio  rone  m  the  Eugtiah  tongue ;  and  the 
little  piec«  berimuns,  ■  My  lieid  ii  like  to  rend, 
Willie,'  has  Mddom  oeea  read  without  tears.  An 
eoIaTged  edition  of  his  poetiaal  remaini,  with  a 
meinoiT,  was  published  in  Xondon  in  1849. 

MOTHERWELL,  a  town  of  Scotland,  in  Lanark- 
shire^ 11  miles  from  Olaagow.  Ita  pro(jr«u,  which 
of  late  Tears  haa  been  very  rapid,  is  chiefly  doe  to 
the  coal  mines  in  its  neighbourhood.  Pop.  (1861) 
2925;  (1871)  6943;  (1881)  12,804. 

MOTHERWORT  [Leomints  Cardiaca),  a  plant 
of  the  natoial  order  Lahiat'E,  found  about  hedges 
and  in  waste  places  in  Europe,  and  now  abundantly 
naturaliaed  in  some  parta  of  North  America.  It  " 
not  Tery  common  in  Britain,  and  probably  liaa  bei 
introduced.     It  is  perennial,  has  a  branched  item 


Motherwort  (Zeonurtti  Cardiam). 

aljout  Uirce  feet  high,  stalked  leaves,  the  lower 

3-loLed,  and  crowded  whorls  of  reddish  -  white 
flowera.  The  calyx  has  five  pungent  spreading 
teeth.  The  upper  lip  of  the  corolla  ia  ahaggy  on 
the  Dp]>er  side,  the  lower  lip  trifid  The  anthera 
are  sprinkled  with  shining  dots.  The  plant  wsa 
formerly  in  much  use  as  a  domestic  pectoral 
medicine,  but  ia  now  comparatively  little  employed. 
It  has  a  atrong,  but  not  agreeable  smell-^Otber 
species  of  the  some  genus  are  found  in  Europe  and 
the  north  of  Asia. 

MOTION,  Laws  or,  are  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples connecting  force  and  motion  in  the  physical 
nniverse ;  and  are  obvioualy  to  be  derived  from 
experivutlt  alone,  since  intuitive  reasoning  oannot 
ponibly  give  ua  any  information  as  to  what  may  or 
may  not  be  a  law  cu  natore.  Though  these  laws  are 
derived  from  experiment,  it  cannot  be  said  that  we 
have  any  very  dirtet  experimental  pnxA  of  their 


truth— onr  moat  satiatactoty  verifioatioiM  of  them 
are  derived  from  the  exaot  acoordance  of  the  reaolto 
of  calculation  with  those  of  observation  in  the  case 
of  such  gigantio  combinations  of  mutually  influenc- 
ing bodies  as  that  of  the  solar  system ;  and  it  ia  I^ 
such  proofs  that  they  must  be  considered  to  have 
been  finally  established. 

They  aeem  first  to  have  been  given  systematioally 
aad  completely  by  Newton,  at  the  opening  of  the 
Frhicipia!  but  the  first  two  were  known  to 
Galileo,  and  some  of  the  many  forms  of  t  part 
of  the  third  were  known  to  Hooke,  HuTghens, 
Wren,  and  oUiera.  We  shall  give  them  h^  in 
order,  with  a  few  brief  comments,  shewing  their 
itteestilg  and  their  use. 

First,  then,  we  naturally  inqoire,  what  matter 


body,  we  are  led  to  the  statement  called  thejlr«(  Utu 
(j/molion.- 

1.  Every  body  anUimiu  in  ii»  tUUe  of  rttt  or  nf 
unj/onn  tnofton  in  a  tlraight  line,  axepl  in  to  far 
<u  it  may  be  oorapdied  by  imprtMed  forva  to  dumgt 
thatalate. 

This  expreasea  aimply  the  inertia  of  matter — L  e., 
a  body  cannot  alter  ita  state  of  rest  or  motion  ;  for 
any  auch  alteration  external  force  ia  required. 
Hence  the  definition  of  Force  (q.  v.),  as  that  which 
changes  or  tenda  to  change  a  body's  state  of  reat  or 

Now,  how  does  the  change  of  state  depend  on  the 
force  which  produces  it  T  This  is  obviously  a  new 
question,  to  be  resolved  by  experiment ;  and  the 
answer  ia  the  teamd  laa  qf  motim : 

i.  Changs  of  tnolian  u  proporHanai  to  tA« 
impre»»fd  foru,  and  latet  plaee  tn  liie  direction  <^ 
iht  Oroxghi  line  in  tcldch  Qteforoe  act*. 

Newton's  silence  ia  as  expressive  aa  his  speech. 
Nothing  is  here  said  about  the  previons  motion  of 
the  body,  or  about  the  number  of  forces  which  may 
be  at  work  simultaneously.  Hence,  a  force  produces 
its  full  etToct  in  the  form  of  change  of  motion, 
whether  it  act  singly,  or  be  associated  with  oUiera; 
and  whatever,  moreover,  be  the  origioal  motion  of 
the  bod^  to  which  it  ia  applied.  Hence,  there  is  no 
such  thing  aa  equilibrium  ot  forces  ;  every  force  pro- 
duoea  motion — and  what  we  coll  equilibrinm  is  not 
the  balancing  of  forces,  but  the  balancing  of  their 
effeeU.  Hence,  the  absurdity  of  attempting  to 
found  the  science  of  Statics  on  any  other  basis  than 
ia  to  be  derived  from  the  second  law  of  motion; 
which,  in  fact,  leads  us  at  once  (by  the  ParuBdo- 
gram  of  VdocUiet,  which  is  a  purely  geometrical 
conception)  to  the  farallelofjram  qf  Forca,  uid 
thence,  with  the  help  of  the  third  law,  to  the  whole 
subject  of  Statics.  The  second  law  also  supphes^- 
the  means  of  measuring  force  and  mats ;  and  of 
solving  any  problem  whatever  concerning  the  motion 

ut  more  ia  required  before  ws  can  atndy  the 
LOD  of  a  tyttem  of  particles — ss  a  rigid  body,  or 
^uid,  for  instance ;  or  a  system  oi  connected 
bodies.  Here  there  ore  mutual  actions  and  reactions 
ot  the  nature  of  pressure  or  ot  transference  of  energy 
(see  Force)  between  the  parts— and  these  are 
regulated  by  the  third  laxo  ^f  mofion  : 

3.   To  evay  action  Hiert  it  atioayt  an  tmal  and 

contrary  reaction :  or,  lAe  muJual  actions  iff  any  lao 

bodies  are  atinays  equal  and  oppotildy  directed  in  the 

same  ttraighl  line. 

Thus,  the  mutual  pressure  between  two  bodies  has 

Sual,  but  opposite,  values  for  the  two.  The  tenston 
a  rope  is  the  same  thronghout  and  tends  aa  mnoli 
to  pull  bach  the  horse  at  one  end  aa  to  pull  jforunrtf 
the  canai-bost  at  the  other.  The  earth  exerts  aa 
much  attractive  force  on  the  aim  •■  tlie  ran  exoti 


J5^ 


ftlho 


then 


•nd  rnunetitm. 

Bui  Hnrton  goM  maoli  further  than  thii;  ha 
•hewi,  in  (sot,  that  aotion  and  reaotioD  (aabjact  to 
Ihs  tMrd  law)  may  oontUt  in  vori  done  bff  r  ' — 
instead  of  the  mere  fore*  or  preHure  itaeU, 
tbii  fonn  of  the  third  law  w«  deriTe  at  onoe  the 
prinoipla  o(  Virtual  Vdocitiea  (q.  v.),  whiob  in  ita 
application  to  maohinM  ia&Lmiliaras'  Whatugaintd 
in  power  ii  Int  in  tpttdJ  But  w«  also  derira  tha 
grand  prinoipla  of  the  indeetruolibility  <rf  work  or 
encro; :  at  sU  events  in  the  caw  of  tha  ordinaiy 
mecGanical  forcee — and  this  innat  be  K^aided  a* 
one  of  Que  grandest  disooreriw  Which  aoienoe  owm 
to  Newton.  It  ia  true  that  he  merely  hkhMotm  "■ 
and  then  abniptl  j  panu  to  another  mbject ;  ; 
we  can  hardly  eisf^^erate  the  valna  (A  tnia  ein 
remark  Experiinentere,  nuioly  Davy  and  Joi 
have  dnce  shewn  that  all  Uie  physical  eneigiee.  as 
heat,  light,  electricity,  ko.,  are  mbjeot  in  their 
tnuufonnationi  to  the  third  law  of  motion,  and 
thai  the  ^stem  cnwbiicted  by  Newton  for 
ordinary  dynamical  porpoaes,  is  now  tonnd  to  rale 
file  moat  mvitenoai  u  the  affections  of  matter. 
For  a  deTclopment  of  this^  ne  oar  uticle  on 
FOBOK 

MOTION,  AmiAi.  Motion  or  progression  is 
that  function  by  which  an  ^nimiil  is  able  to  trans- 
port itself  from  place  to  place.  It  is  enjoyed 
ezcIoMTely  by  animals,  there  bdng  notiiing  sbictly 
analogoas  to  it  in  the  Tegetable  kingdom.  The 
organs  employed  in  locomotioD  an  of  two  kinds, 
the  pauiK  and  the  aeSvt ;  the  former  including  all 
thoae  textures  which  form  the  skeleton,  and  by 
which  its  segmenta  are  united,  as  fibrous  and  areoliU' 
tinue,  synovial  membrane,  cartilage,  fibro-cartilage, 
and  bone,  while  t^e  latter  includes  the  muscles  with 
the  nerves,  which  oonvay  to  thorn  the  mandates  of 
theirill. 

Before  proceeding  to  notice  tha  different  modes  of 
progression  of  men  and  animals,  it  may  be  expedient 
to  say  a  few  words  on  ^/mdatg,  or  the  natural  atti- 
tude of  an  animal  This  attitude  depends  upon  the 
form  and  (onotionB  of  the  limbs.  Most  of  the  ter- 
restrial mammals  and  the  reptiles  (excepting  the 
■erpents),  both  of  which  use  four  feet  in  wi&dk, 
have  the  baekbone  (the  vertebral  column)  near^ 
horiioiital  [beinir  only  alightiy  concave  dowuwurds), 
and  resting,  at  ike  same  time,  both  on  the  fore  and 
bind  legs.  Birds,  whose  anterior  extremities  are 
intended  for  flight,  stand  upon  the  posterior  limbs 
only,  although  in  their  case,  too.  the  backbone  is 
generally  nearly  horizontal  when  the  aninuil  is  at 
rert.  Man  alone  stands  erect  with  bis  head 
supported  on  tha  summit  of  the  nearly  vertical 
vertebral  column.  Some  other  «n™«l«  (monkeys, 
harea,  kangaroos,  Ac)  can  rise  mora  or  less  er(«t, 
bat  in  thsu  case  tbo  attitude  is  obvioaaly  not  the 
Datondonet 

In  standing,  it  is  requisite  that  tha  limbs  shoold 
be  BO  arranged  that  tha  centre  of  gravity  may  fall 
within  the  space  inolnded  by  the  feet  If  the  centre 
of  gravity  does  not  fall  withm  this  space,  the  animal 
cannot  stand,  but  must  fall  to  that  side  to  which 
the  oentre  of  gravity  inclines.  On  this  aocount 
certain  aqostic  birds  (the  albatross,  for  example], 
which  have  their  feet  placed  very  far  back,  cannot 

that 


faase^  whioh  is  sssentisl  in  bipeds.  We 
most  anadnqwds  have  oomparatirdy  small  feet, 
while  nrds  are  fami^ied  with  long  toes,  which, 
when  qiread  out,  form  large  bases  of  support 
Moreover,  the  flexes  mnscl^  of  the  toes  are  so 
ananged  that  tiis  wei^  <A  tha  body  caosea  them 


to  oontraot  firing,  and  hence  birds  are  enabled  to 
~' — >  standing  without  any  effort. 

'Klkoig  is  the  most  common  form  of  prosreasioik 


■^, 


the  theory  of  walking  (Borelli,  the  brothen  Weber, 
and  Bishop]  have  divided  the  time  of  a  step  into 
two  portiiXM — L  a,  thiA  in  whioh  me  W  only  rests 
on  the  ground,  and  that  in  which  both  legs  rest  on 
the  ground.  The  period  in  which  both  feet  are  on 
the  ground  is  shorter  tbsn  that  in  whioh  the  body 
is  supported  by  one  leg  only.  During  the  time  the 
body  IB  iiipported  by  one  1m,  the  other  leg  swings 
from  behind  forwards,  without  the  active  intci^ 
vention  of  its  muscles,  but  by  the  mere  force  of 
gravity — in  short,  like  the  pendulum  of  a  clock. 
When  this  teg  is  again  placed  on  the  ground,  the 
first  interval  ends,  and  the  other— L  e,  that  in 
which  tha  body  is  supported  by  both  legs— begins, 
and  of  course  terminates  with  the  raismg  of  the 
other  leg.  The  time  that  the  body  is  supported  by 
both  1^  duuinishes  as  the  velocity  increases,  and 
vanishes  as  the  walk  mergra  into  a  run ;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  attains  its  mmimnm  in  extremely 
slow  walking,  when  it  is  (onnd  by  experiment  to 
amount  to  half  the  time  in  which  only  one  leg  sup- 
ports the  body.  The  greatest  velocity  of  walkinc 
IS  attained  when  the  time  of  a  step  is  equal  to  haQ 
the  duratian  of  the  motion  of  the  swinging  leg, 
and  the  velocity  in  walking  of  any  given  person 
ids  on  the  time  token  in  "'«t'"g  each  step, 
in  the  length  of  the  steps ;  and  both  of  these 
are,  again,  dependent  on  the  height  at  which  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  body  or  the  heads  of  the 
thigh-bones  ore  carried  above  the  ground;  for  as 
the  height  of  the  lattn*  ■<■"''"'"*' ",  the  length  of 
the  step  Ib  increased,  while  its  time  is  dimimihed, 
and  tiioe  twrsd.    Ihe  beat  walken  are  incapable  of 

iniring  a  speed  of  mora  than  seven  miles  an  hour; 
even  this  speed  oannot  be  kept  np  for  any 
length  of  time.  The  walking  of  qoadmpeds  is  a 
similar  process  to  that  of  bipeds,  except  that  the 
body  always  rests  on  at  least  two  legs.  The  limbs 
are  raised  in  a  determlnato  order,  and  naually  in 
such  B  manner  that  the  hind-leg  of  one  side  succeeds 
tha  fore-leg  of  the  opposite  side. 

RuMniag  consists  of  the  same  sucoeesion  of  motions 
as  walking ;  but  theae  motions  sra  so  accelerated, 
that  there  is  a  period  between  two  steps  when  the 
body  is  not  supported  on  either  leg ;  and  this  con- 
stitutes  the  essential  difference  between  the  two 
pacea.     It  requires  a  far  greater  expenditure  of 


can  accomplish  amQe  in  a  few  seconds 

idar  four  minutes  and  a  half,  and  ten  miles  in 

.  hour.     (Levett  in  a  match  with  fVost,  which 

me  off  on  the  22d  of   March  1862,  at  Copen- 

gen  Fields,  ran  10  miles  250  yards,  in  67  63*, 

3  Dcerfoot  ran  11  miles  740  yuds,  at  Brompton, 

in  an  hour].      In   quadrupeds   there   are  various 

paces  beiddes  walking,  which  are  known  as  trotting, 

cantering,  and  galloping ;  and  ss  every  one  ib  familial- 

wit^  tiia  ordinary  paces  of  tha  horse,  we  shsll  taka 

tJut  animal  as  our  illotttation.     In  (roUtiVi  the 

horse  moves  tts  le0  in  pairs  diagonaUy.  llws,Utbe 

Irft  (ore  and  right  niud  leg  be  nused,  and  advaaoed 

first,  tlte  right  toe  and  left  hind  hg  will  be  laised 

the  instaot  the  othcfa  reach  the  mmmd.    In  fact,  in 


^niwdbslsntb 


MOTION— MOTLBY. 


le  ground  at  ths  u 


mnnd,  io  that  there  li  a 
1  four  legs  are  nuoed  aboTs 
ae  time.  The  velocity  acquirad 
9  pain  [aa  in  mimiiig),  initead 
in  waftiog),  depend!  up 
trottiDg  e*ch  leg  rest* 

E«nnd  dnrinK  •  abort  time  and  iwiags  daring  a 
Dg  time^  while  in  walking  the  swing  ooenpica  a 
abort  ptriod,  and  the  reat  a  oompantiVBl;  long  ma. 
In  tatiitring,  the  animal,  after  advaudng  Uu  two 
fore-IwB  roe  after  tiba  other,  briuga  forward  the 
two  bind-1^  simaltaDBotulT :  and  whea  this 
moremeut  is  greatly  urged,  tlie  lore-lcgi  are  raised 
togeUier,  as  well  aa  the  hiud-legs,  uod  the  paoe 
then  becomea  tha  aaUop. 

In  Itapbta,  the  bona  ruses  the  toi«-1eg>  Ftom  the 
ground,  and  propela  the  body  upwards  and  lorwarda 
by  the  hiud-legs  alono,  iMs  aot  in  the  bone  is, 
however,  muoly  the  rMuIt  of  educatioD,  and  those 
animals  that  leap  of  ipring  npon  their  prey  (as  the 
meiuben  ol  the  cat  tribe)  cmuck  betM«  letqiug,  in 
order  to  throw  the  bo^  forward  with  the  gitMeat 
poraible  force,  by  first  Dending  all  the  limbs,  and 
then  suddenly  extending  Uiem.  Aa  Ute  hind-l^ 
aro,  however,  the  easeidial  ageuta  in  leaping  we 
obeerve  that  in  those  '^ "'"■»''■  whose  natural  mode 
of  progreuion  ia  leaping— aa  frogs,  hares,  kangaroos, 
&0. — the  hlnd-]^  are  much  longer,  and  more 
muscular  than  the  fore-l^t.  Leaping  ia  a  oommon 
mode  of  progreuiou  in  many  ahort-le^ed  birds 
(blackbirds,  throahea,  fluchea,  sparrows,  &a),  in 
which  the  step  wonid  be  eitremely  short  if  pei^ 
formed  by  moving  the  legs  alternately.  There  is 
also  a  large  number  of  insets,  such  as  gtMshop_pen, 
fleas,  &a.,  whose  ordinary  mode  of  pragncrioti  la  by 
leaps ;  and  it  ia  in  thia  claaa  of  »tiim»lii  that  the 
leaping  power  ia  dersloped  to  its  greatest  extent 
The  common  flea,  for  example^  can  leap  200  times 
its  own  length.  While  fleas,  loonata,  and  graaa- 
hoppen  leap  by  meana  of  their  long  and  strong 
bind-lega;  OTher  insecta,  as  the  fWuruiiE,  or  spring- 
tails,  possess  a  forked  tail,  which  they  bend  benesUt 
the  body,  and  which,  when  suddenly  extended, 
propels  them  to  a  oonaiderable  distance. 

(%tiH&inj7,  ii  merely  walking  on  an  inclined  or 
vertical  surface.  It  is  nsusJly  accomplished  by 
means  of  ahaip  nails  or  claws,  as  in  the  cat-tribe, 
the  litarda,  fte.  In  many  birds,  as  the  woodpeokers, 
parrots,  ^,  the  toes  are  arranged  in  two  divisions, 
so  as  to  gr>^  branches  in  tiie  manner  of  a  hand. 
Bean  and  slMhs  use  tbrni  arms  for  elimbing,  while 
monkey  use  their  hands,  and  ia  some  cases  their 
tails.  It  ia  only  in  a  very  tew  eases,  as  in  the  sloth, 
that  this  is.the  ordinary  method  of  progression. 

The  act  ot  Jtyiitg  in  the  bird  is  accomplished  by 
the  simultaneous  action  of  the  two  anterior  limbs,  the 


been  made  to  estimate  the  velodl^  li  which  dif- 
ferent Urds  can  fly.  Whether,  as  baa  been  stated, 
the  eiderdnck  eaa  fly  SO,  and  the  hawk  ISO  miles 
in  an  hour,  is  veiy  qnsationable ;  bat  it  has  been 
ascertained  that  carrier-pigeons  can  accomplish  from 
38  to  42  miles  in  that  tune. 

The  bats  are  the  only  mommala  which  posess  a 
bue  power  of  flight.  For  a  description  of  tiieir 
organa  and  mode  of  flight,  we  must  refer  to  the 
otude  Bit,  where  will  idso  be  fbnnd  a  notice  of 
the  false  daima  of  some  other  mammals,  as  the 
so-called  fl3^e-sqairrel,  to  the  possession  of  true 
flight.  Similaily,  the  actions  of  the  flying  lioird 
ai3  of  Uke  flying-fiah  are  not  true  flight.  In  no 
class  of  animals  is  the  mechanism  of  fli^t  so  perfect 
as  in  insects.  The  dnwon-fly,  for  example,  can  ont- 
itrip  the  swallow  I  and  can  dontorainUte  air  tiian 
any  tdid,  as  it  ean  fly  backwanta  and  -"*'""gi 


to  right  or  left,  M  well  as  forwards  wiUiovt  taming^ 

The  wings  of  insects,  of  which  there  may  be  either 
one  or  tW  pair,  are  analogous  (as  instrumenta  of 
motion)  to  Uie  featiiered  wings  of  birda,  bat  are 
regarded  *s  himclogovs  to  (or  in  their  Msential 
natnre)  branohin  or  respiiatory  organs.  For  details 
regarding  the  mechanism  employe  in  their  a<rial 
prwreaakm  by  insects,  see  Iifaxon. 

SwMmutff  is  the  mode  of  progreedon  employed 
I7  most  oqaotia  mnintala.  It  mainly  diften  from 
flying  in  this  reapeeti  that  watev  being  muoh  more 
dense  than  air,  and  the  body  of  the  animal  being 
nearly  of  Hie  same  wei^t  as  the  water  it  disnlaoes, 
ve^  little  eflbrt  is  reqmred  to  keep  the  animai  from 
rinking,  and  henoe  almost  the  whole  of  the  moaoolar 
force  con  be  employed  in  pragreasiOD.  In  flahea, 
Hie  locomotive  orcans  oonaist  of  the  fins  and  tail, 
the  latter  being  me  great  propelliDg  organ.  The 
swimming  of  a  fish  has  been  ooitwtly  compared 
to  the  motion  ot  a  boat  propelled  by  a  single  oar  or 
scull  at  the  stem.  In  tiie  same  manner  aa  •  suo- 
oession  of  strokes  alternately  right  and  left  pn^iela 
the  boat  stntight  forwards,  so  ue  fish  adranoes  by 
striking  altern^ely  right  sod  left  with  ita  tail 
The  caudal  flu,  in  whiou  the  tail  ends,  is  vertioal  in 
fishes,  and  is  nsnolly  oonaiderably  forked,  whm 
there  is  gnat  speed.  The  ventral  flns  are  for  the 
pnniose  m  keepmg  the  flah  in  ita  prox>er  position, 
with  the  back  iipwarda,aais  ahewn  by  a  well-known 
experiment  of  Borelli,  who,  after  cutting  off  these 
fins,  restored  the  living  fish  to  tiia  water,  when  it 
rolled  from  side  to  side  like  a  dnmken  man.  The 
air-bladder  with  which  many  fishes  are  provided, 
and  which  they  can  distend  and  contract  at  pleasure, 
facilitates  their  swimming  by  enabling  them  to 
modify  their  speciflo  gravity.  Most  terreatria] 
mammals,  excepting  man,  swim  at  once  tiie  first 
time  they  find  themselves  in  deep  water.  The 
reason  of  this  is,  that  their  limbs  move  in  water 
precisely  aa  they  do  on  land,  and  no  new  action 
either  aa  renrds  direction  or  order  is  required^as  !a 
the  oaae  with  man,  to  enable  them  to  swim,  lliose 
which  frequent  the  water,  aa  seals,  ottera,  and 
beavers,  have  webbed  feet  like  ducks  and  other 
palmiped  birds,  the  toea  being  united  by 
which,  when  expanded,  act  as  pt ' 
number  of  invertebrate  animals   i 


which,  when  expanded,  act  as   padiuea.    A  lan^ 

*"""   "'  "uvertebrate  animals   move  dliefly   Df 

^  Thus  lobsten  move  by  means  of  a 
vertical  motion  of  tbo  tail,  and  many  of  the  crabs  by 
*  '  cit  poBtnrior  legs,  which  are  faahioned 
Utaj  insects  swim  with  their  1eg& 
which  are  hinged  with  haira  to  give  additional 
surface.  The  cattle-fish  uses  ita  long  arms  aa  oara, 
and  darts  through  the  water  with  extreme  rapidity  i 
whOe  other  molIiiBcs  erect  sail-like  organs,  by  which 
tbey  ore  propelled  along  the  sorface  of  the  water. 
"wmiiDio,  as  a  gymnastic  exercise,  is  described  in 
separate  article. 

Notices  of  the  more  spedal  modes  of  progression 
will   be   foond   under  a  variety  of  heads.     See 
CituarAOEA,  Serfbktb,  Worms. 
MOTION,   in  Plants.      See   Isritabilitt  and 

MOTIVE,  or  MOTITO,  in  a  mnsiaa  oompoai- 

Dn,  means  the  principal  snbjeot'on  which  the 

ovement  is  constmoted,  and  irtiicK  during  the 

movement,  is  constantly  ^>peariag  in  one  or  other 

of  the  parts,  either  complete  or  modified.    In  elabo. 

'  '  ipoaitions  there  are  alio  aectmdary 

MOTLEY,  Joror  Lothsop,  LLD.,  D.O.L.,  ft&, 

1  bistorian,  waa  born  at  Dorchester,  Massa. 

Ap4lJ>.i8I4-    Aftagradiuitiu  St  Har- 

~usity,  be  apmi  k  year  at  Ottttiiigen, 

BsrB^  aad^imlM  ia  I  Wz  Hid^Biw 

Goggle 


Tsrd  UmvMsify 


HOTBIL-MOinj). 


1837;  but  profairiiig  literature,  he  wrote  a  hiirtorioal 
TODUDoe,  eotitled  Morlon'i  Sopt  (1339),  which  had 
litUe  mccesB.  la  1840,  be  received  the  appoiatment 
of  secretary  of  legation  to  the  Amerioaa  Embatay 
to  Bossia,  but  soon  resigned,  and  in  1849,  published 
aaathei  unsnccesuful  novel,  entitled  Mrrry  Mount, 
a  Romance  o/&t  Miutackusdit  Colonj/.  He  attracted 
attention,  noverer,  by  «ome  Taluable  historical 
essays  for  American  reviova,  amoiu;  which  may  be 
mentioned  one  on  De  Tooqaeville  8  Pemoeraq/  tn 
Ameriea,  and  another  on  'Peter  the  Great;'  and 
baving  planned  a  history  of  Holland,  he  proceeded 
to  Etuijpe  for  matariols,  and  after  five  years'  labour, 

Eublished  in  185G  The  Rite  of  the  Dutch  Republic 
a  18G0  appeared  a  coatinaatioD  of  it :  The  Hiilory 
of  the  UmUd  Ntiherlandt  from  the  Death  of  W'^iam 
Ute  Siient  to  tht  Sipiod  qf  Dort.  M.  was  appointed  in 
1861  United  States  minister  at  the  court  of  Vienna, 
a  post  from  which  he  was  recalled  in  1S67.  In 
1869  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  the  court  of  St 
Jameo,  but  was  recalled  the  followinE  year.  In 
1874,  he  published  The  Lye  and  Deaih  of  Jolm  ' 
BamevelM,  Advocate  nf  Holland;  wiih  a  View 
the  Primary  Causa  and  Movemenlt  nf  the  Thirty 
Teanf  War  (2  toU.).    He  died  29th  May  1877. 

MOTRI'L,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  tha  province  of 
Granada,  and  3G  miles  south  of  the  city  of  that 
name,  in  a  productive  district  3  miles  from  the  sea. 
Agriculture  and  fiahieg  are  the  prinoipal  employ- 
ment of  the  inhabitants.    Pop.  14,0001 

HOTTO,  in  Heraldry,  a  word  or  short  sentenoe 
which  forms  an  aocompanimcnt  to  a  coat-of-aims, 
crest,  or  household  badge.  Mottoes  were  originally 
attached  to  the  badee  when  the  family  had  one,  or 
to  the  crest  where  Uiere  was  no  bodge.  In  later 
heraldry,  the  practice  is  to  plaoe  the  motto  in  an 
Mcrol  either  over  the  crest  or  below  the  shield.  A 
motto  is  sometimes  a  religious  or  moral  sentiment, 
•a  'Gardez  la  foi,'  'Humanitate;'  it  is  not  nnfre- 
qnentJf  a  heroio  exclamation  or  war-cry, '  Conra^ 
sans  penr,'  '  Forward.'  In  a  great  many  cases  it 
beats  reference  to  the  crest,  badge,  or  some  bearing 
of  the  escutcheon ;  thus,  Stuart,  Bari  of  Moray,  ha> 
for  crest  a  pelican  wounding  henelf,  and  for  motto, 
'  Salus  per  Christum  Bedemptorem ;'  and  not  a  few 
mottoes  ore  punning  allusions  to  the  [amily  name- 
as  Scudamore,  '  Scuto  amoris  Divini ; '  Veoion, 
*  Ver  Don  semper  viret ; '  '  Fore,  fac,'  for  Fairfax ; 
ftnd '  Time  Deum,  cole  regem,'  for  Cderidge.  Two 
mottoes  are  sontetiiaes  used  by  the  same  fiuoily — 
one  above  the  crest,  the  other  below  the  shield. 
The  motto,  '  Dieu  et  mon  Droit,'  which  accompanies 
the  toyal  arms  oE  Great  Britain,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  war-cry,  and  was  nsed  in  England  at  least 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Henry  VI.  lt»  origin  has 
been  assigned  to  a  saying  of  Richard  I..  ■  Not  we, 
but  Ood  aad  our  right  have  vanquished  lYance.' 

MOD'FFLON,  or  MU'SMON  (Oew  or  Oaprovit 
JtfiMimon),  tlie  wild-sheep  of  Cotnca,  Sardinia, 
Cyprus,  Greece,  &o.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  small 
faUow-deer,  covered  with  hair  and  not  with  wool, 
eicept  t^t  hair  of  a  somewhat  woolly  character 
aiiX>enrB  in  winter.  The  upper  wxi»  ate  brownish, 
the  under  parts  whitish ;  the  fiair  of  the  neck  is 
Ions;  the  tail  is  very  short.  The  horns  of  the 
mate  are  very  la^e,  amroacliina  to  Uiosa  of  the 
ArgalL  The  M.  Lvea  chiefly  in  tiie  hi^er  parts  of 
mountunons  region*,  and  is  not  easily  approaohed. 
MOTJKDEN.  See  Muedin. 
MOULD,  or  MOULDINESS.  t^ie  cotunon  name 
of  many  minute  funa  which  make  their  oppearanoe, 
often  in  crowded  multitudes,  on  animal  and  vegetable 
■ubstanoM,  either  in  ■  decaying  or  in  a  living  bat 


morbid  state.  To  the  naked  eye,  th^  often  seem  lika 
patches  or  rnsnnpn  of  fine  cobweb,  and  are  disoorered 
bv  Hie  microscope  to  cmisist  of  threads  more  or  less 
distinctlyjoii>tea,eometimesbranohed,  Somespecies 
of  M.  occur  on  many  different  snbstances;  others 
seem  to  be  peculiar  to  anbatances  of  particular 
kinds,  as  decaying  peais,  decaying  gourds,  &a. 
Some  of  the  moulds 
belong  to  the  anboider 
of  fnngi  called  Fhyto- 
myeelet.  See  FoKot 
One  of  these  is  the 
CoiwoH  M.  {Mvcor 
mucedo),  so  plentifully 
found  on  fruit,  paste, 
preserves,  Ac,  u  a 
state  of  incipient  decay,  Common  Mould  [AfBcar 
the  progress  of  which  mvtedo),  highly  minified 
it  hastens.     It  consists 

of  cobweb-like  masses  of  tlireads,  from  which 
rise  many  short  stems,  each  bearing  at  tile  top 
a  roundish  membranous  blackish  spore-case. — A, 
nearly  allied,  and  also  vet7  common  species,  is 
Ateophora  mueedo,  which  forms  a  bluiali  U.  on 
bread.  From  a  spreading  cobweb-like  bed  rise 
long  slender  branches,  terminated  by  spore-casea, 
of  which  the  vesicle  collapses  into  the  form  <d 
a  little  piUui.^Aa  intereating  species  of  iL, 
remarkable  for  its  loxuriaace  and  beauty  (rf  oolours 
■   "    '      ■  "      then  yellow,  with  orange  spore- 


stances. — Other  species 

Hyphomycete*,  a  suborder  of  Fungi,  having  a 
Soccose  thallns  and  naked  spofts.  One  of  these  is 
the  Blux  M.  {Atpergilius  glaucut),  which  imparts  to 
cheeee  a  flavour  so  agreeable  to  epicorea,  and 
perhaps  marks  it  M  in  a  condition  most  suitable  for 
promoting  the  digeetion  of  other  aliments,  of  which 

ficiucs  eat  too  much.  Advantage  is  often  taken 
the  fact,  that  a  small  portion  of  cheese  affected 
with  M.  will  speedily  infect  sound  cheese  into  which 
it  may  be  introduced.  It  is  one  of  the  few  cases  in 
which  the  propagation  of  these  iaogi  is  ever  desired 
and  sought  after  by  man. — Snow  M.  {Lanoia  nino- 
lit)  is  found  on  grasses,  and  especially  on  bori^ 
and  rye  beneath  snow,  often  destroying  whole  crops. 
It  appeara  in  white  patches  of  a  foot  or  more  in 
diameter,  which  finally  become  red  as  if  dusted  with 
red  powder. 

Even  living  «"''"»1»  are  liable  to  be  injured  bj 
fungi  of  this  Idnd.  Silk-worms  are  lulled  in  great 
numbers  by  one  called  Mnsc/kKsiNB  (q.  v.),  or  Sax- 

«  BoT,    Such  fungi  are  sometimee  developed 

le  macAua  membrane  and  in  internal  cavities  of 
vertebrated  «TiiTnal«  ;  and  on  the  bodies  of  inverts* 
brated  animals,  as  the  common  house-fly,  which,  in 
the  end  of  autumn,  when  it  become*  languid,  OStea 
from  San  cause.  Even  strongly-scented  sub- 
ces,  if  moist,  are  liable  to  be  attacked  by  M.  (tf 
kind  or  other ;  nor  are  strong  poisons,  either 
animal  or  v^etable,  a  suffident  safi^;nard.  Ateo- 
phora mucedo  springs  up  readily  ia  paste  full  of 
corrosive  suUimute ;  and  the  mycelium  of  moulda  is 
found  in  BtTOQK  arsenical  solutious.  The  only  sure 
preventive  of  M.  is  dryness.  Many  of  the  moulds 
vegetate  in  liquids,  but  do  not  attun  their  perfect 
development,  only  oOTwaring  as  filamentous  ud 
flocculent  mvcelia.    Xne  Vinegar  Plant  (q.  v.)  is  an 

stance  of  this  kind. 

Mildews  and  Moulds  are  very  nearly  allied. 

The  rapidity  with  which  these  fungi  are  produced 

marvdlous.      '  In    favourable    circiungtaaces,  a 

plant  will  pass  through  every  stage  of  growth  to 

perfect  maturation  ot  its  seeds  in  less  tlian  two 

days,  tiie  threads  which  sustain  ths  ripe  spoiangi* 


MOULD— MOULMEIN. 


MOULD,  the  model  or  pftHera  from  which 
workmeii  ezeente  mooIdiDgs,  onuuuetils,  &o.  Also, 
the  ahape  or  bed  in  which  metal  and  other  oaatingg 
■re  made. 

MOULDINaS,  the  cnrved  and  pUne  nirfscea 
tued  M  omamenta  in  conucea,  paDefi,  arches,  to., 
and  in  all  enriched  aperturee  in  buildings.  In  cloasic 
architecture  the  ncnddingi  are  few  in  number,  and 


definitely  fixed  in  their  form*.  There  are  eiabt  kinds 
of  theee  regular  mouldings,  viz.,  the  Cjma,  Uie  Ovolo 
<or  EchinuB),  the  Talau,  the  Csvetto,  the  Toms,  the 
Astragal,  the  Scotia,  and  the  Fillet  (q.T.) ;  and  each 
of  these  mouldings  has  its  proper  place  assigned  to 
it  in  each  order.  See  Counts.  In  Gothic  snihitec- 
ture,  and  all  other  styles,  the  mouldings  are  not 
reduced  to  a  «7stem  as  in  the  Greek  and  Romsn 
styles,  but  may  be  used  in  every  variety  of  form  at 
tlie  pleasure  of  the  artist.  Certain  forms  geuendly 
prevail  at  one  period  in  any  style.  Thus,  m  Gothic 
■rchitiCctore,  ttie  date  of  a  bailding  may  in  many 
instanoes  be  determined  by  the  form  of  the  mooldings. 


VuioDS  Honldingib 


The  Nonuan  moulding  « 


the  ngzag 


in  outline, 


ig.  lisa         

la  the  early  Rngl''^  style,  the  mouldings  are  also 
simple  in  outline,  and  are  usually  arranged  in  rec' 
angular  divisioiLS,  as  in  fig.  3,  and  consist  c 
alternate  rounds  and  hollows.  Li  lat«  eiomph 
of  this  style,  the  fillet  was  introduced  (tig.  2],  an 


led  to  the  more  elaborate  form  of  monldings  during 
the  Decorated  period  (lig.  4]. 

The  mooldings  of  the  perpendicolar  style  are 
generally  flatter  and  thinner  than  the  preceding 
and  have  large  hoUows  separated  by  narrow  tiUet^ 
which  produce  a  me^re  effect. 

Each  of  these  styles  has  its  pecoliar  ornaments 
and  style  of  foliage ;  and  when  these  are  used  along 
with  the  mooldings,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  deter- 
miniug  the  approximate  date  of  a  building. 

MOULINS,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Allier,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Allier,  here  craned  by  a  han£ome  stone  bridge  of 


princip 


13  arches,  lies  213  nules,  by  railway,  south- 

Paris,  and  95  miles  noitii-weet  of  Lyon.  M.  was 
formerly  the  capital  of  Bourbonnais.  It  is  a  clean, 
— -"-built  town,  with  prettv  promenades.  Tho 
cipal  buildings  are  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dome 
the  enlargement  of  which  the  aom  of  one  and 
a  half  million  francs  was  mated  in  1852],  the 
the  theatre,  the  poblio  library  centaininK 
>1b.,  the  new  town-hoose,  the  Palace  of 
Justice,  and  the  college.  Of  the  old  castle,  built  by 
the  Duo  de  Boorbon  in  1530,  only  a  sqnare  tower 
remains,  which  is  used  as  a  prison.  K.  oorries  on 
trade  in  coal,  wood,  iron,  grain,  wine,  oiL  and 
cattle.    Pop.  (1881)  20,446. 

MGULMEI'N,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Teoas- 
serim,  British  Burmah,  situated  on  the  Gulf  of 
Mortaban,  in  the  east  of  the  Bay  of  Bensol,  at  the 
junction  of  the  rivers  Salween,  Gyne,  and  Atbaran, 
m  16°  29'  N.  lB.t,  and  ST"  38'  E.  long.  M.,  one  of  the 
healthiest  stations  in  India,  is  a  pretty  specimen 
I  eastern  town.  It  is  divided  into  five  districts, 
of  which  is  nnder  a  goung  or  native  head  of 
pohce.  The  streets  are,  for  the  most  part,  shaded 
with  trees,  principally  of  the  acacia  tribe,  and  the 
glossy  jack  is  often  seen  half  covering  a  native 
house,  its  great  fniit,  as  Urge  as  a  child's  head, 
ripening--  "- ..n._  _^__.__,   _._._.    .t...„ 


.    .__nlengt 
with  the  nv 


The  I 


a  thatch  made  of  the  leaf  of 
are  raised  on  piles,  according  to  the  universal 
x>m  of  the  country.  Men  waUc  about  with  the 
•a  paper  chattah,  or  Chinese  nmbrella,  used 
lugbont  the  provinces  ;  the  gharU,  or  India  cab, 
dasbea  along,  the  attendant  imp  revelling  in  heat 
and  dust. 

M.  is  backed  by  a  fine  range  of  hills,  on  whose 
heights  fiaah  the  gilded  spires  of  innumerable 
pagodas ;  and  here,  too,  are  built  many  pretty  resi- 
dences, commanding  a  fine  view  of  the  town,  river. 


churches,  chapels,  and  missionary  establish- 
ments, several  charitable  and  edncational  instita- 
tions,  substantial  barracks,  a  general  hospital,  public 
libraiy,  &,o.  Vessels  drawmg  10  feet  of  water 
ne  up  to  M.,  nnder  charge  of  pilots  from 

it,  and  at  spring-tide  ships  of  any  tonnage 

may  reach  the  town,  llie  rise  and  f^  of  the  water 
is  at  that  time  from  20  to  23  feet  The  population 
of  M.  is  steadily,  if  slowly,  on  the  increase.  In 
1856,  it  was  43,683 ;  in  1631,  it  had  reached  63,08a 
Of  these,  divided  according  to  thetr  religion,  about 
27,000  were  Beddhista,  11,000  Hindus,  6(KI0  Mnssnl- 
Dians,  and  2000  Christians.  The  mean  temperature 
of  M.  for  the  year  1872  was  78°— the  highest  being 
96°  in  April,  and  the  lowert  61*  in  January.  As  to 
nationahty,  besides  the  Burmans  proper,  the  in- 
habitants of  M.  include  Eniasians  or  half-castes, 
Tolieas,  Chinese,  Sbons,  Karens,  Armenians,  Jews, 
Malays,  and  ontivea  of  Hindnatan. 
'"  ~  great  facilitie*  for  ^p-bnildani 


^ 


MOUlTmO— MOUNTAlNa. 


nuuT  fine  vesuJi  hare  latdy  been  oonatrocted  in 
the  bnilding-yardti  of  Tavoyzoo  and  Mopooo.  The 
principsl  eipoiti  from  M.  nre  teak-timber  and  rice  ; 
the  imports  coosiat  of  genenl  merohandiBe,  chiefly 
piece-goods,  hardirare,  provisioiu,  and  mndnea. 

See  The  ■Tenauerim  and  Ifartaban  Dirtetory  ; 
Winter'a  Sii  Montht  in  BrMA  Bwrmah  (Loud. 
1868] ;  UaiahaU's  Four  Tean  «  Bvrmoli  (Loud. 
I860) ;  Blu^Book*. 

UOULTINO  ii  the  tenn  apjJied  }yj  natnralirta 
to  the  periodical  aznviatiim,  or  throwing  off  of 
eertain  itracturea,  which  are  for  the  meet  part  of 
an  epithelial  or  epidermic  ohaiacter.  Thus,  in  a 
eoniiderable  snniMi  of  the  ArUettlala,  the  external 
ooverins  ia  thrown  off,  and  replaced  maujr  times 
daring  hl«.  In  some  of  ilie  minnte  EntcmoBtraooaa 
Cmataoe*  of  onr  pools,  a  ]irocees  of  monltiiig, 
nmilor  to  that  which  occota  in  crabs  and  lohotere, 
occnra  every  two  or  three  daya,  even  wittaa  the 
unjmal^  aoem  to  have  attained  their  full  growth. 
In  the  crabs,  in  which  the  prooesa  haa  been  carefiill;^ 
observed,  th«  txioAtm,  or  oast-off  ilidl,  oooaista  not 
only  of  the  entire  •ztental  covering  indading  even 
the  faceted  memlvane  which  formi  the  anterior 
ooai  of  the  compound  eyeB,bnt  alao  carries  with  it  tbe 
Uning  membrane  of  the  ctomach,  and  tlie  plates  to 
whiiEllLemiiMles  are  attached.  Dnring  growth,  this 
moulting  takes  place  aa  often  aa  tbe  body  becomca 
too  large  for  the  ahell ;  and  after  the  animal  has 
attained  its  foil  siz<^  it  is  fonnd  to  occnr  at  least 
once  a  jrear,  at  the  tei«odnotive  season.  During 
ttiB  early  growth  of  inieeti^  apldera,  centipedes,  &c, 
a  nmilar  moolt  la  frequently  repeated  at  ahori 
intervals,  but  after  they  have  attained  their  full 
■JTe,  no  further  moulting  takes  place.  In  the  Verle- 
brata  we  have  ezamplea  of  aa  complete  a  moulting, 
and. replacement  of  new  skin,  among  frogs  ana 
serpents  as  oocurs  in  the  Artdculata,  the  whole 
epidermis  being  thrown  off  at  least  once,  and,  in 
some  instances,  several  times  yearly.  In  birds,  the 
feathers  are  periodically  cast  off  and  renewed ;  in 
lPBiYiTn«l«  ^nerally,  the  hair  is  regularly  shed  at 
certain  periods  of  tbe  year ;  and  in  the  deer  tribe 
the  caabog  off  and  renewal  of  the  antlers  must  be 
regarded  as  ft  special  example  of  moulting.  In  man, 
the  continual  exuviation  of  the  outer  layers  of  tbe 
qiidermiB  ia  a  proceas  analogooa  to  that  which 
takes  place  on  a  more  generu  scale  in  the  lower 

MOU'LTRIE,  Fort,  a  fortress  on  Snllivan's 
Island,  at  the  mouth  of  Charleston  Harbour,  South 
Carolina,  celebrated  for  the  repulse  of  a  British 

Suadron  commanded  by  Kr  Peter  Parker,  Jannaty 
,  1776.  The  fort,  at  that  time,  was  hastUy  built 
of  Palmetto  logs  and  sand,  with  31  guns  and  435 
men.  The  spongy  wood  of  the  palmetto  was  found 
to  resist  the  cannon  balls  perfectly.  The  fort  was 
afterwards  rebuilt,  and  in  April  ISGl,  took  part 
in  the  reduction  of  Fort  Sumter,  and  Uie  commence- 
ment  of   active    hostilitiea    in   the   civil  war    of 


MOUNT,  in  Heraldry.    When  the  lower  pait  «< 

the  ahield  is  occupied  with  a  cepreaeatation  of  gronol 
slightly  rused,  and  covered  with  grass,  this  is  called 

monat  in  basej  e.g.,  Argent, 

I  a  mount  in  base,  a  grove  of  | 


UOUND  (UL  mundiu),  in  Heraldry,  a  repre- 
sentation of  a  globe,  sormounted 
with  a  cross  (generally)  pattfe 
As  a  device,  it  is  said  to  have 
been    need    by    the    Emperor 

isent  the  s 

r  the 
'    of 
England  is   surmonnted    by 
mound,  which  flrat  appears  on 
Hoond.  the  seal  of  William   tiie  Con- 

queror,     though      the     globe 
without  the  cross  waa  osed  aarhcr. 


nk,  Scotland. 

MOUNT     TE'RNON.    the 

at  and  tomb  of  George 
Waahineton,  fitst  President  of 
tbe  Dmted  States  of  America, 
le  right  bank  of  the  river 
[nac,  m  Virginia,  16  miles 
below  Washington.  The  resi- 
dence of  Washin^n,  finely 
situated  on  the  rising  bank  ^  the 
tomb,  with  an  estate  of  200  acres,  have  been  pur- 
chased by  a  patriotic  society  of  Isidiea,  to  be  kept 
as  a  place  of  pubLo  resort,  and  a  memorial  of  the 
'  Father  of  his  country.' 

MOUNTAIN  ASH.    See  ItoViLir. 

UOUlfTAIN  LIMB3T0NE,  the  basemeut  rock 
of  the  carbouiferooa  series  in  the  south  of  England 
and  in  Wales.  It  consista  of  a  calcareous  rock  loaded 
with  msrine  remain^  the  greater  part  of  the  rock 
being  made  np  bodily  of  corals,  crinoids,  and  shells. 
It  bos  a  variable  tlucknesa^  sometimes  reaching  as 
much  aa  900  feet  In  the  north  of  England  and  in 
Scotland,  the  marine  limeatones  are  not  separated 
from,  but  alternate  with  the  coal-bearing  sbatb 
See  CAEBosaRtoaa  Sxbtkil 

MOUNTAINS.  The  nnmba  and  altitude  at 
the  mountaina  of  the  globe  are  so  great  that  tlm 
form  almcet  eveiywlwre  prominent  objects,  aid 
operate  to  a  large  extent  in  modifying  the  cliniatio 
conditions  of  every  country  in  the  world.  Yet  the 
amount  of  solid  material  so  raised  above  the  ordi- 
nary lev^  of  the  land  is  not  ao  much  as  might  be 
expected.  Remembering  that  elevated  plateaus  of 
great  extent  occur  in  several  regions,  and  that  the 
general  surface  of  the  earth  is  considerablr  higher 
than  the  sea-level,  it  has  been  eetimated  that  were 
tbe  whole  diy  land  reduced  to  a  uniform  level,  it 
would  form  a  plain  having  an  elevation  of  1800  feet 
above  the  sea.  And  were  these  solid  materials 
scattered  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe,  so  as 
to  fill  up  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  the  resulting  level 
would  be  considerably  below  the  present  surface  of 
the  sea,  inasmuch  aa  tbe  mean  height  of  the  dt^ 
land  most  probably  does  not  exceed  one-fifteentA 
of  the  mean  depth  of  the  bed    ■  "-  - 


_iportant  uses  in  tiie  eoonomy  of  natursL 

especially  in  connection  with  the  water  system  of 
the  world.  They  are  at  once  the  great  oolleoton 
and   distributors    of  water.      In    the   paasa^   irf 

moisture-charged  winds  across  them,  the  moistnre 
is  precipitated  as  rain  or  snow.  When  mountain- 
ranges  mteiaect  the  oonise  of  constant  winds  by 
thus  abstracting  the  moisture,  they  produce  a  moist 
country  on  the  windward-side,  and  a  comparatively 
dry  and  arid  one  on  the  leeward.  This  is  ezem- 
phtied  in  the  Andes,  the  precipitous  western  snrfaoe 
of  which  has  a  different  aspect  from  the  sloping 
eastern  plains;  and  so  also  the  greater  supply  <d 
moisture  on  the  southern  sides  of  the  Himalayas 
brings  the  anow-line  6000  feet  lower  than  on  the 
Qoruiem  aide.  Above  a  certain  height  tbe  moisture 
faUs  as  snow,  and  a  range  of  snow-dad  snmmita 
would  form  a  more  effectual  separation  between  the 
plains  on  either  side  than  would  the  widest  ocean, 
-"'  --'  "--'■  ■■ kUeys  ate  of  frequent 

1  theee 


iOO;;lc 


Ixurier,  il  Hie  temperate  ragiani  oontained  aa  lofly 
uouatwns  aa  the  tropics.  Mountain-rangea,  how- 
ever, decreue  in  beight  from  tha  equator  to  the 
polea  in  relation  to  the  mow-line. 

The  nnmeroua  attempti  that  haTe  been  mode  to 
generaliaa  on  the  distribution  of  mountains  on  the 
xlobe  have  hitherto  been  almost  unsuccesaful.  In 
America  the  moantaina  take  a  ^aeial  direction 
more  or  IcMpftnllel  to  the  mendtao,  and  for  a 
diatanoe  of  8280  milea,  from  Patagonia  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  form  a  vast  and  precipitous  range  of  lofty 
mountains,  which  foUow  the  coast-tine  in  Soath 
America,  and  spread  somewhat  ont  in  North  Ame- 
rica, presenting  everywhere  throughout  their  course 
a  tendency  to  separate  into  two  or  more  parallel 
ridges,  and  giving  to  the  whole  continent  the 
character  of  a  pt«ci]ntons  and  lofty  weatem  border, 
gradually  lowering  into  an  immenBe  expanse  of 
•astern  lowlands.  In  the  Old  World,  on  Uie  other 
hand,  there  is  no  single  well-defined  continnons 
ohun  oonnected  with  ue  coast-line.  The  principal 
ranges  are  erouped  together  in  a  Y-shaped  form, 
the  general  Erection  of  which  is  at  risht  angles  to 
th«  Hew  World  chain.    The  centre  oT  the  system 

■phere.  From  this,  one  arm  radiates  in  a  north- 
east direction,  and  terminates  in  the  high  land  at 
Behring  Straiti ;  the  other  two  take  a  westerly 
coutw ;  the  one  a  little  to  the  north,  through  the 
Caucasus,  Carpathians,  and  Alps,  to  the  I^reneeB ; 
the  other  more  to  the  south,  through  the  immense 
«ham  of  Central  African  mounbuns,  and  terminating 


at  Sieira  Leonei  Most  of  the  principal  secondarjr 
ranges  have  generally  a  direction  more  or  Ion  at 
right  angles  to  this  great  monntain  tract. 

The  inquiiT  into  the  origin  of  mountaina  is  one 
that  has  r«»ived  not  a  littta  attention.  Geologists 
have  shewn  that  the  principal  agenta  in  altering 
the  surface  of  the  globe  are  denudation,  which  is 
always  abrading  aud  carrying  to  a  lower  level  the 
exposed  surfaces,  and  an  internal  force  which  is 
raising  or  depressing  the  existing  strata,  or  bringing 
unstratified  rocks  to  the  surface.  Whether  the 
changes  are  the  small  and  almost  imperceptibla 
alterations  now  taking  place,  or  those  recorded  in 
the  migbW  mountains  and  deep  valleys  everywhere 
existing,  denudatjon  and  intenul  force  are  tlie  great 
producmg  causes.  These  give  as  two  great  irisnnm 
of  mountains. 

I,  MouiUmtti  produeed  by  datudalioit.  —  Hw 
extent  to  which  denudation  has  altered  the  anifaM 
of  the  globe  can  scarcely  be  imagined.  All  the 
stratified  rocks  are  produced  b;  its  action ;  but 
these  do  not  measure  its  full  amount,  for  manv 
of  these  bed*  have  been  deposited  and  denndetl, 
not  once  or  twice,  but  repeatedly,  before  ther 
reached  their  present  state.  Abases  of  rode 
more  indurated,  or  better  defended  from  the  wast- 
ing currenti  than  those  aronnd,  serve  as  indicts  of 
the  extent  of  deaudatiOD.  The  most  remarkable  caae 
of  this  kind,  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  is  that 
of  the  three  insulated  mountuns  in  Ross-shire — Soil 
Veiim,  Coul  Bw,  and  Caul  More  (G&  1) — which  are 
about  3000  feet  high.    The  straU<H  " 


fl£.  1.— Snil  Teinn,  Coni  Bee,  sod  CotU  Hare.— From  Murchison's  SHaria ;  London,  J.  Unrray, 


are  horizontal,  like  the  oonmea  of  masonry  in  a 
pyramid,  and  their  deep  red  colonr  is  in  striking 
contrast  with  the  cold  bluish  hue  of  the  gneiss 
which  forms  the  plain,  and  on  whose  nptumed 
edgee  the  mountam-beda  reet.  It  seems  very 
probable,  as  Ha^h  Miller  toggests,  that  when  the 
lonnatioa  of  which  these  are  relics  (at  one  time 
consideted  as  Old  Bed  Sandstone,  but  now  determined 
hy  Sir  Koderick  Murchison  aa  being  older  than 
gUurian),  was  first  raised  above  the  waves,  it 
covered!,  with  an  """-"g  thtclcncos,  the  whole 
•nrface  of  the  Highland*  of  ScotLuid,  from  Ben 
Lomond  to  the  Maiden  Paps  of  Caithneaa,  but  that 
■ubaequent  denudation  swept  it  all  away,  except 
in  circumscribed  distriulB,  and  in  detached  localities 
like  these  pyramidal  hills. 

2.  Moanlaint  produced  Bu  internal  fan*. — These 
are  of  several  kind*,  (a.)  Mountains  of  ejection, 
in  which  the  internal  force  is  confined  to  a  point,  so 
to  spettk,  having  the  means  of  "h-ii«*i-g  iiaelf 


projection  which,  at  least  on  the  sui&ce,is  oomposed 
of  strata  sloping  away  from  the  crater.  Volcanoes 
are  mostly  isolated  conical  hills,  yiA  Hiey  chiefly 
occur  in  a  somenhat  toituoos  luiear  aeries,  on 
the  mainland  and  islands  wbicb  enclose  the  great 
Pacific  Ocean.  Vesuvius  and  the  other  European 
volcanoes  are  unconnected  with  this  immense  vol- 
canic tract,  {b.)  But  the  internal  force  mav  be 
diSused  under  a  large  tract  or  sone,  which,  if 
it  obtain  no  relief  from  an  opening,  will  be  elevated 
in  the  maw.  When  the  npheaval  occurs  to  any 
extent,  the  strata  are  subjected  to  great  tension. 
If  they  can  bear  it,  a  soft  rounded  mountain-cbun 


rock*  are  pnshed,  which,  rising  up  into  mountain- 
ohsins,  elevate  the  stratified  rock*  on  their  flanks^ 
and  perhaps  at  parallel  ridges     Thus,  the  Andes 


MOTIRNE  MOUNTAINS— MOUSE. 


coiuiat  of  the  etratified  rooki  of  vaiioui  •ees,  lying 
in  Older  on  the  granite  aind  poruhyiy  of  miich  the 
num  of  the  range  ia  composed.  The  podtion  of  the 
ttrata  on  such  mountains  mppliea  the  means  of  deter- 
miuiiig,  within  definite  limita,  the  period  of  npheavaL 
The  newest  strata  Uiat  have  been  elevated  on  the 
(idea  of  the  mountain  when  it  waa  formed,  give 
a  date  antecedent  to  that  at  which  the  elevation 
took  place,  while  the  horizontal  attata  at  the  base  of 
the  mountain  enpply  one  anbaeguent  to  that  event 
Thus,  the  principal  chain  of  the  Alpa  woa  raised 


dnriog  the  period  between  the  depodtion  of  the 
Tertiary  and  that  of  the  older  recent  depoaita. 
(c)  But  there  is  vet  another  way  in  which  the 
Di^eaving  interool  force  operates,  viz.,  where  it 
does  not  act  at  right  angles  to  the  sorfoce,  bat 
rather  obliquely,  and,  as  it  were,  pushes  the  solid 
■trata  forwards,  causing  them  to  rise  in  huge  folds, 


•olid  and  brittle  condition,  is  thus  curved,  in  a 
greater  or  less  den'ee,  by  the  shock  of  every  earth- 
quake; it  is  wdl  known  that  the  trembling  of  the 
earth  is  produced  bv  the  progress  of  a  wave  of  the 
solid  cnut ;  that  the  d^tructioa  of  buildinga  is 
earned  by  the  nndulation ;  and  that  the  wave  has 
been  so  evident,  that  it  has  been  described  as  pro- 
ducing a  sickening  feeling  on  the  observer,  as  if  the 
land  were  but  thin  ice  ueaving  over  water,  lids 
mode  of  mountain  formation  fios  been  explained, 
whim  treating  of  the  Appalachians  (q.  v.),  which 


were  thus  formed  Uony  other  ranges  have  had 
a  similar  origin,  as  some  in  Belgium  and  in  Hbe 
Southern  Highlands  of  Scotlano,  as  has  been 
suggested  by  Mr  Carrnthera. 

It  is  evident  that  in  the  last  two  cIbsscb  the 
™»llel  ridges  were  produced  at  the  same  time. 
Mie  de  Beanmont  generalised  this,  maintaining 
that  all  parallel  ridges  or  fisanrea  are  aynchronous ; 
and  on  lIiiB  be  baaed  a  system  ot  monntam -structure, 
whici  ia  too  universal  and  too  eeometrioal  to  be 
true.  The  aynchroniam  of  parallel  fisaores  hod  been 
noticed  by  Werner,  and  it  is  now  received  aa  a  first 
principle  in  minins-  The  converse  is  also  held  to  be 
senerdly  true,  that  fissures  diOering  in  directiou 
differ  uso  in  age ;  yet  divergence  fiom  a  centre, 
and  oanseqnent  want  of  paral^liun,  aa  in  the  case 


of  volcanoes,  may  be  an  essential  charocteristio  ot 

contemporaneity.     Nevertheless,  Elie  de  Beaumont 

cloBsifled   the   mountains  of  the    world  according 

this  parallelism,  holding  that  t^e  various  groups 


e  far  from  parallel — but  ia  estimatei 
reiauun  to  aome  imaginary  great  circle,  whicu  iwing 
drawn  romid  the  globe  would  divide  it  into  equ^ 
hemisphercB.  Such  circles  he  called  Great  Circles  of 
Reference.  But  beyond  this,  he  went  a  step  further, 
and  proposed  a  more  refined  classification,  depending 
on  a  prmciple  of  jteometrical  symmetry,  which  he 


believed  he  hod  discovered  among  his  great  circles 
of  reference.  It  is  to  be  feared,  however,  that  his 
geometrical  speculations  have  Uttle  foundation  in 

MOURNE  MOUHTAINa  See  Down,  Codhtt 

OF. 

MOURNING,  a  particular  habit  worn  to  expieas 
grief,  especially  for  the  decease  of  friends,  Tbo 
usues  regarding  mourning  have  varied  much  at 
di^rent  times  and  ia  different  countries.  Among 
the  Jews,  the  duration  of  mourning  for  the  dead  was 
generally  7,  but  sometimes  protracted  to  30  days; 
and  the  external  indications  of  sorrow  conaisted  in 
weeulng,  tearing  the  clothes,  smiting  the  breast, 
cnttmg  off  the  hair  and  beKd,  lying  on  the  ground, 
walking  barefoot,  and  abstaining  from  washmg  and 
anointing  themselves.  Among  the  Greeks,  the 
period  was  30  days,  except  in  Sparta,  where  it 
was  limited  to  10.  The  relatives  of  the  deceased 
secluded  themselves  from  the  public  eye,  wore  a 
coarse  black  dress,  and  in  ancient  times  cut  off  their 
hair  as  a  sign  of  crief.  Among  the  Romans,  the 
colour  of  mourning  for  both  sexes  was  black  or  dark- 
bine  under  the  republic.  Under  the  empire,  the 
women  wore  white,  black  contiauir^  to  be  the 
colour  for  men,  who  did  not  cut  on  the  hair  or 
beard  as  in  Greece.  Men  wore  their  mourning  only 
a  few  days  ;  women  a  year,  when  for  a  hosband  or 
parent.  The  time  of  mourning  was  often  shortened 
by  a  victory  or  other  happy  public  event,  tihe  birth 
of  a  child,  or  the  occurrence  of  a  family  ft^vaL  A 
public  calamity,  such  as  a  defeat,  or  the  death  of 
an  emperor  or  person  of  note,  occasioned  a  nublic 
moummg,  which  involved  a  total  cessation  of  buai- 
nesB,  c^ed  Justitium.  In  modem  Enrope,  the 
ordinary  colour  for  mourning  is  black ;  in  Turkey, 
violet;  in  China,  white;  m  ^^^Fpt,  yellow;  in 
Ethiopia,  brown.  It  was  white  in  Spain  until  1498, 
Mourning  is  worn  of  different  depth,  and  for 
different  periods  of  time,  accordi^  to  the  neameaa 
of  relationship  of  the  deceased.  On  the  death  of  a 
sovereign  or  member  of  the  reigning  house,  a  court 
mourning  is  ordered  ;  and  often  a  general  mouru- 

lu  Scotch  Law,  if  a  husband  die,  whether  solvent 
insolvent,  the  widow  will  be  entitled  to  a  prefer- 
le   payment    out  of   the   assets   for   mournings 
suitable  to  his  rank.      And   the   aame    privilege 
applies  to  maurnings  for  snch  of  ths  chililren  as  are 
to  assist  at  the  funeral.     In  England,  there  is  no 
such  privilege  or  distinction. 
MOUSA  (and  its  broeh).    See  Sdee.,  VoL  X. 
MOUSE  (l^ai),  a  genus   of   rodent   Tn«TnTn«li% 
of  the  famUy  Murida  (q.  v.),  having  three  simple 
molar  teetll  in  each  jaw,  with  tuberculated  sum- 
mits, the  npper  incisors  wedge-shaped,  the  lower 
compressed  and  pointed,  the  fore-feet  witi  four 
toes  and  a  rudimentary  thumb,  the  hind-feet  five- 
toed  ;  the  tail  long,  nearly  destitute  of  hair,  and 
scaly.    This  genus  includes  Bats  (q.  v.)  and  mice ; 
the  smaller  species  bearing  the  latte^  name. — The 


iattonameL— Th 


MOTJSE-EAB  CHICKWEED— MOUTH. 


That 


Common  M.  (Jf.  mvteutut)  U  perhapg  not  originally 
BrilJah,  olUioiigti  now  bo  abundant  eveiywhere.  It 
accompanies  man  wherever  ha  goes,  and  readily 
colomw»  eveiy  region,  arctic,  temperate,  or  tropical ; 
ite  great  fecundity,  commoa  also  to  moat  of  its 
congeners,  canning  means  to  be  employed  evecy- 
where  for  the  prevention  of  its  excessive  mnlljpli- 
cation.  Aristotla  mode  the  erperiment  of  placma; 
»  pregiuuit  female  M.  in  a  closed  vessel  filled  with 
grain,  and  fonnd  in  a  short  time  do  fewer  than  1120 
mice  in  the  vessel  Of  cats  and  monse-trapB  it 
seems  mmeceasary  here  to  speak,  Emd  equally 
ceasary  to  give  a  aeactiption  of  the  common  r 
There  are  several  varieties  of  this  species 
generally  fonnd  in  houses  is  smaller,  and 
daric  in  colour,  as  that  common  in  bams  and  farm' 
Tarda.  A  white  variety  sometimes  occurs,  and  has 
Deen  perpetuated  in  a  half- domesticated  Btat«.  The 
common  brown  kind  is,  however,  at  least  as  easily 
tamed,  and  readily  becomes  familiar  enough.  A 
pied  variety  is  not  uncommon  in  India.  ^ — Much 
has  been  written  about  the  sinjpng  powers  of  the 
M. ;  it  being  asserted,  on  the  one  hand,  that  mice 
not  onfrequently  shew  a  strong  love  for  miudc, 
and  a  power  of  mutating  the  sane  of  birds ;  whilst, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  is  alleged  that  the  singing  of 
mice  is  merely  tJie  consequence  of  throat  disease. — 
The  M.  lEuJces  a  nest  bke  that  of  a  bird  in  the 
wainsoot  of  a  wall,  among  the  chaff  or  feathers  of 
ft  bed,  or  in  any  similar  situation.  The  litter  is 
generally  from  six  to  ten  in  number. — The  Wood 
M.,  or  LoHO-TAiLKD  FiBU>  M.  {M.  ij/lvatietis),  is  a 
litUe  larger  than  the  Common  Monsa    Its  tail  is 


longer ;  its  ears  are  also  longer ;  its  mozde  rather 
longer;  its  nnder-parts  lighter  in  colour,  than  in 
the  common  moose.  It  is  abundant  throughout 
Britain  and  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe,  and  is 
»  grievous  pest  in  ^rdens  and  fields.  It  lays  up 
stores  of  grain  and  other  food,  either  in  thick  tufts 
of  grass,  or  juat  imder  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
The  quantity  of  food  laid  up  in  such  stores  is  often 
wonderfully  large.  The  Field  M,  is  timid,  geutle, 
and  easily  tiuned. — The  smallest  British  M.,  and 
the  smallest  British  quadruped,  is  the  Earvkt 
M,  (Jf.  mesaoriua),  of  which  the  head  and  body 
are  ooly  2i  inches  in  length,  the  toll  being  almost 
equally  long,  and  to  some  degree  prehensile  ;  the 
general  form  elongated  and  slender,  the  head  narrow. 


the  eara  not  large.    This  species  is  

in  some  parts  of  the  south  of  England ;  it  is  also 
found  in  the  south  of  Scotlantf  although  less 
frequently.  It  mokes  its  nest  among  the  stalks  of 
wheat,  reeds,  or  other  grasses,  weaving  together  the 
leaves  and  panicles  of  grasses,  the  leaves  oeing  for 
this  purpose  cut  into  shreds  by  its  teeth.  The  nest 
is  a  very  curious  structure  formed  by  mere  inter- 
twining, without  cement  of  any  kind.  It  is  gene- 
rally suspended  among  the  stalks.  It  is  globular, 
or  nearly  so,  and  entrance  to  it  is  through  an 
openinc,  which  almoet  complete^  closes  up  again. 
— A  still  smaller  spedes  of  M.  (M.  pui^Uii]  is  found 
in  the  sonth  of  Europe. — An  American  species,  the 
WHiTE-rooTBi)  M.  {M.  leucopaa],  common  in  most 
parts  of  North  America,  and  ioteroiediate  in  its 
habits  between  the  Common  M.  and  the  Field  M., 
is  said  to  depart  from  houses  whenever  either 
the  cat  or  the  brown  rat  appeora  in  them. — The 
Barbary  M.  {M.  Barbariu)  approaches  in  size  to 
the  rata,  and  is  distinguished  lay  its  longitudinally 
striped  fur. 

The  name  M.  is  often  popularly  given  to  animnlrt 
considerably  different  from  the  true  mice,  as  the 
roie»(q.v.). 

HOUSE-EAR  CHICEWEBD  {Cenutium),  m 
genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Caryophj^taBca, 
having  five  sepals,  five  bifid  petals,  ten  stamens,  five 
styles,  and  a  capsule  bursting  at  the  top  with  ten 
teeth.  The  species  are  numerous,  natives  of  tem* 
Derate  and  cold  countries  in  all  ports  of  the  world. 
Some  of  them  are  among  the  most  common  weeds 
in  Britain ;  others,  having  larger  flowers,  are  occa- 
sionally planted  in  flower-borden  and  on  rock- 
worka.  The  form  and  hairineea  of  the  leaves  of 
some  of  the  British  species  have  given  rise  to  the 
popular  &Mn& 

MOUTH,  Diseases  or  raa,  occur  in  different 

forms,  but  usually  begin  with  inflammation  of  the 

mucous   membrane.      The   iafianiiiiBtion    may   be 

equally  diffused,  or  may   be    chiefly  or   entirely 

infined  to  the  mucous  follicles.    When  diffused, 

may  either  present  no  peculiar  secreted  product, 

'  the  surface  may  be  covered  with  a  curd-like 

cretion,  or  with  patches  of  false  membrane.     It 

may  further  be  attended  with  eruption,  ulceration, 

or  gangrene,  any  one  of  which  may  impress  a  speciJ 

character  on  the  disease,  or  it  may  present  peouliar- 

itiea  from  die  nature  of  its  excitmg  cause,  as  when 

it  accompanies  scurvy,  or  is  the  result  of  mercurial 

The  foUowiug  ore  the  principal  forms  of  ioSam- 
mation  of  the  mouth,  or  tltrmaliiia  (Gr.  iloma,  the 
mouth),  as  it  is  termed  bv  nosologists.  1.  Commoa 
Diffiued  Inflammation,  which  appears  in  reddened, 
somewhat  elevated  patches,  and  sometimes  occupies 
large  portions  of  the  surface  of  the  mouth.  It  is  more 
commonly  a  complication  of  other  diseases  than  an 
original  affection,  Wheu  of  the  latter  character,  it 
is  generally  caused  by  the  direct  action  of  irritants, 
OS  by  Bcaldiag  drinks,  corrosive  substances  intro- 
duced into  the  mouth,  accumulated  tartar  on  the 
necks  of  the  teeth,  kc.  In  ordinary  cases,  cooling 
and  demulcent  liquids  {such  as  cream  or  almond 
oil)  applied  locally,  an  occasional  saline  cathartic, 
with  a  soft  and  chiefly  farinaceous  diet,  constitute 
the  whole  of  the  necessary  treatment. 

%  Diffiiaed  InflammaHon,  vnth  eurd-like  txudation, 
is  almost  entirely  confined  to  infants,  and  is  described 
under  its  populu'  name  of  Thrubb. 

3.  Injiammation  of  the  Foilielet,  and  Eruption  or 
VetiaUar  Ir^fiammiaioa,  ore  described  in  the 
article  Apth*  (q.  v.). 

4.  In  Ukfrative  Inflamrnation,  Canerum  Orit,  or 
Ganker,  an  nlceratioQ   often  of   oonsidenble  size. 


HOVABUS-HOZAUBIQtTE  CHAimKL. 


vith  a  grayish  surfua  and  an  inflftmed  cdKe,  appear* 
on  the  gums,  or  inside  of  tht  cbeeki  or  lips.  The 
■welling  oE  the  adjacent  porta  ii  often  lo  consider- 
kble,  a*  to  be  apparent  externally.  There  is  ■ 
copious  flow  of  saliva,  and  the  breath  ia  very  offen- 
sivB.  HiB  disease  generally  occurs  in  cliildtea 
from  two  to  dz  yean  of  age.  The  ulcer  may 
oontinne  for  weeks,  or  even  months,  hut  always 
yields  to  treatment.  The  febrile  symptoms  and  the 
ooostdpation  which  are  usually  present,  most  bo 
oombated  in  the  ordinary  way.  Perhaps  the  best 
general  method  of  troatmg  tne  dieeasa  is  by  the 
administration  of  chlorate  of  potash,  andbywsshiog 
the  month  with  a  solution  of  chlorinated  soda. 

&  The  preceding  affection  is  sometimes  the  first 
rtage  of  a  much  more  serious  affection — viz.,  ^n- 
fp'ene  Cff  the  Mouth,  which  osnally  occnis  in  children 


between  the  first  and  second  dentition.  A  Bloughini 
oloer  forms  upon  the  gums,  or  some  other  part  of 
the  mouth.   This  slough  spreads,  the  breath  becomes 


estremdy  fetid,  the  msease  eitends  to  the  alveolar 
processes  and  the  teeth  are  loosened  and  fall  oat. 
Inability  to  take  food  is  followed  by  exhausting 
diarrhce^  and  death  is  the  usual  termination. 

Other  affecUona  of  the  mouth  are  noticed  in  the 
Brticles  Salivitiojj  and  Scurvy. 

MOVABLES,  in  Scotch  kw,  is  the  technical 
term  to  denote  personal  as  coDtradistinguished  from 
heritable  property,  one  of  the  main  distinctions  of 
property  being  between  these  two  classes.  Heri- 
tue  goes  to  t£e  heir-st-law  in  case  of  intestacy,  or 
what  is  equivalent  to  it,  and  movables  go  to  the 
next  of  kin.  See  Km.  The  term  movables  is  thits 
not  conSned  to  corporeal  things,  u  furniture,  cattle, 
goods,  &c,  but  includes  debts,  bills  of  exchange, 
rights  of  action,  &c. 

MOTILLE,  a  small  Irish  port  just  inside  the 
month  of  Longh  Fojle,  in  county  Donegal.  Here 
some  of  the  great  ocean  steamers  call  on  their  way 
between  Liverpool  and  Canada.  M.  is  also  popular 
as  a  watering-place. 

MOVING  PLANT  [Damodaim  ffyrans),  a  plant 
of  the  natural  order  Legvmiiio»m,  suborder  Papiiioa- 
aeea,  a  native  of  India,  remarkable,  as  are  also  soma 
other  species  of  the  aamegenns,  for  the  spontaneons 
motioa  of  the  leaves.  Ths  leavea  are  tamite,  the 
lateral  leafiets  much  smaller  than  the  terminsl  one. 
These  lateral  leadets  are  in  constant  motion,  being 
elevated  by  a  sacceesion  of  little  jerks  till  they  meet 
•hove  the  terminal  leaflet,  and  then  moving  down- 
ward* by  similar  rapid  jerks  to  the  leaf -stalk. 
Si^netimes  one  leaflet  is  in  motion  and  the  other  at 
rest  Sometimes  a  few  may  be  seen  moving,  whilst 
Uiere  is  a  partial  cessation  m  the  other  leaves  of  Qia 

Ct     A  high  wind  causes  this  cessation  mora 
anything  else ;  the  movements  ore  more  languid 
in  a  Teiy  hot  dry  day,  and  are  to  be  seen  in  uieir 

dection  in  warm  moist  weather.  The  terminal 
et  does  Dot  remain  absolutely  at  rest,  although 
it*  movements  are  not  like  those  of  Uie  lateral  ones, 
but  oscillates  slowly  from  one  side  to  the  other. 
The  remarkable  movements  of  this  plant  are  fully 
discussed  and  illustrated  in  Darwin's  most  interesting 
work.  The  Poatr  of  Movtmeai  in  Planle  (1880), 

MO'XA  is  a  peculiar  form  of  counter-irritation 
which  was  early  practised  in  the  Bast,  puticularly 
by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese,  from  whom  it  was 
learned  by  the  Fortogueae.  One  or  more  small 
oones,  formed  of  the  downy  covering  of  the  leaves 
of  ArUmitia  Maza  (as  nsed  by  the  Chinese),  or  of 
the  pith  of  various  plants  (as  of  the  common  sun- 
flower), or  of  linen  steeped  in  nitre,  are  placed  on 
the  skin  over  the  affected  JMt,  and  Uie  ends  remote 
"  ikin  are  ignited.  The  ccmbostion  gradnally 
throngh  the  cone  and  forms  a  superfieiM 


eschar  on  the  skin.  The  snimnndtng  part*  most  ba 
protected  by  a  pad  of  wet  m^  with  a  nole  in  it  for 
themoxa. 

It  may  be  employed  wi^i  advantage  in  certain 
ianB»  of  neuralgia  (especially  obstinate  sciatica)  and 
paralysis,  and  in  chronio  disease*  of  the  joinfaL  It 
IS  not  much  used  in  consequence  of  its  tq^parent 
severity,  but  the  pain  ia  not  so  great  as  might  bs 
expected,  and,  aooordine  to  some  M  its  advocate*,  is 
less  than  often  attends  blisters. 

HOZAMBI'QUE,  a  territory  on  the  east  ooast 
of  South  Africa,  nominally  belonging  to  Portugal, 
and  placed  under  a  governor-general,  although  the 
actual  possessions  of  Portugal  consist  only  of  a  few 
f  tations,  and  her  authority  in  the  country  is  incon- 
ndeiable.  It  extends  from  Cape  Delgado,  in  lat 
10*  41'  S.,  to  Delagoa  Bay,  26°  8.  The  chief  river, 
the  Zambesi,  divides  it  into  two  portions — M.  proper 
on  the  north,  and  Sirfala  on  the  south.  Area  eeti> 
mated  at  383,600  iqaare  mil«« ;  pop.  300,000.  These 
figures,  however,  an  only  to  be  considered  approxi- 
mative, as  the  country  has  no  definite  boaadarr 
to  the  west.  The  coasta,  which  comprise  large 
tract*  of  cultivated  soil,  yielding  rich  harveeta  m 
rice,  are  fringed  with  reefs,  islands,  and  ahoali^  and 
between  DelsgoB  Bay  and  Cape  Corrientes,  and 
from  M.,  the  principal  station,  to  Cape  Delgado,  the 
ahore*  are  high  and  steep.  The  forests  yidd  valu- 
able onameatal  woods ;  ivory  is  obtained  from  the 
hippopotami  that  haunt  the  marshes ;  and  gold  and 
capper  are  found  and  worked.  The  elephant,  deer, 
and  lion  inhabit  the  jungle  ;  orooodiles  are  found 
in  tiie  rivers,  and  numerous  flamingoes  on  the 
coasts.  The  rainy  season  lasts  &om  November  to 
March.  The  summer  heat  is  very  great,  and  the 
climate,  which  is  fine  in  the  elevated  tract*,  ia 
nnhealtiiy  on  the  low  shores  and  the  swampj 
districts.  Beddes  numerous  froita  and  vegetables, 
the  grains  are  rice,  millet,  maiie,  and  wheat.  The 
government  is  in  a  most  incfBcient  state,  beb^  in 
most  places,  more  in  the  hands  of  native  chiefs  than 
of  the  Portuguese.  In  fonner  times  the  slave-trade 
was  carried  on  here  extensively;  and  from  1846  to 
1657i  four  govemois-general  were  removed  by  their 
govemmeut  for  countenancing,  if  not  actively 
engaging  in  it.  The  colony  is  divided  into  six 
distnots,  and  is  ruled  by  the  governor-general  and 
itary,  assisted  by  a  junto.     lieligian  and 


Catholic  priests,  b 


0  be  at  the  lowest  ebb. 


the  islands  and  reefs;  pearl-  _..^  ..  ..  _.  ... 
considerable  profit ;  cattle,  sheep,  and  goate 
numerous,  and  l^e  principal  exports  are  grain, 
gold-dust,  honey,  tortoise-shell,  cowries,  gums,  and 
amber.  The  Portuguese  arrived  hero  in  1497, 
attracted  by  rumours  of  tlie  wealth  of  the  country 
and  the  excellence  of  ita  ports.  The  principal 
settlement*  are  Mozambiqae,  Quilimane,  Sena,  ^H 
Tet& 

MOZAMBIQUE,  the  capital  of  the 
territoiy  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  . 
coral  island,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  close  to 
the  shore,  in  lat  15°  2'  S.  It  is  defended  by  three 
forts,  is  well  built,  and  contains  a  large  square  in 
which  the  palace  of  the  governor  and  the  custom- 
house are  the  chief  buildings.  Pop.  8500,  of  whom 
7000  are  slaves,  270  Christians,  102  Banyians  from 
Hindustan,  and  I  ICO  Arabs.  In  former  time*  all 
the  markets  of  the  world  were  supplied  with 
slaves  from  Mozambique.  Its  commerce,  now 
inconsiderable,  ia  chiefly  with  India,  and  is  carried 
on  by  Arabs. 


MOZAAABIAN  LTTDBOY— MSEET. 


cout  of  Africa,  U  aboat  1000  miles  in  lengtli, 
and  about  450  in  avaraga  breadtii.    At  its  northern 

extremity  are  the  Comoto  lalaoda.  Over  the 
northern  portion  the  monsoon*  blow.  Black  -whalea, 
yielding  ipermacelj,  tiboaud. 

MOZABA'BLAN  LITUBOT,  a  litorgy— traoed 
back  by  Ktme  to  the  apostles,  bat  by  the  majority 
of  writers  to  St  Isidore  of  SevUla,  who  redacted 
H,  in  co-operation  with  tha  Fathers  of  the  4th 
Cooncil  of  Toledo,  633 — origiiially  in  n*e  among 
thoae  Christun  inhabitants  of  Spain  (Miuara- 
fciani,  Moatanbians,  Unstarabians)  who  remained 
fiiithihil  to  their  religion  after  tbe  Anbio  eonqnesL 


moat  of  the  Spaniah  ohnrchsa  and  oonrenta 
to  adopt  the  oommon  anifoim  litnrgy  of  Uie  Bomiih 
Clinrcb.  Six  Monribic  oongr^ations  alone,  chiefly 
bi  Leon  Mtd  Toledo,  wer«  allowed  to  retua  their 
ancient  ritual,  bat  it  soon  fell  into  disuse  even 
among  thewi  Archbishin)  Ximenes  of  Toledo 
expressly  foioded  a  chapel  at  Toledo,  in  ISOO,  in 
which  mass  was  to  be  SMd  according  to  the  Moe- 
arabian  manner,  leat  it  tnlght  entirely  fall  into 
oblivion.  He  farther  caoMd  a  number  of  learned 
priests,  Alfonso  Ortiz  among  them,  to  collate  all  the 
different  MozorAbian  liturgical  MS3.  to  be  found  in 
the  diSerent  chnrcheg,  c&pels,  and  oonventa,  and 
finally,  there  was  edited,  onder  hi«  anspicee,  the 
Mitiale  JUiitum  leautdum  Jlrffuiam  Beali  ladori 
Dictum  MoiarabKam  (ISOO— 1602),  which  has,  how- 
frrer,  by  some  nnfortnnate  aecident,  remained  incom- 
plete. A  whole  third  of  the  chorch-^ear  is  left  oat 
entirdy.  The  pecoliar  affioi^  of  this  liturgy  with 
the  OiiJlican  on  the  one,  and  the  Greek  on  the  other 
hand,  makee  its  study  extremely  important  for  the 
history  <^  the  ancient  Chnroh. 

MOZART,  JoHUrs  Csrysostok  WoLFOAsa 
OorruBB,  one  of  the  greatest  of  musical  composera, 
waa  bom,  2Tth  January  1750,  at  Salzburg,  where 
hit  father  waa  sub-director  of  the  archiepiscopol 
ohspeL  His  extraordinary  mnsical  talents  were 
cultivated  to  the  utmost  by  his  father.  At  the  age 
of  fonr  he  played  the  clavichord,  and  ccanposed  a 
number  of  mlnueta  and  other  pieces  still  extant. 
When  only  six  yean  of  age,  his  performances  were  so 
lemorkable,  that  Us  father  took  him  and  his  sister, 
who  possessed  einular  gifts,  to  Munich  and  Vienna, 
where  they  obtained  every  kind  of  encour^ement 
from  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  and  the  Emperor 
Francis  L  In  1763  and  1764,  the  Uozart  family 
visited  Paris  and  London.  At  the  tm  of  seven, 
young  Mozart  surprised  a  party  of  masicians, 
mcluding  hi*  father,  by  taking  P<^  *^  ■'g'lt,  in  a 
trio  for  stringed  instrumenta.  Symphonies  o£  his 
own  composition  were  produced  in  a  public  concert 
in  London ;  and  whilet  there,  he  composed  and 
published  six  sonatiis,  and  made  acquaintance  with 
the  works  of  Handel,  recently  deceased.  Two  years 
later,  when  but  twelve  years  of  age,  he  composed  the 
music  for  the  religions  service,  and  for  a  trumpet 
concert  at  the  dedication  of  tiie  Orphan  House 
Church  in  Vienna,  and  conducted  it  in  presence 
of  the  imperial  court.    In  1769,  at  the  a^  of  thir- 


travefled  with  his  father  to  Italy,  where  he  created 
an  unheu^-ot  enthiudaam  by  his  performances 
and  compositions.  He  composed  the  opera  of 
Mithridaift  at  Milan,  in  October  1770,  and  it  was 
publicly  performed  there  in  December  of  that  year. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen,  he  was  the  first  clavejinist 
in  the  world ;  he  tiad  produced  two  requiems  and 
a  stabat  mater,  numerona  offertories,  hvmns,  and 
motetts,  4  operas,  2  cantatas,  13  symfdioniea,  24 


pianoforte  sonataa,  not  to  apeak  of  a  vast  nnmb«r 

of  concertos  for  different  instruments,  trios,  qoar- 
tetta,  marches,  and  other  minor  pieces.  In  1779; 
he  was  appointed  composer  to  the  imperial  court 
at  Vienna,  where  he  then  fixed  his  residenoe,  and 
there  the  musical  works  were  composed  upon  which 
Ills  great  fame  chiefly  depends.  His  office  in 
A^enna,  however,  was  rather  honorary  than  lucrative 
and  hs  lived  by  concerts,  musical  tours,  teaching  of 
music,  and  the  small  prohts  derived  from  the  tale 
of  his  published  works,  till  an  offer  of  a  laiss 
'    '    '  '      by  the  king  of  Pmsua  ted  the 


0  florins  a  year.    His  great 


salary  made 

emperor  to  eive  him ^ ^ 

opera  «t  I&mento  waa  composed  in  1780,  with  • 
view  to  induce  the  family  of  Mademoiselle  Con- 
stance Weber,  afterwards  his  wife,  to  consent  to 
the  manis^  which  they  had  declined  on  the 
ground  of  Ms  reputation  not  being  sufficiently 
established.  This  opera  forms  an  epoch  not  in 
the  compoaer'B  life  only,  but  in  the  history  <A 
music  In  construction,  detail,  instnimentation, 
and  every  imaginable  reelect,  it  was  an  enormous 
advance  on  all  previou*  works  of  the  kind,  and 
established  his  repute  as  the  greatest  musician 
whom  the  world  had  seen.  Die  BiHfJihrung  oim 
dem  Berali  followed.  His  six  quartette,  dedicated 
to  Haydn,  appeared  in  17S5,  and  in  17SG  Le  nozs* 
di  Figaro.  In  1787,  he  produced  his  di^-d'auiin 
Don  Qiopanni,  which,  thoagh  received  with  enthn. 
stasm  at  Prague,  was  at  first  beyond  the  compre- 
hension of  the  Viennese.  Coii  fan  tulli  appeared 
in  179a  To  1791,  the  last  year  of  his  short  life, 
we  owe  ZauberfiOle,  La  Clemaua  di  TUo,  and  tha 
sublime  requiem  composed  in  anticipation  of 
death,  and  finished  only  a  few  days  before  bis 
'wease.    He  died  on  Mh  December  1791,  aged  3K, 

In  the  intemJi  of  hi*  greater  works,  M.  oompeaed 
tlie  majority  of  tiie  orahastral  symfdiomea,  quutetta 
and  quintetta,  which  are  an  alnKot  indispecMBb)* 
part  of  the  programme  d  every  cmoert  in  the  pre- 
sent day,  brides  masset  a*  f^milJM-  in  England  aa 
"  Catholic  Europe,  innomenble  piamrforte  concerto* 
id  sonatas,  and  detached  vocal  oompositions,  all 
of  the  mort  perfectly  finished  desaription.  To 
Uaydu  M.  always  acknowledged  his  oblintionB ; 
but  Haydn's  obligation*  to  M.  are  at  least  aa 
great.  Haydn,  thongh  b<ait  twenty-foor  ^ears  ear> 
her,  survived  U.  «(^teen  ye*«*,  and  all  his  ereateat 
works,  written  after  M.'i  death,  bear  manifold  tracea 
of  H.'s  influence  "  '"  "  "  ■ 
works  all  traoes  ti  . 

the  fatiier  of  the  modem  schod,  .         

ever  combined  genina  and  learning  in  eodi  par 
~>roportions ;  none  has  ever  been  able  to  dignify  am 
ightest  and  tritest  ftmns  by  such  profouna  scholar- 
ship, or  at  the  moment  when  he  was  drawing  most 
largely  on  the  resonrces  of  musical  science,  to  appear 
itoral,  so  spontaneous,  and  so  thoroughly  at  bi* 
'  See  the  live*  by  Holme*  (Land.  1845)  and 
Jahn  (Leip.  1S56).  The  Ufe  by  Nobl  (2d.  ed.  1877) 
and  the  Letter*  have  bean  trtuulated  by  Lady 
Wallace. 

MOZY'U,  a  town  in  the  government  of  Minsk, 
in  Rusda,  160  miles  sonth-south  east  of  Minsk.  It 
is  a  town  of  considerable  antiquity,  and  played  a 
rather  important  part  in  the  wars  between  the 
Russian  princes,  previous  to  the  Tartar 
tavasioa.  It  waa  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the 
Tartars  in  lZ4a  Under  the  Polish  rule  it  waa  tbe 
chief  town  of  a  district,  and  remained  so  after  its 
annexation  to  Russia  in  1795.  ISO  barges  and  300 
rafts  are  annually  freighted  here  with  goods  to  the 
amount  of  500,000  rublea.    Pop.  (1830)  420a 

MSEET,  also  written  MTSCHETHA  and  ether- 
ise, one  of  the  ma*t  ancient  Georgian  towns,  in 


™»^ 


ths  pnaent  goreriiinent  of  Tiflii,  and  about  10 
miloB  north-narth-wert  of  the  town  of  that  name. 
It  ia  uiil  to  h*ve  been  the  seat  of  the  Oeormiai 
kings  down  to  the  6th  c,  and  contained  the  first 
Chnatian  church  of  Oeoigia,  huilt  durins  the  &nt 
half  of  the  4lii  ceatniy.  In  thia  church  ^he 
Georguui  kings  ware  crowned  and  buried, 
ute  of  U.  it  now  marked  by  a  few  huts. 

MTZEK  SK,  a  town  of  Bnuia,  in  the  zoi 
of  Orel,  616  miles  south- aouth-eaet  of  St  PetersbnTg. 
It  it  sitnated  on  the  Zuaha,  which  commliaicat^ 
through  the  Oka  with  the  Volga.    The  old  cathe- 


t»^  u  1147.  Its  trade,  chieQy  with  St  Poterabmv 
and  Moscow,  amounts  in  value  to  upwards  oi 
1,000,000  rubles.     Pop.  (1380)  14,159. 

MU'CILAGE,  or  BA8S0RIN  {Ci3„0„),  it  a 
uodilicatioa  of  gum  which  a  inaoluble  in  water, 
but  when  moiEtened  with  it,  awalli  up  into  s 
gelatinouB  mass.  It  it  contained  abundantly  in  gnm 
tragacanth;  and  many  seedi,  tach  at  linteed,  qumce 
■eed,  fto.,  and  certain  roots,  soch  as  those  of 
^ihfl  TnfcTmti  mallow,  furnish  it  in  large  quantity. 
Alkoliea  render  it  soluble  in  water,  and  couTeit  it 
into  true  gum;  and  prolonged  boiUng  in  water 
towlacet  V&  soma  effect  Nitric  add  converts  it 
Lito  mucio  and  ozalio  aoids, 

UU'COTJS  MEMBRANES  i.VD  MUOTTS. 
Uod^  the  term  MdoOTS  Srvrm,  anatomists  include 
the  skin,  mucous  membnuea,  and  true  glands,  all 
of  which  an  continuous  with  one  another,  and  are 
essentially  composed  cf  similar  parts.  ^  As  the  tkin 
and  the  glands  are  described  in  spedal  articles,  it 
only  remams  to  speak  of  the  great  internal  mucous 
tracts.  These  are  the  alimenta^  mucous  membrane, 
the  retfriratory  mucous  membrane,  and  the  genito- 
urinary mucous  membrane. 

The  alimmtary  mucous  mtmbnvM  commences  at 
the  lips,  and  not  only  forms  the  inner  coat  of  the 
intestmal  canal  from  tiie  mouth  to  the  anns,  bat 
gives  off  prolonratious  which  after  lining  the  ducts 
of  the  various  glands  (the  salivary  glands,  the  liver, 
and  the  pancreas)  whose  pcoductB  are  discharged 
into  this  canal,  penetrate  into  the  innermost  recsBsee 
of  these  glands,  and  constitate  their  true  secreting 
dement  Besides  these  larger  offsets,  we  find  in 
the  stomach  and  small  intestine  an  infinite  series 
of  minato  tabular  proloogatiout,  the  anatomical 
arrangement  and  function  of  which  aie  described  in 
the  article  DiOKsnoir. 

The  rapiraiory  mucoui  mem&rone  begins  at  the 
noetrils,  and  under  the  name  of  tchntiderian  or 
pitaitary  meiabrane,  lines  the  nasal  cavities,  from 
whence  it  sends  on  either  side  an  upward  prolonga- 
tlon  through  the  lachrymal  duct  to  form  the  con- 
jujtetha  (9  the  eye;  backwards,  through  the 
posterior  nares   (the -""—   '-' **■- 


of  the  tympanum),  aod  is  continuous  with  the 
pharyngeal  macoot  membrane  (which  is  a  portion  of 
the  alimentary  tract);  it  then,  instead  ot  passing 
down  the  (esophagus,  enters  and  forms  a  lining  to 
the  larynx,  trachea,  and  bronchial  tubes  to  thdr 
terminations.  From  the  continuity  of  these  two 
toacts,  some  writeis  describe  them  at  a  single  one, 
under  the  name  of  the  gattro-pulmonary  tract. 

The  geaiUhurinary  mueov*  membrane  commences 
at  the  genito-orinary  orifioea,  lines  the  excretory 
passoees  from  the  generative  and  arinary  organs, 
and  IS  the  esaenti^  constituent  of  iLhe  glands  of 
both.    See  Kidsev,  for  esample. 

We  thus  tee  that  mucous  membranes  line  all 
thota  passages  by  which  internal  parta  communicate 


with  the  surface^  and  by  which  matters  are  either 
admitted  into  or  eliminated  from  the  body.  As  ft 
general  rule,  they  are  soft  and  velvety,  and  of  a 
more  or  leas  red  colour,  from  their  great  vascularity, 
but  they  present  certain  stmcturol  peculiarities 
according  to  the  functions  which  they  are  requited 
to  dischai^  In  all  the  principal  parta  of  the 
mucous  tracts  we  find  the  mucoua  membrane  to 
present  on  external  layer  of  Epithelium  (q.  v.)  rest- 
ing on  a  thin,  transparent,  homogeneons  membrane^ 
which  from  its  position  is  tenned  the  baaemad 
mtmbrane,  and  b«ieatii  thia  a  stratum  of  voscnlar 
tissue  of  variabls  thickness,  which  usually  presanti 
either  ont^wtiu  in  tiie  form  of  papilLe  and  villi, 
or  depreBsums  or  invetaions  in  the  form  of  foUiclea 
or  glands,  or  both.  The  fblliclet  are  alnust  invari- 
ably present,  but  the  pi^illn  and  villi  are  limited 
to  l£e  alimentary  or  gastro- intestinal  macont 
membrane.  'The  mucous  membranes,'  says  Dr 
Carpenter,  'oonstitnto  tbe  medium  through  which 


Diagram  of  the  Sbmrture  of  an  Involuted 

Mucosa  Hembrone : 

BhnrlDS  Iha  cosUnoiUsn  or  lU  elsmuin  tn  (ha  (OIUbIh 

,7,  two  folllDlM;  h,  liuMiisat  msmbruis;  t,  v^smam 
Urns;  tf, t, epllhellDm ;  v,TaKnilaT  layer;  n,  du*b;  V, villi 
coTBRd  wftli  aplttiellom;  T',  tUlu*,  wImm  tpiUicUam  hi 


nearly  all  the  '"°t°"**  changes  are  effected  that 
take  place  between  ilia  living  organism  and  the 
external  world.  Thus,  in  Uie  gastro-intettinal 
miuous  membrane  we  find  a  provision  for  reducing 
the  food  bv  means  of  a  solvent  fluid  poured  out 
from  its  follicles ;  whilst  the  villi,  or  root-like  fila- 
ments, which  ore  closely  Bet  n^u  its  surface 
towards  its  upper  part,  are  specially  adapted  to 
absorb  the  nutrient  materials  thus  rednced  to  the 
liquid  state.  This  same  membrane,  at  its  lower 
put,  constitutes  an  outlet  through  which  are  east 
out  not  merely  the  indigestikle  residuum  of  the 
food,  but  also  the  excretions  from  numerous  minute 

rnduls  in  the  intestinal  wall,  which  result  from 
decomposition  of  the  tissueo,  and  which  must 
be  separated  from  them  to  prevent  further  decay. 
Again,  the  bronchio-pulmonary,  or  respiratory 
mucous  membrane,  serves  for  the  introduction  M 
oxygen  from  the  ur,  and  for  the  exhalation  of  water 
and  cacbonio  acid.  And,  lastly,  the  nncons  mem- 
branes are  continnout  with  the  cell-lined  vesiclea 
or  tubes  of  the  various  glands,  which  are  the  iuEtra- 
ments  whereby  their  respectiTe  products  are  elimin- 
ated from  the  blood.'  Although  the  various  kinds 
of  epithelial  cells  discharge  a  special  office  in  rela- 
tion to  the  peculiar  funcUon  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane upon  which  each  kind  occurs,  yet  they  all 
serve  one  general  purpose — namely,  that  of  protect- 
ing the  suifaces  on  which  they  are  placed.  This, 
protecting  power  is  increased  by  the  presence  of  the 


"TV- 


MUBAB— MVOOLBTOmANa 


■eoretion  known  m  mucus,  wliich  ordioarily  lonus 
ftn  extremely  thin  l&yer  on  these  membnuiQi,  bat 
when  th^  are  irritBted  or  inflamed,  is  secreted  in 
veiy  considerable  quantity.  The  exact  mode  of  its 
fotmatiou  is  still  a  disputed  oueation,  but  it  is 
genenilly  beli«v«d  to  be  ttie  product  of  the  Kradual 
solution  of  the  uppermost  epithelial  cells.  Besides 
acting  both  mecbouic&Uy  and  chemically  as  a  shield 
to  highly  Bensitlve  membrtnes,  it  has  other  uses, 
amongst  which  two  may  be  especially  meutionad — 1. 
It  commaiiicstes  to  the  salivary,  and  probably  to 
other  glands,  properties  which  are  not  possessed 
either  oy  itself  or  by  the  pure  glandular  secretious ; 
and  2.  It  serves  to  eliuuiiate  a  considerable  quantity 
of  nitrogen  from  the  system.  This  nitrogen  is  con- 
tained in  the  mucin,  which  forms  from  2'4  to  9  per 
oent.  of  naaal  and  bronchial  mucus.  This  mucin 
contains  1264  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  and  is  the 
substance  which  gives  to  mucus  its  viscid  and 
tenacious  character.  Normal  mucus  is  devoid  of 
smell  and  taste,  and  almost,  if  cot  quite,  neutral ; 
and  hence  its  constant  presence  in  toa  mouth  gives 
tise  to  ao  disagreeable  sensation. 

MVDAR  (CalotropU),  a  genus  of  shrubs  of  the 
natural  order  AtcUpiadaixa,  distiDgtiished  by  a 
coronet  of  tine  blnntprocetses  adhenng  to  the  base 
pf  the  filaments.  Tliey  are  nativea  of  the  East 
Indies,  and  the  bai^  of  tLhe  root,  and  the  inspissated 
milby  juice  of  some  of  them,  are  mnch  used  there 
as  an  alterative,  pnrgative,  emetic,  and  sudorific 
medicine.  The  medicinal  properties  of  M.  have 
been  well  known  in  India  for  many  centuries,  and 
have  begun  to  attract  the  attention  of  European 
physicians.  It  is  foond  of  great  valae  in  elephan. 
tiaais,  and  in  leprosy  and  other  obstinate  cutaneous 
diseases,  as  well  as  in  some  spasmodic  affections, 
and  in  ^philis. — The  species  most  common  in  the 
south  of  India  is  C  gigtBtiea ;  in  the  north,  0. 
HaittStorai;  whilst  C.  procera,  aaid  to  have  an 
extremely  acrid  juice,  extends  into  Penda,  and  even 
into  Syria.  M.  is  very  common  in  India,  springing 
np  in  nncnltivated  ground,  and  often  troublesome 
in  that  which  is  cmtivated.  It  is  a  large  shrub, 
with  stems  often  thicker  than  a  man's  leg ;  and 
broad  fleshy  leaves.  It  grows  where  almost  nothing 
else  will,  on  veiy  dry  sands,  and  rapidly  attains  a 
large  size.  The  silky  down  of  the  pods  is  used  for 
mining  o  soft,  ootton-like  thread ;  but  is  short,  and 
not  easily  ■pan.  The  inner  bark  Mio  yields  a  stnms 
and  useful  filnre,  which  makes  excellent  oord^  and 
fishing-lines ;  nit  the  mods  of  prqiaration  hitherto 
used  makes  it  costly. — Hie  inspissated  milky  juice 
of  M.,  collected  by  making  incisions  in  the  bark,  is 
used  as  a  substitute  for  caoutchouc  and  guttO'percha. 
It  becomes  flexible  when  heated. — The  M.  of 
medicine  contains  a  principle  called  Mtidarine,  on 
which  its  medicinal  virtues  are  supposed  to  depend, 
and  which  possesses  tlie  rate  property  of  gelatinis- 
ing when  oeatod,  and  becoming  fluid  when  again 

MUDKI,  nsnolly  spelled  Moodkxb,  a  small  town 

of  north-west  Hindustan,  2S  miles  south-east  of 
the  Sutlej,  and  TO  miles  south-east  of  the  city  of 
Lahore,  on  the  RavL  It  has  a  pop.  of  about  6000. 
Here  the  first  battle  in  the  Sikh  war  of  1845— 1S4S 
was  fought  (16th  December  1345),  when  the  British 
under  Sir  Hugh  Grough  repnlsed  the  Sikhs,  and  Sir 
Eobert  Henry  Sale,  '  Fighting  Bob,'  was  killed. 

MUB'DDIN  (JfuSain),  the  Arabic  name  of  the 
Mohammedan  official  attached  to  a  mosque,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  atmoonce  the  different  times  of  prayer. 
His  chant  (Adnn)  consists  of  these  words,  repeated 
at  intervals;  'Allah  is  most  great.  I  tcBtily  that 
there  is  no  Qod  but  Allah.  I  testify  that  Moham- 
med if  the  Apoetle  of  Allah.     Come  to  prayer. 


Come  to  lecuiity.'  [*  Prayer  is  better  than  sleep ' 
is  added  ID  the  morning,  at  the  Subh  or  Fegr. 
See  MoHAJtMSDAmsH.]  '  Allah  is  most  great 
There  is  no  deity  but  Allah  1 '  Besides  these  regular 
calls,  two  more  are  chanted  during  the  night  for 
those  picas  persons  who  wish  to  perform  special 
nightly  devotions.  The  first  (Ula)  continues,  after 
the  usual  Adon,  in  this  manner :  '  There  is  no  deity 
but  Allah  1  Ho  hath  no  companion— to  Him 
belougeth  the  dominion — to  Him  belongeth  praise 
Ha  giveth  life,  and  causeth  death.  And  He  is 
living,  and  shall  never  die.    In  TTiii  hand  is  blessing. 


.._..  ..    —  ._.     10  perl 

Allah,  the  Existing  for  aver  and  ever:  the  perfection 
of  ^li't*!  the  Desired,  the  Existing,  the  Single,  the 
Supreme,'  to.  The  office  of  a  M.  is  generally 
intmsted  to  blind  men  only,  lest  they  might,  from 
their  elevation,  have  too  free  a  view  over  tha 
surrounding  terraces  and  horema.  The  bannonioua 
and  sonorous  voices  of  tiie  singers,  together  with  tlie 
simplicity  and  solemnity  of  tlie  melody,  make  a 
stritdngly  poetical  impression  upon  the  mind  of  tha 
hearer  m  ^ytime ;  much  more,  however,  is  this  the 
case  whenever  the  sacred  chant  resounds  from  the 
height  of  the  mosque  tlirough  the  moonlit  stillness 
of  on  eastern  ni^t. 

MUTTI  (Arabic,  Expounder  of  tie  Late).  Tha 
Turkish  grand  Mufti  is  the  supreme  head  of  the 
Ulemas  (servants  of  religion  and  laws),  and  has,  toge- 
ther with  the  Grand  Vizir  (Virir  Arim),  the  supreme 
gnidance  of  the  state,  □ominally  ruled  by  the  saltan. 


iiy  ha  is  also  di 
the  Faith).  Tha  Tm^ivi^  (priests),  however,  chosen 
from  Uio  bod^  of  the  Ulemas,  ore,  fnun  the  moment 
of  their  official  ^)pcautmenL  under  tie  ontiiorityof 

the  Kislar-Aga,  or  Chief  of  the  Black  Eonuchs.  The 
better  class  of  the  Ulemas  are  the  teachen  and 
ipoundera  of  the  law,  from  among  whom  the 
[oUohs  and  Cadis  are  elected.  The  Turkish  laws 
have  their  l>asia  in  the  Koran ;  the  Mufti  thus,  as  head 
of  the  judges,  acquires  a  spiritual  authority.  His 
also  is  generally  the  office  of  girding  the  sulbm  with 
the  sword  at  his  ascension  to  the  throne,  a  ceremony 
which  takes  place  at  the  Mosque  of  Eyub,  and 
which  is  equal  to  our  ceremony  of  coronation.  The 
Hnfti  is  elected  and  may  be  deposed  by  the  sultan, 
and  his  position  has  in  modem  days  lost  much  of 
its  former  dignity  and  importance.  His  Fetwa,  or 
decision,  although  attached  to  the  imperial  decrees, 
imparts  to  it  but  little  additional  weight.  Nor  is 
his  own  dictom  in  things  spiritual  always  considered 
as  fkially  binding.  The  only  prerogative  of  Moftjs 
and  Ulemas  whiim  has  hitherto  remamed  untouched, 
is  iieir  being  exempt  from  bodily  or  otherwise 
degrading  punishments ;  nor  can  their  property  ever 
be  confiscated,  but  descends  to  their  mccessors. 

MUaOLETCVNIAXS,  a  sect  that  arose  in 
England  about  the  year  I&51,  and  of  which  the 
fonnden  were  John  Reeve,  and  Ladovic  Muggleton 
(bom  1607,  died  1697),  obscnra  men,  but  who 
claimed  to  have  the  spirit  of  prophecy.  Mug- 
gleton was  a  journeyman  ttulor.  He  professed 
to  be  tha  *  mouth'  of  Reeve,  as  Aaron  was  of 
Moses.  They  affirmed  themselves  to  be  the  ttoo 
vriinastt  of  Rev.  xL  They  asserted  a  right  to 
curse  all  who  opposed  them,  and  did  not  hesitate 
to  decUra  etemof  damnation  o^inst  their  adver- 
saries. They  favoured  the  wodd  with  a  number 
of  publications,  one  of  which — particularly  directed 
to  the  Farliament  and  Commonwealth  of  England, 
and  to  Tli"  Excellency  the  Lord  Qeneral  Cromwell 
—was  entitled  a  IlemoiMlranea  '     "  ''"    ■"  — -' 


(HM<KM(M^tn»  the  £lenul 


MUHALITOH— HITLBEILET. 


God,  Hie  propheU  were  at  tlmt  time  imprisoned 
M  nniisnoM  'm  Old  Bridewea'  Another  pub- 
UoktioD  WW  a  Geaeral  Epuik  from  tt«  Holy  Spirit, 
d*ted  from  '  Great  Trinity  Lane,  at  a  Chaodier'H 
Shop,  oTeragaiost  one  Mr  Millit,  a  Brown  Balcer, 
new  Bow  Lane  End,  London.'  nlia  &r«t  com- 
plete edition  ol  M.'*  worka  wu  pnblialied  in  ITU ; 
another  edition  appeared  in  1832:1  The  M.  denied 
the  doctrine  ot  the  Trinity;  tier  held  Mthro- 
pomorphiat  opinions  j  «id  to  all  thia  they  added 
many  strange  doctrines  ot  their  own,  aa  that  the 
devil  became  incarnate  in  Eve,  to.  The  M.  existed 
in  EngUnd  as  a  sect  till  more  than  one-fonrth  ot 
the  l&th  o.  had  passed  away ;  but  the  cenana  of 
1861  shewed  uo  trace  ot  them,  and  thongh  not 
quite  extinct,  are  now  very  few  in  number. 

MUHALITCH,  or  MTJALICH,  a  town  of  Aida 
Uinor,  in  Anatolia,  13  miles  south  of  the  Sea  of 
Marmora,  and  37  tuilea  west  of  Bnua,  [nctnreaquely 
■itoated  on  low  hill^  It  is  large  and  stragglinft 
fnntfii"  abont  ISOO  hmuei  and  three  or  four  khans, 
■ad  ia  the  seat  of  a  considerable  bade,  chiefly  in 
exporting  nlks,  wool,  and  fruits  to  Constantino^e. 

Pop.  ii,wa 

MTJ'HIiBERO,  a  town  of  Prossian  Saxony, 
situated  on  the  Elbe,  3S  miles  sonth-eaat  of  Witten- 
bers.  Fop.  (1880)  MSI.  Here,  on  24th  April  1547,  a 
batQe  wu  fongbt  between  Johann-Friedricli,  Elector 
of  Saxony,  and  the  Emperor  Charks  V.— a  battle 
fraught  witii  the  most  important  results  to  the 
eansa  of  Frotestaotiim  in  Qermaoy.  The  battle 
was  soon  decided  in  favour  <A  the  emperor,  Johann- 
Triedricb  was  taken  prisoner,  and  ois  territories 
were  band«l  over  to  Maurice,  tlie  representative  of 
tbe  dncal  Cataily  of  Saxony.  From  this  time  till 
1592,  the  Catholioi  were  triumphant  in  Qermany. 

MtTHLHAU'SEN,  an  ancient  city  of  Pmssia,  in 
the  priudpaUty  of  Eichafeld,  on  the  TJiutrut,  30 
miles  north-west  of  Erfurt.  It  ranked  in  the  middle 
ages  as  aa  important  imperial  free  city,  and  is  still 
an  active  centre  of  conunerce.  It  has  manufactories 
for  linen  and  woollen  goods,  Htarch,  anise,  and  saffron 
works,  and  carpet  and  leather  factories.  Pop.  (ISSO) 
23,473.  M.  was  deprived  of  its  municipal  inde- 
pendence in  1S03,  and  made  over  to  Prussia,  with 
which  it  has  since  remained  incorporated,  ezceptins 
for  a  diort  petiod  during  the  predominance  of 
French  inBnenee  in  Qermany,  whc^  at  the  sugges- 
tion of  Kapolecn,  it  was  included  in  the  kingdom 
ot  Westpb^  but  it  was  testcral  to  Prussia  in 

isia 

HU'HLHEIM,  tlie  name  of  two  manufaeturins 
towns  ot  Kbeniah  Prussia,  distinguished  from  each 
other  as  if.  an  der  BvAr,  and  M.  am  BMn.  The 
former,  situated  on  tbe  river  Bhur,  16  mites  north 
of  DUsseldort,  is  a  flonrishing  town,  chiefly  important 
on  acconot  of  its  trade  In  lUinr  coal.  Excellent 
river-steamer*  are  built  here.  Sandstone  is  exten- 
sively qnarried,  and  ironworks  and  maohine-factories 
•re  in  operatiiaL  Cotton-spinning,  weaving,  print- 
ing, tanning,  and  paper-making  are  carried  on.  Pop. 
nSiO}  22,146.— ifT  art  RMa,  nearly  opposite 
Cologne,  carries  on  extensive  manufactures  of  silk 
goods  (employing  609  looms] ;  there  are  dye-  works 
and  paper  and  oil  mills  in  operation,  and  consider- 
able trade  and  commerce.    Pop.  (1830)  20,420. 

HUIUBDRN,  in  Scotch  Iaw, 
toheatlu 
iih  and  n  . .  ,     . 

between  11th  Ajnil  and  let  November, 

thongh  at  otiier  times  they  may.  And  persons  who 
wilfuly  flr*  heather  are  liable  to  be  lined  and 
£__.:.. — .«j      jn  Bngjf^Tn^^  malicioQBly  setting  fire 


to  heaths  is  one  of  the  heads  of  the  generio  cfienos 
of  Arson  (q.v.). 

MUKDirw,  or  MOUKDEN,  in  lat  41*  flO*  3(r 
H.,  long,  123°  37'  E.,  the  oafntal  of  ShSng-king,  the 
chief  {iroviQce  ot  Manohnria.  Its  Chinese  name  is 
Tungtien-too,  signi^nng  afftueat  eajntal,  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Mancho  Monkden,  meaning ^/lotirMin^. 
It  lies  on  a  bianch  of  tlie  river  Liao,  abont  60i> 
mil««  north-east  of  Peking.  The  town  is  snr* 
rounded  by  a  wall  about  10  miles  in  droumteraioe, 
including  an  inner  wail  3  miles  in  circuit,  enclosing 
tbe  emperor's  summer  reeidenoei  Great  puns  hava 
been  faUcen  by  the  emperors  to  enluge  and  beanti^ 
this  the  metropolis  of  the  Manchu  raoe,  bnt  wita 
only  partjal  success.      The  family  residence  and 

SUce  of  sepnltore  of  the  founders  id  the  reigning 
ynas^  is  Bingking,  about  60  miles  east  of  Muk- 
den. It  is  plessantly  situated  in  a  moontain  valley 
near  the  paUsade  wMeh  separates  the  pntvinos  from 
Kirin.    The   emperor  Eienlung   rendered  himself 


celebrated  among  his  subjects,  and  tbe  city  of  M. 
better  known  abroad,  by  a  poetical  enlogy  nnm 
the  dty  and  province,  which  was  printed  in  64  dif- 


fetent  forms  of  Chinese  writing.  In  1631,  M. 
became  the  seat  of  government  of  the  Manchn 
emperors,  and  is  now  the  seat  of  several  superior 
tribunals  of  a  Ctiinese  viceroy  of  the  Srit  rank. 
Nineteen  leagues  from  M  is  its  port,  Niocbwan^  or 
Newchwang  (more  correcUy  known  ss  Ying-t^  La, 
'camp'  or 'military  station'),  whichhasljeen  opened 
recently  to  foreign  commerce.  It  is  shallow,  diffi- 
cult of  access,  «ad  during  many  months  of  the  year 
closed  by  ice.  The  trade  with  Great  Britain  forms 
about  one-third  ot  the  whole.  The  total  value  of 
the  trade  of  Newchwang  in  ISSO  was  £1,962,000,  a 
decrease  a«  compared  with  both  1878  and  1879, 
both  imports  and  exports  having  fallen  o£  Tike 
main  imports  are  cottons,  iron,  woollens,  window- 
slasa,  matches,  needles.  Tlie  exports  are  peas, 
bean  oil,  and  bean  cake.  Pop.  of  M.,  170,000;  of 
Newchwang  60,000.  Coal  and  iron  are  worked  in 
the  province. 

UVLATTO,    See  Meud  Racsa. 

MU'LBERItT  {MonU),  a  genns  of  trees  of  tiie 
natural  order  Maracea,  natives  of  tempeiate  and 
warm  climates,  with  decidnous  leaves,  unisexual 
Howers  in  short,  thick  spikes,  a  4-parted  perianth, 
containing  either  four  stamens  or  one  pistil  with 
two  styles,  the  perianth  of  the  femsJe  flowera 
becoming  succulent  and  dosing  over  the  small 
pericarp,  the  whole  epibs  ooslescmginto  an  aggre- 
gate fruit, — The  CouKOir  M.,  or  BuiCK  M.  {it. 
nigra),  is  a  native  of  the  middle  parts  of  Asia,  bat 
WHS  introduced  into  the  south  of  Enrope  more  than 
a  thousand  yean  ago,  and  is  now  almost  naturalised 
there.  It  is  a  low  tree,  much  branched,  with  thick 
ron^  bark,  and  broad  heart-shaped  leaves,  which 
are  unequ^y  serrated,  and  very  rough.  It  is 
cnitivat<n  in  the  middle  parts  of  Europe,  sod 
succeeds  well  in  tbe  south  of  England,  but  in  tb» 
northern  parts  of  Britain  it  teqmrea  a  wall.  The 
-  -  rianth  and  stigmas  are  ronghly  ciliated,  and  th* 

lit  is  of  a  puipiish-blaok  colour,  with  dark  red 
mice,  fine  aromatic  flavour,  and  subacid  sweet  tssta. 
The  fruit  is  much  esteemed  for  dessert ;  an  excellent 
preserve  and  a  pleasant  light  wine  ai«  made  of  ib 
The  tree  often  produces  its  fmit  in  prodigiona 
quantity.  The  wood  is  employed  in  oobinet-work, 
but  is  not  of  much  value.  The  leaves  ara  sometimes 
used  for  feeding  silk-worms.  The  Black  M.  Uvea 
long ;  trees  still  existing  in  Encland  are  known  to 
be  more  than  300  years  old.  ft  is  propagated  by 
seed,  by  suckers,  by  layers,  or  by  cuttings  It 
succeeds  best  in  a  nch  liebt  soil— The  Wftm  M. 
(Jf,  o^)  ia  a  native  of  (Siina,  and  has  been  them 

^ ^k 


UVLDEE-MULK 


B'  iited  from  time  umDenKnial  for  the  soke  of  its 
rea,  which  are  the  beat  food  for  silk-woncs 
vbich  acooDDt  alio  it  hu  been  cn!tiv&ted  ir.  ._. 
■oatb  of  Europe  lince  sbont  1540.  la  North 
Americft  it  does  not  succeed  farther  north  thsn  lat 


the  White  M.  it  treated  as  a  bush,  and  cat  down 
twice  a  year;  the  ehoota,  atripped  id  thai  leavM, 
being  thrown  awaj,  althongh  the  baric  has  leog 
been  used  in  China  and  Japan  for  making  paper. 
It  growH  readily  from  cattinga.  The  root  has  a 
considerable  repntation  •«  a  yermihigB. — The  Red 
M,  {M.  mbra),  a  native  of  North  America,  abounding 
particnlarly  on  the  lower  puU  of  the  Miasonn, 
endures  fevere  frosts  much  better  than  ^ther  of  the 
receding,  and  is  therefore  preferred  for  cultivation 
in  Bome  parts  of  Burope.  Its  fruit  is  deep  red,  and 
almost  as  pleasant  as  the  Black  Mulberry.  The 
wood  is  much  moi«  valnable ;  being  fine-,gTainad, 
■trong,  and  adapted  even  for  ship-building.  The 
tree  attains  a  heizht  of  60  feet  or  more.— The 
htaiAH  M.  (JT.  Indica)  has  black  fruit  of  a  delicate 
flavonr,  and  the  leaves  are  extensiTelv  used  for 
feeding  nlk-womu  in  China,  Cochin-China,  and 
Bengu- — M.  alro-intrpurta  has  been  introduced 
into  India  from  China  for  feeding  silk-worms.  M. 
Mauritiana,  a  native  of  Madagnecar  and  Mauritius  j 
M.  eeltidi/olia  and  M.  coryl\foUa,  Pemviao  species; 
M.  Tatarica,  a  native  of  Central  Alia ;  M.  lavlgala, 
the  species  moat  common  in  the  north  of  India ; 
and  m.  Caehmeriana,  a  native  of  Cashmere,  produce 
pleasant  fruit  M,  dvlde,  a  native  of  the  north  of 
India,  is  said  to  be  superior  in  flavour  to  all  others. 
The  P&PBR  M.  {Broumonetia  papyrifera)  differs 
from  the  true  mulberries  in  havina  the  female 
BowcTB  collected  in  a  globnlar  mass,  The  tree  is  of 
moderate  size,  or,  ia  coltivaUon,  a  buah  of  6 — 12 
feet  high ;  with  leaves  either  simple  or  lobed,  a 
native  of  India,  Japan,  and  the  island*  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  but  now  not  uncommon  in  pleaanre- 
grounds  in  Europe  and  North  America.  The  islanders 
of  tiie  Paci£o  cultivate  the  Paper  M.  with  great 


care.  They  make  a  kind  of  clothins  from  the  bark, 
using  for  Uiis  purpose  the  bark  of  small  branches 
about  an  inch  m  diameter,  which  they  macerate  in 
water,  and  then  scrajiing  off  the  epidermis,  press 
and  beat  the  moist  shps  together.  The  paper  also, 
which  ia  used  in  Japan  and  many  parts  of  the  East, 
is  in  great  part  made  from  the  bark  of  the  young 
shoots  of  this  plant,  which  for   this    purpose  is 


spring  np  very  rapidly.- 
ilk-worms  eat  the  leaves  of  the  paper  midbeny, 
-The  fruit  is  oblong  of  a  dotk-scaiiet  colour, 
sweetish,  but  insipid. 

MULDER,  Gbkabj)  Johahnis,  a  i^tingniahed 
chemist,  was  bom  27tb  December  1802  at  Utrecht, 
where  his  father  practised  ss  a  physician.  After 
obtaining  the  degree  of  Doctor  of^  Medicine  at  the 
university  of  his  native  town  in  I82f!,  he  commenced 
the  practice  of  hia  profewion  at  Amatardam,  where 
he  waa  appointed  to  teaeh  botany,  and  snbseqnenUy 
chemistry,  in  the  newly-establisned  medical  school 
of  that  city.  In  1841,  he  was  elected  professor  of 
ohemistry  at  the  nniversity  of  Utrecht,  in  C0UM> 
qnence  of  the  ability  he  had  displayed  in  various 

-—  published  in  the  Dntch  scientiflo  joomala. 

est  known  to  the  general  reader  as  the 
discoverer  of  Proteine  (q.  v.),  which  he  main 
be  the  main  ingredient  of  albumen,  fibrin. 


fto. ;  but  the  existence  of  which  >i 


.□  indepeodent 


compound  is  at  the  present  day  not 
generally  admitted.  He  is  the  auUior  of  nomeroa* 
excellent  works  on  physiological  and  a^cultoral 
ebemistry,  on  the  chemistry  of  wine  and  beer,  on 
diet  and  nutrition,  &c.,  wlueh,  in  consequence  of 
their  being  written  in  Dutch,  are  far  less  Known  in 
this  country  than  they  deserve.  His  Chemittry 
9/  Vegetable  and  Anitru^  Phytiolofjy  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Dr  Fromberg,  and  hia  Chgrniatry 
<if  Wine  by  Dr  Bence  Jone*.    He  died  April  1880. 


HUIiE  (LaL  mviiu,  suppoeed  to  be 
with  Or.  moloi,  labour,  and  witli  Eng.  moiQ,  a 
hybrid  animal,  the  obpring  of  the  male  ass  and  the 
mare,  much  used  and  valued  in  many  parts  of  the 
world  as  a  beast  of  burden.  The  eaie  are  long ;  the 
head,  croup,  and  tail  resemble  those  of  the  asa 
rather  than  those  of  the  horse ;  but  in  balk  and 
stature  the  M.  approaches  more  nearly  to  the  borae. 
The  M.  seems  to  excel  both  the  ass  and  the  horae 
in  intelligence ;  it  is  remarkable  for  its  powera  of 
muscular  enduranoe ;  and  ita  sure-footedneas  parti- 
cularly adapts  it  to  mountainous  conntriea.  It  has 
been  common  from  very  aacieat  times  in  many 
parts  of  the  east ;  and  is  much  used  aba  in  most  oE 
the  counttin  around  the  Meditettanean  Sea,  and  in 
the  mountainous  parts  of  Sonth  Amtoica.  Great 
care  is  bestowed  on  the  breeding  of  mules  in  Spain 
and  Italy,  and  those  of  particnlar  districts  are 
highly  esteemed.  In  ancient  times  the  son*  of 
kin^  rode  on  mulee,  and  they  were  yoked  in 
chaiiota.  They  are  still  used  to  draw  the  carriages 
of  Italian  cardinals  and  other  ecclesiastical  di^u- 
tadee.  Both  in  Spain  and  in  South  America,  mules 
employed  to  carry  burdens  are  driven  in  troops, 
eai:^  preceded  by  an  animal — in  South  America, 
OBnally  an  old  mare — called  the  nuufrino,  or  god- 
mother, to  the  neck  of  whi«jl  a  little  beO  is 
attached,  and  the  molea  follow  -with  the  greatest 
dooihty.  When  troops  mingle  in  their  haltmg-placea 
or  elsewhere,  they  are  readily  separated,  as  they 
recognise  at  once  the  sound  of  tiieir  own  belL 
Mules  are  comparatively  little  used  in  Britain, 
although  it  is  alleged  that  work  is  done  at  Ifsa 
expense  by  the  employment  of  mules  than  by  the 
empli^rmeot  of  bor*e«  /  -  i 


MTTf.g MtJLLEE. 


taoportion,  it  ia  said,  ra  two  or  three  to  one.  There 
u  no  instuice  on  record  of  offspring  produced  by 
two  mnies ;  bat  uutances  occur,  kltboooli  niely, 
of  their  prodaoDK  oSapring  witji  the  hotse  kod 
with  the  am.  I^e  M.  ia  veiy  auperior  in  tize, 
strength,  and  beauty,  to  the  hiiui;,  the  offspring  of 
tlie  male  horse  and  the  female  ass. 
IIUIjK    See  Spihhiko. 

MtJLHAtTSEN  (Fr.  MulhoMt),  a  town  of  Ger- 
manfi  in  the  imperial  territory  of  AlwKe-Lorraiae. 
Pop.  (1S30)  63,629.  M.  ia  built  on  a  small  Ulond 
between  the  111  and  the  Rhone  and  Bhine  Canal, 
and  u  an  important  station  on  the  Stroaburg  and 
Boael  line  of  railway.  It  lies  in  a  fertile,  well- 
watered  district,  and  ranki  as  one  of  the  moat 
active  centres  oE  trade  in  Alsace ;  while  it  it  aUo 
the  seat  of  a  tribunal  of  commerce,  and  of  various 
mercantile  and  trade  onionsi  which  have  exer- 
cised a  beneficUl  influence  on  the  industrial 
activity  of  the  country.  Its  numerous  manufac- 
'      woollen  and  flue  cambric 

_, , carpets;  in 

..  _        printing  and  dye  works  for 

cotton,  muslin,  wool,  and  eilt  fabrics  are  almoat 
nnrivjjled  in  r^ard  to  the  delicacy  of  the  coloota, 
nod  elegance  of  the  patterns  employed.  M.  has 
extensiTe  bleaching'Works,  and  is  not«d  for  its 
cotton  and  woollen  stockiog  manufactories,  its 
breweries  and  distilleries,  starch  and  straw  works, 
and  for  ita  ironworks,  in  which  locomotives  and 
various  forma  of  ateam-engines  are  extensively 
majiufactured.  These  manufactures,  together  with 
com,  wine,  and  brandy,  form  the  staple  articles  of 
its  very  extensive  trade. 

M,  early  acqoired  commercial  importance,  having 
been  erected  into  a  free  imperial  city  by  Eudolph  of 
Hapsborg  in  1273.  By  siding  with  some  of  the 
Sw^  cantons  in  the  14tii  c,  it  wM  enabled  to  main- 
twn  a  certain  dense  of  neutrality  in  the  feuds 
between  the  empire  and  France.  In  1523,  M. 
adopted  the  Geformed  faith.  It  remained  a  part 
of  flie  circle  of  the  Upper  RhiuB  till  1788,  whea  it 
waa  incorporated  with  France.  It  became  a  town 
of  the  German  Empire  after  the  war  of  1870—1371. 

MULL,  after  the  Isle  of  Skye,  the  largest  of  the 
Inner  Hebrides,  belongs  to  the  county  of  Argyle,  and 
is  washed  on  the  W.  and  8.  by  the  AtUntic,  and 
bounded  on  the  N.E.  by  the  Sound  of  Mull.  It  is 
triangular  in  shape,  hollowed  on  the  west  side  by  an 
inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  and  ia  deeply  indented  by  sea- 
lochs,  of  which  the  principal  are  Loch-na-Keal  and 
Loch  Scridaio.  Area  about  222,200  statute  acres, 
of  which  12,470  are  arable  ;  pop.  (18811,  exclusive  of 
the  neighbouring  islets,  5229.  Its  surface  is  for  the 
most  part  occupied  by  mountoina,  generally  rounded 
in  outline,  and  rising  in  Ben  More  3185  feet  hi^ 
Of  it«  fresh-water  lakes.  Loch  Eriaa  and  Loch  Ba 
are  the  chief.  Wood  ^undi  in  the  north;  but 
owing  to  the  generally  tome  character  of  ills  moun- 
tains, the  great  atretchea  of  moorland,  and  the 
abeeuce  of  well-defined  valleys,  the  scenery,  with 
Uie  exceptioti  of  that  ou  the  coast,  is  nninterestiog. 
The  land  under  cultivation  occurs  chiefly  ou  the 
shore*  and  at  the  heads  of  the  several  lochs.  The  soil 
n  nmiraally  fertile ;  but  the  great  humidi^  of  the 
dimote,  and  the  freqnency  and  violence  of  ihe  gales, 
render  it  almort  wholly  unfit  for  asricnlture.  The 
land  is  principally  laid  out  in  stock-farms,  and  Kreat 
nombera  of  cattle,  aheep,  and  horses  ore  rearaa  and 
exported.  Chief  town,  Tobermory  (popi  1344), 
the  north.  The  harbour  of  Tobermory  is  one  ._ 
the  best  and  safat  in  the  Hebrides.  A  low-water 
pier  was  completed  here  in  March  1864.    It  enables 


steamers  to  land  in  anv  itate  of  the  tide.  The 
Sound  of  Mull,  20  milee  Iodr,  by  2  miles  in  average 
breadth,  separates  the  isUnd  from  the  mainland  of 
Argyleshire  on  the  north-east. 

MULIiEE,  JoEAKK,  historian  of  Switzerland, 
as  bom  3d  January  1752,  at  SchafThansen,  where 
his  fatjier  was  clergyman  and  rector  of  the  gym- 
m.  He  studied  at  GUttingen  nnder  Heyne, 
_.  izer,  Walch,  and  others.  In  1772,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  SchafThansen,  and 
in  ika  same  vear  published  his  first  work,  BeUam 
Oimftrfcum  {ZUr.  1772).  Already  he  hod  commenced 
to  devote  his  leisure  hours  to  the  investigation  of 
Swiss  chronicles  and  documents.  By  the  advice  of 
hia  friend  Bonatetten,  he  went  to  Geneva  in  1774, 
where  he  became  a  private  tutor;  and  also  [177S] 
delivered  a  series  of^  lectures  on  '  Universal  His- 
tory,' afterwards  published  in  24  volumea.  In  17S1, 
be  was  called  to  the  Collegium  Carolinum  at  Caasel, 
as  protecsor  of  statistics,  and  a  little  earlier  pub- 
lished the  first  volume  of  hia  great  work.  OexJudtte 
der  Sc/meizer.  In  1786,  he  was  appointed  hbranan 
and  councillor  of  state  to  the  Elector  of  Mainz  ;  here 
he  Gniahed  the  2d  volume  of  his  Swiss  History ;  his 
Dar^eUieig  del  FUritenlmnda  (Leip.  17S7I ;  and 
Bru^e  ttoda-  Domluarta  (Frankfurt,  1787).  In  I7&2, 
he  went  to  Vienna,  where  the  Eroperor  Leopold 
gave  li'i"  a  situation  in  the  privy  conncil,  and,  in 
1800,  appointed  him  first  imperial  librariiuL  In 
1804,  he  left  Vienna  for  Berliu,  where  he  wrote 
USer  die  OeediidiU  FrUdriO:!  I.,  UibtT  dm  Voter- 
gang  dor  Fraheii  dtr  AUat  VSlkfr,  VeriuiA  l&er  die 
ZtUrfchntingai    der     Vonodt,    and   an    addition^ 


him  (1807),  having  been  previously  dismissed  from 
the  Pmiiian  service,  secretary  of  state  in  the  new 
kingdom  of  Westphalia;  but  died  at  Caasel,  29tlt 
May  1809.  M.'s  mmmtticht  Werte  were  published. 
27  vols.  Stuttgart,  1810—1319;  new  edit.  40  vda. 
1831—1835. 

MtJLLEB,  Earl  Ottkied,  one  of  the  most 
genial,  richly  erudite,  and  industrious  classical 
arduBologists  of  modem  times,  was  bom  28th 
August  1707,  at  Biieg,  in  Silesia.  He  waa  the  son 
of  a  clergyman,  and  received  a  carcfnl  education. 
He  studiS  at  Breslau  and  Berlin.  His  toate  for 
philological  and  orchteological  studies  was  early 
developed.  The  first  fruit  of  hia  learning  was  the 
publication  of  the  AtgitKtKorunt  Liber  (IterL  1817), 
after  which  he  aoon  received  an  appointment  to  the 
Magdaleaum  in  Brealau,  where  nia  leisure  hours 
were  devoted  to  a  grand  attempt  to  analyse  tho 
whole  circle  of  Greek  myths.  In  1819,  he  obtained 
an  arclueological  chair  m  Gijttingen ;  and  to  thor- 
oughly prepare  himself  for  it,  visited  the  collection* 
in  Germany,  France,  and  England.  Hjn  great 
demgn  was  to  embioco  the  whole  life  of  ancient 
Greece,  its  art,  politics,  industry,  religion,  in  one 
warm  and  vivid  conception — in  a  word,  to  cover  the 
skeletons  of  antiquitv  with  flesh,  and  to  make  the 
dry  bones  Uve.  Wim  this  view,  he  lectured  and 
wrote  with  a  fine  eomeet  animation,  until  the  poLtical 
troubles  in  Hanover  made  hia  position  uncomfort- 
able. He  obtuned  permission  to  travel,  and  mada 
tours  in  Greece  and  Italy,  bot  unfortunatdy  died  of 
an  interTDitteot  fever  at  Athens,  on  1st  Angnst 
1840.  M.'s  literary  and  scholarly  activity  stretched 
over  the  whole  field  of  Greek  antiquity.  We  are 
indebted  to  him  for  many  new  and  stnking  elud- 
dationa  of  the  geography  and  topography,  literature, 
grammar,  mytiologv,  mannere  and  cnstoms  of  the 
ancients.     His  work  on  the  Dorians  (Die  Dorier, 


MtJlJJE— MULLET. 


Tola,  of  hia  Ot$AuMe  UtiUrt.  St&mme  vnd  SUtatea 
(now  and  improTed  ed.  3  toIs.  BresL  1844)  ; 
Ilia  treatise  Voter  die  Wohnmlu,  Ahitammang  wid 
aUere  QetcMdiU  dea  Macedon.  Ydkt  (BarL  1825) ; 
bis  BlruAer  (2  vols.  BresL  1828) ;  and  lus  nups  of 
Greece,  are  works  of  the  highest  importance  ia  the 
departments  of  ancieat  histoiy  and  ethnology.    His 

HandbuiJi  der  ArcMologie  der  Euntt  (BrML 

3d  ed  1848;  English  by  Leitch,  London,  18S-,  _ 
fnll  of  learning  and  of  acute  original  obaervatioog. 
His  Prolegomenen  £u  ei'ner  tn'MeiMcAi^iefteo  MyOto- 
hgie  (Gett.  1825)  led  the  way  to  a  strictly  historical 
exjilanation  of  the  ancient  myths.  The  work  bv 
which  he  is  probably  beat  known  in  England  ia  his 
Hittory  of  Uut  LUmUure  of  Ancient  GrixK  (Lond. 
1S40),  ondertaken  at  the  request  of  the  British 
'Society  for  the  Diffuaion  of  UsefiU  Knowledge.' 
M.  died  before  fimshing  it ;  what  he  had  finished 
waa  translated  into  English  hy  Sir  George  Cornwall 
Lewis  and  Df  Donaldson,  the  latter  of  whom  con- 
tinned  the  work  from  where  it  left  off — at  the  age  of 
Alexander — down  to  the  taking  of  Constantinople. 
The  German  oricinal  was  published  hy  M.'s  brother 
(Bresl,  1841).  He  shewed  himself  also  on  acute 
and  judioioos  critic  in  his  editions  of  Varro,  De 
Lingad  Lalind,  Pestns,  De  Siffaificalione  Veiiorum, 
&C-  His  contributions  to  periodicals,  encyclo- 
pcedias,  ftc,  were  likewise  numerous  and  valu- 
able.—MUlleb,  JuLicB,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  bom  at  Brieg,  10th  April  1801,  educated  at 
Brealau,  GUttingeo,  and  Berlin,  and  after  holding 
several  offices,  finally  became  a  professor  of  theology 
ftt  Ealle.  His  best  known  work.  Die  Chriadi3K 
iaftre  con  d«r  Sflnife  (The  Christian  Doctrine  of  8in; 
English,  Edin.  1856],  is  considered  by  theological 
critics  fjie  most  acute  and  profonnd  treatise  written 
in  modem  times  on  this  mysterious  subject. 

MULLEB,  JoHutH,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
physiologists  of  the  present  century,  waa  bom  at 
Coblenz  on  14th  July  1801.  He  began  to  study 
with  a  view  to  orders  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  ;  but  in  1819  he  abandoned  his  theo- 
logical studies,  and  devoted  himself  to  medicine, 
taking,  in  1822,  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  at 
Bonn.  Whilst  yet  a  student,  ha  wrote  for  a  prize 
the  treatise  De  Reapiralione  Fixtna  (Leip.  1823). 
Ha  became,  in  1824,  a  tutor;  in  182G,  an  extraor- 
dinary, and  in  1830,  an  ordinary  professor  of  physio- 
logy and  anatomy  at  Bonn;  and  in  1S33,  succeeded 
Eudolphi  as  proWor  of  anatomy  at  Berlin.  His 
physiological  researches  were  moat  industriously 
prosecuted,  and  were  rewarded  by  many  discoveries, 
which  obtained  for  him  a  high  reputation  in  the 
scientifio  world.  His  works  are  numerous,  and 
many  of  them  occupied  with  particular  topics  in 
foolozy  and  oomparativa  anatomy.  He  died  of 
•pop&y  at  Berlin,  .^>ril  28,  1868.  Among  the 
most  important  are— Zur  vergUiiAendea  Phynologie 
dea  Oesichtuinna  da  Meatchen  vnd  der  TAtere 
(Leip.  1826) ;  Omndriaa  der  Vorleeungea  Oher  die 
PhysiologU  (Bonn,  1827) ;  QrundrUe  der  Vorletmigen 
tMr  aUgemeint  PathologU  (Bonn,  1829) ;  De  QUm- 
duJarum  Secementiiaa  Slruciura  Peniliori  earumque 
prima  Fonaationt  in  Homi/te  atqae  A  nimalibiu  (Leip. 
1830) ;  Peter  dit  organiaAat  Nerven  der  mctiien 
rnSnnli/Aea  GeKhleehUorgane,  &c.  (Berlin,  1835] ;  and 
Handbuch  der  Pkytiologie  dei  Menxhen  (2  vols.  4th 
ed.  Coblenz,  1851),  'Manual  of  the  Physiology  of 
Man,'  which  has  been  translated  vaia  French 
and  English.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a 
large  number  of  dissertations  on  a  variety  of  sub- 
jects connected  with  physiology,  the  most  important 
of  which  have  been  separately  published.  His  latest 
investigations,  on  infusoria,  were  publiahad  in  1860. 
The  most  eminent  living  physiologists  of  Germany 
received  tiieir  training  in  his  schooL 


MtjLLBR,  Frikdbice  Max  (Maxdoluh),  one 

of  tha  most  eminent  living  orientaJiata,  waa  bom 
at  Dessau,  in  the  duchy  of  Anhalt- Dessau.  6th 
December  1823.  His  father,  Wilhelm  MUller,  dis- 
tinguished not  only  for  his  worth  as  a  man,'  and 
his  eitensivo  and  thorough  scholarship,  but  as  one  of 
Uie  first  (Serman  lyric  poets,  was  librarian  of  the 
ducal  library,  but  died  prematurely,  October  1827. 
M.  received  tha  elements  of  his  education  at  Dessau, 
and  then  went  to  Leipzig,  where,  under  Professor 
Hermann  Brockhaus,  he  began  the  study  of  Sanscrit 
This  he  soon  choaa  as  hia  special  pursuit;  and  the 
first  fruits  of  his  labours  appeared  in  a  translation  of 
the  ffUopadeta  (Leip.  1644).  In  1844,  he  went  to 
Berlin  to  study  under  Bopp  and  Sohelling,  and  con- 
Bult  the  Sanscrit  MSS.  to  be  found  there.  In  Paris, 
whither  he  repaired  in  1845,  he  began,  at  the  insti- 
Mtion  of  Burnout,  to  prepare  for  an  edition  of  the 
Rig- Veda,  with  tha  commentary  of  Sftyanftcftiya. 
With  this  view,  he  came  to  England,  June  1846,  to 
examine  the  MS3.  in  the  East  India  House,  London, 
and  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oitford ;  and,  on  the 
recommendation  of  tha  lata  Professor  H.  B,  Wilson, 
the  East  India  Company  commissioned  him  (1847) 
'-  edit  the  Rig-Veda  at  their  expense.     Tha  first 

lume  of  this  ^eat  undertaking,  printed  at  tiie 
Oxford  University  press,  appeared  in  1849;  and 
the  sixth  and  concluding  volume  was  published 
in  1874.  In  1850,  M.  was  appointed  Deputy 
Taylorian  Professor  of  Modem  Languages  at  Ox- 
'  '  ;  in  1854,  he  succeeded  to  the  professorship ; 
in  1858,  waa  elected  a  FeUow  of  All  Sods. 
While  pursuing  bis  labours  connected  with  the 
Rig. Veda,  M.  has  published  treatises  on  a  variety 
"'  philological  topics,  which  have  done  more 
awaken  in  England  a  taste  for  the  Beience 
of  language  in  its  modem  sense  (see  Giuhmab) 
than  the  labours  of  any  other  single  achalar.  In- 
heriting the  poetic  imagination  and  fire  ol  hia 
father,  M,  has  at  command  such  a  felicity  of  iUos- 
tration,  that  subjects  dry  under  ordinary  treatment 
become  in  his  hands  attractive.  He  has  published 
a  translation  into  German  of  EAlid&sa's  Megha-dilia 
{K0nig^l847]  ;  The  Languaga  of  Uie  Stat  qf  War 
in  lIieEiul  (2d  ed.  Lond.  1855)  ;  Compai-alive  Myth- 
ology (in  the  Oxford  Easaya  for  1856) ;  History  of 
Ancienl  Sanaeril  LiUrature  (2d  ed.  Lond.  1860); 
lectures  on  The  Science  qf  Language  (1861-63) ; 
lectures  on  Tht  Science  of  Religion  (1670).  Chipt 
from  a  Oerman  Workahop,  in  4  vols.,  were  published 
in  1S6S-75;  the  Hibbert  lectures  on  jTAe  (mpin  and 
Crour(Ao/Jff;i3ioninl878;  Sdected  JSsaaya  ia  1831. 
He  translated  the  novel  Qtrmaa  Love  ;  and  is  editor 
of  the  important  series  of  The  Sacred  Booha  of  the 
Eatt.  Ha  is  one  of  the  8  foreign  members  of  the 
Institute  of  France,  and  has  received  the  degree  of 
LLP,  from  Cambridge  and  Edinburgh. 

MUTjLET  {M'OgOl,  a  genus  of  acanthopterouB 
fishes,  the  type  of  the  family  HugUidtx.  In  thia 
family,  the  body  ia  nearly  cvliodrical,  the  scalea 
are  large;  there  are  two  widely  separated  dorsal 
fins,  the  first  of  which  has  only  four  stiff  shaip 
spines ;  the  teeth  are  extremely  fine ;  the  gullet  is 
(uosed  by  an  extraordinary  development  of  the 
pharyngeal  bones,  so  that  only  soft  and  thin  food 
~  ~  ~i  pass  down  it ;  a  branch  of  the  stomach  forms  a 

id  of  gizzard.  The  beat  known  of  this  family 
belong  to  the  genua  MugU,  of  which  there  ore  many 
species.  They  have  a  small  mouth,  with  a  fold  or 
crest  in  the  under  lip,  which  fits  into  a  correspond- 
ing noteh  in  the  npper  one.  The  Cokmom  M,,  or 
Gray  M.  <,M.  oapito),  ia  found  in  the  Mediterranean, 
and  along  the  west^n  shores  of  £^irope,  as  far  as 
the  southern  and  south-eastern  ahoras  of  England, 
but  becomes  rare  further  north.  The  Common 
M.  is  nsui^y  about  fifteen  int^iea  in  kogth,  bnt 


UUIXM— MULBEADT. 


Mmelime*  two  feet.  Ths  colour  is  iteel-grsf 
tho  back,  witb  bluish  and  yellowish  leflectiaaB  j  the 
bell;^  nlvery  white;  the  fl&nlu  witb  lii  or  eight 
loDgitsdical  liuei  of  roay  brown.  It  often  aacends 
riven,  generalljr  Mlectins  toft  or  f *t  snbgtuioea  for 
food,  and  often  Beekiiu;  food  b7  thrustiiig  its  mouth 
into  the  soft  mud  It  is  most  resdily  taken  by  a 
bait  of  the  boiled  entrails  of  Bsh,  or  cabbage  boiled 
in  biotil.  It  is  eacily  reared  in  ponds,  and  readily 
uuvere  the  oall  which  nsnally  nuomona  it  to  lie 
fed.  It  is  highly  ateemed  for  the  table. — A  veiy 
Dearly  allied  ipeciea,  also  called  Orat  M.  {JU. 
eephaltu),  a  nabfu  of  the  Mediterranean,  is  dia- 
tingoished  by  haviDg  the  eyes  half  covered  witb  an 


Common,  M  Qny  Mullet  iMugit  eapilo). 

and  by  a  Ivge  trianj^nlar  scale 


species,  sometimes  ten  or  twelve  pounds  weight  It 
enters  the  mouths  of  rivers  at  certain  seasons,  and 
Hcends  into  the  fresh  water.  It  is  the  most 
esteemed  of  all  the  mullets,  and  WM  in  great  request 
among  the  ancients.  Enormous  prices  were  given 
by  the  Komans  for  uuuBually  large  mullets,  the 
price  increaiine,  like  that  of  diamonds,  tar  more 
rapidly  than  the  size.  Mullets  are  used  fresh, 
■sited,  and  tmoke-dried.  A  preparation  of  their 
roe,  called  Batarcha,  is  in  great  esteem  as  a  condi- 
ment in  Italy  and  the  south  ol  France.  Mullets 
are  often  caaght  in  the  Mediterranean  bv  angling 
from  a  rock,  with  a  bait  of  paste,  when  Uiey  nave 
been  previously  attrooted  to  the  spot  by  macaroni 
thrown  into  tne  water.— A  third  species  of  Qbay 
M.  (JT.  dulo)  is  not  unfrequent  on  the  coasts  of 
En^ad,  and  even  of  Scotland.  It  is  remarkable 
for  its  lam  fleshy  lips.  It  swims  in  great  shoals. 
Jn  tha  Mediterranean,  it  sometimes  attains  the 
weidit  of  eight  pouni^ — The  AMBniCAS  M.  (M. 
oRula)  is  very  Uke  the  Common  M,  but  more 
slender,  the  tail  large  and  forked.  It  abounds 
about  tiis  Bahama  I&nds,  and  extends  for  north- 
wards.   It  is  highly  esteemed  tor  the  table. 

The  name  H.  is  also  eiven  to  the  genus  SfuOua 
of  the  family  Pardda.    &a  Sokmuixkt. 

UTJLLET,  or  MOLLET,  in  Heraldry,  is  a  charge 
in  tha  form  of  *  star,  generally  with  five  points. 


)  represent  a  spur-wwel,  and  of  frequent 
from  the  earlieet  beginuings  at  coBt- 
Gwillim,   Sir   Qaoigs   Hackeiuie,    and 


Nisbet  lay  it  down  that  mullets  should  always  b* 
pierced  to  represent  the  round  hole  in  whidi  tha 
spur-rowet  turns,  but  this  has  been  by  no  means 
tmifoimly  attended  to  in  practice.  Much  confusion 
exists  in  blazonry  between  mullets  and  stars;  in 
England,  the  rule  moat  generally  adopted  is,  that 
the  mullet  has  five  points,  whereas  the  aUa  has 
six,  unless  any  other  number  be  specified.  Nisbet 
lavs  down  B  canon  nearly  the  coaverse  of  thi^ 
which  bos  never  been  adhered  to ;  and  in  Scottish 
heraldry  the  same  figure  seems  to  be  often  blazoned 
as  a  mullet  or  a  star,  accordinsas  it  accompanies 
military  or  celestial  figures.  Tbo  mullet  is  Um 
mark  of  cadency  asUjgaed  to  the  third  son, '  to  incite 
him  to  chivalry.'  Tho  word  mullet  is  occasionally 
used  in  heraldiy  for  the  fish  so  colled. 

HULLIITGA'B,  chief  town  of  the  county  ol 
Weetmeath,  in  Ireland,  is  situated  on  the  great 
western  road  from  Dublin  to  (Hlway,  distant  froa 
the  former,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  the  Bo^ 
Canal  and  th«  Midland  Western  Boilway,  60  nulea 
north-north-west.  Its  population,  in  1S7I,  was 
6103,  of  whom  4090  were  Roman  "Catholios, 
and  883  Protestants  of  the  Episcopal  Church;  the 
population  in  IS81  was  47S7.  It  is  the  centre  of  a 
poor-law  union  of  48  divisions,  comprising  an  area 
of  208,401  acres.  M.  is  a  plaoe  of  Lttle  historical 
interest,  although  its  immunities  date  from  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth.  Its  public  buildings  are  in  no 
way  remarkable,  but  it  possesses  several  schools; 
among  the  number,  one  recently  endowed  for 
genenu  educational  purposes.  It  is  without  manu- 
factures, but  has  considerable  celebrity  as  the  mte 
of  several  of  the  most  important  horae  and  cattla 
faira  in  Ireland. 

MUXLION,  the  upright  diviaon  between  Qw 
lights  of  windows,  screens,  Aa,  in  Oothio  ai^teo- 
ture,     MnUionj  at*  rarely  met  with  in  Nmuut 


architecture,  but  they  become  more  frequent  in  tim 
Early  Englisll  style,  and  in  the  Decorated  and  Ptr- 
pendicular  are  Tety  common.  They  have  sometimea 
small  shafts  attached  to  them,  which  carry  tha 
tracenr  of  the  upper  part  of  Uie  windows,  In  late 
domestio  architecture,  they  are  usually  plain.  Tha 
fig.  ^ws  muIlioDS  (a,  a)  supporting  tracery. 

MULREADY,  William,  B.A.  was  bom  at  Qmi^ 
in  Ireland,  about  the  year  1786.  When  a  boy,  ha 
went  to  London  with  bis  parents ;  at  the  age  of 
fifteen,  entered  as  a  student  in  the  Soya] 
Academy,  and  mode  good  progress,  aiming  at 
fint  at  the  classic  styles  or  wBat,  according  to  tha 

...  .ooyk-- 


MTTLTAN— MULTURES. 


died  on 


Aotioiia  of  the  day,  wm  called  high  art  FoQowiiig 
the  beat  of  his  genius,  liowerer,  he  MOii  relln- 
qoished  thll  coune,  ftnd  devoted  himself  to  the 
■tad;  ot  BAtore  and  the  works  of  those  artists  who 
attained  high  repntation  in  a  less  pretentions  walk 
of  art  His  first  pictnrea  were  landscapes  of  limited 
dimension  and  subject,  views  in  Kensington  gravel- 

S'  ts,  old  houses  at  Lambeth,  and  iateriors  of  cottages, 
a  next  tmaj^  fignre-aubjecta  of  inddeate  in 
«Tery-day  life,  such  as  '  A  Roadside  Inn,'  '  Horeea 
Baitiug,'  the  '  Barber's  Shop,'  and  '  Punch '  (painted 
in  1812), '  Boys  Fishing'  (18131, '  Idle  Boys '^(1816). 
U.  was  elected  an  Associate  of  tlie  Roysl  Academy  in 
November  1815,  and  an  Academician  in  Febnurv 
1816;  a  tbrong  proof  of  the  high  estimation  in  which 
Ilia  talents  were  held  hy  bit  brethren,  for  the  higher 
dignity  is  rarely  oonfen^  till  after  k  probation  of 
serer^  years  as  Associate.  Even  in  his  earliest 
time,  his  worhs  were  characterised  by  much  elabora- 
tion ;  bnt  those  he  eiecated  about  the  middle  period 
of  his  career  exhibit  an  extraordinary  amount  of 
finish  and  Kreator  brilliancy  of  colonrmg,  qualities 
that  he  earned  farther  and  farther  as  he  advanced 
aaiB;  and  though  he  lived  to  a  great  age  (he 
on  July  7,  136^),  he  coutinoed  to  work  with 
niaished  powers  till  within  a  day  of  his  death. 
A  great  nuniber  of  M.'s  best  works  now  belong  to 
file  public,  •■  portions  of  the  Vernon  and  Sheep- 
■hanks'  odleotions.  la  the  first-aataed,  there  are 
four  pictures,  one  of  ihese,  *  The  Lost  in,  or  Truant 
B<^,'  aihibited  in  1835,  being  one  of  the  most  elabo- 
rate works  of  his  middle  period ;  while  in  f*  ~ 
Sheepduuk*'  collection  titers  are  no  fewer  than 
of  bu  works,  amons  which,  'First  Love,'  exhibited 
in  1840,  is  a  remarkable  example  of  rennemei ' 
drawing,  and  delicacy  of  feeling  and  eipres 
'The  Sonnet,'  exhibited  in  1S39,  is  perhaps  his 
hij^est  effort  in  point  of  stvie ;  and  by  '  The  Batt 
-footing  a  Cherry,'  exhibited  in  1849,  is  best 
BxempliR^  the  remarkable  minuteness  of  his  finish 
and  richness  of  his  colouring.  An  edition  of  the 
TTcOT-  <if  Wai^fitid,  published  in  1840,  by  Van 
Voorst,  embellished  with  20  wood-cuts  from  It's 
drawings,  is  a  very  fine  work.  'Women  Bathing' 
was  Bjdiibited  in  1849;  and,  in  1852,  'BlackheaOi 
Paik.'  '  The  Toy  Seller,'  a  large  picture  exhibited 
tiie  year  before  he  died,  was  unfinished,  and  not  at 
all  equal  to  earlier  and  smaller  ones,  bat  remark- 
able as  the  work  of  a  man  whose  artistic  efforts  had 
been  landed  sixty  years  before. 

M  TJ  L  T  A'  N  (or  Mmilian),  an  ancient  and 
bnportant  city  of  India,  in  the  Punjab,  on  a 
mound  consisting  of  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities 
that  oconpied  ue  same  site,  three  miles  from 
the  left  bank  of  the  Chenab— the  inundations 
of  which  sometimea  reach  M.— and  200  milea 
■onth-weet  of  Lahore.  It  has  railway  communication 
with  all  the  principal  towns  of  India — Calcatta, 
Bombay.  Madras,  Peshawar,  &c.  The  city  is 
imrroanded  by  a  dilapidated  wall,  from  40  to  60  feet 
in  height  The  vicinity  abounds  in  mosqaes,  tombs, 
•brines,  ka.,  attesting  alike  the  antiquity  and  magni- 
ficence of  the  former  cities ;  and  the  country  around 
is  remarkable  for  its  fertility.  M.  is  a  military 
station,  with  a  small  redoubt  in  the  rear  of  the 
cantonment.  Its  bazaars  are  nomeroDs,  extensive 
and  well  stocked ;  and  Its  shops,  6000  in  number, 
are  well  tapplied  with  European  and  Asiatio  com- 
moilities.  Manufactures  of  silks,  cottons,  shawls, 
scarfs,  brocades,  tissues,  &c.,  are  carried  on,  and 
there  is  an  extensive  banking  trade.  The  merdiants 
of  M^  are  proverbially  esteemed  extremely  rich. 
Steamers  ply  between  this  city  and  Hyderabad,  a 
distance  of  E70  miles  ;  and  the  Indus  Valley  Bail- 
way  opens  up  a  commercial  outlet  from  Central  Asia, 
the  I^jab,  and  the  North-west  Provinces,  to  the 


mences  a  nut  cauea  toe  action  ot  muitipie-poi 
by  which  be  alleges  that  he  ought  not  to  be  m 

Ey  the  sum  more  than  once ;  and  as  he  do 
aw  who  is  really  entitled  to  payment,  he  ci 


Arabian  Sea  by  Hyderabad  and  EaraohL  In  1849, 
M.  was  taken  by  the  British  troops  under  Qeneral 
Whish,  and  annexed  with  its  territory  to  tiie 
British  poase«aionB.  The  population  of  U.  in  1868 
was  56,826:  in  1881.  68,674. 

MULTIPLE- POINDING  is  a  well-known  foim 
of  action  ia  Scotland,  by  which  competing  claims  to 
one  and  the  some  fund  are  set  at  reat.  It  means 
double  poinding  or  double  distress,  snggettiDB  that 
a  person  who  has  fnnds  in  hia  possession  is  liable 
to  be  harassed  by  double  distress;  and  hence  he  com- 
a  suit  called  the  action  of  multiple-poinding, 
L  v_  .11 .i._4. 1 1..  __.  i_  t..^  made  to 

does  not 
.ayment,  he  cites  all 
the  pMties  claiming  it,  so  that  they  may  fight  out 
their  claims  among  themselves.  Tha  suit  corres- 
ponds to  what  is  known  in  England  ss  a  bill  or 
order  of  interpleader. 

MULTIPLIOA'TION,  the  thiid  and  mort 
important  of  tha  four  priuoipal  processes  of  arith- 
metic, is  a  compendtooe  node  of  addition,  when  a 
number  is  to  be  added  to  itself  a  ^ven  number  of 
times.  The  three  terms  of  a  multiphcation  are  the 
vtvMpUamd,  or  number  to  be  multiplied;  the 
muttiplier,  or  number  by  which  it  is  to  be  multi- 
plied: and  the  prodtuA,  giving  tha  amount  which 
would  be  obtained  if  the  molbpUcaad  were  added 
to  itself  the  number  of  times  denoted  by  the  molti- 
plier.  Tha  symbol  of  mnltiplioation  is  x  ;  and  in 
arithmetic,  toe  numbers  ara  placed  above  each  other 
aa  in  addition,  with  a  line  drawn  under  them ;  in 
idgebn^  the  qnantitiea  are  merely  placed  aide  by 
side,  with  or  withont  a  dot  between  them — e.  g.,  the 
multiphcation  of  2  by  4  may  be  written  2x4,  and 
of  a  by  b,  a  X  6,  aJ>,  or  ab.  For  mnltipUcation  of 
fractions,  see  Pu.0Ti0Ma. 

The  operation  of  moltipUcatioD  baa  been  mudi 
abbreviated  by  the  use  <A  Logarithms  [a.  v.),  and 
has  been  rendered  a  mere  mechanical  proceaa, 
by  the  invention  of  Napiei'a  Bones,  the  Sliding 
Kule,  Gunter's  Scale,  £c 

MUT-TIVALVB  SHELLS.  orMULTIVALVES, 
are  thoee  shelly  ocverinffs  of  mollusc*  which  are 
formed  of  more  than  two  distinct  pieces.  In 
systems  of  Couchology  (q.  v.),  the  term  is  ona  of 

tirimary  importance ;  bnt  since  the  study  of  tha 
iving  aninuds  has  led  to  arrangements  very  diEterent 
from  those  founded  on  their  mere  sheUs,  a  vei^ 
subordinate  place  has  been  assigned  to  it,  as  indi- 
cating a  distmction  much  less  important  than  was 
at  first  snppoaed.  That,  Chitons  (i^.  v.),  which 
have  multi^ve  shells,  ore  now  placed  in  Uta  sams 
order  of  gasteropoda  with  Limpets  (q.  v.),  of  which 
the  shelb  are  univalve;  and  Photai  (q.v.)  aad 
Teredo  (q.  v.),  which  have  two  principal  valves  auil 
some  small  accessory  valves,  tne  latter  also  a  long 
shelly  tube,  ore  placed  among  lamaUibranchiata 
molluscs,  along  with  most  of  the  bivalves  of  oon- 
cholagista.  Li  conchological  systems,  barnacles 
and  acorn-sfaellB  were  also  eenerally  included,  and 
ranked  among  multivalves ;  but  these  are  now  no 
longer  referred  even  to  the  same  division  of  the 
ftnim'vl  kingdom.    See  Cibbbopoda. 

MU'LTUBBS,  in  Scotch  Law,  mean  a  quantity  of 

grain  either  mannfactured  or  in  kind  deliverable  to 

Uie  proprietor  or  tacksman  of  a  mill  for  grinding 

com  sent  tbmre.    Some  persons  living  ia  the 

^bourhood  are  bound  to  send  their  com  to  be 

ground  at  a  particular  mill,  in  which  case  the  lands 

I  said  to  be  astrictedto  the  mill,  and  form  the  thirl 

sucken,  and  the  tenants  or  proprietors  of  the 

lands  are  called  insncken  multurers.    Those  who 

are  not  bound  to  go  to  the  mill  are  called   out- 

■ncken  multuren.    %iirlage  ia  thus  daased  among 


-»*^ 


MOM-MUNOa 


MrTitndes,beiiig»kiadofbQnIeDonthelands.  8ac)i 
»  rJRlit  ii  nnkiiowii  in  England,  except  SDmetimes 
in  old  manors. 

MDH,  ft  pecnliar  kind  of  beer,  fonnerljr  used 
this  oaontry,  and  attll  lued  in  Gennany,  eipecimlly 
in  BmnliTick,  where  it  may  be  slmocrt  regarded  as 
the  national  drink.  Instead  of  only  malt  being  used, 
it  is  made  of  raalt  and  wheat,  to  which  some  brewars 
add  oati  and  bean-meaL     It  is  neither  so  whole- 

MUMMY.    See  Eubalmtno. 

MUMMY-WHBAT  is  said  to  be  a  variety  of 
wheat  produced  from  grains  found  in  an  ^g^tioD 
mnnimy.  But  no  i;ood  evideoce  of  this  origin  ban 
been  adduced — in  fact,  it  is  as  eood  as  proved  to 
be  impossible  ;  aad  the  same  variety  has  long  been 
in  general  cultivBtion  in  Egypt  and  neighbouring 
conutries.  The  spihe  is  compound — a  diatrngnishing 
character,  by  which  it  is  readily  known,  but  which  ia 
not  altogether  pennanent.  It  is  occasionally  culti- 
vated in  firitain,  but  seems  more  suitable  to  warmer 
regions. 

MUMPS,  THS,  is  a  popnlar  name  of  a  specifio 
inflammation  ot  the  Bsiivary  alanda  described  by 
nosologists  as  Cypumche  Parotidcca,  or  Parotitw.  In 
Scotland,  it  is  frequently  termed  The  Brankg. 

The  disorder  usually  begins  with  a  feelins  ot  stiS- 
nesa  about  the  jaws,  which  is  foUowed  by  pains, 
heat,  and  Hwelling  beneath  the  ear.  The  swelling 
begins  in  the  parotid,  but  the  other  salivary  gUnda 
(q.  V.)  usually  soon  become  implicated,  so  that  the 
swelling  extends  along  the  neck  towards  the  chin, 
thus  giving  the  patient  a  deformed  and  somewhat 
grotesque  appearance.  One  or  both  aides  may  be 
affected,  and,  in  general,  the  disease  appean  firet 
on  one  aide  and  then  on  tJie  other.  There  is  seldom 
much  fever.  The  inflammation  is  usually  at  its 
highest  point  in  three  or  four  days,  after  which  it 
begins  to  decline,  suppuration  of  the  glanda  scarcely 
ever  occurring.  In  most  cases  no  treatmeot  further 
than  antiphlogiatio  regimen,  due  attention  to  the 
bowels,  and  protoctioD  of  the  parts  from  cold,  by 
the  application  of  flannel  or  cottonwool,  ia  required, 
and  the  patient  completely  recovers  in  eight  or  ten 
days. 

The  disease  often  originates  from  epidemic  or 
endemic  inflnencea,  but  £ere  can  be  no  doubt  that 
it  spreads  by  oontagion  ;  and,  like  molt  contagious 
diw^ses,  it  seldom  affects  the  same  person  twice. 
It  chiefly  attacks  children  and  young  persons. 

A  singular  circumstance  connected  with  tiie 
disease  is,  that  in  many  cases  the  Bubaidenoe  of  the 
swelling  is  immediately  followed  by  swelling  and 
pain  in  the  feafM  in  the  mate  aex,  and  in  the  mamma 
in  the  female.  The  inflammation  in  these  elands 
is  seldom  very  painful  or  long  continue^  bat 
occasionally  the  inflammation  is  transferred  from 
these  orsaus  to  the  brain,  when  a  comparatively 
trifling  disorder  is  converted  into  a  most  perilous 
disease. 

MiJNCHHAUSEN,  Karl  FRiEDRicn  Hizr- 
ONYMijB,  Babor  von,  »  member  of  an  ancient  and 
noble  German  family,  vbo  attajned  a  remarkable 
celebrity  by  false  and  ridiculously  exaggerated  tales 
of  his  exploits  and  adventures,  so  that  nis  name  has 
become  proverbiaL  He  was  bom  in  1720,  at  the 
family  estate  of  Bodenwerder,  in  Hanover,  served 
as  a  cavalry  officer  in  the  Roaaian  campaigna  against 
the  Turka  in  1737—1739,  and  died  in  1797.  A 
collection  of  his  marvellous  stories  was  flrst  pnb- 
lished  in  England  under  the  title  of  Baron  Miinch- 
Amum'g  NarraiiiK  of  hit  MarcfUoas  TraveU  aiui 
CampaiffTU  t'n  Rustia  (Lond,  1785)-  The  compiler 
wos  one  Rudolf  Erich  Eaape,  an  expatriat«d  country- 
man of  the  baron's.    A  second  edition  appeared  at 


Oxford  (1766)   under   the    title    of   The  Singular 

TVareb,  Campaigns,  Voyaga,  and  Sporting  Adorn' 
turti  of  Baron  Munniihouiai,  commonig  pnmoiauxd 
2£unehau»en ;  a»  he  rtla(e»  lAem  over  a  oottie  tclien 
turrmiTtded  bg  hit  friendt.  Several  other  editions 
rapidly  followed.  In  the  same  year  (17S6)  appeared 
the  lirat  German  edition,  edited  by  the  poet  Blirger ; 
the  latest — enldtled  Dei  JVei&erra  con  MUaMaiuen, 
umnderbare  Reinen  vnd  Abenleaer  (1349  and  1855) 
—i»  enriched  by  an  admirable  introdnction  by 
Adolf  Ellisen,  on  the  origin  and  sources  of  the 


which 


1  the  kind  of  Uteranr  fiction  to 
b  belongs.  Ellison's  father  knew  the  s^endid 


leleos,  although  Kupe  may  have  derived 
many  of  bis  narrative*  from  M.  himself,  he  appean 
to  have  drawn  pretty  largely  from  other  sources. 
Several  of  the  adventures  ascribed  to  the  baron  ara 
to  be  found  in  older  books,  particularly  in  Bebel's 
Faeeiia  (Strasb.  1508)  ;  others  in  Castigliona'a  Cor- 
t«giimo,  and  BUdermonn's  Utopia,  which  are  included 
in  Lange's  SAidct  AtadvmieiB  (Heilbrono,  176S). 
M.'8  stcnes  still  retain  their  popularity,  especially 
with  the  young. 

MU'NDANB  EGO.  In  many  heathen  cosmo- 
goniea,  the  world  (Lat.  mundiu)  is  represented  aa 
evolved  from  an  egg.  The  production  of  a  young 
— inuLl  from  what  neither  resembles  it  in  form  nor 
properties,  seems  t<i  have  been  regarded  as  afford- 
ing a  good  figure  of  the  production  of  a  well-ordered 
world  oat  of  chaos.  Thus,  in  the  Egyptian,  Hindu, 
and  Japanese  systems,  the  Creator  is  represented  ai 
producmg  an  egg,  from  which  the  world  was  pro- 
duced. The  some  notion  is  found,  in  variously 
modified  forms,  in  tiie  religions  of  man^  of  the  ruder 
heathen  natioua.  Sometunea  a  bird  la  representei 
as  depositing  the  egg  on  the  primordial  watera. 
Here  are  other  modmcations  of  this  notion  or  belief 
in  the  dassic  J  and  other  mytholoeiea,  according  to 
which  the  inhabitanla  of  the  world,  or  some  of  tha 
gods,  or  the  powers  of  good  and  evil,  are  represented 
produced  from  eggs.  The  egg  appears  also  in 
.  :ie  mythological  systems  as  the  symbol  of  repro- 
duction or  renovation,  as  well  as  of  creation.  The 
Mundane  Egg  belonged  to  the  ancient  rh<Eniclan 
system,  and  an  egg  is  said  to  have  been  an  objert  of 
worship. 
MUNGO,  St,  the  popular  n 
•TU,  one  of  the  three  great  t. 
Iiristian  faith  in  Scotland.  St  Nmi 
converted  the  tribes  of  the  south;  St  Columb* 
T.)  was  the  apostle  of  the  west  and  the  mwtb; 
Kentigem  restored  or  established  the  reli- 
gion of  tlw  WeWi  or  Btitiah  people,  who  held  tha 
country  between  the  Clyde  on  the  north,  and  the 
furthest  boundaries  of  Cumberland  on  the  sontb 
(see  BRETia  akd  Scots).  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  son  of  a  British  prince,  Owen  ab  Urien  Kheged 
and  of  a  British  princess,  Dwynwen  or  Thenaw,  th< 
daughter  of  Llewddyn  Lueddog  of  Dinas  Eiddyn,  oi 
Edinburgh.  He  was  bom  abont  the  year  514,  it  ii 
believed  at  Culross,  on  the  Forth,  the  site  of  a 
monastery  then  ruled  by  St  Serf,  of  whon  St 
Kentigem  became  the  favourite  disciple.  It  ia 
aaid,  indeed,  that  be  was  so  generally  beloved  by 
the  monostio  brethren,  that  Us  baptismal  name  of 
Kentigem  or  Cyndcym,  signifying  '  chief  lord,'  was 
exchanged  in  common  speech  lor  Mungo,  signifying 
'  lovable '  or  '  dear  friend.'  Leaving  Culross,  ha 
ilanted  a  monastery  at  a  place  then  called  Cathures, 
low  known  as  Glasgow,  and  became  the  bishop  of 
the  kingdom  of  Cumbria  (q.  v.).  The  nation  would 
have  been  only  partially  converted,  and  the 

1  of  a  new  ting  drove  St  Kentigem  from 

the  realm.     He  found  refuge  among  the  kindred 


BIUNI— MUNICH. 


people  of  Wales,   tud  Uiere,  mwn   the  bonks  of 

another  Clyde,  he  foanded  anotber  monaatan  aod 
a  bishopric,  which  still  bears  the  Dame  of  hu  db- 
ciple,  St  AtapL  Becalled  to  Ghwow  bv  a  new 
king,  Rydderech  or  Roderick  the  BoonlsM,  Ken- 
tigeni  renewed  his  miasioiiBt?  labonca,  in  wluch  he 
WM  cheered  by  a  visit  from  St  Colamba,  and  dying 
about  the  year  601,  wa«  buried  where  the  caUiedral^ 
Glasgow  now  stands,  His  life  has  been  ofbm  written. 
A  fragment  of  a  memoir,  composed  At  the  desire  of 
Herbert,  Bishop  of  Qlasgow,  between  1147  and  119^ 
has  been  printed  by  Mr  Coimo  Innes  in  the  Segit- 
tntm  Epiecopatut  Ola«juatai4.  The  longer  life  by 
Joceline  of  Fumess,  writtwi  about  1180,  was  pub- 
lished by  Pinkerton  in  his  Vila  AtUiquix  Sanetontm 
Scotia.    It  appesJa  to  two  still  older  lives.     The 


land  as  ia  the  north  of  England.  The  church  of 
Croethwaite,  where  Southey  is  buried,  is  dedicated 
to  him.  The  miracles  which  he  was  believed  to 
have  wrought  were  so  deeply  rooted  in  the  popular 
mind,  that  some  of  them  sprung  up  again  in  the 
18th  c.  to  grace  the  le^nda  <n  the  Cameronian 
martyrs.  Others  ore  still  commemorated  by  tOie 
armorial  ensigns  of  the  city  of  Glasgow — a  hazel-tree 
whose  frozen  branches  he  kindliS  into  a  flame,  a 
tame  robin  which  he  restored  to  life,  a  hand-bell 
which  he  broueht  from  Home,  a  salmon  which  rescued 
from  the  depths  of  the  Clyde  the  lost  ring  of  the 
fraU  queen  of  Cadyow.  Nor  is  it  St  M.  only 
whose  memory  snrvives  at  Glasgow ;  the  pari^ 
ehnrch  of  'St  Enoch'  commemorates  his  mother, 
"■  Theuaw ;  and  it  is  not  many  years    '  '  ' 

pring,  which  still  bears  her  . 

ibject  of  occasional  [dlgrimag& 
Mum,  a  Sanscrit  title,  denoting  %  holy  sage, 
and  applied  to  a  gnat  nnmber  M   distinguished 
personages,  supposed  to  have  acquired,  by  dint  of 
austerities,  mote  or  less  divine  fatmlties. 

MUTflCH  (Qcr.  JfCncieii),the  capital  of  Bavaria, 
is  situated  in  4S*  S'  N.  Ut,  and  11°  35'  E.  long.,  in 
the  midst  of  a  barren  and  flat  elevated  plain,  at  a 
height  of  about  1700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Pop.  (ISSO)  230,023,  about  90  per  cent  boiug 
Roman  Catholics,  9  per  cent  Protestants,  and  1  |>er 
cent.  Jews ;  {1975)  193,024.  M.  Ues  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Iser,  and  consists,  in  addition  to  the  old 
town,  of  ^ve  snbarba,  and  of  the  three  contignous 
districts  of  Au,  Haidhaosen,  and  Obergiesiog,  By 
the  efforts  of  King  Lndwig  I.,  who  spent  nearly 
7,000,000  thalers  on  the  improvements  of  the  city, 
M.  has  been  decorated  with  buildings  of  almost 
every  stylo  of  ardiiteotare,  snd  enriched  with  a 
larger  and  more  valuable  collection  oE  art-treasures 
than  any  other  city  of  Germany.  It  possesses  42 
churches,  of  which  all  but  two  or  three  are  Catholio, 
and  of  these,  the  most  worthy  of  note  are ;  the 
cathedral,  which  is  the  see  for  the  archbishoprto 
of  Munich-Freising,  built  between  1468 — 1491,  and 
remarkable  for  its  two  square  towen,  with  their 
octagonal  upper  stories,  capped  by  cupolas,  and  its 
30  lofty  and  uighly-decorated  windows ;  the  church 
of  the  Jesuits,  or  St  Michael's,  which  contuns  a 
monument  by  Thorwaldsen  to  Eugene  Beauhatnais ; 
the  Theatiner  Eirche,  completed  in  1767,  and  con- 
taining the  burying-vanlts  of  the  roj;al  funiljr ;  the 
beautiful  modem  church  of  St  Mariahilf,  wiui  its 
gorgeous  painted  gloss  and  exquisite  wood-carvings ; 
the  round  church,  or  Basilica  m  St  Bonifaoe,  with  its 
dome  resting  on  64  monoliths  of  gray  l^rolean 
marble,  and  resplendent  with  gold,  frescoes,  and 
noble  works  of  art;  the  cruciform-shaped  Liidwig 
Kirche,  embellished  with  Cornelius's  fresco  of  the 
Last  Judgment ;  and  lastly,  the  Conrt  Ohapel  of  All 


Saints,  a  perfect  casket  of  art-treasures.  Among 
the  other  numerous  public  buildings,  a  dwoription^ 
whioh  would  fill  a  volnmo,  we  can  only  briefiy  refer 
to  a  few  of  the  more  notable ;  aa  the  theatre,  the 
lareest  in  Germany,  and  capable  of  acoommodatinn 
2400  spectators  ;  Uie  post-office;  the  Ruhmes-halle; 
the  new  palace,  including  the  older  royal  resi- 
djence,  the  treasury  and  chspel,  antiquarian  colleo- 
tions,  Ac. ;  and  the  Kflnigsban,  designed  by  Klenze 
in  imitation  of  the  Pitti  Palace,  and  built  at  a 
cost  of  1,250,000  thalers,  containing  J.  Schnorr's 
frescoes  of  the  Nibelungen ;  the  Banqueting  HiUs, 
rich  in  sculpture  by  Sohwanthaler,  and  in  granci 
freocc  and  other  paintings.  In  the  still  incomplete 
snbnrb  of  Ma-Timilian  STB  situsted  the  old  Finako- 
thek,  or  picture-gallery,  erected  in  1836  by  Eleuze, 
containing  300,000  engravings,  9000  drawings,  a 
collection  of  Etruscan  remains,  dtc ;  and  immedi- 
ately opposite  to  it,  the  new  Pioakothek,  com- 
pleted in  1863,  and  devoted  to  the  works  of  recent 
artists  ;  the  Glyptothek,  with  its  twelve  gsileries  of 
ancient  sculpture,  and  its  noble  collection  of  the 
works  of  the  ereat  modem  sculptors,  as  Conova. 
Thorwaldsen,  Schadow,  Ac.  Among  the  gates  of 
M,  the  most  beautiful  are  the  Siegesthor  (*The 
Gate  of  Victory'),  designed  after  Constantine's  tri- 
umphal arch  in  tile  Forum,  and  the  Isarthor  with  its 
elaborate  frescoes.  In  addition  («  these  and  many 
other  buildings  intended  either  solely  for  the  adorn- 
ment of  the  city,  or  to  serve  as  depositories  for 
works  of  art,  M.  possesses  Qumerous  sdentiGo, 
literary,  and  benevolent  instittttionB,  alike  remark- 
able for  the  architectural  and  artistio  beauty  of 
their  external  appearance,  and  the  Lberal  spirit 
which  characterisea  their  internal  oivanisatiou.  nnce 
1882,  the  well-known  AUgemeine  ZeUwig,  tormerlr 
of  Augsbntg,  is  pnbtisbed  at  M,  The  library,  which 
iseuncbed  by  ilie  biblical  treasures  of  numerous 
>preBBed  monasteries,  contains  about  800,000 
umes,  of  which  1300  are  incunabula,  with  nearly 
22,000  MS8.  The  university,  with  whioh  that  of 
Landshut  was  incorporated  in  ISSO,  comprises  6 
faculties,  and  has  a  staff  of  above  130  professors 
and  teachers,  and  more  tWi  1300  students.  In 
association  with  it  ore  numerous  medical  and 
other  schools,  a  library  containing  200,000  volumes, 
museums  and  cubmets.  M.  hss  an 
...  . .  id  obaervato^,  supplied  with  firat- 
rate  iustrnments  by  Fraunhofer  and  Beichenbocb ; 
3  gymnasia,  numerous  lAtin,  normal,  military,  pro- 
fessional, polytechnic,  and  elementary  schools,  of 
which  the  majority  are  Catholio ;  institutions  for 
the  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  and  crippled,  and  for 
female  orphans,  besides  numerous  hospitals,  asy- 
lums, infant  schools.  Ice  ;  an  academy  of  sciences ; 
royal  academies  of  paintino,  sculpture,  music,  Ac. ;  a 
botanic  garden,  porks,  public  walks,  and  gardens, 
adorned  with  historic,  patriotic,  and  other  monu- 
ments, and  designed  for  the  celebration  of  annual 
and  oUier  national  fairs  and  festivals  ■,  spadons  ceme- 
teries, to,  M.  is  mainly  indebted  to  Ludwig  L  for  its 
celebrity  as  s  seat  of  the  Gne  arte,  as  the  greater  num- 
ber of  tiie  buildings  for  which  it  is  now  famed  were 
erected  between  1820  aod  1860,  although,  under  his 
successors,  Maximilian  IL, sod  Ludwigll.  (ascended 
the  throne  in  1864),  the  progress  of  the  embeJlisb- 
ments  of  the  dty  has  been  continued  on  on  equally 
liberal  scale.  M  is  somewhat  behind  many  lesser 
towns  of  Germany  in  r^jord  to  literary  advance- 
ment and  freedom  of  specnlatioD,  while  Ha  indus- 
trial activilty  is  also  inferior  to  its  state  of  high 
artistia  development.  It  has,  however,  some  emi- 
nenUy  good  iron,  bronze,  and  bell  foundries,  and  is 
famed  utr  its  liUiographers  and  engraven,  and  its 
optical,  mathematical,  and  mechamcal  instrument- 
joMken,  amongst  whom  Utzschneider,  Fram^iofer, 


uppr 


-#^ 


MUNICH— MUHIOIPAL  AEOHITECTDRE. 


and  BrU  haw  •©quired  »  world-wido  renown.  M.  is 
Dotad  for  ito  anormoiw  breweriei  of  Bavanan  beer; 
■od  hu  wmB  good  nuniiEactoriM  for  cotton,  wool, 
■od  duDMk  goods,  wu-oloth,  leather,  paper- 
bmngiiin,  oarruge*,  pianoa,  gold,  «lver,  and  rteel 

The  praMiit  name  of  tliia  rity  cannot  be  trao«d 
tnrlhet  than  the  12th  o.,  when  Henry  the  Lion 
laiaed  the  ViOa  Munidien  from  its  pwvioni  obeourity, 
hy  wtablishing  a  mint  within  itl  pracinota,  and 
mnUng  it  the  chief  emporium  for  U>e  salt  which 
WW  obtained  trom  HaUe  and  the  neighbouring 
diatriot*.  In  the  13th  a,  the  dnkaa  of  the  Wittela- 
baoh  dynasty  ideoted  M.  for  thair  reaidenoa,  bralt 
the  LudwiHBbura,  eonie  parte  of  whose  origin^ 
itruotore  rtill  enrt,  and  surrounded  the  town  with 
walla  and  other  fortified  defsnoeo.  .  In  1327,  the  old 
town  wa«  nearly  deitroyed  by  fire,  and  rebuilt  by 
the  Emperor  Ludwig  of  BaTari*  very  much  on  the 
pUm  wUoh  it  itill  exhibits ;  bnt  it  waa  not  till  tlte 


Tared  to  the  ground,  that  the  limitB  of  the 
were  enWged  to  any  extent  The  last  fifty  :reara 
indeed  compriBB  the  true  history  of  M.,  aince  within 
tJiat  period  all  il>  flnert  building  have  been  erected, 
its  oharaoter  ai  a  f  oooa  of  artiBtio  activity  haa  be«a 
developed,  it«  population  haa  been  more  than 
doubled,  and  its  material  proaperi^  augmented  in  a 
proportionate  degree. 

MUNI'OIPAL  AROHITBOTURB.  the  atyle  of 
the  buildings  used  for  municipal  purposes,  such  aa 
town-halls,  guUd-halls,  to.  These  were  first  used 
when  the  towns  of  the  middle  ages  rose  in  import- 
ance, and  asserted  their  freedom.  Those  of  North 
Italy  and  Belgium  were  the  lirst  to  move,  and  con- 
sequently we  find  in  these  countries  the  earliest 
ftiA  moat  important  specimens  of  municipal  arc^- 
I  tflctoro  daring  the  middle  agea.  It  is  only  m  the 
1 '  free  cities '  of  that  epoch  that  town-halls  are  f  onnd. 
1  We  therefore  look  lot  them  in  vain  in  France  or 


Leather-Ssllul' Hall,  London. 


n  the  IGth  and  16th  oentmiet 


England  till  the  development  of  industry  and  know- 
ledge had  made  the  citizens  of  the  large  towns  so 
wcidthy  and  important  as  to  enable  them  to  raise 
the  municipal  power  into  an  institution.  When 
tiiis  became  the  ci  -   '-  ^'■ 


building  erected  for  the  use  of  the  guilds  and  cor- 
porations and  the  muuicip^  coorts.  Many  of  these 
sMIl  exist  along  with  the  corporate  bodies  they 
belong  to,  eauecmlly  in  London,  where  the  halls  are 
frequently  ol  mat  magnificence.  Manjr  of  these 
oorporation  haUi  have  recently  been  rebuilt  by  the 
wealthy  bodies  they  belong  to,  aocb  h  the  Fish- 
mongers, Merchant  Taylors,  Ooldemiths,  and  other 
"-     Municipal  buildings  on  a  lai^  scale  for 


the  use  of  the  town  councils  and  magistrates  have 
also  been  recently  erected  in  many  of  onr  large 
towns,  which  bad  quite  outgrown  their  original 
modest  buildings  ;  and  now  no  town  of  importance 
is  complete  without  a  great  town-hall  for  the  use  of 
the  innabitiuitB. 

Munidnal  buildin|p  alwavs  partake  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  architeetur«  of  the  period  when  they 


are  erected ;  thus,  we  fiud  in  Italy  that  they  are  of 
the  Italian-Oothio  style  in  Como,  Padua,  vicenso, 
Venice,  Florence,  &c,  during  the  13th,  Htb,  and 
15th  oenturiea.  In  Belgium,  during  the  same 
period,  they  are  of  the  northern  Gothic  style,  and 
are  almost  the  only  really  fine  ^lecimens  of  the 
oivil  archltectui«  of  the  middle  ages  we  possess. 
The  Cloth-hall  at  Yprea,  and  the  town-h, 


lodges,  halls,  Ac,  testify  to  the  early  importance  <h 
the  municipal  institutions  in  Belgiuiu. 

It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  in  Fnmce,  where  the 
towns  beoame  of  considerable  importance  during 
the  middle  ages,  so  tew  municipal  buildings  remain. 
This  arises  from  the  circumstance,  that  the  resource! 
of  the  early  municipalities  of  France  were  devoted 
to  aid  the  bishopa  in  the  erection  of  the  neat 
French  cathedrals,  and  the  townspeople  used  these 
cathedrals  as  their  halls  of  assembly,  and  even  for 
Buch  purposes  as  mosques  and  amusDinenta. 

Of  the  English  corporatioD  halla,  those  which 
remain  are  nearly  all  tabaaqoeut  to  the  I4th  oq 


,.CioL>;;le 


MTINICIPALirY,  MUNICIPAL  OOHPOEATION. 


avuty  vAjuupupih     Luv  vuuu-uihu  ui  xjunuun  m  uuo 

ol  t£e  aftrUert.  The  present  buDdiiu  wu  begoD  in 
1411,  Mid  WM  bnill  ohie^  hf  oui&ibatioaB  from 
Hm  tndea  'oompuuM*  olLi^dDii.  Of  the  town- 
halli  noentlj'  erMtcd,  tboaa  of  Manoheater,  Liver- 
pool, mud  Lasd*  we  amongit  tiia  moct  impcoianb 

MTTNIOIPATilTT,  MDHtOIPAL  OOBPO- 
RATION  (from  Lat  muakip*,  from  nmntu  and 
eopib,  (me  who  enjoyi  the  ri^ts  of  a  free  oitiEea),  a 
town  0(  oity  pOHessed  of  oertaia  privilege*  of  local 
•aU-govsnUDent ;  Uie  governing  body  in  auoh  a  town. 
Municipal  inatitntioni  originated  in  the  time*  of  tiis 
Boman  oninre.  The  pToviudal  towna  of  Italy, 
whiob  WSM  from  the  flnt  Boman  oolooiea,  aa  also 
tboM  whioh,  ^ter  having  an  independent  exiatenoc^ 
bename  memben  of  the  Roman  itate,  thoogh  aab- 
jected  to  the  rule  of  an  imperial  governor,  ware 
allowed  to  enjoy  a  right  o(  regulating  their  internal 
afittir*.  A  olu»  of  the  InhabilantB  utllod  the  atria, 
at  deeurioita,  elected  two  offioen,  called  duumnM, 
whoM  fnnotions  ware  auppoaad  to  be  analogons  to 
thoaa  ol  the  oonsula  of  the  imperial  oity,  and  who 
exercised  a  limited  jnriadiction,  dvil  uid  oriminaL 
There  was  an  important  tnnotiODAr]'  in  every  muni- 
cipality called  the  dffmtor  eimlatis,  or  advooate  tor 
ttw  afy,  the  protector  of  the  oitizens  against  aiW- 
trary  acta  on  the  part  of  t^  imperid  governor. 
In  the  latw  agea  of  the  empii«,  the  Demrioni 
were  nhject  to  neav^  biudent,  not  oompensatad  by 
tike  honour  of  the  pontion,  which  led  many  to  andea- 
Tonr  to  shnn  the  office.  The  monioipal  ^stem 
declined  with  the  decline  id  the  empire,  yat  it 
retained  vitali^  enough  to  be  afterwards  rMnsoi- 
tated  in  anion  with  feodallnn,  and  with  the  Saion 
Institaliona  of  Bribun.  Someoitiaiof  Italjr,  Franoe, 
and  Germany  have  indeed  derived  their  present 
'  direct  nootaaion  from  the  day«  ' 
■■  -■■■  "^log. 


imperial 


aa  is  notably  the  case  with  Cologne. 


lyt 
The  bishop  being  a  shield  bet 
and  the  oonqnmd,  in  many  oasn  disoharsed 
dntieB  or  obtained  Ute  tanctions  of   the  atftnsar 
ebriiatit.  To  the  north  of  the  Alpa,  under  tlie  feudal 

rem,  he  became  officially  the  civil  governor  at 
oity,  as  the  oonnt  waa  of  the  mial  outriot  la 
Sonth^  Enrope,  where  feudalism  was  leas  vigor- 
on*,  the  mnnioipaUlieB  retained  a  large  share  of  £ea- 
dom  and  lalf-eovemmenk 

Of  the  due*  of  the  middle  agea^  smne  were 
entirely  free ;  they  hod,  like  the  provincial  town*  of 
Italy  before  the  extension  of  the  Boman  conquests, 
a  oonttitatioii  independent  of  si^  other  powers. 
Venice,  Qenoa;  Florenoe,  Hamburg,  snd  mbeclc,  all 
Stood  in  this  position.  Next  in  dignity  were  the 
free  imperial  mlies  in  Qermany,  which,  not  being 
oompreacaided  in  the  dominion*  of  any  of  the 
prinoeav  were  in  immediate  dependence  on  the 
empire.  Moat  of  theae  dtiea  rose  into  importance 
in  the  13th  e. ;  and  their  libertiea  and  privilege* 
were  fostered  by  the  Franconian  emperors,  to  afford 
■Mne  ooonterpmse  to  the  growing  power  ol  the 
hnmediate  nobili^.  NUmberg  was  eipaoiaUy 
oelelvated  for  its  stout  resistance  to  the  Bouse  of 
Braadaib<ii|>,  and  the  snootaafnl  war  which  it 
waged  with  the  Ttaoeonian  nobility.  In  En^aod, 
the  more  importaub  dtdea  wer*  immediate  vaaaab 
of  the  crown:  the  smaller  mnnidpalitiea  aometimea 
owned  a  SDhjeot  snperior,  aometunea  a  greatec 
monlcipalit^  for  their  overlord. 

Under  the  An^o-Sszcos,  the  En^ish  Inirgha  were 
subject  to  the  mle  of  an  elecfciTa  officer,  cdled  the 
■  Portreve,'  who  exercised  in  burgh  functions  simi- 
lar  to  those  of  the  aUre-reve  in  the  shire.  The 
Norman  oonqueron  recognised  the  already  exufcing 
privilege*  of  the  towns  by  (granting  them  iQurtere, 
inj^^uuT  of  a  ahire-i«v«^  a  viacount  waa  placed  by 


the  king  over  CAch  shire,  and  a  buliff  instead  (rf  the 
former  elective  officer  over  each  burgh.  In  the 
larger  towuB,  the  buliff  waa  allowed  to  astume  the 
Norman  af^wllatioa  of  Mayor.  The  munidpal 
franchise  seems  to  have  been  vested  in  all  the 
resident  and  trading  inhabitants,  who  shared  in  the 


ling  popnla 
-   trading   < 


on  the  groonda  of  birth,  apprentjceahip, 
and  tometimea  free  gift 

In  all  the  larger  town*,  the  trading  population 
oama  to  be  divuled  into  guilds  -  *- 
p"i^ti  throng  membe^^'-*  "' 
admission  was  obtained 
ally  the  whole  community  was  enrolled  in  loa  or 
other  of  the  guild*,  each  if  which  had  ita  pn>j>erty, 
its  by-lawa,  and  its  eomincn  hall,  and  the  commu* 
nity  eleoted  the  chief  offioeiB.  It.  was  on  the 
wealthier  and  more  influential  inhabitantii  that 
munidpal  office*  were  generally  oonferred ;  and  the 
practice  gradually  gained  gronnd  of  the*e  function- 
aries perpetuating  their  authority  without  i^peal- 
ing  to  the  popular  auffiaga  Contentions  and 
dilutes  sroae  regarding  the  right  ol  election,  and 
eventaally  the  crown  tuew  the  wdgbt  of  ita  infln- 
caoe  into  the  aoale  of  aelf-eleotive  ruling  bodiee. 
Aa  the  greater  munidpalitiea  grew  in  str^Kth,  we 
find  their  right  reocgniaed  to  appear  in  parEuunent 
by  meatia  ot  tqawaentative*.  llie  sherifb  were 
oonsidered  to  have  a  discretionaiy  power  to  deter- 
mine which  towns  should,  and  which  shoold  not 
have  this  privilege  of  representation.  Tlie  sove- 
reigns of  Uie  House  of  Tudor  and  Stuart  acquired 
the  habit  of  extendir  "---'-■-     <  -  -  n--  -     . 


them  municipal  ohortera,  they  moiMled  the  consti- 
tution of  theae  burghs  to  a  self-elective  t^e,  and 
restricted  the  right  of  voting  in  the  choice  of  a 
ipreeentative  to  the  governing  body.  During  the 
_jign  of  William  IIL,  Anne,  and  the  earlier 
GeorgM,  the  influence  of  the  crown  waa  largely 
employed  in  calling  new  munidpal  corporations 
into  exiatence,  with  the  view  of  cresting  additional 
parliamentary  support  for  the  ministry  in  power. 
The  bul^hs  of  Scotland  had  a  history  mucn  hke 
that  of  the  burghs  oE  Enghmd ;  their  earlier 
charten  were  mere  recognitions  of  already  existing 
rights,  and  were  granted  to  the  inhsbitonts  at  large. 
In  the  coune  of  the  14th  and  16th  centuries,  uie 
municipal  auf&age  fell  gradnally  more  and  moro 
into  ttie  hands  of  restncted  bodies  of  men,  until 
act  1469,  c  S,  gave  to  the  oonncila  the  right  of 
appointing  their  sueoeaaorB,  the  old  and  new  council 
together  deoting  the  offlca-bearen  ol  the  ocrpora- 
bon.  This  state  of  thin^  ocntinned  till  1S3^  not 
without  much  complaint.  In  the  Soattish  burghs 
the  several  trades  possessed  a  much  more  eidusive 
monopoly  than  in  England.  Along  with  the  out* 
cry  for  parliamentary  reform  arose  an  outcry  for 
munioipal  reform ;  and  a  separate  munidpal  worm 
act  putting  an  end  to  the  doae  svitem  was  paaaed 
for  eaoh  nrt  of  the  empire.  The  Engli»h  not  (0 
and  6  WilL  IV.  a.  76),  entitled  'An  act  to  providb 
for  tike  regulation  of  Munidpal  Corporation*  in 
England,'  oonferred  the  franchise  on  the  owner* 
and  oocupier*  of  property  within  burgh,  with  oertain 
qnaliftcaticn*  aa  to  pn^)erty,  raaidence,  Ac  Tliis 
oonatjtnenoy  eleoted  the  councillor*,  and  from  the 
body  of  the  oonndllor*  the  mayor  and  aldermen 
were  ohoaen.  Act  32  and  33  Tict.  a.  05,  limited  the 
lequiuta  period  of  reddence  to  one  year's  occnpa- 
tion,  and  the  ballot  was  introdaoed  Dy  35  and  38 
Vict.  0.  33,  in  munidpal  as  in  parliamentair  eleo- 
tions.  Act  8  and  i  VfiiL  IV.  made  an  entire  change 
in  the  mode  of  electing  ooondla  in  fioottish  burghs 


h  Google 


MUNIUENIVHOVSE— MUNTJAK. 


on  burgha  miich  had  none.  A  vota  wu  given  to 
every  one  who  had  resided  aii  months  in  the  burgh, 
or  within  leven  miles  of  it,  and  poaiesied  flie 
requiute  qualification  to  exercise  the  parliamentary 
franohiie  :  a  property  qualiflcitioii  similar  to  what 
conferred  the  parliamentocy  franchise  being  required 
in  bnrgha  that  did  not  send  or  contribute  to  send  a 
uentber  to  parliamenL  The  Mnnicipal  Electioog 
Amendment  Act  (Scotland)  186S,  has  placed  the 
monicipal  franchise  in  the  hands  of  all  roistered 
voten  to  relnm  a  member  of  parliament,  and  in  the 
caso  of  burghs  not  repre«ented  in  parliament,  in  the 
hands  of  all  persons  poswssing  simitar  property 
qnalifioatioas :  and  act  33  and  34  Vict  c  m  has 
provided  for  the  establishment  of  a  ttmoicipal 
relator  in  burghs  not  represented  in  parliament. 
An  exemption,  under  3  and  4  WilL^IV.  o.  76,  of    ' 


borgh.  They 
from  their  own  number  the  provost  and  bailies. 
TheEogliahactof  Will.  IV,  abolished  thsexcluuve 
privilegea  of  the  guilds,  biit  these  monopolies  con- 
tinued m  Scotland  till  183B,  when  they  were  swept 
away  by  9  and  10  Viot  c.  17.  The  Insh  munidpil 
syatem,  which  bad  beeo  imported  ready-made  from 
England,  was  assimilated  to  the  altered  English 
•ysteiD  by  3  and  4  Vict  c  lOa 

MU'NIMENT-HOUSE,  a  strong  fire-proof 
apartment  or  building  suited  to  contain  archive^ 
papers,  and  other  valoables. 

MtfNJEBT  IBubia  cordifolia  or  mui^iila),  a 
speoiea  of  Madder  (q.  vj,  of  irbich  the  root  yiidds 
an  excellent  red  dye.  The  plant  di^rs  from  the 
common  madder  in  its  more  distinctly  quadranga- 
lar  atem,  its  oordate-oblons  leave*  commonly  in 
tonni,  MiJd  it*  red  berries.  It  is  a  native  of  India, 
China,  Japan,  Central  Asia,  and  Siberia.  The  root 
bat  longoeen  used  in  India  a*  affording  a  red  dye ; 
and  is  now  so  article  of  export  to  Europe,  ai  a 
substitute  for  madder. 

MU'NSTBB,  the  largest  of  the  four  province* 
of  Ireland,  occnpiea  the  sonth-west,  and  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  Conoansht,  on  the  E.  by  Leinater, 
and  on  the  W.  and  8.  by  the  Atlantic.  It  ooDtaJns 
the  six  oonntiei  of  Cttu^  Cork,  Kerry,  Limerick, 
Tipperaty,  and  Waterford,  and  the  country  is 
dcaeribed  under  these  heads.  Area,  6,064,670 
statute  acree.  The  population  of  tiie  provinoe, 
wUch  in  1841  was  higher  than  that  of  any  of  the 
other  provinces,  was  shewn  to  be,  in  1871, 1,393,465, 
and  in  ISSI,  1,:I23,9I0— in  both  tears,  less  than 
Ulster  by  above  400,000. 

MiJITSTER,  chief  town  of  the  district  of  the 
same  name,  as  well  as  capital  of  all  Westiihalia,  is 
•ituoted  in  81°  S5'  N.  lat,  and  7"  40^  E.  long.,  at 
the  conflnence  of  the  Aa  with  the  MUnster  Canal, 
€5  miles  north-east  of  DUsseldorf.  The  popula- 
tion in  1871  was  24,815;  in  18S0,  40,434.  M., 
which  is  a  bishoprio,  and  the  seat  of  a  military 
council,  a  high  court  of  appeal,  and  other  govem- 
uicntal  tribunals,  is  one  of  tiie  handsomest  towns  of 
Westphalia,  retainiiu;  numerous  remains  of  medi- 
eval arohitecture,  whose  quaint  pictureequeness  is 
cnhanoed  by  the  Domerons  trees  and  shady  allfes, 
by  which  the  square  and  streets  are  ornamented. 
Among  its  14  churches,  of  which  the  majority  are 
Cathrdio,  the  most  noteworthy  ore  the  cathe(b«I,'bnilt 
between  the  1 3th  and  16th  centuries,  and  despoiled 
of  all  its  internal  decorations  by  Uie  Anabaptists; 
Our  Lady's  Chnrch,  with  its  noble  tower;  the 
splendid  Oothio  church  of  St  Lambert,  in  the 
marketplaoe,  finished  in  the  13th  a,  on  the  tower 


cagos  ii 


of  which  may  still  be  seen  the  three  iron 
which  the  bodies  of  the  Anabaptist  leaders, 
Leyden,  KnipperdollioK  and  Krecbtdng,  were  sus- 
pended, after  they  had  suffered  the  nKist  horrible 
martyrdom ;  and  the  church  dedicated  to  St  Lnd> 
gems,  the  first  bishop  of  M.,  with  its  singular 
round  tower,  surmounted  by  an  octagonal  lantern. 
The  Gothio  town- hall  possesses  historical  interest 
in  being  the  spot  at  which,  in  104S,  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia  was  signed  in  a  large  hall,  which  has 
lately  been  restored,  and  which  confauns  portraits 
of  all  the  ambassadors  who  were  parties  to  the 
treaty.  The  palace,  built  in  17C7,  is  surrounded  by 
fine  pleasure-grounds,  including  horticultural  and 
botanical  gardens,  connected  with  the  academy; 
and  these,  with  the  nunparts,  which,  since  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  have  been  converted  into  publio  walks, 
form  a  great  attraction  to  the  city.  M.  is  well  pro- 
vided with  ioiititutions  of  charity  and  benevolence. 
The  old  Catholic  nniversity  of  M.  was  dismembered 
in  1819,  and  its  funds  apportioned  to  other  educa- 
tional establishments ;  and  the  present  academy, 
which  comprises  a  Catholio  theolo^cal  and  a  philo- 
sophical faculty,  is  now  the  principal  schooL  It  has 
a  library  of  B0,000  volumes,  a  natural  history 
museum,  and  various  collections  of  art  and  antiquity 
connected  with  it  M.  has  one  cymnasium,  a  normal 
school  for  female  teachen,  ana  a  number  of  town 
schooliL  The  industrial  products  of  hL  include 
leather,  woollen  fabrics,  thread,  staroh,  and  sugar, 
besides  which  there  are  good  carriage  mannfactotiei, 
breweries,  snd  distiUerieB.  The  trade  is  limited  to 
the  prodnce  of  the  country,  the  principal  of  whi<dt 
are  uie  noted  Weatpbalian  ham  and  aausagea. 

H.  was  known  nmler  the  name  of  Mimigardevorde 
in  the  time  <d  Charlemagne,  who,  in  791,  appointed 
it  as  tiie  see  U  the  new  bishop  of  tjie  Sazona,  St  Lnd- 
gerus.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  11th  o.,  a  mon- 
astery was  founded  on  the  spot,  which  in  course  of 
time  derived  ita  present  name  from  its  vicinity  to  the 
minster,  or  monastery.  In  the  12th  o.,  the  bishopric 
was  elevated  into  a  principality  of  the  empire. 
In  the  13th  c,  the  city  was  incorporated  in  Qia 
Hanseatic  League ;  and  In  1532,  it  declared  its  adhe- 
tion  to  the  Keformed  faith,  notwithstanding  ths 
violent  onpo«ition  of  the  chapter.  During  the  years 
1B36  and  1536,  U.  was  the  scene  of  Uie  violent 
poUtico-religious  movement  of  the  Anabaptists, 
when  the  excesses  of  these  pretended  reformers 
worked  a  violent  reaction  in  the  minds  of  the  people, 
which  bod  the  effect  of  restoring  the  prestige  of  the 

3iiscopal  power ;  and  although  Qie  dtiiens  occasion- 
ly  made  good  their  attempted  acts  of  opposition  to 
their  spiritual  rulers,  they  were  finally  reduced  to 
submission  under  Bishop  Christopher  Bemhard  of 
St  Gall,  who  having,  in  1SE2,  built  a  sbong  citadd 
within  the  city,  transferred  the  eraso<mal  place  (rf 
residence  thither  from  Eoesfdd,  where  it  had  been 
established  by  earlier  bishops.  In  the  Seven  Yean' 
War,  M.  was  repeatedly  besieged  and  taken  by  both 
the  belligerent  parties.  The  bishopric  of  M.,  which 
since  171B  had  been  merged  in  the  archbishopric 
of  Cologne,  although  it  retained  a  special  form  of 
government  was  secularised  in  180%  and  divided 
among  various  royal  houses;  bnt  subsequently 
shared  in  the  common  fate  of  other  German  pro- 
vinces, and  was  for  a  time  incorporated  with  Franca. 
The  Congress  of  Vienna  gave  the  greater  part  of 
the  principality  to  Prussia,  a  small  portion  being 
apportioned  to  the  Honse  of  Oldraiburg,  while 
Hanover  acquired  possession  of  ttie  HOngter  terri- 
tories of  the  mediatised  Dukes  of  Aremberg, 

MU'NTJAK  ICerviu  mwi^ae,  Cenmliu  tagi- 
nalit,  or  Sljfioeerm  nmnijac),  a  species  of  deer, 
abnndant  in  Java,  Sumatra,  and  other  islands  of  the 
region.    It  is  about  one-fifth  laiger  than  tiw 


.^ClOOglC 


MtazER— MUEAT. 


biM  of  otoh  an  additioul  lian,Vliich  _ 
about  an  inch  and  ft  half  in  length ;  the  principal 


haroM.    Tba  male  hM  large  canine  teeth  or  tnaki. 


Mnntjak  (CServM  Mundae). 


HTJITZEB,  Tbdhab,  one  of  the  leaden  of  the 
Anabaptiitt!  (q.  v.),  waa  bom  at  Stolberg,  in  the  Harz, 
took  his  d^ree  at  Wittenberg  aa  Maater  of  Arts,  and 
for  loms  tinie  preached  the  doctrine*  of  the  Befor- 
mation  in  Zwickaa  and  other  pUcea.  Ere  long, 
bowever,  he  adopted  mvatia  views,  and  decloimM 
againat  what  he  called  the  *  servile,  literal,  and  half ' 
meaanrea  of  the  Beformers,  reqniiing  a  radical  lef or- 
mntioli  both  in  church  and  state  according  to  his 
'inward  light.'  He  proclainied  an  entire  com- 
munity of  gooda,  and  incited  the  popolace  to 
aiinder  the  nouses  of  the  wealthy.  MUblhanaen 
tl  for  a  time  under  hie  sway,  and  that  of  another 
fanatic  named  Pfeifer,  who  Jomed  him.  He  took  an 
active  part  id  tha  Peoaant  War,  and  ioQamed  the 
spirits  of  the  insurgents  by  the  wildest  speeches  and 
■ODgs  i  but  they  were  utterly  defeated  on  16th  May 
1S&,  after  a  severe  conflict,  at  Frank  enliauaen,  by 
the  Elector  John  and  Dnke  George  of  Saiony,  the 
I^idgrave  of  Hease,  and  the  Puke  of  Bmnswick. 
H.  fled,  but  was  taken  and  carried  to  Mublhanseii, 
where  he  was  beheaded  along  with  Pfeifer  and  a 
DUtobar  of  othera.  He  shewed  no  dignity  or  courage 
in  tha  cloaing  scenes  of  his  life.  See  Strobcl's  L^ien 
SAriften  undLAren  Thorn.  Manxer'i  (NUrnb,  1796) ; 
Seidemann's  Thorn.  Munar  (Dreed,  and  Lei  ps.  1842) ; 
and  Heinrich  Leo  in  the  fftiangefiaeAe  Kircfietaatung 
(BerL  1866). 

les,  of 

- jnly  given, 

the  whole  of  the  eels  being  tometimea  incladed  in 
the  family  Mtiranida.  See  Eeu  The  true  Munata 
have  no  fins,  except  the  donal  and  anal,  which 
ore  law  and  fleshy.  They  have  oae  row  of  sharp 
teeth  in  each  jaw.  The  head  is  very  large,  and 
the  jawB  are  moved  with  great  power.  The  M.  of 
the  Romans,  or  MmtBT  {m.  helaia),  abounds  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  is  sometimee  of  t^^jge  the,  four 
feet  or  more  in  length,  golden  yellow  in  front,  and 
pnrj^  towards  the  toil,  beautifully  banded  and 
mottled.     It  is  much  thicker  in  proportion  to  its 


UansDa  (Jf .  hdtna). 


botd 


.  ..  accommodate  itself  to  a  fresh-water  pond. 
The  ancient  Romans  kept  and  fed  it  in  vivaria. 
That  Yedia*  PoUio  fed  hu  manenas  with  oSbiidiiig 
slaves  is  a  familiar  story.  This  M.  has  been  caught 
on  the  British  shores.  AUied  is  the  genua  Bidera, 
found  in  the  Pacific 
MORAL  CIRCLE.  See  Cibci* 
MUKAL  CROWN,  in  Hei^dry,  a  crown  in 
the  fonu  oE  the  top  of  a  ciiculor  tower,  masoned  and 
embattled.  It  is  meant  to  represent  tiia  crown 
which  was  given  by  the  Bomans  aa  a  mark  of  dis- 
tinction to  the  soldier  who  fint  mounted  the  walla 
besieged  town,  and  Gied  there  the  standard  of 
umy.  A  mural  crown  supportinit  the  creat.  in 
place  of  a  wreath,  occnn  in 
the  achievements  of  several  a 
of  the  English  nobility,  and  ) 
in  various  graats  of  arms 
mode  in  the  early  part  of 
the     present     century     to  Mural  Crown. 

officetB  who  had  distinguished 

themselves  in  the  war.  Viaconnt  Beresford,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  Albuero, 
obtaiued  as  crest,  issuing  out  of  a  ninral  crown,  a 
'rsKon's  bead  with  its  neck  pierced  throagk  by  a 
iroken  spear,  the  head  of  the  spear  point  downwards 

■    -leid^f- '^  -...-'^r— 


being  hi 


of   I 


n  the  mouth  of  the  dragon. 


France,  and  was  bom  there  2Sth  March 
168.  Ha  was  at  flnt  intended  for  the 
priesthood,  and  aotuolly  oommenced  the  study  of 
theology  aad  canon  law  at  Toulouse,  but  entered 
the  army,  and  being  threatened  with  pnniahment 
irdinatiou,  deserted,  and  after  spending 
...  at  home,  proceeded  to  Paris,  where,  it  is 
said,  he  was  for  some  time  a  waiter  at  a  caf£,  but 
soon  obtained  admission  into  the  Constitutional 
«aard  of  Louis  XVL  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Bevolntion,  he  was  made  b  snb-lieutenont  in  a 
cavalry  reginjent.  His  gallantly  and  ertreme 
repabhcanism  soon  won  him  the  rank  of  colonel. 
He  attached  himself  closely  to  Bonaparte,  under 
whom  he  served  in  Italy  and  in  Egypt,  signalising 
himself  in  many  battles ;  rose  to  the  ruik  of  a 
general  of  division  (1799) ;  returned  with  Bona- 
parte to  Fiance  ;  and  rendered  him  moet  importniit 
asaiatauce  on  the  ISth  Brumoirc,  by  diBpers- 
ing  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  at  St  ClouiL 
Bonaparte  now  intrusted  him  with  tha  command 
of  the  Consular  Guard,  and  gave  him  his  youngest 
~'~ter,  Caroline,  in  marriage.  M.  commanded  tha 
rally  at  Marengo,  where  be  greatly  diatinffuished 


..GoS'gIc 


MtJRAt-MtJfiAttUlL 


lumaelt  On  tliQ  Mtftbllihmeiit  of  Uie  Franoh  Empire, 
lie  WM  loaded  with  honoan.  He  continaed  to  com- 
nuuid  the  cavalry  in  the  armiee  led  bj  the  Emperor, 
and  coDtributed  not  a  little  to  the  victory  at  Aueter. 
litt,  and  to  many  other  Tictorie*.  In  1306,  the 
newly-erected  grand  dnchy  of  BeFg  (q.  v.)  wa* 
bettowed  npon  him.  "  •  -  '  ■  ■"""  ' 
proclaimed  Ving  ot  t  t  j 

Joachim  L  Napoleon.  He  took  poneanon  of  Naples, 
bat  the  BourbouB,  through  the  mpport  <rf  Britain, 
--"-=-"•  Sicily. 


hearts  of  hi>  (abiecta.  £ren  his  love  of  pomp  and 
Bhow,  and  the  ueatrical  apIendonT  of  hu  eq  ' 
ment,  which  were  a  mbject  of  mirth  in  Prance 
Oenuaoy.  rather  gratibed  the  Neapolitans. 
endured  with  difficulty  the  yoke  ot  Napoleon,  which 
left  him  little  but  the  outward  ibow  of  royalty. 
In  the  expedition  againat  Roiaia,  he  commanded 
the  whole  cavalry,  but  on  ita  failnre,  he  returned 
to  Napln,  anxious  and  discontented.  He  joined 
the  Frendi  army  Bgaia  in  1S13,  bnt  after  the  battle 
lA  Leipzig,  withdrew  to  his  own  dominions,  deter- 
mined on  breaking  the  French  fetters  with  which 
he  was  bound.  He  coucluded  a  treaty  nrith  Anstria, 
and  a  trace  with  the  British  admintl,  and  promised 
the  allie*  an  auxiliary  corps.  He  hesitawd,  how- 
ever, even  after  his  new  course  seemed  to  have  been 
decisively  adopted ;  and  finding  his  position  insmmre 
after  Napoleon's  overthrow,  be  entered  into  priv'^- 
communications  with  him  at  Elba.  On 
Emperor's  return  to  France,  M.  placed  himself  at 
the  bead  of  an  army  ot  40,000  men,  and  com- 
meuMd  a  hasty  war  aguost  Anstna.  He  was 
defeated  at  Forrara,  12lh  April  181S,  and  again 
at  Tolentino,  2d  May.  With  a  few  horsemen  he 
fled  to  Naples,  where  all  was  insurrection  snd  oom- 
motion ;  tnenoe  to  the  island  of  Ischia,  and  found 
his  way  to  Prance,  whUat  his  wife  and  children 
took  refuse  in  the  Bridih  fleet  After  Napoleon's 
flnal  oreivirow,  he  found  refuge  in  Conica,  from 
which  he  proceeded  in  a  foolhardy  manner  with 
a  few  foUawen  to  tbe  coast  of  Naples,  and  pro- 
claimed himself  king  and  liberato^  but  was  pre- 
sently taken  prisoner,  and  after  tnal  by  a  court- 
Durbal,  was  shot  in  a  ball  of  tbe  castle  of  Pimo, 
OD  18th  Ootober  ISItL  8m  Uonard  Qallais,  ffUMre 
d»  JoaAim  Mural  (Paria,  1828),  and  Colette, 
HltMr*  dm  Bte  dentUn  moit  i»  la  Vit  (U  JoaAim 
MuTot  (Paris,  1821).  His  widow  anuned  the 
title  of  Counteu  (4  lijiona,  and  resided  in  the 
neigfabourhood  of  Trieste,  where  she  died  in  IS39. 
Hia  two  sons  went  to  the  United  States,  where 
tbe  dder,  NAPOLtioH  Aohillb  Mubat,  settled  in 
Florida,  and  published  a  number  of  works  on  the 
constitntion  and  politioa  of  hia  adopted  oonnUy. 
H«  died  IBth  April  1S47.  The  yonnger,  NAFOiA>ir 
Ltrami  Chabls^  married  an  American  lai^  in  1827, 
but  toffitfcd  several  reverses  in  fortone,  and  Madame 
Mnrat  was  obliged  to  open  a  boardiog-acbool  for 
the  support  of  henelf  and  lier  hnlbaiidr  Twice  he 
attempted  to  retom  to  France  seeretly  (in  1837  and 
1844),  bat  tailed  on  both  occasions.  Hie  Bevoln- 
tion  of  1848,  however,  opened  the  oountiy  to 
him.  He  attached  himself  doeely  to  Prince  Louis 
Napoleon ;  and  was  in  1849  French  AmbasMulor 
Extraorditiary  at  Turin.  In  18S2  be  was  mode  a 
senator ;  and  in  1853  he  received  the  title  of  prince. 
The  Italian  revolution  aopesred  to  preaenl  some 
chances  for  him,  but  nottimg  came  of  these.  He 
was  made  prisoner  by  the  Oermons  at  Metz  in  1870. 
MUHATORI,  LuDOTico  Ahtohio,  a  celebrated 
aDtignary  and  historian,  was  bom  at  Vigntda,  in 


acceptmgi 


the  duchy  of  Modena,  Ootober  SI,  1672.  From  a 
very  ea^y  period,  his  predilectiini  tar  historical  and 
Utmvy  pnranits  bww  to  manifest  itselt;  and, 
haring  entered  into  holy  orden,  without,  bowerer, 

'--ig  any  eoclesiaatioal  office,  his  life  was  deroted 

the  literature  of  his  profession,  but  mainly 
history,  both  sacred  and  profane, 
especially  the  history  of  his  native  oonntry.  In  his 
Wd  vear,  be  was  appointed  one  of  tbe  librarians  ttf 
the  Ambrasiu  libiwy  at  Milan,  a  post  which  has 
since  receiTed  equal  oelebrity  from  a  snccessor  not 
unworthy  of  the  &une  of  H.,  the  illustrious  Angdo 
Hai  (q.  v.).  Here  he  gave  to  the  world  his  first  pub- 
lication, a  ooUectbn  of  inedited  Greek  and  Latin 
ftsgmenta,  nnder  the  titles  of  Aiuedola  Orvea  and 
Aiteedota  Latino.  Bat  his  most  importuit  labonrs 
were  reserved  for  the  eapitol  of  his  native  dachy, 
whither,  in  1700,  he  vra*  reoalled  by  tbe  Doke  of 
Modensi  to  take  charge  of  the  oelebrated  D'Este 
Library,  and  <d  tbe  diual  archives  g  hia  only  eccle- 
siss^oal  raefament  being  that  of  provost  of  the 
chunih  01  8t  Marf,  at  Fompoaa,  From  the  date 
of  his  return  to  Hodeno,  M.  be^ui  to  devote  himself 
more  exdnsiTely  to  Italian  histoiv,  especially  to 
the  history  ot  medieval  Italy ;  and  hia  labours  in 
this  depiuiment  extended  over  the  greater  part  of 
his  life.  It  waa  not  nntil  the  year  1728  that  the 
first  volume  of  Us  great  collection,  jf«ntm  lUtli- 


at  regnlor  ii 


Saiftora,  appeared,  and  the  work  proceeded 
^  llor  intervals  for  nearly  thirty  years,  the  last 
of  t£e  twen^-eight  folio  volumes  which  oompooe 
it  beuing  Uie  date  of  1751.  This  immense  publica- 
tion, which  was  produced  by  the  Joint  contnbntions 
of  the  prinoea  and  higher  nobility  ot  Italy,  embraces 
a  range  from  the  SUi  to  the  16th  c,  and  otmtains 
all  the  chroniolsa  of  Italy  doling  that  vast  penod, 
illnstrated  with  oommantariea  and  oritiaal  itotioaa. 
It  was  aoccmpanied  hj  a  ooQeetaon  of  diaaattatjona 
illustrative  ot  the  religious,  liteiaij,  social,  poUtioBl, 
military,  and  oommeratal  relations  of  the  savaral 
states  of  Italy  dnrinfl  the  period,  in  6  vol*.  foUo, 
1738—1742,  a  work  wUob,  altbouh  far  from  bMi^ 
exempt  from  erron,  is  still  regotMd  as  a  treaanre- 
house  ot  medieval  antiquities.  While  angsgad  in 
these  prodigious  labours,  M.  carried  on  so  aetiva 
literary  correspondence  wiUi  Uie  •obtdarB  erf  the 
various  oonntnes  of  Europe,  and  oontribnted  esM^ 
not  nntreqnently  to  the  pnncipal  Ustortoal  and  lit^ 
ary  academies,  of  most  ot  which  he  was  a  member. 
He  was  the  first,  moreover,  to  nndortake  a  geoeial 
History  of  Italy  from  the  commenoemoit  of  the 
vulgar  era  down  to  his  own  timei  It  n  in  12 
vda.  4to,  and  still  retina  ita  value  as  a  book  ot 
ice,  having  been  continued  by  Coppi  down 
__  _j  year  ISll.  In  his  capacity  of  archivist  of 
the  dAc  of  Modena,  he  compiled,  in  two  vols, 
folio,  the  AnliqtiUia  qf  Uie  SSde  Fanvit  {1710— 
1740),  as  wall  as  a  series  of  historical  and  polemical 
treatises  on  certwn  territorial  queations  in  dispute 
between  the  House  of  Modena  and  the  court  ot 
Borne.  To  the  department  of  classical  scholarship, 
M.'b  oolleotiMi  of  iMcripliona  (6  vols,  folio,  1739— 
1743),  which,  in  this  point  of  view,  was  a  necessary 
supplement  to  the  collection  of  Qruter  and  the  otber 
antiquariea  who  had  preceded  him,  is  still  acknow- 
ledged as  a  most  important  oontribution ;  and  he 
has  also  left  works  of^standord  merit  in  the  depart- 

of   jurispmdenoe,  of  literary 
^. ..  ,,  of  biography,  and  even  of  f 
medical  acience.      In  the  studies  of  —    .     .  , 
feasion,  as  well  liturgical  and  historical,  aa  dc^roati. 

cal  and  even  ascc' — '    "     -'"■ ^ 

follow  the  method 
distinguished  than  if 


lurgical  ana  mstoncai,  aa  omnaii- 
ceticaL  I^,  although  ha  did  not 
d  of  the  sahoola,  was  hardly  leas 
a  if  he  had  made  tiieae  tbe  pnanit 


MtTRcaisoN-MtmctA. 


Titidication  of  himeel^  addresBed  to  the  leanied 
Pope  Benedict  XIV.,  drew  forth  k  warm  snd 
hoDonrftUe  teliimonj  to  the  aprightneaa  of  hii 
motiTea,  which,  without  approTJug  of  the  opiniona 
to  which  exception  had  beeo  taken,  decUred  them 
free  from  the  unpntation  of  being  contrary  either  to 
the  doctrine  or  to  the  disciphoe  oE  the  church. 
Although  M.'s  life  was  easentiatl j  that  of  a  scholar, 
yet  his  exactness  in  discharging  the  duties  of  a 
parish  priest  was  beyond  all  praise,  and  several 
of  Qie  existiDR  charibible  institutiona  of  Pompoaa 
were  foonJed  by  him.  He  died  at  Modena, 
January  28,  1760,  ia  hi*  78th  year.  His  works, 
which  it  would  be  tedious  to  eaumerate  in  full 
detail,  fill  46  volumes  in  folio,  34  in  4to,  13  in  8vo, 
and   many  more   in    12mo.      Some   of   these   nrs 

rithnmolu,  and  were  published  by  his   nephew, 
P.  Mnratori,  from  whom  ws  also  have  a  life  of  his 
distinguished  uncle,  in  4to,  printed  at  Omer,  1758. 

MTTRCHISON,  Sir  Boderice  Iupe7,  geologist 
and  geographer,  was  bora  at  Tairadale,  RoaB-Bhire, 
in  1792,  He  was  educated  at  the  OrammH-iehool, 
Durham,  and  havine  •  biaa  for  military  Ufa,  next 
studied  at  the  Military  Collt^e,  Uarlow.  Hs 
entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  served  aa 
an  offloer  in  the  36th  Regiment  in  Spain  and 
PortngaL  He  was  placed  on  the  staff  of  his 
nnde.  General  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie,  and 
then  obtained  a  captaincy  in  the  6th  Dragoons. 
Quitting  the  army  m  1816,  he  devoted  himself  to 
^ence — more  especially  to  geology.  Bo  afterwards 
travelled  in  vanons  ports  of  tbe  ghbe.  He  found 
the  same  sedimcntair  strata  ly^ng  in  the  earth's 
crust  beneath  the  old  red  sandstone  in  the  moun- 
tainons  regions  of  Norw^  and  Sweden,  in  the  vast 
and  distant  provinces  of  the  Russian  empire,  and 
also  in  America.  The  result  of  his  invest^tions 
was  the  discovery  and  establishment  of  the  Silurian 
system,  which  won  for  him  the  Copley  Medal  of 
the  Royal  Society,  and  European  reputation  as 
a  geologist.  His  sabecqnent  ex^iodtion  of  the 
Devonian,  Permian,  and  Laureotian  nstems  in- 
creased and  conflrmed  his  reputatdon.  He  explored 
several  parts  of  Germany,  Poland,  and  the  Csr- 
patliians:  and  in  1840  he  commenced  a  geological 
survey  of  the  Russian  empire,  under  the  counten- 
ance of  the  imperial  eovernment.  M.  de  Vemeuil 
was  associated  with  mm  in  this  great  work,  com- 
pleted in  1845.  Stmck  with  the  resemblance  in 
geoloncal  stntctnre  between  the  Ural  Mountuns 
and  tiie  AustraUan  cbain,  M.,  in  his  aniiiversary 
addrewin  1S44,  first  predicted  tbe  discovery  of  gold 
in  Australia.  In  1846.  six  year*  before  that  metal 
was  practically  worked,  he  addressed  a  letter  to  the 
President  of  Ule  Boyal  Geological  Society  of  Corn- 
wall, inciticg  the  unemployed  Cornish  tin-minen  to 
emigrate  and  dig  for  gold  in  Australia.  He  was 
elected  President  of  the  British  Assooiatton  for  the 
Advaocement  of  Science  in  1846;  President  of  the 
Itoyal  Qeogrsphical  Society  in  1844  and  IS45  ;  was 
re-elected  m  1857,  and  continncd  to  hold  that  post 
till  1870,  when  be  wos  compelled  to  resign  it  by  i>ir- 
olysis.  HisauniyerearyaddresseBtothe  geograpiiers 
were  of  great  interest  and  value.  Perhaps  no  man 
of  the  present  century  has  done  more  to  promote 
geographical  science  at  home,  and  kindle  the  spirit 
of  adventure  among  those  engaged  in  Arctic  expfot*- 
tion  on  the  one  hand,  and  African  discovery  on  the 
other.  In  1855,  he  succeeded  Sir  H.  De  la  Beche  in 
the  office  of  Director  of  the  Museum  of  Practical 
Geology.  He  was  a  D.C:!*  of  Oxford,  LL.D.  of 
Cambndge,  and  a  Vice-president  of  the  Royal 
Societ^r.  He  was  knigbted  in  1 846,  made  K.C.B.  in 
1853,  and  a  baronet  in  1883.    From  the  Emperor  ot 


1971.  The  greater  portion  of  his  contributions  to 
science  were  published  in  the  Transcirtiont  at  the 
Geolozica!  and  other  Societies.  His  principal  works 
were  The  Silurian  (1836) ;  The  Oealoffff  of  Rvtgia  in 
fitrope  and  tU  Ural  MovnUiiru,  in  1845  (2d  od. 
1853).  He  also  published  volumes  on  the  TtrHary 
Deposits  ofLouxr  Styria,  <te.  (1830),  the  Oralogy  ^ 
CheUen/iam  (1834),  Ac— See  L^e  qf  Sir  Sodrrict M. 
by  Arch.  Geikie,  LL.D.  (1875),  and  obituuy  notice 
by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinsoa  in  Proceeding*  qflht  Royal 
Otggraphieal  Society,  voL  xvi  No.  4 

MnReHISO'NIA,aKentis  of  fossa  Kosteropodoug 
moUusca  belonging  to  the  ftunily  Hauofida,  and  ao 
named  in  honour  of  8ir  R.  L  Murchlson.  The  genna 
consists  of  at  least  GO  species,  all  which  are  chatao- 
teiistio  of  the  PalEsozoio  rocka,  occnrrinff  in  the 
series  from  the  Lower  Silurian  up  to  the  Pennian. 
The  shell  dilfeis  from  the  large  genus  PhwroUynuiria 
only  in  being  very  much  elongated.  Like  it,  the 
whorls  are  acolptured  and  coned,  the  aperture  is 
channelled  in  fiont,  and  the  enter  lip  la  deeply 
notched. 

MU'ROJA,  a  former  proviooe  of  Spain,  now  anb- 
divided  into  the  smaller  prorinocs  of  AlWete  and 
Morda,  is  sitnat«d  in  the  south-east  of  the  peninsula. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  New  Castile,  on  the  E. 
by  Valencia,  on  the  S.  by  the  Mediterranean,  and 


the  W.  by  Granada,  Andalusia,  and  New  Castile. 

!a,  10,311  »q.  m.    Pop.  (1877)  670,733  (of  modem 

province,  451,611).    In  the  N.-E.,  the  province  is 


partly  level ;  but  in  the  S.-W.,  it  is  composed  of 
areat  volleys,  high  plateaus,  and  monntain  ranges. 
The  coast  comnnses  stretches  of  desert  The  prin- 
cipal river  is  the  Segura,  which  flows  through  the 
middle  ot  the  province  from  W.  to  E.  On  tbe  whole, 
*'  is  not  very  prodactive,  and  never  will  be, 
account  of  the  faflore  of  water^partly  caiued 
by  tbe  destniotion  of  the  forests.  The  only  fertile 
districts  are  the  valleys  of  the  Segura,  and  the  side- 
volleys  of  Lorca,  Albacete,  Chincbilts,  and  Almanaai 
The  Esparto  wastes  have  remained  nncultivated 
since  the  banishment  of  the  Moriscoes  in  IGIO ;  ond 
the  canal  of  M.,  which  is  intended  to  irrigatA  the 
arid  Compo  do  Cartogena,  is  not  yet  fiuisbecL  U.  ia 
one  of  the  most  thinly  peopled  diitricts  of  Spain. 
The  north  yields  wheat  and  barl^ )  the  sonth, 
maize,  fruits,  wine,  oil,  silk,  and  hempt  Ooats, 
sheep,  and  swine  are  reared  in  great  numbers.  In 
metals,  salt,  and  nuserol  springs,  M.  is  abundant ; 
it  has  also  many  smelting-works  for  iron,  lead,  and 
copper  ores,  brimstone  and  alum.  Tbe  roads,  how- 
ever, are  in  the  most  wretched  condition,  and 
industry  in  general  is  still  in  a  backward  state. 
The  province  was  friahtfully  devastated  by  a  great 
eorthonoke,  18—21  March  1329.  M.  was  con- 
quered by  the  Arabs  in  711 ;  after  the  fall  of  the 
c^ate  of  Cordova,  it  became  an  independent  Arab 
kingdom,  bat,  six  years  afterwords,  was  subjugated 
byKing  Ferdinand  HL  of  Castile  in  1241. 

Ipain,  capital  of  the  province 
of  the  same  name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Segura, 
and  near  the  junction  of  that  river  with  the  oan- 
Donero,  60  miles  south-west  of  Alicante.  It  atands 
m  tJie  midst  of  a  beautiful  and  luxuriantly  Reduc- 
tive huerta  or  garden,  16  miles  in  length,  and  from 
7  to  8  miles  wide.  This  kuerta  forms  a  portion  of 
what  is  called  the  vale  of  M.  j  is  well  watered,  has 
a  bright  green  appearance  even  in  winter  j  prodoees 
wheat,  flax,  pulse,  and  vegetables,  and  growi  inna- 
merable  multwrry,  orange,  fig,  and  polm  trees.  The 
streets  of  M.  are  narrow  but  clean,  and  the  honasa 
lU 


,v  Google 


MTTTtnUni — MTTRTTt  Xt 


to  Toledo ;  the  catkednl  ii  nuTaomited 
by  ft  tower  bc«im  in  1522,  completed  in  1766<  and 
crowned  by  a  dome  from  nhteli  ft  nuigmficent  view 
ia  obtftined.  The  city  oontaiiu  (sw  obiecti  of 
fine  ftrt,  a  drcumltotice  vhiob  ii  accounted  for  by 
the  laot  that,  on  the  oocaeioa  of  iti  nege  by 
Sebftstiani,  that  general,  after  promising  that  persona 
•nd  properh-  ahoold  be  respected,  ent^ed  the  town 
23d  April  1810,  and  rifled  tb  of  its  wealth  and  art- 
tie««nre&  Silbt,  linens,  baaketB,  mata,  and  cordage 
are  mannfaotured,  and  oil-milla,  tanneries,  and  other 
watka  are  in  operation.     Fop.  (1877)  91,805. 

MUADE&  IB  the  crime  of  fcilTjng  a  htuiuui  b^ng 
of  malice  aforetbooght,  and  ia  puniehable  with  death. 
It  i«  immaterial  what  meona  are  employed  to  effect 
Ota  object.  Blaolutone  says  that  the  name  of  mur- 
der, aa  a  crime,  was  anciently  applied,  only  to  the 
■eciet  killing  of  anotiier,  which  the  word  moerda 
ngnifiea  in  toe  Teutonic  IftngnagB.  And  ftmoog  the 
aooieot  GoUu  in  Sweden  and  DeDmork,  the  whole 
Till  or  neighbourbood  waa  punished  for  the  crime,  if 
the  murderer  wfta  not  discovered.  Murder  is  defined 
by  Coke  thus :  '  When  ft  person  of  sound  memo^ 
and  discretion  nolawfally  killeth  any  reasonable 
oreatnre  in  being,  And  under  the  king**  peace,  with 
malice  aforethought,  either  express  or  implied.' 
Almost  every  word  in  this  defimtion  has  been  the 
anbjeot  of  discussion  in  the  □iimeroiig  cases  that 
have  occurred  in  the  law-courts.  The  murderer 
must  be  of  sound  memory  or  discretion  ;  L  e.,  he 
must  be  at  least  14  years  of  age,  and  not  a  lunatic 
or  idiot.  The  act  most  be  done  unlawfully,  L  e.,  it 
must  not  be  in  self-defence,  or  from  other  justifiable 
oaoae.  The  person  killed  must  be  a  reasonable 
creatore,  and  hence  killing  a  child  in  the  womb  is 
not  moiiler,  bat  is  punishable  in  another  way  (seo 
iHTAimciDB).  The  easentiol  thing  in  murder  is  that 
it  be  done  maliciously  and  deliberately  ;  and  hence, 
in  oases  of  hot  blood  and  ecuf^ias,  the  offence  ia 
generally  manslaughter  only.  KiUing  by  duelling 
IB  thoB  murder,  for  it  is  deliberate.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  constitute  murder,  that  the  mnr- 
derer  kill  the  man  he  intended,  provided  he  bad  a 
deliberate  design  to  murder  some  one.  Thus,  if 
one  shoots  at  A,  and  missea  him,  but  kills  B,  this 
ia  murder,  because  of  the  previous  felonioos  intent, 
which  the  law  transfers  from  one  to  tbe  other.  So 
if  one  lays  poison  for  A,  and  B,  against  whom  the 
poisoner  had  no  felonious  iotent,  takes  it,  and  is 
killed,  this  is  murder.  Formerly,  in  England,  the 
Benefit  of  Clergy  (q.  v.)  waa  aUowed  in  cases  of 
murder,  till  it  was  abolished  by  7  and  8  Geo.  IV. 
0.  28.  The  only  sentence  on  murderers  is  now  death, 
which  is  carried  out  by  hanging. '  Formerly,  the 
murderer  was  directed  after  death  to  be  hung  on 
a  gibbet  in  chains  near  the  place  of  the  cnme. 
Formerly,  also,  dissection  was  added  as  part  of  the 
■entence,  and  Uie  execution  waa  to  take  place  on  tho 
day  next  bat  one  after  sentence.  But  now  an  interval 
of  a  fortnight  usually  takes  place,  and  the  body  is 
buried  in  the  precincts  of  tbe  prison.  Attempts 
to  murder  were  until  recently  punishable  in  England 
like  capital  felony ;  but  now  attempts  to  mnrder  are 
punishable  onlv  with  penal  aervitude  for  life,  or  for 
not  less  than  tnree  yeora. 

UUItEX,  ft  Linnsan  genu*  of  gasteropodona 
molluscs,  of  which  hna  now  been  formed  the  family 
Muridda,  belonging  to  the  order  Peetinibranehiata 
of  Cnvicr.  The  sexes  are  distinct ;  tbe  animal  bos 
■  broad  foot,  often  much  expanded ;  the  eyes  are  not 
OD  itolks  1  the  shell  has  a  straight  canal  in  front,  often 
prolonged  throngh  iNirt  of  a  very  long  beak ;  no  canal 
bebinil  The  Muridda  all  prey  on  other  molluscs, 
boring  throuf^  the  shells  with  their  hard-toothed 
probiMcis.     The  name  Rock-shzll  is  often  given 


of  the  bei^  are  called  Woodcock-sbbu^     

have  tbe  shell  beset  wiUi  long  and  regularly  arranged 
spines.  The  whorls  of  the  shell  are  marked  with 
ndgee,  or  varices.  Home  species  of  M.  are  found  on 
tho  British  coastK    Spedes  are  found  in  all  part*  of 


Woodoook-ahell  (jtfaree  (enuUpaia). 

the  world ;  the  laiveat  are  troptcaL  The  ftndents 
obtained  their  pnrpte  dye  (see  Titkum  Pobfli)  from 
niedes  of  M.^particnlarly  M.  tntnaUiit  and  M.  ftron- 
darit.  The  Vbhcb  Cokb  of  the  Indian  seas  is  Sf. 
tribtdus,  a  very  deUcato  and  beautiful  shell,  with 
many  long  thin  spines.  Foeail  Muridda  are  nume- 
rous, but  are  scan»l^  found  in  any  formatioa  older 
than  the  eocene  terhaiy, 

MUBETXipE,  Purpurate  of  Ammonia,  or  Roman 
Purple,  a  curious  colouring  matter  obtained  from 
guanos  It  is  similar  to  the  purple  dye  or  l^rian 
purple  of  the  ftncients,  which  was  made  from  a 
species  of  Murex — -hence  its  name.  Unrexide  ia 
ft  product  of  uric  ftctd,  and  as  this  exists  in  abna- 
dance,  and  in  a  very  free  state,  in  guano,  that 
material  has  been  found  one  of  the  best  sourcea 
from  which  to  obtain  it  One  process  naed  by 
Mr  Rnmney  of  Manchester,  the  chief  mann- 
factnier  of  this  material,  to  produce  mureiide,  ia 
to  dissolve  nrio  acid  in  dilute  nitric  acid,  and  after 
evaporating  for  some  time  at  a  temperature  a  little 
short  of  boiling,  whilst  still  hot,  to  add  a  slight 
exoess  of  ammonia.  Two  compounda  are  formed 
by  this  process,  Alloxan  and  AQoxantin,  and  their 
mutual  reaction  on  each  other  results  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  beautiful  minute  green  metallic-lustred 
crystals  of  mureiide,  which,  in  combination  with  some 
of  the  componnds  of  lead  and  memory,  yield  most 
brilliant  red  and  purple  dyes.  Murexide  is  used  in 
printing  both  cotton  and  silk  goods,  under  the 
name  of  the  '  Roman-puiple  style. 

HURGHAB,  a  river  of  Turkestan,  rises  in 
Afghanistan  in  the  Safid  Kuh  MountainB,  east  of 
Herat,  and  after  ft  coiiise  of  300  miles  N.W„  is  lost 
in  the  Bands  of  the  Kara  Kum  desert,  below  Merv. 

MURIATIC  ACID.     See  Hydrochloric  Acid. 

i/iVRTDS:,  a  family  of  rodent  qnadrupedt,' 
uontainiog  many  genera  and  a  very  large  number  of 
speeiee,  distribute  over  all  part*  of  tM  world,  and 
of  which  rats  and  mice  may  be  regarded  as  typical 
examples.  To  this  family  belong  also  voles,  lem- 
mings, dormice,  jerboas,  marmots,  &c  Tbe  M.  are 
of  ue  section  of  rodents  having  distinct  davicles. 
They  hare  three  or  four  molora  on  each  side  in 
each  jaw,  the  molars  at  first  furnished  with  rounded 
tubeKles,  which  wear  down  till  they  exhibit  mere 
roii^ened  crowns.  The  typical  M.,  and  those  most 
nesfly  allied  to  them,  have  scaly  toils.  Marmots, 
dormice,  jerboas,  ^c,  bare  hairv  tails.  There  are 
great  diversities  of  sti^cture  and  habits  among  the 
Muridsa.  All  of  them  feed  on  vegetable  food,  but 
many  of  them  are  ready  also  to  eat  aoimol  sub- 
stances.—The  limibi  of  the  family  M.  are  very 
differently  stated  by  different  ""' — '""^ 


t  ^nm^lr 


HUBnXO— HUBEA.T. 


SfCTBtLLO,  BAfiTBOLOirt  EsrisAif,  wu  bom 
at  Seville,  Mid  baptiied  Jan.  I,  1618;  and  after 
ftceiTulg  BOme  ediication,  was  placed  with  hii 
lelfttiTC^  Juan  dsl  Castillo,  to  itudy  painting. 
Having  laved  a  little  money,  whioh  he  made  by 
paintmg  religions  pictare»  for  exportation  to  Sonta 
America,,  be  went  to  Madrid  ia  ICU,  being  tben 
in  hi*  24tb  year,  was  favonrablf  noticed  bv  his 
ealebrated  townsman,  Velaaquez,  and  tbrongb  bis 
inflnenoc^  was  enabled  to  stndy  tbe  di^t-iauBit  of 
Italian  and  Flemtitb  art  in  the  royal  coUections.  In 
IMS,  he  determined  to  return  to  Seville,  thongb 
advised  to  proceed  to  Rome  by  Velasquez,  who 
offered  him  letters  from  the  king.  After  settling  in 
Seville,  he  received  nuneroua  important  commis- 
moos,  and  was  soon  acknowledged  as  the  head  of 
tbe  school  there.  In  164S,  U.  married  a  lodv  of 
fortune ;  he  now  maintained  a  handsome  eatabUah- 
ment,  and  hi*  hoose  was  the  resort  ol  people  of 
taste  and  fashion.  The  Academy  of  Seville  was 
founded  by  him  in  1660,  but  he  filled  the  office 
of  president  only  daring  the  first  year.  He  fdl 
from  a  scaffold  when  painting  in  Cadiz  on  an 
altar-piece  for  the  Church  ol  the  Capuchins, 
returned  to  Seville,  and  soon  after  died  from 
the  injury  he  received,  April  3,  1682.  In  early  life, 
be  painted  many  pictnrea  illustrative  of  humble 
life;  in  these,  the  manner  was  darker  and  less 
reGoed  than  that  exhibited  in  his  later  pictnrea, 
which  are  mostly  Bcriptaral  or  religions  pieces.  In 
the  Louvre,  and  in  England,  there  are  about  forty 
of  bis  worka  Sir  David  Wilkie,  who  greatl' 
admired  and  carefully  studied  the  Spanish  schod. 
has  remarked,  in  reference  to  it :  '  Velaaquez  and 
Mnrillo  are  preferred,  and  preferred  wilb  reason,  to 
bU  tbe  others,  as  the  most  original  and  character- 
istic of  their  school  These  two  great  painters  are 
remarkable  for  having  lived  in  the  same  time,  in  the 
tame  school,  painted  lor  the  same  people,  and  of  the 
same  age,  and  yet  to  have  formed  two  stylet 
different  and  opposite,  that  the  most  unleamed 
•carcely  mistake  them;  Muiillo  being  all  softeoas, 
while  Velasquei  is  all  ipackle  and  vivacity.' 

HURO'M,  or  MOOSOM.  a  town  in  the  south- 
east of  the  government  of  Vladimir,  in  European 
Russia,  7t)  miles  cast- sonth- east  of  Vladimir,  and 
aitoated  on  tho  right  bank  of  the  Oka,  a  tributary 
of  the  Volga.  Pop.  (1883)  10,700.  The  chief 
industrial  estabUshments  are  totincries  and  sail- 
cloth and  linen  factories.  The  fisheries  on  the 
Oka  supply  the  surrounding  country.  M.  is  also 
noted  for  its  orchards  and  kitchen-gardens,  the 
latter  of  which  supply  a  great  portiou  of  Rosiia 
with  cucumbcr-saed  of  tbe  first  quality.  Gypeam 
qnarries  in  the  neighbourhood  are  extensively 
worked  dnrini;  winter.  There  is  a  large  trade  in 
wheat,  flai,  linseed,  and  timber.  M.  has  a  very 
picturesque  appeuance,  and  was  formerly  snr- 
ronnded  by  impenetrable  forests.  It  it  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  old  national  ballad^  and  is  one  of 
the  most  ancient  towns  of  Rnssia. 

HXT'RRAIN  is  the  generio  term  looaely  used  to 
designate  a  variety  of  ^seases  of  domestic  animals, 
bnt  more  correctly  restricted  to  the  vesicnlar  epi- 
Eootic,  popularly  known  as  tbe  mouth  and  foot 
disease.  It  is  a  contasions  eruptive  fever,  affecting 
cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  and  poultiy;  but  rarely  com- 
municable to  horses  or  men.  It  is  characterised 
'hy  tbe  appearance  of  little  bladders  or  vesicles  in 
the  mouth,  on  the  lips,  gums,  and  tongne;  on  tbo 
udder,  and  in  the  interdigital  space ;  causing 
inabihty  to  eat,  and  drivelling  of  saliva,  heat  and 
swelling  of  the  udder,  and  lameness.  The  disorder 
runs  a  hxed  and  definite  course  usually  in  eight  or 
ten  days.    Qood  nursing  comfortable  lod^pngs,  and 


a  liberal  snp^^  of  soft,  easily  digestible  food,  are 
tbe  chief  requisite*  for  q>eedy  recovery.  A  laxative 
may  be  given  if  needed.  The  mouth  may  be  washed 
ont  twice  daily  with  a  mild  astringent  solntioii, 
which  may  be  made  with  half  an  ounce  of  alam, 
oxide  of  zino,  or  sugar  of  lead,  to  the  quart  of  water. 
The  udder  in  milch  cows,  in  which  the  eomploiot  is 
usually  most  serious,  should  be  bathed  with  tepid 
water  before  and  ^ter  milking,  which  must  be 
attended  to  very  regularly ;  and  the  feet  kept  dean, 
and  washed  ocoasitmaUy  with  the  lotion  naed  for  the 
month. 

MURRAT,  or  MORAY,  Jakes  Stewast,  Gabl 
Of,  sometimes  called  the  *Oood  B^ent,'  was  the 
natural  son  of  James  V.  of  Scotlsnd,by  Margorst, 
daughter  of  John,  fourth  Lord  Erskine,  afterwards 
wife  of  Sir  Robert  Dou^os  of  Lochleven.  He  was 
bom  about  1631,  mode  Commendator  of  the  priory 
of  St  Andrews  in  1638,  and  subsequently  of  tbe 
priory  of  ABLcon  (in  France).  He  jomed  the 
Reformers  in  1666,  and  almost  immediately  became 
the  chief  of  tbe  Protestant  party  in  Scotland.  In 
1561,  he  was  sent  to  France,  to  mvite  Qneen  Man 
to  return  to  her  kingdom;  and  on  her  arriv^, 
he  became  her  prime  minuter  and  adviser.  In 
Febmarv  1562,  be  was  created  Earl  of  Mar;  but 
that  earldom  having  been  claimed  by  Lord  Erskine, 
the  titJe  of  Earl  of  Moray  was  conferred  npon  him 
instead  a  few  months  afterwards.  Strongly  opposed 
to  the  marriage  of  Mary  with  Lord  Dafnley,  29th 
Jnly  1666,  he  endeavoured  to  oppoae  it  by  an 
appeal  to  arms;  but  he  was  easily  put  to  flight  by 
the  queen,  and  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  EDglano. 
He  did  not  return  to  Edinburgh  till  the  10th  March 
16G6,  the  day  after  the  assassination  of  Riccio,  in 
which  he  was  an  accomplice.  In  April  1667,  ha 
went  to  France,  but  was  recalled  in  August  of  the 
same  year  by  the  lords  in  arms  against  the  queen, 
when  he  found  Mary  a  prisoner  in  Lochleven,  and 
himself  appointed  regent  of  the  kioedom.  After 
the  escape  of  the  queen,  he  defeatra  her  forces, 
May  13,  1668,  at  Langside,  near  Glasgow,  and  was 
aft^words  one  of  the  commissionerB  sent  to  England 
to  conduct  the  negotiations  against  her.  "-  *-'- 
prompt  and  vigorous  measures,  ecoI,  and 
he  succeeded  in  securing  the  peace  of  the 
and  settling  the  affoira  of  the  church,  but  was 
assassinateaat  Linlithgow  by  Hamilton  of  Bothwell- 
haagh,  January  E3,  167a 

MURRAT,  John,  tbe  name  cS  three  generations 
of  Euglish  publishers,  will  for  ever  remain  associated 
the  palmiest  days  of  English  literature  in  tbe 
and  10th  ceutnnes.  The  fonnder  of  tbe  house, 
John  M'Murray,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  abont 
1746.  He  obtained  a  commission  in  the  Eoyal 
Marines  in  1762,  and  in  176S  was  still  second- 
lieutenant,  when,  disgusted  with  the  slowness  of 
promotion,  and  panting  for  a  more  active  career,  he 
pnichased  the  Dookiefiing  business  of  Mr  Sandby, 
opposite  St  Donstan's  Church,  London;  and, 
dropping  the  Scottish  prefix,  became  a  book- 
seller and  publisher  at  '  32  Fleet  Street.'  Ho 
brought  out  tbo  Engliah  Jtevieio,  and  pnblished  the 
elder  Disraeli's  Cvrionlm  of  Liltrature,  Ac.  He 
could  himself  wield  the  pen,  as  some  p.-imphlets 
to  testify.  He  died  November  16,  1793, 
I  succeeded  in  due  time  by  his  son  John, 
s  left  a  minor  of  fifteen  at  lus  father's  death. 
One  of  the  earliest  hits  of  John  the  second  was  Mrs 
RundeU'e  Cookety-bonk,  which  proved  to  be  a  mine 
of  wealth — more  productive,  perhaps,  than  Childe 
Harold  itself.  He  became  connected  with  Thomas 
Campbell  and  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  in  JS08— 1809, 
projeoted  the  Qaarlaly  Seviea,  a  Tory  ortian,  in 
opposition  to  the  Whig  Edinburgh  Bevita, 


By  his 


iv^Ugl 


MtJUftAY-MtlSAtA 


the  hdght  of  Iti  inflneaoaL    ^e  firct  number 

trabliibed  PsbniMy  1, 1800,  nndar  the  editonhlp  of 
Wiliimm  Oifford.  The  nav  penodical  wu 
pletelj  mcoMafnl,  and  brought  M.  into  oommii 
ii<«  not  onlj  widi  the  ohiS  litermti,  hut  alao  with 
tha  OonwmtiTe  «tat«nneii  of  the  time.     A  Mill 


Bjron,  whoK  Chitdi  Harold  vm  pabliihed  by  M. 
in  1S12.  M.  now  removed  from  Fleet  Street  to 
Albemarle  Street,  where  the  bosineM  ii  (till  o«rri«d 
on.  Here  Byron  ud  Soott  flrrt  met,  ud  here 
Sonthey  m«de  the  acqnuntuioe  of  Cribbe.  Almost 
ftll  tiie  literuy  tnagnatee  ol  the  day  were  'fonr 
o'clock  vuitore*  in  Albemarle  Streei  Byron'i 
pleMMit  verH  haa  daicribed  the  scene : 
*  The  room  *(  10  foil  of  wit>  and  bardi, 
Crabbea,  Oampballi,  Omken,  Fnrea,  and  Vardi.' 
M.'s  dinner-partiea  inoluded  politiclana  and  atatea- 
men,  aa  well  a«  antbora,  artittB,  and  dilettanti.  M. 
paid  Byron  nearlv  £20,000  for  hie  worka,  and  his 
dealing  with  Crabbe,  Moore,  Campbell,  and  Irving 
were  princely.  The  second  John  M.  died  in  hia 
OCth  year,  in  1843,  and  wm  mcceeded  by  hie  eon, 
John  M.  the  third.  Bom  in  1S08,  he  waa  educated 
flnt  at  tha  Charter  House,  and  afterwatda  at 
Edinburgh  Dniveraity.  The  age  of  Byron  had  gone 
b^,  when,  in  1843,  he  succeeded  to  the  bnaineu  of 
hia  father  and  forandfather.  A  more  practical  and 
realiatio  aoe  had  sucoeeded,  and  the  'Home  and 
Colonial  Library,'  iaaned  to  beat  off  foreiga  and 
Amerioan  piraciei,  waa  the  precursor  of  the  cheap 
railway  and  other  literature  of  the  present  day.  A 
Uvely  and  Tigorons  competition,  aruing  ont  of  the 
wonta  of  a  new  era,  has  acmewhat  altered  tiie  rela- 
tion of  tlie  great  publiahina  houaea.  That  of  Albe- 
marle Street  no  longer  ranka  £nt  in  the  extent  and 
variety  of  its  transactions,  but  many  of  the  greateel 
worka  in  history,  biography,  travel,  art,  and  Ecience 
have  iaaned  from  the  Albemarle  Street  preaa  under 
the  regime  of  the  third  Murray.  Among  hia  later 
anocessea  may  ba  mentioned  Dr  Livingetone's  TTavelt 
and  LaM  Jouraalt^  Smilee's  J^fe  <lf  Oeorgt 
SU^itntoit,  and  Charlaa  Darwin's  Origin  qf  Spede* 
bf  AToAinii  SeUdiim,  Hia  handbooks  of  continental 
travel  have  lately  been  •np^mented  by  handbooks 
of  Eof^h  wnmties,  and  theae,  it  is  nndeiatood,  owe 
mncfa  to  the  personal  aasiBtanceandauperinteDdeiice 
of  the  present  head  of  the  famona  house  of  Murray. 


vania,  UJS.,  in  1745.  He  wa*  educated  at  an 
academy  of  tiie  Socie^  of  Friends,  and,  on  his 
father's  removal  to  New  Yotk,  was  placed  in  a 
connting-house,  from  which  he  escaped  to  a  school 
in  New  Jersey.  He  then  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  at  the  age  of  21,  and  com- 
menced a  good  practice.  During  the  rerolutionarv 
war,  he  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuita  with  such 
aiiccess  aa  to  accomnlate  a  handsome  fortune. 
His  health  failing,  he  came  to  England  and  pur- 
obased  the  estate  of  Holdgate,  near  York,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  literair  pursoits.  In  1787,  he 
pnhlished  his  Povxr  o/Rdigvm  on  Ott  Mind,  which 
paesed  throagh  seventeen  editions.  His  Grammar 
of  Vk  Engliih  Lanmiagt  was  issued  in  179S,  and 
was  followed  by  hngliah  Era-cua,  the  Key,  the 
Engliih  Reader,  Jntrodaetion  and  Sequd,  and  a 
Spitlittg  Hook.  There  oan  be  no  stronger  indication 
how  entirely  the  systematic  study  of  the  English 
language  was— until  recent  years — neglected  by 
scholars,  than  the  fact  that  M's  Grammar  was  for 
hnlf  a  centnr 
Britain  and  1 
to  the  year  ISO^  which  was  published  after 'hu 
death,  Febmair  16,  1826. 


MURSHKDABAT,  a  town  of  India,  oapital  of  a 
British  district  of  the  some  name  it  ~ 
sitaated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bhj 


n  Biengsi  pro] 
agratti,  a  bra; 


Granges,  ab< 
«  side  of  a 


opposite  side  of  the  river  stands  Mahinsgar,  osoally 
reckoned  a  part  of  M.  The  town  occupies  a  great 
apace,  being  several  miles  both  In  lengtb  and 
breadth,  bat  the  buildings  are  for  the  moat  part  of 
mud.  It  contains  two  palaces :  tlie  one,  old  and 
gloomy;  the  other,  consb^cted  after  the  Bompeaa 
style,  and  of  great  beauty,  was  completed  in  IMOl 
Situated  on  the  most  frequented  route  by  water 
from  Calentta  to  the  North.Weat  Provinces,  the 
trade  of  M.  is  important.  Fonneriy,  it  was  tha 
capital  of  Bengal,  and  so  wealthy,  that  Clive  oom- 
ired  it  with  London.  Fop,  (I8S1)  a  Uttle  under 
),000,  of  whom  about  60  per  cent,  are  Hindus,  and 
40  per  cent.  Mohammedans. 

MUBVIB'DBO,  a  small  town  of  Spain,  fu  the 
province  of  Valencia,  and  18  miles  north-north-east 
of  the  city  of  that  name,  on  tiie  left  bank  of  the 
Palancia,  and  two  miles  from  its  month.  Pop.  about 
0000.  It  stands  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Sagnntnn 
(q.v.). 

MUBZU'K.    See  FmaN. 

MUSA'OB^,    a  natural   order  of    eodogenaus 


reaemhling  trees  in  wpeanuiae,  and  aometimca 
rivalling  palms  in  atat^uesa  |  ths  long  sheatliing 
h«se«  of  the  leaf-atalka  combining  to  form  a  falsa 
stem.  The  blade  of  the  leaf  has  many  fine  parallel 
proceeding  from  the  midrib  to  the  margin. 
.  .  owera  are  congiuated  on  spadioes,  which  are 
protected  by  anatbee.  The  fruit  is  ^ther  a  3-valved 
capsnte  or  fleshy. — The  spedee  are  not  Domeroos ; 
they  are  natives  of  wann  climates,  in  which  they 
are  widely  distributed,  and  are  of  ^eat  value  to  the 
inhabitants  of  tropical  oonntriee ;  Cbe  frnit  of  some, 
particularly  of  the  genns  Mvaa,  being  mnch  need 
tor  food,  whilst  the  nbrea  of  the  leaves  are  emdoyed 

r  cordage  and  for  textile  purposes.     See  FL&lf- 

LTH,  Banama,  and  Abaci.  A  very  interesting 
plant  of  the  order  M.  is  the  TKATELun's  Tkki 

.  V.)  of  Madagascar. 

MTTBAUS,  JoBASM  Kael  Auoubt,  a  German 
writer,  bom  in  1737  at  Jena,  where  he  atodied 
theology,  was  nominated  to  a  oountiy  church,  but 
~irevented  from  entering  upon  the  cure  committed 
1  oonsequenoB  of  the  opposition  of  tbe 
,  M  the  pariah,  who  refnaea  to  receive  him 
e  gronitd  thU  he  had  been  onoe  seen  to  dance. 
In  176£^  he  received  tho  appointment  of  tntor  to 
the  pages  at  the  dnoal  oourt,  and  in  1770  he  became 
professor  at  the  Weimar  gymnasium.  TTi»  first 
literary  production,  which  appeared  in  1760,  was  a 
parody  (^  Biobardson's  Sir  Charlet  Oranduott,  which 
was  at  that  time  extravagantly  admired  in  Oer. 
many.  The  anccess  of  thia  oatincal  atniib  waa  com- 
plete ;  but  as  literary  fame  did  not  brmg  with  it  a 
■esponding  amonnt  of  pecnniary  rewud,  M.  was 
ipelled  to  gain  his  living  by  other  mean*  than 
writmg ;  and  on  interval  of  more  than  ei^iteen 


n  which  be  endeavoured,  by  a  gi 


prevented 


Lavatcr'a  system.      ThtSi  like  his  previons  work, 
was   pre-eminently  enccessfol,  and  enooutagad  by 


-'"'"V." 


MtJafiOS-MtfSOAT. 


bia  diumiiu  TOBum  of  G«rmBn  tolk-loM,  nsder 
tiie  title  of  Voltmiarchen  der  DeuttAtn,  which 
profeaKd  to  be  merelj  &  collection  of  popaUr  tolee 
noted  down  from  the  lips  oE  illiterate  old  oountry 
people ;  but  these  tales  were  tinctured  with  snch  k 
blending  of  oenial  humour,  quaint  fancy,  and  strong 
•ense,  tbftt  thej'  have  became  a  classical  work  ot 
their  kind,  popular  among  persons  ot  every  i^  and 
class.  His  satirical  skctoEeB,  entitlad  FremidHein* 
Ertrlidmingta  in  Holbein't  Mania-  (Winterthnr, 
1T8S),  muntaiaed  his  reputation  as  one  of  the 
■pmhtliest  and  most  (pniiu  satirists  of  his  oountry. 
Ud&t  the  muue  ol  Sohdlenberg,  he  benn  a  conrse 
ot  tales,  Stravs^edtrn  (BerL  17o7),  which,  however, 
lie  did  not  live  to  complete.  He  died  in  1TS7>  His 
Mondwche  KinderUapper  appeared  the  year  after 
his  death,  while  his  other  posthumous  writingi 
were  edited  in  I7B1,  with  an  interestina  notice  ol 
the  anthof,  by  bis  relative  and  pujHl,  A,  V, 
Kotzebne.  M.^  style  was  at  once  oorreot  and  ele- 
gant, adapting  itedf  with  singular  fleiibilifey  to  the 
various  subjects  which  be  handled;  while  the 
unaffected  eeniality  and  frank  bving  natnre  whioh 
are  reflected  in  all  he  wrote,  have  demrvedly  made 
him  one  ot  the  most  popular  writers  of  his  day  in 
Germany, 

MVB^US,  one  of  the  ancient  Greek  poets  of  the 
mythio  ptfiod,  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of 
Eumolpns  and  Selene ;  according  to  others,  the  son 
and  pupil  ot  Orpheus.  To  him  was  ascribed  the 
introdnettOQ  of  the  Eleoainiati  and  other  myetwie* 
into  Oreeoe,  and  the  orderiiig  ot  maur  religiooa 
rites.  He  was  among  the  ancients  also  tue  reputed 
author  of  a  number  of  poems,  oracles,  purificatory 
veraee,  a  war  of  the  Titans,  a  theo^nv,  hymns,  &o, ; 
but  of  the  few  verwa  which  remain  the  autbentdciir 
is  very  doubtfuL — A  later  Moasua,  who  probably 
floDrished  about  the  end  of  the  sixth  c  of  the 
Christian  era,  waa  the  author  of  a  very  pleasing 
atnatory  poem,  in  Greek,  entitled  Hero  and  Leander, 
"'  '  '    Ihe  13th  0.,  of  whioh  the  first  edition 


a  there  have  been  many  sabseqoent  editions. 

MTT'SCS)  VOLTTA'NTEa  is  the  term  applied 
to  ocular  spectra,  which  appeal  like  fliea  on  the 
wing,  or  floating  black  spots  oeforo  the  eyaa.    There 

-  two  kinds  of  moecn  volitantes — Qie  one  a  per- 


Whoever  wHl  look  thnnigh  a  minute  pin-hole  in 
a  card  at  the  clear  sky  may  see  floating  before  his 
sight  a  number  of  translucent  tubes  or  fibres  and 
many  httle  beads,  of  which  some  are  separate,  some 
attached  to  the  tubes,  and  some  apparently  within 
them.  Some  of  the  tubes  or  fibres  are  straight, 
others  looped  or  twisted,  and  others  again  forked. 
All  these  objects  are  bright  in  the  middle,  and 
bounded  by  fine  black  lines,  beyond  and  parallel  to 
which  may  be  seen  an  appearance  of  coloured  lines 
or  fringes.  The  doublings  aad  orossings  of  the 
loops  or  knots  in  the  twisted  fibres  appear  as  black 
points.  Though  the  eye  be  fixed,  them  bodies 
change  their  positioD  with  greater  or  less  rapidity. 
Now,  in  ordiiuwy  light  and  vision  all  these  objects 
are  imperceptible,  imless  the  luiota  or  fibres  happen 
to  be  larger  than  nsna],  when  tbey  oonstitote  the 
hannlesi  kind  of  mascte  volita&tec.  The  black  linee 
and  fringes  are  phenomena  of  the  inflndon  or  difftao- 
tion  (q.  T.)  ot  light,  whioh  are  never  seen  exoept  in 
divergent  rays,  and  all  nnucn  volitantes  having  such 
fringes  must  be  situated  at  a  greater  or  less  distance 
from  the  retina ;  and  there  are  conclnsiTe  reasons  for 
believing  that  fhey  occupy  the  vitreoos  hnmonr, 
mod  cannot  therefore  portend  amaurosis;  whereat 


not  EDoTS,  or  whioh  more  only       .  . 

of  the  eye,  are  points  in  (iie  retina  iriil<Bh  at* .._ 

eible  to  l^t,  and  an  therafbre  to  be  dreaded  as 
symptomatia  of  daagsr  to  vision.  To  deddei  then, 
whether  the  mnsMB  volitantes  we  or  aM  not  indi- 
cative of  danger,  the  patient  should  fix  bia  eya  on  a 
white  snifaoe  (as  a  sheet  of  letter-pqier]  aftar  a 
sudden  shake  of  the  head ;  if  they  sink  gently 
downwards,  they  are  innooent.  It  should  pertiape 
be  added,  Uiat  though  tbey  seem  to  descend,  they 
must  in  reality  be  ascending;  floating  up  in  the 
vitreous  hninour  aa  tir  aaflie  cellular  partitions 


between  the  innooent  and  the  dangnvns  forms  of 
muBcra  volitantes,  the  reader  is  rafeired  to  as  artjole 
by  Sir  David  Brewster  in  the  IforA  SritiA  Itmritu 
for  November  185a 

MtT'BOARDINE,  or  SILK- WORM  ItOT  (Botry 
lit  Bauiana),  a  fungus  (see  Bvi'kvtih}  whioh  grows 
on  silk-worms,  and  oft^  killa  them  in  great  num- 
bers.  It  consista  of  erect  branching  threads,  with 
clnstets  of  spores  at  the  end  of  short  £teral  branchea. 
Them- "^'-'- '- ■    '  *     "" 


Husoaidins  (Betrftit  BattUma). 

favourable  to  their  healthfniness.  They  germin- 
ate also  on  the  caterpillaiB  of  othor  lepidopterous 
insects.  When  this  pest  appears  among  silk-wonna, 
its  progress  cannot  h«  ohecked  by  any  means  known. 
For  prevention,  it  i»  meet  important  that  the  silk- 
orms  be  not  overcrowded. 

MUSCAT,  or  lUSKAT,  an  independent  Anb 
state,  forming  the  seo-ooast  of  Omlji,  in  Eastern 
Arabia.  It  extends  from  the  Strait_of  Ormus  to 
the  island  of  Moseirab,  and  nowhere  exoeeda  160 
miles  in  width.  The  ooaat  and  interior  are  both 
sterile,  bat  the  oouatr?  is  studded  with  very  fertile 
osaes.  The  oapitol  is  Muscat  (population,  60,000},  on 
the  Persian  Gulf,  a  fortified  town,  iunonnded  with 
gardens  and  date-palms.  It  has  a  very  good  hai^ 
hour,  which,  in  the  winter  months,  is  reclconed  the 
best  refnga  in  the  Indian  Ooean,  and  ii  a  most  im- 
portant centre  of  trade,  where  the  produotiDnt  of 
Enn^  of  iirico,  tuid  of  the  East  are  eiohanged. 
Tlie  pnnoipal  exports  are  Arabian  coffe*  and  pearls 
obtained  from  the  Persian  Oolf  ;  but  wheat,  dates, 
raisins,  salt^  sulphur,  drugs,  and  horsM  are  olio 
exported.  The  mdtfwtidence  d  Omln  date*  from 
TSI,  when  the  people  elected  a  sovereign  of  their 
own.     For  900  years  the  Imowna  were  deotsd  for 


v^GOOgl 


IftrSOATEL-UDSCLB  AND  MtJaODLAB  TISSDll 


panoiul  mnit,  and  afterwaidi  bmn  mamban  at  a 
nliog  funilf.  M.  wu  tokea  bf  Albngnerqae  in 
1607,  and  roiiaiaed  in  the  hand*  of  the  Fortugnen 
till  164S,  wbaa  the  Araba  recovered  poiaenion  of  it. 
Tha  Imaiuna  afterwarda  mads  ezteoaivs  eonqnesta 
In  EMtem  AfrioiL,  inalnding  Zanzibar,  Mombas, 
QaSoa,  Im.  In  179B,  fhey  aotjuired  posseadon  of 
tiie  ooMtl  of  LarisUn  and  MogiBtan,  tae  islands  of 
£1  HinKiin  and  Ormiu,  and  the  town  of  Bender  Abbas 
in  Penia,  p>7ins  to  the  Sh^  a  root  or  tribute  of 
BOOO  tomanA  ^e  state  waa  rer^  proaperoiu  under 
the  wiaa  and  mild  sway  of  Said  Seid,  tbe  late 
iTHtm'".  He  awtended  Hie  thnme  in  1S03,  at  the  age 
of  le,  and  reicned  till  his  death  in  1S5S.  He  was 
long  a  faithftl  ally  of  England.  In  1854,  the 
Imaunu  were  drivenfrom  theu  Fenian  dependencies, 
which  in  their  opinion  belonged  to  tliem  in  per- 
petuitf  so  long  as  they  paid  the  rental  Thej 
recaptured  Bender  Abbas,  bnt  iu  consequence  of 
EDglish  interference,  they  were  compelled  to  con- 
clude a  treaty  with  Peraia  !q  April  18E6,  This 
is  aaid  to  have  broken  the  heart  of  the  old  Seid, 
who  died  on  IMh  Oct  18£6.  He  appointed  his  aon 
Majid  to  succeed  him  in  Zaniibar,  and  his  son 
Thuwany  to  incceed  him  in  Muscat.  The  latter 
WM  multlered  by  his  son  Salim  in  18AS,  who  reigned 
for  a  short  time,  bnt  wia  driven  out  by  his  uncle, 
Sayed  Tuky.  In  consequence  of  the  tmsettled 
state  of  a&in  in  M.,  Persia  has  assumed  the 
government  of  Bender  Abbu  and  the  Persian  coast 
territory.  See  Zahzdaii  and  Warabis. — See  Hia- 
tory  qf  f  As  Imaunu  and  Seyida  of  Omdn,  by  Sahib- 
ibn-Rozik,  from  the  Arabic,  by  Kev.  0.  P.  Badger 
(1871) ;  Markham's  history  qf  Penia  (1674). 

UTT'SOATEL  (ItsL  mo*eaeU),  musk),  the  name 
given  to  many  kind*  of  sweet  and  atrong  French 
•lul  Italian  wines,  whether  white  or  red.  Amongst 
the  fineat  are  the  white  Rivesalt  and  red  Bagnol 
winea  from  BoosailloD,  and  the  Lunel  from  the 
J^reueea,  the  I^cryms  Christi  and  Carigliano  of 
l(aples,fta 

MUSCATITfB,  a  city  of  Iowa,  U.S.,  is  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  HiaaiaiiTipi,  100  miles  above 
Keokuk,  and  32  south-east  of  Iowa  city.  It  has  a 
large  trade  by  the  river,  and  several  rauroads,  three 
steam  Donr'inills,  planing- mac  hi  oes,  four  large  saw- 
mills, which  annually  produce  about  30,000,000 
feet  of  timber,  beaidea  shingles,  Ac.  There  are  14 
churches,  schools,  newspapers,  fto.  Pop.  (ISSO;  S294 

MU'BCHELKALK  (Qer.  sheU-Ume),  the  middle 
member  of  the  Triasaic,  or  New  Red  Sandstone 
period,  the  beds  of  which  arc  entirely  absent  from 
the  British  strata.  Being  typically  developed  in 
G«ffiuany,  the  foreign  name  has  heen  oniversaUy 
adopted  to  designate  them.  They  consist  of  (1st)  a 
series  of  compact,  grayisli,  regnlarly-bcdded  lime- 
atone,  more  than  SIKI  feet  thiok ;  and  (2d)  altenia- 
tions  of  limeatona,  dolomite,  marl,  gypsum,  and 
roek-talt,  nearly  300  feet  thick.  The  limestone 
abounds  in  the  remains  of  MoUusca.  The  pal«o- 
Eoio  Qoniatites  are  replaced  by  the  Ceratites,  a 
reniaibtble  link  between  them  and  the  Secondary 
Ammonitei.  Ceratites  are  distinoaished  by  the  few 
nnall  dsntionlatiouB  of  the  inner  lobea  of  the  suture. 
Tba  head*  and  ateina  of  Lily  encrinitw  (ifncnnui) 
■re  iJao  abundant  in  these  atrata,  and  the  remains 
<rf  ganoid  lish  have  also  been  met  with. 

MU'SCI.    See  Moses. 

HUSOICA'PID.^,  a  family  of  birds  of  the 
nder  Iiueuortt  and  tribe  DattWottra,  of  which 
the  greater  nomber  receive  the  popular  name 
Fly-oatchar  (q,v.).  The  limits  of  the  fainily  are, 
however,  very  variously  defined  by  different  omi- 
tholo^sts.    The  M.  are  mostly  inbabitaats  of  the 


warmer  parts  of  the  world,  in  whiid)  they  are  very 
widely  diffused.    The  spedea  are  very  nnmerona. 

MU'SCID^  a  family  of  dipteroua  insecta, 
having  a  short,  tiiick,  membranous  proboscis,  geni- 
culate at  the  base,  entirely  retractile  so  as  to  be 
conoealed  within  the  month,  and  terminated  by  two 
large  lobea  (see  HouBE-rLY) ;  the  antenns  three- 
jointed  ;  the  thorax  with  a  tainsvene  sutnre.  The 
species  are  very  nnmerona,  and  nniveiBally  distri- 
buted. More  Uian  800  are  found  in  Britain,  among 
which  are  the  well-known  House-fly,  Blow-Sy,  fta 
The  larvn  are  Maggots  (q.  v.).  Althongh  some  of 
the  M.  are  troubleaome,  none  of  them  are  so  much 
so  ss  species  of  some  other  allied  familiea. 

MUSCLE  AMD  MUSCULAR  TISSUR 
Muscular  tisaue  is  specially  distiDgnished  by  its 
oontraotile  power,  and  is  the  inati-nment  by  whioh 
all  the  aenaibla  movementa  of  the  animal  body  are 
performed.  When  aismined  under  a  high  magni- 
fying power,  the  fibres  of  whioh  it  ia  eompoaed  are 
found  to  exist  under  two  forms,  which  can  be  dis- 
tdngniahed  from  one  another  by  the  presence  or 
absence  of  very  close  and  roinate  tranaverae  ban  or 
stripes.  The  fibres  of  the  vt^mtary  mosclea — or 
those  whoae  movementa  can  be  inflnenced  by  the 
will — aa  well  as  the  fibres  of  the  heart,  are  itriptd; 
while  those  of  the  ineoiiinlary  muscles — tlia  muscu- 
lar stmctiuea  over  which  we  have  no  control— as, 
for  eiampla,  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  inteatinal 
canal,  the  uterus,  and  the  bladder,  are  uiutriped. 

On  examining  an  ordinary  voluntaiy  muscle  wiUi 
the  naked  eye  (a  mnacle  from  one  of  the  extremities 
of  any  animal,  for  example),  we  observe  that  it 
presents  a  fibrous  sppeanmce,  and  that  the  fibna 
are  arranKed  with  great  regularity  in  the  direction 
in  which  Uie  muscle  is  to  «t  or  oontr*ot  (for  it  it 
by  their  inherent  power  of  contracting  that  muscles 
act).  On  closer  examiaation,  it  is  found  that  theae 
fibres  are  arranged  iafiudculi,  or  bandies  of  various 
aizes,  enclosed  in  sheaths  of  aavolar  tissne,  bv 
which  they  ate  at  Qie  same  time  oonnected  with 


examined  wiUi  the  microscope,  it  is  sei 
of  a  number  of  cyhndrical  fibres  lying  in  a  parallel 
direction,  and  closely  bound  together.  These  prina- 
live  (or,  as  some  writers  term  them,  tbe  viiimate) 
fibres  present  two  seta  of  markings  or  stria— viz.,  a 
longitudinal  and  a  tran8ver«)  set  The  fibres,  when 
separated  from  each  other,  freqaently  split  longitndi- 
n^y  into  Jibr^ice,  as  is  Been  at  one  of  the  ends  of 
fig.1.   Sometimea,  however,  when  a  fibre  it  extended, 


it  separates  in  the  direction  of  the  transvene  strite 
into  a  series  of  discs,  as  is  shewn  in  fig.  2.  Either 
cleavage  is  equally  natural,  but  the  utter  is  the 
least  common.  Hence,  observes  Mr  Bowman,  who 
has  tpetually  investigated  the  minute  structure  of 
voluntary  muscle, '  it  is  as  proper  to  tay  that  the 
fibre  is  B  pile   of  discs  as  thst  it  is  a  bundle  of 

fibrilla ;  but,  in  fact,  it  is  neither  the "~~ 

other,  but  a  mass  in 


e  Btfnatwa  then  it  an 


MPSCLE  AHD  MUSOTHvAE  T18SUB. 


intinutioD  of  the  exi«teDce  of  both,  and  a  tendeooy 
to  clwiTB  in  the  two  dlrectioiuj.  If  there  wore  a 
general  diaintegratioii  along  all  the  lioe*  in  both 


Kg.  2.— A  Fudmlm,  limilu'ly  magnified,  ibawing 

tnufliiBne  oloange: 

ThI  Isngltadliul  Unu  tie  letnelj  Tlilbla : 

«  ull  (,  iita  nurl7  dstuhKl ;  V,  ■  dctuhtd  dUo.  mns  hlgUj 

ntgniOed,  iluwlag  Uu  mnoDi  elunsoti. 

diTeotLon*,  there  irould  result  a  aeries  of  parttclea, 
which  may  be  termed  primiiiee  pciriida  or  tanwu 
tUmatU,  wa  onion  of  which  constitutea  the  mwa 
oE  the  fibre.  Theee  elementary  particles  are  airaneed 
and  unit«d  together  in  the  two  directions,  and  the 
resulting  discs,  si  well  as  Sbrillie,  are  equal  to  one 
another  in  size,  and  contain  aa  equal  number  ot 
porticlea.  The  same  particles  compose  both.  To 
detach  an  entire  fibrilla  is  to  abstract  a  particle  of 
ever;  disc,  and  vice  verad.'    The  fibres  are  supplied 


wiUt  T«ual«  and  ncrres  which  Ha  in  the  intemla 

■e  attached  by  their  oxtremiljaB 

through  the  mediiun  of  tendon  or  aponeurosis 

'  DMta  which  they  are  intended  to 

u  parallel   senes,  of   greater   o..   ..»»    _»,  _«. 

associated  with  nerree, 

reesels,  tendinoiui  strao- 

tores,  &0.,  they  form  the 

various  Mcaci^  which 

are  for   the  most  part 

solid  and  elongated,  but 

are  sometimes  expooded 

(as  In  the   diaphragm) 

into      a     membranons 

^po.     The  length  of 

the    fibres    is    asually 

about  that  of  the  muscle 

in    which    they    may 

occur,  and   may    vary 

from  two  feet  or  more 

Fig.  3.— Transverse  aeodons   {in  the  sartoriua  muscle) 

of  Striped  Mnsde  that  hsd    to  leas  than  two  lines 

been  injected  and  dried:       ,;„  u^^  rtapedius  muscle 

Mignlfltd  TO  dUnnieri.  ^     jjjg    middle    ear); 

*'dS'.'"  o,'"a'"«,foBi"o?  rt!   ■»'*^B  their  width  varies 

injKWd'  npillulH,    itiawlBg    from  Vith  to  vA^th  ot 

tho     poalikin     (bay     ooeapy    tax   inch,  being    largest 

SrtiT  ii  En>l«t  -hm  the  ""J™  "»  »ction 
tlamectujflbrKiniiDiillHL  shmuluB,  is  most  endur- 
ing, and  smallest  in 
birds  where  it  is  most  evanesceot.  Their  average 
width  in  man  is  aboat  T^^th  of  an  inch,  being 
shout  rfgd  of   —   ■ — *■   —   "■"   — '- 


rr-c 


1   the   male  i 


1  rt,iE 


in  the  human  subjeot  is  lA^th  of  an  inch,  ths 
extramM  being  yf^^rr^  >ud  c^th  of  an  inch, 
according  to  the  contractioa  or  relaxation  of  the 
Sbn.  The  form  of  the  fibres  is  polygonal,  their 
sides  being  flattened  against  those  of  iha  adjoining 
flbres.  Each  fibre  is  enclosed  io  a  transparent,  veiv 
delicate,  bat  tough  and  elastic  tubular  sheath,  which 
oaooot  always  be  readily  seen,  but  is  distinctly 
shewn  stretching  between  the  separated  fragments 
of  a  fibre  which  has  been  broken  within  it,  for  its 


tonghnesa  will  often  rensl  a  force  before  which  its 
brittle  contents  give  way.  This  tabular  sheath  is 
bnown  aa  the  lariolanma  or  myolemma — the  former 
term  being  derived  from  the  Oreek  words  larx, 

flesh,  and  Umma,  a  skin  or  husk ;  and  the  latter, 
from  the  Oreek  words  nttli,  a  muscle,  and  iaama. 

It  was  for  a  long  time  believed  that  the  oontrac- 
tion  of  a  muscle  was  associated  with  a  change  In  the 
direction  of  each  fibre  from  a  straight  hne  to  a 
sinaouB  or  zigzag  course.  The  investiraitiDns  of 
Mr  Bowman  have,  however,  shewn  that  this  view  is 
erroneous.  He  has  proved  that  in  a  state  of 
contraction  there  is  an  approximatiQa  of  the  trans- 
verse  striie,  and  a  geoeral  shortening  with  a  simul- 
taneous thickening  of  the  fibre,  bat  that  it  is  never 


UagnUed  UO  dlimetcn. 

I,  aiu»ntrut«d  part ;  li,  cDnlrsctcd  pu-t,  along  tli«  t>aril*r  nt 

_!._>.  -v. ■— ima  ta  r&iKd  fnin the •uctaoa  brthe  vilar 


la  1,7  lib. 


thrown  out  of  the  straight  line,  except  when  it  bos 
ceased  to  contract,  and  its  extremities  are  acted  on 
by  the  contraction  of  adjacent  fibres. 

Muscles  grow  by  an  increase,  not  of  the  number, 
bat  of  the  bulk  of^  their  elementary  fibres  ;  and  Mr 
Bowman  believes  '  that  the  itamber  of  fibres  remains 
through  life  as  it  was  in  the  iretas,  and  that  the 
spare  or  muscular  build  of  the  individool  is  deter- 
mined by  the  mould  in  which  his  body  was  origin- 
ally cast' 

The  strncture  ot  the  invotunlartj  or  unilriped 
muscles  must  now  be  considered.  This  form  of 
muscular  tissue  most  commonly  occnn  in  the  shaj 
of  flattened  bands  ot  considerable  lenot" 
width  not  eiceeding  jA-jth  or  jAt*^ 
These  bands  ore  tnuiBluoent,  and  Bom  '' 
granular,  and  are  usually  marked  a 
elongated  nuclei,  which  become  much  mora  appiuent 
on  the  addition  of  acetic  acid.  Kiilliker  has  sbewn 
that  every  ouo  of  theee  bands  or  fibr««  is  either  a 
single  elongated  cell  (a  fibre-cell]  or  is  a  fasdcnliii  of 
such  eetla.      (They  ore  ropresenUd  in  fig.  %d,ii 


slJDhtly 


HUSOLE  AHD  liUSOULAB  TIBSUB. 


■itid*  OiLU,  Biider  ttw  tiUa  ol  OontractiUfibra  eeOa.) 
Then  ObrM  ban  not  okmU;  fixed  pointi  ol  «HMh- 
ant  lika  the  itrutAd  fibni,  bnl  torm  oontiniiow 


■wWdMHliML  lUi  ud  lb*  pn«dli|  dL 


inTestmenta  aromid  uvitiei  witJun  tha  body — moh 
M  the  inteatinfcl  canal,  tb«  bladder,  the  utenii,  the 
blood-TeMcU,  &a— or  an  digpenwd  thronsh  tbe 
mbitaoce  of  tinuM,  lucb  m  the  tkin,  to  whidi  they 
imrart  a  ooutntctile  property. 

The  cbemicil  comjiontion  ol  ordinaiy Jcc  volun- 
tary) miuclB  ii  descnbed  in  the  article  Fluh.  It 
b  oiily  neceaaaiy  to  add  that  the  fltuilln,  or  the 
aaicona  dementi  of  whioh  they  are  oompoMd,  coniUt 
of  a  Bobctano*  tennad  Svinoiillil  (q.T.),  which 
doaely  MMmUM  the  Bkine  or  ooagnlating  consti- 
tuent ol  the  blood  \  and  that  the  lame  lynloniDe  ig 
alM  the  main  conititnent  of  the  nnstripel  muiclea, 
or  at  all  erenta  of  thdr  flbre-cella.  Like  (be  blood- 
flbrine,  it  eiiita  in  a  fluid  form  in  the  living  tjmoe, 
and  only  coagnlataa  or  lolidiflee  after  derth. 

Onr  limitad  ipKoe  prevcnta  even  an  alliuion  to 
the  arrangement  and  diitribution  ol  blood- veieela, 
Barrel,  and  areolar-tiilae  in  miuonlar  ctnioturoi ; 
and  we  tberefora  pan  on  to  the  ocmaidnation  li  Uie 
mniclM  and  their  funotiona, 

Muadea  vary  extremely  in  thdr  fonn.  In  the 
bnla  they  are  nniaUy  of  oonnderable  length, 
■ORoandiDg  the  bone*  and  fonning  an  importent 
proteotioD  to  the  iointa;  irtule  in  ue  trunk,  they 
•re  flattMied  and  oroad,  and  oontribute  very  eaaen- 
tially  to  form  the  wdli  of  the  cavitaei  whidi  they 
aiflnaft  Uier^  ii  unfortunately  no  definite  niw 
Ngudiog  the  nomandature  of  mnadei,  HumIm 
dwive  Actr  munM  (It  from  thdr  dtnaliott— ai  tiie 
teniporal,  peetoivla,  dotMala,  && ;  or  (2)  &om  Ijieir 
direction— aa  the  tDBnu,obliqa<ia,  Ac.,  of  which  then 
Bay  bewvaral  pain — aa,  for  ejample,  reotni  femorii, 
MMua  abdwninalii,  lectna  eiqntia,  Ac ;  or  (3)  from 
flhair  DIM— M  tiw  maMeter,  the  variotuflexor%  azten- 

riKonboid,  fte;  [  or  (6)  from  the  munbar  of  tiieir  divi- 

_!___      _  ...     tt ._!  trioep(,  <^  m  from  their 

tha  iterno-olodo-maatoid, 
the  itemo-thyroid,  Ac  In 
■de,  wa  erpcew  it*  pointi  of 
,  .  wnda  on0M  and  tMerfww;  the 
ttamm  bdn^  apidied  to  the  moro  fixed  point  la  tiiat 
toward*  which  the  motion  ii  directed,  while  the 
latter  ii  ^iplied  to  the  more  movable  point.    The 


^iplioation  of  thete  tenna  ii,  however,  in  many 
oaiea  arbibary,  M  many  miuclei  pidl  aqndljr 
towarda  both  attachmeuti.  Muadea  oppoaed  in 
action  are  termed  aniagonitU,  this  antaganiem  being 
in  moat  oaiea  reqnirea  by  the  neceasi^  that  exista 
for  an  active  moviog  power  in  opposite  directions 
Thna,  by  one  aet  of  muaclaa,  the  JlACon,  the  limbi 
are  bent;  while  by  a  oontnry  let,  Uie  extauon,  they 


Uiem;  and  probably  every  muscle  in  the  body  hai  its 
antagoniitB  in  ome  or  moie  other  muadea. 

T&  akeleton,  which  may  be  termed  the  looomo- 
tivo  framework,  may  be  regarded  aa  a  aeriea  of 
lever*,  (rf  which  the  fulcrum  ia,  for  the  meet  part, 
in  a  joint— vir,  at  one  extremity  of  a  bone — the 
reaistance  (tv  weight)  at  the  fnrther  end,  and  t' 
force  (of  mTiacle)  in  the  intermediate  portion. 
most  cwea,  in  order  to  preserve  the  neceaaaij  fotm 
of  the  bodf,  muadea  are  applied  at  a  great 
tn— li»Tiif»l  disadvantage  as  regarda  the  exercise  of 
their  power ;  that  is  to  m,  a  much  laiser  force  i* 
employed  Uiaii  would  aomce,  if  dififiirently  appl 

to  ovenwme  tiie  resistance.    The  two  mam  aou 

of  Uiia  diaadvantoge  lie  in  the  obliquity  of  the  in*er- 


bone*  at  the  joint*. 
[fwe  fig.  7,  A.]  The  ten- 
dona  (i)  of  tlie  mnidei 
(m)  ntnatod  above  the 
joint  are  usually  inaerted 
immediately  mIow  the 
bony  enlargement,  and 
thus  reach  uie  bone  that 
ia  to  be  moved  (o)  in  a 


Rt.7. 


appnmching  the  pMpendicoli 
II  thiaenlargement  did  not  eiiat  (aainflg.  7,^,  t__ 
oontrootion  of  the  mnsde, instead  of  catming  the  lower, 
bone  to  turn  upon  the  upper  one  with  comparativdy 
little  loaa  of  power,  would  do  Uttle  more  A«ti  cause 
the  two  euda  of  the  bon«e  to  presa  upon  each  other. 
"itageia  compensated 


The  second  mechanicd  diaadva 


and  I,  .     ^, 

of  having  the  mnsdea  extended 
between    the   ends  of   jointed 
Thus  the  bones  of  the  forearm  \o,  c}  an 
the  bone  of  the  arm  (a)  by  the  bicepa 


|>1«  m! 


which  aiiaea  doae  to  the  head  of  the  latter,  and  Is 
inserted  ^  <^  at  a  diort  distance  from  tiia  elbow- 
joint,  which  acta  as  the  fulcrum  of  the  lever  e.    By 

the  moacle  movea  the  hand  {/),  in  the  aame  time, 
through  the  extent  of  about  12  inohea,  but  then  the 
hand  movea  through  every  inch  witii  only  abont 


MUSCULAR  POaCEt-MUSHBOOM. 


Ota  twdftb  i«tt  ol  the  power  azBrtedbr  itie  nnuMle. 
By  the  juuotioD  of  two  or  more  leTera  in  one  direo- 
tioD,  H  m  th^  differaot  Mcmenta  of  the  extremiti^ 
the  extent  and  velocity  <u  their  onited  Mitioiia  ore 
eommnnioted  to  the  azbmie  one.  ^oi  a  blow  of 
the  fiat  inaj'  be  made  to  inolode  the  force  of  all 
the  mnsclea  engaged  in  extending  the  ahooldar, 
elbow,  and  wriit. 

Ths  great  and  ohaiaoteriatio  property  of  mnsonlar 
tissue — that  of  ahorlening  itielf  in  a  particnlar 
direction  when  atimiilated — ii  called  cotUrattHitj/. 
The  stiinidttB  may  be  direct  irritatioB  by  meohaiiical 
means,  or  by  galvanism,  or  by  Mine  onunkal  aub- 
■tauce,  but  m  the  hving  body  the  muaoolar  fibrea 
are,  in  moat  oases,  made  te  oontaaot  by  the  imme- 
diate isduence  of  the  nerrea  dirtribnted  among 
them,  which  are  oooseqnently  termed  motor  nerves 
{see  Nkbtocs  Ststkh),  and  are  under  the  inflnence 
of  the  wilL  By  an  exertion  ol  vtdition,  we  con 
contract  mon  or  fewer  mmcle*  at  onoe,  and  to  any 
degree,  within  oeitain  limits ;  and  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  there  ii  hardly  any  ordinary  movement  per- 
formed in  which  teveral  moaolea  are  not  called  in 
play.  But  every  voluntary  mascle  is  also  subject 
to  other  influences  more  powerful  in  their  operation 
than  the  will  The  moveloent  of  the  features  under 
the  impulsea  of  passion  and  emotion  are  more  or 
leiB  involnntarf,  a*  ii  shewn  by  the  very  partial 
power  the  will  has  of  restrainiog  them,  and  die 
extreme  diSooIty  of  imitating  them. 

Many  movements  ensne  involontarily  when  oer- 
tain  imprewau,  which  need  not  necessarily  be 
attended  with  oonscioasDes^  are  made  on  the  anr- 
faoe  of  the  bodvi  or  on  any  part  of  its  interior, 
Htlier  by  external  or  internal  oauMS.  Such  move- 
ments ore  termed  r^flay,  and  are  notioed  in  ^ 
article  Nxrvocs  Ststbm.  Onr  space  Tu^clndea  \u 
from  noticing  the  individnal  groups  of  mnsoles  in 
the  hnnuD  body.  Several  important  group*  are,  how- 
ever, noticed  under  Asm,  Etb,  Foot,  HLiHD,  Lm,  ftc 

MU'SOULAR  FORCE.     See  8di>p.,  VoL  X. 

MTT8ES,  in  the  Classio  Mythology,  divinidee 
originally  iticladed  anKmgst  the  Nymphs,  bnt  after- 
wards regarded  as  qnite  distjuct  from  them.  To 
them  was  ascribed  the  power  of  inspirins  song,  and 
poeta  and  mnsiciani  were  therefore  regaraed  *•  their 
piqnla  and  favourites.  Hey  were  fiist  honoured 
amongst  the  Thracians,  and  as  Pieria  around  Olym' 

rwas  the  original  seat  of  that  people,  it  came  to 
considered  as  the  native  country  of  the  Muses, 
who  were  therefore  coUed  Pieridei.  In  the  earliest 
pieriod  their  number  was  threes  though  Homer  aome- 
timea  speohs  of  a  sinale  muse,  and  onoe,  at  leasts 
alludes  to  nine.  This  last  is  tiie  number  given  by 
Heuod  in  his  Theogony,  who  also  mentions  their 
names — Clio  (q.  v.],  Euterpe  {q.  v.),  Thalei*  (q.  v.), 
Melpomene  (q,  yX  Terpsichore  (q,  vA  Erato,  Poly- 
^nnnia  (^,  v.),  Urania  (q.  v.),  and  Calliope  (q.  v.). 
Ttitai  origin  is  difibrently  givea,  but  the  most  widely- 
spread  account  represented  them  as  the  daughters  of 
Zeus  and  MDemoeyne.  Homer  speaks  of  them  as 
the  goddeeaea  of  song,  and  as  dwelling  on  the  sum- 
mit of  Olympus.  They  are  also  often  represented  as 
the  companions  of  Apollo,  and  oa  singinff  while  he 
played  upon  the  lyre  at  the  baoqaeta  Ol  ue  Immor- 
tals. Variona  I^nds  ascribed  to  them  viotoriea  in 
musical  eompetitions,  particularly  over  the  Sirens 
[q.  v.).  In  the  later  classic  times,  particular  pro- 
vinces ware  assigned  to  them  in  connection  with 
dlfTerent  departments  of  literature,  science,  and  the 
fine  arts;  bat  the  invocations  addressed  to  them 
appear  to  have  been,  as  in  the  case  of  modem 
writers,  merely  formal  imitati 
Their  worship  amongst  the 


them  were  the  wells  of  Aganippe  and  HlppoemM 
on  Mount  Helioon,  and  flie  t&stalian  spnnii  on 
Mount  PamaasnA 

HUSB^M  (Or.  mouseim),  originally  the  name 
givm  by  the  aneienta  to  a  temple  of  the  Muses, 
and  afterwards  to  a  building  devoted  to  science, 
learning,  and  the  fine  arts.  Ths  first  mnsenm  M 
this  kind  waa  the  celebrated  Aleiaadrian  Museum 


(see  AoADBHT).  After  the  revival  of  leaniing  in 
Borope,  the  term  museum  wm  sometimes  applied 
to  the  a^Mutment  in  which  any  kind  of  philosophical 
Hiparatus  was  kept  and  used ;  but  it  has  long  been 
almost  exolnaivdy  ap^priated  to  collections  ol  the 
mmianumta  of  antiquity  and  of  other  thino  inte- 
resting to  the  aoholar  uid  man  of  scieuceTlD  this 

<  It  began  to  be  fint  used  in  Italy,  and  probably 

te  case  of  the  famona  Florentine  Museum, 
founded  Ytj  Cosmo  de  Medici,  which  aoou  became 
a  grvat  and  most  valuable  oolleotion  of  antiquities. 
Nothing  analcgooa  to  the  mnaeum*  of  modem  times 
existed  amongrt  the  anoients,  the  greatest  oolleotiona 
of  statues  and  paintings  which  were  made  in  the 
booMS  ot  wealthy  Bomana  having  been  intended  for 
qdendonr  rather  than  fw  the  jEomotion  of  art.  'Hm 
name  soon  ceased  to  be  limited  to  ooUeotioDa  of  anti* 


form  a  chief  part  of  the  treasniee  ol  many  of  tiie 
greatest  mnsauma,  and  there  are  mnaeums  devoted  to 
particular  tnauches  of  uieaot.  Of  the  mnsenma  of 
Britun,  the  British  Museum  (q.  v.)  is  the  greatest : 
that  of  Oxford,  founded  in  1679,  is  the  oldest— 
""  leum  of  the  Vatican,  in  Bome^  contains 

treasures  in  sonlptares  and  paintings,  and 
also  in  books  and  manuscripts.— The  museum  of 
the  Louvre  in  Paris,  that  of  St  Petersburg,  and 
those  of  Dresden,  Vienna,  Munich,  and  Berlm,  are 
amongst  the  greatest  in  the  world.  The  usefnlness 
of  a  museum  depends  not  merely  upon  tiie  amount 
of  its  treasures,  but,  pecluips,  even  in  a  greater 
degree  apon  their  proper  arrangement ;  and  whilst 
great  collections  in  the  chief  capitals  of  the  world 
are  of  incalculable  importance  to  science,  its  intereets 
are  also  likely  to  be  maoh  promoted  by  those  local 
moseums,  still  unhappily  not  numerous,  which  are 
devoted  to  the  illnsbation  of  all  that  belongs  to 
particular  and  limited  districts.  Husenma  appro- 
priated to  the  illustration  of  the  industrial  arts — 
their  law  material,  their  machines,  and  Uieir  pro- 
ducts— and  of  eve^thing  eoonomically  valuable, 
ore  of  recent  origin,  but  their  importance  is  unques- 
tionably very  great.  Pre-eminent  among  insti* 
tutions  of  ttus  kind  in  Britain  sre  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum  in  London,  and  the  Museum  of 
Science  and  Art  in  EdinburgL 

Mn'SHROOBt  or  AGABIO  {Agariaa),  a  genua 
of  fungi,  of  the  suborder  Hynuwmyed^  having  a 
h^nanam  of  unequal  plates  cr  gills  on  the  bwer 
aide  of  the  pilau.  The  species  ore  very  numerous. 
Many  of  them  are  poisonous,  many  an  edible,  and 
some  are  among  the  most  esteemed  ianm.     The 

riea  most  esteemed  in  Britain  is  the  Comhon 
{A.  tampeitrk),  a  oathe  also  of  most  of  the 
'    -        '    regions  both  of  the  northern  and  of  Qia 


1  Eastern  Au* 


nperste 

and  fine  variety 

found  during  summer  and  autumn  (but  chiefly 

autumn)  in  Matures,  orchards,  vineyards,  &c. 

I  pUau  is  regularly  convex,  becoming  almost  flat 

whrai  old ;  fleshy,  dry,  white  with  a  tinge  of  yellow 

or  brown ;  of  a  sUty  smoothness  on  the  upper  aur- 

early  poets,    face,  or  somewhat  scaly,  but  never  warty  ;  thickly 
was  a  mere  {  set  on  the  under  side  with  very  unequal  gills,  whir'- 


to  the  top  of  the  ttem.  The  (tem  ii  of  a  firm  fleahy 
texture,  and  ioioardi  the  top  is  eorroanded  bj  a  more 
or  leM  distinct  white  membntnoui  Hog,  the  renuuna 
of  the  curtain  or  vail  {indusivm),  which  in  a  young 
atnte  extends  to  the  pileua,  and  covera  the  gilla. 
This  M.  is  gathered  for  the  table  when  young,  being 
preEeired  wbeo  the  vail  ii  atlll  unbroken,  and  the 
-nejtpanded  pileiw  has  the  form  of  a  ball  or  button  ; 
ut  both  in  thia  state,  and  afterwardi,  whilst  it 
shews  no  symptoma  of  decay,  it  is  used  for  tnakiu) 
Ketchup  (q.  t.).  It  has  a  very  pleasant  smell  anc. 
tast«,  and  the  floeh,  when  bruised,  assumes  a  reddish- 
brown  colour. — Very  aimtlar  to  it,  and  often  sold 
instead  of  it  in  London  and  elsewhere,  but  rejected 
by  all  skilful  housekeepers  as  unfit  even  for  nuking 
ketchup,  is  the  Sn  Gborob's  Aoasic  {A.  Oeorgu), 
•ometiinei  called  vjlalecap»,_  frequent  in  moist  pas- 
tores  and  near  bnildinaB  in  all  parts  of  Britain. 
This  spedes  is  easily  (Qstioguiahed  by  its  luveir 
I— the  pitens  being  sometimea  18  inche*  broad- 
coarser  appearance,  ita  rather  disagreeable 
imell,  the  yellow  colour  which  its  fleth  annmea 
when  bmiBed,  and  the  lighter  colour  of  it*  gills. — 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  confound  the  Common 
M.  with  the  white  variety  of  Agar'icia  phaBoidea, 
lecies  not  uncommon  in  Britain,  ohiefiy  in  woods 
1  on  tie  borders  of  woodSj  which  is  very  poison- 
Perhaps  it  is  the  possibility  of  this  mistake 
which  has  led  to  tJie  prohibition  m  the  Oommon  M. 
in  Rome,  where  many  kinds  of  esculent  fun^  are 
brought  in  great  abnndanoe  to  the  market,  bihI 


3nn([.    S.  Or»n«B-n>llk«a 
S.  Wlilta  Field  Agaric 

where  »  special  officer  superintends  the  sale  of 
them.  A.  phaUoidei  ia,  however,  eadly  distin- 
gmshcd  by  the  rine  at  the  boUom  of  the  item,  the 
white  colour  of  the  gills,  the  warts  on  the  upper 
sarfoce  of  the  pilous,  and  the  powerful  smell,  which 
becomes  extremely  disagreeable  as  the  M,  grows 
old. — Another  epecies  of  M.  much  in  use  for  the 
table  is  the  Faibv-rikq  M.  [A.  oreodu),  Bometimes 
colled  Scotch  Bonneta — the  Champiipion  of  the 
French.  It  is  common  in  pastures  in  Britain  and 
most  parts  of  Euroxie,  oft^  forming  Fairy  Rings 
(q.  v.).  It  is  much  smaller  Qiaa  the  Common  M., 
the  pitens  being  seldom  more  than  an  inch  broad, 
the  stem  toller  in  proportion.  The  stem  it  solid, 
fibrous,  and  tough,  with  no  ring ;  the  pilous  smooth, 
fleshy,  tonah,  convex,  with  a  more  or  leas  distinct 
bos*  {umbo)  in  the  centre,  ot  a  watery-brown  colour ; 
the  flesh  white.     The  odour  is  strong,  but  agreeable 


This  AL  is  used  for  ketchup^  and  ii  also  dried  and 
powdered  for  nse  at  table  ai  a  savoury  addition 
to  sauces  and  stews.  It  is  constantly  brought  to 
market  in  Enghind.    It  is  liable,  however,  to  be 


broad,  at 


Kg.! 

(From  goweitiT'i  SHgliA  FimfL) 
t.  8(  Otnge'M  AfiTls  lA.  ftor/iii;  i,  juoiw.    >.  Cons 
Hiiihn»m    {A.    campMtrit) ;    *,    jonni.      *.    Ftlij-rl 
Uoiliraom  (4.  sTHda);/,  Tomic.    1.  Olnaria  rliaUeUi 


confonnded  with  several  poioonous  spedea  ;  bnt 
only  one  of  them,  A.  dea&aius,  forms  fairy  rin^ 
and  'Uiis  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  ita  dis- 
agreeable odooT,  by  ita  becoming  myiah-brown  in 
zone*  when  soaked  in  water,  by  tns  margin  of  the 
pilens  being  at  first  rolled  inwards,  nod  by  it*  very 
line  dingy  whitish  gills. — The  other  edible  tpeciea 
of  M.  or  sgario  are  numerous  bnt  they  are  chiefly 
used  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  scarcely  at  all  in 
Britain,  aldiough  some  oE  them  are  common  British 
plants.— The  Orakoe-hii£ed  Aoabio  {A.  deU- 
aottU),  which  grows  chiefly  in  flr-woods  and  among 
ipen,  has  a  viscid  pilous,  four  inches  or  more 
\  at  first  orange,  afterwards  pale,  tlie  gills  and 
J  luuo  orange,  the  gills  running  down  the  stem,  the 
smell  and  taste  agreeable.— The  MocasBRON  {A. 
pmmiiiu]  is  common  in  woods  and  pastiirea,  parti- 
cularly on  sandy  soila.  It  has  a  pileui  about  2—4 
inches  broad,  convex,  yellowish-white  when  youufc 
the  gills  at  flrst  white,  and  afterwards  Qesh-oofoareS 
The  odour  is  agreeable.  It  is  much  esteemed  on 
the  continent  as  an  article  of  food.— The  Pakasol 
AoAiuo  {A.  proamt)  is  found  in  pasture*,  espa- 
ciallyundertreea.  It  loves  sandy  soils.  It  is  remiwk- 
able  for  its  longstem,  6 — 12  inches  high,  with  a  thick 
spongy  ring.  The  pileus  is  3 — 7  inches  broad,  at 
ant  obtiuely  oonic,  then  bell-Hhaped,  covered  with 
brown  scales.  The  taste  and  smell  are  pleasant — 
The  Whiti  Fiblii  Aoabio  (A,  v'trgirKVi)  is  one  of 
the  most  oommon  of  British  species,  growing  in 
.,  with  viscid   or  satiny  white  or  whitish 

^80*,  fully  an  inch  broad,  stem  nearly  two 
IB,  and  light  chocolate- coloured  distant 
gills,  which  run  down  the  stem.  It  grows  either 
singly  or   in  groups.— The  Abiss  M.,  or  Swbst- 


— „-,    -    _   ^-ups.-  

SCENTED  AoABio  {A.  odoTUi),  gTOws  in  shady  woods 
and  dells  among  moss  and  decaying  leaves.  It  hsa 
a  slightly  convex  pileus,  about  three  inches  broad, 
wi^jMle  gill*.  The  odour  is  like  that  of  anise. — 
The  ITORY  M.  iA.  ebunteag)  is  found  in  woods,  with 

E ileus  2—3  inches  brood,  of  a  grayisb-ycUowoobor, 
road  gills,  and  a  rather  long  and  •omewhat  soaly 


U,nm.fi.nv<^OOglC 


HUSHROOM— MUSia 


item. — Th«  SuoET  M.  {A.  /w»o»u),  with  pileoi 
smoke-gray  above,  the  gilU  lind  Btalk  yellowish,  is 

common  in  fir-wooda All  these  are  edible^  and 

more  or  less  pleaaant  and  nutritioaa.  Finer  than 
moat  of  them  la  the  Iicpbbial  M.  {A,  ocuaritit),  the 
KaUerling  of  the  Germuia,  a  apeoies  foond  in  loamy 
•oils  in  aome  psrta  of  Europe,  nrith  orange  pileos 
and  lighter  yellow  stem  and  gilla ;  bat,  unhappily, 
it  is  apt  to  be  confouoded  with  the  very  poisoDOtw . 
Amamta  (q.  v.)  nuKaria, 

The  CouuoH  M.  is  frequently  cnltiTated  both  in 
the  open  garden  and  in  honsea  or  sheds.  To  grow 
it  In  the  open  garden,  beds  are  prepared,  genE^^y 
of  earth  mixed  with  horae-dung,  portly  aeah.  and 
partly  from  old  hotbeda,  and  are  raised  into  ridgea 
almost  as  high  as  broad  To  grow  it  in  houses, 
boxes  are  fillra  with  alternate  layers  of  half-rotten 
horae'done  and  of  straw,  with  a  surface  layer  of 
fine  moul<£  But  of  each  of  these  methods  there  are 
many  difierent  modifications,  none  oE  which  can 
here  be  detailed.  In  both,  the  production  of  mnah- 
rooms  is  sometimes  left  to  the  diaace— often  almott 
a  certainty — of  spawn  {mycdittm]  or  spores  existing 
in  the  dung  or  earth ;  sometimes,  to  increase  the 
probability  of  a  speedy  and  abundant  crop,  earth  is 
mtroduced  into  we  bed  or  box  from  a  pasture 
known  to  be  rich  in  mushrooms,  and  M.  spawn  ia 
also  freqaently  planted,  which  »  either  collected 
where  mushrooms  grow,  or  produced  by  artificial 
means,  often  appearing  and  oeing  propagated  ex- 
tensirely  without  the  development  of  the  M.  itself. 
The  almost  certain  production  of  M.  spawn  in  heaps 
of  sligblly-fenDenting  home-dung,  straw,  and  earth, 
has  been  often  urged  as  an  argument  in  favonr  of  the 
equivocal  generation  of  fungi,  but  the  minuteness 
and  multitude  of  the  spores  ma;  more  reasonably 
be  urged  on  the  opposite  side. 

MUSIO  (Gr.  moveilx,  from  mourn,  muse ;  Lat 
tmutiea),  a  combination  or  suooession  of  sounds 
having  the  property  of  piUA,  so  arranged  as  to 
please  the  ear.  The  pleasure  derived  from  music 
arises  from  its  exciting  agreeable  sensations,  and 
raising  pleasing  mental  miages  and  emotdons.  Apart 
from  words,  it  expresses  passion  and  sentiment,  and 
linked  to  words,  it  loses  its  vagueness,  and  becomes 
a  beautiful  illustraiion  of  language. 

The  doctrine  of  musical  sounds  is  based  on 
principles  of  Acoustics  (q.  v.).  Sound  is  conveyed 
through  elastic  media  by  waves,  not  of  alternate 
devation  and  depression,  but  of  a)t«niat«  oon- 
densation  and  rarefaction,  in  which  it  is  the 
form,  the  oouilition  of  the  groups  of  particles  that 
progresses,  not  each  individual  particle.  When  a 
senea  of  vibrations  recur  on  the  ear  at  precisely 
eqnol  intervals  of  time,  following  each  other  so 
closely  that  each  cannot  be  separately  distinguished, 
the  result  is  a  muucal  sound  or  note.  The  sound 
ceases  to  have  a  muaioal  character  when  each  pul- 
sation is  individually  andible,  as  is  the  cose  when 
there  are  fener  than  about  sixteen  beats  in  a 
second.  The  ^vity  or  sharpness  of  the  sound 
is  called  its  pitch,  and  depends  on  the  number 
of  vibrationa  m  a  given  time.  A  succession  or 
progression  of  musical  sounds  following  each  other 
oonstitutee  melody ;  the  difference  in  pitch  between 
any  two  of  them  is  called  an  intervaL  Where 
two  or  more  musical  sounds,  whose  relative  pitch 
is  properly  proportioned,  are  heard  simnltaneonslv, 
tiie  ranilt  is  a  chord,  and  a  successioa  of  ohotds 
constitutes  harmony. 
When  a  vibration  is  commnnicated  to  a  s 

stretchedbetween  twop(riuti,UMre«Qlt  iiami 

notsy  whosepitcbisd^eadeikt  on  tlie  length  of  the 
string  and  toe  degrae  of  teoaioa  applied  to  it :    ' 

shorter  the  strini;,  and   tho  graator  the  ten . 

the  Udur  i>  the  pitch.    If  the  rtring  be  divided  io 


the  middle,  the  tenrion  remaining  the  Mme,  the  note 
produced  is  twice  as  high  in  pitch,  and  is  c^led  ths 
octave  to  the  note  produced  by  the  whole  string. 
Gveiy  vibration  of  the  one  corresponds  to  two  of 
the  other,  and  there  is  between  a  note  and  its  octave 
a  far  closer  relation  than  between  any  two  o^er 
notes;  they  go  together  almost  as  one  sound,  and 
are  oonsidered  to  a  great  extent  as  one  murical 
sound.  In  the  diatonic  scale,  f«»niii»»-  to  every 
correct  ear,  there  are  six  notes,  bearing  certain 
harmonic  relations  to  the  fundamental  note,  inter- 
posed between  it  and  its  octave ;  and  as  we 
Bsceud,  the  notes  arrange  themselves  ia  nmilar 
successions  of  sevens,  each  set  an  octave  higher,  or 
double  the  pitch  of  that  which  preceded  It.  The 
I  notes  are  designated  by  the  names  of  the 
seven  letters  of  the  alphabet,  the  same  letter 
beine  used  for  any  note  and  its  octave.  For 
another  notation  also  in  use,  see  SoLVBOOio.  Taldng 
C   for   the    fundamental   note,   we  have   for   oar 

CDEFGABCDBFGABC,to. 
The  scale  may  be  extended  up  or  down  indefinitely, 

I  long  as  the  sounds  obtained  continue  to  be 
uiicaL  The  satisfaotion  and  sense  of  completenen 
which  the  diatonic  scale  gives  the  ear,  ante  from 
being  founded  on  correct  barmonio  principles; 
9  quality  called  harmony  is  prodnced  by  a 
icidrauie  of  vibrations :  notes  are  more  hat- 
moniona  the  oftener  their  naves  ooincide.  Besides 
the  octave,  two  of  whose  waves  coincide  with 
one  of  the  fundamental,  ther«  are  other  interval* 
harmonious,  though  in  a  less  degree.  Dividing 
our  string  into  three  parts  instead  of  two,  we 
have  a  note  higher  than  the  octave,  which 
may  be  lowered  by  an  octave  by  making  the 
Btnng  two-thirds  of  the  original  length,  and  pro- 
duces a  wave  of  which  three  coincide  with  two  ctf 
the  fuodamentaL  Next  to  the  octave,  this  note 
stands  in  the  most  intimate  relatiou  to  the  funda- 
mental ;  it  is  called  the  dominant.  Dividing  the 
string  by  five,  and  lowering  the  note  two  octaves, 
another  haimonio  is  got,  colled  the  mediant.  In 
contradistinction  from  both  these,  the  fundamental 
note  (or  any  of  its  octaves)  is  called  Uie  tonic  or 
key-note.  C  being  taken  as  the  key-note,  IS  is  the 
median^  and  Q  the  dominant.  These  three  notes, 
when  struck  simultaneously,  form  the  honnoaic 
triad,  and  stand  t^  each  other  in  the  relation  of  I, 
f,  t  (numbers  iudicatinff  tiie  number  of  vibrations, 
which  are  inversely  as  ue  length  of  the  string),  or, 
reducing  fractions  to  integers,  in  Qia  relation  of 
4,  S,  6.  When  a  musical  string  is  vibrating,  these 
sounds  are  heard  on  dose  observation  more  or  len 
distinctly  vibrating  along  with  it,  the  canss  being  a 
spontaneous  division  of  the  ttnng  into  aliquot  pMS, 
producing  subordinate  vibrations  uffloltaneoatly 
with  the  principal  vibrations.  But  the  dominant 
may  in  its  turn  be  the  tonio  from  which  another 
triad  of  tonio,  mediant,  and  dominant  is  taken, 
forming  a  scale  of  triads  extending  indeflniteljr  up 
and  down,  and  it  is  from  three  snim  adjacent  triada 
that  the  diatonic  scale  otjginatea.  Its  elements  an 
the  triad  of  the  tonic  united  with  the  triads  which 
stand  in  the  most  intimate  relation  to  it — Ti&, 
those  immediately  above  and  below  it — 

FAO,  CBG,  GBD. 
F  is  the  note  whose  dominant  is  C  (the  tonio), 
and  therefore,  in  respect  of  C,  it  is  called  the  sub- 
dominant.  A  is  the  mediant  of  the  sabdominant 
F,  and  therefore  called  the  snbmediant.  D  is  the 
domtnant  oC  the  dominant,  and  is  called  the  super-- 
tonic.  B,  the  mediant  of  tiie  dominant,  is  called  the 
leading  note.  We  have  seen  that  the  notes  of  each 
triad  stand  to  each  other  in  the  nlation  of  4, 1^  & 


!tC_iUU^I' 


FreBerving  thii  proportion,  and  mnltiplyiiig  to  BToid 
fractiona,  ire  have 

F    A    C    E    O    B    D 

u  16,  20,  24,  30,  36, 4S,  Di 

We  mart  tnnltiplir  P  and  A  by  2,  and  divide  D  by 

i,  to  bring  Uiem  within  the  compw*  of  an  octave^ 

and  then  we  have 

ODEFOABO 

aa24,27,  30,32,  36,4(^40,48 

^MM  BIS  the  degrees  of  Qu  Diatonlo  Soale,  whidh 

am  indicated  by  Ae  white  keys  of  the  piaaoforte,  n 

In  the  figure  in  the  following  column. 

The  iaterral  CD  ii  oommonly  called  a  aaoond ;  CB, 
athiid;  CF.afonrth;  Ca,aflfth;  CA,aaiith;  and 
CB,  a  seventh ;  CO  betog,  u  already  wen,  an  eighth 
or  octave— namea  correepondiQ^  to  the  poiitioD  o[ 
on  the  key-bo^  or  in  the  diatooio  scale, 
bnt  having  no  ralation  to^the 
numben 


ving  no  ralation  to  Uw  proper  proportion^ 
e  ^ready  giveiL    The  internJa  of  the  third, 


between  trilioh  they  Ue,  afford  more  aatiafaction  to 
tbe  ear  than  the  othen,  or  are,  u  it  is  oalled,  the 
moat  perfectly  consonant  intervals.  Intervals  may 
be  ooonted  from  any  note  as  well  aa  the  tonic  DF 
ia  called  a  third  as  well  as  C^  although  these 
intervals  are  nnequaL  We  may  have  intervals 
beyond  the  ootave ;  they  are,  however,  anbstantially 
bnt  repetitions  of  thoee  below,  CD,  a  ninth,  being 
siso  a  seoond,  and  so  on. 

It  is  often  desirable  in  the  ooorse  of  a  mn 
oompoaition  to  cbangs  the  key-note,  which  involrea 
the  foiniAtion  of  a  matooio  ecus  on  lome  other  note 
than  0,  io  which  ca«e  we  are  said  to  modulate  frota 
one  key  into  another.  As  the  intervals  CD,  DE, 
EF,  Jfco.,  are  by  no  means  all  equal,  the  notes  which 
we  have  already  got  will  not  do  for  a  scale  founded 
on  any  other  tonio  than  C.  The  ratios  of 
intcaraU  in  tbe  diatomo  scale,  esprused  in  nomben 
by  logarithms,  arei 


instraments  £ere  must  be  a  separate  row  of  keys 
for  each  tonic,  but  praotioally  this  i*  found  not  to 
be  necessary,  U  D  instead  of  C  be  taken  as  key- 
note, E,  G,  and  A  are  sonie  approach  to  the  oorr^ 
second,  fonrtb,  and  fifth,  but  F  and  0  are  greatly 
too  low  in  pitch  for  a  proper  third  and  sevsnth. 
With  some  notes  taken  as  key-note,  the  oorrespond- 
•noe  is  greater,  with  others  it  is  leas.  The  difficulty 
a   system  of   oompromiaca  oalled 


temperament  (q.  ▼.).    Bo 

a  the  diatonic  scale  an  alternation  of  two  long 

ntervals,  a  short  interval,  three  long  intervals  and 


Wera   the  tones   all  eqoal,  and  the 

exactly   half  a  tone,  a  note   interposed 

in  the  middle  of  each  tone,  dividing  the  seven 
intervals  into  twelve^  woold  make  it  immaterial 
where  the  scale  began.  A  system  fonnded  on  this 
anppaeition  is  the  remedy  aotnally  adopted  in  most 
keyed  instraments,  and  the  iDocourac;  produced  by 
this  oompromise  is  not  sufficiently  great  to  offend 


the  ear.  The  interposed  notes,  indicated  by  the 
block  keys  of  the  inanoforte  (see  fig.),  complete  what 
is  called  the  ohromatio  scale,  conauting  of  twelve 
intervals  approximately  eqnaL 

The  notes  of  musia  ara  represented  in  ordinary 
notatioa  on  a  series  of  five  paiallel  lines,  called  the 
BtaS.  On  these  lines,  and  in  the  four  spaces  between 
thsm,  marks  are  placed  Indioatiiig  the  notes,  which 
ara  oonnted  npwords,  beginning  with  the  lowest 
line.  Every  line  or  space  is  ulled  '  ~~  " 
staCF  oonnating  of  nine  i 


When  more  than  nine  notes  are  required,  the  spaces 
below  and  above  the  staff  are  used,  and  the  scale  is 
extended  by  means  of  short  added  lines,  called  leger 
lines.  The  pitch  of  the  notes  on  the  scale  is  deter- 
mined by  a  figore  called  a  clef  [davit,  a  key),  placed 
at  the  MffinninB  of  the  staff  on  a  particulac  note, 
bi)m  whiw  all  the  others  are  counted.  The  clefs 
most  in  use  are  the  bass,  tenor,  and  treble  defs, 
represented  on  the  notes  F,  C,  snd  G  reapeotdvelj 
(see  Cle? ).  The  treble  and  bass  clefs  only  are  us^ 
in  music  for  keyed  instruments,  and  when  a  staff  is 
required  for  each  band,  they  aie  joined  tegether  by 
a  brace,  the  upper  staff  for  uie  right  hand,  uie  lower 
for  the  left.  The  ascending  scale  in  these  clefs  is  sa 
follows : 

CDEVGABOSEFOABC 


»»bl.. 

_  ^ja.S 

S'  _ 

^  -s^  " 

"•         " '                                 II 

DBF 


tABODEFOABO 


TiuMt  notes 

the  pianoforte  or  the  diatonic  scale  when  C  ia 
key-note,  no  allowance  being  made  for  the  black 
keys,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  divide  the  tenes  into 
semitone*,  ^oae  semitones  which  do  not  occur 
with  0  as  key-note  ara  represented  by  the  aigna  | 
(shar^  and  t  (flat).    The  sign  |,  prefixed  to  a  note, 


in  the  scale,  raising,  for 
azample,  F  to  F  sharp,  P  lowera  the  note  by  a 
semitone,  depressing  B  to  B  flak  When  a  note 
which  has  been  elevated  by  a  shup,  or  depesaed  by 
a  flat,  is  to  be  reatorad  to  ita  original  place,  the 
ohatacter  h  (natnnl)  ia  pr^xed  to  it. 
The  names  of  the  intervals   correspond  to  the 


,,  Google 


degrees  of  the  staff,  but  it  hat  been  Men  tiiat 
interrali  of  the  soma  name  are  not  neoesMrily 
equ&L  If  the  sign  of  a  flat  or  u  sharp  be  prefixed  to 
either  note  of  an  interval,  it  still  preserves  its  name 
of  s  third,  a  fifth,  to. ;  but  to  distinjguish  intervals 
of  the  same  dejjree,  the  qualifying  epithets  of  major 
and  minor,  augmented  and  diminuhed,  are  used. 


The  difierent  keys  in  mosio  are  beat  nndentood 
b^  rerertins  to  the  scale  of  triad*,  on  which  tlie 
diatonic  spale  is  founded.  Tokins  a  series  of  triadi^ 
of  which  the  dominant  of  each  is  the  key-note  of  the 
next,  we  obtain  the  following  scale,  extended  both 
upwards  and  dawnwaida  from  0 : 


C^El>QbBtDbF   AMBhOBllDP   AO   BeBD^A<|Ba|BD$^A|Q|B|Q| 


Each  triad  is  composed  of  Ute  key-note,  its  mediant, 
and  dominant,  and  Uke  scale  of  each  key  is  composed 
of  the  triad  of  the  kev-oote,  with  the  triad  imme- 
diately preceding  and  that  immediately  foUowing  it. 


the  soale),  each  key  aoqnirea  an  additional  sharp  till 
we  reach  the  key  of  F|  with  six  sharps.  These  are 
the  sharp  keys.  If,  b^inning  again  with  the  key  of 
C,  we  go  back  instead  of  forward  in  the  scale  of 
triads,  we  obtain  the  flat  ke^;  each  key  has  an 
additional  flat  to  that  above  it,  till  we  come  down 
to  the  k^  ol  Gb  with  six  flats.  This  key  in  instm- 
ments  with  temperament  is  exactly  the  same  with 


that  of  FJt  and  on  this  accoimt  It  is  not  generally 
fonnd  oonvenient  to  extend  the  keys  beyond  nx,  or 
at  most  seven,  shai^  or  flats.  O^  with  eeren  sharps 
is  the  same  as  DP  with  five  flats,  and  Cv  with 
seven  flats  is  the  same  as  B  with  five  sbarpg.  In 
music  written  in  these  keys,  double  BbarpB  and 
double  fiats  occur,  which  are  indicated  by  tite 
characters  x  and  bb  respectively.  In  writing  musio 
in  any  key  with  sharps  or  Bata,  it  is  nsnal,  instead 
of  prefixing  tiie  sharp  or  Sat  to  each  note  when 
required,  to  place  the  sharps  and  fiats  belonging 
to  the  key  tooether  after  the  olef,  on  the  degree  to 
which  they  bdong,  and  such  collections  of  shupa  ~~ 
flats  are  c^ed  the   ' 


A  sharp  or  flat  introduced  in  a  oomponldou  which 
does  not  appear  in  the  signature,  is  prefixed  to  the 
note,  and  called  an  acddentaL 

'Hie  diatonic  scale  and  keys  above  described 
belong  to  what  is  called  the  major  mode ;  there  is 
also  another  mode  in  use  called  the  minor  mode. 
In  the  minor,  as  in  the  major  mode,  the  diatonio 
scale  and  the  key*  are  based  on  the  scale  of  triad*. 
Eaoh  of  tiie  triads  already  oonsidered  consists  of 
two  nneqnal  intervals,  ealled  a  major  third  and 
minm  third.  Supposin{[  we  bWK  "wiOi  the  minor 
instead  of  the  major  tiurd,  we  nave  a  succession  of 
chords  taking  thcor  minu'  third  Irom  one  triad  and 
their  major  third  from  another.  These  oompound 
chords  are  called  minor  triad*.  Their  proportion 
is  as  10,  12,  IS,  and  out  of  tiuee  meh  eonaeentive 
minor  triads  ihe  scale  of  the  minor  mode  is  con- 


t)   P    A.     0     i     a     6 
80,  96, 120,  IH  ISO,  216,  270 

Unltiplying  D  and  F  by  2,  and  dividing  B  by  2. 

to  loing  the  whole  within  the  compass  of  an  octave. 


120, 135,  144,  160,  180,  192,  216,  240. 
The  scale  hen  represented  is  what  is  known  as 
the  descending  soale  of  the  minor  mode._  When 
the  seventh  of  the  scale  ascends  to  the  eighth,  it 
becomes  sharp,  as  the  proper  lettding  note  or  sbaip 
sevenUi  to  the  tonic  Tliis  sharp  is,  however, 
always  omitted  from  the  signature,  and  placed 
aocidentany  before  the  seventh  which  it  i*  to 
elevate.  In  order  to  avoid  the  harsh  interval  of 
tiie  aogmcoited  aecond  (from  F  to  Oj^,  it  is  usual 


»Goog[i 


tlu  BBCendiog  (oJa  to  make  the  nxUi  ■h«rp  ■I0O,  I  Raoending  or  aooidentsl  wkle  of  the  minor  mode  luf 
in  order  to  MCOtiimod»t«  the  wreuth ;   thu  ths  I  two  notes  alteiod.  from  the  lignfttiire. 


Ekch  minor  aula  is  oiUedthsrektiTeiDiuor  to  the 

major  ecale  on  its  riglit  huid  in  the  acale  of  tiiAda, 

iritu  wbioh  it  has  uie  same  ■ignatme :   thai  the 

lelatira  aaaot  •cale  to  C  major  ia  that  of  A  minor. 

C  major  F  A  C  E  <j  B  IJ 

A  minor       D  F  A  C  £  O  6 


■Gftle  is  also  called  tim  tonio 
the  major  scale  on  the  same  I 
dlKn  m  flattenine  the  third 

dcocending  scale  uao  the  th   ..  

and  dominant.    The  tonic  minor  scale  to  C 


LBT-note,  from  whi^  tt 
IS  the  third  of  its  tonic,  and  in 
^ao  the  third  of  its 


«ach  tonio  minor  ww  three  flats  i 


In  this  last  example,  F^  B];,  and  E|}  are  aU 
considered  sharps  in  contrast  with  F||,  Sb,  and  & 
of  the  minor  scale. 

Bhyt^ In  mosical  notation,  the  relative  dan- 

tion  of  notes  is  indicated  by  their  form.  Notes 
amj  be  open  or  close ;  the j  may  consist  of  a  head 
only,  or  of  a  head  and  stem.  Where  there  is  a 
stem,  it  may  be  turned  up  or  down,  according  to 
conTenience.  The  semibreve,  the  longest  note  in 
ordinary  muuc,  is  open,  and  con^sti  of  a  head 
ooly  (o).  The  minim  is  an  open  note  with  a  stem, 
half  the  length  of  a  semibreTe  n ;  the  crotchet  is  a 
close  note  with  a  stem,  half  the  length  of  a  minim 
r ;  the  qoaTer  is  a  eloee  note  with  a  stem  and  hook, 
half  the  length  of  a  cmtbhet  L ;  a  quaver  is  furUier 
divided  into  two  eemiqiwTeia  with  two  hooks  6; 
four  demi^emiqnavers  with  three  hooks  k  ;    and 


dght  Bemi-demi-semiqnavara  with  foor  hooks  g 


In 


e^mTsknt  in  time  to  two  minims,  four  orotcheta, 
eigbi  qoaven,  sixteen  semiquavetiL  thirty- two  demi- 
semiquavers,  and  sixty-four  aemi-demi-semiquaveiB. 
The  notes   formed  with  hooks  may  be   grouped 


note  r  '  it  is  lengthened  by  ono-half ;  when  two 

dots,  n  '  '  it  is  lengthened  by  three-fourths. 

Every  piece  at  mnsio  is  divided  into  portion! 
equal  in  tim<^  called  measures,  which  ai« 
separated  from  eaoh  other  by  vertiml  lines  called 
bus.      The   term   bu   is   often   looady  nsed   to 


time,  indicated  by  (Jib  sign      <  )      each  meamre 
includes  a  straibrere,  w  its  equivalent  nude  up  ia 

H.illl.i.CoOijIc 


All  other  meaBniea  of  tima  have  for  Quar  iiguataret 
two  Sgures  placed  ai  a  fnctioii,  one  over  the  other. 


The  figures  of  tiie  denoiuuiator  are  either  2,  4,  8, 
16,  which  Btand  for  minima,  crotchets,  qaavras,  and 
■emiqoavers  reapectively  (L  e.,  halves,  tomths,  kc 
at  a  semibreve).;  the  numerator  indicates  the 
Bnmber  of  these  fractional  Tuuta  of  a  semibrere 
contained  in  each  measure.  There  is  another  fonn 
tt  eoDiinoD  time  besides  that  already  noticed,  which 
b  called  half-time,  has  a  minim  or  two  oi«tchets  in 


^rrir'gfK^nrr  rff^Tt^ 


When  two  or  lour  measnrea  of  triple  time  or 
nnitad  in  one  measure,  the  morement  is  taid  to  be  ii 
oomponnd    oommon   timo.      Its  osual    forma   ar 


indicated  by  the  signatures 


Componiid  triple  time  oeonn  where  there  are  nine 
notes  in  a  measure,  either  crotchets,  quavers,  or 
■emiqnaTen,  grouped  in  threes.     Its  signatures  are 


_ .  note  being  divided  into  three,  ._   . . . 

..   seven,  instead  of  two  parts,  which  are  grouped 
together,  iometimes  with  tiie  figure  3,  S,  *      ' 


'  3>     '  '3^^^^^!^^^ 


'  ^E  consists  of  two  abung  vertical 


The  double  bar : 

lines,  placed  at  the  end  of  a  musiesl  oompooi- 
tion,  and  also  at  other  parts  (not  necesaorilj 
coincident  with  the  end  of  a  measnre}  where  a 
■train  or  rhetorical  division  of  a  movemetit  ter- 
minate*. When  dotted  on  one  dde,  all  the 
measures  on  the  nde  with  the  dots  are  to  be 
repeated  from  the  b^inniug,  or  bom  the  antecedent 
double  bar. 

A  tie  is  an  arch  plaoed  between  two  ootee  on  the 
•ame  degree,  to  indicate  that  instead  of  the  two 
notes  writt^  one  note  ie  to  be  played  of  the 
length  of  both.  When  the  last  note  of  one 
measure  is  thus  conoeoted  with  the  first  of  the 
next  measure,  the    foimer^  though  naturally  the 


uoaccented  note,  aoqoires  the  ei 


The  object  of  the  division  of  musical  paasajFea 
into  measures  is  to  indicate  their  rhythni,  a  quality 
formiag  an  essential  element  in  the  pleafiare  derived 
from  malic  Notes  of  mnsic,  like  words  or  mllablea, 
ore  accented  or  unoocented.  The  priacipal  accent 
is  given  to  the  first  note  of  a  measure.  Of  the  four 
measure  notes  in  common  time,  the  Uiird  has  also  a 
subordinate  accent^  a«  has  the  third  meascre  note  in 
triple  time.  There  ore  occasions  when  a  strong 
accent,  or  emphasis  as  it  is  called,  is  laid  ou  the 
part  of  the  measure  which  is  usually  imaccented ; 
this  the  composer  indicates  by  the  Italian  terms 
rin^tontlo,  {/braito,  abbreviated  rinf.,  tf. 

When  in  the  course  of  a  movement  silence  i> 
required  for  a  time,  this  is  indicated  by  a  rest  or 
rests  corresponding  to  that  time ;  the  btev^  semi> 
breve,  minim,  &c.,  have  eadi  their  respective  rests, 
which  are  represented  aa  follows : — 


merely  indicate!  tliat  Qiey  are  to  be  played  smoothly 


When  notes  are  to  be  played  short,  distinct,  and 
detached  [tlaceato),  a  dot  is  placed  over  them.  A 
dash  implies  a  greater,  and  the  union  of  dot  and 
alur  a  less  degree  of  staccato  — 


gi  r  ^~^ "  r '  r-Hff  r  r  r  II 


Qte  sound  made  on  that  part  of  the  measure. 

The  various  degrees  of  softness  and  loadnen 
which  occur  in  a  piece  of  music  are  indicated  by  the 
letter  /  for  /orie,  loud ;  J)  for  piano,  soft,  also  fp 
lidjiiMtnto,  very  soft ;  rr^  for  mezio  forte,  rather 

ffor  Jortiuimo,  very  loud.    A  gradual 
loudness    is    denoted   by    the   word 
~is  aisn  ■< ;  uid  ■  dinunotion  from 
ij   the   void   dtmimundo,  or   the 
s>.     Many  other  espresmons   are 
used  in  tlie  body  of  written  mnsio,  indicating^ 


for  piffi 


loud   to    soft   I 


okksaM,  and  the  obaraoter  of  eiecntion. 
[mpoTtent  of  them  are  cocpluncd  under 
tiolBB — sa  are  the  varioiu  miuical  grace* 
lunenta  known  aader  the  name*  of  the 
AppogiBtnra,  Beat,  Shake,  and  Tiim.  Among 
abbreviationa  in  freqnent  use  are  a  line  drawn  < 
or  nnder  *  •emibreva,  or  through  the  atem  i 
minim  or  crotchety  to  divide  it  into  qnaven .  . . 
«  double  line,  to  divide  it  into  lemiqaaTeta.  Two 
minima  ma^  be  connected  to  indicate  their  rapeti- 
tion  aa  quavera.    Thno — 


JTarmonj/. — We  hava  mentdoned  that  when 
ctring  it  atrock,  ita  harmonica  are  mora  or  le 
diatimctly  heard  bIobe  with  it  Tbii  ariaea  from 
the  atring  qtontaneoudy  dividing  itaelf  into  aliquot 
parte— a«  eoe-half,  one-third,  ooe-fourth,  oae-"^"' 
one-aixth,  coe-aeventh,  ko.,  of  the  atring. 
anmben  %  3,  4,  B,  d,  ^,  eipreaaing  the  relative 
number  ol  vilnxtioui  in  a  ^veo  time,  are  a  meaaure 
Dt  the  piteh  of  the  note^  ud  placed  proportioaall; 
to  one  another,  or  in  the  form  of  a  fraction,  they  are 
■  DieaanM  of  the  interval  The  prime  nmnbeta 
2,  3, 6,  and  7,  and  their  componnd^  conatitnte  Uie 
haimoDica  of  a  mnaicBl  aonnd ;  no  diviaion  by  a 
higher  prime  nnmber  ia  tolerable  to  the  ear  along 
mth  the  fundamental  note,  and  no  aonnd  correa- 
pondin^  to  inch  diviaion  ia  aodible  in  tin  vibrations 
of  a  itrmg — 


I    8  Tone  maximm 
:    0  Tone  majoi, 
;  10  Tone  minor. 


1  :  2  Octave. 

2:3  Fifth. 

»  i4  Fonrth. 

4  :  0  Major  third. 

&  i  6  Minor  thinL 

Other  intervala  more  or  

found  in  the  harmonio  scale,  of  whiclk  the  most 
important  il  4  :  ?,  the  srave  aeventh.  From  thia 
acale  ia  derived  the  tiiacC  which  we  have  seen  to  be 
the  fonndatiou  of  the  diatonic  acale^  and  alao  the 
whole  theoij  of  chorda. 

The  first  five  notea  ot  the  harmonic  aeale  are  Ae 
oompoDOit  parti  <i  the  major  common  chord,  hy 
bx  the  moat  consonant  chord  that  can  be  prodoced 
by  five  notca.  Negkctins  octaves,  ita  eMential 
notM  are  the  major  triad,  0  E  G,  or  4,  S,  6,  which, 
aa  already  aeen.  crauiate  of  a  fifth  divided  harmoni- 
cally into  major  third  and  minor  third.  Ilio  root 
on  which  a  oAard  ia  form^  or  tiie  note  by  whoae 


the  nmdameatal  bass  of  the  triad  0  E  O  is  C.  The 
common  chord  ia  the  triad  with  tiie  addition  of  the 
cctave  of  the  root ;  ita  proportions  are  4^  0,  0,  8. 


the  key-note — vix,  thoaa  of  t  . 
mbdominaat  and  dfflninaat,  whioh  have  the  anb- 
dominant  and  dominant  oE  the  key-note  rmeotively 
for  their  fundamental  bassea  j  and  the  feelioj^  a 
aatiafaction  produced  by  the  diatonic  acale  ar*™ 


Thia  fundamental  baae   ii 


^leidativejMBitumof  the  noteaof  •  chord,  and 
oonaeqnently  ita  intervala,  may  be  altmed  by 
raising  one  or  mora  of  them  an  octave ;  and,  on  the 
whole,  the  nearer  the  intervals  appnicli  to  their 
podtion  in  the  harmonio  scale,  the  pnrer  is  the 
harmony.  Close,  in  contradistinotion  to  dispersed 
harmony,  is  when  the  notes  of  a  chord  are  so 
near  that  no  oomponent  note  could  be  plaoed 
between  them.  Wnen  the  fondamental  baaa  of  a 
chord  ceaaea  to  be  its  lowest  note,  the  chord  is  said 


to  be  inverted.    Hlqs  t 

am   invendona   of   Hie   oomman   oboid,   but   not 

Ttl'      M  —  where  -Qia  fundamental  ban  ii  atiO 


the  lowest  note. 

The  minor  triad  ia,  aa  we  have  Been,  a  compound 
chord,  whose  ratio  is  SO,  24,  30,  taking  ita  minor 
third  from  Uie  triad  below,  and  ita  major  third 
from  the  triad  above.  Ita  fundamental  baaa 
is  the  key-note.  The  minor  mode  has,  like  the 
major,  three  triads  in  eadi  key — those  of  the  tonic, 
subdominiuit,  and  dominant ;  and  the  minor  com- 
mon chord  admits  of  the  some  inversious  as  the 
major,  by  making  the  third  or  fifth  the  lowest  n 

The  firat  seven  nol^a  of  (he  harmonic  scale  con- 
tain the  cbori  next  in  consoaance  to  the  com 
chord,  the  chord  of  the  seventh  or  dominant 
harmony.  BeiectinE  octaves,  it  ia  the  barmooio 
triad  with  the  addition  of  the  grave  seventh, 
4, 0, 6, 7, 0  E  Q  Bh,  or  a  B  D  F,  and  admite  ot  Ores 
inversions,  according  aa  the  third,  fifth,  or  aeventh 
is  taken  inttaad  of  the  root  aa  the  lowest  notst 
Thia  chord  bdonn  to  the  key  <4  which  its  funda- 
mental note  is  the  dominant;  and  in  ccder  to 
satisfy  the  ear,  it  requires  to  be  followed  by  a 
resolution  into  the  common  chord  of  the  k«y,  ( 


The  dominant  aeventh  note  ia  flatter  by  an  inter- 
val of  63,  64  than  the  lubdconinant  of  the  key, 
though  the  two  ate  not  dialangmahaUa  oa  keyed 
inatrtunenta.  The  <^ord  of  the  dominant  aeventh 
is  the  same  in  the  tonio  minor  aa  in  the  major 
mode,  but  diffen  in  ita  lescdntioa,  in  rmaet 
that  it  descends  a  tMia  instead    et   a   smumbs 


afford!  niinierona  meaiu  of  modiilatiiiK  from  one 
kef  to  Miother.  Fot  «auunple,  the  adaition  of  * 
dominaQt  MrenUi  to  the  common  dioid  of  •  ' 
effects  »  modolktion  into  tlia   k^  of  the 


ing  into  the  kejr  of  the  domiDaat,  tiia  (Dpertonic 
bean  the  dominant  h&rmony,  and  becomee  domi- 


monv  (ita  root  genendly  Muitted) 
le  Euijaeent  triad  above.  2, 8,  and  ^ 
IB  of  the  added  lixth,  or  chord  ot 


1,  the  chord  of   ttte   added   Dtnlh, 
the  dominant  harmonj 
with  the  fifth  of   " 

the  different  fOTma ._ 

the  subdominanb  2  ii  the  triad  of  the  mibdomi- 
nant,  with  the  third  of  the  adjaoant  triad  below,  or 
rather  it>  octave  ;  3  is  the  triad  of  the  sabdominant, 
minor  mode,  with  the  third  of  the  adjaoant  triad 
below ;  and  4,  the  came  triad  with  the  third  of  the 
tonic  major  to  the  adjacent  triad  below.  6,  the 
diminiafasd  levenlli,  a  CMDpouiid  of  the  oharuter- 
iatio  notes  (B  FJ  of  tiie  dimiinaat  hannony  td  tiw 
major  mode  with  those  (Ojt  D)  of  the  relative 
miaor.  0,  7,  and  8,  the  aagmented  sixths,  all  domi- 
nant harmonies,  reeolving  into  the  major  tonic 
6,  called  the  Italian  mxOi  (F  A  DJ^,  is  a  oompoond 
of  the  charaoteristio  notes  (A  D|)  of  the  dominant 
harmony  of  the  minor  mode  (B  Dj^  F  A)  inverted, 
with  the  dominant  MTenth  note  (F)  of  the  major 
biad  {C  E  O]  below  for  a  bass ;  7.  the  French  aixth 
(FAB  D|),  the  same  as  the  la«t,  with  the  addition 
of  the  octave  to  the  fundamental  baia;  8,  the 
German  aizth  (F  A  0  D|),  comp<Hinded  of  the 
eharacteristic  notes  of  the  domioant  harmony  of  the 
minnr  mode  inverted,  with  the  dominant  aevenths 
of  the  major  triads  below  and  above. 

All  classical  harmonio  can  be  reduced  to  tlie 
chords  enamerated,  varied  by  inveieions,  omissions, 
■uepensionB,  and  pedal  basses.  A  pedal  bass  or 
organ-point  is  a  bass  note  sustained  throngh  a 
proEresaion  of  chorda,  to  only  the  first  and  1^  Of 
which  it  is  the  pro[ier  basa.  The  pedal  bass  of  the 
tonic  is  often  used  with  the  chord  of  the  dominant 
seventh,  the  added  ninth,  oad  the  diminished 
seventh,  and  occaaionaUy  with  other  ohordi ;  some- 
times the  pedal  harmomes  are  takm  on  Ihe  domi- 
nant instead  of  the  tonic,  and  the  holding  note 
Bometimes  ocoupiea  an  npper  part  instead  of  the 


toation.    When 

aame  key,  it  is  said  to  move  by  nro{ 
used  in  contradiatiDctiaD  to  modula 
key  is  chan^id.  Progresdim  in  Dmsio  of  two  partii 
is  of  three  kmds — obCqim,  when  one  part  repeata  or 
holds  on  the  same  note,  while  the  oth^  moves  np 
and  down  ;  direct,  where  both  parts  move  in  the 
way ;  and  coatiarf,  where  one  moves  np,  and 


keys.  Hers  are  certain  <iiorda  wbicb  require  _ 
special  resolution — Le.,  thm  must  be  followed  by 
certain  other  chtvds ;  and  there  at«  certain  progr«s- 
which,  from  harshnew,  are  in  ordinuy  cases 
to  be  avoided,  mors  particularly  ooueeoative  fifths, 
and  oonsaouidve  ootavee,  the  ]aitet^,  however,  being 


admissible  when  need  merely  to  strengthen  a  part 
UodulatLon  is  generally  effected  by  intxodQcuia; 
the  chords  oomnum  to  both  keys,  and  the  sewM 


of  good  modolatitm  consists  in  the  slcilfnl  cboioe 
of  mtermediate  chorda.  Every  regular  piece  of 
mnsio  is  composed  in  a  particular  key,  in  which  it 
begins  and  ends,  and  which  predominates  over  all 
the  oilier  keys  into  which  it  has  modulated.  The 
keys  into  wbidi  a  key  moat  readily  ■""^"l"*", 
are  those  most  nearly  related  to  it — via.,  the 
dominant,  the  subdommant,  and  the  relative  sad 
tonic  major  or  minor.  We  have  seen  how  modula- 
tion may  take  place  by  introdncine  the  dominant 
barmooy  of  the  new  key  or  one  of  its  inversions, 
and  in  this  way  the  entire  bannonic  circle  of  the 
keys  can  be  mode,  either  by  ascending  or  desoending 
fifths  ;  but  in  order  to  effeot  this  change,  it  will  be 
neoeasory,  on  reaching  the  key  of  Cjt  with  aevrai 
sharps,  to  substitute,  by  what  is  called  an  Enhar- 
monic (q.  v.)  change,  D^  with  five  flats,  or  tnos  owsd, 
-which  on  instruments  with  temperament  prodnces 
no  real  change  on  tke  pitch,  but  merely  on  the 
of  the  notes. 

'nie  arrangemeot  of  chords  which  the  ear  natu- 
rally expects  at  the  close  of  a  sb-un  is  called  a 
cadence ;  it  oorreeponds  in  music  to  the  period 
which  doses  a  senteoce  in  diBcoorse.  It  is^erfeot 
vi-hen  the  harmony  of  the  dimiinaat  preoedes  the 
harmony  of  the  key-note,  and  imperfect  irtien  the 
hormOD^  of  the  key-note  precedes  that  of  the  domi- 
nant witiiont  its  seventh. 

Thn  imperfect  cadenoe  is  the  moat  usual  ttrmi- 
a  musical  phrase,  or  short  luooesBioB  of 
contoicinK  no  perfect  musical  idea.  A 
portion  of  melotly  formed  of  two  regular  [diiMes, 
and  containing  a  perfect  mumcal  idea,  is  called  a 
sectioa,  and  its  regular  termination  is  the  perfect 
cadence. 


UUSIO-UCSE. 


Hoaio  u  pioduoed  hy  th«  Ikumftn  voice,  and  bjr  • 

vuiety  of  ortificikl  instnimeiitB.  For  the  apptica- 
tion  of  the  Toioe  to  mmical  puipoaeB,  lea  SiHanro. 
Mnw'i^l  inttnuneutft  &r6  clavili^ii  fta  itnnged  inatm- 
menti,  wind  inatromente,  and  inatramentB  of  per- 
oOBion.  In  lome  stringed  uutriimeuta,  si  the 
pianoforte,  the  aounds  are  produced  b^  striking  {he 
•tringi  by  keys ;  in  otheig,  oa  tbo  harp  and  guitar, 
t^drawiiiDiaemfromtheposition  of  rest.  Inathird 
Cum,  inoutding  the  vioaa,  viola,  violoncello,  and 
donUe  bMt,  the  Btringi  ate  put  into  vibration  with 
k  bow.  In  wind  iiutrnmeata,  the  sound  i»  produced 
by  the  ftgitation  of  an  enoloaed  coliuon  of  air ;  some, 
at  the  flate,  clarionet,  oboe,  baaaoon,  flageolet — 
iUttmmenta  of  wood,  and  the  tmmpet,  horn,  comet- 
Ac.,  of  metal,  are  played  by  Uie  breath  ;  in 


athera,  as  the  oiig^,  harmoninin,  and  concertina, 
the  wind  Ji  prodnoad  by  other  means.  In  the  two 
la«b-named  tnatrumenU,  the  sonnd  is  pn>diiced  by 
the  action  of  wind  on  frae  vibrating  spnngH  or  reeds. 
Instruments  of  percnsuon  am  such  as  the  dram, 
kettle-drum,  cymbala,  fto.  The  chief  pecnliaiitiei  of 
the  more  important  mnrical  inalnunenbi  ok  noticed 
in  nKtcial  articles. 

Musical  oompositionB  are  uther  for  the  voice, 
with  or  without  instrumental  aocompanintent,  or  for 
instruments  only.  Of  vocal  muiio,  tiie  principal 
forms  may  be  claued  aa  obnrch  music,  ohamber 
moiic,  dnmatio  tnuaio,  and  popular  or  national 
mnaia  The  fint  includes  plain  song,  fani-bounion, 
the  ohoiale,  the  anthem,  the  sacred  cantata,  the 
mau  and  requiem  of  the  Soman  Catholio  Chorch, 
and  the  oratorio.  Vocal  chamber  musio  includes 
eantataa,  madri^gals,  and  their  modem  successors, 
glees,  M  also  recitatives,  ariae,  daebs,  trios,  quartetta, 
choroses,  and  generally  all  forms,  accompanied  or 
wnaooompMuettr  vhich  are  chiefly  intended  for  small 
oielei.  Dramatio  mnsio  comprehends  music  united 
with  loemc  representation  in  a  variety;  of  ways,  in 
the  ballet,  the  melodrama,  the  vaudeville,  and  the 
opera,  in  which  last,  music  supplies  the  place  of 
spoken  dialogue.  Instmmental  music  may  oe  com- 
poaed  for  one  or  tor  more  instrument*.  The  rondo, 
the  concerto,  the  sonata,  and  the  fantasia  gen^»lJy 
belong  to  the  former  cLibb  ;  to  the  latter,  sympho- 
niea  and  overtnrea  for  an  orcbesb«,  aod  insta^- 
mental  chamber  mnaic,  including  duete,  trios,  qoar- 
tetts,  and  other  compoeitioo*  for  several  instromenta, 
where  each  take*  the  lead  in  torn,  the  other  parts 
being  aooonpanimenta.  Th««e  and  other  forms  of 
oomposition  will  be  tonnd  noticed  separately. 

HUtory  ^Munc — A  certain  sort  of  music  Beams 
to  hvra  oxisled  in  all  countries  and  at  all  times. 
Even  instrumental  music  ia  of  a  very  early  date : 
repnMotations  of  musical  initniment«  occur  on  the 
Egyptian  obelisks  and  tomb*.  The  miuic  of  the 
neMews  ia  mppoeed  to  have  had  a  delined  rhythm 
and  melody.  The  Greeks  numbered  music  among 
the  sciences,  and  studied  the  mathematical  propor- 
tioni  of  sounds.    Their  musio,  however,  wo*   out 


_  . — , —  . — .  a  mere  ooceaaoiy. 

The  Bomans  borrowed  their  musio  from  the  Etnu- 
eans  and  Greeks,  and  had  both  stringed  instm- 
menta  and  wind  instruments. 
The  muaic  of  modem  Europe  ia  a  new  art,  vrith 


'riuch  nothing  analogoos  aeema  to  have  existed 
among  the  nations  of  antiqniW.  The  early  music  of 
the  Christian  Church  was  probal^  in  part  of  Greek, 
and  in  part  of  Hebrew  ongin.  The  cnorale  wat  at 
first  sung  in  octaves  and  unisons.  8t  Ambrose  and 
Gregory  the  Great  directed  their  attention  to  its 
improvement,  and  under  them  some  sort  of  harmony 
or  counterpoint  seems  to  have  found  ito  way  into 
the  service  of  the  church.  Farther  advances  were 
made  by  Ouido  of  Arezzo,  to  whom  notation  b^ 
lines  and  spaces  is  due,  but  the  ecclesiasticsl  musio 
had  still  on  uncertain  tonahtv  and  an  uncertain 
rhythm.  Fmnoo  of  Cologne,  m  the  13th  c,  first 
indicated  the  duration  of  notes  by  diversity  of  form. 
The  invention  of  the  organ,  and  its  use  in  accom- 
paoying  the  chorale,  had  a  large  share  in  the  devel- 
opment of  harmony.  Along  with  the  musio  of  the 
church,  and  independently  of  it,  a  secular  musio 
was  making  gradual  advance^  guided  more  by  the 
oar  than  by  soienoo  ;  it  seems  to  have  had  a  more 
decided  rbythm,  though  not  indicated  aa  yet  by 
bara.  The  ura  which  have  become  national  in 
different  countriea  were  developments  of  it,  but  it 
had  its  chief  seat  in  Belgic  Gaul ;  and  the  reconci- 
liation of  mnaical  science  with  musical  art  begun 
in  Flandera  by  Josquin  Deprte  in  the  I5th  c,  waa 
completed  in  the  17th  a  by  Palestrina  and  his 
aebool  at  Rome,  and  reacted  evenUially  on  the 
style.      The  opera,   which  appeared 


revival  of  letters,  g 


enlarged  the  domain  of 


prominent  idace.  Corelli'a  compoaitioas  exalted 
the  violin.  Lulli  and  Bomean,  with  their  ballet- 
like music,  seized  the  characteristics  of  French  tae,i^ 
till  the  German  Gluok  drove  them  out  of  the  field. 
The  scientific  and  majestic  fugue  reached  its  highest 
perfection  ander  J.  3.  Bach.  The  changes  intro- 
duced in  ecclesiastical  muiuc  in  England  at  the 
Restoration  gave  birth  to  the  school  of  Puree]] ; 
and  a  little  later,  England  adopted  the  Gatrmaii 
Handel,  who  was  the  precursor  of  Haydn,  Mozart, 
Beethoven,  Spohr,  and  Mendelssohn.  Tlie  principal 
fact  in  recent  tnusical  history  is  the  movement  with 
whicb  the  name  of  'Wagner  is  connected,  having  for 
ita  aim  the  production  and  perfection  of  a  true 
musical  drama,  in  which,  unlike  the  opera,  the 
words  and  musio  shall  be  of  equal  importance. 

See  Pg)usch's  TrealUc  on  Harmony,  Calcott's 
Miuical  Qramvua;  Hawkins'  and  Bumey's  History 
qf  ifutie,  Man's  Allgemeine  Schiil«  der  Mvmi, 
"rown's  Elanenl*  of  SiuiaU  Science,  and  Grove's 

eat  Dieitonary  of  Music  and  Miuidaiu. 

MUSK,  or  MUSE  DEER  (Mosdut  mooAatu*), 
a  ruminant  quadruped,  the  ima  of  the  family  jlfoa- 
chidtE.  This  family  dilfers  from  CervidcB  (Doer)  in 
the  want  of  horns,  and  in  the  long  canines  of  the 
males,  projecting  beyond  the  lips.  The  M.  ia  an 
inhabitant  of  the  elevated  mountunous  rcgiona  and 
table-Unds  of  Central  Aaia.  The  habits  of  the  M. 
very  dmilar  to  those  of  the  Chamois.  Its 
favourite  haunts  are  the  topa  of  pine-covered  moun- 
tains, but  ita  summer  range  extends  far  above  the 
region  of  pines.  Its  habits  are  nocturnal  and  aoU- 
tmj,  and  it  is  extremely  timid.    It  is  much  pnimad 


HDSE  DnOE-^HnSE  OX. 


hy  hunten  cut  account  of  ita  odoriferoni  Moretioti, 
wtiicli  hsa  been  known  in  Eorope  since  the 
8th  a,  snd  ia  mncli  valued  ai  a  perfume.  This 
•ecretioii,  tmuk,  is  produced  in  a  glandular  pouch 
aitaated  in  the  hinder  port  of  the  abdomen  of  the 
OMleti  and  its  natural  oie  teems  to  be  th&t  of 
increasing  Hxnal  attractiyeness.  The  mu»k-b«g  is 
formed  by  an  infolding  of  a  portion  of  the  tkia  of 
the  belly,  within  whioh  a  number  of  membranes  are 
oontained,  and  between  these  membranea  are  glands 
by  whi^ji  the  musk  is  secreted.  When  newly  taken 
£nim  the  animal,  musk  is  soft  and  olmott  resembles 
an  ointment ;  it  is  reddiih-brown,  and  has  an  eices- 
BiTely  powerful  odour.  Very  little  of  it  reaches 
Europe  unadulterated. — Musk  ia  usually  imported 
either  in  the  fonn  of  grain-vituk,  that  is,  the 
musk  which  has  been  collected  chiefly  from  stones 
upon  which  it  has  been  deposited  by  the  animal, 
in  which  state  it  ia  a  coana  powder  of  a  dork- 
brown  colour ;  or  in  the  pod,  that  is,  in  the  musk- 
sac,  which  is  cut  altogether  from  the  "''"'■I,  and 
dried  with  the  mask  inside.  Of  both  kinds  the 
annual  importationa  are  about  16,000  ounces  per 
annum,  chiefly  from  China  and  Indi&i  Small 
quantitiea  ore  used  in  medicine,  but  the  greater 
portion  is  employed  by  the  perfumers.  It  is  im- 
ported in  saull  boxes  or  catties,  often  covered 
with  bright- coloured  silk,  and  each  containing  25 
pods.  The  kinds  generally  known  in  trade  are  the 
Tonquin  or  Chinese,  which  is  worth  two  guineas 
an  ounce  in  the  pod,  or  £3,  10&  per  ounce  in 
grain ;  and  the  Cabordine,  Kabardina,  or  Siberian, 
which  ia  always  imported  in  pod,  and  is  very 
inferior,  bdng  only  worth  about  15*.  on  ounce. 

The  flesh  of  the  M.  is  sometimes  eaten,  but  has 
a  very  strong  flavour.  The  season  of  migration 
from  the  hi^est  and  coldest  to  more  temperate 
resiona,  Is  &sA  at  which  the  M.  is  chiefly  pursued. 
—Ho  other  animal  of  the  family  Motthida  yields 
the  perfnme  called  musk,  or  has  more  than  a 
rudimentary  musk-bog.  The  other  species  of 
Moicldda  belong  to  the  geans  Tragvlut,  and 
receive  the  popular  name  Cwnolaia.  They  have 
a  very  elongated  muzzle  ;  and  the  accessory  hoofa 
assume  t^a  lorm  of  oppressed  conical  clows.  They 
inhabit  tiie  thick  wooiiy  copses  or  jungles  of  the 
Indian  islands,  and  ore  the  smolleit  of  ruminant 
quadrupeds.  Someof  themore  notlargerthanahare. 
Their  tusks  ore  not  so  long  as  those  of  the  Musk. 
One  of  them,  the  Ifapu  of  Java  and  Sumatra,  has 
the  smallest  blood  corpuscles  of  any  known  auiinaL 

HUSK  DUCK  {Cairina  mote/iata),  a  spedes  of 


Uusk  I>uak  (CbvKna  motckala).  Hole  and  Female. 


tubercle  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  the  edges  of  the 

mandibles  ainuated,  the  face  and  lores  covered 
with  a  bare  tubercnlated  skin,  the  wings  funii^ied 
with  a  knob  or  spur  at  the  bend.  The  M.  D., 
or  Mnscovr  Ddck— so  called,  however,  through 
mistake,  and  receivinz  its  name  M.  D.  more  appro- 
priately from  its  muiky  smell— ia  a  native  ot  Uie 
worm  parts  of  America.  It  ia  very  plentiEol  in 
Guiana,  in  that  port  of  the  year  when  wmter  reigna 
in  the  north.  It  is  a  larger  bird  than  the  common 
duck,  in  ita  wild  state  sLnost  black,  with  glosses 
rd  blue  and  green,  and  white  wicg-oovcrts,  but 
varies  considerably  in  domestication.  It  is  often  to 
be  seen  in  ponlt^-yords  in  Britain,  but  is  rather 
curious  than  profitable.  It  hybridises  raidily  with 
the  common  duck,  but  ti)e  hybrid  is  Bterile.— The 
M.  D,  of  Australia  is  »  very  different  species, 
belonging  to  the  genua  Baiura. 

HUSK  OX  [Boa  mo*diaHia,  or  Otrifios  motdialtu), 
an  onimal  of  the  family  Bovida,  regarded  ss  a 
connecting-link  between  oxen  and  sheep.  It  inhabita 
the  most  northern  part*  of  America,  enduring  the 
winter  even  of  Melville  Island  and  Banks'  Land ; 
but,  like  many  other  animola.  it  is  partially  migra- 
tory, some  individuals  or  herds  seeking  more 
southern  regions  and  better  pastures  on  tjie  ^iprooch 
-*  —inter,  whilst  some  remoin  in  the  furthest  north. 


Musk  Ox  [Bot  autciaiut). 

It  is  not  found  in  Greenland,  Spitzbergen,  or  Siberia. 
The  M.  0.  is  scarcely  equal  in  size  to  Uie  smallest 
of  Highland  cattle,  but  appears  larger  from  the 
profusion  of  long  matted  woollen  hair  with  which  it 
la  covered,  and  which  hongs  almost  to  the  ground. 
The  head  ia  covered  with  long  hair  as  wall  as  the 
body,  the  face  alone  having  short  hair.  Beneath 
the  longhair  there  is  a  thick  coot  of  exquisitely  Gno 
wocL  The  head  is  large  and  broad ;  the  forehead 
convex  ;  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle  hairy.  The 
horns  are  veir  broad  at  the  base,  and  in  the  male 
meet  on  the  forehead ;  they  do  not  rise  but  bend 
down  on  each  aide  of  the  head,  and  curve  outwards 
and  upwords  towards  the  tip,  which  tapeis  to  a 
sharp  point.  They  are  about  tuo  feet  long  measured 
along  the  curvature ;  and  about  two  feet  in  girth  at 
the  base ;  a  pair  of  them  sometimes  weighing  sixty 
pounds.  The  limbs  ore  short,  the  legs  nave  short 
hair.  The  tail  is  very  short,  and  ia  covered  with 
long  hair,  so  thot  it  is  nndistiDgiiishable  to  the 
sight.  The  general  colooi  is  brown.  The  female  is 
sraaller  than  the  male,  has  shorter  hair  on  the  cheat 
and  throat,  and  smaller  homa.  The  froz  of  the 
hoof  is  short,  and  paitioUy  covered  witii  hair ;  the 
foot-morka  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  rein- 

The  M.  O.  feeda  on  graaa,  twin,  Uohens,  in.    It 
ia  fleet  and  active,  veiy  sure-footed  on  rocky  ground, 
and  ascends  or  descends  very  steep  hills  with  great 
J  the  herds  generally  number 


MtTSK  tLAMT-UtJstfffltS. 


thirty  01 


forty.  The  powerful  honu  ue  exoeUsDt 
.  of  defence  agamBt  wolvea  and  beus,  vhich 
•re  often  not  only  repelled  but  killed  When  mmk 
oxen  ore  aaaailed  by  flreamu,  however,  they  geoe- 
rally  huddle  more  and  more  closely  together,  and  do 
not  even  seek  ufeW  by  flight,  eo  long  as  the  aiaul- 
anta  are  unseen.  The  flesh  is  much  prised  by  the 
Eaqoimaui,  bat  retains  much  of  the  etrong  mueky 
odoDi  which  characteriaea  the  living  animaL  The 
hams  are  used  for  various  purpoaea ;  particularly 
the  wide  base  for  vesaela.  The  nos  wool  has  been 
apun  and  woven  into  a  fabiio  softer  than  ailk.  No 
attempt  boa  yat  been  made  to  domesticate  the 
M.  O. :  which,  however,  aeons  worthy  of  it,  and 
aiiitable  for  all  cold  regions. 

MUSK  PLANT,  MUSK  BOOT,  MUSK 
TREE,  MUSK  WOOD.  Different  parts  of  a 
number  of  plants  amell  more  or  lesa  strongly  of 
musk,  Among  theae  are  the  oonunon  little  Muak 
Plant  (see  MiMUtUB),  the  Mosh-tree  of  Van 
Diemen'a  Laud  (see  AffTCK),  and  the  Mask  Oohro 
(ace  ElBlsccs). — The  musk-tree  of  Jamaica  (Jfot- 
diox^um  SiBorlsii]  belongs  to  the  natunl  order 
Mdiacea.  It  emits  from  all  parts  a  smell  of  mask. 
— AU  parts  of  Guarea  grand^olia,  another  tree  of 
the  same  order,  a  native  of  the  West  Indies,  some- 
times callei  musk  wood,  also  amell*  atrongly  of 
musk,  but  particularly  the  bark,  which  is  uaud  in 
perfnmery. — The  drug  called  Mdse  Boot  or  S&hboi. 
la  brought  froni  the  East,  and  is  the  root  oE  a  plant 
supposed  to  be  oE  the  natural  order  UnAeU0'era; 
hut  the  plant  is  unknown,  nor  i*  it  certain  whether 
its  native  country  is  Persia,  or  some  more  remote 
region  of  Central  Asia.  It  has  a  pure  musky  odour, 
and  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  muak, 

MUSK  EAT,  or  DESMAN  {MygaU  or  ChUmya), 
a  genus  <rf  insectirotoua  quadrupeds  ot  the  Sbrew 
(q.  V.)  family  (Sortaida),  diffedng  from  the  true 
Shrews  {Sortx)  in  having  two  verv  small  teeth 
between  the  two  large  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw,  and 
the  upper  incisors  flattened  and  biauzular.  Behind 
theae  mciaors  are  dc  or  aeven  amoll  teeth  (l.iterol 
inciaora  or  false  canine  teeth)  and  four  ja^ed 
mnlan.  The  muzzle  ia  elongated  into  a  email 
flexible  probosds,  which  is  oonstaotly  in  motion. 
The  eyes  are  very  small ;  there  are  no  external  eon  ; 
the  fur  is  long,  straight,  and  divergent;  the  tail 
long,  scaly,  and  flattened  at  the  aides.  All  the 
feet  have  Ave  toes,  fully  webbed ;  and  the  tiiimsls 
are  entirely  squatic,  inhabiting  lakea  and  rivers, 
and  making  holes  in  the  banks  with  the  entrance 
from  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water.  Only  two 
specie*  are  known,  one  {M.  or  O.  Pyrt/uaea)  sbont 


Uusk  Bat,  or  Desman  (Mj/galt  Pfrauiica). 


learly  equal 
h  tail  abou' 


three-fonriha  of  the  length  of 


the  body.  The  Boaaian  desman  is  M-iH»ii  above, 
whitiah  beneath;  it  has  long  nlky  hair,  with  a 
softer  felt  beneath,  and  its  tor  is  held  in  some 
esteem.  Deaman  skins,  however,  are  chiefly  valiud 
on  account  of  the  musky  odour  which  they  long 
exhale,  and  which  is  derived  from  a  fiitty  aeoretum 
produced  by  small  follicles  nnder  the  tail  of  tiie 
luiiniaL  The  desman  feed*  on  leeches,  aquatia 
larvie,  ■kc,  searching  for  them  b  the  mud  by  mean* 
oE  its  flexible  probMcis.  It  seldom,  if  ever,  volun- 
tarily leAVes  the  water,  except  in  the  interior  of  its 
burrows,  which  are  sometimes  twenty  feet  lon^ 

MUSK  RAT  ISorec  ntuHntu),  an  Indian  spedes 
of  Shrew  (q.  v.),  in  size  about  equal  to  the  comnuMi 
brown  rat,  in  form  and  colour  much  resembling  the 
common  shrew  of  Britsin,  but  remai^cable  for  the 
powerful  musky  odonr  of  a  secretion  which  proceed* 
from  glands  on  its  belly  and  flank*.  This  odonr 
adheres  meet  pertinaciously  to  any  object  with 
which  the  animal  m^  come  in  contact,  and  provi- 
sions are  often  utterly  spoiled  by  it  Even  wine 
and  beer  are  said  to  bo  spoiled  by  it,  in  spite  of  the 
glass  and  cork  of  the  bottle ;  although  the  proba- 
bility ia  much  greater  that  it  adheres  to  the  outside 
of  the  bottle,  and  that  the  lii^uid  is  spoiled  as  it  is 
poured  onb  One  of  the  Indian  namea  of  this  animal 
iaSonddi. 

HUSK  RAT.    See  Mcsqitasb. 

MUSKET,  or  MUSQUET  (Fr.  mtrusguety  from 
movcliet,  a  sparrow-hawk ;  in  the  tame  way  that 
other  shooting-implement*  were  named  yaliw>,/ai- 
conel,  &c.),  the  Grearm  for  infantry  soldiers,  whidt 
sncceeded  the  clumsy  hu^uebuss,  and  in  1S51  gave 
way  before  the  Enfield  riile,  which,  in  its  tnm,  was 
converted  into  Solder's  patent  breech -loading  rifle, 
now  known  as  the  Seider-Enlield ;  the  latter  arm, 
ao  far  as  the  navy,  cavalry,  and  regular  infanW  are 
concerned,  has  been  replaced  by  the  Martini-Henry 
breech-loader,  but  the  auxibaiy  forces  still  retain 
the  Snider.  The  first  muskets  were  matchlocks ; 
after  which  come  wheel-locks,  asnaphana  or  snap- 
bance,  and  flint  muskets ;  and  lastly,  percnssion 
muskets,  which  were  a  vast  improvement,  both  for 
accuracy  and  hghtnen,  on  oil  which  bad  gone 
before,  Comparal,  however,  to  either  the  Enlield 
or  Martini-Henry  rifle,  the  musket,  familiarly 
known  a*  Brown  Bess  (possibly  a  corruption  ol 
Ger.  b&chte,  a  hollow  tube  or  gun) — was  a  hea^ 
ugly,  and  ineflective  weapon.  The  following  m 
a  table  of  the  ranges  attained,  on  on  average, 
by  the  musket,  the    Enfield,   and   the    Martini- 


hoUve  BfiLoit  troop*  In  colnmn,  ft 

MUSKETOO'N,  an  obsolete  weapon,  waa  a 
tiort  musket  "'  ^"^  -n^A^  Ka*a  yi^— «,.,..  ^  KhH  «* 
._ve  ounces, 

blunderbuss. 

MU'SKETBT,  ScHOOU  or.  Whan  the  intro- 
duction oE  the  Miai£  rifle  in  the  I'Wnch  service,  and 
the  subsequent  u-ming^of  the  British  troope  with 
the  still  more  delicate  Enfield  rifle  in  ISSl,  brought 
the  accuracy  of  a  soldier's  fire  to  be  »n  important 
consideration  in  estimating  his  valne  (which  with 
the  old  mnsket  waa  not  the  case,  as  it  was  proverbial 
that  the  bullet  never  hit  the  point  aimed  at,  how- 
ever carefully),  the  English  government  at  onoe  saw 
the  necessity  of  providing  iostmetion 
ulation  of  the  rifle  Acoordingly,  i 
musketry  were  attached  to  the  troops,  one  to  each 
r^ment ;  and  a  school  was  eatablisned  at  Hytba 
'    1S54,  nudet  the  lata  General  (then  Colonel)  Sxg, 


M  Google  ' 


uttaLttf-utrasEL 


when  lesiODS  on  the  theory  of  the  arm,  and  prac- 
tice in  its  octaal  emplonaeDt,  were  the  wile  occu- 
pBtiOQ  of  the  day.  Omcera  and  protmaing  men 
were  sent  there  aa  fast  ai  &e  accommodation  per- 
mitted ;  aod  after  a  course  of  a  few  weeks  were  able 
to  return  to  their  corps,  and  become  instructon 
to  thair  comrade^  so  that  the  ihoottng  of  the 
whole  army  soon  rose  in  a  surprising  d^rea. 
Whereas,  before  the  establisbment  of  this  ichod, 
the  English  stood  low  in  the  scale  of  shooting, 
the  competitions  held  dnring  recent  years  at 
WiubledoQ  have  demonstrated  that  no  nation  can 
now  excel  them  aa  marksmen.  The  formation  of 
the  volunteer  corps,  in  1859,  led  to  »  greatly  in- 
oreaaed  demand  lor  musketry  instruction,  which 
the  government  met  by  forming  a  second  school  of 
musbetiy  at  Fleetwood  (now  abandoned),  where  the 
troops  and  volunteen  of  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the 
nortnem  English  coon  ties,  fonnd  the  necessary 
teaching.  The  Hrthe  school  is  superintended  by  a 
commandant  and  inspector-general  of  musketry 
inetruotion,  with  subordinate  initmctors.  The 
inspector-general  is  responsible  also  for  tbo  instruc- 
tion throughout  the  regiments  all  over  the  world, 
and  to  him  the  mnsketry  returns  from  eoeh  regi- 
ment ore  sent  umnslly. 

HCSIiIN,  a  cotton  fabrio  of  Oriental  origin, 
u  said  to  have  derived  ita  name  from  the  town 
of  Mosul,  ID  Mesopotamia,  where  this  material 
wo*  at  one  time  very  largiely  manufactured.  At 
present  no  saoh  trade  exists  there  i  and  for  muslins, 
of  the  common  kinds  at  least,  the  Indian  market 
depends  upon  the  mannfantnrea  of  England  and 
France.  But  no  European  manufacturer  has  ever 
been  abb  h)  rival  the  wonderfully  fine  muslins 
of  Dacca.  This  doe*  not  arise  so  much  from  the 
fineness  of  the  yam,  although  that  too  is  very  great, 
but  from  the  marvelloos  finenem  conjoined  with 
a  moat  delicate  softness  bo  the  touch.  The  fineness 
of  the  yam  is  k>  great,  that  nntil  lately  no 
machinery  could  produce  anything  like  it ;  a  piece 
of  Daooa  mnalin,  shewn  in  the  International  EAibi- 
tion  (1SC2),  WM  31  feet  in  length  by  3  feet  in  width, 
aod  conttuned  in  a  square  inch  lOi  warp  t**""^* 
and  100  weft  threads,  yet  the  entire  piece  weighed 
only  34  onnoes.  A  Fronch  manufacturer,  M.  Thivel 
Michonof  Tavara,  baa  madeamnslin  of  English  yam 
spun  by  the  Messra  Houldsworth  of  Moncbeater, 
Hhioh  sorpaited  the  finest  Dacca  in  the  excessive 
thinness  c^  tiie  yam,  birt  it  wonted  its  delicate 
softness.  Mnslin  is  matAi  ixm  compaot  in  its  texture 
than  colioo,  indeed  it  more  nearly  resembles  gau;:e 
in  appeoimnce ;  but  it  is  woven  plain,  without  any 
twisting  of  the  weft  threads  with  those  of  the  warp. 
The  manafaoture  of  muslins  in  Great  Britain  and 
Frsj)ce  is  very  extensive,  eapeciolly  printed  muslins, 
in  which  the  patterns  are  prodnoed  by  the  same 
^ooetSM  aa  in  calico-printiD^     See  WaiviNO. 

MTT'SNUD,  a  Pernan  throne  of  state. 

MUSOPHA'OID.^    See  Plahiaih-utxb. 

MU'BQUABH,  MUSK-RAT,  or  ONDATRA 
{Fiber  t^ethieuM),  a  rodent  quadruped,  a  native  of 
North  America,    It  is  the  only  known  species  of 


other  characters  more  neatiy  agreeing  with  the 
beaver.  Tlie  M.  is  in  shape  nearly  similar  to 
the  brown  rat ;  the  head  and  body  are  about 
15  inches  in  lengtli,  the  toil  tea  inches.  The 
whole  body  is  covered  with  a  short  downy  dark- 
brown  fur,  intermixed  with  longer  and  coarser  hairs. 
It  is  oommon  in  almost  all  parts  of  North  America, 
from  lat  3D*  to  lat.  tSS',  except  in  ths  southern 
alluvial  districts.  It  is  a  very  aquatic  animal, 
seldom  wandering  from  the  rivers,  lakes,  ix  marthe* 


in  which  it  nu^ea  its  abode.  The  fur  is  In  demand, 
and  fonns  an  article  of  commerce — skins  in  large 
number  httxg  still  exported  from  America  to  Biittui 
and  other  European  eountriea.  The  M.  buiT«wi 
in  the  banks  of  streMna  and  ponds ;  the  entroooMi 


Hnsqouli  {Fibtr  nSriMcut). 

of  its  burrows  being  always  under  water,  so  that 
it  must  dive  to  reach  them.  In  marshes,  Uie  M. 
builds  a  kind  of  hut,  coUeddog  coarse  grasses  and 
mod.  and  raising  the  fabrio  from  two  to  four  feet 
above  the  water.  The  flesh  of  the  M,  at  thoae 
seasons  when  it  is  fat,  is  in  some  request  among  the 
American  Indians,  and  is  said  to  be  not  unpalatable. 
MUSSEL  {MytSiu),  a  genus  of  lamelUbronchiate 
molluscs,  the  type  of  the  family  IfycUidte,  which, 
however,  is  much  more  restricted  than  the  Linnteon 
genus  Mulilut.  The  MytilidiB  belong  to  tiie  division 
of  LamelUbratKliiata,  called  by  Lamarck  Dimyaria, 
having  two  addiator  muscles — mnaclee  employed  in 
closing  the  valves  of  the  shell  The  mantle  has  a 
distinct  anal  orifice ;  the  foot  is  small ;  and  there 
is  a  large  Bymti  (q.  v.),  which  is  divided  into 
fibres  to  its  base.  The  valves  of  the  shell  are 
equal  1  the  hinge  is  deatituta  of  teeth.  Somc^  but 
few,  of  the  species  are  found  in  freeh-watcr.  See 
DKEmKNA.  SiHne  {LiUiodamut)  burrow  in  stone. 
How  they  do  it  is  utterly  unknown,  but  they  do 
burrow  even  in  the  hardest  stone ;  and  some  small 
bvpLcal  speciee  excavate  for  themselves  holes  in  the 
shalla  of  great  limpete.  The  LWiodoim  are  some- 
times called  DaU-thella.  Some  of  them  are  very 
beantiful,  which  is  the  case  also  with  the  tme 
mu■eh^  after  the  epidermis  is  removed.  Evan  the 
CoMHON  M.  (Jf.  eduUi)  then  exhibibi  beautiful 
veins  of  blue.  This  species  is  vuy  abundant  on  the 
British  coasts,  and  is  much  used  as  bait  by  fisher- 
men. It  ia  gregarious,  and  ia  fonnd  in  vait  beds, 
closely  crowded,  adhering  by  the  byseus  to  rocks, 
&C.  '  These  beds  are  osuoUy  uncovered  at  low- 
water.  The  shell  is  oblong;  at  its  greatest  size 
about  Uiree  inches  long,  and  on  inch  and  a  halE 
broad.  Mussels,  when  young,  move  about  by  means 
of  tJae  foot,  with  which  the^  lay  hold  of  objects  and 
drag  themselves  along,  until  they  find  some  suitable 
n)ot  to  anchor  themselves  by  a  hysaus.  If  detached, 
iaaj  soon  find  another  anchorage.  In  an  aqnariam 
they  readily  attach  their  byeaus-threada  even  to  the 
smooth  gloso,  and  the  thr^ids  may  be  broken  more 
easily  t^n  separated  from  the  glass.  An  ingenious 
and  important  application  of  the  strength  of  these 
threads  boa  been  made  by  the  Freui^  to  reader 
Oherhours  tmokwatet  mora  mcwb  by  Unding  tlw 

^ D Cioiggrc 


MUSSELBUROfl— MUStARt). 


looae  itonea  together,  for  which  pnrpow  it  . 
ploTittd  with  totm  of  miuflelB.  The  Common  H.  ia 
much  used  aa  an  uticle  of  food,  aod  ia  generally 
louad  quit«  wholeaome;  yet  it  sometimes  proves 
poiconotu,  particalsrlv  in  tpriog  and  inmmer,  either 
cmising  blotches,  tweUiDra,  and  »□  eruptiaa,  accom- 
pMU«d  witii asthma, or  akiiid of  paralyais,  awl  even 
Mmetimei  prodncing  delirium  and  death.  For  the 
FenH-WATUt  McaaEL,  see  that  article. 

HU'SSELBUBOH,  a  small  Beaport  luid  royal 
and  parliamentary  burgh  of  Scotland,  in  the  county 
of  Edinburgh,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Eeli, 
6  milea  east  of  Edinburgh.  On  the  west  side 
of  the  Esk  is  the  fishing  Tillage  of  Fisherrow. 
Tanning,  leather- dreuing,  and  the  manufacture  of 
Buldoth,  nets,  and  salt  are  carried  on.  The  harbour 
at  FisheiTow  is  frequented  by  coasting  eraft,  and  by 
•mall  vesaels  from  Holland  and  the  Iwtic.  Timber, 
oil-cake,  bark,  seeds,  and  hides  are  imported ;  coal 
is  ibt  cbieE  eiiiott.    On  the '  links,'  a  famons  golfing 

rund,  tiie  fidiDburgh  meet  take  place  annually. 
nuites  with  Leith  and  Portobello  in  sending  a 
member  to  parhament.     Fop.  (1881)  7BS6. 

HUSSET,  Loi7isCHAsLEa  AuKii>DE,ooeof  the 
foremost  of  recent  French  poets,  was  bom  st  Puis, 
Ilth  Not.  ISIO.  He  studied  in  succession  medicine, 
law,  finance,  and  painting;  bat  finally,  under  the 
inflaencB  oE  the  Komantio  School  (q,  t.),  devoted 
himself  to  poetry.  The  first  work  tiiat  attracted 
notice  was  Le»  Contet  rTEapagneel  iPltalie  (1330), 
which  by  their  elegant  bat  audacious  sensaouaneBB 
gsTO  deep  offence.  Lt  Spectacle  daru  un  Fattl*wl 
(IS32)  is  a  strange  medley  of  contrasts.  La  Nuili 
(ISM)  admittedly  shew  his  lyrical  power  at  its  best 
Many  of  the  Coviidiu  etProverbei  were  popular  on 
the  stage  ;  and  M.  wrote  several  prose  romances.  Ia 
1852  he  was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy.  He 
died  at  Paris,  2d  May  1867.  The  exqoiaite  beautj^, 
teoderneu,  and  power  of  much  of  M.'s  work  is 
ooabnnally  marred  by  the  morbid  pessimism  of  a 
man  prematarely  old,  disilluBioned,  UoM ;  on  this 
very  ground  M.  is  often  regarded  as  the  represeat- 
ativs  poet  of  the  modem  Parisian. 
MU'STANG.    BeeEoita& 

MUSTARD  {Sinapu),  a  jgenns  of  plants  of  the 
natoral  order  Orue^era,  having  yellow  flowers,  and 
linear  or  oblong  pods,  which  tertoiuate  in  a  sword- 
shapcd  and  oompressed  or  4-aoraered  beak,  and 
dontain  one  row  of  seeda.  The  seeds  are  dobulor, 
and  their  Cotyledons  (q.  v.)  conduplicatc— The  most 
important  species  ii  Black  M,  (5.  nigra),  an  annual, 
which  grows  wild  in  fields  and  by  wayside*  in  the 
middle  and  soatb  of  Eurmie,  and  is  not  uncomnion 
la  the  southern  parts  of  Britain.  Its  pods  are 
bluntly  4-an)^ed,  smooth,  erect,  and  lie  clo*e  to  the 
•tern,  their  TBlves  Inervod;  the  leave*  are  smooth, 
the  lower  leaves  lyratc,  the  upper  lesve*  linear- 
lanceolate.  The  seeds  are  brownish  bhick — Whitk 
M.  (8.  alba),  also  a  native  of  most  piirts  of  Europe, 
and  of  tlie  southern  parts  of  Britain,  is  an  aoniud, 
having  divergent  pods  covered  with  stiff  hairs, 
the  TiSves  S-nerred,  the  seeds  yellowish,  the  leaves 
Tonnatifld. — Both  tJiese  species  are  cultivated  in 
linglaDd  and  elsewhere,  far  their  seeds,  which  are 
DTOund  into  powder  and  mixed  with  water,  to  make 
the  well-known  condiment  called  MuOard.  The  ; 
powder  of  the  seed)  is  also  much  nsed  in  medicine 
as  a  rubefacient.  The  use  of  M.  as  a  condiment 
is  often  fonnd  favourable  to  digestion.  M.  seeds 
depend  for  their  pungency  on  a  pnnciple  which,  when 
water  is  added  to  Black  M.,  forms  VolaiUe  OH  of 
iliuUtrd.  [See  next  article.)  There  is  also  in  the 
seeds  a  bland  fixed  oil.  Oil  qf  it.,  which  ia  obtained 
from  them  bT  expression,  and  constitutes  aboat  28 
per  cent  of  tneir  weighb     The  oake  which  remains 


ihiefly  cultivatM,  its  seed  beinx  more 
powerful  than  that  of  White  l£;  but  there  is  more 
difficulty  in  renioving  the  skin  of  ita  seed  than  that 
of  White  M.,  which  is  therefore  often  preferred,  but 
more  in  &igland  than  on  the  continent  of  Surope. 
M.  requires  a  very  rich  soil  It  is  ciUtiTated  on 
the  alluvial  lands  of  the  level  eastern  counties  of 
England.  Wisbeach,  in  Cambrid^hire^  is  the 
great  M.  market  of  England. — White  M.  is  often 
sown  in  gardens  and  forced  in  hothouses,  to  be  used 
in  Qie  seed-leaf  as  a  small  salad,  having  a  pleasant 
pungency.  It  is  also  sometimes  sown  for  feeding 
sheep,  whoa  turnip  or  rape  Las  failed,  being  of  very 
rapid  growth,  although  inferior  in  quantity  of  crop. 
^^iLD  M.,  or  Charlock  (3.  aneiuU),  which  is 
distinguished  by  turgid  and  knotty  pods  with  many 
angles  and  longer  than  the  two-edjged  beak,  is  a 
most  troublesome  annual  -weed  in  cornfields  in 
Britain,  often  making  them  yellow  with  its  flowers 
in  the  beginning  of  summer.  Its  seeds  are  said  to 
have  yielded  the  original  Durham  M.,  and  are  still 
gathered  for  mixing  with  those  of  the  cultivated 
species.  The  blond  oil  of  the  seeda  is  used  for 
lamps. — Pekin  M.  (8.  PdtineneU)  is  an  annual,  very 
extensively  cultivated  in  China,  ita  leaves  being 
nsed  as  greens.  It  is  quite  hardy  in  the  climate  of 
Britain. — Imdlui  H.  {3.  ramota)  it  eitensiTely 
cultivated  in  India  for  its  seeds,  which  are  used  as 
a  condiment ;  as  are  those  of  S.  dichotoma  and  8. 
glauca,  also  cultivated  in  India.  The  oil  of  the 
seeds  is  much  used  throughout  India  for  lamps. — 
Bill  M  is  a  different  genus,  Biiniaa  (q.  v,).— The 
M.  Tkei  of  Soriptnre  is  supposed  to  bo  Salvadora 
Periica,  a  smsll  tr«e  of  the  natural  order  Sidva- 
doracoE,  a  small  order  allied  to  Myriinace<s.  It 
abounds  in  many  parts  of  the  East  Tho  seed  baa 
an  arotnntio  pungency,  and  is  used  like  most 
The  fruit  is  a  berry  wjlji  a  pungent  taste 

Jfann/oc/ure.— The  matnifao tare  of  M.  as  it 

iginolly  used  in  this  country,  and  aa  it  Btdl  is 
.  I  the  continent,  consisted  in  simply  grinding  the 
seed  into  a  very  fine  meoL  A  false  taste,  howeTcr, 
arose  for  having  an  improved  colour,  and  the  flonr 
of  mustard  was  introduced,  in  which  only  the 
interior  portion  of  the  seed  is  used,  the  husk  being 
separated,  aa  the  bran  ia  from  wheaten  flour.  This 
causes  a  great  leas  of  flavour,  as  the  pungent  oil,  on 
which  the  flavour  chiefly  depends,  exists  in  greatest 
abnndanoe  in  the  husk. — Henoe  other  materials, 
such  as  capsicum  powder,  and  other  very  pungent 
matters,  are  added  to  bring  np  the  fiavonr,  and 
wheaten  flour  and  other  substances  ore  added  to 
increase  the  bnlk  and  Uie  lightnea  of  colour. 
Indeed,  so  many  sophistications  have  been  added, 
that  the  M.  of  the  English  tables  can  no  longer 
be  regarded  in  any  other  li^t  than  an  elaborately 
compounded  coniument^  lor  which  each  manufao- 
turer  has  his  own  particular  recipe. 

MUSTABD,  On.  or.  The  seeds  both  of  the 
black  and  the  whits  mustanl  yield  by  expression  a 
large  quantity  of  a  bland  fixea  oil,  but  they  do  not 
contain  any  essential  or  volatile  oil  ready  formed. 
It  is  only  the  black  mustard  which  by  instillation 
yields  the  compound  osually  known  is  the  oil  or 
essence  of  mustard,  and  which  is  in  teslitry  sulpha- 
cj^anide  of  allvl  (see  Garuo,  Oil  or)  contaminate 
with  a  litUe  brown  resinous  matter,  from  wiiioh  it 
may  be  freed  by  simple  le-distillation. 

When  first  obtained,  it  is  a  colourless  fluid, 
which  gradoally  becomes  yellowish.  It  has  a  pain- 
fully nongent  odour  and  acrid  taste ;  and  when 
applied  to  the  skin,  it  speedily  raises  a  blister.  It 
is  soluble  in  all  ^portiwu  in  alccJiol,  but  dissolves 
very  sparingly  u  water.      In  the  atticlB  already 


'V  \.'\f^i 


^^i^ 


.Uh- 


MUSTBLIDjE— MtTTINT  ACT. 


Kterred  to,  it  hM  been  Bhemi  that  this  oil  and  oil 
of  goiiio  axB  nBtaTallT  coDTertibla  into  one  another ; 
in  combination  with  ammonia  it  fornui  ft  com- 
poond  which  ii  tanned  OiUmmiamine,  and  wl^ch 
combines  directly  with  add*  like  a  tme  organio 
base.  It*  mode  of  formatkiii  it  explained  bj  the 
equation — 

oil  ol  Jf oiUrd.    Ammoiila.  ThkilDniraliia. 

By  digesting  oil  of  mostard  with 
hydrafed  o  " "  ' 
baae  termed  nnapoliae,  whose  formula  ia  Cj^H^NjOr 
The  oil  iB'formed  in  much  the  Home  way  ae  the 
VolatUe  Oil  of  Almonds  (q.  v,).  The  black  miutard 
contaioa  the  potash  salt  of  a  compound  termed 
nijrronie  acid,  and  a  peculiar  ooacnlablc 
fermenti  whioh,  when  the  croahM  seed 
with  water,  act  npon  each  other,  and  devehq)  the 
oiL  It  ia  the  gradual  formation  of  this  oil,  when 
powdered  mustaid  and  warm  water  ore  mixed,  that 
oocosiona  the  special  action  of  the  common  mustard 
poultice.  The  pongency  of  mustard  as  a  conditoent, 
of  horse-radish,  tut.,  ia  ntainl;  due  to  the  presence 
of  this  oiL 

MUSTEXID^  a  family  of  ditijitigrade  Cor- 
nivora  (a.  v.),  mostly  forming  the  genus  Atuf^in  of 
nm-  divided  into  a  nomber  of  genera, 
in  which  are  ranked 
the  weasel,  emine  or 
stoat,  sable,  marten, 
ferret,  polecat,  mink, 
skunk,  ko.  The  M. 
are  distinguished  by 
the  elQonited  form 
of  the  '  Dody,  and 
the  shmtnesB  of  the 
limbs ;  also  by  having 
generally  four  or  five 
molars  on  each  ude 
the  upper  jaw,  and 


the 


Dentitiaii  ot  MuBtelidn. 


lower.  On  each  side 
of  both  jaws  there 
is  a  tingle  tuberca- 
late  tooth.  All  the  feet  have  dve  toes.  The  tkuU 
is  much  elongated  behind  the  eyes.  The  M.  display 
great  lithenesa  and  anppleneg*  of  movement.    They 


MUSTER  [It.  moitnm  from  Lat,  mondran, 
to  shew)  is  a  calling  over  of  the  names  of  all 
the  men  composing  a  regiment  or  a  ship's  com- 
pany. Booh  man  present  answers  to  his  name, 
those  not  answering  beinc  returned  as  absent. 
The  muster-roll  from  which  the  nonisa  are  called 
is  the  paymaster's  voucher  for  the  pay  he  itsues, 
aud  most  be  signed  by  the  commanding  officer, 
the  adjutant,  and  himsclL  The  crime  <a  signing 
a  false  mntter-roll,  or  of  personating  another  indi- 
vidual at  a  muster,  is  held  most  sersrely  punish- 
able— b;  imprisonment  and  flogging  for  a  common 
Boldier,  by  immediate  cashiering  in  the  case  of  an 
officer.  In  regiments  at  the  line,  a  muster  is  taken 
on  the  24th  of  each  month  ;  in  ships  of  war,  weekly. 
The  muster  after  a  battle  is  a  melancholy  proceed- 
ing, intended  to  shew  the  casualties  death  has 
WTOoght.  In  early  times,  before  the  army  was  a 
standing  force,  and  when  each  captain  was  a  sort  of 
contractor  to  the  crown  for  so  many  men,  the 
muster  was  most  important,  as  the  only  security 
the  sovereign  had  tJiat  he  really  obtained  the 
services  of  the  number  of  men  for  whom  he  paid. 
Accordingly,  any  fraud,  as  making  a  false  return, 
or  •>  mnib^iiig  with  hit  troop  men  not  actually 


serving  in  it,  was  by  the  Articles  of  W»  of  Henry  T. 
made  punishable  with  death  for  the  second 
offenoeu  and  by  Charles  L  with  death  'without 
mercy  for  even  the  first  such  crime ;  while  any 
person  abetting  in  any  way  in  the  &«ud  sbaisd  the 
penalty. 

MU'SULMAN,  MotUTiuai,  a  Mohammedan 
{from  Arab,  SaMiima),  equivalent  to  Moslem,  of 
which  word  it  is,  property  speaking,  the  plural  j 
used  in  Persian  fashion  for  the  singidor.  We  need 
hardly  add  that  this  Arabic  plural  termination  of 
'  An,'  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  our  word 
man,  and  that  a  further  English  plnial  in  men,  is 
both  barbarous  and  absurd. 

MUTE,  a  small  instrument  used  to  modify  the 
sound  of  the  violin  or  violoncello.  It  is  made  ot 
hold  wood,  ivory,  or  brass,  and  is  attached  to  the 
bridge  by  means  of  a  slit,  a  leg  of  it  being  intei^ 
jected  between  every  two  strings.  The  use  of  the 
mute  both  softens  the  tone,  and  imparts  to  it  a 
peculiar  muffled  and  tremulous  quohty,  which  is 
sometimes  very  efiective.  Its  application  is  indi- 
cated by  the  letters  &  «.,  or  con  sordino,  and  its 
discontinuance  by  I.  «.,  or  straa  tordiim.  The  mute 
is  sometimes  used  for  the  comet,  beinz  inserted 
into  the  bell  of  the  instnunent,  thereby  subduing  the 
sound,  and  producing  the  effect  of  great  distance. 

MUTINY  (Ft.  maCiner,  from  nrniia,  'riotous.' 
'Miitin'  is  connected  with  the  Old  Fraooh  Ttieule, 
still  seen  in  ImrJile,  a  'sedibton,'  and  is  therefore 
from  the  Latin  nurvere, '  to  move'  or 'stir  up.'  The 
supposition  that  the  word  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
rauiio,  a  '  mutteriDg^  is  a  mistake).  The  term  is 
used  to  denote  behaviour  either  by  word  or  deed  sub- 
versive of  disoipline,  or  tending  to  undermine  superior 
authority.  Till  lately,  mutiny  comprised  speaking 
disrespectfully  of  the  sovereign,  roysl  family,  or 
general  commanding,  quarrelling,  and  resisting  arrest 
while  quanelling  j  hut  these  onences  have  now  been 
reduceo  to  the  leaser  crime  of 'mutinous  conduct' 
The  acts  now  constituting  mutiny  proper  ar«^ 
exciting,  causing,  or  joining  m  any  mutiny  or  >edi- 
tiou;  when  present  thereat,  failing  to  use  the 
utmost  effort  to  suppress  it ;  when,  knowing  of  a 
mutiny  or  intended  mutiny,  fiuling  to  give  notice  of 
it  to  the  commaDding  officer;  striking  a  superior 
ofBcer,  or  using  or  offering  any  violence  against  him, 
while  in  the  execution  of  his  duty ;  disobeying  the 
lawful  command  of  a  superior  officer.  The  punish- 
ment ^warded  by  the  Mutiny  Act  to  these  crimes 
is,  if  the  cnlprit  be  an  officer,  death  or  such  other 
punishment  as  a  general  court-martial  shall  award  j 
if  a  soldier,  death,  penal  servitude  for  not  leas  than 
four  years,  or  such  other  punishment  as  a  general 
court-martiial  shall  award.  As  the  crime  of  mutiny 
has  a  tendency  to  immediately  destroy  all  authority 
and  aU  cohesion  in  the  naval  or  military  body, 
commanding  officers  have  strong  powers  ia  stop  it 
summarily.  A  drum-head  conrt-maridal  may  sen- 
tence an  offender,  and  if  the  case  be  urgent,  and  the 
spread  of  the  mutiny  appi-chcnded,  the  immediate 
execution  of  the  mutineer  may  follow  within  a  few 
minutes  ot  the  detection  of  his  crime.  It,  however, 
behoves  commanding  officers  to  exercise  this  extra- 
ordinary power  with  great  caution,  at  the  use  ol  so 
absolute  an  authority  is  narrowly  and  jealously 
watclicd.  To  prevent  mutiny  among  men,  the 
officers  should  be  strict  without  harshness,  kind 
without  familiarity,  attentive  to  all  the  just  rights 
of  their  subordinates,  and,  above  all  tmngs,  moat 
porticular  in  the  carrying  out  to  the  very  letter  ot 
any  promise  they  may  have  made 

MUTINY  AOT  was  an  Act  of  the  British 
parliament  poased  from  year  to  year,  investing  the 
crown  with  powers  to  regulate  tiie  government  of 

„  Coo'ilt 


UTJT0AL  EIBTRXICTIOK— ICYOBLIDM. 


the  aimj  and  to  Irame  sitiolM  of  mr.  Tha  Dftiy 
•tandB  imder  Naval  Diicipline  Acts,  1861  and  1866, 
the.  Kacoeason  of  Article*  of  War  first  enaotod 
under  Charlei  II.,  whicli,  unlike  the  M.  A.,  remained 
foroe  for  an  indefinite  time.  B;  the  Bill  of 
—  Jbts,  the  maintenanoe  of  a  standing  army  in  time 
of  peace,  imleaa  1^  conaent  of  parliijnent,  was  de- 
clared illegal,  and  from  that  time  the  number  of 
troopa  to  be  maintained,  and  the  cost  of  the  different 
branches  of  the  servioe,  have  been  regulated  by  ao 
aDDOal  vote  of  the  House  of  Commons.  But  parlia- 
ment poueMea  a  further  control  aver  the  army. 
Soldiers,  in  time  of  war  or  rebcllioil,  being  subject 
to  martial  law,  may  be  punished  for  mutiny  or 
desertion  ;  but  the  occarrence  of  a  mutiny  in  certain 
Scotch  regiments  soon  after  the  Revolution,  raised 
the  question,  whether  military  discipline  could  be 
maintained  in  time  of  peace  ;  and  the  courts  of  law 
decided  that,  in  the  absence  of  any  statute  to  eoforce 
discipline,  a  soldier  was  only  amenable  to  the  com- 
mon law:  If  he  deserted,  he  was  only  liable  tor 
breach  of  contract ;  or  if  he  struck  his  officer,  to 
an  indictment  for  assault.  The  aulhori^  of  the 
Iwislature  became  indispensable  to  the  muntenance 
of  discipline ;  and  parlmment,  from  1689  till  1879, 
at  the  Deginning  of  evei?  session,  conferred  thi« 
and  odier  powers  in  the  M.  A.,  Umited  in  its  dura- 
tion at  one  time  to  six  months,  but  latterly  to  a 
year.  Althoiigh  it  was  greatly  changed  from  the 
form  in  which  it  first  passed,  190  years  ago,  the 
Bimaal  alterations  were  slight;  and  subatanbally  it 
had  a  fixed  form.  The  preamble  quoting  the  above 
declaration  from  the  Bdl  of  Bights,  added  that  it 
I  judged  necessary  that  a  force  of  such  a  number 
uld  be  continued,  while  it  gave  authority  to  the 
ereigu  to  enact  Articles  of  War  for  the  govem- 
nt  i3  the  force.  The  Act  had  107_  clauses,  the 
first  five  specified  the  persons  liable  to  its  proTisiDDi 
— namely,  all  enlisted  soldiers  or  commissioned 
officers  on  full  pay,  those  of  the  militia  or  yeomanry 
employed  on  active  service,  and  to  recruits  for  the 
mifitia  under  training.  Clauses  6—14  treated  of 
courts-martial ;  olauses  IS— 28  related  to  Crimea  and 
their  punishment ;  for  mutiny,  desertion,  cowardice, 
treason,  insubordination,  death  might  be  the  penalty ; 
for  frauds,  embezzlement^  He.,  penal  servitude  waa 
awarded.  ClAUses  29—33  provided  for  militai? 
prisons,  the  reception  of  soldiers  in  civil  Jails  under 
sentences  of  courts-martiaL  Clauses  34 — 37  enacted 
rules  ioi  deserters.  Clanse  38  referred  to  f orlough ; 
39 — 41  enacted  that  no  person  acquitted  or  convicted 
by  a  civil  magistrate  or  jury  be  tried  by  court- 
martial  for  the  same  oSence,  and  similar  matters. 
Ckuaes42—69referred  to  Enlistment  (q.  v.);  60-74 
to  stoppages,  billets,  carriages,  and  ferries,  and  the 
conveyance  and  entertainment  of  troops.  The  re- 
maining 24  clauses  adverted  to  miscellaneous 
matters.      By   clauses   105   and    lOG,   the   militia, 

Somaun,  and  volunteers  might  on  emergency 
attached  to  the  regular  forcea.  For  years  prior 
to  1878,  attention  had  been  drawn  in  parliament 
and  elsewhere  to  the  shortcomings  of  the  Act,  as 
well  as  to  its  cumbrousnesa,  and  the  Articles  of 
War  by  which  it  was  accompanied,  explained,  and 
amplified.  These  representations  culminated  in  the 
appointment  of  a  Parliamentary  Committee,  which, 
in  1S79,  presented  a  Bill  to  supersede  the  M. 
A.,  and,  like  it,  to  be  passed  annually  as  the 
'Army  Discipline  and  Hegulation  Act'  The 
Marine  M.  A.,  applying  to  the  Marine  Forces 
when  serving  on  snore,  was  almost  identical  in  its 

trovisions  with  the  M.  A.     Passed  annually  up  to 
S78,  it  was  in  1879  met^ed  with  the  M.   A.   in 
the  *  Army  Discipline  and  Regulation  Act' 
MU'TUAL  INHTRUOTIOK.    See  Monitokial 


UU'TULE,  a  pl«un  blook'nnder  tbe  corona  of  the 
oomioe  <rf  the  Dinio  style,  similar  in  poaitjon  to  the 
modallio  of  the  Corinthian  order,  and  having  a 
number  of  guttes  or  drops  worked  on  the  nnder 
side.     See  £iiTABLinm& 

MUTUUH  ia  a  term  used  in  Scotch  Law, 
borrowed  from  the  Roman  law,  to  denote  a  contract 
of  loan  of  a  oertain  kind  of  things,  as  corn,  wine, 
money,  which  are  consumed  in  the  vas,  and  as  to 
whioh  die  borrower  is  bound  to  restore  as  much  of 
the  same  kind  at  some  future  time. 

HUZA  IBIT  NOSEYB,  the  Arab  conqueror  of 
Spain,  was  bom  640  A.D.  He  displayed  great 
bravery  wid  high  military  talents  in  the  conterts  of 
that  turbulent  period,  so  much  so  that  he  waa 
appointed  by  the  calif  general  of  the  anny  which 
was  raisoJ  for  the  conquest  of  Africa  in  698 — 699. 
After  an  insignificant  expedition  into  the  interior 
of  Africa,  he  set  out  in  707  for  Mauritania,  con- 
quering the  kindred  tribes  of  Eastern  Barbary,  and 
enrolling  their  warriors  under  his  standard ;  and 
by  709,  the  whole  of  Northern  Africa,  including  the 
Gothic  strongholds  on  the  coast,  acknowledged  the 
authority  of  the  calif.  At  this  period  the  Gothic 
monarchy  in  Spain  was  in  a  8tat«  of  complete  disor- 
gauisation,  and  M.,  seizing  the  favonrable  oppor- 
tuni^  thus  presented,  sent  nia  lieutenant,  Tarik  Ibn 
Zeia((  in  April  711  to  make  an  incnreiou  into  Spain. 
Tartk  landed  at  Gibraltar,  marched  inland  to  the 
banks  of  the  Ouadalete,  where  he  waa  met  bv 
Boderio  the  Gothic  king.  In  the  battle  which 
ensued,  the  Ooths  were  decisively  vanqui^ed,  their 
king  perished  in  the  waters  of  the  Guadalele,  and 
the  whole  of  Sonthem  Spain  lay  at  the  mercy  of 
tbe  victor.  M.,  on  hearing  of  these  successes,  sent 
orders  to  Tarik  to  halt  for  further  instructions;  but 
the  heutenant,  flushed  with  success,  pressed  on  to 
tbe  very  centre  of  Spain,  and  seized  Toledo,  the 
capital  of  the  Gothic  kingdom.  ML  immediately  set 
out  for  Spain  at  the  head  of  18,000  men  {Juno  712), 
took  Seville,  Carmona,  Merida,  and  other  towns, 
and  then  marched  upon  Toledo,  where  he  joined 
Tarik,  whom  he  caused  to  be  bastinadoed  and 
incarcerated,  but  afterwards  reinstated  in  obedience 
to  an  order  ftom  the  calif.  U.  then  marched  firat 
north-west  and  then  east,  subduing  the  oountiy  as 
he  went ;  he  then  crossed  the  Pyrenees  into 
France,  bnt  soon  after  returned  to  Spain,  where 
be  and  Tarik  received  messages  from  the  calif, 
command  ing  their  immediate  presence  at  Damascus ; 
Tarik  immediately  obeyed,  but  M.  delayed  till  a 
second  message  was  sent  to  him.  On  reaching 
DamasouB,  he  was  treated  with  neglect,  and,  on 
the  accession  of  the  Calif  Suleiman,  was  cast  into 
prison,  and  mulcted  in  200,000  jiieoes  of  gold;  his 
two  sous  were  deprived  of  their  covemments  of 
Kairwan  and  Tangier ;  and  the  uird  son,  who 
governed  Spain  in  his  father's  absence,  waa  beheaded, 
and  his  head  aant  to  Muza.  M.  died  soon  after  in 
the  greatest  poverty,  at  Hedja^  717  A-D. 

MYCEXIUM,  in  Botany,  a  development  of  vege- 
table life  peculiar  to  Fungi,  but  apparently  common 
to  all  the  species  of  that  Older.  Tliespaicn  of  mush- 
rooms is  the  Mycelium.  The  M.  appears  to  be  a 
provision  for  the  proportion  of  the  plant  where  its 
spores  may  not  reach,  its  extension  in  the  soil  or 
matrix  in  which  it  oiiats,  and  its  preservation  when 
circumstances  are  unfavourable  to  its  further 
development.  It  conaists  of  elongated  filaments, 
simple  or  jointed,  situated  dther  wittiin  the  matrix 
or  npon  Ha  surbtce.     It  is  often  membranous  or 

Slpy.  The  development  of  the  fungua  in  ita  proper 
m  seems  to  be  ready  to  take  place,  in  proper  cir- 
cumstances, from  any  part  of  the  MyceLum.  Fungi 
often  remun  long  in  the  state  ot  M.,  and  many  kinds 


MTOBN.ai— MYEOIA. 


to  botaay  In  inreatJ|^tuiA  theae  Rpnriona 
lenera,  uid  determmitie  tbeir  true  nature. — ijiqaon, 
which Qie flooonIentM.  of  a  fiuigiui fa  apreadiiig. 


ve  laid  to  be  molA^ry. 

MTCKN^  a  \erf  andeut  citj  in  tha  north- 
BBEtem  part  of  Aigolia,  in  tho  PaloponneauB,  bnilt 
□pon  a  craggy  hei^t,  is  aud  to  have  beeo  founded 
by  Perseus.  It  was  the  capital  of  Agamemnon's 
bngdom,  and  wm  at  that  time  the  priadpal  city  in 
OtMoe.  About  46S  B.O.,  it  was  destroyed  by  the 
inhatntants  of  Argos,  and  never  rose  again  from  its 
rains  to  anjUung  like  its  former  prosperity.  In 
Strabo's  time  its  rnins  ooiy  remained;  these  are 
still  to  be  seen  in  the  aeighboorhood  of  Kharvati, 
■nd  are  specimens  of  Oyclopean  architecture.  The 
most  celebrated  is  tha  '  Gats  of  Lion^'  the  chief 
antrance  to  the  andent  Acropolis.      Excavations 

Erosecated  at  M.  by  Dr  Henry  Schliemaan,  brought 
)  light  in  1S70  several  ancient  tombs,  containing  a 
large  quantity  d  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  &c 

MYELITIS  {mifdot,  marrow)  is  the  term  emplt^ed 
to  signify  inflammation  of  the  substance  of  the  spinal 
cord.  It  UBV  be  either  acuta  or  chronic,  but  the 
latter  is  by  far  the  most  common  affection.  The 
davnie  form  begins  with  a  little  uneasiness  in  the 
spine,  somewhat  disordered  aeusations  in  the  extre- 
mities, and  unusual  fatigue  after  any  slight  exertion. 
After  a  short  timepiu^ytia  symptoms  appear,  and 
slowly  increase.  Ilis  gait  becomes  ancertoin  and 
tottenng,  and  at  lengUi  tbe  limbs  toil  to  lapport 
the  body,  The  paralysis  finally  attacks  the  bladder 
and  rectum,  and  the  evoooations  are  disobarged 
iuvolDutarily ;  and  death  takes  place  as  the  result  of 
azhaustlon,  or  occssionally  of  asphyxia  if  the  para- 
lysis involves  tbe  chest  Id  the  acute  form  there 
is  much  pain  (eapsdally  in  the  spinal  region),  whioh 
usually  ceases  when  paralysis  supervenes.  The 
other  symptoms  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
ehronio  form,  but  they  occur  more  rapidly  and  with 
^ater  severity,  and  deabh  sometimes  takes  place 
in  a  few  days. 

The  most  common  causes  of  this  disease  are  falls, 
blows,  and  strains  from  over-exertion ;  but  sexual 
abuses  and  intemperate  habits  occasionally  induce 
it.  It  may  also  result  from  other  diseases  of  the 
spine  (as  caries),  or  may  be  propagated  from  infiam- 
mation  of  t^e  oorresponding  tissue  of  the  braiiL 

The  treatment,  whiob  is  much  the  same  as  that  of 
ioflommation  elsewhere,  must  be  confided  entirely  to 
Uie  medical  practitioner;  and  it  is  therefore  unneces- 
sary to  enttnr  into  any  details  regarding  it.  When 
oonfirmed  paralysis  has  set  in,  there  is  httle  to  hope 
for,  but  in  the  early  stwe  the  disesse  is  often 
checked  by  jndidone  remefies. 

MT'GAIJ^  a  genus  of  Bpiden,  the  tyi>e  of  a 


haiiy  legs,  lliey  make  silken  nests  in  clefts  of 
trees,  rocks,  Ac.,  or  in  the  ground,  sometimes  bni^ 
rowing  to  a  great  depth,  and  very  tortuously.  To 
this  genus  bdongs  the  bird-catching  Spider  (q.  v.)  of 
Surinam  ;  but  it  seems  now  to  be  ascertained  that 
several  of  the  lar^  species  frequently  prey  on 
small  vertebrate  ammals.  They  do  not  take  their 
prey  by  means  of  webs,  but  huat  for  it  and  pounce 
upon  it  by  surprise.  They  construct  a  silken 
dwelling  for  themselves  in  some  sheltered  retreat. 
Some  of  t^em  make  a  curious  lid  to  their  nest  or 
barrow.  They  envelop  their  eggs,  which  ars 
i_      lund  of  ooooon. 


MTLA'BRIS,  a  genns  of  coleopterous  insects, 
aeaxlj  allied  to  CaMharia  (q.  v.),  and  deserving  of 
notice  because  of  the  use  made  of  some  of  the 
species  as  blistering  flies.  M.  dchorii  is  thus  used 
in  China  and  India  ;  and  M.  Fuestdini,  a  native  of 
the  south  of  Europe,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
blistering  fly  of  the  ancients. 

MYLITTA  (r  corresponding  to  Heb.  Mq/aUddh, 
Oenitrix,  who  csnses  to  beu'),  a  female  deity, 
ajmarently  first  worshipped  among  the  Babylonians, 
"vho  trraiiually  spread  her  worship  through  Assyria 
ind  Persin,  She  is  originally,  like  almost  every 
other  mythological  deity,  a  cosmic  symbol,  and 
represents  the  female  portion  of  the  twofold 
pnnoiple  through  which  all  creation  burst  into 
existence,  and  which  alone,  by  its  united  active 
and  passive  powers,  upholds  it.  M.  is  to  a  certain 
degree  the  representative  of  Earth,  the  Mother, 
who  conceives  from  the  Sun,  Bel  or  BnaL  M.  and 
Boat  together  are  considei^  tbe  type  of  the 
'Good.'  Procreation  thus  being  the  basis  of  M.'s 
office  in  natore,  the  act  itself  became  a  kind  oC 
worship  to  M.,  and  was  hallowed  through  and  for 
Thns  it  came  to  pass,  that  every  Babylonian 
m  had  once  in  her  life  to  give  henelf  up 
to  a  stranger,  and  thereby  considered  her  person 
consecrated  to  the  great  goddess.  The  sacrifice 
itself  seems,  especially  in  the  early  stage  of  i  ta  intro- 
on  among  the  divine  rites  of  the  primitive 
lonians,  to  have  had  much  less  of  the  repul- 
Bss,  which,  in  the  eyes  of  higlUy-oultivated 
[IS,  must  be  attached  to  it ;  and  it  was  only  in 
later  days  that  it  gave  rise  to  tiie  proverbial  Baby- 
lonian lewdness.  Herodotus's  account  of  this  subject 
must,  like  almost  all  his  other  stories,  be  received 
with  great  caution. 

ATT'LODOIT  (Gr.  grinder-teeth),  agenns  of  huzs 
fossil  sloths,  whose  remains  are  found  in  the  Pleb- 
tooeno  deposits  of  South  America,  associated  with 
the  Megatherium  and  other  allied  genera.  A  com- 
Jete  skeleton,  dug  up  at  Bueuos  Ayres,  measured 
.1  feet  from  the  fore  port  of  the  skull  to  the  end  oE 
the  toiL  Although  like  the  modem  sloth  in  general 
~'rnctui«  and  dentition,  its  immense  size  forbids  us 
suppose  that  it  conld  have  had  the  some  arboreal 
habits,  and  the  modifications  of  its  structure  seem 
to  have  fitted  it  for  the  uprooting  and  prostrating 
tile  ttees,  the  foliage  of  which  supplied  it  wttS 

MT'NIAS,  more  aoouretely  Uihyaj,  was,  in 
Greek  mythology,  the  son   of  Chryses.      He  was 

i~  '  ;  of  Jolcoa,  and  gave  his  name  to  the  people 
sd  Minya.  He  built  tbe  city  of  Orchomenus, 
where  rites  (named  after  bim)  were  celebrated  in 
his  honour.  His  three  daoghters  Clymeco,  Iris, 
and  AIcithoH,  according  to  Ovid,  but  LeuconoD, 
'  — ippe,  and  AlcithoH  according  to  other  authors, 
changed  into  bats  for  havmg  contemned  the 
mysteries  of  Bacchus. 

MYOSOTIS.    See  FoBaKt-HX-KVr. 
MYltOIA,  a  ^enns  (A  troes  of  the  natural  order 
Myriaoea,  to  which  belongs  Xbt  Wiu>  Clovx  or 


Cooiiilc 


MTRIAPODA— HTTEEH. 


Wild  Cinitaijoh  of  the  Wart  Indies  (Jf.  aert*),  a 
handsome  tree  of  20  or  30  feet  high.  Iti  timber  U 
vary  bfttd,  red,  and  he«vy.  Ita  leavee  luve  an 
aromatio  cinnamoa-like  amell,  and  an  agreeable 
utringency,  and  are  med  is  Muces.  Its  berriea  ore 
round,  ana  as  large  as  peas,  have  an  aromatio  smell 
and  taste,  and  ore  used  foi  culinary  purposes — 
The  leaTCs,  berries,  and  flower-buds  ol  H.  pimen- 
toidea  hare  a  hot  taste  and  fragrant  smell,  and  are 
ftUo  tised  for  culinary  purposes. 

MYRIATODA  (Or.  myriad-footed),  a  class  of 
Arlhropoda.Teteai'almgAnntlida'wiiib.eit  lengthened 
form,  and  in  the  Kreat  number  of  equal,  or  nearly 
equal,  segments  of  which  Qxe  body  is  compoeed ; 
but  ia  most  of  their  other  ohsractara  more  nearly 
agreeing  with  luects,  Kmoi^  which  they  were 
rfuiked  by  the  earlier  naturalists,  and  still  are  by 
some.  They  have  a  distinct  bead,  but  there  is  no 
distinction  of  the  other  segments,  as  in  insects,  into 
thorax  and  abdomen.  They  have  simple  or  com- 
pound eyes ;  a  few  ore  deititute  of  eyea.  They 
have  antenniB  like  those  of  inaects.  The  mouth  is 
furnished  with  a  complex  mostioating  apparatus, 
in  tome  resembling  that  of  some  insects  in  a  larval 
state,  in  others,  similar  to  that  of  crustaoeans. 
Bespiratiou  is  carried  on  through  minute  pores  or 
spiracles,  placed  on  each  aide  along  the  entire  length 
oItlieboay,tiie  air  being  distributed  by  Imiiimcr^le 
nunifjring  air-tubes  to  all  parts.  In  most  parts  of 
their  internal  oi^niaation  the  M.  resemble  inaects  ; 
although  a  decided  inferiority  ia  exhibited,  parti- 
cularly in  the  less  jperfect  concentration  of  the 
nervous  aystem.  The  resemblance  is  greater  to 
insects  in  their  larval  than  in  tiieir  perfect  state. 
The  body  of  the  M.  is  protected  by  a  hard  daUnoni 
covering.  The  number  of  segments  is  varions, 
seldom  fewer  than  24;  although  in  some  of  Uie 
hi^er  jjenera  they  Rre  coiuoui.lated  togebher  in 
pans,  BO  Uiat  each  pair,  unless  closely  examined, 
might  be  considered  as  one  segment  bearins  two 
pairs  of  feet  The  legs  of  aome  of  the  lower  kinds, 
u  Jvivi  (q.  v.),  are  very  numeroua,  and  may  be 
regarded  oa  iatennediate  between  the  bristle-like 
^pendages  which  serve  many  annelids  as  organs  of 
locomotion,  and  the  distinctly  articulated  Tegs  of 
inaects.  In  the  higher  M.,  as  Seoiopendra,  the  tegs 
are  much  fewer,  and  articulated  like  those  of  insects. 
None  of  the  M.  have  wings.  Some  of  them  feed  on 
decajring  organic  matter,  chiefly  vegetable;  those 
of  higher  oifpniaation  are  conuvorous.  The  M.  do 
not  undergo  changes  so  great  as  those  of  insects, 
but  emerge  from  the  egg  more  similar  to  what  they 
ore  ultimately  to  become ;  although  some  of  them 
are  at  first  quite  destitute  of  feet ;  and,  contrary  to 
what  takes  place  in  insects,  the  body  becomes  more 
elongated  as  maturiti/  ia  approachc<(,  the  number  of 
segments  and  of  foet  increasing. 

rhe  M.  ore  divided  into  two  ordecs:  the  lower, 
ChilonnaUia  {Jului,  &c),  having  the  body  sub-cylin- 


I^S 


drical,  the  feet  very  numerous,  the  head  r 
the  mandibles  thick  and  strong ;  the  higher,  Chile- 
poda  (Scdoptndra,  &c),  having  the  body  flattened, 
the  feet  comparatively  few,  the  head  brood,  the 
mandibles  shup  and  curved. 

The  M.  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  in  the 
ound,  among  moss,  under  stonee,  in  the  decaying 
irk  of  trees,  m  decaying  roots,  and  in  many  simiUr 
cdtuations.  The  largest  apeoies  ore  tropica.  They 
are  all  generally  regarded  with  aversion.  It  is 
doubtful  how  far  any  of  them  are  injurious  to 
crops,  although  it  is  not  imprebable  that  they 
accelerate  rottenness  already  begun ;  hut  some 
(Centqiedes)  have  a  venomous  aod  painful  bite. 
UYRI'CA.  See  Cahiilebeiuit. 
UYSISTIOA'CB'fl    SeeNcTMKL 


MYBI'STIC  ACID  (C,H„O„H0)  is  a  c 
fatty  acid,   found   in  the   Bee£   of   the 
nutmeg,  Myrislica  motcJuita.     It  occurs  ia  the  form 
of  a  g^cende  in  the  fat  of  the  nutm^ 
butl«r.   It  baa  recentJy  been  found 


ongat  Uie  products  of  the  saponification  of  sper- 

ceti,  and  ol  the  fatty  matter  of  milk ;  and  hence 

this  organic  acid  must  be  ranked  amongst  those 

which  are  common  both  to  the  animal  and  vegetable 

MYBMBCO'PHAQA.    See  Aht-katki. 

MTRO'BALANS,  the  astringent  fruit  of  certain 
species  of  Tenmnalia,  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Combrdacea,  natives  of  the  mountains  of  India. 
The  genus  Terminaiia  has  a  deciduous  bell-shaped 
calyx  and  no  corolla ;  the  fruit  ia  a  jniceleM  dmpe. 
T.  Sekrica,  a  species  with  alternate  elliptical  entire 
leaves,  on  long  stalks,  produces  great  part  ct 
the  U.  of  commerce ;  but  the  fniits  of  other 
species  often  appear  under  the  same  name.  Tonio 
properties  are  ascribed  to  M. ;  but  although  once 
m  great  repute,  they  are  now  scansely  used  in 
medicine.  They  are  used,  however,  by  tannen  and 
by  dyers,  and  have  therefore  become  a  very  con- 
siderable article  of  importation  from  IndiOi  They 
give  a  durable  yeEow  colour  with  alum,  and,  wiUi 
Uie  addition  of  iron,  an  excellent  black.— £>nil(i;  M, 
are  the  fruit  of  EwUica  officinal,  ai  the  natural 
order  Evphorbiacta,  a  native  of  India.  They  are 
used  in  India  as  a  tonio  and  astringent ;  also  in 
tanning  and  in  the  making  of  ink. — There  is  a  kind 
of  plum  called  the  Myrobalan  FUtm,    Bee  PLtm. 

MYRRH  (Heb.  mur),  a  gum  resin  produced  by 
Baltamodendron  (q.  v.)  m^rrlui,  a  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Amf/ridaeea,  growing  in  Arabi^  and  prob- 
ably also  m  Abyssinia  Ihe  M.  tree  is  small  and 
scrubby,  spiny,  with  whitiih-gray  bark,  thinly- 
scattered  small  leaves,  each  consuting  ot  three 


Uyirh  [Baliamodendroa  msrrha), 

obovata  obtusely  toothletted  leaflets,  and  the  £rmt 
a  smooth  brown  orate  drape,  Bomewbat  briber 
than  a   pea.      M.  exudes  from  the  bark  in  oily 

C'lowiah  drops,  which  gradually  thicken  and  finally 
ome  hard,  the  colour  at  the  same  time  besoming 
darker.  U.  has  been  known  and  valued  from  the 
most  ancient  times ;  it  is  mentioned  as  an  article 
of  commerce  in  Qen.  xxzvii  25,  and  was  amongst 
the  presents  which  Jaoob  sent  to  the  Egyptian 
ruler,  and  amongst  those  which  th«  wise  men  from 


:„zu:ovGuUi^k 


MYB5INACE£— HTSORK 


the  Eut  bronclit  to  the  inftnt  Jemti 
ingredieat. in  Qie  ' holy  aoointing  oil'  of  the  Jews. 
U.  appesn  in  commerce  either  in  tean  »nd  gtsina, 
or  in  piece!  of  irregular  form  and  varions  dzcB, 
vellow,  red,  or  redduh  bnrwn.  It  i«  tnittle,  and 
bas  a  wax^  fiactnre,  often  exhibiting  wbitiBh  veina. 
Its  emell  u  batsamic,  its  ta«te  aromatio  and  bitter. 
It  ia  lued  in  medicine  u  ft  tonio  and  atiinnltiit,  in 
diiorden  of  the  digettive  organa,  ezceanve  were- 
tioDi  from  the  mucoaa  membranea,  &a.,  alio  to 
olcMuw  foni  oloen  and  proniote  their  healing,  and 
•I  a  dentifrice,  particularlv  in  a  ipongj  or  ulcerated 
oondition  of  tiie  gimu.  It  wm  macS  naed  by  the 
ancient  Egyptiana  in  embalmings  The  beet  M.  is 
known  in  commerM  m  Tartt;/  M.,  beioD;  hrou;^ 
tram  TnrkiBh  porta ;  ae  the  name  Ea^  Indian  M. 
is  also  given  to  M.  brought  to  Europe  from  the 
East  Indiea,  altboagh  it  ii  sot  produced  tharei  bat 
oomes  from  Abysmnia,  It  ii  not  yet  oertiiinly 
known  whether  the  M.  tree  of  Abymima  is  the  Mine 
H  that  of  Arabia,  or  an  allied  species, 

HTBSlNA'CEiS,  a  natural  order  of  ez(«enous 
plants,  consistmg  of  trees  and  shrahs,  lUitlveE  of 
wann  climates,  and  having  simple  leaUiery  leaves, 
detrtitnte  of  stipules ;  hermaphrodite  or  unisemal 
floirerB,  generally  small,  but  often  in  umbels, 
corymbs,  or  pamcles ;  very  similar  in  structure  to 
the  flowers  of  the  Prinadaeta  ;  the  fruit  generally 
fleshy,  with  1 — 4  «eed>.  The  flowers  are  very  often 
marked  with  sonken  dots  or  glandular  lines. — There 
•re  more  than  300  known  species.  Man;  of  them 
are  beautdfol  evergreen  ahrnha,  particularly  the 
genus  ArdUia.  Some  have  peppe?  fruit,  u 
ambdiaTtbt*. 

HTBTA'CE^  a  natural  order  of  exogeuooa 
idanta,  consisting  of  trees  and  shnibe,  natives 
chiefly  of  warm,  but  partly  also  of  temperate 
eonnbies.  The  order,  aa  doBned  by  the  greater 
nnmber  of  botanists,  inclndea  several  sulrardera, 
which  are  r^arded  by  some  as  distinct  orders, 
particularly  (^AUSLAUCUCKa  (m  which  are  con- 
tained about  SO  known  species,  mostly  beautiful 
little  boshes,  often  with  fr^rant  leaves,  natives  of 
New  BoUand),  'BisBisarosiACtx  (□.  v.),  and  'Lttn- 
TsmACBJE  (q.  v.).  Even  as  restricted,  by  i^e  separa. 
tion  of  these,  the  order  contains  about  1300  known 
species.  The  leaves  are  entire,  usually  with  pel- 
lucid dots,  and  a  vein  running  parallel  to  and  near 
their  margin. — Some  of  the  species  are  gigantic 
tree^  aa  the  EvadypU  or  Cunt  Treea  of  New  Hoi- 
land,  and  difierent  species  of  Metrotiderot.  of  which 
one  is  fonnd  aa  far  south  at  Lord  Auckland's  Islands, 
lat.  60^°.  The  timber  is  generally  compact 
Astringency  seems  to  be  rather  a  prevalent 
property  in  the  order,  and  the  leaves  or  other 
parts  «l  some  apedes  are  naed  in  medicine  as 
■stringenta  and  tonics.  A  fragrant  or  pungent 
volatile  oil  is  often  present  in  considerable  quan- 
tity, of  which  Oil  tif  C<ytpiil  and  OH  qf  Clora  are 
eiamplea.  Clovu  and  Pimento  are  amongst  Ute 
best  known  products  of  the  oider.  The  berries  of 
ievetal  speciea  are  occsiionally  used  as  spices  in 
way  as  the  true  Pimento.    A  considerable 


moderate  size,  with  white  flowers.  It  is  a  native  of  all 
the  conntiies  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  of 
the  t^nperate  parts  of  Asia,  often  forming  thickets, 
which  sometimes  oocor  even  within  the  reach  of 
the  sea-spray.  The  leaves  are  ovate  or  lanceolate, 
varying  much  in  breadth.  They  are  astringent  and 
arumabo,  containing  a  volatile  oil,  and  were  used 
in  medicine  by  the  ancients  aa  a  stimulant.  Th< 
berries  are  also  aromatiGj  and  are  used  in  medicine  ii 


HTBTLB  (Mi/rttti),  a  genus  of  Myrtaaa,  having 
the  limb  of  the  calyx  I — (S-parted,  4 — 6  petala, 
irons  free  stamens,  an  almost  globose  germen, 
I  2 — 3-oelled  berry,  crowned  with  the  limb  of 
the  calyx,  and  ocmtaining  kidney-shaped  seeds.  The 
leaves  are  oroosite  and  maAed  with  pellucid  dots  ; 
the  flowec-Ruka  are  axillary,  and  genially  one- 
flowered.  The  CoKKOH  M.  (Jf.  comjimnit)  a  well 
known  as  a  beaotifal  evergreen  shrub,  or  a  tree  of 


Greece  and  India.  A  M.  wine,  called  MyrHdanutii, 
is  made  in  Tuscany.  U.  bark  is  used  for  *niiing  in 
manypartsoIthsMuth  of  Europe^  Among  the  ancient 
Qre«ks,  the  M.  was  sacred  to  Venus,  as  Ule  symbol 
of  youth  and  beaaty,  was  much  need  in  festivals, 
and  was,  aa  it  still  ia,  often  mentdooed  in  poetry. 
The  M.  endures  the  winters  of  Britain  only  in  the 
mildest  situations  in  the  south. — The  Suall-lkavxd 
M.  of  Pern  [M.  micrapliyUa)  has  red  berries  of  the 
size  of  a  pea,  of  a  pleasant  flavour  and  sugary 
sweetness.  Thoee  of  the  Ldxa  {M.  Imrta)  are  also 
palatable,  and  are  eaten  in  Chili ;  as  are  those 
of  the  DowKT  M.  (Jf.  tomentoaa],  on  the  Neilgherry 
TTilln ;  and  those  of  the  Whiti-berkeed  M.  {if, 
Uwooarpa),  b^  some  regarded  as  a  variety  of  the 
Common  M.,  m  Qreeoe  and  Syria.  The  berriea  of 
this  species  or  variety  are  larger  than  those  of  the 
Common  M.,  and  have  a  very  pleasant  taste  and 
smeJi— A  vety  humble  species  01 M.  (Jf.  mimmvlaria) 
spreads  over  the  ground  in  the  Falkland  TslanHs,  as 
Uiyme  does  in  Britain. 
MTETLE-WAX.  See  Wis. 
MT'SIS,  a  aenns  of  podopbthahnous  (stalk-eyed) 
ustaceans,  of  the  order  Stomajioda,  much  reson- 
bting  the  common  shrimps  in  fom,  olthon^  diJETering 
from  them  in  the  external  positioD  of  the  gills.  They 


3  often  called  Opouum  Sirimpt,  because  the  last 
e  furnished  with  an  appendage,  v-*---*-  ~ 
K>uch,  and  in  £is 


3,  which  in 


two  feet  are  furnished  with  an  appcni 
the  female  forms  a  large  pouch,  and  in  ^^ 

are  received  after  they  leave  the  ovary,  and  ara 
retained  till  the  yonng  acquire  a  form  very  similar 
to  that  of  the  parent,  when  the  whole  brood  ora  at 
once  set  free  into  the  ocean.  Species  of  M.  are 
found  on  the  British  shores,  but  they  are  far  more 
abundant  in  the  Arctic  seas,  where  they  form  no 
small  part  of  the  food  of  whales,  and  of  many  fiake^ 
particularly  of  different  spedes  of  salmon. 

MYSOTIE,    or    MAISOK,   a   native    state   of 
Sonthern  India,  administered  from  1831  tiU  18S1  by 

,. ..-ftog 


MrSORE— MYSTERIEa 


the  British  goveniment.  It  is  Buiroiuided  by  dis- 
tricts  of  the  Hadraa  gorernment.  The  aiek  i>  26,000 
iqusra  mile*.  Pop.  in  1S72,  G,05S,41S;  in  1881. 
4,186.109.  M.  ia  an  extenaive  table-Und,  with  an 
Bvsr^e  eleration  of  Aboat  2000  feet,  and  with  a 
■lope  [iriDcipally  toward  the  north  and  north-east 
The  chief  riven  are  the  Caqvei^,  flowing  aouth-owt^ 
and  the  Tangahhadro,  the  Hugri,  and  the  Pennar 
flowing  north  and  north-eaat.  The  climate  of  the 
higher  diitricta  ii  dnring  a  great  portion  of  the 
year  healthy  and  pleasant.  The  annual  valae  of 
the  exparti,  which  coosfat  of  betel-nut,  cofiee, 
cotton,  cardamoms,  rice,  silk,  and  augar,  is  above 
£1,100,000.    The  imports,  consisting  mainly  of  iron, 

5 old,  l>epper,  salt,  and  poises,  are  over  £1,500,000. 
lie  nuDOuB  tnisgovemment  of  the  native  prince  led 
the  British  to  assume  the  administration  in  1331 ; 
and  it  wai  entirely  nnder  their  management  till 
1881,  when  it  wal  restored  to  native  government. 
The  famine  yean  1S76-T8  tdd  with  great  ieverity 
on  M.  Chief  town,  Mytore ;  but  the  British  head- 
quarters wore  at  Bangalore.  For  the  history  of  M., 
•ee  articles  Hsdkk  Alt,  Tmoo  Sauib,  and  Ihdu. 

MTBORB,  or  MAISUR,  is  a  city  of  India,  and 
capital  of  the  native  state  described  above  (as  also 
chief  town  of  a  district  in  the  wme).  It  is  situated 
amid  picturesque  aceoery  on  «  declivity  formed  by 
two  parallel  ranges  of  elevat«d  ground  running  north 
and  Boath,  245  toiles  weat-south-weat  of  Madrtu, 
lat  12°  l»'N.,long.  T6°42'E.  The  hoosea  are  ge 
rally  built  of  teak,  and  among  the  chief  edifices 
the  British  residency  and  church.  The  fort  ._ 
quadrangular  in  form,  three  of  its  sides  being  4S0 
yards  in  length,  and  the  remaining  side  longer. 
The  mjah's  palace,  oocnpying  three  sides  of  the 
interior  fort,  contains  a  magnibcent  chair  or  throne 
of  gold.  The  climate  is  mild,  but  not  healthy  ^ 
fevers  are  of  freqnent  occuTTeoce.  Carpels  are 
maDufactnied.    Pop.  60,000. 

MT8TAOOOUB  (Or.  mtuta,  an  initiated 
parson,  and  ago,  I  lead),  the  nam«  in  tiie  Greek 
nBgioni  ay«tem  of  the  priest  whoas  duty  it  was  to 
direct  the  preparatians  of  the  candidates  foe  initia- 
tion in  the  several  mysteriea,  as  well  as  to  condact 
the  oeremonial  of  initiation.  It  was  sometimes 
applied  by  a  sort  of  analogy  to  tlu  class  of  profes- 
vonal  eieeroni,  who  in  ancient,  as  still  in  modem 
times,  undertook  to  shew  to  strangers  newly  arrived 
in  a  city  the  noteworthy  objects  which  it  contained ; 
but  the  former  meanina  ia  its  primitive  one,  and 
formed  the  ground  of  tne  soplication  of  the  same 
name  in  the  Christian  church,  to  the  catechists  or 
other  clergy  who  prepared  candidates  for  the  Chris- 
tian myffcriu,  or  sacraments,  of  baptism,  confirma- 
tion, and  the  eucharist,  especially  the  lost.  In 
this  sense,  the  word  is  ooastantl^  nsed  by  the 
fathers  of  the  4lh  and  Sth  centuries ;  and  m  the 
well-known  lectures  of  St  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
although  all  were  addressed  to  candidates  for  the 
mystenea,  some  for  baptism,  and  some  tor  the 
eucharist,  it  is  only  to  the  lectures  addressed  to  the 
latter  that  the  name  myatagojjic  ia  applied.  This 
distinction  was  connected  with  the  well-kaown 
Discipline  of  the  Secret;  and  it  appMua  to  have 
ceased  with  the  abolition  or  gmdnal  disuse  of  that 
discipline. 

MY3TBBIES  (Qr.  from  muo,  to  close  the  lips  or 
eyes),  also  colled  TtUUA,  Orgia,  or,  in  I&tin,  laiiia, 
^signate  certain  rites  and  ceremonies  in  ancient, 
ohieny  Greek  and  Roman  religions,  only  known  to, 
and  proctiaBd  by,  congregations  of  certain  initiated 
men  and  women,  at  appomted  seasons,  and  in  strict 
Holuaiou.  The  origin,  as  Well  as  the  real  purport  of 
tliese  mvsteriea,  v,-hiuh  take  no  unimportant  place 
amona  the  religious  featival*  of  t^e  olossical  period, 


and  which,  in  tbur  ever-ehgnging  nature,  deaignat* 
various  phosea  of  reUfpoos  development  in  th« 
antique  world,  is  all  bat  unknown.  It  data  aeem, 
indeed,  as  if  the  vague  apeeulations  ol  modem  timea 
on  the  subject  were  on  echo  of  the  manifold  inter. 

E relations  of  the  various  acts  of  the  mystertei  given 
ythe  priests  to  the  inqnirinK  diaciple~aaooiding  to 
the  li^ts  of  the  fotmer  or  toe  latter.  Soma  inves- 
tigat«[B,  thetnselvea  not  tntirely  free  bom  certain 
mystio  influenoea  (like  Oreuaer  and  othen),  hav« 
held  them  to  have  been  a  kind  of  mis^  oib  aimmd 
a  kernel  of  pure  hght,  the  bright  rays  d  which  were 
imtitade ;  tha^  in 


religion,  the  knowledge  of  which  hod  been  derived 
from  some  primeval,  or,  perhttis,  the  Mosaic  levela- 
tSon ;  if  it  could  not  be  traced  to  certain  (or  uncer- 
tain) Egyptian,  Indian,  or  generally  Eastern  sources; 
To  tliis  land  of  ha^  talk,  nowever  [which  we  only 
mention  because  it  is  still  repeated  evety  now  and 
then),  the  real  and  thoreugh  investigations  begun 
by  Lobeck,  and  still  pursued  by  many  competent 
saioIaiB  in  our  own  day,  have,  or  ought  to  have, 
put  an  end.  There  cannot  be  anyUiing  more 
alien  to  the  whole  spirit  of  Greek  and  Roman 
antiquity  than  a  hidmg  of  abstract  truths  and 
occult  wisdom  under  ritea  and  formulas,  songs  and 
dances ;  and,  in  fact,  the  mysteriea  were  anything 
but  exclusive,  either  witl  respect  to  sex,  age,  or 
rank,  in  point  of  ioitjatiou.  It  was  only  the  specu- 
lative tendency  of  Uter  times,  when  Polytheism 
was  on  the  wane,  that  tried  to  symbolise  and 
allegorise  these  obscure,  and  partly  imported  cere, 
momes,  the  bulk  of  which  hod  Dndonbtedly  sprung 
from  the  midst  of  the  Pdaggjan  tribes  themselves  in 
prehistoric  times,  and  which  were  intended  to  repre- 
sent and  to  celebrate  certain  natural  phenomena  in 
the  visible  creiation.  There  is  certainly  no  reason  to 
deny  that  some  more  refined  minds  may  at  a  very 
early  period  have  endeavoured  to  impart  a  ht^ter 
sense  to  these  wondrous  performancec ;  but  tScae 
can  only  be  considered  as  sahtary  instances.  The 
very  fact  of  their  having  to  be  pot  down  in  later 


ilumes  B^nat  the  occult  v 


secret  assemblies  of  men  and  .  . 

The  mysteries,  as  such,  consisted  of  purificat£oni^ 
sacrificial  offerings,  processions,  Bongs,  daooes, 
dramatia  perionnances,  and  the  like.  The  mysti« 
formulas  [DHknuTnerta,  Dromaia,  Ltgomam,  <h« 
latter  including  the  Liturgies,  &&)  were  held  deep 
secrets,  and  could  only  be  oommonicated  to  those 
who  hsd  passed  the  last  stage  of  preparatioa 
in  the  mystagogne'e  bond.  The  hold  which  the 
nightly  secrecy  of  these  meetings,  together  witJi 
their  extraordinary  wonhip,  miut  nanirally  hava 
taken  upon  minds  more  fr^  and  childlibi  than 
OH^  advanced  ages  can  boast  of,  was  increased  by 
all  the  mechanical  contrivances  of  the  effects  of 
light  and  sound  which  the  priests  conld  command. 
Sfyaterions  voices  were  head  singing,  whiaperina 
and  sighing  all  around,  lights  eleamed  in  manifoM 
colonia  from  above  and  below,  figures  appeared  and 
disappeared ;  the  mimic,  the  tomo,  the  plastic — all 
the  arts,  in  fact,  were  tued  to  their  very  utmost  to 
make  these  performances  (the  oeareat  approach  to 
which,  in  this  country,  is  fumiahed  by  tiansfoi^ 
mation-Boenea,  or  sensation-dramaa  in  general)  oa 
atteoctive  and  profitable  (to  the  priests)  as  could 
be.  As  far  as  we  have  any  knowledge  of  the  ploti 
of  these  Mysteries  as  soenio  repreaentotiimB,  they 
generally  brought  the  atoriea  of  the  special  gods  or 
j^oddessea  before  the  spectator— their  Diitb*,  soffer- 
mgs,  deaths,  and  reanrrections.  Many  were  the 
outward  aymbola  nsed,  ^  which  ■neh.os  the  niallns, 


'^'-"-'glr 


MYSTERIES  AHD  UIRACLE  PLATa 


tiie  'Bijnaa,  Ylowsr  Baskets,  Mystio  Boies,  in 
oonnectioii  with  apecial  deitdas,  told  more  or  less 
their  own  tale,  although  the  meftttiiigi  lupplied  by 
later  ages,  from  the  IJeo-pUtonists  to  our  own  day, 
mie  Tarioiu,  ajid  often  veiy  amadcg.  The  most 
importwit  Mysteries  were,  in  historical  times,  those 
of  Etensia  Mtd  the  I^«unofJiori«n,  both  Rpresentinx 
— each  from  «  different  point  of  view— the  rape  id 
Proserpina,  and  Ceres's  search  for  her ;  the  Theiono- 
phorian  mTsteriea  being  also  in  a  mannw  connected 
with  the  Dionysian  worship.  There  ware  further 
those  of  Zeus  w  Crete— deoved  from  a  verr  remote 
period — of  Bacchus  '''"""If,  of  Cybele,  and  Aphro- 
dite— the  two  Utter  with  reference  to  the  Mystery  o( 
Propagstdon,  bat  celebrated  ia  dUmetiically  opposed 
ways,  the  former  culminating  in  the  self-mntil&tion 
of  the  worshipper,  the  latter  in  prostitution.  Fur- 
ther, the  Mysteries  of  Orpheus,  who  in  a  oeitoiu 
degree  was  considered  the  founder  of  all  mysteries. 
Nor  were  the  other  gods  and  goddesses  forgotten : 
Eerft,  Uioerra,  Diana,  Hecate,  nay,  foreicn  gods 
like  Uitbras  (^.v.),  and  the  like,  had  their  dne 
'  solemnities  all  over  the  rlnnnii'at  toil,  aod 
■rsoerer  Greek  (and  par  " 
took  thfflr  Lares  and  Penates  . 
world.  The  b^pjuiiiig  of  the  reaction  _ . 
■of  thinking  men,  against  t.tiiM  mostly  gross  and 
Regenerated  kind  of  veneration  of  natontl  powers 
and  instincts,  is  marked  by  the  period  of  the 
Hedodio  poons ;  and  whan  towards  the  end  of  the 
classical  periods^  the 
secret,  bnt  pnblio  owie 
their  days  were  nmnbered.  The  most  anbtle  meta- 
physicians, allegorise  and  symbolise  as  they  might, 
failed  in  reviving  them,  and  in  restoring  tham  to 
^Fhatever  primerol  dignity  there  mi^^t  have  <moa 

_.   M1EA0LB-PLAT8  were 

founded  on  the  historical  parts  of  the  Old 

and  New  Testaments,  and  the  lives  of  the  saints, 
performed  dorin^  the  middle  ages,  firat  in  churches, 
and  afterwards  m  the  streets  ""  " — ' "■'" 


nUied  o 


stuee.  Mvsteries  were  properly  tikea  from  biblical 
and  miracle-plays  from  l^endary  sabiects,  hut  this 
distinction  in  nomeoelaloM  was  not  always  strictly 


adhered  tOL  We  have  an  extant  specimen  of  the 
rejigioDS  play  <A  a  date  prior  to  the  beginning  of  the 
miiWW  ages  in  the  Chriloi  PiuehSTt,  asngne^  soma- 


«n  subjects  connected  with  the  lives  of  the 
by  BoewiUia,  a  nun  of  Gandersh^m,  in  Saxony, 
iriiich,  though  not  very  artistically  oonitracteo, 
possess  considerable  dnunatic  power  and  interest ; 
they  have  been  laWy  poblisned  at  Paris,  with 
a  French  translation.  The  performeis  ware  at 
first  the  clergy  and  chorist^s,  afterwards  any 
layman  might  participate.  The  earhest  recorded 
DMiormance  of  a  miraole-play  took  place  in  Eng- 
land. Matthew  Paris  relates  that  Oeofiroy.  aft^ 
wards  Abbot  of  St  Albans,  while  a  secular,  exhibited 
at  Dunstable  the  miracle-play  of  St  Catherine,  and 
borrowed  cope*  from  St  Albans  to  dreee  his  oha- 
racteis.  This  must  have  been  at  the  end  of  the 
11th  or  beginning  of  the  I2th  century.  Fitzstephen, 
inhisi/i/c  <if  Thonuu  &  Becktt,  1183  i.I>.,  describes 
with  approval  the  representation  in  London  of  the 
Bofierings  of  the  ssinn  and  miracles  of  the  oonfeasM^ 
On  the  establishment  of  the  Corpos  Christi  festival 
l^  Pope  Urban  IV.  in  1264,  miracla-plays  became 
one  of  its  adjuncts,  and  every  consideraUe  town 
had  a  fraternity  for  their  performance.  ThrougboQt 
the  16th  and  followicg  centuries,  they  oontmued 
in  full  force  in  England,  and  are  mentioned,  some- 
tdmea  approvingly,  sometimes  disapprovingly,  by 
contemporary  writers,    Designed  at  lust  as  a  means 


of  religions  instmction  for  the  people^  Uot  had 
long  b^ore  the  Beformation  so  ax  departed  from 
their  original  character,  as  to  be  mixed  up  in  many 
instances  with  buffoonery  and  irreverence,  inten* 
tional  or  nnintantioDal,  and  to  be  the  means  of 
inducing  contem^pt  raljier  than  respect  for  the 
church  and  rehgion.  Bemarkable  collections  exist 
of  English  mysteries  and  miraoles  of  the  ISth  a, 
kimwn  as  the  lowneley  M.  (Surtees  Soc,  133C),  the 
Coventiy  M.  (Shakapeare  Soc,  1841),  Uio  Chester 
PUys  (Shakapeare  Soo.,  1843),  and  the  York 
Plays  (0x1  Clar.  Press,  1385).  The  Towneley  M. 
are  full  of  the  burlesque  element,  and  contain  many 
cnrious  illustrations  of  contemporary  manners. 

Out  of  the  mysteries  and  mirade-pl^i  sprang  a 
third  class  of  religious  plays  called  MordUlitt,  in 
which  all^orical  personiticatioQs  of  the  Virtues  and 
Vices  were  introduced  as  dramatii  pernmce.  These 
personages  at  first  only  took  part  in  the  play  along 
with  the  scriptural  or  legends^  charact^s,  bnt 
afterwards  entirely  superseded  t^em.  The  oldest 
known  English  compositions  of  this  kind  are  of  the 
tine  of  Henry  VL ;  they  are  more  elaborate  and 
less  interesting  than  the  miracle-plays.  Moralities 
continued  in  fashion  till  the  time  of  Ehzabeth, 
and  wera  the  immediate  precunors  of  the  r^ular 

Miracles  and  mysteries  were  sa  popular  in  Fnmc^ 
Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy  aa  in  England.  A  piece 
of  the  kind  yet  extant,  composed  in  France  in  the 
lithe,  is  entitled  the  .Sfjuto^i/eAe  Wueand  Fooli^ 
Virgiiu,  and  written  partly  in  tlie  Provencal  dialect 
and  paitly  in  Latin.  A  celebrated  fratermtjr,  called 
theConft^rie  de  la  Pasnon,  founded  in  Paiis  in  1350, 
had  a  monopoly  for  the  performance  of  mysteries 
and  miracle-plays,  which  were  of  such  a  length, 
that  the  exhibition  of  each  occupied  several  days. 
A  large  number  of  the  French  mysteries  of  the  I4th 
c  are  extant.  In  the  alpine  districts  of  Germany, 
miracle-plays  were  composed  and  acted  by  the 
peasants :  these  pessant-plays  had  less  regiUarity 
m  their  dramatio  form,  were  often  interspersed 
with  songi  and  processions ;  and  in  their  union 
of  simplicity  with  high-wrought  feeling  wera  most 
characteristic    of    a    people    in    whom    the   reli- 

Sious  and  dramatic  element  are  both  so  largely 
Bveloped,  In  the  early  part  of  last  century,  uiey 
began  to  partake  to  a  limited  extent  of  the 
burlesque,  which  had  brought  miracle-plays  into 
disrepute  elsewhere^ 

It  IS  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  bcstiliW  of 
the  reformers  was  what  suppressed  these  exhibi- 
tions. The  fathers  of  the  Information  shewed  no 
unfriendly  feeling  towards  them.  Luther  is  reported 
to  have  said  that  they  often  did  more  good  and 
produced  more  impression  than  sermons.  The  most 
direct  encouragement  was  given  to  them  by  tha 
founders  of  the  Swedish  Protestant  Church,  and  by 
the  earlier  Lutheran  bishops,  Swedish  and  Danish. 
The  authorship  of  one  drama  of  the  kind  is  as- 
signed to  Grotius.  In  England,  the  greatest  check 
tbey   received  was  from  the   rise  of  the  secular 


it  is  well  known  that  the  first  sketch  of  Milton's 
Paradut  Ltut  was  a  sacred  drama,  where  the 
opening  speech  was  Satan's  Address  to  the  Sun. 
A  degenerate  relie  of  the  miracle-play  may  yet  be 
traced  in  soma  remote  disfaricta  of  Endand,  wba« 
the  story  of  St  Qeorge,  tha  dragon,  and  Beelzebub,  is 
rudely  represented  l>y  the  peasantry.  Strange  to 
say,  it  was  iu  the  Catholic  south  of  Germany,  where 
these  miracle-plays  and  mysteries  had  preserved 
most  of  their  old  religious  character,  that  the 
severest  blow  was  levelled  sgunst  them.  Evan 
there,  they  had  began  to  be  tainted  to  a  limit-* 


a  a  limited 


MYSTICISM— MYTH  AND  MYTHOLOGY. 


extent  irith  the  bnrieaqne  element,  wMch  had 
brought  them  ioto  disrepute  elielrheT&  In  1779,  a 
Dumuerto  wu  uned  by  the  FriDce-archbiBhop  of 
Salzburg,  eondaraning  tnem,  and  prohibiting  tneir 
performance,  en  the  groond  of  their  ludicrona  miztore 
of  the  ncred  and  the  profane,  the  freqneat  bad 
acting  in  the  serions  parts,  the  distraction  of  the 
lower  orders  from  more  edifying  modes  of  instruc- 
tion, and  the  acandal  arising  from  the  expomre  of 
aacred  subject*  to  the  ridicule  of  freethinkers.  This 
ecclesiastical  denunciation  was  followed  by  vigorous 
measures  on  the  part  of  the  civil  authorities  in 
Austria  and  Bavaria.  One  exception  was  made  to 
the  general  sappreesion.  In  1633,  the  villagers  of 
Oberammergau,  in  the  Bavarian  highlands,  on  the 
ceasation  of  a  plagae  which  desolated  the  surround- 
ing country,  had  vowed  to  perfoim  every  tenth 
year  the  Passion  of  Our  Saviour,  ant  of  gratitude, 
and  aa  a  means  of  religious  instruction ;  a  vow  which 
bad  ever  since  been  regularly  observed.  The  plead- 
ing of  a  deputation  of  Aiiiinergau  peasants  with 
I^x.  Joseph  of  Bavaria  saved  their  mystery  from 
the  general  condemnation,  on  condition  of  every- 
thing that  oould  offend  go<ad  taste  being  expnnired. 
it  was  tjien  and  aftervrarda  aomewbat  remodelled, 
and  is  perhaps  the  only  mystery  or  miracle-play 
which  boa  aurvived  to  the  present  day.    The  lost 


carving  in  wood  and  ivory,  have  a  rare  union  of 
artistio  cultivation  with  p^ect  simplicity.  Their 
familiarity  wiUi  sacred  sabjects  is  even  beyond 
what  is  usual  in  the  alpine  part  of  Germany,  and 
the  spectacle  seems  still  to  be  looked  on  with  feel- 
ings mutji  hke  those  with  which  it  was  originally 
conceived.  What  wonld  elsewhere  amxw  impions, 
'  "-  alpine  pessanla  devout  and  edi^nng-  The 
or  of  Cbrist  oonsiders  his  port  an  act  of 


pecsonator  c 


addition  to  it  being  the  St  Veronica  handkerchii 
The  nets  alternate  with  taUeavx  from  the  Old 
Testament  and  choral  odea.  Many  thousands  of 
the  peaoanti;  we  attracted  by  the  spectacle  from 
all  porta  of  the  Tyrol  and  Bavaria,  among  whom 
the  same  earnest  and  devout  demeanour  prevtuls  as 
among  the  performers.  Flays  of  a  humbler  descrip- 
tion, from  subjects  in  I^endary  or  saered  history, 
are  not  onfreqnently  got  up  by  the  villagers  around 
Innsbruck,  which  anew  a  certain  rude  dramatio 
taleuL  See  the  work  of  Sepet  and  Leon  Gautier; 
Leroy's  Etudet  lar  le»  Hj/tiiriet;  and  the  ed.  of  the 
M]/>tire  de  la  Pauion,  by  G.  Paris  and  Beynaud. 

MY'STIGISM  (Gr.  tmwlifaw,  mystical),  a  term 
need  witli  considerable  vagueness,  but  implying  tiiat 
general  tendency  in  religion  to  higher  and  more 
utdmata  oommouication  with  the  Divine,  to  which, 
in  moat  religions,  andent  and  modem,  oertain  iodi- 
vidnals  nr  ntinnrn  have  laid  claim.  In  the  Platonic 
philosophy,  and  in  the  Esatem  systems,  from 
which  that  philosophy  is  derived,  the  human  soul 
being  regarded  as  a  portion  of  the  divine  nature,  it 
is  hdd  to  be  the  great  end  of  life  to  free  tlie  soul 
from  the  embarrusment  and  mental  darkness  in 
which  it  is  held  by  t^e  material  trammels  of  the  bod^ 
in  which  it  is  imprisoned.  Id  the  pursuit  of  this 
end,  two  very  opposite  oourees  were  adopted  :  the 
Gist,  that  of  apintoal  jnuification,  partly  by  repress- 
ins  the  natural  appetitea  and  weakening  the  sensual 


impulses  by  coiporeal  austeritiea,  partly  bj  elevat- 
ing the  soul  throngh  intense  contamjJatioD  and 
withdrawal  from  the  outward  objects  of  sense ;  the 
other,  that  of  regotdjtig  the  soul  as  sapenor  to  the 
body,  independent  of  ite  animal  impuWa,  incapable, 
from  its  higher  orinn,  of  being  affected  by  its  oat- 
ward  actions,  or  suDied  by  contact  with  the  corrup- 
tion in  which  its  low^  nature  might  love  to  wallow, 
A  similar  element  of  M,  which,  in  truth,  must  form 
in  some  sense  a  constituent  of  eveiy  religions  system, 
ia  traceable  in  the  early  doctrinal  history  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  the  career  of  Christian  M  also  dividea 
itself  into  the  same  twofold  course.  Among  the 
early  sects  external  to  the  church,  we  traoe  the 
first  in  the  system  of  Tatian  and  of  the  Eucratites, 
while  the  second  finds  its  parallel  in  the  Syrian 
Gnostics,  in  Carpocratea,  Sardisanes,  and  in  one 
form  at  least  of  iJie  Nicoloitio  heresy.  Within  the 
Christian  church  there  never  has  been  wanting  a 
continnons  manifestation  of  Uie  mystical  element. 
The  kngoage  of  St  Paul  in  GoL  ii  20,  and  in  2d 
Cor.  xii  2,  and  manv  expressions  in  the  Apocalypse, 
may  be  taken  as  tlie  exponents  of  Christian  U^ 
the  higheet  aspiration  of  which  has  ever  been 
towards  that  state  in  which  the  Christian '  no  longer 
liveth,  but  Christ  liveth  in  him.'  And  although  no 
regular  scheme  of  M.  can  be  found  in  the  eariv 
Fathers,  yet  the  writings  of  Hermaa  the  Shephw<^ 
the  Epistles  of  St  Ignatius,  the  works  of  St  Clemmt 
of  Alexandria,  the  Expositions  of  Origen,  and  above 
all,  the  Confessions  of  St  Augastine,  abound  witli 
ontpourings  of  the  true  spirit  of  Christian  mysticiian. 
It  is  curious  that  the  first  systematic  exposition  of  its 
principles  is  said  to  be  in  the  works  of  the  peendo- 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite ;  but  it  was  not  till  the 
days  of  the  Scholastics  that  it  received  its  full  devel- 
opmenl^  when  tbe  mystio  life  was  resolved  into  ita 
three  stagea,  viz^  of  Purification,  of  Illumination, 
and  of  Ecstatic  Union  with  God  and  Absorption  in 
Divine  Contemplation.  It  was  npon  the  explanation 
of  this  third  stage  that  the  great  division  of  tbs 
medieval  mystio  schools  mainly  tnrned ;  some  td 
them  explaining  the  union  with  Qod  in  a  pantheistio 
or  semipantheiatic  sense,  and  thereby  annihilating 
the  individual  will,  and  almost  the  personal  action 
of  man  in  the  state  of  ecstssy ;  othera,  with  8t 
Bernard,  foUy  preserving  both  the  individuality  and 
the  freedom  of  man,  even  in  the  highest  spiritual 
communicatiDn  with  bis  Creator.  Of  the  former, 
many,  as  the  Hesychosts  (Q.  v.)  in  the  Greek  Chnrch, 
and  the  Brethren  of  the  Fiee  Spirit  fq.  v.)  and  the 
Begbards  in  the  latin,  drew  nom  these  mystical 
doctrines  the  most  revolting  moral  consequences ;  in 
others,  as  Tauler,  Buysbro^  Ekkart,  tba  error  doea 
not  seem  to  have  gone  beyond  the  sphere  of  specula- 
tion. The  writings  of  Thomas  K  Kempia  (q.  v.),  of 
St  Catherine  of  Siena,  of  St  John  of  the  CrtMs,  and 
of  St  Teresa,  may  perhaps  be  taken  as  the  most 
characteristic  representations  of  the  more  modem 
form  of  Idle  traditionary  M.  which  has  come  down 
from  the  mystics  of  the  middle  ages. 

The  later  history  of  M.  in  the  Bomon  Catholio 
Church  will  be  found  nnder  the  beads  of  Fenelon, 
MAjiufK  GiTTOH,  MouNoa,  and  Qoiktish.  The 
most  remarkable  followeis  of  "the  same  or  Idndi^ 
doctrines  in  the  Protestant  communions  are  Jacob 
Bdhme  (q.  v.}  of  Qorlitz,  Emmanuel  Swedenborg 
(q.  v.),  and  the  celebrated  William  Law  (q.  v.). 

MYTH  AMD  MYTHOTjOGY.  The  word  mjrfi 
(Gr.  ni'jtJM},  originally  signified  sjwsi  or  duanaie, 
and  was  identical  with  the  word  logo*.  After  the  aga 
of  Pindar  and  Herodotus,  however,  it  came  to  be 
synonymous  with  the  Latin  word  fa&ida,  /able  or 
legends  According  to  the  present  use  of  onr  luigoage, 
a  myth  is  on  idea  or  fancy  presented  in  the  historical 
form ;  and  thongh,  of  counu,  any  fiction  at  any  time 

n,ii.LL.i.C.ooi;lc 


MYTH  AND  MYTHOLOGY, 


n  this  shape  midit  be  oaUed  a  mytb,  jet  by  uiwa 
ha  word  is  con&ed  to  those  fictiona  made  in  l£e 


early  periods  ot  a 


's  ezutence.  for  the  pnrpose  o 


to  create  myths  in  this  way 
people ;  certainly  there  is  no  people  bo  sonic  into 
the  omte  as  to  be  withont  them.  A  myth  is  not  to 
be  oonfounded  'with  an  allegory ;  the  one  being  an 
nnoonscioiui  act  of  the  popular  mind  at  an  early 
stage  of  sooietv,  the  other  a  ooDScious  act  of  the 
individual  mind  at  any  stage  of  social  progress.  The 
parables  of  the  New  Testamest  are  allegorical ;  so 
are  .iSiop'a  Fables ;  no  one  mistakes  them  for 
realities ;  they  ace  known  to  have  been  invented  for 
a  special  didactic  purpose,  and  so  received.  Bnt 
the  peculiarity  of  myths  is,  that  they  are  not  only 
conceived  in  the  narratiTe  form,  but  generally  taken 
for  real  narrationa  hy  the  people  to  whom  they 
belong,  ao  long  at  least  as  they  do  not  pass  a  certain 
efeage  of  iiitel£otnal  cnltare.  Even  myths  of  which 
the  alleRoricAl  ngnificance  is  pretty  pUtn,  such  sa 
the  well-kaown  Greek  myUi  of  Fromethens  and 
Epimetheos,  were  reoeived  aa  facta  of  early  tradition 
1^  the  Greeks.  Myths  may  be  divided  into  several 
dassei,  of  which  the  first  and  tnoet  important  is  the 
theological  and  moraL  The  oldest  theology  of  all 
uftttons  ia  in  the  farm  of  myths ;  hence  the  great 
importanoe  of  mythological  study,  now  univeTiuUy 
recognised  ;  for  it  is  not  occupied  merely  or  mainly 
with  strange  fancies  and  marvelloua  fictions, 
invented  for  the  sake  of  amnseoieDt,  but  contaitia 
the  fundamental  ideas  belonging  to  the  moral  and 
religiooB  nature  of  man  as  they  have  been  embodied 
by  the  imaginative  faonU^  ot  the  moat  favoured 
races.  It  ia  this  dominance  of  the  imi^naldon,  so 
aharocteristio  of  the  early  atagea  oi  aociety,  which 
gives  to  myth  its  peculiar  dramatic  eipresaion,  and 
■tampe  the  popuhv  creed  of  all  nations  with  the 
character  of  a  poetry  of  nature,  of  nuui,  and  of  God. 
From  the  very  nature  of  the  caie,  the  myth-produc- 
ing faculty  eiercises  itself  with  ezubei^ce  only 
under  the  poMheietic  form  of  religion ;  for  there 
only  doea  a  sufficient  number  of  cel^tial  personages 
exists  whose  attributes  and  actions  may  be  euii- 
bited  in  a  nanative  form ;  there  is  nothing,  bow- 
ever,  to  prevent  even  a  monotheistio  peopB  from 
exhibiting  certain  great  ideas  of  their  faith  in  a 
narrative  form,  so  as  by  jprcaaio  minds  to  be  taken 
for  literal  historical  facts.  But  beddea  strictly 
thecdogitml  myths,  there  are  physical  myths,  that 
ia,  fictioaa  repretenting  the  mc«t  atnkins  ap- 
pearances and  chansea  of  external  nature  in  the 
form    of   poetical   history ;   in   which   view,   the 


the  first  postulate  of 
polytheism,  and  every  physical  phenomenon  beoomea 
the  manifestation  ot  a  god.  Again,  though  it  may 
appear  a  contradiction,  thu«  ore  historical  myths ; 
lliat  is,  marvellous  legrads  about  persona,  who  may 
with  probability  be  sn^osed  to  have  actually 
existed.  So  intenninglei^  indeed,  ia  fact  with  fable 
in  early  times,  that  there  must  always  be  a  kind  of 
debatable  land  between  plain  theological  myth  and 
tecogniaed  historical  fact.  This  kmd  is  occupied 
by  what  are  called  the  heroic  myths ;  that  is, 
I^ends  about  heroes,  cooceming  whom  it  may  often 
be  doubtful  whether  th(7  are  merely  a  sort  of 
inferior,  and  more  htmian-Uke  goda,  or  only  men  of 
more  than  ordinary  powera  whom  the  popnlar  inw- 
^nation  has  elevated  into  demi-gods. 
The  scientifio  stady  oE  mythology  commenced  with 


the  ancient  nations  who  produced  it,  specially 
with  the  acute  and  apecnlative  Greeks.  The  great 
mass  of  the  Greek  people,  indaad— of  whom  we 
have  a  obarncteriBtic  type  in  the  traveller  Pausonias 
— accepted  their  oldeet  l^ends,  in  the  mass,  as 
divine  and  homan  &ctB ;  bat  ao  early  as  the  time 
of  Euripides,  of  even  before  his  day  m  the  cose  of 
the  Sitnlisna,  Epioharmus  and  Smpedocl^  we  find 
that  philoBophera  and  poeta  had  bwun  to  identify 
Jove  with  the  upper  sky,  Apollo  with  the  sun,  Jnno 
with  the  nether  atmosphere,  and  so  forth ;  that 
is,  they  interpreted  their  mythology  as  a  theo- 
logy and  poetry  of  nature.  This,  indeed,  may  be 
reinrded  as  the  prevalent  view  among  oil  the  more 
renective  and  phUosophical  heathens  (who  were  not, 
like  Xeno^hon,  orthodox  believers)  up  from  tiie 
a^  of  Penclea,  450  b.  c.,  to  the  establishment  of 
Christianity.  But  there  was  an  altogether  opposite 
view,  which  arose  at  a  later  penod,  under  less 
genial  circumstances,  and  exerciaed  no  small  influ- 
ence both  on  Greek  and  Bonuin  writers.  Thia  view 
was  first  prominently  put  forth  by  Eohemerns,  a 
Measenion,  in  the  time  of  the  first  Ftolemiea,  and 
consisted  in  the  fiat  proaaio  assertion,  that  the  goda, 
equally  with  the  heroes,  were  originally  men,  and 
oU  the  tales  abont  than  only  human  facts  sublimed 
and  elevated  by  the  imsginatiun  of  piaos  devotees. 
Thia  view  seemed  to  denve  atrong  support  from  the 
known  stories  aboat  the  birth  auddeatii  of  the  gods, 
specially  of  Jove  in  Crote  ■,  and  the  growing  soe^cal 
tendendea  of  the  scientific  school  at  Alexandria, 
were  of  coarse  favourable  to  the  pnnnulgatioD  o{ 
such  views.  The  work  of  Euhemerua  accordingly 
obtained  »  wide  circulatiou ;  and  having  been  trans- 
kkted  into  Latin,  went  to  nouish  that  crass  form  of 
rchgious  scepticism  which  waa  one  of   the  moat 


gladly  adopted  on  interpretation  of  the  popular 
mythology  which  promised  to  swell  their  stares  of 
reliable  material ;  the  myths  accordin^y  wero  coolly 


In  modem  times,  the  Greek  mythoIoBy  has  again 
formed  the  baaia  of  much  specolation  on  £e  character 
of  myths  and  tlM  general  laws  of  mythical  interpre- 
tation. The  first  tendencv  of  modem  Christian 
scholars,  fdlowing  the  baclt  long  before  token  I^ 
the  fathers,  was  to  refer  all  QtnA  mythology  to  a 
cormption  of  Old  Testament  doctrine  and  hiatory. 
Of  this  .  ayaten  of  interpreting  myths,  we  have 
examples  m  Vossina,  in  the  learned  and  fanciful 
works  of  Bryant  and  Faber,  and  very  recently, 
though  with  more  pious  and  poetic  feeling  in  Glad- 
atone.  Bnt  the  Germans,  who  have  taken  the  lead 
here,  as  in  other  r^ioua  of  combined  reaearch  and 
speculation,  have  lon^  ago  given  up  this  ranund  as 
nntouble,  and  have  mtiodaced  the  rational  method 
of  interpreting  every  system  of  myths,  in  the  first 
pisce,  according  to  the  peculiar  laws  traceable  ia  ita 
own  genius  and  growth.  Ground  was  broken  in  this 
department  by  Heyne,  whose  views  have  been 
tested,  corrected,  and  enlarged  by  a  great  number 
of  learned,  ingenious,  and  philosophical  writera 
amonghis  own  countrymen,  specially  by  Buttmonn, 
Vosa,  (3reaier,  MUller,  Wekkar,  Gerhard,  and  Preller. 
The  general  tendency  of  the  Germans  is  to  start— aa 
Wordsworth  does  in  hia  Eceuriioti,  book  iv,— from 
the  poaition  of  a  devoot  imaginative  contemplation 
of  nature,  in  which  the  mytha  orifpnoted,  and  to 
trace  the  workmg  out  U  those  ideaa,  in  difiterent 
places  and  at  difi&ent  times,  with  the  moat  critical 
..  --' the  most  vivid  i«ocautraotion.    If  in 


(  ;<ffiql 


MTTH  ASD  MYTHOLOaY, 


thii  work  the;  have  g 


'en  Inith  to  •  large  mua  of 
biiUiant  gnsM-woi^  there 
has  not  beoi  vanting  ainoDg  tbem  abonduM  of 
■ober  jadgment  and  Kond  aeme  to  ooantmact  mck 
sibaTagBDoeB.  It  nu^  be  notioed  howerer,  a« 
chuacteiutio  of  theii'  orer'apecnlatiTe  intellect, 
that  they  hsTe  a  tendency  to  brmg  the  nnt;  (rf  theo- 
logical and  phyaical  syiabola  down  into  a  region  of 
wGat  appeals  to  be  plain  hifltorical  fact :  bo  that 
Achilles  becomes  »  water-god,  Pelena  a  mnd-god, 
and  the  whole  of  the  Iliad,  according  to  Fomh- 
hammer,  a  poetical  geology  of  Theasuy  and  the 
Troadt  Qoing  to  the  oppocdta  extreme  from 
Enhemerus,  tiu^  have  denied  tbe  ezistenoe  even  <^ 
deified  heKMfl ;  all  the  heroea  of  Greek  badition, 
aocording  to  XJschold,  are  only  d^raded  gods  ;  and 
generally  in  German  writers,  a  preference  of  tran- 
scendental to  simple  and  obrioos  explaoatious  of 
myths  is  nottceahla.  Creuzer,  some  of  whose  views 
had  been  anticipated  by  Blackwell,  in  Scotland, 
is  especially  remarkable  for  the  high  gnmnd  of 
religion*  and  philoBoiducal  conception  on  which  he 
has  placed  the  interpretation  of  myths ;  and  he  wai 
also  the  first  who  wreoted  attention  to  the  oriental 
dement  in  OredE  mythology — not,  indeed,  with 
•Indent  diserimiaation  in  many  cases,  but  to  the 
great  enriohment  of  mythological  material,  and  the 
._i. __„._..  .1  _i.;i i.:„i  gamy.    In  the  moat 


recent  times,  hf  uniting  the  ezcnrnTe  metiiod  of 
(Pettier  with  the  oorreetitm  supplied  by  the  mor* 
eiitiaal  method  of  O.  MUller  and  his  saooseson,  th» 
■ciaaoe  of  wmpantiTe  nifthol(«y  hss  been  lanoched 
into  existeooa ;  and  speoisll^  iSa  aompariwn  of  th* 
eariieet  Greek  nnrtholoCT  with  the  saoed  legends  of 
the  Hindus,  hsa  Men  ably  advocated  by  tbxMUller' 
in  the  Oxford  Ettayt  (18fi6).  In  France,  the  views 
of  Enhemerna  were  propounded  .by  Baiuer  (1739). 
By  the  Biitiah  sdiolare,  mytholo;^  is  a  field  tiut 
has  been  very  scantily  cnltiTatML  Besides  those 
already  named,  Fayne  Knight,  Maokay,  Grote  in 
the  first  volnmei  of  hi*  luet<»7,  and  Ke^tley  are 
the  only  names  oE  anjr  note,  ud  their  works  can 
in  nowise  compete  in  onginali^,  extent  of  nwrrh. 
in  disommnabng  criticisni,  or  in  largeness  of  view, 
with  the  productions  of  the  Gemuui  sohooL  The- 
best  for  common  purposes  is  Eeightley ;  the  most 
•riginal,  Payne  Kniiht  Sir  G.  W,  Coi,  in  hi» 
work  on  Aiyan  mythology,  has  poshed  the  sanscritis- 
ing  tendencies  of  Max  Mtiller  to  an  extreme  which 
to  most  minds  seems  absurd.  The  laboois  of  the 
modem  anthropological  school,  as  lyiot  and  Lub- 
bock, ar«  of  valae ;  also  those  of  Fiike  and  Dorman 
in  America,  On  the  special  mythologies  of  India, 
Borne,  Qreeoe,  Ac,  iafoimation  will  be  foond  under 
the  heads]  of  the  respective  countries ;  see  also  the 
article*  Baochdb,  JurnxB,  Hkbocu;^  kc 


.Google 


N 


TEE  fourteenth  letter  of  the  Enslith 
alphabet,  U  one  at  the  nual  liquids  oE 
the  llngaal  cUml    See  Lgmma.    Iti 
Hebrew  (and  Phnniciaa)  ntme,  ^un, 
signified  a  £(A,  whioh  its  origiiul  form 
was  probsblf  meant  to  repr««ent.    N 
u  interchangeable  irith  L  (q.  v.)  and 
in  eoHsat,  eommingle,  confer ;  and  in 
bodertf  coinp«u«d  viui  Ea^.  boUom.    In 
,    thu   letter  had    a  £auit,  nncertain 
•ound  at  the  end  of  wordi  and  in  iome  other 
portions,   eapecially  before  a.     Thia  aooounta  for 
words  in  on  having  lost  the  «  in  the  nominatiTe  case, 
thoQgh  retaining  it  in  the  obliqQS  cases,  as  homo, 
?u»ninU;  and  for  Qreek  name*  tike  Plalon  being 
written  withont  the  final   n  in  I«tin.    The  dull, 
nmffled  pronunciation  of  n,  which  is  indicated  by 
snch  words  as  eoMMi,  eentor,  tatamatio,  being  fre- 
quently spelled  coiul,  eetor,  tatamdo,  was  the  &rat 
stage  of  the  modsm   French  nasal  n.    Before  a 
guttural  letter,  »  natarally  MBUioee  the  sonnd  of 
ng,  as  btaik. 

ITAAS,  a  market  and  assize  town  of  Eildare 
Coontj,  Ireland,  Wi  miles  sonth-west  of  Dublin, 
•nd,  next  to  Athy,  the  largest  town  in  the  county. 
The  population  m  1S61  was  3B08.  The  principal 
street  ia  about  half  a  mile  in  length ;  the  connty 
court-house  in  in  the  main  street.  Harine  beea 
anciently  the  srat  of  the  kings  of  Leinster,  N.  was 
early  occapied .  by  the  F.ngliah  A  parliament  was 
held  in  it  in  1419,  and  it  obtained  charters  auooes- 
sively  from  Henry  V^  Elizabeth,  and  James  L  At 
present,  N.  is  a  place  of  Uttle  Inde,  and  ia  almost 
entirely  witliout  manufactures.  It  returned  two 
memb^  to  the  Iriah  parliament,  but  was  dlafran- 
chised  at  the  Union.  It  is  Uie  seat  of  a  diocesan 
■ohool,  and  of  three  national  schools,  one  of  which 
ii  attached  to  the  Roman  Cathoho  convent.  A 
newspaper,  printed  at  Maryborough,  is  also  pub- 
lished here. 

NA-BOB,  or  NABAB,  «  corraptjon  of  the  word 
JTaiMii  (deputy),  was  Uie  title  belonging  to  the 
administcator^  under  the  Mogul  empire,  of  the 
separate  provinces  into  which  the  dietrict  of  a 
BubaMar  (q.  v.)  was  divided.  The  title  was  con- 
tinued under  tile  British  role,  but  it  gradually  came 
to  be  applied  generally  to  natives  who  were  men  of 
wealth  and  consideration.  In  Europe,  and  especi- 
ally in  Britain,  it  is  applied  derisively  to  those  who, 
having  made  great  fortnnefl  in  tiie  Indies,  retom 
to  tbeir  native  country,  vhoe  thejr  live  in  oriental 
splendour. 

NABOITA'SSAR,  Eki  <a,  was  the  starting-point 
of  Babylonian  ehronology,  and  was  adopted  by  the 
Greeks  of  Aleiandria,  Berosus  and  othera.  It  began 
with  the  accession  of  Nabonassor  to  the  throne — an 
event  calculated  (from  certain  astronomical  pheno- 
mena recorded  by  Ptolemy)  to  have  taken  place 
26th  February  747  B.  o. 


of  Veepasian),  anciently  called  Sheohxh  or  Stohxh, 
in  the  New  Testament  (John  iv.  S),  SiCbab  ;  ia 
a  town  of  Palestine,  possessing,  it  is  said, '  the  only 
beautifiil  site  from  Dan  to  Beeisheba.'  It  lies 
between  Mount  Ebol  and  Mount  Oeriam,  on  the 
south  side  of  the  volley  of  Erd-MQkhna,  and  haa 
>  population  variously  estimated  at  from  8000 
to  14,000,  of  whom  about  500  are  Christians,  150 
Samaritans,  and  60  Jews;  the  rest  are  Moham- 
medans, fierce,  turbulent,  and  fanatical.  The  houses 
ore  pretty  good,  but  the  atreeta  (as  usual  in  the  East) 
are  narrow,  gloomy,  and  filthy.  The  diief  pro- 
ductions are  soap^  cotton,  and  oil — the  soap-mann- 
factoriea  are  large,  and  the  oil  ia  considered  the  best 
in  Syria. — See  Portei's  Handbook  /or  Syria  OMd 
Pakkijie,  and  Stanley's  Paksiint. 

NAOBB.    See  Mothkb  o>  Peakc 

ITADnt,  on  Arabic  word  mgnifying  that  point  in 
the  heavens  which  is  diametrically  opposite  to  the 

earth  are  in  one  straight  line-  The  zenith  and 
nadir  form  the  poles  m  the  Horizon  (q.  v.).  See 
Zknitb. 

NAD  IB  SHAH,  of  Perma,  belonged  to  the  AEibars, 
a  Turkish  tribe,  and  was  horn  near  Eelat,  in  Uie 
centre  ot  Ehorassao,  Persia,  in  168S.  When  17 
I  old,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Usbeks, 
escaped  after  four  years  of  capbvity;  entered 
service  of  the  governor  ot  Khorassan,  and 
obtained  high  promotion.  Having,  however, 
been  degraded  and  puoished  tor  some  real  or  snp- 
poaed  offence,  he  t>etook  himself  to  a  lawless  lii^ 
and  for  several  years  was  the  daring  leader  of  a 
band  of  3000  robbers,  who  levied  contribntiona 
from  almost  the  whole  ot  Khoraaean.  An  oppcw- 
tunity  bavins  occurred,  N.  seized  the  town  of  Kelat, 
and  gradually  extended  his  territorial  authority. 
Persia  was  at  this  time  ruled  by  Melek  Aiplirnf,  an 
Afghan  of  the  tribe  of  Ohilji,  whose  grinding 
tynutny  and  craelty  produced  in  the  mind  of  every 
Persian  a  deadly  hatred  of  the  ve^  name  Afghan, 
which  exists  to  the  present  day.  N.  having  avowed 
his  intention  of  expelling  tiie  hated  race  &om  the 
country,  and  restoring  the  Snffavean  dynasty^nm- 
hers  nocked  to  his  standard,  and  Meshed,  Herat, 
and  all  Ehorassan  were  apeedify  reduced.  Ashraf,, 
signally  defeated  in  several  engagements,  fled  before 
the  avenger,  who,  with  a  celerity  only  equalled  by 
its  thoro^hness,  purged  the  provmcea  of  Irak,  Fan, 
and  Kennan  <4  even  the  semblance  of  Afghan 
domination.  The  assassination  of  Ashraf,  during  hia 
retreat,  terminated  the  war.  The  riahtful  neir, 
Tamasps  then  ascended  the  throne,  and  N,  received 
for  his  services  the  government  of  the  ^oviuoes 
of  Ehorassan,  Mazanderan,  Seistan,  and  Eerman, 
assuming  at  the  same  time  the  title  of  Tomosp-kUi 
(the  Slave  of  Tamasp),  the  title  of  khan  being 
subsequently  added.  He  was  sent  agunst  the 
Turks  in  1731,  and  defeated  them  at  Hamadan, 
■gaining  the  Armenian  provinces  which  had  been 
uzed  by  the  larks  in  tha  fceceding  reign;  bnt 


N-fiVIUS— NAOARJUNA. 


hii  BOTersign  having  in  hu  abaeDce  engaged  ui 
cesafnlly  the  ume  enemy,  N.  caiued  him  to  be  put 
ia  prison,  and  elevated  ius  infant  ton,  Abbta  171., 
to  the  throne  in  1732.  Tlie  death  of  thi*  pnppet, 
in  1736,  opened  the  'wsr  for  the  elevation  of  S. 
himsell,  who  iru  cronned  aa  Kadtr  SboK,  Febrnary 
26,  1736.  He  reanmed  the  war  with  the  Turks ; 
and  tJiwigh  totally  defeated  in  the  first  two  bstUea 
ity  the  Grand  Vizier  A«man^  turned  the  tide  of 
fortune  in  tbe  subseqaent  campaign,  and  granted 
peace  to  the  TnrkB  on  conditioD  of  receiving  Qeorgio. 
He  alao  conqnered  Afghanistan,  and  drove  b»ck 
the  inradin^  Usbeka.  His  ambaaoadoi  to  the  Great 
Mognl  haTug  been  mordwed  along  with  all  his 
■nite  at  Jeliuabad,  and  satiifaction  having  been 
refiued,  N.  in  revencn  ravaged  the  North-vieit  Pto- 
vincea,  utd  toofa  Ddhi,  which  he  was,  by  the  intane 
befaavioiu'  of  tbe  iohabitaats,  reduced  to  the  necea- 
rity  of  pillagioB.  With  booty  to  the  amount  of 
£20,000,000,  indnding  the  Koh-i-nOr  (q.  v.)  diamond, 
lie  letnrned  to  the  west  bank  of  the  Indni.  He 
next  reduced  Bokhara  and  Kbanrezm,  restoring  to 
Persia  ber  limits  onder  the  golden  reign  of  the 
Saisanides.  From  thia  period,  nis  character  nnder- 
went  a  sudden  change:  he  was  formerly  open- 
hearted,  liberal,  and  tolerant;  he  now  beume 
suspicious,  avaricious,  and  tynuiaicaL  The  empire 
groaned  under  his  extortions,  and  he  was  finaUy 
asMuinated  on  the  20th  June  1747.  His  only  tat- 
viving  son  waa  carried  to  Constantinople,  and  Uience 
to  Vienna,  where  he  was  brought  up  as  a  Catholic, 
nnder  the  surveillance  of  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa, 
and  died  a  major  in  the  Austrian  service,  under  the 
title  of  Baron  Semlin.  N.'a  tyranny  has  now  been 
forgotten ;  and  at  the  present  day,  be  is  regarded 
wiUi    pride   and   gratitude    as   uia  'Wallue'  of 

"SJETIVS,  Or.,  one  of  the  earliest  Lalin  poets, 
was  bom,  probably  in  Campania,  in  the  first  half 
of  the  3d  0.  B.  o.  In  his  youth,  he  aerved  in 
Uie  first  Panic  war ;  but  about  the  year  235  n.  a, 
he  made  his  appearance  at  Rome  as  a  dramatic 
writer.  Of  his  life,  we  knew  little;  but  of  his 
character,  rather  more.  He  was  very  decidedly 
attaobed  to  Uw  plebeian  party;  and  in  bis  jilaya, 
satirised  and  tam^ned  the  Boman  nobles  with  all 
the  virulence  and  mdiscretion  of  a  hot-blooded  impe- 
tuous Campanian— that  Gascon  of  ancient  Italy  I 
His  rashness  ultimately  caused  his  banishment  to 
Utica  in  Africa,  where  he  died,  201  or  202  B.C. 
Besides  his  dramatic  writings,  comprising  both 
trwedies  and  comedies,  he  wrote  an  epic  poem,  De 
BeSo  Punko,  in  the  old  Satumian  metre.  Of  these, 
only  a  few  very  unimportant  fragments  are  extant, 
which  may  be  found  in  editions  more  or  lesa  com- 
plete bv  Vahlen  (1S51),  Elusamann  (1S43),  and  Rib- 
beck  (Fragmtala  SfrnioB  Ronumonun  Poaii ;  !d  ed. 
1873).  See  also  Sellar'a  Poet*  qf  t!ie  Soman  SepubUc, 
and  Simoox's  Hittory  of  Latin  Liieralare  (1S82]. 

N.^TUS  (known  populariy  as  ntolAer-tpot  or 
mole]  ia  a  congenital  mark  or  growth  on  a  part  of 
the  skin.  Sometimes  it  is  merely  a  dark  discolo- 
ration of  the  Hur^ce  as  described  in  the  article 
MacuiiX,  in  which  case  it  is  termed  a  mole  and  is 
perfectly  harmless ;  but  often  it  consists  of  a  dense 
network  of  dilated  blood-veosels,  forming  a  reddish 
or  livid  tumour,  more  or  less  elevated  above  the 
snrface  of  the  aurronndinE  skin.  The  most  frequent 
ritnations  of  these  vascuLu'  novi  are  the  skin  and 
■ubcutaneous  cellular  tissue  of  the  head ;  but  they  may 
occur  elsewhere.  The  popular  belief  is,  that  they 
are  caused  by  the  longing  of  the  mother  during  h^ 
pregnancy  for  a  lobster,  or  strawberry  or  raspberry, 
or  some  other  rod-coloured  article  of  food,  and  that 
the  influence  of  her  mind  has  impressed  upon  the 


1  image  of  th«  thing  she 


Sometimes  these  tumours  waste  awav  spontaneously, 
and  cive  no  trouble  ;  but  fretjuent^  they  increasa 
rapidly,  invade  the  adjacent  tissnes,  and  lucente  or 
stou^,  and   thus   become   dangerons    to   life  b7 


hfemanhage.    When  these  tnmoiuB  do  not  shew  a 

icy  10  increase,  no  treatment  is   neoessary. 

When  Uiey  ore  obviously  increasing  in  size,  the 


tendency 


continual  application  of  cold  (by  means  of  freering 
mixtures),  with  moderately  firm  pressure,  is  some- 
times  of  service ;  but  a  more  certain  method  is  to 
employ  means  to  produce  au<di  an  amount  o( 
inflammation  as  to  obliterate  the  vessels;  for  this 
purpcse,  the  seton,  t^  t^ipUcation  of  nitaric  add,  and 
vaccination  of  the  tumour,  have  been  BnoceHfoUr 
applied.  The  injection  of  strong  astringents,  with 
tne  view  of  coagulating  the  blimd,  has  sometimea 
effected  a  cure.  If  sS  those  means  faO,  ertir- 
ition,  either  with  the  ligature  or  knife,  mnst 
I  resorted  ta ;  the  ligature  being  regaided  as  tbs 
safest  and  best  method.  For  the  vanons  metiiods 
ot  applying  the  linture,  the  reader  it  referred  to 
any  itandud  work  on  operative  corgerr.  If  the 
tumour  is  in  an  ioaccesuble  spot,  ss  in  the  ottnt  of 
the  eye,  and  is  increasing  rapidly,  the  only  course  is 
to  tie  the  large  vascular  tntnk  supplying  it.  The 
common  carotid  artery  has  in  several  instuices  beMt 
tied  with  success  for  vascular  nnvus  in  the  orbits 

NATELS,  a  village  of  Switzerland,  La  tbe  cantca 
of  Olarus,  and  five  miles  north  of  the  town  of  that 
name,  in  a  deep  valley,  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
battle-Gelds  in  the  country.  Population,  3000. 
Here,  in  13SS,  1500  men  of  Ularui,  under  Matthins 
am  Buhl,  overthrow  an  Austrian  force  of  from  6000 
to  SOOO  men.    The  event  is  still  celebrated  yearly. 

nAoa  is,  in  Hindu  Mythology,  the  name  of 
deified  serpents,  which  are  represented  as  the  sons 
of  tJie  Muni  Kas'yapa  and  his  wife  KadrO,  whence 
they  are  also  etJled  KAdraveyas.  Their  king  is 
S'eMia,  the  sacred  serpent  of  Visbn'n. 
NAOAFATA'H,  a  seaport  of  British  India,  <hi 
e  Coromandel  coast,  in  the  province  of  Tanjur, 
15  miles  south  of  Karikal.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Dutch  in  1660,  but  fell  int«  the  hands  of  the 
English  in  1781.  Its  site  is  an  open  sandy  plain, 
elevated  only  three  or  four  feet  above  sea-leveL 
The  port  is  visited  by  small  vessels,  and  carries  on 
some  trade  with  Ceylon.  Fop.  at  the  census  of 
1S81,  63,655. 


500  /ears,  after  the  death  of  the  Buddha  S'lkya- 
mnni  (L  e.,  143  or  43  b.c).  He  was  the  founder 
of  the  Mldhyamika  school,  and  hia  princi|>al 
disciples  were  Aiyadeva  and  BudhapUita.  Accord- 
ing to  the  tradition  of  the  Buddhas,  he  was  bom  in 
the  sonth  of  India,  in  a  Brahmanical  family.  Even 
as  a  child,  he  studied  all  the  four  Vedos ;  later,  ha 
travelled  throng  various  countries,  and  became 
iroficient  in  astronomy,  geography,  and  ma^cal  arts. 
By  means  of  the  lost,  he  bad  several  amorona 
adventures,  which  ended  in  the  dea^  ot  three 
oompanions  of  his,  but  in  his  own  repentance,  and, 
with  the  assistance  of  a  Buddhist  mendicant,  in  hi* 
conversion  to  Buddhism.  Many  miracles  are,  of 
course,  attributed  to  his  csreer  as  propagator 
of  this  doctrine,  especially  in  the  sonth  ot  uidi^ 
and  his  life  is  said  to  have  lasted  300  yean. — See 
K  Bnmonf,  Introdudiva  d  FHiatoin  du  Buddhitnu 
Indien  (Paris,  1S44);  Spence  Hardy,  A  Matutai 
<{f  Buddkian  (Loud.   ISBS) ;    W.  Wassiljew,  Det 


NAGASAKI— NAOY  ENYED. 


C  01deabei;g 


Suddhitmui  (1S60) ;   and  the  works 
(1381) ;  and  Shja  Davids. 

K  AQASA'KI,  or  NANOASIKI,  a  oHy  and  port  of 
JapMi,  opened  to  foreign  conmieioe  by  the  treaty  of 
1858,  on  the  Irt  July  1859,  is  aitaated  in  SZ*  44'  N. 
lat,  and  129°  51'  £.  long.,  on  the  wertern  aide  of  a 
peniDBuIa  in  the  north-weet  of  the  island  of  Kioiia. 
FKrioaily  to  18fi9,  it  w»  the  only  jiort  in  Japan 

rl  to  foreigners.  The  harboor,  which  ia  one  of 
moot  beautiful  in  the  world,  ia  about  aiz  milea 
in  width,  and  three  or  four  in  length.  To  a  person 
ioBtde,  it  appears  completely  land-locked,  and  it  ia 
■lUToniided  by  hills  of  about  1500  feet  in  height 
These  are  broken  into  long  ridges  and  deep  valleya ; 
while  the  more  fertile  spots  are  terraced  and  under 
cnltivation.  The  town  of  N.,  which  ia  about  a  mile 
in  length,  and  three-quarters  of  a  mile  ia  width.  lies 
on  Uie  north  side  of  uie  bay ;  ita  population  in  1381 
was  39,S6S.  The  streets  in  general  are  clean  and 
well-paTed,  but  the  houses  are  not  particularly  good, 
except  those  possessed  by  courtesans,  and  known  as 
'  tea-honsee.'  On  the  hills  behind  the  town  are 
various  temples,  those  dedicated  to  '  Sinto,'  or  the 
worship  of  the  sun  goddess,  which  is  the  old  national 
religion  of  Japan,  and  those  in  whidi  the  BuddJiistio 
worahip,  imported  from  China,  is  followed.  The 
foreign  settlement  lies  to  the  south  of  the  native 
town,  the  British,  French,  German,  Frassian,  and 
Fortueuese  consulates  occupying  the  hilly  ground 
back  from  the  bay.  On  the  apposite  aide  of  the 
bay,  the  Japanese  have  a  steam-uctory,  under  the 
direction  of  Dutch  officers,  and  close  by  ia  the 
Bnagian  settlement.  The  climate  of  N.  is  genial 
but  vanabl&  The  trade  of  N.  is  inferior  to  that  of 
Kanagawo.  Sea-weed,  salt-fish,  and  other  articles 
are  exported  to  Chinft.  The  exports  to  Europe  are 
mainly  tea,  tobacco,  coal,  ^nseng,  vegetable  wax, 
and  copper.  The  chief  im^rts  are  cotton  piece- 
goods,  woollen  goods,  sugar,  oils.  The  total  value  of 
imports  in  1875  amounted  to  1,617,000  doUan,  and 
of  the  eiporU  to  close  on  2,000,000  doJiara.  The 
import  trade  suffers  from  the  absence  of  wealthy 
native  merchants  and  of  banking  facilities.  In 
1870  the  great  new  dock  of  N.,  the  huvert  in  Japan, 
was  in  use.  It  is  460  feet  long  by  89  broad,  and 
28  deep,  and  is  expected  to  promote  trade. 

NA'QMiFLUE,  tbe  provincial  name  for  a  bed 
of  conglomenite  belongiiu  to  the  MoUaase  (q.  v.], 
whioh  forms  a  oonuderabk  portion  of  the  strata  in 
the  central  region  of  Switswland,  between  the  Alps 
and  the  Jnra.  It  is  lud  to  attain  Out  enormous 
thickness  of  6000  and  SOOO  feet  in  the  Rhigi  near 
Lucerne,  and  in  the  Speer  near  Wesen. 

NAGKESTTB,  the  name 
toms  of  the  Mtsua  /area  ai 
India.    See  Gnmi'siLX. 

NAGPD'B,  a  city  of  British  India,  capital  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  and  siloated  near 
ita  north-w««t  extiemity,  in  an  unhealthy  swampy 
hollow,  430  milea  in  a  direct  line  esst'norUi-eaat  of 
Bombay.  Inclusive  of  its  ertenuve  subnrba,  it  is 
seven  miles  in  circumference.  It  contains  no 
important  ediSces.  The  great  body  of  the  inhabi- 
tants live  in  thstched  mad-tents,  interspersed  with 
trees,  which  prevent  the  drculation  of  air,  and 
secrete  moisture,  thus  rendering  the  town  unneces- 
sarily unhealthy.  The  mean  temperature  of  N.  is 
estimated  at  about  80°  F.  Cotton  cloths,  coarse 
and  fine  cbintiee,  turbans,  silks,  brocades,  Uankets, 
woollens,  tent-cloths,  and  articles  in  copper  and 
brass,  are  manufactured.  Here,  on  the  26th  and 
27th  November  I8I7.  a  smalE  British  force  of  1360 
men,  commanded  by  Colonel  Scott,  defeated  a  native 
army  of  18,000  men.     Fop.  (1881)  flS,30a 


NAGFUB,  an  extensive  diviaioa  of  British  India, 
is  under  the  chief  commissioner  of  the  Central 
Provinces.  Arei^  24,040  square  miles;  pop.  (1881) 
2,758,056.  (The  dulria  of  K.,  with  an  area  of 
3786  square  miles,  had  at  the  same  census  of  13S1, 
a  pop.  of  607,356.)  The  north  part  of  the  division 
is  mountainoaa  in  character,  being  traversed  by 
spurs  of  the  great  Vindhya  range ;  the  general 
stipe  of  the  surface  ia  from  nortb-west  to  south- 
east, and  the  Bay  of  Bengal  receives  the  drain- 
age of  the  country  chiefly  through  the  rivers 
Mfthanadl  and  Wain  Gangfi — the  latter  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  God&vari.  The  climate  ia  not 
healthy,  and  is  especially  insalubrious  in  the  ex- 
tensive tracts  of  low  marshy  land  which  abound 
in  the  province.  The  Gonda  (see  Dtdia),  supposed 
t«  be  the  aborigines,  are  the  most  remarkable  cbss 
of  the  inhabituita.  They  rear  fowls,  swine,  and 
buffaloes ;  but  their  country,  forming  the  aouth- 
eaatem  tracts— about  one-third  of  toe  whole— is 
covered  with  a  dense  jungle,  swarming  with  tigers. 
lu  the  more  favoured  dutricts,  where  the  in&bi- 
tants  are  more  industrious,  rice,  maize,  oil,  and  other 
seeds,  and  vegetables  are  extensively  cnlttrated. 
The  rajahs  of  N.,  sometimes  called  the  rajaba  of 
Berar,  ruled  over  a  state  formed  out  of  »  part  of 
the  great  Mahratta  kingdom.  The  dynasty,  how- 
ever, died  out  in  1853,  and  the  territoiy  came  into 
the  posaeaaion  of  Uie  British.  The  province  has  five 
divisions — capital,  Nsgpur. 

NAG'S  HEAD  CONSECRATION.  ThU 
■torf,  which  was  first  circulated  by  the  Boman 
Catholics  forty  years  after  the  event,  with  respect 
to  Arcbbi^op  Farker'a  conaecration,  was  to  the 
following  effect.  On  the  passing  of  the  first  Act 
of  Cniformity  in  tbe  first  year  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
fonrteen  biahope  vacated  their  sees,  and  all  ihe 
other  aeea  ezceptine  that  of  T,l«Tu1aff  being  vacant, 
there  waa  a  diMcmty  in  maintairung  the  hitherto 
unbroken  succession  of  bishops  from  apostolical 
times.  Eitchin  of  T.lgndaff  refused  to  officiate 
at  Parker's  consecration,  and  consequently  the 
Protestant  divines  procured  the  help  of  Scory,  a 
deprived  bishop  of  the  rei^  of  Edward  VL,  and 
all  having  met  at  the  Nag's  Head  Tavern  in  Cheap- 
side,  they  knelt  before  Scory,  who  laid  a  Bible  on 
their  heads  or  shoulders,  saymg :  '  Take  thou  autho- 
rity to  preach  the  word  of  God  sincerely ; '  and  they 
rose  up  bishops  of  the  New  Church  of  England ! 
The  story  is  discredited  by  the  Roman  Catholio 
historian  lin^rd,  and  is  carefully  ref nted  by  Stiype 
in  Hs  life  of  Parker.  The  facta  of  the  case  are,  that 
the  election  took  place  in  the  chapter-house  at 
Canterbury,  the  confirmation  at  St  Mary  le  Bow's 
Church  in  Cheapeide,  and  the  consecration  in  the 
chapel  of  Lambeth  Palace.  Scory,  then  elected  to 
the  see  of  Hereford ;  Barlow,  formerly  Bishop  of 
Wells,  then  elected  to  Chichester ;  Coverdale,  for- 
merly of  Exeter,  and  never  reappointed  to  any  see ; 
and  Hodgkin,  sufCragon  of  Hereford,  officiated  at 
the  consecration.  The  Nag's  Head  story  probably 
arose  from  the  company  having  possibly  gone  from 
Bow  Church,  after  the  confinnation,  to  take  a 
dinner  together  at  the  tavern  hard  by,  according 
to  the  prevailing  custom.  The  due  succession  ra 
bishops  in  the  English  Church  has  never  beem 
brokeiL 

NAGT,  a  Hungarian  word,  meaning  'great.*  It 
is  prefixed  to  the  names  of  many  towns  in  Hungary 
and  Transylvania.  In  the  present  work,  many  of 
the  towns  that  take  this  prefix  are  given  nnder  the 
name  that  comes  after  it. 

NAGT  BATSYA.    See  Bahy*. 

NAGT  BNYBTJ,  a  small  town  of  Transylvania, 
on  the  Maros,lT  miles  north-north-eartc^Earl  *"  — 


■tolEarlabiini 


NAHUM— HAIUL 


hmou  Ctlvinktio  oollegs. 
(1860)  6362. 
HA'HUH,  ona  of  th«  tirelve  minor  |>) 


birthplaoA  with  0^>n7iMiia  (N&hum'«  Villmge) 
plftM  oiUad  EUtorii,  on  the  eut  aide  <rf  the  Tigrin, 
not  lu  from  Kinev^  b  the  reaolt  of  vagne  apecola- 
tion.  Ea  WH  probably  a  oontemporary  of  Isaiah, 
Mid  flonrished  abont  713 — 711  B.a  The  burden 
of  hi*  'Tiaion'  (in  3d  chap.)  ia  the  deatrnction  of 
NineTah  and  the  downfall  of  the  Amtyiiau  king- 
dom. Hii  atyle  ii  fidl  of  animation,  fimcy,  and 
origiDBlit?,  Mid  at  the  lame  time  dear  and  rounded. 
Bis  laiwiago  throoghoot  ia  dMsio*],  and  in  tiie 
piiTeat  Hslneir,  belongins  to  the  lecond  half  cA 
Hmekiah'i  nwi,  or  to  &«  time  immediateiy  fol- 
lowing the  defeat  of  Sennacherib  before  Jerauklem 
(2  King!  xix.  SS,  kc).  A  oommentary  on  N.,-with 
■peoial  refermce  to  AMyrisn  mcnaments,  tras  written 
by  O.  Strann  (1853).  Sea  Ewald'a  Pro})A«f«,  and  the 
worka  on  Intoodnc^on  to  the  Old  Teatament 

HA'IA.    See  Asp  and  Cobsl 

NA'IADBS,  NAIABA'CBLff;  or  POTAMBS, 
«  Dfttnril  order  of  endogenons  pUats,  divided  by 
tome  botaniata  into  several  ordeis  {Juncaginta, 
ZoMeracea,  Ao.),  containing  in  all  -  not  quite  100 
known  speciM,  all  aqnatia  plants,  lonie  of  them 
inhabiting  the  ocean,  some  fonnd  in  lakes  and 
ponds,  some  in  streams.  They  are  tdl  of  very  cel- 
Inlar  stmotnre  ;  the  leaves  have  parallel  veins,  and 
tile  flowen  are  inconspicnons.  To  this  order  belongs 
the  Fondweed  {Potamogeton),  of  which  a  nnmber  of 
q>ecies  abonnd  in  the  ibll  waters  of  Britain,  and  of 
which  atane  are  foond  «a  far  nortii  aa  Iceland.  To 
this  order  alio  belongs  tiie  ORtaswii±aK  (q.  t.)  of 
on  slior«a,  need  for  stuffing  mattreaaeo.  The 
Lat(ace.leaf  (q.  v.)  of  Madagascar  ia  one  of  the  m«at 
interestiiig  species,  and  one  of  the  few  vhieh  attract 
notice  aa  m  any  way  beantifiiL 


. , ,  _ ____.    „Jieywet« 

bedieved  to  possess  the  power  of  inspiratioQ ;  hence, 
Bootlisayers  and  others  are  sometimes  called  njpnplio- 
Uploi  («ei«ed  by  the  nymph).     They  were  repre. 
■ented   as    half-clothed   maidens, 
and    not    nnfrequently    as    com- 
panions of  Fan,  of  Hercules,  the 
— ,tron  of  warm  springB,  or  of  the 
[eni  and  the  Satyrs,  in  whose 
jovial  dance*  they  join, 

SATANT,  or  NATANT  (Lat. 
nalart,  to  swim),  a  henldio  term 
appUed   to    a    fiih   when    borne 
horisontally  across  the  shield  in 
a  swimming  poaiblon. 
HAIOUE,  or  NAIK,  a  native  subaltern  officer 
among  Indian  and   Anglo-Aaiatio  troops,  whose 
t V jjg  somewhat   analogous  to  wioae   per- 


Naiant 


somewhat   analogous  to  tb 
European  troops  by  the  drill- 


formed  among 

NAILS  are  flattened,  eliBtic,  homy  plates, 
which  are  placed  a*  protective  coverings  on  the 
dorsal  mriaoa  of  the  terminal  phalanges  of  the 
Sngen  and  toes.  Each  nail  consists  of  a  root,  or 
part  oonoealed  within  a  fold  of  the  ekin ;  a  hody, 
or  exposed  part  attached  to  the  surface  of  the  ekin ; 
and  a  free  anterior  extremity  called  the  edge.  The 
skin  below  the  root  and  body  of  the  nail  is  termed 
the  matrix,  from  its  being  the  part  from  which  the 
nail  is  produced.  This  is  thick,  and  covered  with 
highly  vascnlor  papillee,  and  its  coloor  is  seen 
fhjoagh  the  tranapgu'ent  homy  tissue.  Kear  Qie 
root,  uepapillje  are  smaller  and  leas  vascular;  hence 


the  portion  of  nail  aorresponding  to  thia  part  is  of  a 
whiter  colonr ;  from  its  form,  this  portion  ia  termed 
the  lunula.  It  is  by  the  sneceasive  growth  of  new 
cells  at  the  root  and  under  the  body  M  the  nail  tdiat 
it  advancee  forwarda,  and  mMniain.  a  doe  thirknusn. 
whilst  at  the  same  time  its  growth  in  a  proper 
direction  is  insured.  The  chemical  composition  at 
Hm  nails  is  given  in  the  article  HOBST  TianiB,  to 
irtiich  class  of  atructorea  tbey  belong.  Aooording 
to  the  observatim  «l  Bean,  the  fii^r-naila  grow 
at  tlie  rate  of  abont  twu-fifths  of  >  fine  in  a  week, 
while  the  toe-nails  only  grow  with  abont  one-fonrtb 
of  that  rapidity.  When  a  nail  has  been  removed  \ij 
violence,  or  has  been  thrown  off  in  conseqnenoe  of 
the  formation  of  matter  (jms)  beneath  it,  a  new  nsil 
ia  speedily  formed,  provideil  the  matrix  haa  not 
been  serioosly  injnreo. 

There  is  a  very  conmian  and  trontdesoma  affedian 
popularly  known  as  i'ogmaing  noil.  Ita  most  usual 
seat  is  by  the  side  of  the  great  toe.  It  does  not 
in  reality  arise  from  any  alt^tion  of  the  nail,  but 
from  the  adjacent  soft  puts  being  constantly  pressed 
by  the  use  of  tight  shoes  a^inst  iln  edge.  These 
parts  become  awolkn  and  inflamed;  aopporation 
ensues,  and  an  intensely  sensitive  nicer  ia  formed, 
in  which  the  nail  ia  emtiedded.  Surgical  advice 
should  at  once  be  resorted  to  in  tJieae  cases,  as 
there  is  no  probability  that  the  ulcer  will  heal  spon- 
taneoualy,  especially  if  the  patient  continne  to  move 
abont,  and  thus  keep  up  irritation.  In  nhstinate 
cases,  it  is  not  unfrequently  necessary  to  remove  a 
portion  of  the  nail,  an  operation  attended  with  mwHk 
pain,  although  quickly  performed. 

NAILS,  pointed  jneces  of  mstsl,  usually  with 
flattened  or  rounded  heada,  nsed  for  driving  into 
wood-work,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  pieces 
together.  A  variety,  in  which  the  head  is  very 
lam,  and  the  spike  portion  small,  nsed  by  shoe- 
m^ers  for  ^tecting  the  solea  of  boota  and  shoes 
from  wear,  is  called  the  hob-jtail;  another,  which 
is  made  by  cutting  thin  plate-iron  into  thin  pointed 
pieces  of  various  lengths,  is  called  bradt;   these 

^ are  without  beads,  but  are  uanally  made 

— iht  projection  by  way  of  a  head.     When 

made  small,  with  flat  heads,  for  attaching  clotii 
or  haogines  in  upholstery-work,  they  are  called 
lade*;  mi  when  very  large  for  heavy  carpentry, 

SfaU-maOitg, — Formerly,  all  nails  were  hand- 
made, by  forging  on  an  anvil;  and  in  Britain 
and  the  north  of  Burope,  vast  quantities  are  still 
made  in  this  manner,  being  pr^erable,  for  many 
kinds  of  catpenters'  work,  to  those  made  I7 
inery.  In  France,  the  greater  part  of  ttie 
used  for  light  carpentry-wodc  are  made  of 
ron  wire,  pointed  with  the  hammer ;  and  in 
order  to  head  them,  they  are  pinched  in  a  toothed 
vice,  which  leaves  the  portion  for  the  head  projecting 
and  makes  below  it  three  or  font  gioovea  in  the 
nail,  which  increase  its  hold  on  the  wood  whea 
driven  home.  The  head  is  beaten  into  a  oountO' 
the  vice,  which  regulates  the 
1  used  for  hand  uil-mak' 
t  bnndles,  and  ia  oalled  n 
nuicT  prepared  by  rolling  the  maUsaDie  iron  uuo 
oda  or  small  ban  of  the  required  thickness — which 
iroceas  is  only  employed  for  very  fine  qualities— or 
>y  cutting  plate-iron  into  strips  by  means  of  rolling- 
shears  :  th^  shear*  consist  of  two  powerful  revolnng 
shafts  (a,  a,  lig.),  upon  which  are  nxed  discs  at  bard 
steel  with  squared  edges  (b,  b,  flg.).  The  discs  of 
one  shaft  alternate  vrith  those  of  the  other ;  th(^  are 
of  the  thickness  of  the  plate  to  be  cut,  and  the  ualts 
are  so  placed,  that  a  amaU  portion  of  one  set  of  the 
discs  are  inserted  between  those  of  the  other  set 
When  the  shafts  are  revolving,  a  plate  of 


uCiOOgIc 


NAINI— NALA. 


PMwed  between  Uiediics  in  the  plane  of  the 

fine  e,  e,  fig.  i  Mid  it  ii  foroiblj  dniwii  tiuon^ 

the  tteel  duca  ontting  tha  pUtea  into  itrips  with 


.»  dotted 
throDf^ 


grekt  rapidify.  The  qnautity  produced  in  this  way 
u  eDormooB,  Rome  miJia  tnrmag  ont  »t  the  rate  of 
tec  milea  per  hour  of  nuI-rod«. 

SeTBTal  invention*,  in  which  America  took  the 
lead,  have  been  introduced,  and  are  ■ncceaafully 
worked,  for  mating  nails  direct  from  plate-iron, 
either  b;  catting  them  ont  cold  or  hot ;  and  a  very 
large  proportion  of  the  tuula  in  use  are  made  in 
this  way.  Nail-making  by  machinet?  waa  origi- 
nated in  MaaaachUBetta  m  I8ICL 

NAINI  (or  Ntmee)  TAL,  the  summer  teaoii  of 
the  LieatenaDt-covemor  of  the  N.W.  Frovinces  of 
India,  is  a  BmaJl  town  in  Kumaon,  on  the  outer 
range  of  the  Uimalaya,  and  overlooking  a  beautiful 
lake  7000  feet  above  sea-level.  Here  a  diaaatrons 
landelip  occurred  in  1S80,  by  which  many  liTei^ 
native  and  European,  were  lost. 

IfAIRIf,  awval  bargh  and  capital  of  a  coonty, 
staiids  where  Uie  river  Nairn  enters  the  Moray 
Firth.  It  commands  a  grand  and  extensive  view 
of  the  coast  of  Roes-ahire,  including  Cromarty  Bay, 
nearly  opposite.  N.  was  legalised  by  Williua  the 
Lion.  It  hu  little  histoncal  interest,  and  few 
objects  worthy  of  antiqaarian  attention.  It  is 
pnncipallj  remarkable  for  the  ezcellenoe  of  its 
•ea-bathing  and  artiScial  baths,  in  which  respect  it 
is  equal,  ifoot  superior,  to  any  town  in  the  north  of 
Scotland,  as  a  resort  in  summer.  The  temperature 
is  mild  and  equable.  The  inhabitants  enjoy  a 
remarkable  immunity  from  epidemic  di^aaes. 
There  is  a  commodious  harbonr.  The  town  has  a 
literary  society,  a  mnaeum,  a  newspaper,  three 
branch  banks,  and  a  savings  bank.  It  is  conspicn- 
ouB  for  good  and  cheap  education.  Pop.  in  1881, 
4165.  N!  unitea  with  Inverneaa,  Forres,  and  Fort- 
rose  in  Bending  a  member  to  parliament. 

NAlB^fSHIRE  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the 
Moray  Firth,  and  on  its  other  sides  by  the  counties 
of  Inverneaa  and  Moray,  of  the  latter  of  nhich  it 
anciently  formed  a  part.  It  extends  north  and 
south  22  miles,  and  16  miles  from  east  to  west. 
Its  area  is  216  square  miles,  or  137,600  acres,  of 
which  about  26,000  are  under  cultivation.  Fop.  in 
1871,  10,225;  in  1881,  10,455.  Along  with  Elgin- 
shire,  it  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  Con- 
stituency (1881-82),  293 ;  rental,  £36,217.  Nairn 
is  the  only  royal  bnrgh  in  the  oouuty.  but  there 
are  the  villages  of  Cawdor  and  Auldearn.  The 
■oil  is  for  the  most  part  light  and  sandy.  There  is, 
howeverjConsiderable  agricultural  activity,though  the 
oounty  is  perhaps  better  known  for  ita  cattle-breeding. 
An  important  cattle  'tryst'  is  held  at  Cawdor  once 
a  month  during  the  greater  port  of  the  year.    The 


olimata  of  this  oonnty  ia  dirtingnisbed  for  ibi  «ala< 
brity,  and  the  temperatnre  is  remarkably  equable^ 
He  Qiennometei  in  the  ahade  has  not  neen  aboT» 
78°  3*,  oc  fallen  below  11°  2,  during  the  Ust  twenty 
yean.  Aeoording  to  the  latest  obeerrations,  the 
yearly  rainfall  d^  not  amount  to  more  than  2S 
Inches,  the  greatest  &11  being  in  October,  and  tha 
least  in  ApcU.  At  Brackia  Distillery,  whidi  beIon| 
to  Bobert  FVaser,  Esq.,  from  40,000  to  CO.OO. 
^Jlons  of  spirits  are  manufactured  ai"inally.  The 
nver  Nairn  runs  through  the  county  in  a  bean- 
tiful  valley,  which  presenta  particuhu'Iy  attrac- 
tive and  romantic  scenery  ia  the  neighbourhood  of 
Cawdor  Caatle,  one  of  the  residences  of  the  Eotl  of 
Cawdor.  This  castle  is  of  uncertain  antiquity,  a 
is  in  an  excellent  state  ofpreservation.  It  waa  t 
residence  of  the  ancient  iWues  of  Cawdor,  one 
whom  ia  mentioned  in  MacbeA,  Abont  the  year 
1610,  the  estates  belonging  to  the  earldom  paaKAbjr 
marria^  from  the  old  family  of 
Colder  into  the  hands  of  a  son  of 
the  Duke  of  Argyle,  and  are  still 
in  the  possession  of  his  descen- 
dants. Not  a  few  other  objects 
of  antiquarian  interett  ore  to 
be     found    in     the     county    of    \ 

KA1S8ANT,  a  term  applied  io 
heraldic    blazon    to    an    animal 
depicted  as  coming   forth  ont  of         Naissint. 
the  middle — not  like  luuant  or 
Jcuant  (q.T.),  out  of  the  boundary  line— of  an  OTdinaiy, 

NAKHIOHEVA'N,  as  thb  Dox,  a  thriving  town 
of  South  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Ekat«rinoslaT, 
ou  the  right  bank  of  the  Don,  and  near  the  mouth 
of  that  river,  two  miles  east  of  Rostov. 
founded  in  1779  by  Armenian  settlers  from  the 
Crime^  and  has  (1880)  16,258  inhabitants,  moefly 
Armenians,  belonging  to  the  Qreek  -  Armenian 
Church.  The  inhabitants  are  eng^^  in  the  monn- 
factnre  of  sQver  ornaments  and  woollen  goods,  and 
an  extensive  trade  is  carried  on. 

NAK8HATRA  (a  Sanscrit  word  of  dcnbtful 
etymology,  bnt  prohiibly  a  compound  of  an  obsolete 
base  naSia,  night,  and  fro,  protecting,  L  e.,  literally 
night- protecting)  means  properly  star,  and  is  used 
in  this  sense  in  the  Vedas.  At  a  later  period,  it 
applied  to  the  asterisms  lying  in  the  moon's  pat 
' '  e  manrions  in  which  the  moon  is  supposed  to 
in  her,  or  rather,  according  to  Hindu  notions, 
hi)  path.  The  number  of  these  oateriams  was 
reckoned  originally  at  27,  later  at  2S ;  and  mythology 
transformed  them  into  as  many  daughters  of  £e 
patriarch  Daksha,  who  became  the  wives  of  the 
moon.  See  Moos.  Biot,  the  distinguished  French 
astronomer,  endeavoored  to  shew  that  the  Hindu 
Bystem  of  the  Nakshatras  was  derived  from  the 
Chinese  Hen ;  bnt  his  theory,  though  supported  by 
very  learned  arguments,  has  been  refuted  by  Pro- 
fessor WMtney,  m  hia  notes  ko  Burgess's  taranalation 
of  the  S&Tya-SiddMnta  (Kew  Haven,  United  States^ 
I860),  and  by  Professor  MQller  in  hia  preface  to  the 
4th  volume  of  the  Eig-  Veda  (Lond.  1862] ;  for  their 
arguments  leave  little  doubt  that  the  system  of  Uie 
Nokshstras  originated  from  the  Hindu  mind. 

NALA  is  a  legendary  king  of  anoient  ladio — a 
king  of  Nishadha^ whose  love  for  Damayantt,  the 
daughter  of  Bhima,  king  of  Vidarbbo,  and  the 
adventures  arising  from,  or  connected  with,  it — the 
loss  of  his  kingdom,  the  abandonment  of  his  wife 
and  children,  and  their  ultimate  reetoration — have 
supplied  several  Hindu  poets  with  the  subject  of 
their  muse.  The  oldest  poem  relating  to  Nala  and 
Damayantt  is  a  celebrated  episode  of  tJie  MoAdb/idraia 
(q.  T.),  edited  both  in  India  and  Europe,  and  translated 


NALODATA— NAMAQUAa. 


in  JjMa  by  Bopp ;  in  Oerman  bj  Koaegarta),  Bopp, 
BUckert,  and  Meier;  and  in  English  by  Dean 
Milman.  The  two  other  renomied  poemi  treating  of 
the  lame  legend,  bnt  with  fu  lesa  completeneas,  are 
the  Jfalodaya  (q.  t.)  md  the  IfauhadAacAanta  of 


NALODAYA  i«  the  name  of  a  Sanscrit  poem 
-which  ia  hiAhl;  prized  by  the  modem  Hindus.  Ita 
nbiect  is  the  stoiy  of  Nala  (q.  v.).  but  mora  con- 
dsely  narrated  than  in  the  episode  of  the  JtTaM- 
bhdrata,  whence  its  contents  are  borrowed ;  and  its 
rsputed  author  ia  EOlidlisa  (q.  v.).  (ireat  doubts, 
howarer,  must  attach  to  the  attribution  of  this 
aathorship,  if  by  EILtid&aa  the  aathor  of  Sdiaaaaia 
it  meant,  and  not  some  other  poet  bearing  the  Mme 
name ;  for  the  merits  of  this  poem  consist  neither 
in  elevation  of  thought  nor  in  ticlmeM  of  fiction : 
tbey  are  sought  for  by  the  Hibdiis  in  its  elaborate 
and  artificial  diction,  and  in  its  alliteration  of  every 
variety,  which,  to  a  European  mind  of  culture  and 
taste,  would  be  no  more  than  an  intolerable  jingle 
of  sounds,  devoid  of  all  poetical  worth.  The  text  of 
the  poem,  with  a  modern  commentary,  has  be^ 
edited  [Berhn,  lS30t  by  F.  Benary,  and  (Calcutta, 
1644]  bv  W.  Tates,  who  added  to  hu  edition  a  free 
metrical  translation  of  the  text,  and  an  essay  oil 
Sanscrit  Alliteration. 

HAMA'QU ALAND,  Osbat.  Ths  extensive 
region  in  South  Africa  north  of  the  Cape  Colony, 
e^rtendina  from  the  Oranro  iiiver,  lat.  29°  30',  to 
Wslflsh  Bay,  lat.  23°,  and  stretching  inland  from 
the  west  coast  to  the  Kalibari  Desert,  comprehend- 
ing an  area  of  about  100,000  sqaore  miles,  u  known 
onder  the  name  of  Great  N.,  being  principally 
inhabited  by  wandering  tribes  of  Namaquas  (q.  v,). 
This  region  is  drained  principally  by  a  taive 
periodic^  water-course,  called  the  Oup,  Borradaife, 
or  Great  Fish  River,  which,  rrmning  from  north  to 
BontJi  a  distance  of  about  4S0  miles,  joins  the  Orange 
Bivet  neatly  at  ri{^t  anglse,  about  00  miles  from 
its  month.  Save  in  the  north,  where  there  are  lofty 
plateans,  it  is  a  most  sterile  and  barren  region,  aud 
along  a  coast-line  of  ujiwards  of  400  miles  does  not 
T^esent  a  single  running  stream  ;  but  a  few  httle 
bays  along  the  coaa^  such  as  Angra  Pequena  (where 
300  sq.  miles  were  in  1 883  acquired  by  a  Oerman 
company  for  a '  tradina  colony '),  Sandwich  Harbour, 
and  Walfish  Bay,  uTord  safe  anchorai^  The 
valley  of  the  Oup  is  bounded  on  each  side  by 
ranges  of  flat-topped  barren  mountains,  whidi  to 
the  eastward  die  away  into  the  waterless  though 
wooded  flats  of  the  Eahhari  Desert,  and  coaatwaMa 
trtretoh  into  vast  soody  downs,  against  which  the 
Southern  Atlantic  beats  an  unccasmg  surf,  render- 
ing i«TiHing  Tery  dangerous,  and  enveloping  the 
coast  ia  a  perpetnal  miat  The  chief  productions 
of  tiie  region  are  cattle,  for  the  rearing  of  which  the 
country  seems  favourable.  On  the  edge  of  the 
£alihari,  ivory  and  ostrich  feathers  are  collected, 
and  copper  ore  seems  abundant  in  several  localities. 
Ooono  IB  found  at  Ichaboe  and  many  little  i^nda 
on  the  coast,  and  considerable  fisheries  ore  carried 
on  by  Cape  honses  in  many  of  the  bays. 

The  hon,  girafie,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  and 
large  game  generally,  are  atill  found  in  N.,  alUiough 
fast  duniniaMng  before  the  Grearma  of  the  Namaquas. 
The  snakes  ore  considered  especially  venomons. 
The  gemaboh,  eland,  and  other  large  antelopes,  now 
almost  unknown  in  the  Cape  Colony,  are  still 
numerous  in  the  littJo- frequented  wastes  of  this 
region.  The  climate  is  extreme,  and  thou^  on  the 
whole,  not  unhealthy,  is  very  trying  lo  European 
constitutions.  The  water  is  gan^^y  brackish. 
The  first  English  traveller  in  N.  was  Sir  J.  Alex- 
ander, who,  in  1S3T,  trmvened  it  from  north  to 


smith.  Information  on  the  region  may  be  fonnd  it. 
the  travels  of  Anderason,  Hoffit,  Campbell  and  Le 
Vaillaut.  N.  ia  virtually  nnder  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Cape  Colony.  The  native  tribes,  who  may 
perhaps  number  about  40,0(N)  sonls.  speak  th« 
Namoqua  language,  the  pnreat  type  of  the  Hottentot. 
NAMAQUALAND,  Littlk,   is   «   division   of 


the  coimtry  north  of  it  under  the  general  name  of 
Namaqnaland.  It  is  a  very  barren  region,  covered 
with  rugged  volcanic-looking  hills,  throngh  which 
the  Ganep  or  Great  Orange  River  appears,  throu^ 
some  oonvnlsion  of  nature,  to  have  forced  its  way  to 
the  sea.  Little  N.  has  of  late  yeai«  afforded  a  very 
la^  supply  of  copper  ore  of  excellent  quality  (in 
1S78  near  12,000  tons) ;  but  the  mines,  although 
well  known  to  the  Dutch  200  years  ago,  were  not 
worked  till  after  1852.  The  principal  river  ia  the 
Orange  oE  the  colonists,  which  divides  the  Cape 
Colony  from  Great  Namaqualaad ;  all  the  other 
Htreams  are  merely  periodical  torrents,  often  diy 
for  years.  The  seat  of  magistracy  is  at  Springbok 
Foutein,  about  SO  miles  from  the  principal  narbonr, 
Hondeklip  Bay,  and  where  are  situated  tbe  very  r^^ 


ostriches  a: 


and  Engli^  settlers.     All  the   latger  

—  ?pt  a  few  gemsbok,  are  extirpated;  but  troops  of 

--'- B  still  numeroua  on  the  grassy  flata  of  the 

inntry-  The  geological  features  oE  thia 
peculiarly  interesting,  and  have  been 
thoroughly  explored  by  A.  Wylie,  on  behalf  of  the 
Cape  government.  The  roi^  are  generally  of 
granite  or  gneiss,  intersected  with  namerous  v^ng 
of  cupreous  indications,  and  near  t^  Orange  Siver, 
present  many  very  curious  foaturea.  The  coast-line 
extends  for  100  miles,  with  a  few  little  bays,  such 
as  Port  Nalloth  and  Hondekhp,  where  uiera  is 
tolerably  safe  anchorage,  and  generally  presents  a 
shore  covered  with  low  granite  rocks.  At  Hondeklip 
Bay,  a  large  boulder  painted  red  forms  a  distin- 
guisliing  landmark 
NAMA'QDAS,  the  principal  existing  tribe  of 
le  race  generally  known  under  the  name  of  Hot- 
tentot. They  iohabit  the  region  called  Great 
Namaqualand,  north  of  the  Gariep  or  Orange  Biver, 
and  the  conntiy  a  few  miles  south  of  it,  as  far  as 
the  Eamiesbewn.  Tliey  are  a  pastoral  people 
of  rather  pre&tory  habits,  and  live  nnder  the 
rule  of  their  ohie&,  whoee  powers,  however,  are 
of  a  very  limited  tiatnre.  Differing  from  the 
BoBJesmen  Hottentots,  the  N.  are  a  tali,  well-made, 
active  people,  althou^  presenting  the  usual  pecuU- 
arities  of  the  race,  sudi  as  the  light  ohve  complexion, 
the  oblique  eye,  and  short  tufted  hair.  They  speak 
a  dialect  of  the  Hottentot  language,  which,  however, 
differs  considerably  from  that  osed  by  other  tribes 
of  that  people.  Mission  stations  of  the  Bhenish  and 
Wesleyan  societies  have  been  for  many  years  estab- 
lished amongst  them,  and  in  a  few  locaUtiea,  near 
the  Cape  Colony,  with  considerable  success ;  and 
the  New  Testament  and  some  elementary  works 
have  been  translated  into  the  Nawaqna  dialect 
On  the  northern  bordere  of  the  regions  they  inhabit, 
the  N.,  nnder  the  chief  AMcaner,  the  descendant 
of  a  fagitive  slave  from  Cape  Colony,  have  for 
many  years  kept  np  a  predatory  and  bloody  war 
with  the  tribes  of  Ovampos  and  Damaroa,  wlio  lire 
north  of  Walfiah  Bay.  The  total  namb«  of  N. 
cannot  exceed  between  t>0,000  and  60,000  Mols, 
scattered  over  a  region  of  at  least  160,000  squan 
miles  i   and  there  is  every  prospect  <^  the  pure 


..III.,,,  „Ci00glc 


NAHAQTTAS-NAME. 


Hottentot  tiibea  «ooa  becomina  extinct,  or  at  leaat 
absorbed,  being  ^^nally  •upplanted  by  the 
energstio  and  civilued  Baatara  races,  who,  in  point 
of  civiliaatiDn  and  appearance,  are  very  little 
inferior  to  the  ordinary  Dntoh  Boer  of  Cape 
Colony.  Many  of  the  aouthem  N.  poHsau  Tagona 
and  oxen,  and  are  employed  in  the  tranaport  of 
copper  ore  from  the  minea  of  Little  NamaquAUnd 
to  the  Bhipping  port  at  Hondeklip  Bay. 

A  few  of  the  peculiar  custonu  of  the  Hottentot 
tribea,  deacribed  by  Kolben  neariy  200  yeara  ago, 
may  be  still  tawed  amon^  the  mora  remote  bib* 
of  the  N. ;  bnt  contact  wiUi  the  Cape  Coloniata,  and 
the  efftnla  of  the  misnonariea,  have  partiaUy  dviliaed 
this  raoe,  ao  that  an  ordinary  HotMitot  ia  quite  aa 
respectable  a  aawe,  or  perhaps  mora  so  Uuu  his 
Betjooana  or  Amatoaa  brethreii. 

HAMB  (Sax;  name,  Oer.  natae,  Lat  wrawn, 
Or.  onoma],  the  word  by  which  a  particular  person 
or  thing  ia  signified  in  distinction  from  other  peiaons 
or  things.  A  name  attached  to  a  per«aa  is  called 
a  proper  name.  Names  diatingimhing  one  indi- 
Tidnu  from  another  have  been  in  ose  from  the 
earliest  ages  of  homan  Bociety.  Among  the  Jews, 
the  name  given  to  a  child  either  originated  in  some 
circumstance  of  birth,  or  was  an  expression  ot 
leligion*  sentiment.  Old  Testament  namai  are 
almost  all  original— L  e.,  given  in  the  fint  instanoe 
to  the  penon  bearing  them;  bat  the  Jews,  Lke 
other  nations,  after  accnmnlating  a  considerable 
stock  of  names,  benn  to  repeat  them,  and  we  find 
few  names  in  the  New  Testament  which  hod  not 
been  used  before.  In  Old  Testament  times,  it  was 
an  occasional  practice  to  adopt  a  change  of  name 
on  the  occasion  of  an  important  event  in  one's  life. 

The  Qieeks  bore  only  one  name,  given  on  the 
tenth  day  after  birth,  which  it  waa  the  right  of 
the  father  to  ohooae,  and  alter  it  he  pleased.  The 
earliest  Oreek  names  are  generally  expressive  of 
some  quality  in  hich  estimation,  as  valoor,  skill, 
wisdom,  or  graceralnem  (Callimachns,  excellent 
fighter;  Pherscratea,  strength  bringer;  Sophron, 
wise ;  Melontbas,  black  flower).  In  later  times, 
when  the  faith  in  the  gods  was  on  the  wane,  names 
derived  &om  Apollo  and  Athene,  or  indicative  (rf 
the  favour  of  Olympus  (Apollodonis,  gift  of  Apollo), 
oame  more  into  fashion.  The  eldest  son  generally 
bore  the  name  of  his  paternal  grandfather,  and  the 
oonfosion  arising  from  the  repetition  of  the  same 
name  was  attempted  to  be  obviated  by  a] 
the  father's  name  (either  simply,  or  tnnie 
patronymic),  the  occupation,  tlie  place  of  birth,  or 
a  nickname. 

The  Romans  at  a  very  early  period  bore  two 
names,  and  afterwards  every  Roman  citizen  had 
three.  The  pnxnomen,  like  our  Christian  name, 
was  peraonal  to  the  individual — Cains,  Marcns, 
Cneins;  in  writing,  generally  abbreviated  to  an 
initial  or  two  letters,  C.,  M.,  or  On,  It  wm  given 
in  early  tunes  on  the  atbunment  of  puberty,  and 
afterwards  on  the  ninth  day  after  birth.  There 
were  about  thirty  rect^nised  pnenomina.  Women 
hod  no  pronomen  till  marriage,  when  they  took 
the  feminine  form  of  that  borne  by  their  husband. 
Every  Roman  citizen  belonged  both  to  a  gau  and 
to  a  /amiiia  incloded  in  that  gens.  The  second 
name  was  the  nomro  gatliticium,  generally  ending 
in  -tut,  -«tiu,  or  -aiiu.  The  third  name  waa  the 
heredituy  cognomen  belonging  to  tbe  familia. 
Cognomina  were  often  derivea  from  some  bodily 
peculiarity,  or  event  in  the  life  of  the  fonndet  of 
the  faintly.  A  second  eo^omen,  or  amunnxn,  as 
it  waa  called,  was  sometimee  added  by  way  lA 
honorary  distinction.  In  common  interconne,  the 
prsnomen  and  cognomen  were  used  without  the 
nomeo  geutilidum,  as  C  Ciesar  for  0.  JoUos  Cebsot, 


M.  Cicav  for  M.  Tnllins  Cioero.  Tbe  Roman  names 
were  in  their  origin  lest  dignified  and  ai^iiiing  than 
the  Greek;  some  were  derived  from  ordina^ 
employments,  as  Forciua  (swineherd),  Cioero  (vet<£ 
grower) ;  some  from  personal  peculiarities,  Crassos 
(fat),  Kaso  (long-nosed);  a  few  from  numeral*, 
Sextus,  Septimus. 

The  Celtio  and  Teatonic  names,  like  (lie  Jewish 
and  Qreek,  had  been  originally  very  significant ; 
bat  at  an  early  period  ueir  exnberauoe  became 
checked ;  people  oont«nted  themselves  with  repeat- 
ing tha  old  stock.  While  the  speech  of  Europe  was 
undergoing  a  transfonnstiou,  the  names  m  use 
remained  the  same;  belonsing  to  an  obaoleta 
tongue,  tbur  significatiOD  by  and  by  became 
nnintelliDble  to  the  people  nsing  them.  Many  are 
derived  from  '  God,'  s«  GottfriSi,  Godwin ;  some 
from  an  inferior  doss  of  gods  known  by  the  title  as 
or  oni,  whence  Aaselm,  Oaoar,  Esmond ;  others  from 
elves  or  genii,  Alfred,  Alboin.  ElErio  (Elf  King). 
Bertha  is  the  name  of  a  favourite  feminine  goddess 
and  source  of  light,  from  the  same  root  as  the  word 
'  bright ; '  the  same  word  occurs  as  a  compound  in 
Albrecht,  Bertiam.  To  a  loi^  class  oi  names 
indicating  sneh  cjoalities  as  personal  prowess, 
wisdom,  and  nobility  of  birth,  belong  Hildebrand 
(war  brand),  Konrad  (bold  in  counsel),  Elodwig 
{glorions  warrior),  called  by  ns  Clovis,  and  the 
origins!  of  Lodwig  and  Louis.  The  wolf,  the  bear, 
the  eagle,  the  brar,  and  the  lion  entered  into  the 
composition  of  many  proper  namea  of  men,  as  Adolf 
(noble  wolf),  Arnold  (valiant  eagle),  Osbom  (God 
bear).  Respect  tat  feminine  prowess  also  appeared 
in  snch  names  as  Mathilda  (mightnr  amazon),  Wolf> 
hilde  (wolf  heroine).  The  spread  of  Christianity 
threw  a  number  of  tbe  old  names  into  comparative 
oblivion,  and  introduoed  new  ones.  The  name 
selected  at  baptism  was  mora  frequently  token  from 
the  history  of  the  Bible  or  the  chan^  than  from 
the  old  traditional  repertoiy,  which,  however,  was 
never  altosether  disused.  Many  names,  sapposed 
to  be  locu  and  very  andent,  particDlarly  m  tlu 
Scottish  Highlands,  Wales,  and  ComwaU,  are  in 
reality  but  corruptions  of  names  of  Christian  origin 
which  are  in  use  elsewhere.  Owen,  Evan,  and 
Eoghan  (the  latter  often  Anglicised  into  Hector) 
seem  all  to  be  fonns  of  Johann  or  John.  A  change 
of  name  was  sometimes  mode  at  confirmation. 

Periods  of  religions  and  political  exdteroent  haTe 
had  a  very  powerful  influence  in  modifying  tbe 
fashion  in  names.  The  Puritans  would  only  admit 
of  two  classes  of  names,  thooa  directly  expressive 
of  religious  sentiment — Praise-God,  live-well — and 
names  which  occur  in  Scripture;  these  latter  india- 
criminately  made  use  of,  however  obscure  their 
meaning,  or  however  indiOerent  the  character  of 
tbe  origmal  bearer  of  them.  Old  Testament  namea 
used  in  preference  to  New,  probably  because 

did  not  convey  the  notion  of  a  patron  saint. 

Testament  names  still  prevail  largely  in 
America,  -when  exists  a  medley  of  Christian  names 
from  all  possible  sources.  At  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, names  supposed  to  savour  of  either  loyalty 
or  religion  were  abandoned,  and  those  of  Greek 
and  Roman  heroes  come  into  vogue  instead.  The 
Augustan  period  of  English  literature  gave  a 
temporary  popularity  to  such  feminine  names  as 
Narcissa,  Ceha,  Sablna.  In  Germany,  the  names 
in  use  are  particnlarly  free  from  foreign  admixture ; 
they  are  almost  all  either  of  Teutonic  origin,  or 
connected  with  the  early  history  of  Christuuii^. 
In  Britain,  tbe  number  of  names  has,  particularly 
since  the  Reformation,  been  more  limited  than  in 
most  other  countries.  In  some  families  of  distinction, 
unusual  names  hAve  been  handed  down  from  father 
g..  Peregrine   among  the 


Berties,  and  Sliolta  in  fhe  DongUa  familj.  Hi6 
accnmolation  of  two  or  mora  Christian  names  onlj 
tiecame  coDunoii  in  the  preeent  century,  and  another 
practice  which  has  euned  groimd  in  Britain  i*  the 
ttge  of  aurDomes  ai  ChriHtian  names.  More  recently, 
Tariont  old  names,  parttcnlarly  feminine  names,  M 
Maod,  FlorenM,  Ethel,  have  been  witiidnini  from 
their  obsonri^,  and  remscitatcd. 

Hie  nae  of  fixed  family  (UmamMeannot  be  traced 
mnch  fnrther  back  tlian  the  latter  part  of  the  10th 
«entniT.  They  first  came  into  nsa  in  France,  and 
I»rticulwly  in  Normandy.  At  the  Conquest,  they 
-were  introdnced  into  England  by  Uie  Norman 
adTentnrei^  and  were  general  *t  the  Domesday 
Valoation.  Many  of  the  followers  o£  William  bad 
taken  names  itoia  their  paternal  chateanx  or 
villages  on  the  other  side  of  the  Channel,  names 
which  were  used  with  the  Fiench  preposition  de 
before  them.  Their  yonnser  sons  and  others  applied 
tba  '  de '  to  estates  awaraed  them  aa  their  portion 
ftt  the  conquered  conntij,  and  called  themaelTea 
0«  Hastings,  De  Wintoo,  fta,  *  prefix  probably 
new  in  rernacnlar  nse  in  England,  and  completdy 
discarded  with  the  disappearance  cf  Norman-French, 
unless  in  a  few  eases  where  it  vat  retained  for  the 
sake  of  euphony,  or  from  coalescing  with  the  initial 
Towel,  as  in  De  la  Btche,  Danvers  (d'Anvers), 
Daugerfield  (d'Angerville).  When  Kngliah  was 
nsea  in  place  ot  Korman-French,  the  'de'  was 
always  rendered  into  'ot'  The  affectation  ot 
resoming  it  in  recent  times  is  as  nnwarrantable  in 
theory  as  in  taste.  Buch  a  designation  as  Lord 
De  Tabley  of  Tabley  House  is  an  unmeaning 
tautology.  The  Scotch  hare  a  mor«  eipressi*e 
demgnation  when  they  say  Colquhoon  of  that  Dk. 
In  France  and  Germany,  a  territorial 
(denoted  by  'de'  or  'von'}  came,  when 
spread  to  all  classes,  to  be  ttie  mark  of  nobility,  _ . 
much  to  that  in  later  times,  when  any  one  was 
ennobled  bjr  the  sovereign,  the  *  de '  was  prefixed 
to  his  previously  plebeian  and  not  territorial  name. 
In  Britain,  the  'de'  was  never  oonsidensd  the  test 
of  nobility;  the  names  ot  some  ot  the  most  distin. 

giiebed  families  were  not  territorial — e.  g.,  Stewart, 
atler,  Spencer.  In  Scotland,  surnames  wer« 
hardly  in  use  till  the  12th  c,  and  were  tor  a  long 
time  very  variable.  The  assnniption  of  anmames 
by  the  common  people  ia  everywhere  of  much  later 
date  than  their  use  by  noble  ifgentle)  families.  As 
yet^  they  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  adopted  by  the 
people  1^  the  wilder  districta  of  Wales. 

There  are  many  existing  IomI  innumea  in  Britiun 
besides  those  denved  from  the  names  of  the  manors 
of  the  gentry  or  landholders.  Farms,  homesteads, 
the  natural  features  of  the  country,  all  gave  their 
names  to  those  who  resided  at  or  near  them ;  hence 
snch  names  as  Wood,  Manh,  Dole.  The  preposition 
'  at '  is  in  a  few  cases  retained,  aa  in  Atwood, 
A'Conrt,  Nash  (atten-aah,  L  e.,  at  the  ash).  The 
travelling  habits  oE  the  Scots  account  for  such 
nomee  as  Inelia,  Fleming,  Welsh  (the  original  of 
Wallace),  applied  to  those  who  had  viwted  foreign 

CB ;  aitd  sometimes  a  Scotsman,  wandering  into 
land,  retnrced  with  the  acquired  name  of  Scotb 
A  laree  doss  of  somames  are  patronymics,  often 
formed  by  'son,'  or  its  eqaivalent  in  the  laogosfe  of 
the  country,  added  to  the  Christian  name  of  the 
father.  Names  of  this  sort  often  ^actuate  from 
generation  to  eencration.  Alan  Walterson  had  a 
son,  Walter,  who  called  himself  Walter  Alanson. 
The  genitive  case  of  the  father's  name  sometimes 
served  the  same  purpose,  aa  Adams,  Jones ;  and 
similarly  in  Italian,  Dosso,  Dossl  A  fssUou  of 
using  'Fits,'  the  equivalent  ot  'son,'  before  the 
ancestral  name,  as  la  Fitzherbert,  prevailed  tem- 
porarily in  Normandy,  whence  it  was  imported  into 


England.  In  the  ^hlanda  of  Sootlsnd,  the  pnSx 
'  Mac '  (Haodonald)  served  the  same  purpose,  ^lich, 
however,  fluctuated  far  longer  than  the  patronymio 
sumamea  of  Englaod  and  tlu  Lowbnda ;  so  also  ths 
(*th«  Irish  (ffNefl),  and 'Ap' of 


d'Andrfi,  d'Eugnea ;  and  still  more  frequently  th* 
'de,'  'dei,'or'd^li'otItaly— diCol^diOiaoonuh 
Office,  occnpation,  or  ctmdition,  (ovet  lise  t» 
■nnuuDes — e.  g..  Knight,  m»t«1h.1i,  eagt,  SmiUi. 
Brewster,  Shepherd;  in  Oermaoy  and  Holland, 
Rauber  and  de  Bogver  (robber)  i  and  bom  snch 
appellatives,  patronvmicB  may  Im  ogaio  derived ; 
thus,  we  have  Smitnaon,  de  Maiatze  {mttba^t  son), 
M-Nsb  <eon  of  the  abbot),  M'Pherson  (son  of  ths 
parson),  del  Sarto  (son  of  the  tailor),  fto.  So  also 
personal  qualities — Black,  White,  Strong,  Stork, 
Laug  (long),  Littlejohn,  Cmikahaiiks  ;  and  nick- 
names have  not  nnfrequentiy  been  perpetuated  aa 
aumanuB.  We  have  also  surnames  derived  from 
the  aigna  and  cognisances  which  wan  bone  in  ths 
middle  ages,  not  only  by  inns  and  shops^  but  t^ 
privats  houses.     Jolm  ^  the  Bell  benme  John 


hence,  probably,  the  fiequency  of  family  namsi 
derived  from  annuals,  and  also  of  those  bsejnning 
with  '  Saint ;'  though  this  last  class  may,  periiaps, 
sometimes  Iulto  had  its  origin  in  the  "    ' 


a  distinctive  title  borne  by  the  beads  of 
familie^^-aa  'The  Chisbolm,'  'The  O'Conno'  Don.' 
''^'"      "  the  chief  of  a  clan  is 

ipliea  spednlly  Madeod 
'  the  elan  Madeod ; 
,   Sfplies  solely  to 


In  the  Hichlands  of  Scotiand,  tl 
usually  aJdreaaed  by  the  name 
manner;  thus, 'Maolecid'implie 


Hoddntciah,' 

Mackintosh  of  Moy, 

In  England,  the  number  ot  existing 
approaches  to  40,000^  or  about  one  to  eve^  fiv* 
hundred  individuals  ;  in  Scotland,  then  an  far 
fewer  surnames  in  proportion  to  ths  population. 
The  remarkable  predominance  of  certain  surnamea 
in  certain  localities— as  Campbell,  Cameron,  Modem 
in  Argvleshire,  Maodonald  m  Inverness,  Maekay  in 
SutiiMand,  Gordon  and  Forbes  in  Aberdeenshire^ 
and  Scott,  Ker,  Elliot,  Uozwell,  and  Johnstone  on 
the  borders — arises  from  the  clansmen  having  mode 
o  [Hvctice  ef  taking  t^  name  of  their  ohief^ 
eonsidaing  themselves  members  of  tbtir  family 
by  adoption,  if  not  otherwise^  ELsewhere  than  in 
Scotland,  vassals  often  adopted  the  names  of  their 
lords,  and  servants  those  of^  their  masters.  "Two  or 
more  Biimasies  are  often  borne  by  one  individual, 
in  which  case  the  paternal  surname  is  sometimea 
placed  first,  sometimes  last;  and,  in  reoent  times, 
it  is  by  the  name  which  occurs  last  tbot  the  bearer 
ot  the  two  somames  is  most  frequently  known. 

The  wife,  with  us  at  least,  changes  her  surname 
to  that  of  her  husband  on  marriage.  In  the  conti- 
nent, it  ia  not  unusual  for  the  husboud  to  append 
his  wife's  name  to  his  own  ;  and  in  Spain,  the  wifs 
retains  her  own  wune,  while  the  son  is  at  liberty  to 
use  either  paternal  or  maternal  noma  as  he  pleases, 
the  choice  generally  falliiu;  on  the  best  family. 

Changt  of  name.— Pnor  to  the  Beformotion, 
surnames  were  less  fixed  than  th^  hove  since 
become.  Occssionally,  younoer  sons,  instead  of 
retaining  their  patronymi^  iSopted  tiis  name  of 
their  eetate  or  place  of  residence.  A  great 
matrimonial  alliance  was  a  frequent  oanas  for 
adopting  the  patronymio  ot  the  wifth  With  the 
clergy,    ordination    was   a    common    ooeasion    of 


NAME— NAMOB. 


eichuiged  for  the  name  of  tha  pUoe  of  birth — that, 
WiUiam  Lon^  became  WiUiBm  of  Wyketuun.  In 
tima  of  political  troubieo,  a  new  name  was  often 
aanimed  for  ooncealment ;  and  in  Scotland,  tbe 
name  of  M'Ongor  wa*  proscribed  in  1604  b;  an  act 
«f  the  privy  connoiL  Hi  modern  time*,  injonctiona 
in  aettiementi  of  land,  and  deed<  of  entail,  are 
frequent  gnimida  for  a  chan^  of  name,  it  beinz 
maae  n  condition  tiiat  tbe  devuee  or  disponeie  abaU 
asmime  a  certain  Bom  ame  under  penalty  of  forfeiture, 
a  BtipolatioD  which  the  law  reco^au«8  a»  valid. 
Such  an  obligation  !i  often  combined  with  one 
relative  to  arms.  In  a  Scotch  entail,  it  is  a  very 
frequent  condition  that  each  succeeding  heir  of 
^^ntAJI,  or  husband  of  an  heiresa  of  entail,  shall 
aasume  the  entailer's  name  and  anno,  or  his  name 
«nd  armi  axiunv^ ;  in  the  former  case,  he  may, 
if  he  pleaaei,  oontinue  to  use  hia  own  ■nmame  along 
with  the  awomed  one.  Tha  heir  of  entail  is  not  held 
legally  to  take  up  any  amis  not  otherwise  his  own, 
uiUees  he  have  applied  to  the  heraldio  aathoritiee  for 
leave  so  to  da  Where  a  Scotch  entail  contained  an 
injunction  to  bear  arms  which  had  no  existence  in 
the  official  recoid  of  arms,  tlie  condition  has  not 
been  held  to  be  noil ;  the  heir  of  entail  must  apply 
to  the  Lord  Lyon  for  a  grant  of  arms  bearing  the 
designation  of  those  disponed.  In  England,  it  used 
to  hS  conmioQ  to  obtain  a  private  act  of  parliament 
to  antboiise  one  to  chanae  hia  surname ;  and  anthority 
for  such  a  proceeding  has  generally  been  given  in 
later  timea  t>y  royal  licenoe,  which  is  granted  only 
on  a  reasonable  ground  being  eatablidied  for  tbe 
alteration,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  kings-at-arms, 
to  whom  a  remit  is  made.  It  has  lometimoi  been 
anppoaed  that  this  royal  licence  is  necessaiy  to 
l^aliae  snch  a  chaugi^  but  tha  highest  l^al  auUior- 
itaes  have  laid  it  down  that  there  is  nothing  in  tbe 
law  of  England  to  prevent  any  one,  who  may  oou' 
aider  it  for  his  interest  bo  to  do,  to  change  his 
•nmame,  or  even  his  Christian  name.  Tha  idea, 
lately  prevalent  to  lome  extent,  is  equally  erroneoua, 
that  an  advertisement  in  a  gazette  or  newspaper,  or 
the  execution  of  some  deei^  is  a  necessary  fonn  in 
<irder  to  efleot  a  change  of  name.  There  are  always 
great  inconveniences  m  changing  one's  name,  which 
■nfficiently  account  for  tha  general  indisposition 
to  do  so,  except  from  a  questionable  motive. 
Ai  there  ia  no  law  to  prevent  a  person  from 
changing  bis  name,  to  there  ia,  on  the  other 
hand,  no  law  to  compel  third  parties  to  oie  the 
new  name,  and  dispntea  and  annoyances  arising 
from  such  a  state  of  things  are  matters  of  coarse. 
The  change  tends  to  a  certain  extent  to  destroy 
the  means  of  identification  after  the  lapse  of 
years,  which  may  or  may  not  be  the  object 
desired.  Notwithstanding  these  difficulties  and 
inconveniences,  there  are  many  examples  of  persons 
who  have  ancceedad  after  a  few  yean  in  being 
generally  known  under  a  new  name,  and  of  the 
public  as  well  as  bis  friends  recognising  iL  The 
change  c^  name,  in  ffeoeral,  produces  no  chanze 
whatever  on  the  legal  stattu.  A  party  is  equally 
punishable  for  swindling,  larceny,  and  ouier  cognate 
offences,  whatever  name  he  uses ;  and,  on  the  other 
band,  if  ha  is  legatee,  he  is  not  prevented  from 
MtaUishing  and  iweiving  hia  legacy,  whatever 
name  he  has  adopted.  It  foUows  liom  what  precedes 
that  no  person  u  punishable  for  using  a  new  name, 
thongh  it  is  sometimes  an  ingredient  for  a  jury 
to  t&e  into  cousideration  when  they  are  required 
to  infer  a  particular  motive  of  conduct.  Tbe 
royal  Ucence  is  practically  required  to  be  obtained 
by  Engliihinen  <not  Scotdunea)  holding  mmmissiona 
In  tha  army,  u  also  when  tha  change  of  name  i>  to 
be  accompanied  by  a  ohanga  of  arma,  it  being  the 
practice  of  the  &g^  Heralds'  CoHege  to  rafuae  to 


grant  arms  oorreeponding  to  luoh  ohanga,  unless  Hia 
royal  licence  have  been  obtunad.  In  Scotland,  » 
bata  fidt  change  of  name  requires  neither  royal, 
jadicial,nar  pariiamentaryautborily,  the  sole  excep- 
tion being  uie  case  of  members  of  tha  CoUega  of 
Justice,  who  require  llie  pannission  of  the  Comt  ot 
SeBsion.  A  royal  licence  is  not  generally  applied 
for  by  natives  of  Scotland,  ss  it  is  not  required  to 
be  produced  to  the  Lord  Lyon  on  applying  for  a 
correapondiog  change  of  arms.  The  arms  wiB  gene- 
rally be  granted  when  the  Lord  Lyon  is  satisfied 
that  file  change  has  been  made  on  some  reasonable 
ground,  and  not  from  a  purely  capricious  motive ; 
and  the  fact  of  the  change  of  name,  with  the  reason 
why  it  has  been  made,  are  narrated  in  flie  new 
patent  of  arms.  When  such  change  of  surname  and 
corresponding  change  of  aims  has  been  made  by  a 
Scotsman  who  is  an  officer  in  tha  army,  the  autno. 
ritiea  of  the  War  Office  are  in  the  habit  of  reqniring 
a  certificate  from  the  Lyon  Office  to  the  effect  that 
the  change  is  recogoised  there. 

Sama  qf  placft. — These,  like  names  of  peiwnu, 
belong,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  language  of  past 
races.  All  over  Qreat  Britain,  a  very  larae 
proportion  are  derived  from  tiie  Celtic  namea  Sit 
natural  features  ot  the  country.  From  Oajug, 
tffoui,  torn,  lav,  cbiyd  —  in  the  Celtic  speecW 
Muivalent  to  vxUer  or  rioer — we  have  Esk,  Avon, 
Wye,  Thames,  Tavy,  Clyde.  Pex  or  Ben,  hill, 
raves  rise  to  the  names  of  hills  in  England  and 
Wales  (Penrhys,  Penzance),  and  still  more  in 
Scotland  (Ben  Nevis).  So,  also,  asm,  comb, 
valley — as  in  Cumberland,  luid  of  valleys.  The 
memory  of  the  Roman  invasion  has  been  preeervod 
in  tbe  termination  -chafer  (derived  from  autra]  in 
the  names  of  towns,  as  Manchester.  Though  snr- 
names  often  originated  in  local  names,  the  reverse 
proceaa  also  occurred ;  as  where  viUe,  ton  or  axgton, 
ham,  or  bvrgh,  has  been  appended  to  the  name  of 
the  owner  of  the  land,  e.  g.,  Chorleville,  Johnston, 
Wymondham,  Edinburgh  (l  e.,  Edwin's  bnrgb). 

See  Pott's  Die  Ptrtonalnamm  uwf  ihre  BtUttt- 
hmgmrtai  (2  voIb^,  1863;  2d.  ed,  1859);  Miss 
Yonae,  Hittory  of  ChrUlian  Names  (1863)  j  Lower, 
On  i,ngliah  Surrtama  {lSi9) ;  InDei,Sa)tch  Sumamea 
(ISGO) ;  Bardsley,  Our  £^iA  Bamama  (1873), 
and  the  same  author's  Curioiilia  (/ Puritan  Nonten- 
clatme  (1880). 

NAMUTl,  a  province  of  Belgium  on  the  French 
frontier,  lying  between  Hainault  and  Luiemboorg. 
Area,  about  1400  square  miles.  Pop.  (1880)  322,654. 
Tha  principal  rivers  are  the  Mouse — which  entirely 
intersects  tne  province— the  Sombre^  and  the  Lesse. 
N.  preaents  generally  an  alternation  of  fruitful 
valleys  and  lav  hilly  tracts ;  but  in  some  parts, 
where  the  heights  constitute  offshoots  of  the 
Ardennes,  and  are  densely  wooded,  they  attain  a 
considerable  elevation.  With  the  exception  of  the 
land  in  the  south-west,  where  there  are  large  tracts 
of  bog  and  heath,  the  soil  is  extremely  rich,  jaelding 
abundant  crops  and  fine  pasture.  The  chief  pro- 
ducts of  N.  are  wheat,  oata,  hops,  oil  yielding  plants, 
and  flax.  Besides  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  coal  mines, 
N.  has  marble  and  slate  quarries,  and  yields  snlphnr, 
olom,  cadmiam,  ainmina,  flints,  &c.  It  has  good 
steel,  iron,  and  smelting  works,  breweries,  paper- 
mills,  &C.  N.  is  divided  into  the  three  arrondisse- 
menta  of  Namnr,  Dinant,  and  Pbilippeville.  At  t^e 
dose  of  the  12th  c.,  N.  was  united  to  Luxembonrg, 


after  having  existed  as  an  independent  countship  for 
upwards  of  160  years.  Towards  the  middle  of  the 
13bh  t,  it  passed  hj  porchase  to  the  House  of 
Flandera,  which  retamed  possession  of  it  till  1420 ; 
rhen,  on  the  death  of  Cbnnt  John  nL,  without 


direct  heirs,  tha  countship,  which  was  in  a  state  of 
extreme  financial  embaRMSDKmt,  was  purchased  for 


sole 


-=^ 


NAUUB— NANKINO. 


132,000  gold  dnc&ta,  hf  Philip  the  Good,  Dnko  of 
Burgond;,  and  Eobieqaeiitl;  ■uared  tha  fate  of  the 
other  BurgnndJaD  statea. 

NAMUR  (Flem.  Xarma),  an  epiacopal  oitj,  tha 
capital  of  the  aboTe  proviace,  U  litoatea  at  the  con- 
iluenoa  of  the  Sambra  with  the  Mease,  35  milea 
south-east  of  Brussels.  Pop.  (1882)  26,008.  Ito 
Btrong  fortification*  were  razed  in  1866.  The 
cathedral,  or  St  Aubin's,  which  was  consecrated 
in  1772,  IB  one  of  the  most  beautiful  churches  of 
Belgium.  !N.  has  an  academy  of  puntiag,  a  conser- 
vatoire for  music,  two  public  libraries,  a  maseum,  an 
hospital  for  ag^  pacpers,  a  theological  seminary,  and 
2  collages,  one  conducted  by  Jesuits.  The  present 
dtadel  was  couBtructed  in  1784,  but  the  city  has 
been  fortified  from  the  earlieat  period  of  its  history; 
and  in  1692,  iU  defensive  works  were  repaired  and 
strengthened  by  Coehoora,  only,  however,  to  be  taken 
in  the  following  year  by  LoaisXIV.  and  Vauban, 
the  latter  of  whom  added  considerably  to  its  orimual 
Btrength.  The  reputation  of  its  citadel  made  N.  a 
prized  stronghold  m  every  war  of  later  times  ;  and 
after  having  been  gallantly  defended  by  its  French 
conquerors,  in  1815,  against  the  Fnusions  under 
Pitch,  it  waa  finally  restored  to  the  Netherlands 
after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  and  at  once  put  into 
thorough  repair.  N.  is  noted  for  its  cutlery,  ita 
leather-works,  and  ita  iron  and  brass  foundries. 

MANA  8AHIB.    See  Sdpp.,  Vol.  X. 

KANCr,  a  beautiful  town  of  France,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Menrthe.«t.Moselle,  ia  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Meurtbe,  at  the 
foot  of  wooded  and  vine-clad  hills,  220  miles  east  of 
PftriB,  on  the  Paris  and  Strasburg  Railway.  Fop. 
(1S81)  71,991.  It  is  divided  into  the  old  and  new 
towns  (tlie  former  irregolar  and  with  narrow  straets 
the  latter  open  and  handsome),  and  eomprisei 
also  two  snburbs.      It   contains   many  hands 


insky,  who,  after  abdicating  tbe  crown  of  Poland 
in  1735,  continued  to  reside  here  as  Duke  of 
Lorraine  till  his  death,  in  1760.  His  statue  stands 
in  the  Place  Soyale,  a  fine  square,  surronnded  by 
important  publie  buildings,  as  the  HStel  de  Ville, 
theatre,  &c.  The  gates  ot  N.  look  more  like  trium- 
phal arches  than  the  ordinary  entrances  of  a  town. 
Among  the  institutions  are  -Uie  university-academy, 
the  normal  school,  the  school  of  medicine,  the 
lyceum,  the  public  library,  and  numerous  art  and 
scientific  societies.  Cotton,  woollen,  and  linen 
manttfactnres  are  carried  on;  but  the  principal 
branch  of  industry  is  VLe  embroidering  of  cambric, 
muslin,  and  jaconet  goods.  N.  is  known  to  have 
existed  in  the  lithe  Two  centories  later,  it  became 
the  capital  of  the  Duchy  of  Lonwne  {q.  v.).  Charles 
the  Bold  waa  killed  whQa  besieging  K.  in  1477. 

NA-NDir,  or  AMERICAN  OSTRICH  (Rliea),  a 
genus  of  South  American  birds  allied  to  the  ostiich, 
cossawaiy,  and  emu,  and  most  nearly  to  the  ostrich, 
from  which  it  differs  in  having  the  feet  throe-tood, 
and  each  toe  armed  with  a  claw ;  also,  in  being  more 
completely  feathered  on  the  head  and  neck ;  in 
having  no  tail ;  and  in  having  the  wings  better  devel- 
oped and  plumed,  and  terminated  by  a  hooked  spur. 
The  wings  are  indeed  better  developed  than  in  any 
other  of  the  StrutJiwnida,  althougn  still  uofit  for 
fiigbt.  The  neck  has  sixteen  vertebne.  There  are 
at  least  three  species.  The  beet  known  spedes  {B. 
Americana)  is  considerably  amsller  than  the  ostrich, 
standing  about  five  feet  high.  It  is  of  uniform 
gray  colour,  except  on  the  back,  which  has  a  brown 
tint.  The  male  is  lorcer  and  darker  coloured  than 
the  female.  The  back  and  rump  are  furnished 
with  long  feathers,  but  of  a  more  ordinary  kind 


than  those  of  tiie  ostrich.    This  bird  inhabits  the 

sreat  grassy  plains  of  South  America,  sonthwaid.  of 
uie  equator,  abounding  on  the  banks  of  tha  I« 
Plata  and  its  more  southern  tribatarico,  and  as  far 
south  as  iat.  42°  or  43°.  Its  nnge  does  not  extend 
aoroas  the  Cordilleraa.  It  is  genoraUy  seen  in  small 
troops.  It  runs  with  great  oeleiity,  nsing  its  wings 
in  aid.  It  is  polygamous,  one  male  securmg  posses 
of  two  or  more  females,  which  lay  their  eggs  ir 


Handa  (fihca  Anurkana). 

a  common  nest,  or  drop  them  on  the  ground  near  the 
nest,  to  which  the  male  rolls  them.  Contraiy  to  tha 
usual  habit  of  birds,  incubation  is  performed  by  th« 
male.  The  N.  is  shy  and  wary,  but  is  WJccemMly 
hunted  by  the  Indiana,  generally  on  horseback. 
The  flesh  of  the  yonng  is  not  unpleasant.  The  N. 
is  capable  of  being  domesticated.— A  smaller  and 
more  recently-discovered  species  (B.  Danoimi)  has 
light-brown  plumage,  each  feather  tipped  with  white. 
It  inhabila  Patagonia.  A  third  species  (fi.  macrar- 
hynelui)  is  distinguished  by  its  large  bilL 

NANKEEtl  CLOTH.  Calico  of  the  hind  esUed 
'  nsjikean,'  or  nankin,  was  fonnerly  imported  exten- 
sively from  China  to  Europe,  and  said  to  be  the 
manufacture  of  Nanking ;  the  colour,  a  yellowish-bnfli 
being  a  favourite  one.  It  was  supposed  that  Uie 
Chinese  held  a  secret  for  dyeing  this  colour,  which 
was  found  to  be  remarkably  durable ;  but  it  becan  - 
known  that  it  was  not  an  artificial  colour  at  all,  tl 
cloth  being  made  of  a  coloured  variety  of  cotton, 
which  waa  produced  occasionally  in  China  and  India. 
Artificially  dyed  nankeen  clotns  now  form  a  c 
siderable  export  from  England  to  China. 

The  colour  of  artificial  nankeen  cloth  is  produced 
by  an  elaborate  process,  in  which  the  yam  or  oloth 
is  first  dipped  in  a  saturated  solution  of  alum; 
then  in  a  decoction  of  oak-bark ;  then  in  a  batji  <j 
Hme-water ;  and  next  in  a  bath  of  nitro-mnriate  of 
tin.  Another,  but  Utt  permanent,  nankeen  dye  is 
produced  by  boiling  annatto  in  a  strong  solution  of 
pearl-ashes,  and  diluting  with  water  to  the  required 

NANKIIIG,  capital  ot  the  province  of  Eiangsn, 
formerly  the  capitdof  China,  on  the  Yangtae  River, 
90  miles  from  the  berinning  of  its  estuary,  N.  laL 
32°  40'  40",  K.  long.  118=  47'.  Its  name  siraiifiea  the 
Southern  Capital  Sbce  the  removal  of  flie  seat  id 
government  to  Peking  (Northern  Capital!,  it  has  bem 
called  by  the  Chinese  Kiangning-fu.  The  walls  en- 
close an  area  of  nearly  20  miles  in  circumference, 
the  greater  part  of  which,  however,  is  entirely 
waste.  They  reach  in  many  places  an  elevation  of 
70  feat,  and  ate  fully  thirty  feet  in  thickness  at  the 
base.  According  to  Chinese  accounts,  the  popnlatioo 
o(N.  was  once4.000,000.but  a  more  recant  estimate    | 


.liiii.uL.ivC.OOglc 


NASEmO— NANTES. 


made  it  300,000.  Aa  the  dt^,  however,  baa  of  late 
[usBsd  throusli  no  many  vicissitudei,  it  ii  impoBBible 
to  aaccrbuQ  its  preeent  iiitm1>er  of  inliabitantB.  The 
inhabited  portiaii  of  tho  waJli^d  area  ties  toward  the 
weat,  and  eeveral  miles  from  the  bnok  of  the  river. 
It  is  no  longer  poBsibJetospeakofN.  in  tbe  language 
which  former  travellers  used.  The  barbario  deso- 
lations to  wliicb  it  was  subjected  during  the  Too- 
ping  rebellion  left  it  a  eort  of  wreck,  and  one  can 
only  dcBcribe  it  aa  it  was,  before  the  victorious 
assault  of  the  rebels,  on  the  IBthMarch  135a  N.  u 
the  seat  of  the  vice-regal  govecnnient  for  tho  pro- 
vinces grouped  together  under  the  oamu  of  Kiaogoaa. 
Here,  as  elsewhere  in  China,  there  was,  ondagaiii  is,  ft 
Manchn  garrteoD,  or  militiuy  colony,  separated  by  a 
wall  from  tliat  portion  of  the  city  which  is  occupied 
by  the  Chinese.  Soraeot  the  fmcst  streets  of  N.  were 
in  the  Tartar  city;  several  being  nearly  40  feet 
vide,  having  a  space  in  tho  middlo  of  about  8  feet 
in  width,  flacged  with  well-hewn  blocks  of  blue  aud 
white  marble,  and  on  each  side  of  this  a  brick 
pavement  14  feet  or  more  wide.  A  deep  canal  or 
ditch  runs  from  the  river  directly  under  the  walla 
on  the  weat,  serving  to  etrengthen  the  defences  of 
■"-    -*'  -       that  side.    The  ancient  palaces  have  '" 


but,  like  the  ahops,  presented  the 
general  features  common  to  all  Cmueso  towns. 
The  objects  most  worthy  the  inspection  of  the 
traveller  are  found,  in  ruins,  outside  the  precincts 
of  the  modern  city.  Among  theso  is  the  summer 
palace  of  tho  emperor  Kicnliing.  It  consisted  of  a 
number  of  one-atory  buildings,  with  sjiacious  courla 
between,  and  Sanked  by  smol^r  buildings  on  the  sides. 
Enough  slill  remains  to  shew  that  the  workman- 
ship was  of  the  most  elaboiato  and  unique  character. 
When  under  cultivation,  the  spot  must  have  been 
exceedingly  bcautifuL  The  tombs  of  tho  kings  are 
remarkable  for  their  sepulchral  statues,  which  form 
an  avenue  leading  up  to  the  graves  ;  they  consist  of 
gigantic  figures,  like  warriora  cased  in  a  kind  of 
armour,  standing  on  either  side  of  tho  road,  across 
which,  at  intervals,  targe  stone  tablets  ore  eKtendeii, 
supported  by  huge  blocks  of  stone  instead  of  pillan; 
Among  the  buildinga  totally  destroyed  by  tho  rebels 
waa  the  far-famed  Porcelain  Tower.  It  was  erected 
by  the  emperor  Yungloh,  to  reward  the  kindness  of 
hia  mother ;  the  work  was  conmienced  ia  the  10th 
year  of  his  reign  (1413),  at  noon,  on  the  15th  day  of 
the  moon,  in  mo  sixth  month  of  the  year,  and  was 
completed  in  nineteen  years.  Tho  board  of  works 
waa  ordered,  according  to  the  plan  of  the  emperor, 
to  build  a  tower  nine  stories  high,  the  bricks  and 
tiles  to  bo  glased,  and  of  'Cne  coloors;'  and  it  waa 
to  be  superior  to  all  others,  in  order  to  make  widely 
known  flia  virtues  of  his  mother.  Its  height  was  to 
be  322  feet  The  ball  on  its  spire  waa  to  be  of  brass, 
overlaid  with  gold,  so  tliat  it  might  tost  for 
and  never  grow  dim.  From  its  eight  hooks  as  e 
iron  chains  extended  to  the  eight  comers  o 
highest  roof ;  and  from  each  cham  nine  bells, 
pended  at  equal  diatauccs  apart ;  these,  together 
with  eight  from  tho  comers  of  each  projacting  roof, 
amonnted  to  144  bclU.  Uu  the  outer  lace  of  each 
story  were  16  lantema,  123  in  all ;  which,  with  12 
in  the  inside,  mode  140.  It  required  G4  catties  of 
oil  to  fill  them.  On  the  top  of  the  highest  roof 
were  two  brazen  veasela,  weighing  together  1""" 
pounda,  and  a  brazen  bowl  boaidea,  weighing 
pounds.  Encircling  the  sfiire  were  nine  iron  rings, 
the  largest  being  ^  feet  in  drcumferenca,  and  the 
smallest  24  feet,  altogether  weighing  nearly  6""" 
pounds.  In  the  bowl  on  the  top  were  depoiuted 
white  shining  jKorl,  one  fire-averting  pearl, 
wind-averting  pearl,  one  water-averting  pearl, 
duit-avertinz  pearl,  a  lump  of  gold  weighing  60 
302 


onncea,  a  box  of  toa.lcai'es,  lOOO  tacla  of  silver,  one 
Inmp  of  orpiment,  altogether  weighing  4000  ponnds ; 
one  precious  stone-gem,  1000  strings  of  copper 
coin,  two  pieces  of  yellow  aatin,  and  four  copies  of 
Buddhist  classics.  N.  continued  in  possession  of  the 
Tae-ping  rebels  till  the  encceaaea  of  the  troops 
under  Major  Gordon  had  crushed  one  after  an- 
other all  their  outlying  forces,  when  at  length, 
on  the  19th  of  July  18C4,  the  city  was  stormed  by 
the  imperialist  aoldicrs  under  the  viceroy  Tseng 
Kwo-fon.  The  last  blow  was  thus  dealt  to  the 
Tae-ping  rebellion,  whose  principal  leader  perished 
by  his  own  hand  amid  Uie  bladng  ruins  of  tho 
palaco  he  had  occupied  for  eleven  years.  Since  its 
recapture,  N.  has  resumed  its  former  position  aa 
"  -  scat  of  the  vice-regal  government,  but  shews 
aigna  of  revival  from  its  desolation.     It  liaa. 


manufacture  of  cannon  and  other  warlike  stores  on 
the  European  modeL  Although  specified  in  the 
Treaty  of  Tientsin  (1858)  as  a  river-port  to  ba 
opened,  little  or  nothing  has  come  of  this  concession, 
and  but  few  foreignera  are  residout  in  N.  Cotton 
grows  abnndantly  near  N. 

NANTES  (anc  Samnetes,  or  Nannda),  an 
important  seaport  town  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Loire -Inf Moure,  is  situated  on  the 
ri^t  bonk  of  the  Loire,  30  miles  from  ita  month, 
and  at  the  point  of  conUuence  with  it  of  the  Erdre 
and  the  Sivre-Nantaiae,  both  navigable  streams. 
Besides  railways,  there  is  communication  with  the 
interior  by  steamers  on  the  Loire.  The  natural 
beauties  of  the  sito  have  been  much  improved  by 
art,  and  now,  the  noble  river  on  which  the  town 
is  placed,  covered  with  craft  of  every  size  and 
dixcription,  the  islands  that  stud  its  channel,  the 
meodowB  that  skirt  its  banks,  and  the  brid^ 
(upwards  of  IS  in  number)  that  cross  it  and  it* 
tributaries  here,  combine  to  make  the  scene  a  highly 
picturesque  one.  N.  contains  numerous  squares 
and  churches.  Several  districts  of  the  town  are 
nearty  aa  fine  as  the  best  districts  of  Fans,  the  old 
town  having  been  pulled  down  between  1865  and 
ISTO.  This  town  possesses  numerous  striking 
and  beautiful  buildings ;  among  which  the  cathe- 
'    '     "  "it  Pierre,  containing  the  splendid  mona- 

,.  Francis  II.,  the  last  Duke  of  Bretagne, 

aud  of  Margilerite,  his  wife  ;  and  the  old  eaatlo,  the 
temporary  rcaidcnca  ot  moat  of  the  kings  of  France 
since  Charles  VUL  and  built  in  938,  are  the  chiet 
There  ia  a  publio  Ubrary  containing  60,000  vols. ;  a 
museum  of  paintinga ;  and  a  miisemn  of  natural 
hirfory.  The  qoays,  lined  on  one  side  with  houses, 
and  in  some  oasea  planted  with  trees,  afford  an 
agreeable  and  intareatiDg  promenade  of  about  two 
miles  in  length.  The  most  beautiful  promenade, 
however,  formed  by  the  Cours  St  Pierre  and  the 
Coma  St  Andrfi,  eiteoda  from  the  Erdre  to  the 
Loire.  It  ia  planted  with  four  rows  of  trcea, 
bordered  with  bnea  of  palatial  houses,  and  omn- 
mentod  with  statuea.  lie  harbour,  1968  yards  in 
length,  is  capable  of  accommodating  upwards  of 
200  vessels.  Formerly,  vessels  of  no  more  than  200 
tona  could  reach  tbe  port,  all  vessels  of  greater 
burden  unloading  at  Paimbceuf,  at  tbe  mouth  of  the 
river ;  but  within  recent  yeata,  much  has  been  done 
'hj  dredging  for  the  improvement  ot  tho  river-bed, 
and  large  veaseli  can  now  reach  the  iiarbour.  The 
chief  manufactniei  of  N.  are  varieties  of  linen  ond 
cotton  tataics,  calicoes,  flannels ;  musical,  mathi^ 
matical,  and  optical  instruments ;  refined  sugar  and 
salt,  chemical  products,  cordage,  fto.  It  contMns 
tanyarda,  copper  foundries,  brandy  distilleries, 
fto.,  and  numerooa  cBtabliahments  engaged  in  the 
various  manufactares  to  which  a  port  gives  rise,  oi 


..Googfe 


NANTES-NAPHTHA. 


■hip-bntldiiiK  tiie  preporatii 
Ac.  In  1872,  the  iniporta  of  N.'were  valaed  at 
70,000,000  of  francs,  the  eiporto  at  55,000,000. 
Population  (1881)  U7,555. 

NANTE3.  Edioi  or,  th«  Dune  giron  to  the 
famouB  decree  imbluhed  in  that  ci^^  by  Henri 
IV.  of  France,  l3tb  April  1598,  which  aecured  to 
the  Protestant  portion  of  his  aabjecta  freedom  of 
religion.  Among  it«  more  important  proriaions 
-liberty  to  celebrate  worobip  -wherever  Pro- 


ing  district,  aod  m  the  royal  reaidcncea ;  and 
to  maintain  nniverdtiea,  or  theological  colleges, 
of  which  they  bod  four,  tboae  at  Moataubim, 
SaamoT,  Uontpdlier,  and  Sedan ;  adbeiente  of 
the  Sefonned  faith  were  alao  to  be  eligible  to 
all  mvil  offices  and  dignitiet;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  were  not  allowed  to  print  books  on 
the  tenets  of  their  religion,  except  in  those  places 
where  it  existed;  and  they  were  obliged  to 
outwardly  celebrate  tlie  'festivala  of  the  CathoUo 
Chorch,  and  to  pay  tithes  to  the  Catholic  priesthood. 
From  this  period,  the  Reformers  or  Hngaenota 
(who  then  counted  760  churches)  had  a  legal 
exiiteDoe  in  France,  bnt  graduslljr  tbeir  political 
strength  was  cniahed  by  the  mighty  genius  of 
Bicdi^ea — who,  however,  never  dreamed  of  inter- 
fering with  their  liberty  of  worship.  Neitlier  did 
his  anccesson,  Mazarin  and  Colbert ;  bat  under  the 
inSnence  of  a  'penitence,'  as  corrupt  and  sensual  as 
Hie  sins  which  occasioned  it,  Lonia  XIV.,  after  a 
series  of  detestable  Dragoanadei  (q.  v.),  signed  a 
decree  for  the  revocation  of  the  ediot,  ISth  October 
IGS5.— The  resolt  of  this  despotio  act  wM  tba^ 
rather  than  conform  to  the  eetabliilked  religion, 
400,000  Protestants — among  the  most  industnooa, 
the  mott  intellif^nt,  and  ths  most  religions  of 
the  nation  —  quitted  France,  and  took  refuge  in 
Great  Britain,  Holland,  Prusaii^  Switzerland,  and 
America.  The  loss  to  France  was  immense ;  the 
gain  to  other  countries,  no  less.  Composed  largely  of 
merchants,  manufocturen,  and  skilled  artisans,  Uiey 
carried  with  them  their  knowledge,  taste,  mm 
aptitade  for  boainess.  From  them  England,  in 
paiticnlar,  learned  the  art  of  manqfacturing  silk, 
crystal  glaases,  and  the  more  delicate  kinds  of 
jewellery. 

NANTU'CKET,  an  island  and  town  npon  it, 
on  the  south-east  coast  of  Massaohosetts.  The 
island  is  15  milet  long  and  an  average  of  4  wide, 
witii  an  area  of  BO  square  miles.  It  was  bought 
from  the  Indians  by  Thomas  Macy,  in  1699,  for  £30 
and  two  beaver-hate.  N,  was  at  one  time  a  great 
•eat  of  the  whale  fishery,  having  in  1775  h^  as 
many  as  160  whaling  Teasels;  but  this  branch  of 
industry  has  declined  siikce  1846,  and  since  the  civil 
war  has  become  extinct.  The  harbour  is  commodi- 
ous and  safe.   N.  has  2  nawapapera ;  pop.  (1880)  3J27. 

NA'NTWICH,  a  small  market-tows  of  Che^iire, 
England,  on  the  Weaver,  20  miles  south-east  of 
Chester.  Many  of  its  houses  are  intwesting  frem 
their  ase  and  construction,  being  built,  in  many 
cases,  ol  timber  and  plaster,  and  with  overhanging 
upper  stories.  The  parish  church,  one  of  the  finesE 
country  churches  in  Bngland,  was  thorougbly  ro- 
■toredin  lS64atgTeat  cost.  N.  was  famous  in  former 
times  for  its  brme-springs  and  salt-works.  Shoes, 
gloves,  and  ootton  goo£  are  manufactured,  and 
malting  is  carried  on.  Fop^  (1871)  6873 ;  (1881)  748& 

NA'OS  <Gr.  a  dwelling),  the  cell  or  enclosed 
chamber  of  a  Greek  temple. 

NATHTHA  is  derived  from  tbe  Perman  word 
nafata,  to  exude,  and  was  originally  applied  to 
an  inSanunable  liquid  hydrocartraa   (or   rather  a 


mixton  ot  amtttl  hydrooatbons)  which  exudes 
from  Uie  soil  in  certain  parts  of  Perma-  (Aoomrding 
to  Felletier  mid  Walter,  it  consists  of  tliiee  hydro- 
carbons—viz.,  C„H,,  which  boils  at  190°!  C,,H„ 
which  boils  at  239°;  and  C„H^  which  boils  at 
374°.)  The  term  is,  however,  now  naed  not  only  to 
designate  a  similar  and  almost  identical  fluid,  that 
issnee  from  the  ground  in  many  parts  of  the  world, 
and  is  known  «s  petroleum,  rock-oil,  ■"'    '""'■  '"  "' — 


bilitj.  Thus,  wood-spirit  or  methylio  alcohol,  is 
often  spoken  of  as  toood-napht/ia,  and  acetone  ia 
Bometimec  described  as  naphtha.  Coal-tar  yields 
by  distillatdon  a  liquid  which  has  a  heavier  spacifit 
gravity  and  a  lower  boiling-point   than   Feniar 


Crude  N'apbtha,  whether  ooontring  at  a  natnral 
prodnct,  or  at  obtained  from  coal-tar,  is  poriSed  1^ 
agitation  with  strong  sulphuric  add ;  after  which  it 
must  be  well  washed  with  water  (in  which  it  ia 
quite  insoluble),  and  finally  distilled  from  quicklime. 
Put«  naphtha  is  colourless,  and  of  a  peculiar  tarts 
and  odour ;  it  is  soluble  in  about  eight  times  its 
bulk  of  alcohol,  and  dissolves  in  all  proportioul 
in  ether  and  in  the  essential  oils.  Hot  najditlia 
dissolves  phoiphoras  and  snlphnr,  bnt  deponta  Ota^ 
on  cooling.  It  is  an  exodlent  solvent  tor  gtM^ 
pereha,  caoutchouc,  camphor,  and  fatty  and  resuKna 
bodies  generally ;  and  hence  it  is  extensively  naed 
in  the  arts  for  these  purposes,  and  its  mnploymttit 
at  a  source  of  artificial  light  is  now  bemming 
univertaL  In  consequence  of  its  containing  no 
oxygen,  it  is  employed  by  ohemistai  for  the  preaar- 
vation  of  potassium  and  other  metals,  irtiich  have  a 
powerful  affinity  for  oxygen.  Owing  to  its  vola- 
tility and  inflammability,  it  mnst  be  handled  witjt 
preat  caution,  many  fatal  cases  having  arisen  froa 
its  vapour  catching  fire  on  the  approach  of  a  candle. 

The  principal  kinds  of  naphtha  known  in  com- 
merce are  native  naphtha,  cool  naphtha,  Boghead 
naf^tha  [also  caUed  paraffin  oil  and  photogen), 
shale  naphtha,  and  naphtha  from  caoutt^uo  or 
caoutchine. 

Native  uaphtlta,  petroleum,  or  rock-oil,  is 


many  parts  of  the  world,  aa  in  Jaisn,  Bu 
Peraia,  the  shores  of  the  Csspian  Sea,  Siberia, 
"  and    North   America. 


Italy, 


dsgreea  of  oonaiatencg^,  from  a  tliin,  light,  colourleaa 
Smd  found  in  Persia,  with  a  specme  gravity  of 
about  0*760,  to  a  substance  as  thick  as  butter,  and 
nearly  as  heavy  as  water.  But  all  the  kind*  irii«a 
rectified  have  nearly  the  same  conetitation.  IlkeT 
contain  no  oxygen,  and  consist  of  cubon  and 
hydrc^en  compounds  only.  Bitaiuen  and  ssphaltam 
are  closely  aUied  substances  in  a  solid  or  aemi-aolid 
form.  Fioai  a  veiy  early  period  in  Persia  and 
Ja]Mui,  and  at  least  since  last  century  in  Italy, 
native  naphtha  has  been  used  to  bum  in  lamps. 

Coal-tar  naphtha  (see  Gas-tab),  oa  stated  above, 
is  of  a  higher  specific  gravity  than  native  naphUia 
—viz.,  from  O'860  to  0-900,  and  has  a  mora  dis- 
agreeable and  penetrating  odour. 

ParafSn  oil,  for  some  time  known  also  at  Bog- 
head naphtha,  has  become,  of  late  years,  so  im- 
portant a  manufacture,  that  a  brief  history  of  its 
origin  cannot  be  uninteresting.  In  the  year  1847, 
Mr  James  Touug,  the  founder  of  the  manufacture  of 
pamffin,  had  his  attention  called  to  a  petroleum 
spring  at  Alfreton,  in  Derbyshire,  from  whidi 
he  distilled  a  light  thin  oil  for  burning  in  lamps, 
obtaining  at  the  same  time  a  thicker  oil,  which 
was    used    for    Inbricatina   machineiy.      After   a 

?!ia  or  two  the   supply   t>enn  to  ful,  but    Mr 
oung,    noticing    that   petrdenm    was    dropping 

(^nnah-- 


from  the  MudEtone  roof  of  a  eoal-mina,  conjeotored 
that  it  originated  by  the  ictioii  of  heat  oa  me  coal- 
team,  the  vapoDT  from  which  had  condensed  in  the 
■andatone,  and  impposed  from  tfaia  that  it  might  be 
produced  artificially.    Following  np  thii  i&a,  he 

tried  a         -  ^  '       ■■■       ■  ' 

■uoceedi   .    ,  „ 

obtaining  a  mbatance  resembling  petroleom,  whioh, 
when  treated  in  the  EaOie  way  as  the  natural 
petroleom,  yielded  similar  products.  The  obtaining 
of  thesB  oiu  and  the  solid  substance  paiafSn  from 
eoal  formed  the  subject  of  bis  now  oeleIu«ted  patent, 
dated  Ootobw  17,  ISSa 

In  the  yean  18G0  and  1864,  long  and  costly  liti- 
gations M  to  the  validity  of  Mr  Young's  patent 
took  pl*M  in  Edinbor^  and  London,  reinltin^  in 
the  Quun  in  his  favour.  Many  years  ago,  Reich- 
enbaoh  had,  by  diitilliag  100  lln.  of  pit-ooal,  ob- 
tained nearly  two  onnoes  of  an  oily  liquid  exactly 
resembling  natural  naphiJia ;  and  varions  otlier 
ohemical  writer*  were  appealed  to,  aa  proving  thai 
method*  •ulwtantially  the  same  a*  Mr  'Xonng't 
wen  ptevionily  known  and  practised.  Ono  Hung 
•eoot  to  haT«  Men  admitted,  that  previoas  to  his 
patenl^  no  one  had  sncoeeded  in  prodaoing  the  oil 
on  a  commeroial  scale. 

The  processes  by  wh 
obtained  are  limple.  The  material  belt  adapted 
for  the  porpose  was  for  year*  believed  to  be  B(«- 
head  coal,  a  very  rich  gas-ooal,  occolrinB  in  a  fi^ 
of  limited  extent  near  Bathgate,  in  Linhthgi: 
■hire.  All  cannel  coals,  however,  give  the  sa.... 
prodacti^  and   some  of   them  in  nearly  as  large 

Jnantity ;  but,  as  stated  below,  shale  is  now  gener- 
lly  used  and  treated  in  the  same  ~"     "^ ' 

broken  into  fragments  like  road-  _ 

ally  heated  to  redness  in  cast-iron  retorts^  'whidi 
ue  similar  to  those  used  for  eoal-gsa  (see  G^ 
The  retorts  are  most  usually  upright^  aboat  10  feet 
long  and  14  inches  in  diameter  id  the  bottom, 
tapering  to  12  inches  at  the  top,  and  built  in  sets  of 
3,  4,  or  6,  so  that  one  fire  may  heat  each  set  The 
coal  is  fed  by  means  of  a  hopper  on  the  top  of  the 
retort,  and  after  pasung  through  it  at  a  low  red- 
head is  drawn  out  sa  coke  at  the  bottom,  where 
there  i*  a  water  lute  to  prevent  the  escape  of  oil  or 
gas.  There  is  a  spherical  valre  in  the  hopper, 
oonnterpoised  with  a  weight,  which  doses  the  retort 
at  the  top.    The  volatile  matteta  distilled  from  the 


coal  an  omdncted  by  a  pipe  to  the  oondeni 
(siinilar  to  those  used  tor  coal-gas),  where  they 
condensed  into  a  thick  blackoil,of  aspeoifiognTity 
of  about  OMO;  along  with  a  little  water.  Qreat 
oare  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  heat  from  becom- 
ing too  biKh,  because  gas  and  gas-tar,  and  not 
paraffin  oil,  are  obtained  when  coal  or  shale  ,'is 
distilled  at  a  high  temoenturo.  A  ton  of  Boj^iead 
coal  gave  about  120  gsJlons  of  omde  oil. 

The  crude  oil  from  the  first  distillation  is  then 
distilled  again  ir 
stills.  From  this 
obtained,  and  the  residne  is  removed  as  coke  from 
the  bottom  of  the  still.  This  cnl  is  then  mixed  with 
from  S  to  10  per  cent,  of  solphnric  add,  and  after- 
wards with  about  the  same  quantity  of  soda,  the 
nuxtorea  beinz  made  in  circular  tanks  with  revolv- 
ing stirrers.  Both  the  acid  and  the  soda  mii  with 
impurities,  wbi<di  fall  to  the  bottom  as  heavy  tany 
matters,  and  ue  ron  off  by  a  stop-oook,  till  only  the 
clear  supernatant  oil  remains.  After  being  so  far 
pnrified,  the  oil  undergoes  three  further  distilla- 
tions, being  at  the  same  time  treated  with  strong 
acid  (1  per  cent.)  and  sod&.  The  final  resolt  is,  that 
a  small  quantity  of  lig^t  naphtha  is  obtained  in  the 
later  distiUations,  thrae-fonrths  of  what  is  left  being 
a  light  and  nearly  colonrleos  oil  used  for  banting  in 


hydraulic  press,  which  squeecea  out  the  greater 
portiou  of  the  paraffin,  leaving  an  oil  whieh  is  sold 
for  labricating  machinery. 

The  crude  paraffin,  after  being  snbjeoted  to 
hydraulic  pressnre  three  or  four  tmies,  is  ciiiefly 

Surified,  by  repeated  ciystallisationa,  from  naphtha. 
team  i*  afterwards  blown  throngh  it  in  a  melted 
state,  and  when  finally  treated  with  3  per  cent;  of 
animal  oharooal,  it  is  an  exqnintely  beantiful 
sobstanoe,  reaambhns  the  purest  white  wax.  It  is 
largely  mannbotnred  into  ouidles,  which  equal,  or 
even  excel,  in  ajnpearanoe  those  made  from  wax, 
and  are  only  about  half  as  costly.  Paraffin  has  now 
a  number  (rf  enrioos  minor  applioations. 

Shale  naphtha,  or  'shale-oil,'  ia  a  substanos 
whioh  has  been  manufactured,  lor  many  yean,  from 
bitominooa  shales  both  in  England  and  on  the 
oontinent.  Partly  beoanse  the  Boghead  ooal  has 
beoome  praetioally  exhausted,  but  Stiefly  because 
«..    _i.^i.    j^odnola   firon   it   are   more   easUy 

shalefound , _, . 

almitMt  entirelvnaed  in  Sootland 
rial  from  which  paisffin  oil  and  paraffin  are  obtained. 
PcevioQs  to  J856,  these  shales  were  tamed  to  no 
acconnt.    See  SsAiA 

Naphtha  tram  caoutohoiu^  or  eaontchine,  t*  ob- 
tained from  caontohone  by  deetniotivB  distallatbn. 
In  oomposition  it  oonstst*  mainly  of  hydrooarbons, 
'  ^ving  tiie  same  proportion  of  carbon  to  hydrogen 
in£a-mbber.  Caontohine  has:  the  repotation  of 
being  one  of  the  best  known  solvents  for  india-mbber. 

Dntil  the  diaoovory  of  the  Pennsvlvaii 
Bnrmeaa  (Bangoon)  petrolenm  or  rook>ail 
(rf  the  best  known.    It  is  obtained  in  a  irea 


inaoly  *tate 
by  rinktng  wells  aboot  sixty  feet  deep  in  the  soil, 

and  consists  of  several  fluid  hydrocarbon&  with 
about  ten  or  deven  per  cent  of  the  solid  hydro- 
carbon paraffin.  The  different  naphthas  it  contains 
are  highly  prized  as  bnroiiig  and  lubricating  oils, 
and  for  remov&igKreBty  stains.  Naphtha  is  lonnd 
abundantly  at  Bako,  on   the  Cospan  Se&    The 


Persian  naphthais  naturally  pure  enongh  for  burning. 
Na^tha,  or  petrolenm,  has  lately  been  found  at  Peine 


',  where  it  is 


r  extensively  i 


Hanc 
factored. 

Prominent  among  the  wonder*  of  onr  time,  how- 
—  u  reatda  new  fields  of  industry  and  wealth, 
the  £sooTsrieB  at  the  n^thUi^  w,  as  they  are 


known  to  the  Indian*,  by  whom  it  was  at ' 

collected  for  sale ;  but  it  is  little  more  than  twenty 
years  since,  by  sinking  deep  wells,  the  great  extent 
of  the  oil-beuing  strs^  became  known.  Thejmin- 
dpal  supplies  are  obtained  in  Pezmsylvania,  West 
'Vitginia,  and  Ohio,  a  considerable  qnantitg^  being 
also  obtained  in  West  Canada.  Other  renoos  in 
North  America  produce  it,  but  the  Fenns^vanian 
yield  is  six  or  seven  times  greater  than  all  the  rest 
pot  toother.  It  was  known  to  the  Jesuit  missionaries 
m  1627  OS  a  natural  coiioeity,  and  was  spoken  of  in 
the  IStb  c  as  Seneca  oil,  from  the  Seneca  Indians  in 
New  York,  who  kindled  it  in  their  religious  cere- 
monies. Sources  have  lately  been  found  in  the 
Argentine  Kepublic  and  in  Ferghana  (Ruaeian  Asia). 
Moch  cariosity  edit*  reepectmg  the  origin  of  theee 
great  natural  sooroes  of  petroleum.  It  seenu  to  be 
the  general  opinion  of  geologists  that  it  has  in  moat 
cases  been  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  both 
vegetable  and  animal  matters.  In  this  respect  it 
differs  from  coal,  which  has  arisen  from  the  decay  of 
v^etable  matter  alone.  It  would  appear  that  the 
Pennsylvanian  oil  proceeds  tiom  shales  of  carbon- 

,  ,  Ci^oqI 


e 


NAPHTHALIC  GROUP  OR  SERIES— K  A  PIER. 


iferona  age ;  tile  Cftoadiati,  froni  those  of  DeTomau 
aga.  In  bath  coimtries  the  oil  is  foand  in  cavities 
in  (anditone,  and  hiu  therefore  been  derivad  from 
gabjacent  rocks.  It  is  now  koown  that  petroleum 
baa  fonaed  in  rocks  of  oearly  all  geological  ages. 
Professor  Dana,  the  American  mineralogiat,  says 
that  the  conditions  favourable  to  the  formation  of 
native  naphtha,  as  shewn  by  the  characteristica  of 
tiie  deposits  in  \rhich  it  is  found,  aro :  (I)  the  diffu- 
■ion  of  organic  material  tiirough  a  fine  mud  or  clay; 
(2)  the  material  in  a  vety  findy  divided  -'-'-     '-' 

nndertoing  decomirasitioD 


uruwyi 


(reckoned  at  43  gallons  each)  were  obtained ;  in 
ISOl,  the  prodnce  had  reached  2  tniUion  barrels  ; 
and  sines  tWi,  as  a  rule,  it  has  increased  from  year 
to  year.  In  1879  the  aonaal  production  of  the 
United  States  was  given  at  about  16,000,000  barrels 
(600  millioa  golloaa).  ta  1878  the  petoolenm  ex- 
ported from  the  United  States  had  an  aegregate 
value  of  $46,000,000— an  enonuoos  snm  when  it  is 
remembered  that  the  lirat  eicports  took  place  bo 
recently  as  18G1.  Of  late  years,  the  petroleum  trade 
is  said  to  have  employed  in  North  Ainerica  as  many 
hands  as  coal-mimng  and  the  woAing  of  iron.  See 
Oil  Wklls  iu  Sopp.,  Vol  X. 

Id  1862  and  lS7i,  acte  of  parliament  were  passed 
limiting  the  amount  .of  petroleum  to  be  kept  in 
Blora,  and  regulating  the  sale  of  such  kind*  as  give 
off  an  inflammable  vapour  below  100°  1',  There 
are  special  warehouses  for  the  reception  of  petro- 
leum at  the  Loudon  and  Liverpool  docks. 

Terrible  aooidents  have  now  and  then  happened 
with  some  of  the  more  inflammable  American  oils, 

7  reason  of  their  vapours  eiploding  in  the  reservoirs 
lampa.    Most  of  these  have,  no  doubt,  taken  place 
with  oils  whose  vapours  form  an  exploaivo  mixture 
with  air  at  a  temperature  below  100°  F.,  but  they 
hardly  be  considered  safe  if  their  vapours  will 

bless  than  IE" 

I   prepared   f 


shale,  will  not  form  an  explosive  mixture  below 
F.,  and  it  is  therefore  quite  safe.  Since  this  oil  has  to 
compete  with  petroleum,  such  a  standard  can  only 
be  kept  up  at  a  loaa,  and  there  is  therefore  a  great 
temptation  to  keep  down  the  iiriug-point  of  these 
bnrning'oils  as  low  as  possible,  with  a  view  to  greatar 
profit ;  and  although  accidents  have  happenu  with 
panffin  oil,  as  well  as  with  American  petroleum, 
there  is  little  doubt  that  the  latter  caunot  be  so 
thoroughly  relied  upon  for  safety.  It  aould  eaaUy 
be  made  so,  however,  if  the  lighter  hydro-carbons 
which  it  contains  were  carefully  removed. 

HAPHTHAIjIO  OBOUP  or  series.  The 
startdng-point  of  the  group  is  NapliUialin  (CbEb),  a 
substance  of  great  interest  iu  the  nistory  of  organic 
chemistry,  from  its  being  that  upon  which  Laurent 
cMcfly  founded  his  Theory  of  Substitutions.  It  may 
be  obtained  in  various  ways,  but  is  most  easily 
and  abundaotly  produced  from  the  last  portions  of 
the  distillate  of  ooal-tar,  which  became  semi-solid 
on  cooling.  The  liquid  part  of  this  mass  is  got  rid 
of  by  pressure,  and  the  naphthalin  is  then  taken  up 
by  hot  alcohol,  from  which  it  is  obtained  in  a  pure 
state  by  crystallisation  and  snblimation. 

Naphthalin  cryBtallisea  in  large,  thin,  rhombic 
plates,  which  are  unctuous  to  the  touch,  Mid  have  a 
pearly  lustre.  Exp(«Gd  to  Ught  nndco'  a  glass 
covering,  it  grodoaUy  sublimes  at  an  ordinary 
temperature  in  splenmd  crystals.  It  has  a  some- 
what tar-like  odour,  and  a  pungent  and  somewhat 


L    It  fuses  at  174',  and  boOs  at  428*. 

Its  specific  gravity,  in  the  solid  state,  i*  L'15,  and  aa 
a  vapour,  4-521  It  is  not  very  inflammable,  and 
when  ignited,  bums  with  a  white  smoky  flame-  It 
is  insoluble  in  water,  bnt  dissolves  readily  iu 
alcohol,  ether,  and  the  fixed  and  essential  oils. 

Bv  acting  on  naphthalin  with  an  excea  of 
sulphuric  acid,  we  obtain  talpho-naphlJiaUe  add 
{C„HaS,0,  +  2Aq),  from  which,  by  subslitution 

Srocesses.  a  large  number  of  compounds  are  pro- 
uced.  With  nitric  acid,  nanhthalin  yields  mtro- 
naphthalin  rC^,(NOJ],  binitro-naphUialin  [C»H, 
(NOJJ.  and  trmitro-naphtbalin  [C„H.(NO^j.  the 
group  {SOf),  or  its  multiples,  being  suMrtatnted  for 


action,  of  boiling  nitric  acid  on   n^hthslin 
mixture  of  oialio  KadnaplUAaiia  or  pAtAoUc  acid; 
the  re-Botioa  being  shewn  by  the  equation  i 
r-r*"""-!      oijio.       ouiuAdi  airWtasiAiii. 

^i;   -H    0^  =   2H0A0.   +  '2H0,(^A 
This  odd  is  also  obt^ed  by  the  continued  action 
of  nitric  acid  upon  alizuin,  which  is  an  important 
fact,  since  it  indicates  a  oonnection  between  naph* 
thaUn  and  tho  colouring  matter  of  madder. 

Laurent  boa  discovered  a  veiy  numerous  eerie* 
of  substitution  compounds  formed  upon  the 
type  of  naphthalin,  into  the  compodtion  oE  which 
chlorine  enters.  They  are  of  litUe  practical  im- 
portance althouch  their  investigation  has  exerted 
a  remarkable  influence  upon  the  progress  of 
organic  chemistry. 

NAPIER,  John,  I^ird  of  Merchiston,  wm 
bom  at  Merchiston  Castle,  near  Edinbur^  in 
1660,  and  died  there  on  t^e  4th  of  April  1617. 
After  attending  the  regular  course  in  Arta  at  tha 
university  of  St  Andrews,  he  travelled  for  soma 
time  on  the  continent,  and  returned  to  his  nativs 
countiy  hiriily  informed  and  cultivated  for  the  tge- 
Dcclinmg  all  civil  employments,  for  which  his  manj 
accomplishments  eminently  fltted  him,  he  prefeited 
t^e  seclusion  of  a  life  dovotod  to  literary  and 
scientific  atiidv.  From  this  time  his  history  is  a 
blank  till  1693;  when  he  published  his  PUuiu 
DUaitifrij  (or '  Interpretation  'I  oj  tii«  ahote  llaielaiio» 
of  Saint  John  (Edin.  5th  ed.  4to,  1646),  a  work 
displaying  great  acuteness  and  ingenuity,  but,  it  is 
•caroely  necessary  to  add.  not  in  any  sense  a '  plaine 
disconery '  of  the  apocaiypse.  In  the  dedication 
to  King  James  VI.,  he  gave  his  maj^ty  some  very 
plain  sdvice  regarding  the  propriety  of  reforming 
ilis  *  house,  family,  and  court  i '  and  on  repob- 
lisbing  the  work,  he  added  a  sup^ement,  resolvins 
'certame  doubts  mooved  by  some  well-affected 
brethren.'  About  this  time  he  seems  to  hav« 
devoted  much  of  his  time  to  the  invention  of 
warlike  machines,  but  these  inventions  were  neves 
perfected,  probably  from  motives  of  humanity.  like 
other  eminent  men  of  the  time,  N.,  though  a  strict 
Presbyterian,  seems  to  have  been  a  believer  in 
astrology  and  divination,  but  there  is  no  satisfactory 
proof  that  he  ever  practised  these  arts.  In  15%,  ho 
proposed  the  use  of^  salt  as  a  fertiliser  of  land,  on  ides 
which,  though  scouted  at  the  time,  is  now  generally 
received.  Another  large  blank  in  his  history  bera 
occurs,  and  terminates  in  1614,  at  which  date  he 
first  gave  to  the  world  his  famous  invention  of 
Loganthms  [q,  v.),  in  a  treatise  entitled  MinMci 
LogarilhmonimCanonuDeKriplio  (ito,Edia.).  This 
was  followed  by  another  work,  Sabdologia,  tat 
nuirurofionis  ptr  Virgulat  Ittri  rluo  (Edin.  1G17], 
detailing  an  invention  far  simplifying  and  shortening 
the  processes  of  multiplication  and  division.  See 
Napier's  Bonks-  Ho  also  prepared  a  second  viotk 
on  Logarithms,  shewing  their  mode  of  construction 


and  appHMtion,  with  mi  Appendix  oontamiiiK  lersnl 
propoflitioiu  of  EpherioU  trigooometiy,  and  Uiou  tor- 
mulie  whicli  are  now  known  by  his  name.  TbiM  work 
WB8  pnbliilied  after  Ma  death  br  Ms  aon  Bobart, 
ooder  the  title  of  Mirifid  LogarUhmorum  Canonii 
Corulrvelio,  Ac,  qaSnu  aaxtaere  Proporitiona  ad 
TVianguia  tpKceriea  /aeXan  taleaio  rttcintnda,  Ac 
(Ediu.  1B19),  and  oocnn  along  with  the  Oantmii 
Detcriptio.  The  latter  wt^  ia  inolnded  in  Baron 
Maaere'a  extenuve  colleotiiBi,  the  iScriptonM  Logter- 
iAmid  (Lond.  ISOS).  N.'g  eldett  aoii,  Arohibald,  waa 
raiaed  to  the  peerage  a»  the  Hist  Lord  Napier  by 
Ch&rleg  L  in  1G2T,  »ad  his  descendonta  BtiH  bear 
the  title.  Two  livea  of  N.  have  been  pnbliahed,  tlie 
one  b7  the  Earl  of  Bachaa  [1787],  tmd  the  other 
by  Mr  MaA  Napier  (1834). 

NAPIEB,  9iB  CHAitug  Jahk,  O.C.R,  EnEliah 
/Fcneral,  one  o!  aeverol  brotheia  distingoiahed  for 
ttieir  bravery,  three  ol  whom— Charlea,  WilKsni, 
and  George — were  known  in  the  Peninintlar  War 
as  '  Wellington's  Colonols.'  They  were  sons,  by  a 
iecond  marriage,  ot  Hon.  Colonel  Cieoi^  Napier, 
^ndscm  of  FroncU,  fifth  Lord  Napier,  who  waa 
hfth  in  descent,  bat  thronoh  two  females  in  imc- 
cesaion,  from  the  inventor  of  Lonrithma.  Cbarl«e, 
the  eldest^  waa  bom  at  WhitSuJl,  Weatminrter, 
Anfnit  10,  1782;  Before  be  had  finished  his 
twelfth  year,  yonng  N.  nodved  a  commis- 
sion in  the  22d  FooE.  Eis  fint  service  waa  in 
Ireland,  where  ha  assisted  in  pnttine  down  the 
rebellion.  He  commanded  tbe  60th  foot  dnring 
tiie  retreat  on  Coninna;  and  at  the  fatal  battle 
in  whiob  Sir  J.  Moore  fell,  he  waa  wounded  in 
five  places  and  made  prisoner.  Marshal  Ney 
dismissed  Mm,  with  permission  to  go  to  England 
on  parole.  On  his  return,  he  engapad  in  litera^ 
works,  and  even  wtote  an  historical  romanoo.  La 
ISll,  be  retnmed  to  tlia  Peninsula  At  Coa,  where 
he  foudit  as  a,  volunteer,  ho  had  two  honea  shot 
under  jiim.  At  Buaoco,  he  was  shot  in  the  face, 
having  his  jaw  broken  and  bis  eye  injured.  He 
recovered  in  time  to  be  present  at  tbe  battle  of 
Faentes  d'Onoro  and  the  second  dege  of  Badajoz. 
After  distingulghing  himself  in  innumerable  skir~ 
miahes,  the  during  soldier  retarned  to  England. 
He  next  took  part  in  a  ftghting  ornise  off  the 
Chesapeake,  capturing  American  vessela,  and  making 
frequent  descents  upon  the  coasta.  Ha  did  not 
wtom  to  Europe  soon  enooah  for  Waterloo,  but 
was  engaged  in  the  storming  of  Cambray,  and  accom- 
panied the  army  to  Paris.  After  tbe  peace  be  was, 
in  1818.  made  governor  of  the  island  of  Cephalonia, 
tbe  affain  of  wMch  ha  administered  with  great 
energy  and  intelligence.  Being,  however,  S  on 
excessively  combative  dispositioD,  he  became  em- 
broiled with  the  anthorities  at  home.  In  1341, 
he  was  ordered  to  India  to  assume  the  command  of 
the  army  at  Bombay.  This  was  the  moat  splendid 
period  of  his  career,  resulting  in  the  oonquett  of 
Scinde  against  terrible  odds.  His  destruction  of  a 
fortification  called  Emaun  Ghnr  in  1843,  was  described 
bv  thoDoke  of  Wellington  as  one  of  the  moat  remark- 
aolemilitaryfeats  hehadever  heardof.  The feariiil 
battle  of  Meanee  followed,  where  N.,  with  1600 
English  ud  sepoys,  defeated  near  30,000  Beloo- 
ohees,  strongly  posted,  with  the  loss  of  6000  men. 
The  Ameers  surrendered,  except  Shere  Mahomed, 
who  brought  25,000  men  into  line  of  battle  at 
Hydrabad.  N.  had  only  6000  men,  bnt  in  three 
hours  Ma  little  army  ^ned  a  decisive  victory. 
A  few  days  afterwards,  N.  was  in  the  palace  of  the 
Ameera,  and  master  of  Scinde.  He  was  fortunate 
in  ponessing  the  entire  confidence  of  Lord  Ellcn- 
borongh,  who  mode  him  goveraor  of  Scinde.  Hia 
civil  administration  was  scarcely  less  remarkable  or 
less  sacoesBful  thou  his  miUtary  operations.      He 


eained  the  respect  and  rererenoe  of  tbe  inhabitants, 
bnt  aoon  became  engaged  in  an  acrimomons  war  of 
desratohM  with  the  directors.  In  1847,  he  retnmed 
to  England.  After  attending  a  series  of  festiviUs 
in  his  honour,  be  lived  in  retirement  until  the 
disaaten  of  the  lost  Sikh  war  caused  the  crves  of  his 
countrymen  to  be  turned  to  the  hero  of  Scinde  as 
the  deliverer  of  oar  Indian  empire.  He  went  to 
India,  bnt  found  on  bis  arrival  that  the  Sikhs  had 
been  routed.  He  now  tamed  bis  attention,  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  in  India,  to  the  subject 
of  miUtary  reform.  Ho  bade  a  final  adieu  to  the 
East  in  1861,  and  returned  to  his  native  country, 
where  be  resided  until  his  death,  which  took  place 
at  hia  seat,  at  Oaklands,  near  Portflmonth,  August 
29,  1353L  He  had  then  attained  the  rank  of  Ceu- 
tenant-general,  was  Q.C.K,  and  colonel  of  the  22d 
Foot.  It  must  be  remembered  to  Ms  honour  that 
he  was  the  first  English  general  who  ever  recorded 
in  bis  despatches  tbe  names  of  private  soldiers  who 
had  distinguished  Uiemselves,  side  by  side  with 
thoee  of  officers.  Brave  to  rashness,  ready  alike 
with  tongue,  pen,  and  sword,  quarrelsome  with  his 
superiocs,  but  beloved  by  his  soldiers,  and,  to  crown 
alC  of  a  strangely  wiEd  yet  noble  and  striking 
appeaiance,  N.  waa  one  ot  the  most  remarkable 
men  of  his  time,  and  in  losing  Mm  tbe  country 
loat  one  of  its  brightest  milibi^  ornaments.  His 
statue  was,  after  his  death,  erected  in  Trafalgar 
Sqnore.  The  stoiy  of  his  Conquest  of  Soimie  has 
been  written  by  his   brother,  Lientenant-General 

SlK  WlLLLAX    FbANCB    PATRICK    NaPIBE,    K-C.R, 

bom  17th  Deoember  173S,  who  served  in  the 
Peninsular  campaign,  and  was  engaged  from  1S24 
to  IS40  in  preparing  his  History  qfUie  Peninsular 
War,  tbe  greatest  military  history  in  tbe  English 
language.  He  died  Febrnory  12,  18G0,  at  Scinde 
House,  Clapham,  and  was  followed  in  a  few 
weeks  to  the  tomb  by  bis  wife.  Lady  Napier, 
niece  of  the  great  C.  J.  Fox.  Her  extraordinary ' 
skiU  in  tianUatiog  French  doouments  written  in 
cypher,  and  ber  indefatigable  labours  ai  her  hns- 
band's  amanuensis,  ore  touchingly  commemorated 
in  the  preface  to  the  edition  of  the  History  o/llm 
Penmsnlar  War,  published  in  1861. 

NAPIER,  Sir  CHASLE3,  K.C.B.,  English  admiral, 
was  cousin  to  tbe  hero  of  Scinde  and  the  historian 
of  the  Peninsular  War.  His  father  was  tbe  Hon. 
Captain  Charles  Napier,B.N.,  second  son  of  Francis, 
fiffli  Lord  Nopier.  He  was  bom  March  6,  1780,  ot 
tho  family  seat,  Merchistonn  Hall,  in  the  county  ot 
Stirling.  At  13,  he  went  to  sea  as  anavolvolnntcer. 
In  18(^  he  received  tbe  command  of  the  Beenai, 
IS  guns,  and  had  Ma  thigh  broken  by  a  bullet.  He 
kept  up  a  running  fight,  in  his  IS-giin  brig,  with 
the  rearmost  of  three  French  lioe-of-battle  ships, 
tbe  D'HaatpcnM,  which  escaped  from  Guadeloupe, 
and  was  Uius  instrumental  in  her  capture.  This 
obtained  him  a  post-captaincy ;  but  being  thrown 
out  of  actitre  service,  he  served  ashore  as  a  volunteer 
iu  tbe  Feninsalararmy,andwBa  wounded  at  Busaco. 
Commanding  the  Thames  in  1811,  he  inflicted  an 
incredible  amount  of  danu^  Dpcn  the  enemy  in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  also  conducted  several  des- 
perate land  operatdons  with  marked  success.  In 
1814,  be  was  ordered  to  America,  and  led  the  way 
ia  the  bazordoua  ascent  and  descent  of  the  Potomac 
He  afterwards  took  an  active  part  ia  tbe  operations 
gainst  Baltimore.  In  1829,  bo  received  the  com- 
mond  of  the  GaUttta,  a  42-gun  frigate,  and  was 
employed  '  on  particular  service '  on  tbe  coast  of 
PortugaL  Becoming  acquainted  with  the  leaders  of 
tbe  Constitutional  party,  he  accepted  the  command 


Donna  Maria  on  tbe  throne.   He  w 


1  made  ailmiral- 


jgl( 


MAttfift-NAPtfiS. 


in-chief  of  the  PoiiD^ew  navy,  and  mttempted  to 
remodel  it;  but  official  and  cornpt  inflnenoe  waB 
too  stTDDg  for  him,  and  be  retnmed  to  Bngland. 
Id  the  war  between  the  Forte  and  Mehenet  Ali, 
he  organued  a  land  force,  with  which  he  stormed 
Sidon,  and  defeated  Ibrahini  Puha  amor  ^''  ~ 
heighlt  of  Monnt  Lebtmoo.  He  took  p*it 
naval  attack  on  Acre,  and  did  not  heait 
disregard  the  order*  of  hii  chief,  Adminl  Stopford, 
when  he  uw  the  Wftv  to  brine  the  battle  to  ■ 
apeedf  termination.  He  next  blockaded  Alezan- 
aria,  and  concluded  a  convention  with  Mehemet 
Ali  In  1S47,  he  received  the  command  of  the 
Channel  fleet.  When  the  Biunrian  war  broke  ont, 
he  wu  tent  ont  to  command  the  Baltio  fleet ;  bnt 
the  captore  of  Bomaraund  failed  to  realise  the  high 
expectations  formed  of  N.'i  eiploita.  Ha  twice  aat 
in  parliament,  and,  until  hia  death,  November  6. 
1860,  he  laboured  with  ■uooeM  to  reform  our  datm 
admiuiatration.  See  hie  Life  and  Corrt^ondatca 
(2vohi.Lond.  1SG2). 

NAPIER,  Th«  Riohi  Hon.  8ib  Robert 
CoRKKua,  Baron  Napier  of  Magdala,  was  bom  in 
Ceylon,  6th  December  ISIO,  and  was  educated  at 
the  Hilitaiy  College  at  Addiscombe.  He  entered 
the  Bengal  Engicieer*  in  1826,  served  la  the  SatleJ 
campaign,  wm  wounded  while  aoting  aa  ohist 
engineer  at  the  siege  of  Monltan,  and  had  a  prom- 
ineot  share  in  the  battle  of  Gujerat.  A*  chief 
engineer  of  the  Punjab,  with  the  rank  of  colonel, 
ha  greatly  developed  the  tceouiced  ol  the  country. 
Dnrmg  the  Indian  mutiny,  he  was  ohief  engineer 
in  Sir  Colin  Campbell's  army,  and  especially  dis- 
tingiiished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Lucknow.  For 
his  services  in  the  Chinese  war  of  1868,  he  was 
made  major-geoeral  and  K.CB.  As  commander  of 
the  eipcditioD  in  Abymiiiia  in  1868,  he  achieved  a 
brilliant  success,  both  by  his  whole  manunment  of 
the  short  campaign  and  m  the  gtorming  otMaRdala, 
which  ended  it.  Os  his  retani  he  received  the 
thanks  of  parlJameDt^  an  annuity  of  £2000,  and  a 

Eerage.  Ci  1870,  he  was  appointed  Commander- 
■chief  of  the  forces  in  India,  and  aominated  a 
member  of  the  Indian  Cotmcil  In  1877  he  was 
made  governor  of  Oibraltar. 

NAPIER'S  BONES,  an  inventioa  of  the  cele- 
brated Napier  (q.  v.)  of  Slerchiatou,  tor  the  pwpoBe 
of  performma  mechanically  the  operations  of  multi- 
plication and  divinon.     The  'bonea'  wen 


■lipaaf  bone,  wood. 


metal,  about  3  inches 


long  by  3-lOtba  of  an  inclk  in  breadtii,  and  divided 
l>7  transversa  lines  into  nine  compartmeata ;  each  of 
iheae  compartmenta  being  divided  into  two  portions 


bj  *  diMonal  line  moifiig  bom  tha  vmtt  ri|^ 
hand  to  the  lower  left  band  comers.  The'bonGa* 
were  divided  into  aefct,  all  those  of  one  set  bavins 
the  same  digit  occupying  the  top  compartment,  and 

the  several  multiplea  of  that  digit  occnpying  in 
order  the  eight   lower  oompartments ;   when  tlw 


neoMsaiily  a  set  of  bonea  for  each  digib  nme  mm 
tiaa  anoUur  rod  nmilarlj  divided  into  compait- 
ments,  in  irtiich  Hfot  plMed  the  nine  digits;  tiiis 


...  ._  irtiich  inn  plMed  ._. _, 

waa  called  the  iadex^viL    Moltiplioatiem 
formed  aa  foUowa ;  e-g.,  if  679S  la  t-  ■ 


ba  nnUiilied 

...  „     in  the"  order  ci 

the  fignrea  in  the  multiplicand,  and  the  indax-rod 
placed  alongaide  them,  as  in  the  flgore ;  the  sereral 
DKOres  of  the  multiplier  are  than  songht  for  on 
the  indei-rod,  the  two  lines  of  figuraa  oppoaita 
each  ficme  on  the  index  are  then  added  together 
diagonally,  and  the  five  soma  thai  obtained  aim 
arnuged  as  followa : 

gsiiss 

47S63 
8|    H360 


27180 
604762030  =  the  product  required. 
Division  Es  perfonned   in  an   analiwons   manner. 
The  ooDtemponaeoDi  inventioo  of  b^arithma  for 
the  same  purpose  caused  Napier's  bones  to  be  over. 
looked. 

NAPIER,  the  chief  port  and  oitv  of  the  pro- 
vinoial  district   o(  Hawke's   Bay,   Kr—  "—' — ■* 
on  the  east  coMrt  of  the  North  Uaut' 
6766. 


P(^  (1881) 

NA'PLEa  (ItaL  NajMJi,  ana  NatpoUt),  tba 
largest  city  of  Italy,  capital  of  a  province,  is  built 
partly  at  the  base,  paitly  on  the  slopes  of  two 
crescent- shaped  accUvitiea  on  the  tamons  bay  of  N. 
Pop.  (1881)  463,172;  of  conupoDe,  494,314.  The 
wonderful  beauty  of  the  eite  and  of  the  surrounding 
prospect,  the  ddicious  softness  of  the  climate,  and 
the  clear  atmosphere,  make  N.  famed  among  the 
citiea  of  the  world.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  centres  til 
commerce  and  industry  of  Italy,  and  is  one  of  th« 
principal  statione  of  Mediterranean ateam-navigation. 

The  public  buildings  of  Naples  are  numerous  aad 
grand,  but  are  devoid  of  architectural  ■ymmetijr  in 
consequence  of  the  antiquity  of  their  origin  and  the 
inegmarity  of  their  site.  Many  of  thia  <dd  itoeete 
•re  paved  with  lava,  and  inconveniently  narrow, 
with  houses  of  great  height.  The  modran  strceta, 
however,  are  spacious  aod  splendid.  The  nfrr  is 
divided  into  theOldnnd  theNewTowSiOrtbe  East 
and  West  Cresoenta,  by  a  leaser  range  <A  beighta — 
viz.,  the  Capodemonte,  the  St  Etmo,  and  the  Piiaafal- 
cone,  terminating  in  the  rocky  promontory  caUed  the 
Cast«I  dell'  Ovo.  In  1868,  a  land-slip  destroyed  a 
number  of  houses  at  the  foot  of  Pizzofalcona.  The 
eaatem  division  of  N.  is  the  nuwt  andott  and  tbs 
most  densely  peopled ;'  it  contains  tba  principal 
publio  stmotures,  and  ia  intersected  by  the  apleooid 
Via  or  Street  di  Toledo.  The  western,  or  modem 
•action,  contains  the  famous  Riviera  di  Cliiajft,  or 
the  Quay,  a  fine  road  running  along  tba  bay  in  a 
curved  comas  of  three  miles,  flanked  on  the  right  by 
a  row  'of  palaces,  and  bordered  on  the  left  by  tba 
beantifol  pleamue-gronnda  of  the  Villa  Reale, 
which  lie  between  it  and  the  tea,  and  of  which  the 
natural  beauty  is  heightened  by  the  inteiq)enion 
of  templea,  fountains,  and  atabury  gronm  *T''''t*' 
the  acacia,  myrtle,  and  orange  grovea.  'the  public 
squares,  or  lorpAi,  of  N.  are  adorned  with  fonutaina 
and  obeliiaka ;  and  within  the  pradiuti  ct  th*  ci^. 


tksre  are  aeverd  bigUy-iaized  ■pting*  both  of 
freah  and  minaral  vat^s.  The  fortmed  CBEtleB 
•n  nnmeTOQB.  Amoogiti  the  principal  ue  tiie 
CMtel  NnoTO,  called  the  BsEtile  of  Naplei,  aome- 
what  nmilar  to  the  Towei  of  London,  and 
adoiued  with  a  fine  trinmphsl  arch,  erected  in 
honoor  ol  Alfonso  of  Aragoa ;  the  Castel  dall' 
Ore,  BO  caJled  from  its  oval  or  e^  ahape,  Btanding 
on  a  promontory,  and  connected  Df  a  biid^  wit£ 
the  mainland ;  the  Castel  Sanf  Elmo,  oommanding 
ft  iDBgDi£cent  view  from  ita  rampaiti,  and  formerly 
of  immanae  strength ;  and  the  dismantled  Caatel 
del  Canoine.  The  (jiorohee  are  upwarda  of  300, 
and  many  are  rich  in  architaotaral  utd  aroluelogiol 
intenab  The  cathedral  dedicated  to  8t  OeimaKi 
(JanoBiiiia ;  q.  v.)  containa  the  celebrated  phiala 
in  whioh  tha  liqnefactdon  of  3t  Oennaro'a  olood 
ia  alleged  to  take  place  on  two  annual  feativalB ;  it 
also  containa  the  tombs  of  Charles  of  Anjoa  and  of 
Pope  Innocent  17.,  besides  numarona  fine  punting 
and  ststnea.  The  educational  inatitationa  of  N. 
embraEe  famooa  aeboola  cd  sorgeiy,  law,  and  general 
adenoe.  A  magnificent  aqnanum  haa  been  opened 
since  1871,  with  a  zoologioa]  laboratoi;  in  which  mooy 
diatiagaiEiied  foreign  natnnliata  are  at  work.  The 
philanthroincal  establiahments  are  on  an  immense 
•oal^  and  an  richlT  endowed.  There  are  also 
■ereial  theatna  in  the  oity,  of  which  that  of  San 
Carlo  (devoted  to  the  Opmt)  ia  one  of  the  Isr^eet 
and  most  celebrated  in  Italy ;  bat  the  charactensfeio 
theatre  of  N.  is  the  Teatro  di  San  Corfino,  the  head^ 
qnarters  of  Pufc»Kiii(' the  Italian  FuwA').  There 
aro  four  grand  pubUo  libraries ;  and  in  the  Mnaea 
Borbonico,  N.  containa  an  nnrivalled  oollection  of 
art,  comprising  freacoes,  paiotinga,  mosaioa,  acnlp- 
tnres,  bronzes,  aotiqaitie&  omua,  mediJi,  inacrip- 
tionB,  and  the  renowned  cdlectian  of  precious  objects 
excavated  from  Hercnlaneiint  and  Pompefl. 

The  environs  of  H.,  apart  from  their  aitreme 
beauty  of  scenery,  are  highly  interesting.  The 
locality  whioh  coataina  the  tomb  of  Vi^il,  the 
disinterred  towns  of  Eenmlaneiun  and  Pompeii, 
Vesuvins  (from  an  eraption  of  which  N.  Buffered 
ia  1872).  and  the  Roman  remains,  must  pOBSeas 
an  inexliaaatible  aoorce  of  intea«at  for  acientifio, 
antiquarian,  and  cUsdcal  investigator.  The 
modem  villas  of  N.  are  splendid  and  taxuions. 
One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  N.  is  its  unique 
population  and  the  universal  publicity  in  which  Me 
u  passed.  Tba  inhsbitanta  for  ever  swarm  in  the 
thorcaghlsnB,  where  an  inoeasant  tiirong  of  vendors, 
tmrohiiBaM,  and  idlers  intenmiuile  with  aasea,  mulee, 
hand-carts,  and  conveyance^  danling  the  eye  with 
their  brilliant  variety  of  costume,  and  the  pan. 
tmnimio  expresDveneas  of  their  ftantdo  gestures  and 
attitndes ;  while  the  ear  ia  stunned  by  the  shrill 
eonflioting  cries  of  the  ambulatory  vendors  of  every 
concuvaUs  commodity,  by  the  piercing  notea  of 
the  impnmaatore'a  aong,  and  the  uprofirious  hilarity 
and  high-intidied  patois  of  the  countless  masses, 
iriiose  wd«  abode  appears  to  strangen  to  be  the 
thronged  pablio  atfiMfm  and  streets.  The  popular 
language  of  S.,  which  ia  a  corrupt  dialect  of^Italian 
and  Spanish,  is  in  prevalent  nse  among  all  daaacs 
of  society ;  it  lenda  itaeU  eepedally  to  the  aalarioal 
and  facetiouB  squibs  and  oompositionB  in  which  the 
Neapolitans  excel.  The  populsr  Neapolitan  songs 
in  the  ^  native  patois  aK  ezqnisitel]>  naive  and 
eipreeaive  in  aentiment,  and  are  set  to  fascinating 
melodies  (see  Lazzakoni).  In  1884,  a  French  com- 
pany finished  a  water  ajratem  which  brings  daily 
100,000  cubic  metre*  of  water  a  distance  of  70  kilo- 
metoea.  Dc  Dohm's  zoological  station  here  has 
become  famous  in  the  history  of  biological  research. 

He  name  Naplea  (Or.  iftapoUa,  new  dty)  had 
nttmtM  to  an  older  town  in  the  neighbom'hood. 


called  originally  Parthenope,  and,  after  the  fonnda- 
tion  of  the  new  town,  Paispolis  (old  town),  which 
was  situated  moat  probably  on  tiie  ridge  called 
Posilipo,  that  aeparates  the  Bay  of  Pozsuoli  or 
Bai»  from  that  of  Naples.  Both  towna  wei« 
Greek  setUements,  apparently  colonica  from  the 
neighbouring  CumEe,  joined  by  immigranta  direct 
from  Greece.  In  327  B.C.,  Faliepolis  was  beslesed 
and  taken  by  the  Romans,  and  thenceforth  dis- 
appears from  history ;  NeapoUs  submitted  without 
reeiatance,  and  became  a  favoured  and  faithful 
ally,  or  rather  provincial  city  of  Rome.  It  long, 
however,  retained  its  purely  Greek  character  and 
institutions ;  and  there  is  evidence  ithat  the  Greek 
language  continued  to  be  used,  even  in  publlo 
documents,  aa  late  as  the  2d  c  of  the  Christian  era. 
N.  was  ft  dooriahing  and  populous  city  during  the 
Roman  empire;  and,  notwiOistanding  the  vldsBi- 
tudes  of  the  Qothio  conquest  of  Italy,  and  the 
reconquests  by  the  Byzantine  emperors,  it  con- 
tinned  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  and  opulent 
plac«9  in  Italy.  About  the  8tb  c,  it  threw  off 
allegiance  to  the  Byzantine  emperois,  remained 
independent  till  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Nonuans  in  1140  a.i>.,  and  became  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom  c^  Nspleth 

NAPLES,  Bat  of,  an  indentation  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  on  the  south-west  coast  of  Italy, 
opposite  the  city  of  Naples,  is  20  miles  wide  from 
Cape  Miseno  on  tJie  norui-weBt  to  Cape  Campanella 
on  the  south-east,  and  from  this  line  extends  inland 
for  about  ten  miles.  The  scenery  is  very  beautifid. 
On  the  ahorcB  are  mauy  towns  and  vill^esj  the 
prospect  is  bounded  on  iibe  east  by  Mount  VcBuvius, 
and  on  the  outskirts  of  the  bay  ore  the  islands  of 
Ischia  and  Capri. 

NAPLES.  The  Italian  provinces  (formerly 
kingdom)  of  N.  and  Suuly,  or  the  Two  Sicilies 
occupy  the  south  end  of  the  Italian  peninsula,  and 
consist  of  the  continental  territory  of  N.  and  the 
insular  dependency  of  Sicily.  The  distinctive  phy- 
sical features  of  N.  and  Sicily  are  noted  uoder  the 
namea  of  the  different  provmcea  of  Italy  and  in 
the  article  SiciLT.  They  are  favoured  by  natore 
with  a  salubrious  and  almost  tropical  climate, 
unbounded  fertility,  and  teeming  population ;  and 
they  present  natural  features  of  rare  attractiveness. 
The  rural  population  are  an  acute,  frugal,  and  labo- 
riouB  race,  and  form  a  strong  contran  to  their  idle 
and  debased  brethren  of  the  towns.  For  statistics 
of  prodncta,  exports,  and  population,  see  Italy  and 
SiciLT.  N.,  in  ancient  times,  was  divided  into 
numerous  petty  states  independent  of  each  other, 
and  its  inhabitants  were  of  various  races.  Manv  of 
these  states  arose  from  Oreek  colonies,  which  bod 
been  founded  in  the  country  previoua  to  the  Tth  c 
B.a  The  ancient  historical  miportance  of  N.  ia 
attested  by  the  splendonr  of  its  citiea,  and  the 
warlike  renown  of  its  population.  On  ito  conquest 
by  the  Romans,  the  great  Neapohtan  citiee  seve- 
rally adopted  the  municipal,  federative,  or  coloniet 
form  of  aovemment,  and  gradually  assimilated  their 
lawB  and  customs  to  tbone  of  their  oouquerorai 
After  the  downfall  of  the  Western  Empire,  N.  waa 
aeized  by  Odoacer,  but  soon  afterwards  (^0  A.D.) 
it  was  sabjectod  by  the  Oaths,  and  in  the  following 
century  by  the  Lombards,  who  establiahed  in  it 
variouB  independent  duchies,  aa  Benevento,  Spoleto, 
Salerno,  Capua,  Ac  Most  of  these  were  overthrown 
by  invading  biuids  of  Arabs,  Saracena,  and  Byzan- 
tine*^ who  were  in  turn  expelled,  and  the  whole 
oonntay  subdued  by  the  Normans  in  the  11th 
centniT.  Uie  Normans  subsequently  erected  N.  and 
Sdly  mto  a  kingdcon,  and  established  a  new  political, 
soolMiastioal,  and  military  ayitem.    To  the  Norman 


"S# 


NAPLB3-YELL0W— :*APOLfiON  BONAPAETE. 


dynaitj  meceeded  thftt  of  the  Hoheutanfen,  whose 
mle  wu  marked  by  An  imiaenia  intellecbial  uid 
•ocud  advancement  oE  the  people ;  bnt  the  vindictive 
enmity  with  which  the  papal  Bee  regarded  thia 
dyiuwiy,  led  to  the  invaiion  of  N.  by  Chariei  ot 
^jon,  who,  notwithstandins  the  heroio  naistance 
of  King  Manfred  (q.  v.),  by  tiio  battle  of  Benevento 
(126U)  annihilated  the  power  of  the  Hohenatanfen. 
The  ascendency  of  Charlea  of  Anjoa  was  further 
effectually  secorcd  by  the  treacherona  defeat  and 
decafritotioa  (1268)  of  Konradin  (q.v.),  the  last 
male-heir  to  the  throne.  By  tiio  SicUian  Vapert 
(q.  V.)  the  island  of  Sicily  wm,  however,  wHsted 
in  1282  from  hia  graap,  and  became  an  appanage 
of  the  Spanitih  crown.  The  predominance  of 
the  KeapoUtan  Oiielph  or  pupal  party  during  the 

floriooa  reim  of  Robert  I.,  who  was  the  pabvn  of 
>ante  and  Boccacdo,  the  depraved  Lberidniim  of 
hia  heireai  and  graoddaughter  Joanna,  the  fearful 
ravage*  committed  by  predatoiy  bands  of  German 
mercenariee  and  by  uie  pUgne,  the  futile  attempts 
of  the  Anion  loverei^  to  recover  Sicily,  and  the 
envenomed  feuds  of  nval  claimaate  to  Uie  throne, 
are  the  leading  features  of  the  history  of  N.  during 
the  role  of  tUa  i^'oasty,  which  expired  with  the 
profligate  Joanna  IL  in  1435 ;  and  was  followed  by 
that  of  Aragon,  which  bad  ruled  Sicily  frma  the 
time  of  the  Sicilian  Veapen.  During  the  tenure  of 
the  Aragon  race,  variooa  unimcoeasful  attempts 
were  made  by  the  House  of  Anjou  to  recover  their 
lost  sovereignty ;  and  the  country,  especially  near 
tho  coast,  was  rcjicatedly  ravaged  by  the  Turks 
(1480).  In  fact,  after  the  death  of  Alfonso,  the  Siat 
ruler  of  tlie  Aragon  dynasty,  the  ooimtiy  groaned 
nndcr  a  load  of  misery.  Wars,  defensive  and 
olTcnsive,  were  incessant,  tho  countiy  was  im|>0' 
veriehod,  and  a  coospiracy  of  the  nobles  to  remedy 
the  condition  of  uTairs  was  productive  of  the 
most  lamentable  results,  both  to  the  conspirators 
themselves,  and  to  the  other  influential  Neapolitan 
families.  In  1495,  Charles  VIII.  invaded  N.,  and 
though  be  was  camnclled  to  withdraw  la  the  tame 
year,  his  successor,  Lotus  XIL,  with  the  beacherous 
assistance  of  Ferdinand  (the  Catholic)  of  Smin, 
sncceeded  in  conqncnng  the  country  in  ISOl.  Two 
years  afterwards,  the  Spaniards  under  Gonsalvo 
di  Cordova  {q.  v.)  drove  out  the  French,  and  the 
country  from  this  time  became  a  province  ot  Spain. 
Sicily  had  previoosly  (1479)  been  annexed  to  the 
same  kingdom.  Dnring  the  two  centuries  of  Spanish 
rule  in  N.,  the  parliaments  which  had  ezisted  from 
the  time  of  tJie  Noimans  fell  into  desnetnde,  the 
exercise  of  supreme  authority  devolved  on  viceroys, 
and  b>  their  ignorance,  rapodty,  and  oppressive 
admiuistrutioa  may  be  solely  ascribed  the  -  un- 
exampled misery  and  abasement  of  this  period.  In 
the  words  of  Sismondi,  *  no  tax  was  imposed  save 
with  the  apparent  object  of  crashing  commerce  or 
destroying  agriculture,  and  the  viceregal  palace  and 
tho  tribiuials  of  ioetice  became  public  officea  in 
which  the  highest  dignities  and  most  sacred  interests 
of  the  state  were  openly  bartered  to  the  wealthiest 
bidder.'  Carios  tlie  Spanish  rule,  a  formidable 
rebellion  took  placa  in  1647,  beaded  first  by  Mas. 
auiello  (q.  v.),  and  afterwards  by  Henry  V.,  Duke 
ot  Guise ;  the  whole  population  of  the  province 
renounced  their  allegianoe  to  their  Spanish  sove- 
reigns, bnt  the  arrival  of  a  new  viceroy,  who  waa 
equal  to  tho  occasion,  reaalted  in  the  capture  of  the 
Dnke  of  Qoiae  and  the  re-subjugation  of  the  country. 
At  length,  during  the  war  of  the  SpmtiA  Saceettion 
(q.  v.),  N.  waa  wrested  from  Spain  by  Aostria  in 
1707,  and  Sicily  in  the  followiog  year ;  bat  while  K. 
was  secured  to  Austria  by  the  treaties  of  Utrecht 
(1713)  and  Ilaatadt  (1714),  Sicily  was  handed  over 
to  Savoy  by  the  former  treaty.    In  1730,  however, 


both  Sicilia  were  leunited  nnder  the  Ansbisn  rale* 
and  in  1735  were  given  to  Don  Carlos,  third  son  of 
Philip  V.  of  Spain,  who  ascended  the  throne  as. 
Charlea  L,  and  founded  the  Bourbon  dynasty.  Hia 
reign  was  marked  by  equity  and  moderation ;  great 
reforms  were  effected  in  the  administration  of  pablio 
aflairs,  science  and  literature  were  encouraged,  and 
spleoid  woits  of  public  utility  were  erected  Uirongb- 
out  the  kingdom.  It  was  during  hia  reign  VbaA 
Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  were  discovered.  His 
sncceasor,  Ferdinand  IV.,  followed  in  the  oonrae  of 
legislative  reform ;  bnt  on  the  proclamation  of  the 
French  Itepnblio  (1789),  hia  states  were  invaded  bj 
a  French  army,  and  the  kioRdom  of  N.  waa  elected 
into  the  Parthenopean  Bepublio  (1799).  Ferdinaod 
retired  with  his  court  to  Sioily,  ; 
period  enjoyed  the  restoration  of  ua 
m  N. ;  but  a  second  invasion  b^  Napolbuu  \iavai 
ended  in  the  proclamation  of  his  brother,  Jciae[di 
Bonaparte,  as  king  of  N. ;  and  on  this  latter  assumine 
the  Spanish  crown  in  1808,  that  of  N.  waa  awarded 
to  Joachim  Murat,  brother- in-Uw  of  Napoleon. 
On  the  defeat  and  execution  of  Murat  in  ISIG, 
the  Bourbon  monarch,  Ferdinand  IV.,  waa  restored. 
Tho  liberal  insurrectionary  movements  in  If.  in 
1821  and  1830  were  the  forerunners  of  the  revola- 


combated  by  the  respective  kings  with 
severi^,  and  perfidious  concessions,  to  be  c 
and  aveosed  with  sanguinary  fury  when  the  di>- 
armed  oi^.  credulous  patriots  were  at  the  mercy  of 
the  Bovereigna.  See  article  0*iub&ij>i  for  t)ie 
ultimate  overthrow  of  the  Bourbon  dynoaty  in  the 
kingdom  of  N.,  and  its  sabaequent  annexation  to  the 
kii^dom  of  Italy  nnder  King  Victor  Emmanuel ; 
also  articles  FuBDltiAVD  IL  and  Itali,  For  the 
history  of  Sicily  previons  to  its  annexation  to  and 
during  its  various  separations  from  N.,  sea  Bidilt. 

NAPLES-YELLOW  is  a  pigment  used  \rf 
artists.  It  consists  of  ontimoniata  of  lead,  and  u 
obt.iined  by  the  direct  combination  of  antimonin 
acid  and  oxide  of  lead  under  the  infitience  of  heat. 

NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE,  Emperor  of  \ha 
French,  waa  bom  at  Ajoccio,  in  the  island  of 
Corsica,  15th  AuRust  1769.  (For  an  account  of  the 
family  to  whi(£  he  belonged,  see  Bonafakt^ 
Family  or.)  At  the  age  of  ten,  he  entered  the  Mili- 
tary School  at  Brienne,  as  a  king's  penaioner.  Here 
he  remained  five  years  and  a  hiuf.  During  that 
period,  he  display^  a  great  ai>titude  and  predilec- 
tion for  mathematics,  history,  end  geography,  and 
an  indifference  to  merely  verbal  and  Steraiy  stadiea. 
His  manner  was  sombre  and  tacitom,  bat  ss 
Bourrienne  (who  was  his  schoolfellon)  says,  this 
arose  chiefly  from  the  circumatanco  that  he  waa  a 
foreigner,  poor  and  unaccustomed  to  the  use  <d 
French,  which  be  first  learned  at  Brienne.  la 
October  I7S4,  he  prooeeded  to  the  Mihtary  School 
to  complete  his  studies  for  the  army,  and  in  rather 
less  than  a  year  obtained  his  commission  as  snb- 
lientenant  in  the  artiUety  regiment  de  la  Fire. 
When  the  Revolutioo  breke  out,  N.  waa  in  garrison 
at  Valeooe.     He  took  the  popular  side,  but  in  a 

aniet  and  ondemoastrative  way,  for  he  did  not  love 
le  boisterous  enthnsiaam  of  unnumogeable  moba. 
When  the  armed  rabble  of  Paris  poured  out  to  the 
Tuileries  on  the  famous  20th  of  June  17S2;  N., 
who  waa  then  in  the  city,  followed  the  '  despicable 
wretches'  (as  be  called  them),  along  with  his  friend 
Bonnienne ;  he  saw  them  force  the  poor  king  to  atit^ 
the  red  cap  on  his  head,  and  amile  fatuously  fram 
the  windows  of  his  palace.  '  It  ta  all  over  hence- 
forth with  that  man,'  said  the  yoang  officer,  and 
retnmed  to  Paris  graver  and  more  thon^tfol  thaa 
Bourrienne  had  ever  seen  him.    After  the  aaeam  of 


-"-'c'-'" 


NAFOLtiON  BONAPABTE. 


Septembrists  and  Terroritti,  hovrever,  induced  Paoli 
to  throw  off  liu  ollegiaiice  to  the  ConveDtton,  &nd 
to  Kck  tiia  usiitonca  of  Engluid.  N.  wu  Mtive 
bat  muraoceaaFal  in  hia  opposition  to  the  6ss  — 
of  the  geoeni],  end  wu  obliged,  along  -with 
reUtives,  to  flee  from  the  isliuid. 

Ha  now  petitioned  the  Convention  for  tmiAoj- 
ment,  and  was  lent  to  aiaiat  in  the  redaction  of 
Toulon,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  of  artil- 
lery. The  dty  -ma  oaptutod  (19th  Dec«mbei  17M) 
entirely  throng  the  Btrategio  geniiiB  of  N- ;  and  in 
the  fidlowing  Febraary  he  was  roieed  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general,  and  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
arffllery  in  the  army  oC  the  wuth.  Later  in  the 
year,  he  wan  sent  to  OeoiM,  to  examine  the  stale  of 
the  fortificatioDS  of  Uie  city,  and  to  discover  the 
political  disposition  of  the  inhabitanta.  In  the 
berinning  of  1795,  he  was  again  in  Parts  seoking 
active  empk^ent,  tnd  thinking,  from  iheer  euuii, 
of  tranrferriDg  hit  Mivioei  to  the  Saltan  of  Turkey. 

iin._  rt 1^ ^_ . — '1,  on  aoconnt 

imsnta  of  the 


troops  provided  for  its  defence.  On  the  13th  Ven- 
dfmiture  (4th  October  17S5J,  the  national  gnaid, 
30,000  strong,  attempted  to  force  its  wa^  into  the 
Tnileriei,  where  the  Convention  was  uttiog,  bnt 
was  ronted  and  dttpetsed  b^  a  terrible  cannonade 
directed  by  the  young  artillery  offioer.  N.  was 
immediately  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  army 
of  the  -interior.  Abont  this  time,  ho  mode  tfa« 
acqnaintanoe  of  Jo«epbine  Beaohaniais,  whom  he 
frequently  met  at  the  hoase  of  Madame  Tallien- 
Captivated  by  her  eloonnt  manners  and  amiable 
din)ontion,  he  proposed  marriage  to  the  Rraoeful 
widow,  and  waa  accepted.  The  ceremony  took  pUoe 
9tb  March  1796.  A  few  days  before,  be  had  been 
sppoiated  to  the  mnreme  command  of  the  army  of 
Italy,  and  he  was  obliged  to  leave  his  bride  almoat 
at  the  altar.  On  his  arrival,  ho  found  the  troopa  in 
a  wretched  condition.  Ha  had  only  86,000  available 
men,  and  even  these  were  half-etarvcd,  and  only 
half-clothed,  to  ojnKwe  to  an  An«trian  and  Pied- 
montcse  force  of  76.000.  Yet  he  was  not  afraid  to 
undertake  the  conquest  of  Upper  Italy.  Leaving 
Nice  at  the  close  of  March,  be  won  his  first  victory 
over  the  Aastrians  at  Montenotte  (Ilth  April), 
which  opened  the  Apennines  for  him ;  three  days 
later,  a  second  succesa  at  Milleaimo  separated  ^e 
allied  armios;  and,  finally,  bis  victory  at  Mondovi 
(on  the  22d}  compelled  Sardinia  to  miploro  peace. 
He  DOW  hoped  to  utterly  crash  the  Austriaa  aimv 
under  Beaalien,  and  at  the  batUe  of  Lodi  (on  the  lOtn 
May)  nearly  accomplished  it.  His  opponent  did 
not  ventnre  to  defend  the  line  of  the  Mincio,  bnt 
hastily  throwing  a  nrrisoii  into  the  city  of  Mantua, 
retreated  into  the  l^roL  N.  immediately  entered 
Hilao,  and  took  poBieasion  besides  of  all  the  prin- 
cipal cities  of  Lmnbardy.  Now  began  that  system 
of  enormous  and  unscrupnlouis  plunder  in  Northern 
and  Central  Italy  which  gives  sometliing  of  a 
barbaric  charact«T  to  the  oonquests  of  the  French. 
The  Directory  gave  orders  that  S.  should  levy 
contributions  from  all  the  states  which  he  hod 
gmtuitoualy  freed,  and  according  to  his  own 
account,  he  sent  to  France  not  less  than  50,000,000 
fisncs.  His  officers  and  coamiissariea  actaally 
seized  whatever  they  wished,  provisions,  horses, 
and  all  manner  of  atona ;  and  because  Pavia 
ventured  to  make  some  slight  reaiitaDce  to  the 
shameful  extortions  of  the  Kqmblksana,  N.  gave  it 
up  to  havoo  far  24  boon  I  A  body  of  savaiw 
(jaelading    Monge,    Bertbollet,  knd   othen)   were 


deapatehed  to  Italy  to  ■uperintend  the  ipoliation 
of  its  artistio  treasnrea ;  and  both  now  and  in  the 

sabeequenC  Italian  campaigns,  pictures,  statues, 
vases,  and  MSS.  were  carried  off  m  great  nnmbers, 
to  gratify  the  vanity  of  the  Parisian  sight-seera. 
In  ibis  way,  Lombardy,  Parma,  Modana,  Bologna, 
and  the  States  of  tbe  Church  wer«  savagely  hwried 
bdore  the  end  of  June — Pope  Pius  VL,  in  parti- 
onlar,  being  forced  to  submit  to  conditions  of  extreme 
tiKMir. 

Meanwhile,  Austria  had  resolved  to  make  another 
effort  for  the  recovery  of  Lombardy.  About  tbe  cloaa 
of  July,  Marshal  Wurmser  advanced  from  Trent  at 
the  head  of  60,000  men,  forced  Napoleon  to  raiso  0\a 
siege  of  Mantaa,  but  waa  himself  defeated,  wiUi 
the  loBB  of  all  his  cannon,  near  Castiglione  (6th 
August},  and  again  at  Bossano  (8th  September),  in 
consequence  of  which,  he  was  driven  to  take  rcEuga 
within  the  fortress  of  Mantua  with  some  10,000 
troops— tha  shattered  remains  of  hia  60,000.  Austria, 
however,  was  not  disheartened.  A  Uiird  army  waa 
deapatehed  in  two  divisions :  30,000  from  Carinthia, 
ludec  Marshal  Alvinzi;  and  20,000  from  the  Tyrol, 
nnder  General  Davidowioh,  This  waa  a  terrible 
campaign  for  N.  i  his  veteran*  were  exhansted,  his 
new  supports  had  not  arrived;  be  himself  was 
deapondent,  while  the  Austrians  were  fresh  and 
hrnwfuL  At  first,  the  latter  wero  completely  socccss- 
ful;  but  the  great  victory  of  Areola,  won  by  N. 
(17th  November}  after  thrua  days'  fierce  Gghting,  in 
which  ho  lost  neoriy  all  his  genial  officers,  decided 
the  fate  of  the  campaigo.  His  dispatches  to  the 
Directory,  penued  aboat  this  period,  shew  how 
thorougmy  be  apprehended  the  state  of  parties  in 
Italy,  and  ako  how  utterly  indifferont  he  wsa  to 
any  considerations  beyond  those  that  advanoed  the 
interests  of  Franca  la  January  1707,  a  fourth 
campaign  waa  commenced  b^  Austria.  At  the  head 
of  6O,OU0  fresh  troopa,  Alvmzi  dosceoded  from  the 
Tyrot  but  waa  completely  routed  by  N.  at  Bivoli, 
on  the  14th  of  the  month ;  while  not  long  after, 
Wnrmsor  waa  starved  into  summder  at  Mantaa. 
A  .fl/JA  army  was  assembled  on  the  Tagliamento, 
under  the  command  oE  tha  Archduke  Charles ; 
but  his  troopa  were  mainly  raw  recruits,  while 
those  of  N.  were  inured  to  war,  and  flushed  with 
innumerable  triumphs.  In  conscqnence,  ho  was 
forced  to  retreat^  which,  however,  he  did  slowly 
and  in  good  order,  hoping  to  surround  his  opponent 
in  tbo  mterior  of  the  country.  N.'a  design  was  to 
march  on  Vienna,  and  he  actually  penetrated  as  far 
as  Jadenburc,  in  Upper  Styrio,  only  eight  days' 
march  from  the  capital  Tbe  Austrian  government 
at  length  was  seized  with  alarm,  mode  overtares  of 
-  ce;  and  finally,  on  the  I7th  October  1797,  the 
loiis  tnaty  of  Campo-fonnio  was  signed,  by 
which  Austria  ceded  the  Netherlands,  Lombardy, 
and  some  other  smaller  territories  to  France; 
while  she  herself  obtained  in  return,  through 
disgraceful  treachery  on  the  part  of  tiie  victor, 
possession  of  the  province  of  Venice.  It  is  gener- 
slly  said  that  N.'s  military  genius  was  never  more 
brilliantly  displayed  tluui  m  these  early  Italian 
campaigns.  In  ingcouity  of  plan,  celerity  of 
movement,  andacity  of  assault,  he  far  outshines  all 
his  adversaries ;  it  is,  moreover,  but  just  to  him 
state  further,  that  he  made  desperate  efforts 
stop  the  excGBses  of  the  most  scoundrelly  com- 
missariat in  Europe  ;  aud  that  while  in  the  main 
ha  shewed  no  hesitation  in  carrying  out  tbe  brigand- 
like  ordera  of  the  Directory,  ha  does  not  appear  to 
have  appropriated  a  sin^de  penny  to  himsell  It 
as  power,  not  gold,  that  ne  cared  for.' 
In  Deoamtier  17f^,  N.  returned  to  Paris,  where 
he  was  received  with  the  utmost  enthusiam. 
At  tbia  time,  there  waa  much  talk, 


:,  Bnd.probably 


If Al>Otiolf  m^APA&fA. 


■ome  VM;n«  demen,  on  the  part  of  the  Direotoiy, 
of  iiiTs£ig  EngWd,  ud  N.  wm  ftppointad  oom- 
mancleT-m-chief  oE  the  invading  BnD7.  It  luM  bean 
thought,  howerer,  thxt  this  was  merelj  a  fetnt  to 
muk  the  real  design  oE  the  Directoiyi  tIz.,  the 
invMion  of  Egypt,  m  perhaps  a  preliminaiy  ttep 
to  the  oonqneat  of  Bntiih  Indi^  Be  that  as  it 
may,  an  eiTvdttion  against  Egypt  waa  leBolved 
on  by  the  Directory  ;  and  on  the  19th  of  May 
1798,  N,  sailed  from  Tonloo,  with  «  fleet  oon- 
taining  30,000  soldiera,  and  a  body  of  Mvans 
to  investigato  the  antiquities  of  the  conntry.  He 
reached  Alexandria  on  the  29th  of  Jmte.  At 
thit  moment,  Francs  was  at  peace  with  Turkey ; 
the  invaaioD  of  E^ypt,  a  Torkieh  dependenoy,  was 
therefore  an  act  ntterly  unjustifiable,  and  reminds 
US  not  of  Europeao  wartarB,  but  Vather  of  the 
irruption  of  a  horde  of  bnrbario  Tartars.  N.  having 
landed  his  troon^  captured  Alexandria,  and  marched 
on  Cairo.  The  Mamelukea  prepared  resistance ;  bnt 
on  the  2lBt  Jaly,at  the  battle  of  the  Pynuaids,  they 
were  oompletefy  defeated,  and  the  French  became, 
in  a  snTface-way,  masters  of  Egypt.  N.  now  entered 
the  capital,  and  immediately  commenced  to  reorgan- 
ise the  civil  and  tailitary  administraldon  of  the 
country — Ear  he  took  a  great,  but  also  an  ostenta- 
tious pleasare  in  this  srat  of  work.  Meanwhile, 
on  the  Sd  of  Ancnst,  Nelson  had  utterly  deitroyed 
the  Treneh  fleet  m  Aboukir  Bay,  and  so  cut  off  N. 
from  communtcatian  with  Europe.  A  month  later, 
the  aultan  declared  war  acainst  him.  Ili*  waa 
fi^owed  by  disturbances  in  Curo,  which  frere 
only  suppreaied  by  horrible  mtmacrei.  It  was 
olmonaur  necessary  that  N.  should  go  somewhere 
ebe.  He  resolved,  to  meet  the  Turkish  forces 
auembling  in  Syria;  and  in  February  1799,  croued 
the  desert  at  the  heikd  of  10.000  men,  itonned  Jaffa 
on  the  7th  March,  after  a  heroio  resiatance  on  the 
part  of  the  Turks ;  marched  northwards  by  the 
coast,  and  reached  Acre  on  the  17th.  Here  his 
career  of  victory  waa  stopped.  All  his  elforts  to 
capture  Acre  were  foiled  tlirou^  the  desperate  and 
obstinate  valour  of  old  Djezzar  Pasha  (q.  v.),  aasisted 
by  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  with  a  small  body  of  English 
sailors  and  marinee.  On  the  21st  of  May,  he  com- 
menced his  retreat  to  Egypt,  leaving  the  wbol« 
country  on  fire  behind  him,  and  re-entered  Cairo  on 
tiio  I4.ih  of  June.  It  waa  diu-ing  his  atnenoe  that  the 
■avans  made  their  valuable  researches  among  the 
monuments  of  Upper  E^rypt.  About  the  middle 
of  July,  the  Sultan  landed  a  force  of  18,000  men  at 
Aboukir.  who  were  attacked  by  N.  on  the  2Sth,and 
routed  with  immense  slaughter.  Bnt  the  position 
of  the  victor  was  far  from  comfortable,  and  he 
therefore  retolved  to  return  to  France — especially 
W  newi  had  come  to  him  of  disasters  in  Italy 
Mid  confuitona  in  Paris.  On  the  23d  of  AuTust, 
he  sailed  from  Alexandria,  leaving  his  amy  behind 
hitn,  imder  tiie  command  of  Kleber ;  and  after 
narrow^  escaping  capture  by  the  F^glish  fleet, 
landed  aearl^jus  on  the  9th  October.  Ue  hastened 
to  Paris,  soon  mastered  the  state  of  affairs,  threw 
tiimyilf  into  the  party  of  Sieyis,  and  overthrew  the 
Directory  (q.  v.)  on  the  fainons  ISth  Brumaire. 
A  new  constitution  waa  drawn  up,  chiefly  by  Sieyes, 
mider  which  N.  became  First  Consul,  with  the 
power  of  appointing  to  all  public  offices,  of  proposing 
all  pnblio  meosorea  in  peace  or  war,  and  the  entire 
oommand  of  iil  admrnistrative  affairs  civil  and 
military.  In  a  word,  he  was  mier  of  France  ;  and 
though  far  from  satisfied  with  the  clumsy  machinery 
of  Sieyts'*  plan,  be  could  afford  to  wait  the  future. 
About  the  end  of  January  1800,  he  took  up  his 
residence  in  the  Tuileries.  The  country  was  tired 
of  revolntiona,  discords,  and  coofosions ;  it  was 
proud  of  it*  yomig  leader,  who  teemed  inajrired  bnt 


not  enalaved  by  the  ideas  of  his  age,  and  who  knew 
how  to  enforce  obedience,  aa  well  as  to  panegyrisa 
principlea.  It  therefore  regarded  his  assumption 
of  Bovereign  power  with  positive  satisfaction.  N, 
displayed  extraoBdinary  vigour  as  an  administrator, 
reomited  the  national  treonuy  hy  VBriooa  sagocions 
expedients,  repealed  the  more  violent  laws  passed 
during  the  Involution,  such  as  puniahmeot  lor 
matt^  of  opinion,  reopened  the  ohurchea,  and 
terminated  by  polic^  tiie  Vendeaa  struKglo-  Bnt 
he  knew  well  that  iusgaoius  was  essential^  militaiy, 
and  that  his  most  darning  and  influential  triumpha 
were  those  won  on  the  oattle-field.  France  was 
still  at  war  with  Austria,  and  he  resolved  to  renew 
the  glories  of  his  first  Italian  campaigns.  Leaving 
Moreau  in  command  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  he 
assembled,  with  wonderful  rapidity  and  secrecy,  an 
army  <rf'  36,000  men  on  the  shores  of  the  Lake 
of  Geneva,  and  on  the  13th  May  (1800),  be^n  his 
magnificent  and  daring  march  across  tha  Alps. 
Almost  before  the  AoitriaD  geneikl,  Idelas,  waa 
aware,  N.  bad  entered  Milan  (2d  June).  Ivelvs 
days  afterwards,  was  fonsht  tha  fiaroely  amteeted 
yet  decisive  battle  of  Marengo,  which  oompeliad 
the  Anatrians  to  resign  Piedmont  with  all  its  for- 
tresses, and  (for  the  second  time)  Lombordy  to  the 
French.  Later  in  the  year,  hostilities  were  reoom- 
menoed;  bnt  the  Anstrians,  beaten  by  Morean  in 
Germany  (at  Hohen  linden,  ko.),  and  by  N.  in  Italy, 
were  at  last  forced  to  make  peace ;  lutd  on  the  9th 
February  1801,  signed  the  beaty  of  Lunfiville, 
which  waa  mainly  based  on  that  <2  Campo-formick 
In  the  couTM  oE  the  same  year,  France  and  England 
also  made  peace,  but  the  trea^  (knoim  aa  that 
of  Amiens)  waa  not  definitivMy  signed  till  the 
27th  of  March  1802.  Not  lea*  miportant  for  the 
consolidatioQ  of  affoiis  in  France  was  the  famoue 
Concordat  (q.  v.)  between  S.  and  Pope  Pina  .VIL, 
also  concluded  in  ISOl.  In  January  1802,  N.  became 
President  of  the  Ciaalpine  Repnblio;  and  on  the 
2d  August  following,  was  deouied  CoDfoI  for  life 
by  a  decree  of  the  French  senate. 

Meanwhile,  N.  was  busy  superintending  the 
drawing  up  of  a  code  of  civil  laws  tot  France.  Ha 
atsembled  the  first  lawyers  in  the  nation,  twder 
the  presidency  of  CambacSrto,  and  freqneD^  took 
part  in  their  deliberations ;  the  results  of  their 
labours  were  the  Code  Ciril  da  Fraofaii,  Code  da 
Proefdure,  Code  Penal,  and  Code  SlnHmttioK 
CrimineiU,  besides  commeroial  and  military  codes, 
all  of  which  often  go  loosely  under  the  name  of 
the  Cod«  NapoUon.  The  fiist  of  these  is  an  admir- 
able prodactioo,  and  is  in  force  to  the  present  day. 
Considerable  attention  was  besides  paid  to  sodi 
branches  of  education  aa  were  likely  to  promote 
efSoiency  in  the  public  service.  Mathematics,  phy- 
siiml  eoience  in  all  its  departments,  mgiueering,  Ac., 
were  as  vigorously  encouraged  as  philosophy,  ethieSi 
and  politiral  specnlation  wme  disoooraged.  But  the 
best  proof  that  N.  wanted  not  an  educated  peopla, 
but  only  active  and  expert  tools  and  agents,  was 
the  indinerenoo  that  he  manifested  to  pnmary  and 
elementary  education.  In  a  population  of  32,000,000^ 
the  onmliar  of  pupils  under  ten  years  is  given  by 
Fonrcroy  at  only  75,000 !  The  internal  govemmeat 
was  the  acme  of  despotic  centralisation.  N.  ap- 
pointed all  prefects  of  dopartments,  and  all  mayors 
of  cities,  BO  that  not  a  vestipe  of  ptovinciof  or 
municipal  freedom  remained.  He  ruled  Franoe  aa 
he  ruled  the  army  of  France,  and  was  already  an 
emperor  in  almost  everything  but  the  name. 

Peace  between  France  and  England  did  not  last 
long.  N.'s  policy  in  Italy  irritated  tha  Bcitidl 
government,  and  as  remonstrances  were  inafiectnal, 
war  was  declared  against  France,  ISth  Ma^  I803L 
The  English  fleet  soonred  the  eeM,  panlyimg  tite 


TT^ 


HAMxiolt  ias  APAS.'tt 


oammerce  oi  France ;  while  N.  tbrekteaed  to  iuTBde 
England,  and  mssembled  »  liu^  army  at  Boulogne. 
So  utterly  did  he  miecauceive  the  character  and 
conditioa  of  Engliahmen,  that  he  felt  sure  (by 
his  own  Btatement)  he  should  be  welcomed  aa  a 
liberator  by  the  people!  While  these  warlike 
preparatioiia  were  going  on,  occurred  the  dangerous 
conspiracy  of  the  Chooan  chief,  Oeorge  Codoadal 
{q.  T,),  Piohegm  {q.  V,),  Moreau  (q.  t,),  and  othere. 
Ita  discovery  (February  1804)  alarmed  N.  exoeagiTcly, 
and  led  to  what  haa  been  considered  one  of  the 
blackest  deeds  in  his  career — the  murder  of  the  Duke 
d'EDghien  (q.  v.)  on  the  20th  ot  March  following. 
He  now  appears  to  have  felt  it  neceasary  to  assu: 
tlie  title  oi  empeiOF.  France,  be  alleged,  wanted 
anpire  a«  a  symbol  of  permanent  secniity.  j 
appeal  was  made  to  the  nation.  Upwards  of  3,000,000 
Totei  were  given  in  favour  oE  the  proposed  change 
in  the  fonn  of  govermnent;  only  3000  or  4000 
against  it.  Bat  where  there  is  no  municipal  freedom, 
one  does  not  know  what  value  to  pnt  on  votffl.  On 
the  18th  May,  N.  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  at 
St  Cloud,  and  was  crowned  by,  or  rather  in  the 
presence  of,  the  pope  (for  N.  mdely  crowned '.  ' 
on  the  2d  December.  In  the  following 
(May  26),  he  was  also  crowned  king  of  Italy,  in  the 
sreat  cathedral  of  Milan ;  and  Eu^ne  Beauhamais, 
his  step-son,  was  appointed  to  the  office  of  Viceroy. 
This  policy  of  aggrandisement,  whieh  set  at  nangU 
the  conditions  of  the  treaty  of  Lonfiville,  alarmed 
the  other  nations  of  Europe,  especially  Austria,  who 
saw  her  Italian  possessions  serioosIyuiTeatened.  In 
1805,  a  coalition  was  formed  between  Ensland, 
Btuma,  Anstria,  and  Sweden,  mainly  throngn  the 
persereriug  policy  of  the  first  of  ^hese  countries ; 
and  war  agam  broke  out  in  the  month  of  September. 
N.  acted  with  amazing  celerity.  Coucentratitie 
his  widely-scattered  forces  at  Miunz,  he  marched 
at  <moa  across  Bavaria,  compelled  General  Mack 
to  capitnlata  at  Ulm  with  20,000  men  (17tb 
Octob^) ;  aoA  on  the  13th  of  November  entered 
the  capital  of  Austria.  France  was  electrified ; 
the  rest  of  Europe  was  tbunder-atmck.  But  a 
mote  glorious  trimnph  was  yet  to  come.  The 
army  was  olreody  in  Moravia,  under  the 
te  command  o£  the  Emperor  Aleiaader  L, 
there  being  joined  by  the  scattered  Austrian 
troops;  N.  did  not  lose  a  moment.  Hurrying  north, 
he  ^VB  battle  to  the  allies  at  At^stcrhtz,  on  the 
2d  M  December.  The  contest  was  tremendous ;  bat 
the  victory  was  complete.     N.'s  opponent* 


itterly  crnshed ;  and  next  day  the  Austrian 
emperor  sought  an  interview,  and  sued  for  peace. 
A  treaty  was  signed  at  Preaburg  on  the  26th 
December,  by  which  Aoatria  ceded  to  France  all  her 
Italian  and  Adriatio  provinces ;  other  changes 
effected  by  it  were,  the  disaoluiion  of  the  old  German 
empire,  and  the  formation  of  the  Coi\federa&on  ^  On 
JiAins  (q.  v.). 

In  February  1806,  a  French  army  conquered 
Naples,  and  the  crown  vas  confetred  by  N.  on  his 
brother  Joseph  ;  in  the  following  Jane,  another 
brother,  Louis,  was  made  king  of  Holland.  Prussia, 
now,  when  it  was  too  late,  assumed  a  hostile  atti- 
tude. She  had  horn;  off  partly  through  fear  and 
partly  through  selSsbneaa,  from  the  great  anti- 
Fieocb  coaUtion  of  the  previous  year,  and  now,  when 
aJMnmitaoces  were  almost  hopelessly  adverse,  she 
madly  nulMd  agaiiut  her  colossal  enemy.  Austria, 
wiOi  more  magnanimity  than  prudence,  lent  her 
help,  but  the  star  of  N.  was  still  in  the 


entered  Berlin,  whence  he  issued  (November  21) 
his  celebtated  '  Decrees '  against  British  commerce, 
hoping  to  niin  her  by  shutting  ont  her  ships  from 


every  harbour  in  Europe.  Hie  expectationi^  it  need 
hardly  be  said,  were  disappointed.  His  policy  well- 
nigh  ruined  the  commerce  of  hia  own  and  other 
countries,  but  it  only  increased  the  prosperity  (rf 
England-  Her  fleets  and  cmisera  swept  the  seas ; 
nothiuK  oould  be  got  from  the  oolonies  save  throngh 
her,  and  the  merchants  of  the  continent  wera  otdjged 
— in  order  to  supply  thoir  onstomers  aa  before — to 
let  her  carry  on  a  vast  contraband  traffic  Sea 
Oederb  dt  Coon  on. 

After  the  capture  of  Berlin,  N.  proceeded  north- 
wards to  encounter  the  Bussians,  who  were  advancing 
to  the  help  of  Prussia.  On  his  way,  he  snmmoned 
Poland  to  lise,  bnt  only  with  partial  success. 
At  Pultusk  (December  28,  1806),  and  at  Eylao 
(Febmary  8,  1807),  the  French  were  beaten  and 
driven  bock  on  the  line  of  the  Viatnia ;  but  after 
some  months,  he  received  heavy  reinforoements,  and 
on  the  13th  of  June,  fonsht  and  won  the  groat 
battle  of  Friedland,  which  led  to  the  trea^  of 
Tilsit,  signed  on  the  7th  of  July.  By  a  aecret 
article  of  this  treaty,  Russia  promised  to  close  bw 
ports  to  British  veasels.  It  is  important  to  observB 
here,  that,  aa  the  military  triumplu  of  N.  ine 
the  civil  and  puUticol  liberties  of  his  subjects 


only  poUhcal  body  in  France  that  preserved  the 
semblance  of  uatitnial  telf-govemmenb  In  August, 
N.  created  his  brother  Jerome  sovereign  of  West- 

CUio — having  patched  up  a  kingdom  for  him  in 
usnal  nnsornpalons  way — and  soon  after,  entered 
on  a  war  with  Pwtngal— the  beginning  of  tiie  great 
Peninsular  War.  The  occasion  of  the  war  was  the 
refusal  of  the  Prince-regent  of  PortUKal  to  cany  out 
the  Berlin  decree  in  regard  to  British  shipiong.  In 
March  1803,  occurred  that  ertraordinoiy  instance 
of  trepanning  at  Bayonne,  by  which  the  whole 
lyol  family  of  Spain  fell  into  the  hands  of  N. ;  and 
I  the  following  July,  bis  '  dearly  beloved  Imtther ' 
Joseph  was  ordered  to  excluuige  the  throne  of 
Naples  for  the  ■  crowns  of  Spain  and  the  Indies' 
His  sacceasor  was  the  '  handsome  swordsman '  (£eini 
ntfrmcr],  Joachim  Murat.  Spain  rose  in  insurrec- 
tion, and  an  English  force,  under  Sir  John  Moore, 
waa  despatched  to  its  assistance.  N.  invaded  the 
conntiT  about  the  close  of  October,  defeated  the 
Spanish  forces,  and  captured  Madrid  (4tb  December). 
Bat  his  preaence  was  urgenUy  needed  elsewhere, 
and  he  was  forced  to  let  Soult  and  other  generals 
conduct  the  war  in  the  Peninsula.  Austria,  uain 
'  ritated  and  alarmed  at  his  ugressive  poficy, 
specially  in  Italy  (where  he  hod  seized  Tuscany 
and  the  States  of  the  Church),  once  moro  prepared 
for  war,  which  broke  ont  in  the  spring  of  1809. 
Her  army  of  Germany,  commanded  by  the  Archduke 
Charles,  waa  in  splendid  condition  ;  but  still  fortune 
was  adverse.  NT  hurried  into  Bavaria,  rooted  the 
Archdnke  at  EckmOhl  (22d  April),  compelled 
him  to  retreat  into  Bohemia;  and  on  the  12th 
of  May,  entered  Vienna  for  the  second  time.  Bnt 
the  struggle  was  not  over.  The  Archduke  rallied 
his  scattered  foroeo,  worsted  N.  in  the  terrible 
conflicts  of  Aspem  and  Essling  (Slst  and  22d  May), 
and  drove  him  to  take  refuge  for  a  time  on  an  island 
of  the  Danube.  The  battle  of  Wagmm  (6th  July), 
however,  once  more  prostrated,  or  at  least  intimi- 
dated Austria ;  and  on  the  14th  of  October,  she 
signed  the  peace  of  SchUnbronn. 

If.  appears  to  have  now  come  to  the  eonclnslon, 
that  he  could  only  put  a  stop  to  the  hostile  machi- 
natioas  of  the  old  legitimate  dynasties  by  inter- 
marrying with  some  one  of  them.  Besides,  his  wife 
Josephine  had  no  children— and  be  was  ambitions 
of  pcrjietuating  hia  power  in  his  family.  With  that 
colloaancas  to  everything  except  his  own  intersstfc 

^iiJEgL' 


NAtH)LfiON  BONAPAKTE. 


wltioh  U  »  promuient  feature  of  Ui  characUr, 
he  immedi&tely  proceeded  to  divorce  her.  The  act 
of  diTOTcement  was  aolemnl;  KgUtered  on  the  16tb 
Deoember.  Leo  than  three  months  afterwarda,  he 
Diarried  Maria  Louua,  Arohdiioheu  of  Austria. 
He  WM  now  at  the  senith  of  his  power,  and  to, 
aooordinE  to  the  old  Greek  belief,  NetaeBia  was  on 
bia  back.  What  cansed  his  ruin  was  really  that 
ontr^  on  dvilisatioa— the  Berlin  Decrees.  Baseia 
fonna  it  impcssible  to  cany  it  out,  without  perma- 
nent injmy  to  ber  great  landowDera ;  Sweden  and 
other  countries  were  in  a  similar  predicament 
This  led  to  evMions  of  the  decree,  and  these,  a^uin, 
inToIied  Russia  particularly  in  farther  oomplioations, 
until  finaUy,  in  May  1812,  N.  declared  war  against 
bar ;  Mid  iu  spite  of  the  advice  of  his  most  pmdent 
ooniueUoit,  icaolved  to  invade  the  country.  Every 
on*  knows  tiie  dreadful  history  of  the  Eoasian  cam- 
paign. N.,  wringing  contingents  from  all  his  allies 
— Omibmu,  Anxtriaus,  Itahans,  Poles,  and  Swiss— 
eonoentnted  between  the  Viitnla  and  the  Niemen 
•a  sfrny  of  half  a  million  of  men.  The  vast  horde 
croBad  the  latter  river  (24th  and  25th  June)  in  three 
divisioBS,  cuibued  Witna  (2Sth  June),  and  ravaged 
lithnania.  The  Buseian  generals  retreated  before 
Ifae  invading  boat,  deliberately  wasting  the  country, 
and  canyins  off  the  supplies,  but  avoiding,  as  far  as 
possible,  all  engagements—tJieir  design  being  to 
sononnd  N.  in  the  heart  of  the  country,  and  by  the 
help  of  famine  and  the  rigonre  of  a  nottheni  winter, 
to  annihilate  l^i*"  in  his  hour  of  weaknecs.  N.  fol- 
lowed np  the  retreating  foa  witii  ret^ess  rcaolutiou. 


—in  lithnania  alone,  100,000  dropped  off  (dead,  eick, 
m  cwtured  by  the  swarms  of  Cossacks  that  hung 
npon  nis  flanks) — ore  too  familiar  to  lequire  descrip- 
tion. When  he  reached  Smolensk  (iGth  August), 
tlw  Bassians  had  just  left  it— on  fire  1  Three  weeks 
en-  io  later,  be  mode  np  on  the  enemy  at  Borodino, 
where  an  obstinate  and  bloody  battle  was  fonght 
(7th  September).  The  French  remained  in  possession 
■ri  the  held,  bat  of  nothing  else.  A  week  after,  K. 
entered  Moscow,  hoping  to  find  rest  for  a  time  in 
the  ancient  niebx>polis  of  the  country.  But  the  city 
was  deserted  by  its  inhabitants ;  snd  on  the  16th,  a 
fire  broke  oat,  which  raged  till  the  19th,  and  left 
Unaeow  %  heap  of  ruins.  After  five  weeks'  stay,  N. 
was  obliged  to  eommeuce  his  retreat  (19th  October). 
His  army  was  reduced  to  120,000  men.  The  winter 
set  in  much  earlier  than  usual,  and  he  had  to  return 
thton^h  the  very  difltricts  which  hod  been  woatcd 
on  his  advance.  Wbcn  be  left  Smolensk  (14th 
November),  he  had  only  40.000  Gcbting-men  ;  when 
lie  crossed  the  Beresioa  (2<!th  and  2T£  November), 
he  had  not  more  than  25,000.  With  the  cxcose— 
which  was  in  itself  no  doubt  trno— that  bis  presence 
was  urgently  needed  in  France,  he  now  abandoned 
the  miserable  remains  of  his  army ;  and,  on  the  6th 
of  December,  leaving  Murat  in  command,  act  out  in 
a  sledge  for  Paris,  where  he  arrived  on  tjie  ISth  of 
the  some  month.  He  instantly  set  about  a  fresh 
conscription;  and  in  the  spring  of  1813,  marebed 
into  Germany  at  the  head  of  3^,000  men ;  but  the 
Bnssion  campaign  h.'ul  broken'  the  spell  of  terror 
which  his  name  had  till  then  exercised.  The  spirit 
of  all  Europe  was  thoroughly  roosed.  A  conviction 
was — somewhat  uncoDBCionaly — seizing  every  mind 
(at  the  close  of  the  campaign  of  1S14,  even  France 
shared  it),  that  the  world  had  hod  '  enough  of  Bona- 
parte '  (aaez  de  Bonaparte).  Prussin,  in  particular, 
was  burning  to  wipe  out  the  disgrace  of  Jeoa,  and 
all  the  bit^  humiliationa  to  which  she  bad  been 
subsequently  subjoctei  The  victories  of  the  British 
in  Spain,  tlie  fame  of  which  was  spreading  all  over 
the  continent,  also  proved   to    her   that    French 


soldiers  wuld  bs  beaten,  not  once  or  twice  only,  bnt 
through  whole  campaigns.  An  alliance  was  formed 
between  the  king  of  Prusaia  and  the  Emperor 
Alexander.  At  first,  Austria  remiuned  neutrd,  but 
afterwards  she  Joined  the  coalition.  N.'s  military 
genius,  it  has  been  often  remarked,  never  shewed 
to  greater  advantage  than  in  this  and  the  next 
campugu,  which  cost  him  his  crown  and  bis  liberty. 
He  was  for  some  months  succesaful  in  winning 
battles— at  LUtzen  (2d  May),  Bautzen  (21st  May), 
and  Dresden  (24th,  25<Ji,  and  27tb  August) ;  bnt 
the  invincible  temiier  of  the  allies,  who  Knew  that 
he  waa  playing  his  lost  card,  made  these  victories 
almost  fruitless.  They  were  convinced  that  one 
^^d  defeat  would  neutralise  all  his  triumphs. 
This  was  inflicted,  after  several  minor  defeats,  at 


justiiied  their  expectations  —  N.  was  bo^cssly 
mined  1  He  commenced  bis  retreat  towards  France, 
followed  by  the  allies.  When  he  recroseed  the 
Ehbe,  he  hod  only  70,000  or  60,000  men  left  out 
of  his  350,000.  All  the  French  garrisons  in  the 
Fmssian  towns  were  compelled  to  sorreDder.  N. 
appeared  at  Paris  9th  November ;  and  though  ^reat 
discontent  prevailed  in  the  country,  and  a  spirit  of 
oppositian  shewed  itself  even  in  the  legislative  body, 
the  scuato  decreed,  at  bis  bidding,  another  cod- 
Ecription  of  300,000  men,  with  which  S.  began,  in 
January  1S14,  to  attempt  to  drive  the  allies  out  of 
France.  The  skill  and  energy  which  he  displayed 
were  extraordinary;  but  they  only  marked  the 
intensity  of  his  deepair.  On  the  30th  of  March,  the 
allied  forces  captured,  after  a  severe  engagement, 
the  forttfioatioQS  of  Paris ;  next  day,  the  !^nperor 
Alexander  and  the  king  of  Prussia  entered  the  citv 
aimd  the  ahoatt  of  the  populace;  on  the  4tb  of  April, 
N.  abdicated  at  Fantomeblean.  He  was  allowed 
to  retain  the  title  of  emperor,  with  the  sovereignty 
of  the  iaknd  of  Elba,  and  an  income  of  6,000,000 
francs,  to  be  jKud  by  the  French  government.  A 
British  ship  conveyed  him  to  Elba,  where  he  arrived 
on  the  4tb  of  May. 

After  a  lapse  of  ten  months,  most  of  which  was 
spent  in  intrigues,  N.  mode  his  escape  from  the 
island,  landed  near  Frejus  on  the  1st  of  Maroh  ISIS, 
and  appealed  again  to  France.  The  army  went  over  to 
him  iu  a  body,  and  several  of  bis  marshals,  but  the 
atajori^  remained  faithful  to  Louis  XVIIX  On 
the  SOtn  of  March,  be  reached  Paris,  reassumed  tlie 
supreme  power,  promised  a  liberal  constitution,  and 
prepared  once  more  to  try  the  fortune  of  battle  with 
the  allies.  At  the  head  of  120,000  men,  he  marehed 
(ISth  June)  towards  Charloroi,  on  the  Flemish  fron- 
tier, where  the  English  and  Prussian  Forces  were 
assembling.  The  Dnke  of  Wellington,  who,  the 
year  before,  bad  completed  the  deliverance  of  Spain, 
was  appointed  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  armies  of  tbe  Netherlands. 
The  campaign  lasted  only  a  few  days.  On  the  16th, 
N.  defeatea  tbe  Prussians,  under  Marshal  BtUeher, 
at  Ligny,  which  compelled  Welbngton  to  fall  back 
on  Waterloo,  where,  on  the  IStli,  w.is  fonght  the 
moHt  memorable  and  decisive  battle  of  modern 
times.  It  resulted  in  the  utter  ami  irretrievaUe 
ruin  of  Napoleon.  The  despot,  who  knew  what 
awaited  hJTii — for  Franco  had  not  recalled  him 
from  Elba ;  bo  came  at  the  desire  of  a  faction, 
whose  interests  were  identical  with  his— returned 
to  Paris.  The  House  of  Bepresentatives  fiercely 
insisted  on  his  abdication.  He  did  so  (22d  Jnne) 
in  favour  of  bis  son,  Napoleon  II.  ;  they  further 
demanded  that  he  (jiould  leave  the  conntcy  for 
ever,  and  he  retired  to  Roobefort,  with  the  design 
of  embarking  for  the  United  States.  On  the  7tli 
July,  the  ames  again  ent^^  Paris,  and  refoscd 


jGoogIc 


NAPOLfiON— NAHCIS3TJ8. 


to  acknoirledge  tlie  acts  of  the  French  prOTiaioiuil 
goTemment.  N.,  who  law  that  ha  coilld  Dot  escape 
either  by  sea  or  Iniid,  Tolantarily  Bnrrendered  (15th 
July)  to  Captain  Maitlaud  of  the  Bdlerophon,  chum- 
ing  the  protectioii  of  British  lawB  I  Itwai,  however, 
reiidved  by  tJie  British  govemment  to  confine  hira 
for  life  on  the  islet  of  St  Helena,  a  lonely  rock  in  the 
Sonlhem  AUantio,  1000  miles  fmm  the  const  of 
Africa.  He  was  conveyed  thither  hy  Admiral  Cock- 
bam,  and  landed  at  St  Helena,  ICUi  October  I8I5. 
The  remainder  of  hialifo  was  politiiaJly  imjgnificnnt. 
HiB  ohronio  qaairola  with  his  KOrernor — 0(  jailer, 
SB  the  French  prefer  it — Sir  Hudson  Lowe ;  his 
conTersations  with  friends  and  visitor*  about  his 
past  oareer;  his  deliberate  att«mpti  to  falsify 
history  in  bis  writingi.  are  familiar  to  every  one. 
After  moro  than  a  vear  of  bad  health,  he  expired, 
£th  May  1S21.  He  was  buried  with  tnilitary 
honours.  In  1840,  his  rranoins  were  removed  to 
Franoe,  and  depositad  in  the  II6ld  da  InvaUda. 

NAPOLEON  II,  BOQ  of  KaiioI<Son   Bonaparte. 
Sea  Reicbe[TAI>T,  Doki  OF,  Vol.  VIII. 

NAPOLfiON   IIL,  nephew  of  Napoldon  Bonv 
porta.    See  Louia  NaroLEON,  VoL  VI. 

NAPOLEON,  or  in  full,  NafoiJoic  Jossph 
CiusLra  Paul  Bonapabt^  is  tits  son  of  Jerome, 
kinK  of  Westphalia,  and  was  bom  at  Trieste,  in 
1822.  When  tho  insurrection  broke  out  b  the 
Bomagna  in  1831,  he  was  staying  in  Borne  with  his 
Krandmothcr,  Madame  Letitia  Booaparte,  but  was 
forced  to  leave  the  city  for  Flotenoe  on  account  of 
his  consinB  (eee  Louis  NapoiJoh]  being  implicated 
in  the  revoluCionary  disturbances.  He  was  ednoated 
at  a  boarding-school  in  Geneva,  and  at  the  Military 
Sohool  of  Ludwigsbnrg,  id  WUrtember^  completing 
his  stndies  in  1340,  after  which  ha  travelled  tor  five 
Tears  in  Germany,  England,  and  Spain.  In  184S, 
he  obtained  permiraioa  to  visit  Paris  under  the  name 
of  the  Comte  de  Montfort ;  but  his  relations  with  the 
dcmocratio  party,  and  his  advanced  politico!  opinions, 
rendered  him  suspected  by  the  government,  who 
ordered  him  to  quit  the  country.  He,  however,  again 
made  his  appearance  on  the  evo  of  the  revolution  of 
February  1848.  After  the  fall  of  loiiU-PhULppa,  he 
ottered  lus  servieea  to  the  provisional  government,  and 
waa  elected  t^  the  Corsioans  a  member  of  the  Coosti' 
tnant  AssemUy,  where  he  voted  with  the  moderate 
r^ublicans.  He  held  for  a  short  time,  in  1849,  the 
office  of  ainistcr-plcnipotenliary  at  Madrid.  After 
the  a»ap  dllal,  he  withdrew  into  private  life ;  bat 
on  tiie  restoration  of  the  Empire  bo  reappeared  to 
share  in  the  honours  that  now  fell  thickly  on  his 
family.  By  a  decree  of  the  senate,  23d  December 
1853,  ha  was  prononnced  a  French  prince,  with  the 
right  to  a  place  in  the  Senata  and  the  Council  of 
State;  at  tna  same  time,  he  receivpd  the  insignia 
of  the  Grand  Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and 
— thoneb  ho  had  not  served — the  rank  of  General 
of  Division.  In  the  Crimean  war,  he  commanded 
a  division  of  infantry-reserves  at  tha  battles  of 
Alma  and  Inkermaon,  but  soon  after  returned  to 
France,  on  the  plea  of  iU-hcalth.  N.  was  President 
of  the  ImperiafCommission  of  tho  Paris  Exhibition 
in  185&  In  1858,  he  was  appointed  head  of  the 
tninistry  for  Algiers  and  the  colonies,  but  held  the 
office  only  for  a  short  time.  During  the  same  year 
he  married  the  Princess  Clotilde,  daughter  of  Victor 
Emmanuel,  and  in  the  Italian  war  of  1859, 
manded  the  Freoch  army  of  reserve  in  the  south 
of  Italy,  but  was  not  eng^ad  in  actual  hostility. 
Id  1801,  he  mode  a  speech  in  tho  senate,  reftccting 
on  the  Oileans  family,  for  which  he  was  challenged 
t^  the  Duo  d'Aninnte.  The  ohallenge  was  not 
sccepted,  much  to  the  disgust  of  the  French 
army.    N.  waa  I'residont  of  the  French  Commission 


at  the  London  Exhibition  of  1862.     In  186!^  he 

resigned  several  public  appointments,  owing  to  a 
reprimand  from  the  emperor  about  a  speech.  After- 
wanla,  however,  he  was  intrusted  with  many  deli- 
cate missious,  and  urged  the  emperor  to  a  uberal 
policy.  In  1876  he  waa  returned  to  the  French 
Assembly  for  Corsica;  but  in  the  electiou  of  1877 
was  rejected.  Tho  death  of  the  Prince  Impariaj 
iu  Zululand  in  1379  gave  N.  and  his  sons  a  more 
prominent  position  in  the  Bonaparte  family.  The 
issuing  by  N.  of  a  proclamation  in  tho  spring  of  1SS3 
led  to  violent  excitement  in  France,  prolonged  dis- 
i  tha  Chamber,  and  a  ministerial  crisis; 
the  prince  was  arrested,  but  soon  set  at  Ubraty. 

If  ARAKA  is  the  hell  of  the  Hindus.  Mann 
(q.  V.)  enumerates  twenty-one  bells  or  divisions  of 
it.,  and  gives  a  general  deacription  of  the  tortures 
which  await  the  impious  there.  The  Pnrin'as,  how- 
ire  mom  systematic  The  Vishn'u-Purftn'a 
twenty-eight  such  hells.  Thus,  a  man  who 
bears  false  witneaa  is  condemned  to  tho  hell  Saitrava 
(L  e..  Fearful) ;  the  murderer  of  a  Biibmon,  stealer 
of  gold,  or  drinker  of  wine,  goes  to  the  hell  fi'^iara 
(i.e..  Swine),  Jta  Besides,  we  are  tdid  of  'hundreds 
and  thousands  of  otheiB.' 

NASBONNE,  a  town  in  the  sonth  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Aude,  C5  miles  south-west  of 
Montpellier,  on  s  branch  (La  Kobine)  of  the  Canal 
du  MidL  It  is  the  NaHio  JlfartivM  of  the  Homons ; 
but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  well  known 
to  the  Greeks  500  ycora  before  the  Christian  em. 
It  was  colonisod  by  the  Romans  118  B.  c,  and  prob- 
ably got  the  designation  Martins  from  Q.  Mui^ua 
lex,  one  of  the  consuls  at  the  time.  Situated  only 
ibout  3  miles  from  tho  sea,  on  the  direct  road  into 
ipoin  and  into  the  basin  of  the  Garonne,  N.  was  in 
early  times  a  place  of  great  commercial  prosperity. 
It  was  the  second  settlement  founded  in  South  Gallia 
by  the  Romans,  and  was  considered  by  them  an 
important  acquisition,  both  for  its  strangUi  and  as 
the  key  to  the  road  into  Spain.  Under  Tiberiui^  it 
flonrished  greatly;  the  arts  and  sciences  being 
cultivated  with  success,  and  ita  scbools  rivalling 
for  a  long  time  those  (^  Roma  About  309  A-lt,, 
it  became  the  capital  ol  Gallia  Narbonensia,  and 
contained  among  other  building  a  capitol,  theatre, 
forum,  aqueducts,  triumphal  arches,  &o.  It  was 
taken  in  719  by  the  Saracens,  who  planted  here  a 
Moslem  colony,  and  d(«troyed  tho  churches.  In 
859,  it  fell  to  IJie  arms  of  uie  Northmen.  Daring 
the  nth  and  12th  centuries,  it  was  a  iloorisbing 
manufacturing  city,  hut  subsequently  it  fell  into 
comparative  decay,  and  is  now  enbrely  dcsUtute 
of  any  monument  of  its  former  splendour.  A 
considerable  number  of  architectural  &a^enta — ss 
capitals,  morUo  slabs  with  inscriptions,  friezes,  &a. 
-_hava  been  fonnd,  and  have  betm  grouped  into  a 
collection  of  antiquities. 

The  present  verydirty  town  contains  one  imposing 
building,  the  Cathedral  of  St  Just,  founded  in  1271, 
but  stiu  unfinished.  The  honey  of  N.  is  tba  best 
in  France,  both  for  colour  and  flavour.  Manu- 
factures are  carried  on  to  some  extent.  Pop.  (1876) 
18,323;  (1881)25,633. 

NARCI'SSUS,  according  to  a  Greek  fable,  was 
the  son  of  tha  river  god  Cephissns  and  of  the  njrmph 
Liriopo  or  lirioasa  of  Theapiie,  in  Btsotio.  He  was 
a  youth  of  extraordinary  beauty,  of  which  ho  was 
excessively  vun ;  and  for  this  he  was  punished  by 
Nemesis,  by  being  made  to  fall  in  love  with  himself 
on  soeina  the  reflection  of  his  own  face  in  a  fountain. 
He  died  of  this  love-siakness ;  and  on  the  place 
where  he  died,  sprung  up  the  flower  which  beaia 
his  name.  The  storr  of  S.,  finely  narrated  by  Ovid, 
is  of  comporativdy  lata  origin.  ,  .  , 


NABdSanS-NABDOO. 


NABOISSirS,  •  geniu  of  pkntg  of  the  natoral 
oidBF  AmaryllidetE,  having  a  perianth  of  ux  equal 
petal'like  K^entB,  and  a  bcll-ahaped  oarona  of 
variotis  magnitude.  The  species  are  natives  of  the 
aouUt  of  Eorope,  the  north  of  Africa,  and  the 
temperate  parts  of  Aiia.     The  Common  Da^odil 


(q.T.)  is  the  onlj 


a  -which  can  be  regaided  i 
truly  a  native  of  Britaii 
Many  ore  coltivated  i 


fragrant  flower*,  which 
in  gGDeral  appear  early 
in  Sb.0  leaaon.  Some  of 
them  are  known  by  the 
a  of  Daffodil  (q^.) 


I    ■ 


id  Jonquil  (q.  v 


NaMlHU  Foeticas. 


rectricted  to  those  which 
have  flat — not  rush-like 
— leaves,  and  a  short 
not  bell-shaped  corona. 
Of  these,  one  of  the  be«t 
known  is  the  Poet's  N. 
(N.  poetieia),  with  gener- 
ally one-flowered  scape, 
the  flower  white  ijid 
fragrant,  the  corona  with 
a  deeply-coloured  border ; 
others,  with  one  or  two 
flowers  on  the  scape, 
are  in  cammoQ  cnltiva- 
tioB. — The  PoLTANTHns 
Nascissus  (if.  Tazetta) 
has  a  nnmber  of  flowers 
on  the  scape.  It  grows 
wild  in  stony  placea  near  the  Mediterranean  sad 
ewtwai^  to  China.  Many  varieties  of  it  are  in 
cultivation.  It  is  not  onlj  grown  in  gardens  and 
Bi«en-boa*es,  bnt  in  water-glasses,  like  t£e  hyacinth. 
It  is  very  oommon  in  ganlens  in  India,  where  it 
is  highly  eateemed  sa  a  flower.    The  narcissi  in 

Cerel  are  propagated  either  b^  seed,  or  by  oSoet 
bs.  They  anooeed  best  in  a  rich  light  soil 
ITABCOTIOS  (Gr.  narla,  stupor)  are  remedies 
irtiich,  in  moderate  done,  leaaen  the  action  of  the 
nervons  sy;stem.  Their  full  operation  is  sleep  or 
coma.  Opiom  is  the  type  from  which  moat  descrip- 
tions of  this  class  of  medicine*  have  been  drawn ; 
but  althou^  most  narcotic*  more  or  lee*  reeemble 
i^nm  in  their  action,  almost  ererv  one  presents 
some  peooliarity  in  the  way  in  which  it  affects 
the  system.  These  mcdiciaea  are  primarily  stima- 
lating,  especially  when  given  in  sniall  or  moderate 
dosee;  but  this  stage  of  their  action  is  compara- 
tively short  i  and  when  Uie  dose  is  large,  the 
aEcitoment  is  scarcely  perceptible  Their  power  of 
induoing  Bleep  has  procured  for  them  the  name* 
of  Hypnotic*  and  Soporifics ;  while  many  of  them 
are  termed  Anodynes,  from  their  possessing  the 
OToperty  of  alleviating  pain.  Next  to  opium. 
Henbane,  Indian  Hemp,  and  Aconite  may  be 
regarded  as  the  most  important  narcotics.  It 
has  been  already  mentioned  that  there  are  differ- 
ence* in  the  mode  of  operation  of  the  different 
member*  of  this  class.  '  Some  dilate,  while  others 
contract  the  pupil ;  some  nppeartoconcentrate  their 
sedative  action  more  particularly  upon  the  functions 
of  the  encephalon,  others  upon  uie  oontractile  power 
of  the  aUmentary  and  bronchial  tubes,  while  a  strict 
distinction  is  t«  be  drawn  between  those  which 
occasion  constipation  and  those  which  do  not ;  all 
these  things  being  of  great  practical  importance.' — 
Ballard  a^  Garrcrd's  ^emtatt  qf  Materia  Medico, 
p.  13. 
Narootics  are  nsoally  administsnd  either  with 


the  view  of  inducing  sleep  or  «f  alleviating 
spasm.    Aj,  however,  their  action  is  moch  e 


by  a  variety  of  cinminstancer — such  as  age,  idioqm- 


only  under  competent  advioe.  The  v 
mediciaeB  for  clmdren  which  are  known  as  CaTmiaa- 
Uvtt,  Soothing  Sffnipa,  Ac,  contain  some  iana  at 
opium,  and  are  a  fertile  cause  ol  the  great  mortally 
that  occurs  in  early  life,  especially  among  tiie  poorer 

It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  add,  that  all  Iba 
narcotics  when  taken  in  excess  are  poiscoiODa. 

NA-RCOTINB  (C^fH-NOu  +  2Aq)  is  one  of  tiw 
or^utic  haaea  or  alkSoida  occnrring  in  cfdum,  in 
which  it  nsoally  exists  in  the  proportion  of  6  or  8 
per  oemt.  It  is  nearly  insoluble  in  water,  bat 
oinolve*  readily  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  chlorofonn. 
Its  etheresl  solntion,  when  submitted  to  spontaneooa 
evaporation,  yields  it  oystsUised  in  coloniie*B 
acicular  gronp*  or  in  rhcmbio  prisms.  A  mixtnre  of 
concentrated  solphuric  and  mtric  acids  produces  * 
blood-red  colour  with  narcotine  and  its  componnds. 


3  possesses  very  slight  slkaline  properties  j 
salts  do  not  readily  ctyetallisB,  and  are  even 
•a  bitter  tiian  those  of  morphia,  although  the 
enhstance  itself  is  almost  tasteless-  When  firct 
discova«d  {in  1803],  it  waa  suppoaed  to  be  tite 
stimulant  principle  of  opinm ;  bnt  in  really  it 
poesessee  very  little  activity.  Jt  has  been  preacnbed 
m  gradually  uoreased  dooes  up  to  a  scrupis,  without 
ibe  least  injury.  Its  solphate  has  been  used  ia 
India  as  a  substitute  for  quinine ;  and  nearly  200 
csBBs  of  intermittent  and  remittent  fevers,  treated 
by  it  witii  sncoess,  have  been  published  by  Dr 


NAED  AKD  NABDO'STACHTS.    See  Sfio. 

NABDOO  {ifarsitta  quadrUida),  a  plant  of  tha 
acotyledonons  natural  order  MaraUeacece  (q.  v.),  the 
only  plant  of  that  order  which  is  used  in  any  way 
by  num.  It  has  but  recentiy  become  known  to 
botanista-     It  is  found   in  Australia,  and  aObrds 

iportant  supplies  of  food  to  the  natives  of  some 


Nordoo  [MartiUa  qaadrifida). 


dover-liko   foliage,  the  leavis  conmsting  of  three 
leaflets  at  the  top  of  a  stalk  some  inche*  in  length. 

..GooqTc 


NABOU&-NABTA. 


Wben  the  watar  driea  up,  the  mtuuiia  of  the  pbutts 
MO  often  coTered  ^tii  flried  mud.  It  i>  then  Qia,t 
the  spore-CMet  nre  gathered  for  food.  Tbej  ue 
oval,  fl&ttened,  about  on  eighth  of  on  inch  in  length, 
hard  and  homy,  and  requiring  oonBiderabla  force  to 
pound  them  when  dry,  bat  becoming  soft  and 
mDcihwnooB  when  moistened.      The    epore-cases. 


. dry.    

when  moistened, 
poond^  with  their  content^  an 
like  floor. 


made  into  cakei 


Naidiu  Striota. 

paleie,  the  enter  ending  in  a  long  point  ilT.  itrkta 
IS  one  of  the  most  common  i^  British  grasses, 
growing  in  dry  elevated  situations,  and  veiy  char- 
acteiistio  of  them.  It  ^dwh  in  tufts,  and  u  often 
called  Mat-oiuss.  It  is  perennial,  porplish,  short, 
rigid,  and  very  worthleas,  as  ahnost  no  animal  but 
tiie  goat  will  eat  it. 

NA'RBW,  a  river  of  West  Rnssia,  ao  afBuent  of 
the  Bug,  risM  in  thd  government  of  Qrodno,  and 
flowa  w€et40iith-west  to  the  main  stream,  which 
it  join*  at  Sierook,  after  a  ooune  of  294  miles.  The 
watera  of  the  N.  are  about  as  erest  in  volume  oa 
those  of  the  Bug.  It  ia  navigable  to  Tykoczin,  150 
miles  from  its  mouth.  I 

NA'RO,  a  town  of  Sioily,  in  the  province  of 
Gireenti,  and  14  miles  east  of  tiie  town  of  that  name. 
It'  has  1(\253  iuhabitoDts,  who  trade  in  oil,  wine, 
and  sulphur.  Numerous  tombs,  medals,  and  other 
antiquities  have  been  found  heie. 

NAItSES,  a  celebrated  statesman  and  general, 
and  almost  the  last  stay  of  the  old  Bomaa  empire ' 
in  Italy,  was  bom  towards  tiie  lost  quarter  of  the 
Bth  century.  The  place  of  his  birth  is  uncertain. 
His  parentage  was  obscure,  and  he  was  probnbly 
sold  as  a  slave  in  childhood,  hrivini;,  according  to 
the  barbarons  usage  of  the  period,  been  previously 
emasculated.  From  some  meoial  office  in  the  imperial 
household  at  Constantinople,  he  rose  by  ancceaaive 
steps  to  the  post  of  eviiculariai,  or  private  chamber- 
lain of  the  EmpcTor  Justinian,  and  ultimatoly  to 
that  of  kcc]>er  of  the  privy  purae.  In  the  difhcult 
act  of  courtiership,  N.  long  miuntaincd  a  pre- 
ttninence.    More  remarkable,  however,  considering 


hia  condition,  wai  the  dirtinction  which  he  attained 
in  military  affiurs.  In  538,  he  was  sent  to  Italy  in 
command  of  a  body  of  boopa,  professedly  to  act 
in  ooncort  with  BeliBarini  (q.  v.)  ;  but  in  reality, 
it  is  conjectured,  with  a  secret  commission  to 
observe  and  to  control  that  general.  After  some 
successes,  N.,  having  disputed  with  Belisuins, 
assumed  an  independent  anUiority ;  but  his  oeparate 
oommand  was  unfortunate,  and  he  was  recalled  to 
Constantanople  in  639.  After  some  years,  however, 
Belisarius  waa  recalled,  and  N.  was  appointed  to 
the  chief  conmumd  in  Italy.  His  conduct  of  that 
expedition  extorted  the  admiration  even  of  his 
enamiea.  Not  having  the  command  of  a  sufScient 
tramber  of  tnmsporta,  he  marched  his  anny_  along 
the  whole  circuit  of  the  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  and 
while  the  enemy's  fleet  were  still  in  poasesaion  of 
tlie  sea,  was  enabled  to  encounter  them  in  the  plant 
of  Senta^o,  near  Tagina,  where,  after  a  desperate 
engagement,  the  Gotha  were  totally  defeateo,  and 
their  king,  Totila,  sbin.  N.  took  poesession  of 
Bome,  and  after  a  series  of  successes  both  in 
Southern  and  Northern  Italy,  completely  extin- 
guished the  Oothio  power  in  that  peninsula. 
Justinian  appointed  Ti.  exarch  of  Italy  in  E51 
He  fixed  his  court  at  Bavenna,  oud  contmued,  till 
the  death  of  Justinian,  to  administer  the  aSain  ot 
Italy  with  a  vigour  and  ability  which  did  much 
to  stay  the  progress  of  that  decay  which  had  long 
infected  all  its  social,  political,  and  militaiy  insti- 
tutions.  The  only  blot  on  the  character  of  hii 
administration  is  the  avarice  with  which  he  is 
charged  by  his  oonteiupomrica.  His  exactions 
pressed  heavily  on  the  exhausted  resources  of  the 
population;  though  their  severity  may  be  in  some 
degree  palliated  by  the  splendour  and  utility  of  the 
pnbUo  works  on  which  he  partly  expended  the 
public  ttsources.  On  the  death  of  Justinian,  tiia 
ascendency  came  to  an  end.  The  Ronians,  on 
the  accession  of  Justin,  compluned  to  him  of  the 
exactions  of  K.,  aad  that  emperor  deprived  him, 
in  560,  of  his  office  ;  a  proceeding;  to  which  a  special 
indignity  was  imparted  by  an  insulting  message  from 
the  empress,  that  it  was  time  for  him  to  '  leave  arms 
to  men,  and  to  spin  wool  among  the  women  of  the 
palace.'  To  this  bitter  taunt  (iiccording  to  Panlus 
Dioconus,  Dt  Out.  Long.  iL  6),  N.  reiJied  that  he 
would  'spia  for  her  a  thread  which  ehe  would  find 
it  hard  to  unravd ; '  and  he  is  accused  of  secretly 
intriguing  with  Alboin,  king  of  the  Lombards,  to 
incite  a  new  invasion  of  Italy,  at  the  same  time 
submisaively  offering  bis  services  to  tlie  emperor  for 
the  ])urpoae  of  repemng  the  invasion.  This  account, 
however,  seems  uncertun,  and  perhaps  improbable  ; 
and  as  N.  died  at  Roma  in  6GS,  juat  on  the  eve  o[ 
the  Lombard  invasion,  no  light  ia  thrown  npon  this 
story  by  the  actual  events  of  the  war.  His  age  at 
the  time  of  his  death  is  a  subject  of  much  curious 
controversy.  According  to  the  popular  account,  it 
was  no  loss  than  95  years;  bitt  this  is  doubted  by 
most  of  the  hiatarioiis. 

NA'BTHEX,  a  part  of  the  early  Oiristiao 
choichea  separate  from  the  rest  by  a  Ruling  or 
screen,  and  to  which  the  catechomens  and  praii- 
tents  were  admitted. 

NA'RTA,  a  Russian  town  in  the  gov.,  and  95  m. 
W.-S.-W.  of  St  Petersburg,  is  situated  on  the  Nar- 
ova,  10  m.  from  its  mouth  in  the  Gutf  of  Finland. 
It  was  founded  in  1233  by  Waldemar  IL,  king  of 
Denmark,  and  camu  into  the  possession  of  Russia 
in  1704.  The  navigation  of  the  Narova  is  impeded 
by  a  waterfall  near  N.,  14  feet  high,  which  is  taken 
advaotage  of  for  driving  saw-milla  and  other  works. 
At  N.  IS  the  larj^est  cotton-mill  in  the  world, 
employing  4830  hands,  and  producing  610,000  pieces  , 

Z_ -i^ 


NAEVAEZ— NARWHAL. 


of  cloth  per  »""""  The  moriiu;  force  for  tbii  mill 
IB  all  nipplied  by  water.  WooUsd  and  flai  goods 
are  llao  made  here.  Though  belonguie  to  the 
coTBnunsDt  of  8t  Fetenborz,  N.  is  raled  by  the 
bwB  of  tiiefialtic  provinces.  Here,  in  1700,  Charles 
XII.,  irttii  SOOO  men,  defeated  a  Xlnnian  anay  of 
(!0,000  men,  onder  Pater  the  Great.  Fop.  (1S78)  G462. 
NARVAEZ,  DoH  RufOtr  Mama,  Duke  of 
Valencia,  a  Sptmish  general  and  statesman,  was 
bom  at  Loja,  in  Andaluiia,  4th  Augnst  1805,  and 
when  vety  young,  senrcd  in  the  war  of  Liberation 
against  the  French.  He  was  an  officer  in  1820, 
"Men  oonstitutionalgoTernment  was  re-established 
in  Spain,  and  in  1822,  when  a  reactionary  party  of 
the  royal  guard  took  up  arms  to  destroy  the  work 
of  the  revolntioo,  N.  ranged  himself  on  the  ddo  of 
the  liberals,  and  contributed  by  hia  couragB  to  the 
repression  of  the  mutiny.  Shortly  after,  under  the 
command  of  Mina,  he  mode  the  campaign  of 
Cataluna  against  tho  guerillas,  who  were  OBSisted 
by  the  moi^  The  invasion  of  Spain  by  a  French 
army  in  1823  forced  liiTi  to  retire  from  active  life. 
He  withdrew  to  Loja,  and  lived  there  in  obscurity 
until  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VIL  in  1S32.  la 
1834,  as  captain  of  chaseeius,  he  maintained  a  hot 
straggle  a^nst  the  Carlists  of  the  Bosqi 


In  18^6.  he  commanded  a  dirision  QDclcr 
re  of  Ssportoro,  and  in  November  of  that 
Dmplctely  touted  the  Carlist  leader, 
lear  Arcos.  This  was  a  decisive  moment 
lecr.  He  now  became  immensely  popular, 
.  the  highest  offices  of  tho  state,  and  was 
regarded  as  tho  rival  of  Eapartcro.  In  1838,  by 
acta  of  terrible  severity,  he  cleared  the  district  of 
La  Mancha  of  brigaoila,  and  was  appointed  in  ISM 
captain-general  of  Old  Caatilc,  and  generol-iii-chief 
of  tho  army  of  reserve.  When  f^partero  gave 
General  Alaix  a  place  in  the  ministry,  N.  resigned 
bis  command.  He  took  part  in  the  insurrection 
against  £epartero  that  broke  out  at  Seville  in  1S40, 
but  that  bavins  failed,  ho  was  compelled  to  flee  to 
France,  where  be  was  shortly  after  joined  by  Queen 
Christuia  (see  Uaiua  Cubistina),  and  commenced 
those  plots  against  the  government  of  Eepartero 
which,  in  1S43,  eHectcd  its  overthrow.  In  1844,  he 
was  appointed  prcaiJent  of  council,  and  created 
Duke  of  ValencuL  His  ministry  was  thorooghly 
reactionaiy.  He  recalled  MoiiA  Christina,  and 
revised   the   liberal   cousldtntion      '    '" 


....  ...     ngorons 

•oldier-statesmon  repressed  with  an  iron  hand. 
But  his  dictatorial  manners  finally  alienated  even  his 
personal  friends,  and  his  mioisby  was  overthrown 
(10th  February  1846).  After  a  brief  exile  as  special 
ambassador  at  the  French  court,  he  returned  to 
power  in  1847,  but  soon  afterwards  quorreUed  with 
Queen  Christina,  and  found  it  necessary  airain  to 
retire  from  office  in  1851.  In  1858,  on  the  over- 
throw of  O'Donnell's  ministry,  he  again  became 
president  of  council,  and  immediately  commenced  to 
strengthen  tiva  roy^  authority,  and  to  restrict  the 
liberty  of  the  press.  The  intrigues  of  the  court 
compelled  his  resignation  in  1857.  He  returned  to 
power  in  1864,  and  (1865)  was  succeeded  by 
O'Donnell,  with  whom  he  suppressed,  in  1866,  a 
military  revolt  in  Madrid.  He  replaced  O'Donnell  in 
the  same  year,  and,  despite  the  efforts  of  O'Donnell 
and  Prim,  retained  power  till  his  death  in  1868. 

NAUWHAL  (JTonodon  or  NaraluUtu),  a  genus 
of  OetoMO,  of  the  family  Ddphinida,  resembling 
Bduga  (q.  v.]  in  form  anil  iu  the  want  of  a  dorsaf 
fin,  but  remarkably  characterised  by  having  no 
teeth  at  all,  except  two  iu  tho  upper  jaw,  supposed 


NASALIS— NASH. 


nke  of  ita  blubber,  vith  wliicti  tta  whole  bodv 
invested  to  the  thicluiesB  of  nboat  three  tncKi  . 
•iDoiuituig  to  nearly  half  a  ton  in  weight,  and 
yielding  a  largo  proportion  of  aioellent  oiL  The 
tueki  are  also  valoabte,  beiog  of  an  extt«mely  com- 
pact white  substance — denser,  harder,  and  whiter 
than  ivoiy — which  is  used  as  a  substitute  for 
ivOTj.  The  kings  of  Denmark  have  lun^  posaeased 
a  maniificent  throne  of  this  mateiiol,  which  ii  pre- 
serve in  the  Castle  of  Rosenberg.  The  Uesh  of  the 
N.  is  used  by  the  Greenlanders  as  food.  Great 
medicinal  virtues  were  formerly  ascribed  to  the 
tn«bi ;  bnt  were  merely  imaginary. 

NA8AXIS,  or  PROBOSCIS  MONKEY  {Ifasali 
larvatus),  •  monkey  allied  to  the  Doact  or  £enino- 
pirtiCi,  but  distinguuhed  from  all  other  monkeys  by 
an  extreme  elongation  of  nose,  that  or^an  f---- 
uearly  four  inches  in  length  in  the  mature  an 
In  the  young,  the  nose  is  comparatively  undeveloped. 
The  noetrils  are  placed  quite  at  the  extremity  of 
the   noM,  and  are   separated  merely  by   a   tJiin 


Probosms  Monkey  {HaiaJit  tonMuj). 

uitilaKe.  Of  what  use  the  magnitude  of  ita  nose 
is  to  the  animal,  is  unknown.  The  N.  inhabits 
Borneo  and  neighbouring  islands.  It  is  gregariona 
It  is  an  animu  of  about  three  feet  in  height,  if 
placed  erect,  a  position  it  does  not  oftcu  assnme. 
It  can  leap  fifteen  feet  or  more.  Its  fur  is  thick, 
not  long,  Dor  wooUy;  cheatnut  red,  and  in  some 
parts  golden  yellow, 

NA'SCENT  STATE,  in  Chemistry.    When  an 

dement  or  compound  is  liberated  from  some  chemi- 
cal combination  in  which  it  had  previously  existed, 
the  element  or  compound  so  liberated  la  at  the 
moment  when  it  escapes  said  to  be  in  a  nascent 
stato ;  and  it  is  Oien  often  capable  of  exerting  for 
more  powerful  combining  actiou  with  other  bodies 
than  It  can  exhibit  when  brought  in  contact  with 
them  ajter  it  has  been  liberated.  Areenio  and 
hydrogen  will  not  directly  combine  if  brought  in 
contact  with  one  another  under  ordinary  drcam- 
ttanoes,  but  the  application  of  Marsh's  t«st  (see 
Absenic)  depends  Qj>on  the  direct  union  of  the 
nascent  hydrogen  (liberated  by  the  decomposition 
of  the  water)  with  the  srsenio,  giving  rise  to  arseni- 
urettod  hydrogen  gns.  Again,  ii  hy£ated  protoxide 
of  nickel  (KiO.HO)  be  suspended  in  a  solution  of 
caustic  potash  (KO,HO),  it  will  nnderao  no  change 
if  a  current  of  oxygen  gas  be  passea  through  the 
solution ;  but  if  a  current  of  chlorine  be  substituted 
for  the  oxygen,  the  whole  of  the  metollio  protoxide 
will    be   converted   into    the   brown    asequinfide 


2(NiO,HO)  +  K0,HO  +  Q  =  Ni,O^HO  +  KCL 

This  change  arises  from  the  action  of  t^e  chlorine 
upon  the  potash, duringwbicb  chloride  of  potassium 
(ECl)  is  formed,  while  the  nascent  oxygen  which  ia 
liberated  from  the  potash  combines  with  the  oxide 
of  nickel  Again,  cyonogea  (C^)  and  chlorine  do 
not  enter  directly  into  combination,  but  i!  cyanogen 
at  the  instant  uiat  it  is  liberated  from  one  of  ita 
compounils  (as,  for  example,  cyanide  of  mercury) 
comes  in  contact  with  chlorine,  the  two  combine; 
and  many  other  examples  of  similar  octioa  might  be 
adduced. 

KASEBY,  a  parish  and  village  of  England,  in 
the  county  of  Northampton,  12  miles  north  of  the 
town  of  that  name.  Population,  700.  The  battle 
of  N.,  between  Charles  X  and  the  parliamentary 
army  under  PairCaz  and  Cromwell,  took  place  here, 
June  14,  1645.  It  resoltcd  in  the  total  defeat  of 
the  loyalists,  the  king  being  compelled  to  dee, 
after  losing  his  cannon  and  baggage,  and  nearly 
fiOOO  of  his  army  as  prisoners. 

If  ASH,  RicHAKD,  better  known  by  the  name  of 
Btau  Sfaih,  a  fashionable  character  of  the  last 
century,  who  attained  to  a  very  remarkable 
notoriety,  was  the  son  of  a  Welsh  gentleman,  and 
was  bora  at  Swansea,  u  Glamorganshire,  October  IS, 
1674.  After  studying  at  Oxford,  he  held  for  some 
time  a  commission  in  the  army,  and  subsequently 
took  rooms  in  the  Temple,  but  the  dissipations  of 
societ}'  had  more  attraction  for  him  than  the 
pursuits  of  law.  He  became  a  diner-out,  a  fre- 
quenter of  good  society,  and  contrived  to  sujiport 
himself  by  gambling.  But  the  grand  turning-point 
in  his  fortunes  was  his  visit,  in  1704,  to  Bath— then 
a  EavDorite  haunt  of  elegant  invalids,  and  the  scene 

'  the  gayest  intrigues.  N.  nndertook  the  maoage- 
mt  of  the  public  balls,  which  he  conducted  with 
splendour  and  decency  never  before  witnessed. 
this  way  he  came  to  acquire  an  imperial  inSuence 

.  the  fosluonable  socie^  of  the  plaee.  It  a^peara 
that  he  was  also  distmguished  by  a  species  of 
sentimental  benevolence.  He  pl^ed  hard  and 
Bsfully;  yet  if  be  beard  on  inmvidaal  sighing 
id  his  chair:  'Good  Heavens  1  how  ^ppy 
would  that  money  moke  me,'  N.  would  thrust 
his  ovn  winnings  into  his  hands,  with  -theatrical 

Snerosity,  and  exclaim :  '  Go,  and  be  happy.' 
a  own  equipage  at  this  period  oE  his  career  was 
sumptuous.  He  used,  we  are  told,  to  travel  to 
Tunbridge  in  a  post-cbariot  and  six  grays,  with 
outriders,  footmen,  French-horns,  and  eveiy  other 
appendage  of  eipeosive  parade.  He  ia  pnused  for 
the  great  care  which  he  took  of  the  morals  of  the 
yoong  ladies  who  attended  the  Bath  balls,  always 
putting  them  on  their  guard  against  needy  adven- 
tarers— like  himself.  Id  his  old  age,  Beau  N. 
sank  into  poverty,  and  often  felt  the  want  of  that 
charity  which  he  himself  had  never  refused.  He 
died  at  Bath,  February  3,  1761,  at  the  age  of  87. 
NASH,  JoHH,  an  architect,  was  bom  in  London 
1752.  Ha  underwent  the  usual  course  of  train- 
ing for  his  profession,  bnt  soon  entered  into  some 
building  specnlations  which  enabled  him  to  buy  a 
small  property  in  Caermartben.  Here  in  fresh 
speculations  he  lost  much  money;  therefore,  in  1792, 
returned  to  London  and  architecture,  in  which  he 
speedily  roas  to  eminence.  On  the  strength  of 
having  obtained  a  patent  in  1797  for  improvements 
m  the  construction  of  the  arches  and  pier*  ol 
bridges,  b4  WM  in  th«  habit  d  oUiming  a  P^f  - 


m. 


'3V  Ic 


NASHUA—NASSAU. 


part  ol  tho  «i«dit  of  introdndDg  tlw  um  of  eaat- 
iron  guden.  A  luge  part  of  hit  tima  was  oooupied 
in  dedgning  and  constnictillg  Dummoii-liauaes  for 
the  nobility  and  gentry  in  EaigUnd  and  Irelajid, 
but  be  ii  chiefly  celebrated  in  connection  with  the 

Eiat  street  improTementa  in  London.  From 
broary  181B,  whan  he  waa  appointed  'architect, 
▼aloer,  and  i^ent  to  the  BMid  of  Woodi  and 
Fn«at%'  down  tiU  n«ar  Qu  end  of  hi*  prof««nonal 
oarMT,  ha  waa  btuilr  engaged  in  tiie  planning  of 
roatea,  noapine  of  buildinn,  and  flzins  of  aitea. 
Begent  Street,  Haymai^et  nieatre,  Laogham  Place 
Chncch,  and  the  temtOM  in  R^enf  a  Park,  an 
■peciinena  of  hia  deiigna.  The  Pavilion  at  Brighter 
waa  another  of  hia  worka.  He  retdrod  from  hii. 
profeaaion  in  IBSi,  and  died  May  13,  183&  N., 
uotwithatanding  hia  numy  defects,  posaeaied  great 
poirer  of  efleative  gionping,  aa  it  irell  shewn  in 
Ilia  worka.  In  tike  afchitectiire  of  mansioa-hoiuei, 
of 'interion'  waahia/orfe. 


dty  of  Kew  Hamp- 
the  Uerrimaek  and 


NA'SHUA,  , 

ahire,  D.  8.,  at  the  jnnetioii  of  the 
Haihoa  Bivera.  The  falla  of  the  ktter  aSbtd  watcr- 

Cwer  to  aiz  largo  mannfaotimng  oompanioi,  i ' ' ' 
TB    exteniire    ootton-milla,    maohine-thopa, 
It  haa  10  chnrchea,  8  baaka,  2  newspapert.    Pop. 
In  1870,  I0,U8 1  in  1880;  13,3&T. 

NA'SHVILLB,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  capital 
of  Tenneaaee,  U.  8.,  on  the  Cumberland  River, 
300  miles  above  the  Ohio,  and  a  little  north  of 
the  centre  of  the  atate.  The  river  ia  navigable 
1^  ateam-boata  of  ISOO  tooa  Bftf  milea  above 
Hashvilla.  Five  railwaya  connect  it  with  a  vaat 
and  fertile  country.  It  is  a  handaome,  well-built 
dty,  with  a  atate-honfe,  irtiidi  coat  a  million  tt 
doUara;  court-houae,  3  universities,  hospital,  curtom- 
honae,  theatre,  penitentiary,  free  academy,  Pro- 
testant and  Catholic  orphan  aayluma.  Si  ohurchea, 
wiUi  nnmerona  daily,  weekly,  and  monthly  pnblica- 
'■   '  large  commerce,  flonr,  law,  and 


inery,  ic.    1m  valne  of  the  whole- 

■ale  trade  in  1873  waa  Gl,2ei,G70  dollara.  Near 
the  dtf  are  the  Btate  Lunatdo  Aaylnm,  and  the 
'  Hermitage,'  once  the  reeidence  of  Pnmdeat  Jaok- 
•on.  K.  waa  ooeapied  bv  the  Federal  troopa  in 
1862,  and  bet«  the  Fedenda  gained  a  victory.  Pop 
(1870)  20,865  i  <1S80)  43,3Sa 

NA'SSAU,  formerly  a  Qerman  dnchy,  now  Wies- 
baden, a  diatrict  of  the  Pruaaian  province  of  Heaie. 
Naaaau,  in  49°  W—SC  BCf  N.  Iat„  and  7°  3tS—Sr 
45'  E.  longq  ia  boneded  W.  and  3.  by  the  Main  and 


i  territories  ;  and  N.  by  Westphalia.  Area, 
1803  square  milo.  Pop.  (1880)  731,425.  Wiesbaden 
poeseaae*  very  great  physical  advant^es.  In  its 
southern  diitnco,  nearly  the  whole  of  ita  area  ia 
occupied  by  the  Taunns  Mountains,  whose  highest 
point,  the  Great  Feldberg,  attains  an  elevation  of 
aboat  2750  feet  This  range  includes  within  its 
bonodvies  the  fertile  valleys  known  as  the  Rheingan. 
The  Dorthem  part  of  the  district  includes  the  borrea 
hii^klands  of  the  Weaterwald,  whose  most  oonsidw- 
•ble  peak,  the  SalKbor^  Head,  is  nearly  2000  feet 
high.  Baiidea  the  Bhme  and  the  Main,  whioli  are 
tiie  bonkUHT-rivei^  Wiesbaden  ia  travened  from 
east  to  weat  by  the  Lahn,  which  beeomes  navigable 
at  Weilbnrg,  and  is  aagmentad  by  the  oonfluenoe  of 
Dtunerous  other  atreanu,  aa  the  Weil,  ^nba,  Aar,  Dill, 
and  Zlb«i  The  prodnctiveneai  of  the  aoil  it  proved 
by  the  excellent  qualitv  of  the  nomercoa  vegetable 
[oixluctB,  which  molnde  com,  hempy  flax,  tobacco, 
vc^tablca,   and    fniiti^   inaloding   gn^iea,    whidl 


yield  iome  of  the  moat  highly  esteemed  Blu 
winM.  The  hills  are  well  wooded,  and  abound 
game  of  various  kindi,  and  the  riven  yiela  am 
abundance  of  fish  and  cruataoeana.  In  the  more 
moontaiDODt  dittricta,  iron,  lead,  copper,  and  aoma 
silver  are  obtained,  together  with  good  bnihliag. 
ttone,  marbl^  and  coal;  the  chief  minatal  wealui 
ia,  however,  derived  from  the  nimunviu  apriiig^ 
which,  directly  and  Indirectly,  Ixing  the  govemmeiit 
a  olear  annual  gain  of  more  than  100,1X10  gulden. 
The  moat  noted  of  theae  tprings,  of  which  there  ara 
more  than  10^  are  Wiesbaden,  Weilbach,  Laogea* 
Schwalbach,  Schlangeobad,  Ema,  Sellers,  and 
Oailnau,  the  nuqority  of  which  were  the  property  of 
the  duke. 

^eabaden,  whi<di  it  divided  into  12  drolea, 
hat  few  tiiwDa  of  any  commercial  importance,  but  it 
boasts  of  many  fashionable  watering-places,  whii^ 
are  annually  crowded  with  visitors  uiW  every  part 
of  the  world.  Of  these,  the  most  oonsidersble  ar* 
Wieebaden  (q.  v.),  the  capita  of  the  district — popL 
aSSO)  G0,238-S<dtwalbaoh,  Schlangeobad,  FacW' 
gen,  Seltera,  and  G^lnan.  HOchat^  an  active  little 
plaaeontheMain,istheoDlvinannfactiui>)g  town  of 
the  duchy,  but  a  brisk  tnae  is  carried  on  at  many 
small  porta  on  the  Rhine,  Main,  and  I^hn,  from 
whence  the  mineral  waters,  wines,  and  other  natnial 
products  of  the  country  are  exported.  The  einorta 
are  wine — including  some  of  the  choicest  kinds,  aa 
Hochheimer,  Johanniabergerj  BUdetheimer,  Marko- 
bnuuier,AitmaDnBhlluaer — mineral  waters,  com,  iron, 
Tnaoganeaa,  cattle,  ftc  j  while  ttie  imports  embrace 
odlonial  prodnota,  mannfactored  gooda,  aalt,  jewels 

N.  had  a  representative  form  of  govenunent, 
based  oa  tiie  oonititntion  of  1614 ;  and  the  dake, 
who  was  alao  a  Count- Palatine  of  the  Bbine,  Count 
of  Sayn,  EOnigitein,  Eatsenellenbogen,  and  Diet^ 
&C.,  was  asaiBted  in  tiie  govemmeat  bf  a  couucil  of 
state,  presided  over  by  a  prime-minister.  The 
legi^tive  assembly  oonsisted  of  an  upper  chamber, 
compoaed  of  24  repretentativea,  choaen  for  dx  yeai^ 
and  a  tecond  chamber,  ohceen  annually.  Mora  than 
one-third  of  the  population  belonged  to  the  Cstholio 
Church,  which  wai  under  the  ecdesiastical  jnriadio- 
tion  of  the  bishop  of  I^bura.  who  waa  assisted  by 
a  ixMod  <rf  oommisdimert,  focated  at  Eltville,  on 
the  Bhine ;  and  excepting  about  19,000  pcrsous  who 
belonged  to  the  Jewish  and  other  persuasions,  the 
remainder  of  the  peo^e,  including  the  then  reigning 
hous«v  profeaaed  Uie'  evasgelicaP  form  of  Qerman 
Protestantism,  and  were  comprehended  in  one 
episcopal  see  under  the  bishop  of  Wiesbaden. 
Ample  provisions  were  made  in  the  distridi  for  popu< 
lat  education,  in  farthennoe  of  whi^  there  were 
upwards  of  700  elementary  achoola;  with  about 
1000  teacheia,  10  normal  achools,  a  ^ymnasinina 
variooB  training  tbeolegioal,  polytechnio,  military, 
and  other  adiicatiattal  institubonB.  In  accordanoa 
with  a  tnaW  with  Hanover,  GiiUingeD  oonstitutea 
the  univeru^  tor  arta  for  Wieabaden,  which  haa  also 
a  Roman  Catiiolio  tlMol<^pcal  faculty  in  oanianctioD 
with  HcMe-Cassel  at  the  nnivenity  of  Marbura. 
Wieabadeo,  which  ia  the  principal  teat  for  ^ 
national  inttitutiona  of  literature,  science,  and 
beuevolenoe,  haa  a  good  pnblic  lit^iy,  oontaining 
60,000  vohimes,  a  mnseom,  Ac 

ipied,  in  oonjnnction  with  Branswiok,  tiis 
'-  -'--B  in  toe  limited  council  of  the  diet, 
votes  in  t^  plenum,  or  full  oounoO. 
It  fumitlwd  a  contingent  of  4279,  with  a  reserve  of 
1833  men,  to  the  army  of  the  old  confederatian. 

na  reoeiTAB,  aocordine  to  the  budget  of  1866) 
wa«  4,4S1,410  floiins  derived  from  the  crown 
domaina  and  indirect  taxes,  and  317,935  flurina 
fcom  dinot  taxation,  while  the  expenditn 


on,  while  the  expendituie   i 

uiaiii.»,„L.OO,qlC 


NASSAU-NATAL. 


Mtimsted  at  6,804,975  florins.  Tb«  national  debt 
at  the  doie  of  ISM  repreaeated  s  capital  oF  6,038,300 
florini.  The  duke,  nho  wia  in  poaaeoioi]  of  Teiy 
extensive  domains,  ranked  oi  one  of  the  ricbeat 
princes  of  Germany. 

In  tracing  the  history  (rf  If.  to  its  ewliest 
origin,  we  Bad  that  tho  dlatricta  now  linovni  b^ 
that  name  were  anciently  oooupied  by  the  Alemanni, 
and  on  the  lubjugation  of  the  latter  people  by  the 
Franks,  became  incorporated  Siti  with  the  Fnuikish, 
and  next  with  the  Oennon  emjnre.  Among  the 
varions  chiefs  who  raised  themaelvea  to  independent 
power  in  Uiis  portion  o!  the  Frankiah  territories, 
one  of  the  moat  uiQiieatial  was  Otto  of  Laorenbnrg, 
brother  of  King  Oonrad  I,,  who  became  the  founder 
of  two  diEtintit  lines  of  princes.  The  heads  ol  these 
lines  were  Walram  and  Otto,  the  sons  ot  Gonnt 
Henry  I.,  who^  in  1255,  divided  the  land  between 
tbem.  "Walram  IL,  the  elder,  was  the  progenitor  of 
the  hoQW  of  Lanrenburg,  wtuch,  towards  the  close 
of  the  12th  0.,  assumed  ibi  present  name  of  N.  from 
the  name  of  its  chief  stronghold ;  while  Otto,  the 
younger,  by  his  marriage  with  theheiresa  of  Oeldara, 
totlnded  ue  line  of  Nessau-Gelders,  vbose  last 
male  representative  died  in  1423,  but  which  etill 
snrrives  thraagh  a  femalo  branch,  in  the  family 
now  ooonpying  the  throne  of  the  Netherlands.  This 
iimtorbnuv^  of  the  house  of  Nassau,  by  inheritance 
irom  a  collateral  representative,  aoqiured  poaBeasimi, 
in  1544,  of  the  principality  of  Orange ;  and  since 
that  period,  the  repreeeatatiTes  of  the  Otto  line 
have  been  known  as  PHjicea  of  Orange  (q.  v.). 
liie  Walraiu  line,  which  in  1292  gave  an  emperor 
to  Germany,  in  the  person  ot  Adolf  of  N.,  was 
subdivided  by  the  descendanta  of  that  prince  into 
several  branches,  until,  by  the  sncceenve  eltino- 
tion  of  the  other  lines,  the  Nassau-Wetlburg  family, 
which  at  present  reigns  over  the  duchy,  was  lett^ 
in  1816,  the  sole  heir  and  representative  of 
the  Walram  dynasty  in  Germany.  N.  had  been 
declared  a  dnohy  in  1806,  and  in  1817  the  reigning 
Duke  William  granted  a  new  oonstitution ;  but 
during  the  first  aittinge  of  the  aeeerably,  dissensiooB 
arose  Between  the  ducal  government  and  the  repre- 
ientatives,  the  former  having  attempted  to  esbabliih 
the  proposition  that  the  ducal  domains  wore  the 
nnconditional  property  of  the  royal  house,  and  that 
alt  the  expenses  of  the  state  would  consequently 
have  to  be  met  by  taxation. 

This  proved  a  fmitful  sooroe  of  distension 
between  the  duke  and  his  people,  and  the  opposition 
and  discontent  to  which  it  gave  rise,  were  not  finally 
allayed  till  IS34.  when  a  more  hbera]  ministry, 
nnder  Count  Walderdorff,  succeeded  the  unponulsr 
cabinet  which  had  hitherto  directed  public  affairs. 
Concessions  were  made  by  the  ducal  government, 
which  met  the  reqnirements  of  the  chambers,  and 
a  satisfactory  compromite  was  elfected  in  regwd  to 
the  crown  revenues.  In  1838,  N.  joined  the  German 
Zoii-  Verdn,  and  snbse^aently  to  that  period,  it  baa 
continued  to  advance  in  material  prosperity.  The 
reigning  Duke  Adolphns  William,  who  succeeded 
his  father,  Duke  William,  in  1S39,  shewed  the  same 
conservativB  tendenciea  as  his  predecessor.  The 
revolutionary  crisis  of  1848  found  the  people,  who 
had  been  harassed  by  over-government  and  by  a 
Jealous  dread  of  liberal  sentiments,  ripe  for  insurrec- 
tion. The  peasantry  rose  en  mame  in  the  rural 
districts,  and  revenged  themselves  for  the  severity 
of  the  game-laws  and  other  obnoiions  restrictions, 
by  jicrpetrating  the  most  wanton  deetruction  of 
game  and  wood  in  the  foreata  belonging  to  the 
crown  and  nobility.  These  disordeia  were  speedily 
pot  down  by  the  aid  of  federal  troops,  but  notwith- 
standing the  cnncenions  made  by  the  government, 
the  relations  between   the  people  aiM  their  mler 


conlinned  for  many  Tears  to  be  unsatitfaetotv.  For 

the  events  which  led  to  the  incorporation  of  Nassaa 
with  Prussia,  see  Gsbmaxy  in  Surr^  Vol  X. 

NABSAU,  the  capital  of  New  Providence,  is  the 
centre  of  the  trade  of  the  Bahamas  (q.v.).  It  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  Hie  face  of  a  hill,  in  lat.  25* 
6'  N.,  long.  71'  21'  W.  Pop.  9000.  The  town  is 
well  laid  out,  has  several  handsome  public  buildings, 
and'aa  excellent  and  well- sheltered  harbour.  The 
climate  is  very  salubrious,  and  H.  is  a  great  reaort 
of  invalids  from  the  north.  It  has  extensive  hotel 
accommodation,  a  lunatic  asylum,  and  a  leper- 
bonse,  and  is  defended  by  two  forts.  N.  exports 
cotton,  pimento,  and  salt.  Daring  the  civil  war  in 
the  Umted  States,  it  became  notorious  in  oonneo- 
tion  with  the  blockade-mnners. 

NASTUHTIUH.    See  Orbs  and  TROP^aoLnii. 

NATAX.  The  i^on  now  forming  the  colony 
of  Natal  derive*  its  oame  from  its  being  discovered 
by  the  Portuguese  on  Cbristmas-day  1497.  It  was 
visited  about  1822  by  several  white  traders  from 
the  Cape,  who  found  the  country  in  possession 
of  the  Zoln  chief  Chaka,  who  ruled  in  a  meet 
aaogninai^  manner  over  all  the  tribes,  from  the 
Umiimculn  to  the  St  Lucia  River.  He  was  killed 
and  succeeded  by  his  brother  Dingaan  in  1838,  hut 
the  latter  haviugtreacherously  murdered  a  party  of 
emigrant  Dutch  Boers,  who  had  paid  him  a  friendly 
visit  by  invitation  to  buy  land,  he  was  attacked 
and  finally  destroyed  by  the  Boera,  who  at  that 
time  had  emigrated  &om  the  Cape  Colony  in  large 
numbers,  and  who  made  his  brother  Pauda  para- 
mount ohief  in  his  stead,  and  then  settled  them- 
selves  down  in  the  country  as  his  lords  and  masteis. 
The  British  government,  however,  now  interfered, 
and  after  a  severe  straggle  on  the  part  of  the  Boets, 
the  country  was  formally  proclaimed  a  BHtisn 
oolony  on  the  12th  May  1843,  aince  which  time  it 
has  progressed  very  satisfactorily.  In  18S6,  it  wsa 
erected  into  a  distinct  and  separate  colony,  free 
from  the  control  of  the  governor  of  the  Cape.  In 
1S73,  Langalibolele,  a  chieftain  oE  Zulus  within  the 
N.  frontier,  was  on  suspicion  treated  verrsummarily 

Kthe  colonial  government,  and  bomshed.  I^e 
gliah  government  decided  that  the  proceedings 
were  illegal,  and  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  was  sent  as 
temporary  governor.  It  waa  mainly  because  the 
security  of  N.  was  menaced  by  the  warlike  forces 
and  eqnipments  of  Ketchwayo,  nephew  of  Dingaan, 
king  ot  Uie  free  Zulus,  that  the  Zulu  war  ot  1879 
broke  out.  Zulnland  was  invaded  by  the  British, 
and  after  a  fierce  deFence,  waa  finally  parcelled  out 
(aee  Ztn.vs).  Most  of  the  fighting  durmg  tlie  rising 
of  the  Transvaal  Boers  in  l&I  was  dono  io  N. 

The  colony  of  N.  is  on  the  S.R  ooaat  of  Africa, 
about  800  m.  E.N.B.  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hojie, 
between  the  29Ui  and  31st  walleU  of  south  latitiiOa 
Its  if.E.  boundary  ia  the  Tugela  or  Buffalo  Bive^ 
which  divides  it  from  Zululand,  and  its  S.W. 
boundary  is  the  Umzimculu  and  Umtamoana  Rivers, 
separating  it  from  Kaffraria  proper.  A  lofty  and 
rugged  range  of  mountains  called  the  Quatblamba, 
or  Dracbenber^  divides  it  from  the  Free  State  and 
Baautuhtud,  and  it  contains  a  well-defined  ares  ot 
18,7SO  sqaare  miles. 

These  mountains  are  composed  ot  a  confosed 
mass  ot  gnmite,  gneiss,  sandstone,  baaaltio  veins, 
and  shale,  and  present  both  the  flat  top  and 
serrated  summits  of  the  chain,  of  which  they  are  a 
continuation,  so  well  known  in  the  Cape  Colony  as 
the  Sneeuwberg  and  Stormbergen.  About  lat  28* 
3<f,  these  mountaina  aeem  to  reach  their  culminating- 
point,  and  probably  attain  a  height  of  10,000  fe^ 
forming  a  summit  line  of  wat«nihed,  from  which 
flow  to  all  points  of  the  compass  the  waters  of  the 


Orange,  TJmziiiivoobo,  Vaal,  Tii)!eU,  «nd  other  lar)^ 
8onth  African  Btreanii.  Towuils  the  coast,  these 
mountouu  present  a  scarped  and  almost  inaccessible 
{see  ;  towards  the  interior,  howerer,  they  Kradiiolly 
die  away  into  the  imiaeDse  rolling  plains  or  the  Free 
State.  Many  offshoots  from  these  moiintaios  tra- 
>e  the  colony,  dividing  it  into  a  aeries  oE  steps 


,  ind  forminjj  so  many 
■on<M  of  naturoJ  productioni. 

The  coast  region,  eitendingaboutSjmilea  inland, 
II  highly  fertile,  and  has  a  climate  almost  tropical, 
thongh  perfectly  healthy.  Sugar,  coifee,  indigo, 
arrowroot,     ginger,   tobacco,    and     cotton    thrive 

'Dgly,  and  tiie  pine-a]>[ile  ripens  in  the  open 

th  very  little  cultiTation.  The  midland  terrace 
'e  fit  for  the  cereals  and  usual  European  crops  ; 
while  on  the  higher  plateau,  along  the  foot  of  the 
mountains,  are  immense  tracts  of  the  finest  pas- 
turage for  cattle  and  sheep. 

The  climate  is  very  solubrioos ;  the  thermometer 
ranges  between  90°  and  3S°,  but  the  heat,  even  in 
summer,  is  seldom  oppressiTe.  The  mean  amiual 
tcmuerature  at  Pietermaritzburg,  the  capital,  is 
64°  71'.  The  winter  begins  in  April  and  ends  in 
September ;  the  average  number  of  rainy  days 
bewg  13.  la  tJia  summer  seaaoD  the  thunder-storms 
re  very  frequent  and  severe.  The  aonual  rainfall 
n  the  coast  is  about  35  inches.  Inland,  it  varies  a 
good  deal  in  different  districts,  and  is  greatest  in 
The  south-east  is  Uie  prevailing  wind 
.  tie  anmrner  months,  as  in  the  Cape  Colony. 
Occaaiaiially  the  airocco  or  hot  wind  from  the 
north-west  i«  felt,  whicli  generally  terminates  in  a 
thnDder-stono. 

e  harbour  on  its  coast,  and  that  is 
D'Urban,  or  Port  Natal,  in  Ut  29'  GS*.  It  U  com- 
pletely landlocked,  bat  a  bar  prevents  vessels  above 
a  certain  toun^e  from  entering.  There  is,  however, 
generally  a  depth  ol  water  on  it  varying  from  9  to 
16  feet.  There  is  secure  holding-ground  m  the  outer 
anchorage.  The  harbour  of  D'Drban  is  of  great 
importaoce  to  N.,  as  it  is  the  only  one  worthy  of 
the  name  on  tlte  south-east  couL  Many  exteoaive 
eagioeerlng  operatioiu  have  been  carried  on  with 
the  purpose  of  improving  the  harbour  and  increasing 
the  depth  of  water  at  the  entrance.  The  principu 
riven  are  the  Tugela  or  Buffalo,  the  Umcomanzi, 
Umcani,  and  Umzimculu ;  like  the  majority  of 
South  African  rivers,  they  are  of  no  "  '  " 
purposes  of  inland  navigation ;  but  their 
are  permanent,  and  often  available  for  irrigating 
purposes,  thus  giving  N.  in  one  very  essential  point 
a  decided  superiority  over  the  Cape  Colony. 

Coal,  copper-ore,  iron,  and  other  minerals  are 
found  in  several  places,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that, 
when  the  great  mountain-range  is  properly  explored, 
it  will  be  found  very  riob  in  minend  wealth.  Large 
forests  of  valuable  timber  abound  in  the  kloofs  of 
ail  the  moantun-ranges,  and  many  tracts  along  the 
V  also  well  wooded.  If.  is  divided  into  tbe 
following  counties :  D'Urban,  Victoria,  Alexandra, 
and  Alfred  on  the  coast  region ;  Pietermaritzburg, 
Umcomanxi,  and  Umroti,  centnJ ;  and  Klip  River 
and  Weensn  at  foot  of  the  mountains.  The  capital 
is  Pietermaritzburg,  with  about  7000  inhabitants,  on 
a  tributaiy  of  tbe  Umgani  River,  about  60  miles 
inland.  It  possesses  a  ]Lrg&  military  establishment. 
Its  name  is  a  comjiound  of  the  Christian  name  of, 
Pieter  Kietief,  and  tbe  surname  of  Gert  Maritz,  two 
leaders  of  the  immigrant  Boeis.  D'Urban  or  Port 
Natal,  a  fiourishing  town,  has  railway  communica- 
tion with  Pietermaritzburg  and  Ladysmith,  with  its 
landing-pUoe.  and  with  aevoral  points  on  the  coast 
Pop.  of  town  and  suburbs  (1881),  14,000,  of  which 
the  half  are  £urop«aii«,  It  has  2  oewspapers,  and 
878 


several  banks  and  other  public  instttutioDS.  Yem- 
latD,  Weenen,  Richmond,  Newcastle^  Pinetown,  Col- 

iso,  Greytown,  and  Ladysmith  are  thriving  towna. 

N.  is  governed  by  a  governor  (lientenant-goTer- 
_jrtilll8fiO),  aided  by  an  etecative  council  of  five; 
and  by  a  legislative  council,  consisting  of  thirteen 
members  appointed  by  government,  and  fifteen 
elected  by  the  constituencies.  The  Anglican,  Scot- 
tish, Dutch,  and  other  churches  are  reprea^ited  in 
N.,  and  many  stations  of  the  Wesleyan,  Ameriean, 
Norwegian,  and  Berlin  misaians  exist.  £dncati<H> 
is  receiving  mnch  attention,  and  schools  ai«  mnlti- 

The  De  Beer  and  Beciiidenlioat  FasMS  are  the 
only  practicable  roads  acrosa  the  mountains,  and 
lead  by  very  circuitons  routes  across  the  Free  Sbta 
into  Cape  Colouy ;  and  the  numerous  moontaitt 
ttreanu  wanting  bridges  render  internal  communi- 
cation very  difBcult.  Three  lines  oE  railway,  of  > 
total  length  of  104  miles,  are  iu  course  of  constnic- 
tion ;  the  chief,  to  connect  D'  Urban  with  the  capital, 
was  6nished  in  ISSO. 

Tbe  principal  articles  of  eiport  from  N.  are  wool, 
sugar,  ivory,  and  hides.  The  wool  eiprvted  to 
Great  Britain  in  IBM  was  vnlned  at  £4»4,4SG,  and 
weighed  9,302.395  lbs.  The  total  value  of  exports 
in  1B84  waa  £957,52a  The  eiports  comprise  cotton, 
ivory,  sugar,  coffee,  arrowroot,  wool,  hides,  feathers, 
molasses,  and  rhinoceros  horns.  The  value  of 
imports  in  18S4  was  £1,675,S50  (as  compared  with 
£2,336,584  in  1880).  Revenue  in  1886,  £781,950. 
raised  from  custom- duties,  transfer  dues,  taics  on 
native  huts,  kc. ;  expenditure,  £780,000.  In  1843, 
the  valuo  of  imports  was  £11,712;  that  of  eiports 
£1261  ;  while  the  revenue  was  only  £12,000. 
N.  waa  well  represented  at  the  Colonial  Exhibition 
of  1886.  The  population  consists  of  Butch  Boers ; 
of  English  and  German  settlers ;  and  the  remains 
of  the  Zulu  tribes,  who  originally  possessed  the 
country.  It  numbered,  in  IsSo,  404,363,  of  whom 
25,271  were  whites.  The  returns  as  to  the  native 
population  are  only  approximate,  and  calculated  on 
the  '  hut  tax.'  The  uativee,  the  moat  industriona  of 
tbe  Kaffir  races,  possess  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  &c, 
and  properly  managed,  make  excellent  Bervants.  The 
growth  of  augar  ciuture  has  led  to  the  introduction 
of  cooliee  from  India.  The  total  tonn^  oE  the 
vessels  that  entered  and  cleared  the  port  ofD'Hrbsji 
in  1880  waa  402,851  tons.  The  disoovery  and  de- 
velopment of  the  diamond-fields  on  the  Vaal  Biver 
have  promoted  the  prosperity  of  K. 

The  large  fnimj^  ^re  gradually  disappearing 
although  efephants  are  stUl  occasionally  met  with  in 
the  dense  bu^  of  the  coast  region.  Lions,  leoparda, 
wolvea,  and  hyiBDaa  still  hang  on  the  outskirts  of 
civilisation,  Tho  amaller  antclupes  are  plentiful, 
and  alligators  are  met  with  in  nearly  all  the  rivers 
north-east  of  the  Umzimculu.    N.,  besides  leversl 


kr  the  moutiu  of  the 

The  botany  ol  this  region  resembles  that  of  Kaf- 
fiaria  proper,  although  generally  of  a  more  tropical 
character.  All  the  timber-trees  of  the  Cape  Colony 
are  found  here,  besides  many  new  ones.  Tbe  climate 
of  the  coast  region,  however,  is  too  warm  for  the 
grape,  at  least  for  the  rurpoee  of  wine-making. 
,  Brook's  Natal,  by  Mann  (IS69) :  T/ie  Capt  owi 
SmA  A/rka,  by  Noble  (1878);  Silver's  Handbook 
to  SovUi  Africa  (1881) ;  Kermode's  Natal  (lttS2). 

NATAL,  or  RIO  GRANDE  DO  HOETB,  k 
forti(ie>l  seaport  of  BrazU,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Bio  Grande  do  Norte,  and  built  on  low  lands 
about  three  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river 
of  that  name,  100  m.  N.  of  Pwalubft.    Fop.  IftOOO. 

,X-.oo;^[c 


SATAt-NATlONAt,  CONV£NtiOK. 


NATAL,  JoHM  WiLLiAU  CoLXNso,  Buhop  of, 
a  diitiDgaiihed  Anglican  divine.  He  was  bom  at 
St  Amtell,  Cornwaf,  24th  Jut.  1814,  and  died  20Ui 
June  1S83.  Educated  at  8t  John's  CoUeee,  Cam- 
bridge, be  graduated  as  Second  Wmpgler  and  Smith's 
Frizemui  in  1836.  He  became  ope  of  the  masters 
of  Harrov  School ;  and  in  1842,  tutor  of  St  John's 
CoUue.  In  1840  he  was  appoint^  rector  of  a 
parish  in  Norfolk,  and  in  1S64,  first  Bishop  of  N., 
South  Africa.  The  worlu  bj  which  ba  waa,  until 
recently,  most  widely  known  were  hia  two  treatiaea 
OD  Algebra  and  Arithmetia.  The  treatise  on  Algeblk 
was  lirat  published  is  1849,  and  that  on  ArithmetJo 
in  1853.  Thej  iood  acquired  great  popiilaritf,  and 
have  been  adopted  aa  text-books  in  many  of  the 

gincipol  schools  and  colleges  in  Great  Britain. 
s  baa  also  published  ot^r  educational  works. 
He  first  attracted  publia  notice,  however,  by  the 
dedication  of  a  volume  oC  Sermons  to  the  Rev. 
Mr  Uaurioe  (q.  v.),  at  the  moment  when  that 
gentleman  wa*  in  disgrace  with  the  'orthodox' 
•ection  of  the  religious  world.  His  affection  and 
respect  for  Mr  Maorice  were  further  shewn  by 
hia  edition  of  the  Communion  Servia,  vnth  Sdedioiu 
from  Writiagi  of  (As  Sev.  F.  J>.  Maxmce  (1855). 
la  the  same  year  appeared  hia  Tea  Wt^  tn 
lHaiat ;  in  1861,  his  iiwuiiUion  of  the  Episiie  to 
the  Romans,  commtated  oa/rom  a  MiaionaTv  Point 
qf  Viea;  and  A  laiicr  to  hit  Qrace  Oie  ArdibUhop 
^  CanierbiOT/,  upon  lAe  Quation  nf  tiie  Proper 
Trtatmtnt  of  Cam  of  Polygamy,  at  found  airaidy 
(XuCinj;  in  ContxrU  from  ffaUaaiitm,  in  which  he 
recommends,  on  grounds  both  of  reason  and  Scrip- 
ture, that  converta  to  Christianity,  olriHidy  passeasiuE 
sevmd  wives,  should  not  be  foroed  to  put  them  aU 
oway,  except  one.  The  outcnr  raised  by  his  pro- 
fessional brethren  against  the  Ltiltr  was  sufficiently 
loud,  but  it  was  not^injc  to  the  tempest  of  diaappro- 
batioo  that  burst  forth  in  the  following  year  (1862), 
when  he  published  T/i«  Fenialaieh  and  Book  of 
JoAua  Cnlkaliii  Examined,  in  which  he  endeavoured 
to  prove  that,  as  they  stand,  these  books  ore  not 
the  products  either  of  the  age  to  whioh  they  are 
nsually  assigned,  or  of  the  authors  whose  names 
they  bear ;  and  that  they  are  not  entirely  historical, 
but  in  many  most  important  passages  are  overlaid 
with  legeuijaiy,  mythical,  and  symbolical  incidents. 
The  last  port  of  this  work  was  published  in  1ST». 
The  Bishop  of  Cape  Town,  the  melxopolitau  bishop, 
declared  Colenso  deposed  from  bis  see';  but  on  an 
appeal  to  the  Privy  Council  in  186C,  the  deposition 
was  pronounced  null  and  Toid,  He  earnestly 
defended  the  African  against  the  iniustice  of  tho 
whito  man  ;  he  visited  England  to  plead  the  cause 
of  Langolibalele  in  1874.  Ho  edited  Ceithaayo's 
Dulchman  in  1879 ;  and  his  daughter  wrote  a  Hit- 
lory  qfOu  2tda  IFor  (1880),  Other  works  by  the 
bishop  ore  Natai  Sermoni  (1866) ;  and  Lectura  o, 
the  Pentateuch  and  the  MoabiU  Stone  (2d  ed.,  1S73J. 

NATANT.    BeeNAUtrr. 

NATATOltBS  (I^b  Bwin 
by  niiger,  and  many  other 
mder  ot  birds  called  Falnuptdea  (q.  v.]  by  Cuvier. 

NATCHEZ,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  in  Misais- 
drnti,  D.3.,  on  the  east  bonk  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  280  miles  north  of  New  Orleans.  It  is 
finely  situated  on  the  bluff;  160  feet  high,  which 
hero  forms  the  bank  of  the  river,  A  portion  of 
the  town  at  the  bottom  of  the  bluSf  is  called 
Natchez-onder-the-Hill,  and  was  formerly  the  resort 
of  the  river  gamblers,  grates,  and  other  dea- 
perate  oharacten.  The  city  has  eight  churches,  a 
oonrt-faonse,  jaU,  United  States  Marine  Hospital, 
a  daily  and  two  weekly  papers.  It  is  the  shipping 
port  of  a  large  aad  ferule  cotton  diitnc^  and  has 


steam-boat  connections  with  the  whole  Mississippi 
valley.  N,,  which  derives  its  name  from  a  noted 
tribe  oE  Indians,  was  settled  by  the  French  in  171Q, 
and  destroyed  by  the  Indiana  in  1729,  who  were 
subseqaeotly  defeated,  and  banished  to  the  West 
IndiBS.    Pop.  (1870)  9067  j  (1880)  7068. 

NATION  (Lat.  nalio,  from  natvi,  bom),  a  word 
nsed  in  two  distinct  senses.  1.  A  state  or  inde- 
pendent society  united  by  common  political  instita- 
tions ;  2.  An  aggregate  mass  of  persons  connected 
by  ties  of  blood  and  lineage,  and  sometimea  of 
lonfpta^  The  modem  dogma  of  nationalism,  as 
mamtaioed  by  »  doss  of  continental  politicians, 
starts  from  an  assumption  that  a  nation  in  the 
latter  sense  ought  necessarily  to  be  also  a  nation 
in  the  former,  and  endeavours  to  assign  lintita  to 
tiie  several  races  of  Europe,  with  the  view  vi 
erectbg  each  into  a  distinct  state,  separated  from 
other  states  or  natioaalitioa.  The  extreme  politicians 
of  the  national  school  seem  to  consider  the  supposed 
rights  of  nationalitiea  as  paramount  even  to  tho 
obligations  of  treatdes,  and  the  political  conjunction 
of  one  nationality  with  another  is  looked  on  by 
them  OS  an  adequate  ground  for  a  revolt  or  separa- 
tion, apart  altogether  from  the  question  whether  the 

itionality  is  well  or  ill  governed.     In  point  of  fact. 


Eurojie  bos  btwn  miied  within  the  historical  period. 
The  test  of  language,  on  which  natioiiality  has  some- 


been  based,  18  a  deceptive 

IS  maeflnite  and  perpetually  fiuctuaung.  xuu  ]ieu|ue 
on  the  frostier  between  two  racea,  as  in  the  South 
Tyrol,  generally  speak  two  languagea.  Then  we 
have  duUects,  like  the  Walloon,  the  Orildnerisch  of 
the  Tyrol,  and  the  Romansch  of  the  Grisons — *s  also 
the  Breton,  Welsh,  Gaelic,  and  Irish  languages,  which 
could  hardly  be  mode  the  baaiB  of  independent  oom- 
mnnities.  The  wellbeing  of  the  people  governed  ia 
properly  the  end  of  oU  government,  and  it  has 
macticoUy  not  been  always  found  that  a  state  is 
better  governed  when  it  consists  of  one  race  only, 
than  when  it  includw  on  agn«gate  of  races.  Hidily 
diversified  nationalities  maybe  united  in  one  poliucal 
system,  provided  only  that  the  government  respects 
and  consults  the  peculiarities  of  the  several  raceSi 
and  does  not  attempt  to  force  the  usages,  habits,  or 
language  of  one  on  flie  rest    ""  '"'-" 


deputies  of  the       .,...         ._     ..  .  .... 

government  of  France  on  the  overthrow  of  the 
throne  in  1702.  When  the  National  Assembly  (toe 
AssEHBLT,  National)  had  decreed  the  suspension 
of  tho  king,  lOth  August  1792.  it  appointed  the 
election  of  the  N.  C-,  which  commenced  its  sittings 
21st  September.  Its  first  act  was  to  declare  Prance 
a  republic,  25th  September.  Upon  this  followed  the 
trial  and  condemnation  of  the  king.  Through  the 
snpport  of  excited  molM,  the  extreme  Jacobin  party 
became  predominant  in  the  Convention ;  where, 
from  the  elevated  seats  on  which  its  members  sat,  it 
received  tho  name  of  UiejUountainpartj.  Theffeno- 
lutumary  Tribunal  was  established ;  the  chief  admin- 
istration of  affairs  was  intrusted  to  the  Commitlee 
of  Pviiie  Safety,  which  exereised  the  most  despotio 
powers.  The  Girondists  (q,  v.),  at  first  a  powerful 
party  in  the  Convent!  on,  were  destroyed,  many  of  them 
perishing  by  the  guillotine  ;  and  a  new  constitution, 
thoroughly  democratic,  was  adopted,  10th  August 
1793 ;  but  its  operation  was  suspended  ruitil  peace 
should  be  restored.  Meanwhile,  the  aotoal  mlera 
of  the  country  displayed  marvellous  energy  ;  almost 
a  millioD  ot  citiieni  being  jdaoed  under  aims,  ~~* 


°^^. 


KaTIOSaI.  COVWiOT-MATlOSAt  BlttCAttoM. 


-mereileM  MTenty  agaiiin  their  pohtiau  opponents, 
dealing  with  them  as  traitora ;  amidradi  of  thou- 
■andi  were  thrown  into  prison,  and  the  nninber  who 
died  by  the  guillotina  iscrea««d  daily  both  in  Parii 
and  throoBhoat  Fiance.  Tba  N.  C.  itself  latterly 
beoamo  mbject  to  the  dictatorial  power  of  Bobei- 
pierre ;  many  of  its  member*  were  guillotined  withio 
a  few  weelu;  tai  independent  opinion  waa  no 
longer  expreued.  The  oTerthrow  of  Robespierre 
WM  followed  by  a  ereat  reaction ;  the  Jacobin* 
were  aappreasad ;  and  finally,  the  N.  C,  ifter  con- 
cluding pe»c«  with  Prussia  and  Spain,  dissolved 
iteeU  26tli  Ootober  1795  f4th  Bnimaire  of  the  y;ear 


Directoty  (q.  v.). 
NATIONAI.  COVENANT.  SeeCoTmrAHX 
NATIONAL  DEBT.  See  Dkbt,  Natiokal. 
NATIONAL    EDUCATION.       The    generd 

(nbject  of  Edacation  hu  been  already  treated  onder 
that  head.  Bt  tba  term  'National  Ednoation' 
it  nndentood  (1)  the  means  token  by  tlie  body  of 
any  nation,  either  throuKb  the  state  or  other  organi- 
■ationa,  for  edacating  Uie  people;  (S)  tiie  objects 
whioh  the  nation  ought  to  plaoe  before  itself  in  its 
educational  meaanree.  These  qnestions  involve  the 
whole  inner  and  outer  history  of  education,  and  are 
far  too  la^e  and  important  to  be  capable  of  such 
tre«tment  here  *«  wonld  oonve^  accurate  notions  to 
tiie  reader.  All  we  Okn  do  is  to  glanoe  slightly 
at  the  history  of  the  two  branchea  mto  which  the 
subject  divides  itself.  Among  ancient  nations,  and 
among  not  »  few  nations  now  existing,  education 
in  any  definite  MUse  did  not,  and  does  not,  exist 
for  the  masae*  of  the  people.  The  children  grow 
np  in  nflectdve  or  nnreflective  imitation  of  their 
father*.  But  at  all  times,  nations  which  have  quite 
emerged  from  the  aava^e  state,  have  had  some 
more  or  leu  organised  scheme  of  edncation  for  the 
leimred  and  gavemiag  clasaes.  The  purpose  kept 
in  view  in  mch  education  has  been  to  fit  the 
pninit  to  diaohargs  oertwn  duties  of  war  or  govern- 
ment la  addition  to  this,  the  priesthood  had  the 
edoeation  which  their  traditionary  hymns,  laws, 
and  customs  afforded.  That  man  as  such,  apart 
from  any  special  practical  ends,  should  be  edu- 
cated, was  an  idea  late  of  being  recognised,  and 
occurred  first  to  the  Qreelu,  to  whom  the  world 
owes  BO  much.  Bat  neither  among  them  nor  their 
imitators,  the  Romans,  was  the  ^ucation  of  the 
moMet  of  (he  people  ever  contemplated  Education, 
properly  so  called,  was  oooliDea  to  a  few.  Id  the 
centiiriea  which  succeeded  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianit_y,  the  church  was  the  great  educating  body— 
trainiiu  those  intended  for  the  service  of  Uie  altar, 
not  on^  in  Christian  doctrine,  but  in  all  the  learn- 
ing of  the  past.  This,  at  least,  was  the  general 
tendency  of  edncatton  in  the  church.  But  it  was 
not  till  the  Beformation  in  the  16th  c  that 
teaming,  even  to  the  limited  extent  of  reading  and 
writing,  was  considered  a  worthy  object  of  pursuit 
fay  any  save  those  who,  in  some  form  or  other,  were 
destined  to  be  drawn  withiu  tlie  clerical  ranks. 
The  Reformation  introduced  the  idea  of  educating 
the  masses  of  the  people — the  leaders  of  this  move- 
ment being,  no  doubt,  forced  to  this  conclneion  by 
the  noceeaity  which  their  view  of  man's  personal 
religious  obligations  imposed  on  thom.  It  was 
manifestly  a  corollary  from  the  position  they  took 
np  that  tfoery  moit'i  intellect  should  be  so  trained 
as  to  be  able  to  read,  and  inquire,  and  think  for 
itself.  It  was  only  very  slowly  that  so  large  a  con- 
ception of  the  sphere  of  education  oould  be  ^ven 


sffeol  to.  Gradually,  however,  popular  schools 
arose  in  many  parts  of  the  contment  of  Europe, 
especially  in  Germany,  and  the  number  of  gymnasia 
or  grammar-schools  wss,  during  the  same  period, 
increased.  In  ScoUodcI,  so  early  as  1606,  Uie 
govenunent  took  np  the  matter,  and  orduned  that 
tbere  should  be  a  school  as  well  as  a  church  in  ever; 
parish,  at  the  same  time  providing  for  their  main- 
tenance by  a  tax  on  land,  and  for  their  mao^ement 
by  putttDg  them  under  a  certain  number  of  those 
'^o  paid  the  tax  conjoined  with  the  minister  of 
the  parish— sll  being  subject  to  the  preebyteriea 
withm  whose  bonnds  they  were  situated.  The 
example  of  Scotland  cannot  be  said  to  have  been 
followed  on  anything  like  a  national  scale  by  any 
country  till  after  the  French  Revolution  had  ex- 
hausted itsell  Since  1616,  the  distinguishinz  idea 
of  government  administration  may  be  said  to  be  the 
necessity  of  edncating  liie  people,  and  aii  the  people 
— even  the  ontcast  and  the  criming.  During  tha 
last  fifty  years,  all  the  German  states,  and  more 
especially  Prussia  and  Saxony,  have  developed 
excellent  national  systems  of  education,  and  France 
has  followed  their  example.  Ruseia  and  the 
new  Kingdom  of  Italy  are  also  now  organising 
primary  instruction ;  and  at  the  same  time,  as  in 
all  Eurojwan  countries,  they  are  making  provirion 
for  the  instructioQ  and  professional  tramin-  -* 
the  teachers  in  Normal  Schools  (q.  v.).    The  sc 


object  is  to  prepare  pupils  for  the  universities,  have 
received  increased  attention.  Universities  them- 
selves, too,  have  been  further  developed,  their  cnrri- 
cnlums  extended  in  range,  their  objet^  elevated, 
and  their  Dumber  increased. 

To  return  to  primary  instmction.  In  England 
there  was  no  national  system,  properly  so  ouled, 
before  1870,  but  voIuntai7  efforts  were  largely  aided 
by  the  stat«  in  the  form  of  Privy  Council  grantSL 
These  granta  were  also  extended  to  Scotlancl,  as  it 
became  necessary  to  supplement  the  parochial  schoola 
there,  owing  to  the  mcrease  of  population.  Tha 
principal  conditions  on  which  these  grants  were  maila 
were,  that  they  were  only  to  s\ippleinent  local  efforts, 
that  the  sohoola  should  pass  a  satisfactory  examina- 
tion before  a  government  inspector,  and  that  the 
Bible  be  read  m  them.  As  much  additional  reli- 
gious instruction  might  be  given  as  the  echool- 
managers  pleased,  but  no  schools  were  admitted  to 
Privy  Couacil  tud  from  which  the  Bible  was  ex- 
cluded. Under  the  stimulus  afforded  by  these  granta, 
the  educational  wants  of  England  were,  after  1839, 
to  a  great  extent  supplied  ;  but  many  districts  wer« 
left  unprovided  with  schools,  and  maoy  mora  very 
badly  supplied.  In  1870,  an  importuit  measnre, 
eetitled  'An  Act  to  provide  for  Public  Elementary 
Education  in  England  and  Walee,'  was  paraed  by 
parliament,  accoraing  to  which  it  is  enacted  that 
'there  shall  be  provided  for  every  school  district  a 
sufficient  amount  of  aooommodation  in  public  ele- 
mentary schools  available  for  all  the  ohildren  rcsi- 
'  ':  in  such  district,  for  whoso  elementary  educa- 
efficieut  and  suitable  prevision  is  not  otherwiso 
mode.'  It  is  enacted  fiu^her,  that  all  children 
attending  these  schools  whose  parents  are  nuable, 
from  poverty,  to  pay  anything  towards  their  educa- 
tion, shall  be  adinttted  free,  and  the  expenses  so 
incurred  be  discharged  from  local  rat«a.  The  new 
Bchoola  are  placed  m  each  district  under  'school- 
boards  '  invested  with  great  powers — amonff  others, 
that  of  compelling  parents  to  send  their  children  tr 
school.  An  act  m  most  rear>ects  similar  to  thi 
above  was  passed  in  1873  for  Scotland,  whose  edu- 
cational wants  had  previously  been  well  supplied. 

In  Ireland,  a  national  Byctem  insbtatM  ad4  I 


'  "  'c^" 


if  AtloMAL  GAttEBY— iJATtJRAt  flI3tOft¥. 


nuinteiaed  by  the  state  exjata,  uul  one  of  Ha  muD 
features  ii  tne  Beparation  of  the  Tcligioiia  fnim  the 
■ecul&r  teaching — st  least  in  theory.  The  extent  to 
Trhich  thia  priadple  has  been  encioacbed  apon  in 
the  coarse  of  working  ont  the  scheme,  is  not  uosr- 
stely  known,  but  is  worthy  of  apeoisl  inquiry. 

In  the  Brildih  colonies,  m  is  the  United  States  ot 
America,  adequate  state  systems  of  education  have 
been  providea  on  the  basis  of  the  seonlar  principle. 
Mce  the  articles  Natiokal  Bdvcition',  in  Suff., 
VoL  X. ;  Mid  Fbitt  Comica,  Comhittkk  or,  oh 

EDUCATION. 

MATIONAIi  GALLEKY,  the  principal  deposi- 
tory of  the  jiicbures  belonging  to  ftio  nation.  The 
present  building  stands  in  Tr^algar  Square,  London, 
and  was  finished  in  1838  at  a  cost  ol  £100.000,  bnt 
WM  enlarged  in  I86I,  in  1869,  and  in  1876.  The 
nncleoa  of  the  N.  Q.  wu  the  Angerstein  ooUection 
of  38  iiictures,  purohased  in  1824  for  £57,000,  and  a 
coneiderable  sam  it  now  annnally  Toted  by  parlia- 
ment for  the  purpose  of  adding  to  it,  the  estitnatea 
for  lSSl-82  shewing  an  expenditure  of  £17,27a 
The  collection  is  most  valuable  to  the  student  of 
art,  and  oocnpiea  nearly  20  rooms.  The  variou* 
early  and  late  Italian  schools  are  extensively  illus- 
trated 1  there  are  good  examples  of  tiie  ohief  repre- 
sentatiTes  of  Italian  art,  as  BaffaeUe,  Correggio, 
Paul  Veronese.  There  are  a  few  good  examples  of 
Mntillo  and  Velaunei  and  the  Spanish  ecbooL 
The  great  Dntoh  and  Flemish  painters,  Bembrandt, 
Eubens,  VandTck  and  the  othert,  are  well  repre- 
sented, ^gliih  art  occapiee  of  coarse  several  ot  the 
rooms.  Among  English  pictarea  most  conipicnoas 
are  the  fifty  works  of  Tmner,  bequeathed  by  that 
nosteF  of  landscape  painting  to  the  nation.  Tbo 
Royal  Academy  of  Arts,  wbioh  used  to  have  its 
headquarters  here,  is  now  eBtablisbed  at  Bnrlington 
House,— The  Natiokal  Portsatt  Qailbrt,  a  rich 
collectioa  of  portraits  of  national  wortbieB  and 
notabilities,  is  at  South  Kensington. 

NATIONAL  GUARD,  an  organieation  for  local 
defence,  differing  from  the  British  MiUtia  and  Volun- 
teers, in  being  at  the  disposal  of  the  munidpalitiea, 
not  of  tbe  crown.  Italy,  Greece,  and  other  nations 
have  maintained  thia  dvio  force ;  bnt  tbe  country 
wbenoe  it  derives   hlstorio  fame  is  France.    See 

OaBSI  NAT10HAI.E. 

NATIVE,  a  term  mostly  applied  t«  metals,  and 
employed  to  designate  sabatances,  as  minerahi,  which 
are  most  of  them  more  abundantly  obtained  from 
other  mioerabs  by  chemical  processes.  Thus  silver 
found  pure,  or  nearly  so,  is  called  Native  Silver, 
whilst  moat  of  tbe  silver  in  use  is  procured  from 
ores  in.  which  it  exists  varioiuly  combined, 

NATRON,  or  TRONA,  an  impure  sesquicar- 
bouate  of  soda,  which  always  contains  sal^iate  of 
soda  and  chloride  of  sodium.  It  is  obtained  from 
the  margins  of  lakes  in  Egypt,  Siberia,  Tibet,  *ci., 
and  from  the  borders  of  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas. 

NATRON  LAKBS.  Natron  was  one  of  the 
substances  employed  by  tbe  ancient  Egyptians  in 
embalming  mammies,  and  it  ia  mentioned  in  texts 
of  the  ISth  dynasty,  circa  1800  B.O.  Tbe  lake^ 
eight  in  number,  are  to  the  west  of  the  Damietta 
branch  of  the  Nile.  They  are  below  the  level  of  the 
sei,  and  the  natron  is  obtained  by  evaporation.  The 
locality  is  also  renowned  for  four  monaateriea,  from 
whoae  libraries  of  Arabic,  Coptic,  and  Syriao  MSS. 
the  national  coQections  have  been  enriched.  In  the 
time  of  St  Pachomius,  6000  aacborets  dwelt  here  ; 
they  at  present  number  about  300. 

NATTERJACK.    See  Toad. 

NATUTfA  ISLANDS,  Tbb,  lying  to  the  north- 
west  of  Borneo,  4°  N.  lab,  108*  E.  long.,  are  densely 
wooded  and   monntoinons.     The  lai^gevt   of  the 


islands  is  about  600  square  mile&  Pop.  of  the 
whole  about  1300,  who  grew  rice,  maiso,  sago,  cocoa- 
nuts,  Aa,  and  exchange  the  prodace  of  their  fishing*, 
their  tago  and  cocoa-nnt  oil,  for  rioe^  iron,  aJod 
cottons,  at  the  Guropean  settlements  on  the  Strait 
of  Malacca.    The  N.  I.  are  under  Dntch  protection. 

NATURAL,  in  Music,  m  note  belonging  to  the 
diatonic  scale  of  C,  and  neiUier  elevated  by  a  sharp 
nor  depressed  by  a  flat.  When  a  note  has  been  m> 
elevated  or  depressed,  tbe  natural  sign  jj  prefixed 
to  it  on  its  recurrence  restores  it  to  its  place  on 
tbe  scale.  When  music  ia  written  on  a  key  with 
a  signature  of  sharps  or  flats,  it  is  the  office  of  the 
nat^^  sign  to  counteract  the  signature  as  r^jarda 
tbe  note  to  which  it  ia  prefixed. 

NATURAL  HISTORY,  in  the  widest  sense, 
includes  all  natulal  science,  and  has  tbe  whole  of 
creation  for  its  subject.  In  this  sense  the  term 
was  employed  by  the  pbilosopbera  of  antiquity. 
Bnt  it  IS  now  limited  to  those  branches  of  scieuoe 
which  relate  to  the  cmst  of  the  etrOx  and  its 
productions.  Ot  these,  geologr  and  mineralogy  have 
for  their  subject  inoiganic  portions  of  creation ; 
botany  and  zoology,  the  various  branches  of  which 
ar« often pnrsuedas  aaparate sdenoes, with phyuo- 


oognisanMi. ^ 

of  nature,  and'of  their  lelatiouB  to  each  other,  witli 
all  the  changes  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  all  the 
phttiomena  of  life,  both  animal  and  vegetable.  It 
derive*  assistance  from  other  seienceB,  particulariy 
chemistry  and  natunl  philosophy;  and  some  ol  the 
branches  of  chemistiT  may  also  be  reearded  as 
branches  of  natural  history.  When  man  hiin—lf  jg 
oonddcted  as  a  subject  of  scientific  study,  psycho- 
logy must  be  added  to  the  branches  of  natural 
history,  but  in  the  term  as  commonly  employed 
tiiis  oan  scarcely  be  said  to  be  included. 

In  every  department  of  natural  hittotv,  dasaifi- 
eation  is  <rf  the  otoiast  impratance,  and  scarcely 
lees  important  is  a  soientifio  nomenclature  snited 
to  the  tuasaification.  The  subjects  of  study  are  to 
inoalculably  Dumeroua,  that  an  arrangement  of  them 


_ knowledge  of  them;  and  it 

is  only  by  ayitems  of  classification  which  aminge 
smaller  groups  in  larger,  and  these  in  larger  and 
larger  again,  that  natural  history  has  been  brought 
to  ita  present  state.  The  very  division  of  natural 
histoiy  into  difiereut  sciences  is  a  result  of  such  a 
classification,  and  implies  a  recognition  of  the  largest 
and  highest  groups.  It  is  not  always  in  Uie  estab- 
lishment of  Uieaegroupa  that  the  greatest  difficulty 
is  experienced.  Tm  primary  distmction  of  all  the 
subjects  of  natural  history  into  organised  and 
unorganised,  or  into  those  having  life  and  those  not 
having  life,  presents  itself  very  readily  to  every 
mind.  And  equally  natural  and  necessary  is  tat 
distinction  of  organised  beings  into  Plants  and 
Animals,  however  difficult  it  bos  been  found  to  draw 
the  precise  limit  between  the  lowest  of  planti  and 
the  lowest  of  anim^lK.  Another  distinction  readily 
•    ■ nthe 

„ one  of  the 

most  important  of  all  the  questions  of  natural 
history,  what  a  epeeiei  is,  and  how  it  diSers  from  a 
variels.  For  this  we  rder  to  the  article  Species. 
Bnt  mnch  difference  of  opinion  as  ttieie  is 


that  relates  to  olaasiiicatiou,  uat  those  ar«  distinct 
tpeeU*  which  oaimot  by  any  ohaoge  of  oircumatoncea 
^-or,  let  it  be  wid,  by  any  ordmarji  change  of 


,  by  any  ordmary  change  ol 
iritain  any  modmite  period  ot 

Cefegt 


NATUHAL  OBLtOAttON— SATDRAUSATlOlf. 


M  to  be  tranimnted  one  into 
•oother,  whilrt  those  ore  onlj  varietia  of  which  &t 
inodific&tion  uid  truumut^ tion  eoo  be  thus  effected. 
Tbii«,  in  botatiT,  Braatica  oleraixa  is  b  ipecies,  of 
whidi  kale,  cabbage,  caulitlaner,  broccoli,  BniueU 
■proutB, &C., •«  Tuietias.  Specie8,gronpedtogether, 
uoordiDg  to  theic  natural  affinities,  form  genera; 
but  a  genus  doea  not  neceasarilj  consist  of  more 

Tciea  than  one ;  for,  whilst  some  contoio  hnndreds 
■peoiee,  others,  apparently  very  distinct,  contain 
only  one  oe  yet  known  to  oatutalists.  The  distino- 
tions  by  which  genera  are  separated  are  of  conree 
arbitrary,  and  ore  admitted  to  be  so  by  those  who 
deny  that  the  distinctions  between  species  are 
arbitrary,  or  that  there  in  any^  uncertaraty  abont 
them  but  what  arises  from  the  imperfection  of  oar 
knowledge ;  for,  at  present,  it  mnat  be  admitted  on 
nil  hands,  that  the  uncertainty  is  in  innnmerable 
instances  tot  great,  what  are  species  and  what  are 
varieties.  Ine  great  object,  however,  in  the  forma- 
tion of  genera  is  that  they  shall  be  accordant  with 
the  facts  ot  natare ;  and  so  in  regard  to  the  larger 
or  higher  groups  which  are  composed  of  associated 
genera,  as  tribes,  families,  orders,  classes,  &c.  But 
m  all  this,  the  creat  difficulty  is  that  affinities 
exist  on  numy  sides ;  and  that  groope  cannot  be 
tstiafoctoiily  arranged  in  the  order  of  a  series, 
but  often  rather  as  if  they  radiated  from  a  common 
centre ;  whilst  otherwise  viewed,  the  same  gronpa 
might  seem  to  radiate  very  diETerently  from  another 
common  centre.  A  natural  tyatem  is  one  framed 
with  the  ntmost  possible  regard  to  all  these  facts ; 
an  ariiSeial  tytlem  fixes  on  one  class  of  facti  and 

C«ed8  upon  it,  in  disregard  of  oU  others.  See 
IlSY, — In  the  inorganic  departments  of  nature, 
a  apecia  is  of  conise  something  different  From  what 
it  IB  in  the  organic.  But  classification  still  proceeds 
on  the  recoiFnition  of  facts  in  nature  itself,  which 
'0  formed. 

The  nomenclature  of  natural  hiatoiy,  in  so  far  as 
it  rebtea  to  organic  beings,  oontinnes  essentially  aa 
it  WM  established  by  Ijuueus.  See  Obhus.  The 
names  have  in  many  cases  been  changed,  but  not 
the  mode  of  nomenclatore. 

NATURAL  OBLIGATION,  tn  Law,  means  on 
oblisation  which  is  supposed  to  be  prescribed  by 
the  lavr  of  nature,  ss  the  obligation  of  a  pareat  to 
nuuntaio  his  child.  In  England,  such  an  obligation 
is  not  recognised  by  the  common  law,  and  therefore 
it  was  necessary  in  the  Poor-Law  statutes  to  punish 
by  a  pen^ty  parents  who,  being  able,  refused  or 
declined  to  maintain  their  children.  In  Scotland, 
the  natural  obligation  of  a  parent  to  maintain  his 
child  is,  however,  recognised  by  the  common  law, 
though  it  is  also  enforced  by  the  Foot-Law  statute. 

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY  is  a  term  fre- 
quently  employed  in  Great  Britain  to  designate  that 
branch  of  physical  science  which  has  for  Its  subject 
those  properties  and  phenomena  of  bodies  which 
_  _  .._.  . .  . .  ed  ' 
bodies  themselves. 

NATURAL  SELECTION.  See  Dabwiotak 
Theoby,  in  Sopp.,  Vol.  X. 

NATURAL  THEOLOGY  is  the  name  given  to 
that  branch  of  moral  science  which  concerns  itself 
with  the  evidences  for  the  existence  of  God,  drawn 
from  an  inquii;  into  the  constitution  of  the  universe^ 
It  is  believed  by  the  majority  of  philosophical 
thinkers,  that  these  evidences  warrant  the  belief  in 
a  Being  of  infinite  power,  wisdom,  benevolence,  and 
Justice.  There  are,  however,  phiJoBophers  of  great 
eminence  who  deny  that  there  is  snch  a  thing  as 
Natural  Theoloi^,  who  say  that  nature,  at  the 
best,  gives  forth  an  uncertain  sound  legaiiling  the 


of  a  Supreme  Btaag,  and  that  a  logicat 

demonstration  of  such  existence  is  imposmble,  and 
has  always  broken  down.  This  view  is  held,  for 
example,  by  atheists  like  David  Hume,  and  tba 
recent  Sooto-Oionian  school  of  metaphysicians,  of 
whom  tie  principal  representative  is  Dean  Mansel. 
The  standard  EngUah  work  on  the  subject  has  long 
been  Paley's  Natural  Theology  (Lood.  1802  ;  new 


also  contributions  to  this  branch  of  science. 

NATURALISATION,  the  act  of  placing  am 
alien  in  the  position,  or  investing  him  with  the 
rights,  of  a  natural-bom  dtizen.  The  present 
arrangemenla  with  reference  to  naturalisation,  by 
which  the  old  rulo  that  British  allcgiaiice  is  indel- 
ible, has  been  changed,  are  embodied  in  the  Nata< 
ralisation  Act  (ISTO),  33  Yict.  a  11,  and  the  Natu- 
ralisation Oath  Act  (1S70),  33  and  34  Vict.  o. 
102.  By  the  former  of  these  statutes  it  is  pro- 
vided, that  an  alien  who  has  resided  io  the  United 
Kingdom  for  a  term  of  not  less  than  tive  years,  or 
has  oeen  in  the  service  of  the  crown  for  a  term 
of  not  less  than  five  years,  and  intend^  when 
naturalised,  either  to  reside  in  the  United  Kingdom 
or  to  serve  under  the  crown,  may  apply  to  one  of 
Her  Majesty's  Principal  Secretaries  of  State  for 
a  certificate  of  naturalisation.  The  applicant  ia 
bound  to  oddoce  snch  evidence  of  his  residence,  or 
service,  and  intention  to  reside,  or  serve,  as  shall 
satisfy  the  Secretary  of  State,  who  may,  with  or 
without  reason  assigned,  give  or  wiQihoId  a  certi- 
ficate. No  appeal  lies  fnim  his  decision,  but  his 
certificate  takes  no  effect  until  the  applicant  haa 
taken  the  oath  of  allegiance.  An  alien,  U>  whom  k 
certificate  of  naturalisation  has  been  granted,  ia 
entitled  to  all  political  and  other  rights,  powers, 
and  privileges ;  and  subject  to  all  obligations  to 
whioh  a  natural-bom  subject  is  entitled  or  subject 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  with  this  qualification,  that 
be,  when  within  the  limits  of  the  foreign  state  of 
which  he  was  previously  a  subject^  is  not  deemed 
a  British  subject,  unless  he  has  ceased  to  be  a  aab- 
ject  of  the  foreign  state  by  the  laws  thereof,  or  by 
a  treaty  to  that  effect.  Such  a  certificate  may 
be  granted  to  any  person  with  respect  to  whose 
Ihitish  nationality  a  doubt  eidsts ;  and  a  grant  of 
sach  special  certificate  for  the  purpose  of  quieting 
doubta  shall  not  be  deemed  an  admission  that  the 
person  to  whom  it  was  granted  was  not  previously 
a  British  subject.  Aliens  previously  naturalised 
may,  on  application,  obtain  certificates.  A  British 
subject  wno  has  become  an  alien,  in  pursuance  of 
this  act  (see  Aliw),  may  apply  for  a  certificate  of 
readmission  to  Britiish  natiooahty  on  the  same  con- 
ditions aa  an  alien  by  birtli.  The  Secretary  o£ 
State  has,  in  this  case,  the  same  disoretion  ;  and  an 
oath  of  allegiance  ia  likewise  required.  The  privi- 
lege of  readmission,  like  that  of  admission  to  Britiah 
nationality,  requires  that  tiie  recipient  shall  have 
ceased  to  be  a  subject  of  the  foreign  state.  In 
the  colonies,  the  powers  of  the  Secretary  of  State 
are  conferred  on  the  governor.  By  the  Oaths 
Naturalisation  Act,  33  and  34  Vict,  c  132,  any 
person  making  or  subscribing  a  false  declaration  is 
declared  to  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour. 

In  France,  'La  grande  Naturalisation '  confers 
pohtical  privileges ;  *  La  pStite  Naturalisatian ' 
gives  all  the  private  rights  of  a  iYench  citizen,  and 
ID  has  been  doubted  whether  even  public  righta  are 
not  iacloded  in  it.  In  1867,  the  term  of  reu- 
dence  was  reduced  from  ten  years  to  three.  A 
subject  of  France  loses  his  native  character  by 
naturalisation  in  a  foreign  country,  or  acceptance  ot 
office  abroad  withoat  permission  of  the  state,  or 
even  by  establishing  himself  permanently  out  of  his 


KAtUlUUSEb-KAmCACHtA. 


eoimtnr.    Ha  may  recorer  hia  richta  by 
tioa  of  hu  foreign  office  or  domudH. 

Id  Pmuia,  the  higher  sdmiDittntiTe  vithoritiei 
etin  luttarftliie  any  stranger  who  Mtiafies  them  w  to 
his  condnot  and  means  □!  saMstence.  Nomination 
to  a  pnblio  office  confen  naturalisation.  Fmsaian 
nationality  i*  lo*t~(a)  by  discharge  npon  the  sub- 
ject's reqneit}  ib)  by  lentsnoe  of  the  comjwtent 
aathority;  (c)  by  livios  tec  years  in  a  foreign  country ; 
(d)  by  marriage  of  »  femab  subject  with  a  forsi^er. 

In  Austria,  the  suthoritiea  may  confer  the  rights 
of  citi  win  ship  on  a  peraon,  aft«r  ten  yean'  residenoe 
within  the  empire,  who  has  been  allowed  to  exercisa 
a  profaosion.  A  pubUo  fonctionary  becomes  thereby 
inTested  with  rights  of  ctttxeoship;  but  adtnisHion 
into  tiie  anny  has  not  Uiia  effect.-^In  the  Idngdom 
of  tbe  Netherlands,  the  power  of  naturalising  rests 
in  the  orown.— In  Russia,  natnralisation  is  effected 
by  taking  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  emperor. 

In  the  American  States,  five  years'  residence,  and 
a  declaration  of  inteation  to  become  a  citizen, 
emitted  before  a  magistrate,  is  reqnisite  to  natural- 
iaation.  See  Jl^mrt  of  Somt  CommiMiontrt  on 
Naiuniluaiioit  (1869). 

NATTTRALI'BBD.  In  the  language  o!  botanists 
and  zoolonats,  tho«e  plants  and  animals  are  said  to 
be  naiuraliMd  in  any  country,  which,  having  been  in- 
troduced into  it  by  man,  have  established  themsetves 
so  as  to  exist  without  his  care.  A  plant  or  animal 
ia  never  said  to  be  natnralised  so  lone  as  it  exists 
merely  in  a  state  of  cultivation  or  domestication, 
but  is  BO  when  it  becomes  truly  wild,  and,  unaided, 
competes  successfully  for  a  plaoe  among  those  which 
are  mdigcnooi  to  the  country.  Thus,  the  horse  is 
not  naturalised  in  Britain,  or  in  most  of  the  coun- 
tiie*  in  which  it  is  most  highly  valued ;  but  both 
the  horse  sod  the  ox  may  be  said  to  be  naturalised 
hi  South  America.  Many  of  the  plania  now  most 
oharacteristio  of  Southern  Europe,  are  sometimes 
said  to  have  been  originally  introduced  from  the 
East;  and  some  that  are  abundant  in  many  parts 
of  Britain  were  in  all  probability  brought  from  the 
continent  of  Enrope.  tJome  ol  these  iSmoat  evince 
their  foreign  origin  by  growing  chiefly  near  ruins, 
or  in  places  which  have  long  been  the  seats  of 
human  habitation.  Many  plants  now  naturalised 
in  Britain  appear  to  have  been  originally  brought 
for  medicinal  use,  although  now  duregarded.  Id 
many    cose^    however,    naturalisation    has    taken 

5 lace  without  any  attempt  having  ever  been  mode 
y  man  to  iatroduce  the  plant  even  for  aultivstiou ; 
and  thus  many  Earopean  weeds  are  now  common 
in  America,  the  seeds  having  found  their  way  tiiither 
with  those  <^  more  valnable  plants,  or  in  a<une  such 
accidental  manner.  The  same  thins  has  taken  phice 
as  to  aiiimala.  Thus,  mice  and  IMS  find  their  way 
from  one  country  to  another;  thus  the  bed-bug 
found  its  way  at  no  remote  date  to  Britain ;  other 
insects  have  been  even  more  recently  introduced 


established  itself  in  someBritdsh  rivera  and  canals. 
The  pheasant  maybe  mentioned  as  an  instance  of 
natarotiaation  in  Britain,  designed  and  successfully 
oecomplithed  by  man.  An  Acdimatitation  Society 
his  recently  been  formed  in  London,  which  has  for 
ite  object  the  naturalising,  rather  than  what  may 
more  strictly  be  colled  the  acclimatising,  of  animals 
deemed  suitable  and  desirable.  It  is  nnqaestion- 
able  that  much  may  be  done  by  natunJisatioD  of 
animals,  not  only  to  render  rural  aceoea  more 
attractive,  but  also  to  increase  their  economical 
productiveness.  Perhaps  nothinft  of  this  kind  has 
received  m  little  of  the  ottentdoo  due  to  its  im- 
portaaoe  aa  the  natnraUsation  of  fishe&  See 
PmcicnLTVKft 


NATTTRE-PRINTINQ.  Thii  U  a  nroc«n  by 
which  engravings  or  plates  answering  uereto  an 
produced  by  taking  impreasionB  of  the  objects 
themselvea,  and  prmtin^  from  them.  There  is 
some  dispute  as  to  the  onginol  inventor  of  this  art ; 
Denmark  cUims  it  for  a  native  of  Copenhagen, 
Peter  Kyle,  a  goldsmith,  who  died  about  1633, 
leaving  the  MS.  description  of  his  invention  in 
the  archives  of  the  Royal  CoUeotion  of  Engravings 
in  that  capital  It  is,  however,  admitted  that  no 
use  was  made  of  his  invention.  In  1863,  Alois 
Auer,  director  of  the  State  printing  establishment 
of  the  Austrian  empire,  published  bis  process,  and 
also  some  very  beautiful  works  illustrated  by  this 
art  About  the  same  time^  in  this  country,  MrO, 
W.  Aitkin  mode  known  his  discovery  of  an  exactly 


claims  may  be  advanced,  it  is  certain  that  Alois 


process  is  very  simple,  aa  practised  by  Auer ;  but 
it  cannot  be  applied  to  any  objects  excent  those 
with  tolerably  flat  surfaces,  such  as  dried  and  pressed 
plants,  embroidery  and  lace,  and  a  very  few  animal 
productions  The  object  is  placed  between  a  plate 
of  copper  and  another  of  lead,  both  worked  smooth, 
and  polished ;  they  are  drawn  throu^  a  pair  of 


o  fifty  b 


lied,  it  is  fonnd  that  a  most  beantifid  and  perfect 
mpression  of  the  object  has  been  made  m  the 
leaden  plate.  This  may  be  used  directly  as  an 
engraved  plate,  if  only  a  very  few  impressions  are 
wanted ;  but  as  it  is  too  soft  to  resist  the  action  of 
the  press  for  practical  purpoaea,  a  fac-simile  of  it  )• 
obtained  in  copper  by  the  eleotrotype  process,  whidi 
is  used  as  the  print! nc-pla to.  The  best  practical  use 
to  which  nature-printing  has  yet  been  applied  is  the 
multiplication  of  patterns  of  lace  and  other  figured 
gnifoces,  either  in  textile  materials  or  metou,  for 
trade  purposes.  Idce-prints  especially  ore  so  exactly 
like  the  ort^nals,  that  the  most  fastidious  can 
require  nothing  mora  ;  hence  the  cutting  up  of 
valuablD  pieces  of  lace  for  patterns  has  been  saved. 
Henry  Bradbury,  oE  the  then  existing  firm  of  Brad- 
bury and  Evans,  Loudon,  made  nature-printing  hia 
special  study,  and  produced  the  exquisite  Works, 
Natttre-prinitd  Fami,  and  Natvre-prinM  Sta- 
ICfedi,  in  two  vols,  each  (London :  Bradbury  and 

NAUMA'CHIA,  a  Greek  word,  signifying  liter- 
ally a  naval  battle,  afterwards,  among  the  Bonons, 
a  Bpectaele  which  consisted  in  the  imitation  of  a 
naval  batUe.  Julius  C<Bsar  was  the  Erst  to  intro- 
duce a  naumochia  into  Borne,  46  a.  c,  causing  a 
portion  of  the  Campui  Martins  to  b«  dn^  to  form 
a  Isie,  on  which  the '  spectacle '  came  off  Angus' 
tns  mode  an  artificial  lake  {ttayavm)  near  Uie  Tiber 
for  the  same  purpose,  which  was  afterwards 
frequently  used  for  nanmachira.  Claudius  also 
exhibited  a  splendid  one  on  Lake  Fucinus.  Nero, 
Domitian,  and  others  wero  likewise  fond  of  such 
amasements.  The  comLwtanta  were  termed  Nau- 
maduav;  they  were  for  the  moat  p«rt  either  cap- 
tives or  condemned  eriminala ;  and  the  rival  fleets 
took  Uieir  names  from  the  famous  nwitims  nation* 
of  antiquity :  Tyrions  and  Egyptians,  Bhodiona 
and  Sicilians,  Persians  and  Athenians,  Corcymsns 
and  Corinthians,  Athenians  and  SyiscuMUM.  The 
magnificence  of  these  spectacles  may  be  estimated 
from  the  fact,  that  in  the  one  exhibited  on  Lake 
Fnonns,  10,000  men  were  angaged.  TheM 
uatamujikt  were  not  Aam-fightt,  imy  more  than 
ordinary  gladiatorial  combata.  Both  sulea  fought  on 
in  imI  eanuit  ftn-  dear  lits  ontil  ona  wo*  utterly 


tJAtfMBtrftG-HAtJTlLtta. 


ovopowered;    And   «    a    role,    multatndel    « 
'  batctwrad  to  make  a  Soman  holiday.' 

NAUIABURO,  a  town  of  Fmsiiaa  SOrony, 
tba  gOTeniiiMDt  of  Meneburg,  litniated  17  nulea 
■onth-sonUi-wMt  of  the  town  ot  that  name,  on  the 
8a^  in  the  midtt  of  a  atriking  amphitheatre  of 
vine-clad  hilla.  Beaidea  ita  oathedral — a  noble 
Chithio  itnictut^  oompkted  in  1249,  with  two 
cluing  and  containing  many  beantifal  aanJptnna — 
tbere  are  eevend  other  churebM.  The  mannfectoree 
are  cotton  and  woollen  fabrici,  leather,  and  chemical 
prodncta.  Wine  is  ktowd  in  the  viciaity  in  con- 
■iderable  quantity — 11,000  gallon!  yearly.  Durini; 
the  Thirty  Yearrf  War.and  in  the  campaigns  of  1806 
and  1813,  N.,  in  which  the  Prunian  maj^azines  were 
lodged,  was  a  place  of  great  importoaoe.  Five 
annual  fain  are  held  here,    Pop^  (ISSO)  17,868. 

NAU'PLIA,  a  small  fortified  town  and  seaport  in 
the  Morea,  Greece,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
Onlf  of  Areos  or  Nauplia,  and  7  mile*  south-east  of 
the  town  of  Argoa.  It  ii  laid  out  in  the  manner  of 
a  European  town.  Ita  roadstead  is  one  of  the  best 
in  Greece.  In  the  Church  of  St  Spiridion,  Caiio 
d'Istria  waa  aaaaasinated  in  1S31.  N.  it  of  high 
antiquity.  At  an  early  period  it  was  the  port  and 
arsenal  of  Argoa.  In  the  13th  o.,  it  was  occupied 
bj  the  Venetians,  and  was  taken  by  the  Tnrtu  in 
lS4a  From  1824  to  1835,  it  was  the  capital  Ol 
Greece,  and  had  a  popolatiou  of  upwards  of  12,000 ; 
bnt  on  the  removal  of  the  eonrt  to  AUiens,  it  fell 
into  decay.    Pop.  (1873)  4598. 

NAU'BEA  is  a  distressing  lensatioQ  alwajfs 
referred  to  the  stomach.  It  is  unattended  by  pain, 
but  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  feeling  of  general 
languor  or  debility,  a  small  and  often  irregular 
pulse,  a  pale,  cool,  and  moint  (kin,  general  muscular 
relaxation,  an  increased  fiow  of  sahr^  and  a  sensa- 
tion that  vomiting  will  supervene.  It  is  most 
commonly  a  direct  symptom  of  disease  or  disorder 
of  the  stomach,  bnt  sometimee  it  is  a  very  important 
indirtct  symptom  ot  illfom  gf  ^onia  part  at  a 
distance  bom  the  stomach — as,  for  exampl^  the 
brain  or  the  kidney.  The  nausea  which  is  so 
troublesome  to  pregnant  women  is  duo  to  the 
irritation  excitea  by  the  enlarged  uterus  being 
reflected  by  nervous  agency  to  the  stomach. 

NATTT^  OAUPOOf  ES,  fto.  These  wi 
the  commencement  of  an  edict  in  Boman  law,  which 
made  shipmasters,  innkeepers,  snd  stablars  liable 
for  the  uJety  ot  the  goods  brought  into  the  ehipi 
inn,  or  stable.  The  same  doetrine  is  adopted  by  the 
oommon  law  of  England  and  Scotland,  anbj^  to 
variationt  pioducea  by  the  Carriers'  Act,  and 
Railway  and  Canal  TrafGo  Act,  so  for  as  regards 
Oarriers  and  railway  and  canal  oompaniea. 

NAUTICAL  AliMANAO.  a  wtwk  projected  for 
the  special  behoof  of  Mtronomen  and  Davigator& 
See  AiMinta.  It  is  chiefly  valnable  to  the  latter 
olass  from  its  contuning  tabUa  of  the  'lunar 
distances' — L«i,  distaooe*  of  the  moon  from  a  few 
(S  to  7)  of  the  mora  prominent  stus,  given  for  every 
throe  hours  throoghant  the  year— by  which,  at  the 
present  day,  longitudes  (see  LATmmB  amd  Lohoi- 

mined.    To  the 

furnishes  a  great  nus  of  important 

the  position   of  the  moon   in  right 

declinatian  for  every  hour,  and  the  sun's  latitude 

and  longitude  for  every  day  in  the  year ;  it  shews 

the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  the  sun's  and  moon's 

paralluc,   aberration,   &□.,  at    different   times ;    it 

■appUes  the  necessary  data  for  the  dsterminaijon 

of  toe  real  or  apparent  size,  position,  and  motion 


details  concerning  eclipses,  occultations,  transits,  and 
other  celestial  phenomena  occniring  during  the  year. 
It  is  senersUy  issued  four  yean  in  advance  for  the 
sake  <u  mariners  going  on  long  voysgea. 

NAUTILUS,  a  genus  ot  Utrobrandiiate  Cqi^ 
lopoda  (q.  v.),  extremely  interesting  as  the  jtTjJting 
represan^tivea  of  sm  order  of  molluscs  now  reduoea 
to  a  very  few  n>eciee,  bnt  of  which  the  foesQ 
remuni  attest  the  gi«st  abundance  in  foimer 
KBolcaieal  periods.  Tue  specie*  of  this  genus  are 
louna  only  in  the  seas  of  warm  olimatea.  One  or 
more  of  them  must  have  been  known  to  Anstotle, 
as  appean  from  bis  description,  which,  however,  is 
not  minute.  Yet  it  is  bat  reooitly  that  th^  came 
under  the  observation  of  modem  natoialists ;  and 
they  were  very  imperfectly  known,  till  a  specimsii, 
obtMned  by  Dr  Bennett  in  a  bay  of  die  New 
Hebrides  in  1829,  was  submitted  to  the  axaminatioB 
of  Professor  Omn,  and  became  the  subject  of  > 
valuable  memoir  by  him.  The  sliell,  indeed,  has 
long  been  common  enough  in  oolleotions,  being 
plentifully  found,  entire  or  in  fngmeata,  on  many 
tropical  shores ;  but  from  the  Mell  alone,  littfo 
coidd  be  learned  ooncemiag  the  animal  to  which  it 
belonged.  The  shell  is  spiral,  tile  spire  not  at  all 
elevated ;  and  thus,  in  external  form,  resembles  the 
shells  of  many  species  of  snail ;  but  internally,  it  is 
eanuralid,  or  divided  into  duunbers,  ty  tratuverae 
curved  partitioii*  of  shelly  matter.  In  a  very  young 
state,  this  structure  does  not  exist ;  bat  as  the 
animal  increases  in  size,  it  deserts  its  first  habita- 
tion, which  then  becomes  an  empty  ch&mber,  and 
so  proceeds  from  one  to  another  still  larger,  occu- 
pying the  outermost  only,  but  retaining  a  connection 
with  all  by  means  of  a  membranous  tube  (itpAunc^ 
which  passes  through  the  centre  of  each  partition. 
The  use  of  this  connection  is  not  known ;  but  IJia 
most  probable  aupposition  is,  that  the  Aniipal  is 
enabled,  by  tbrowii^  air  or  some  kind  of  gas  into 
the  empty  chamben  of  the  shell,  or  by  ex^nating 
them  of  air,  to  change  the  total  w^ghl,  so  that  it  may 
rise  or  sink  in  the  water  at  pleasure.  It  commonly 
inhabits  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  where  it  creeps 
about,  probably  like  the  gasteropods,  by  means  of  a 
large  muscular  diso  with  which  the  brad  is  furnished; 
bnt  it  sometimes  rises  to  the  surface,  and  ii  to  ba 
seen  floating  there.  Dr  Bennett  states  that  the 
specimen  wMch  he  fortunately  captured,  atbacted 
his  attention  when  thus  floating,  sa  an  object  msem< 
blicg  a  dead  tortoise-shell  cat.  The  story  of  ita 
spmding  a  sail  ia  as  fabulous  as  the  siinilar  etoiy 
legardioe  the  argonaut  The  head  and  arms  can  tie 
protrodfld  from  the  shell,  and  can  also  be  completely 
retracted  within  iL  There  are  numerous  arms 
attached  to  the  head,  nineteen  in  the  best  knowa 
species ;  thne  are  also  numerous  other  tentacles ; 
but  none  of  these  oceans  are  furnished  with  sucken^ 
and  they  are  feeble  m  oomparison  with  the  corres- 
ponding oigans  of  many  of  the  hisber  or  dibraochiats 
cejdiabpods.  The  inouth  is  of  the  parrot's  bill 
form,  as  in  the  other  cephalopoda ;  but  the  mandiblea 
are  not  entirely  composed  of  homy  matter,  thdr 
exbvmilJee  beiog  calcareous  aod  of  a  hardness  appa- 
rently sdaptod  for  breaking  shells.  Their  edges  are 
also  notched,  and  shew  an  adaptation  for  orushing 
rather  than  for  cutting.  The  tongue  is  large.  The 
gizsard  is  muscular.  The  food  appeals  to  consist 
at  least  in  great  part,  of  crustaceans. 

Only  three  species  of  N.  are  known,  of  which  tti« 


I,  whiiji  is  found  in 


best  known  and  apparently  the  most  abundant,  ia 

the  PUHLT  N.  {N.  poofpiliva), 

the  Indian  and  the  Padflo  Oc 
beautifully  nacreous  within;  and  is  extemallv 
porcdain-like,  white,  and  stnakad  with  raddisfi 
chestnut  The  shell,  being  large,  thick,  and  strong 
is  used  for  a  variety  of  purpoaea  by  th«  natiroi 

-  ...ooTt 


NAtJTittJS  PROPELLER— NAVAt  RfiSERVti. 


of  tha  East  Indiei  aaA  Sooth  Se&  iBlaods ;  it  is 
k1io  nude  into  onumsnts  of  Tsriaiu  kindi  in  Chioa 
uid  elaewhere.  The  animAl  ii  eaten  by  tha  Fijians 
and  other  South  8«b  islaDders,  aod  ia  muoh  mte«ned 
M  an  article  of  food.  The  Fijians  capture  it  by 
meani  of  a  baaket-trap,  somewhat  like  those 
used  for  oatohiiig  lobatara.  baited  vith  boiled 
craySah.  The  name  Pafkb  N.  has  •ometiiow  b««n 
given  to  the  Areonaut  (q.  v.). 

FouU  Naulma. — About  one  handled  and  fifty 
rpeciea  of  foaiil  shells  have  been  referred  to  this  genos. 
They  oocnr  in  all  the  strata  from  the  Upper  SSnrian 
to  the  iQOtt  recent  depwit*.  Numeroua  forms,  how- 
ever, which  exhibit  very  wide  differenocs,  have  been 
incongmonsly  associatad  under  this  genario  name. 
The  paheoEOlo  nantili  are  so  remarkable,  that  they 
moat  Mttunly  be  referred  to  one  or  more  leparate 
g«ner»:  lome  of  the  aarboniferouB  speoies  have  a 
•i|uare  baok,  and  the  whorls  either  compact  or  open 
in  the  centre,  while  the  last  chamber  is  more  or 
less  disunited  from  the  shell ;  and  the  Devonian 
Clymenia  has  angular  autaret  and  an  internal 
aiphuncle.  Until  a  careful  revision  of  this  section 
of  the  Cephalopoda  is  mode,  it  will  be  better  to 
consider  the  species  as  belonging  to  the  family 
aautHidce,  and  not  to  the  geniu  NaMtiUu, 

NAtr'TILUS  PEOPBLLER.    SeeStrpp-.Vol.X. 

NAUTOO',  a  town  in  Illinois,  United  States  of 
America,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
220  miles  above  St  Louis.  It  was  built  by  the 
Mormons  in  1840.  and  in  1840  contained  a  population 
of  15,000.  Its  principaJ  featule  was  a  great  temiJe 
of  polished  marble,  original  in  style,  and  imposicg  in 
appearancCi  After  the  mnrder  of  Joseph  Smitb,  the 
Mormon  prophet  {see  Mobuons),  and  the  expulsion 
of  his  followers,  the  temple  was  bumei  The  town 
was  afterwards  bought  and  occupied  by  a  French 
Socialist  community,  under  the  leaderehip  of  M. 
Cabet  This  eiperiment  having  proveii,  like  others, 
a  failure,  the  once  famous  city  nas  been  reduced  to 
an  inconsiderable  village. 

NAVAL  ARCHITECTURE.     See   Shit- 


N A'VAL  CADE'TS  are  the  youths  training  for 
service  as  naval  officers.  Every  admiral  on  hoisting 
hia  flag  may  nominate  two,  every  captain  one  cadet. 
The  boy  must  be  between  12  and  13}  years  old.  He 
is  examined  at  the  Rojral  Naval  College  at  Green- 
wich, and  if  he  posaes,  is  sent  for  two  years  to  ilie 
Brilannia  training-ship,  at  Dartmouth.  At  tbe  end 
of  that  time,  if  he  has  progrcaaed  satdsfactorily,  be  is 
put  into  a  sea-going  ahip,  and  becomes  a  midshipman 
at  once  if  he  has  gained  a  first-class  certificate. 

NATAL  CROWN,  in  Heraldry,  a  rim  of    

rouod  which  are  placed  alternately  prows  of  gaQeya 
and  square  sails.  The  device  is  saui  to  have  origi- 
nated with  the  Roman  emperor  Claudius,  who, 
after  the  conqaeat  of  Britain,  institated  it  as  a 
inl  for  maritime  services.     He 


captured,  was  entitled  to  k  i 

B     crown,     A  naval  crown  supporting 

P    the   crest    in    place    of  a    wreath, 

Y    occiira  in   various  grants  of  arms 

in  the  early   part   of  the   present 

Naval  Crown,    century,  to  the  naval  heroes  of  the 

late  war.    The  crest  of  the  Earl  of 

6t  Vincent,  bestowed  on  him  after  hfs  victory  over 

the  Spanish  fleet  in  1797,  is  issuing  out  of  a  naval 

crown  or,  enwrapped  by  a  wreath  of  laurel  vert,  a 

demi-pegasus   areent   maned   and   hoofed    of  tjie 

first  and  winged  aznie,  oharged  in  the  wing  with 

a  lleur-de-lii  or. 

NATAL  RESEKTE,  SatiX^  ii »  sort  of  militia 


n  ad^tion 


aaxiliary  to  the  royal  navy.  It  is  a  force  held  in 
high  esteem  by  naval  men ;  and  is  conaidered  on 
extremely  valuable  reserve  oE  trained  men  ready 
to  man  the  fleet  in  case  of  emei^enoy.  The  foroa 
was  instituted  in  1359,  onder  the  Act  22  and  23 
Tiet.  c  40.  That  act  authorises  the  engagement  of 
30,000  men,  each  for  a  period  of  five  years,  and 
provides  that  each  shall  be  trained,  for  28  days  in 
every  year,  to  the  use  of  arms  and  naval  tactics, 
either  in  Her  Majesty's  ships  or  on  shore.  In  case 
of  national  emeniency,  these  men  can,  by  royal  pio- 
clamation,  be  colled  out  for  service  in  the  nary  in 
any  part  of  the  world,  for  periods  not  exceeding 
five  years.  While  training  and  while  called  out  for 
actual  service,  the  men  receive  the  same  wag 
corresponding  ratings  in  the  royal  navy : 
they  each  receive,  as  retaining  fee,  a  snm  oi  six 
pounda  for  every  year  in  which  the  regulated  train- 
mg  has  been  completed-  On  actnol  service,  after 
tl^ee  yeara— whether  of  nnintcrrapted  service,  or 
at  broken  intervals — the  volunteer  beoomes  entitled 
to  twopence  extra  per  diem.  The  man  can  terminate 
his  engagement  at  the  end  of  five  years,  unless  on 
actnal  service,  when  the  Queen  may  require  him  to 
oomplete  five  years  of  such  service  before  dischiu^- 
ing  him.  During  the  continuance  of  his  engwement, 
he  must  not  embark  on  voyues  which  snail  entail 
a  longer  absence  from  the  United  Kinsdoin  than 


praotioable  to  suit  the  sailor's 
he  may  break  the  2S  days  into  shorter  periods,  none 

being  leas  than  seven  davs.  He  is  drilled  as  near  as 
pracBcable  to  his  own  home,  nnder  the  officers  of 
the  Coaat-guard.  Penalties  are  enforced  if  men 
fail  to  attend;  and  fotlnra  after  proper  notice  to 
come  up  for  actual  service  is  held  equivalent  to 
desertion.  While  training  or  on  duty,  Vie  men  aro 
liable  to  all  the  punishments,  as  they  are  entitled  to 
all  the  rights  and  privileges,  of  regular  seamen.  The 
men  considered  most  desirable  are  (1)  those  having 
fixed  residences,  and  personally  known  to  the  ship- 
ing-moster  or  his  deputies  ;  and  (2)  men  having  regu- 
lar cmploymect  in  the  cooating-trade,  or  iu  vessels 
the  business  of  which  brings  them  bacu  to  the  same 
ports  at  frequent  and  known  intervals.  In  1861, 
the  system  ot  the  Reserve  was  eitfinded  to  officers 
of  the  merchnut-aervice^  certificated  msaters  and 
mates  being  respectively  granted  commissions  in  the 
Naval  Reserve  as  lieutenants  and  sub-lieutenanta. 
The  holders  are  required  to  train  for  28  days  annually 
on  board  Her  Majesty's  ships,  and  are  liable  to  bo 
called  out  for  actnal  service  when  required-  The 
nainber  of  these  offioers  allowed  by  regulation  is  130 
Uentenants  and  270  sub-lieutenants. 

Hie  Royal  Naval  Reserve  now  contains  three 
elaaaes  of  men.  (1)  The  first  class  comorisea  men 
nnder  30  years  of  age,  who  can  prove  uat  during 
eight  of  the  tea  years  preceding  their  application 
they  have  been  serving  on  foreign-going  or  r^^ar 
coasting  vessels  ;  and  that  they  have  beld  the  ratin); 
of  A.B.  for  three  years-  Men  discharged  from  the 
navy  as  able  seamen  with  good  characters  may  be 
enrolled  in  the  first  class  np  to  35  ^ean>  of  ago. 

(2)  The  second  chiss  contains  men  with  the  proper 
qualifications  between  19  and  30  years  of  age,  who 
have  been  at  sea  on  foreien-going,  coasting  or  fish- 
ing vessels  for  3  years,  of  wMch  at  least  6  monttkl 
must  have  been  with  the  grade  of  ordinary  seaman. 

(3)  The  third  class  comprises  hoyp  from  16  apwards 
who  have  been  18  months  nnder  training  in  4 
mercantile  trainmg  ahip,  are  under  engagement  to 
join  a  merchant  ship,  ara  physically  and  mentally 
qoalified,  and  can  show  protiaienoy  in  navigation 
and  gnnnery.  They  may  ha  promoted  to  the  second 
elasB  at  the  age  of  19  after  6  monliui' aervioe  at  Mail 

■'^1' 


KAVaL  TACTICS-KAVABEE. 


Kud  in  due  time  to  the  Rnt  clut.  Every  enrolment 
ia  for  five  jreart ;  and  when  a  man  a  promoted  to  a 
biglier  clssa,  he  roust  re-enrol.  The  aDcnal  training 
may  be  accoin^liBbed  either  on  hoard  a  ship  of  irar 
or  at  a  Naval  Seeerve  battery.  In  1886  there  were 
in  aU  abont  19,000  men  in  the  KaTal  Reserve.  The 
total  cost  of  the  Naval  Reserve,  officers  and  men, 
for  the  year  lSS£-86,  was  estunated  at  £222,634. 

Besides  the  Royal  Naval  Reserve,  there  are  other 
Naval  Reserve  forces  at  command  of  the  Admiralty. 
Of  these  the  most  important  is  the  Coast  Guard, 
discoseed  in  a  separate  article ;  another  ia  the  Royal 
Naval  Artillery  Volunteers  (discussed  at  Volith- 
TlBRg)  ;  the  third  is  a  force  drawn  from  amongst 
the  seamen  pensioners  (see  Pensions).  Petty 
olficerE  and  seamen  of  the  navy,  on  being  pensioned 
for  length  of  service,  may,  i[  under  45  years  of  age, 
be  enrolled  in  the  Seaman  Pensioner  Reserve, 
They  mnst  serve  14  days  annnally,  and  on  reaching 
SO  years  of  age  get  the  Greeawich  Hospital  age 
pension  and  are  exempt  from  further  drill. 

NATAL  TACTICS.    See  TACmca  (Nayai,). 

NAT  AN,  a  market  town  in  Meath  ooanty,  Ire- 
land, situatsd  at  the  Junction  of  the  Boyne  and 
Blackwatar,  28  miles  N.W.  of  Dublin  by  roil.  The 
town  consists  of  three  main  streets,  has  a  handsome 
Protectant  Church  and  a  large  Roman  Catholic 
Church ;  a  Roman  Catholic  dioceaan  seminary,  a 
barrack,  court-house,  infirmary,  fever  hospital,  and 
workhouse.  N.  has  also  a  la»e  power-loom  factory. 
Fop.  (1S81)  3873,  almost  aU  Cat£olic«. 

NAVANAOAB.  See  NowurcooDK  in  Sitpp., 
ToLX. 

NAVAItrNO,  or  Neo-Castro,  a  seaport  and 
citadel  on  the  aonth-weat  coast  of  the  Morea  in 
Greece,  contains  only  2000  inhabitants,  but  is  of 
importance  from  its  position,  oommanding  the 
entrance  of  the  Bay  of  Navarino,  at  the  sonthem 
extremity  of  which  it  is  situated.  On  the  island  of 
Sphagia  or  Sphaoterio,  which  closes  the  bay's  mouth, 
was  formerly  situated  Fylua  Messeniaca.  the  town 
of  Nestor,  in  a  spot  where  now  stands  Old  Navarino 
or  Pal«ocastron.  The  Bay  of  Navarino  vbb  the 
a  great  sea-fight  between  the  Athenians 
—   ---'  the  Spartans  [ 

ifeated:  and  ot 

1   of    the   Turkish 


Biscaya;  and  is  situated  in  42°  20*— 43° 
And  0*  OO'—T  aV  W.  long.  Area  about  4000 
•quare  mile*.  Poji.  (1877)  ;l04,18t  The  country 
ia  mountainoos,  being  bounded  and  traversed  by  the 
Pyreneea,  spurs  of  which  occupy  almost  the  whole 
of  the  province  in  ita  northern  and  eastern  ports. 
The  highest  peaks  are  Altovtsear,  Adi,  Alcorraoz, 
and  Hufla.  N.  is  watered  by  Uie  Bidossoo,  the 
Aneza,  and  by  the  £bro,  together  with  its  tribu- 
taries, the  Ega  and  Aragon,  on  the  level  shores  of 
which  com,  wine,  and  oil  of  good  quahty  are  pro- 
duced. Some  of  the  valleys  which  intersect  the 
mounbun-ransea,  as  those  of  Roncesvniles.  Lescon, 
Baatan,  and  Boncol,  have  a  fruitful  aoil,  and  yield 
good  cmpa ;  but  in  the  mountain  districta,  huebandir 
la  impracticable,  and  the  inhabitants  nearly  all 
follow  the  chose,  aa  much  from  necessity  as  inclina- 
tion ;  and  while  a  large  number  of  the  Z4avarrese  ore 
soldiers,  a  still  luger  proportion  are  Bmneglers— the 
proximity  of  the  province  to  France,  ana  the  dan- 
gsroiis  character  of  Uie  almost  laaoceasible  mouutoin 


pasaes  which  alone  connect  the  two  countries,  hold- 
ing out  many  inducement*  and  facilities  in  the  wa^ 
of  smuggling.  The  moontain  forests  still  harbour 
bears,  wolves,  wild-cats,  goats,  deer,  and  an  abund- 
ance of  nunc  of  every  other  kind.  Iron  and  salt 
are  the  chief  mineral  prodncte  of  the  district,  bat 
these  are  obtained  in  sufficient  quantities  to  ba 
exported.  The  people  of  N.  are  a  hardy,  brave,  and 
hospitable  race,  loyal  to  the  sovereign,  attentive 
observers  of  ibe  forms  of  their  religion,  and,  excepft 
in  the  matter  of  smuggling,  honest  and  moral ;  bat 
they  are  passionate  and  distrustful,  prone  to  anger, 
and  keen  in  avenging  an  insult,  reiki  or  imaginary. 
Although  not  industrious,  the  people  follow  a  few 
branches  of  industry,  and  manufacture  glose^  leatiier, 
soap,  chocolate,  &c,  of  good  quahty. 

The  Navarrese,  with  few  exceptions,  are  membera 
of  the  church  of  Rome,  to  wbose  tenets  they  cling 
with  superstitious  devotion.  They  have  alwaya 
iotermarriad  chiefly  among  their  own  compatriot^ 
and  are  a  nearly  pure  Basque  race.  In  the  moun- 
taioons  districts,  Bosque  is  still  spoken,  bnt  in  tb« 
plains,  the  modem  Oastdlian  form  of  Spanish  ia 
rapidly  supplanting  the  ancient  language  of  tha 
luntry.  The  chief  town  is  Pamplona  (q.v.). 
The  territory  known  from  an  early  period  of 
Spanish  history  under  the  name  of  N,,  was  occupied 
in  ancient  times  by  the  Vasconea,  who  were  subdued 
by  the  Goths  in  the  £th  century.  After  having 
become  gradually  amalgamated  wiUi  their  conquerors, 
tha  people  continued  to  enjoy  a  species  of  turbulent 
independence  under  military  leaders  until  the  8th  c, 
when  they  were  almost  annihilated  by  the  hordea 
ot  Arabs  who  were  rapidly  spreading  their  domioioa 
to  all  parts  of  the  peninsula.  The  Gothic  Vasoonea 
of  N,  who  had  been  converted  to  Christianity, 
offered  o  gnllant  resistance  to  their  infidel  invader*, 
and  although  repeatedly  beaten,  they  were  not 
wholly  subdued.  The  remnant  which  escaped  tha 
sword  of  their  Moslem  enemies  took  refuge  in  tha 
fastnesses  of  the  mountains,  and  choosing  s  knight 
of  their  number,  Garcia  Ximenes,  as  their  leader  or 
king,  they  sallied  forth,  and  by  tlieir  gallant  resist- 
ance, compelled  the  Arabs  to  leave  them  in  tha 
enjoyment  of  an  independence  greater  than  that  of 
the  neighbourit}g  states.  On  ^e  extinction  of  tha 
race  of  Ximenes,  in  the  middle  of  the  9th  c,  the 
Navarrese  elected  as  their  king  Inigo  Suichei^ 
Count  of  Bigorre,  in  whose  fam^  the  succession 
remained  till  the  marriage  of  Phiup  the  Fair  with 
Qneen  Joanna  L  of  N. ;  and  the  accession  of  tha 
former  to  the  throne  of  France  in  1286,  rendered  N. 
a  appanage  of  the  crown  of  France.  It  continued 
part  of  that  kingdom  during  the  successive  reigna 
of  Louis  X.,  Philip  v.,  and  Charlea  the  Fair;  bnt  on 
the  death  of  this  last  in  1328,  Franco  fell  to  tha 
family  of  Valois,  and  the  daughter  of  Louis  X.,  tba 
rightful  heir,  succeeded  to  fT  aa  Joanna  IL  Ths 
'  of  the  kingdom  present  no  feature*  ot 
;  during  the  next  himdred  years.  Tho 
;b  of  Blanche,  daughter  of  Charlea  IIL  cl 
1  John  II.  of  Aragon,  in  1442,  did  not  pro- 
n  annexation  of  N.  to  An^n,  as  John 
Eufiered  his  wife  to  rale  her  own  kingdom  aa  aba 
pleased,  and  even  after  her  deatji  and  his  anbae- 
quent  re-marriage,  he  resigned  the  government 
entirely  to  his  son  b^  Blanche.  This  son,  known  ■• 
Charles,  Prince  oE  Viano,  having  attempted  to  remain 
neutral  in  his  father's  qiiarreb  with  CasUe,  Julm 
expelled  him  and  his  elder  sister  Bhmche,  who 
sided  with  him,  from  N.,  and  conferred  the  king* 
dom  on  Leonora  Countess  de  Foix,  his  jroung^ 
daughter,  by  Blanche,  whoee  misrule  completed  the 
disorganisation  which  these  family  qnorreU  had  com- 
menced. Her  son,  Francis,  called  Phcebua,  from  his 
beauty,  aocoeeded  in  147i^  and  bia  nrtw  CaUumiM 


NAVE-NAVIES. 


in  14S3.  Ferdiiund  ud  laabeUa  Ka^ht  to  Quury 
the  yoang  queen  to  their  son  and  heir,  the  PriDce 
of  Astunu,  bat  her  mother,  a  French  princess, 
married  her  to  Jeau  d'AIbret.  Ferdinand,  however, 
WM  not  williog  to  let  the  prize  eaoape  him,  and  on 
tome  alight  pretext  he  leized  N.  in  1512.  Alter  this 
act  of  BpoUatioD,  there  remained  nothing  of  ancient 
N.  bOTond  a  tmall  territory  on  the  notlSeni  iide  of 
the  Pyrenees,  which  was  inbeequently  united  to 
the  erown  of  France  by  Henri  IV.  oE  Bourbon, 
King  of  N.,  whoae  mother,  Jeanne  d'AIbret,  waa 
granddauehter  of  Queen  Catharine ;  and  hence  the 
history  ofN.  ends  with  liia  acceation  to  the  French 
throne  in  1589.  The  Navarrese  were,  however, 
permitted  to  rebun  many  of  their  ancient  privileges, 
after  their  incorporation  with  the  other  domaina  of 
the  Spanish  crown,  until  the  reign  of  Queen  Isabella 
II.,  when  the  active  aid  which  they  f urnishod  to  the 
pretender,  Don  Carlos,  in  the  rebellion  of  1834— 
1839,  led  to  the  abrogation  of  their  fuerot,  or 
national  assemblies,  and  to  the  amalgamation  of 
their  nationality  with  that  of  the  kingdom  at  large. 
In  the  later  Carlist  struggle  of  1S72— 1S76,  N.  was 
again  a  principal  seat  oitha  war,  the  inhabitauta 
being  stimulated  in  their  assistance  of  the  repre- 
■ent^TO  of  the  claims  and  title  of  Don  Carlos  by 
his  pronise  of  restoring  their /u<ro«. 

NAVK    See  Ceubce. 

NA'VEW  (Fr.  navcUe),  a  garden  vegetable  mnch 
cultivated  in  France  and  other  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  although  little  used  in  Britain. 
it  is  by  some  ootanists  regarded  as  a  cultivated 
variety  of  BranUa  aaptu,  or  Rape  (q.  v.l,  whilst 
others  refer  it  to  B.  campalrU,  sometimes  called  Wild 
N.,  the  species  which  is  also  soppoeed  to  be  the 
original  01  the  Swedish  Turnip  (q.v,).  The  port  ased 
is  Uie  swollen  root,  which  is  rather  like  a  carrot  in 
shape.  Its  colour  is  white.  Its  flavour  is  much 
strongei  than  that  oE  the  turnip.  It  socceeds  bast 
in  a  dry  light  soiL  The  seed  is  sown  in  spring 
and  the  plants  thinned  out  to  S  inches  apart. 

NAVI'CITLA  (Lat.  a  UtUe  ship),  ■  genus  of 
Diaioi7taea»  (q.  v.],  receiving  its  name  from  the 
reaemblanoe  of  its  form  to  that  of  a  boat.  Some 
of  the  spedes  are  very  common. 

NAVI'CULAR  DISEASE,  in  the  Horse,  consists 
in  strain  of  the  strong  Sexor  tendon  of  the  foot,  at 
the  point  within  the  hollow  of  the  fetlock,  vhere  it 
passes  over  the  navicular  bone.  It  is  most  common 
amongst  the  lighter  sorts  of  hones,  and  especially 
where  they  have  upright  pastema,  out-turned  toes, 
and  early  severe  work  on  hard  roads.  It  soon 
gives  rise  to  a  short  tripping  yet  cautious  gait, 
undue  wear  of  the  toe  of  the  shoe,  wasting  of  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulder, and  profocting  or'  pointing' 
<rf  the  affected  limb  whilst  standing.  Wheu  esr^ 
noticed,  and  in  horses  with  well-formed  legs,  it  is 
often  curable  ;  but  when  of  several  weeks'  standing. 
it  leads  to  so  much  inflammation  and  destruction  of 
the  tendon  and  adjoining  ports,  that  soundness  and 
fitneu  for  fast  work  are  again  impossible.  Rest 
■honld  at  onoe  be  given,  the  shoe  removed,  the  toe 
ahortened,  and  the  foot  placed  in  a  large,  soft,  hot 
ponltioe,  changed  every  few  hours.  laiaUve  medi- 
oine  and  bran  mashes  ahonld  be  ordered,  and  a  soft 
bed  mode  with  old  short  Utter.  Alter  a  few  days, 
Mid  when  the  heat  and  tenderness  abate,  cold  applt- 
ottiona  ibonld  superBede  the  hot ;  and,  after  another 
week,  a  blister  may  be  applied  ronnd  the  coronet, 
and  the  animal  placed  for  two  months  in  a  good 
ynd  or  in  a  grass  field,  if  the  ground  be  soft  and 
moist ;  or,  if  suffidentl;  strong,  at  slow  farm-work 
OD  aoft  land.  Divisian  of  the  nerve  going  to  the  foot 
lOmorea  Mutation,  and  consequently  Umene« ;  «q<1 


hence  ia  useful  in  relieving  animals  intended  for 
breeding  purposes  or  for  slow  work.  The  opwation, 
however,  is  not  to  be  recommended  where  fast 
work  is  required ;  for  tile  animal,  in  "  ~ 
uses  the  limb  as  if  nothing  were 
disease  rapidly  becomes  worsa 

NAVIES,  Ancient  and  Medieval.  The  ancient 
method  of  naval  warfare  consisted,  in  great  part,  in 
the  driving  of  braked  vessels  against  each  other ; 
and  there^re  skill  and  celerity  in  mancEuvring,  so 
as  to  strike  the  enemy  at  the  greatest  disadvantage, 
were  of  the  utmost  importance.  The  victery  thus 
usually  remained  with  the  best  sailor.  This  mode 
of  conflict  has  been  attempted  to  be  revived  at  the 
present  time,  and  vessels  called  'steam-rams'  ore 
specially  constmcted  for  this  species  of  conflict.  The 
eorlieet  powers  having  efficient  Seete  appear  to  have 
been  the  Fhceniciana,  Carthaginians,  Persians,  and 
Greeks;  the  Greeks  had  fleets  as  early  as  tiie  begin- 
ning of  the  Tth  c  b.  c.— the  first  aea-flght  on  record 
being  that  between  the  Corinthians  and  Uieir  colouista 
oE  Corcyra,  664  B.  c  The  earliest  ereat  battle  in 
whichtactiosappeartohave  distinctly  been  opposed  to 
superior  force,  and  with  success,  was  that  of  Salamis 
(480  B.  a),  where  Themietoclee,  taking  advantage  of 
the  narrows,  forced  the  Persian  fleet  of  Xerxes  to 
combat  in  such  a  manner,  that  their  line  of  battle 
but  little  exceeded  in  length  the  line  of  the  mnch 
inferior  Athenian  fleet.  The  Peloponuesion  War, 
where  '  Greek  met  Greek,'  tended  much  to  develop 
the  art  of  naval  warfare.  But  the  destruction  of 
the  Athenian  murine  power  in  the  Syrocusan  expe- 
dition of  414  B.  c.,  left  Carthage  mistress  of  the 
Mediterranean.  The  Roman  power,  however,  gradu- 
ally asserted  itself,  and  after  two  centuries,  became 
omnipotent  by  the  destruction  of  Cartilage.  For 
several  following  centuries,  the  only  sea-fighte 
were  occasioned  By  the  civil  wars  of  Uie  Komnns. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  empire,  the  system  of 
Sghting  with  pointed  prows  hod  been  discontinued 
in  favour  of  that  which  hod  always  co-existed— viz., 
the  running  alon^de,  and  boarding  by  armed  men, 
with  whom  each  vessel  was  overloaded.  Onsoers, 
bolistm,  ftc.  were  ultimately  carried  in  the  uipa, 
and  used  as  artillery ;  Intt  they  were  little  l«]ied 
on,  and  it  was  usual,  after  a  discharge  of  orrowa 
and  javelins,  to  oome  to  close  quarters.  A  sea-fi^t 
was  therefore  a  hand-to-hand  struggle  on  a  floating 
base,  in  which  tlie  vanquished  were  almost  certainly 
drowned  or  slain. 

The  northern  invoden  of  th«  empire,  and  sub- 
sequently  the  Mooin,  seem  to  have  introduced 
swift-sailing  galleys,  warring  in  small  squadrons 
and  singly,  and  ravaging  aU  civilised  coasts  tor 
plunder  and  slaves.  This — the  break-up  of  the 
empire — was  the  era  of  piracy,  when  evely  nation, 
which  had  more  to  win  than  lose  by  freebooting', 
sent  out  its  cruisers.  Foremost  for  daring  aiuL 
seamanship  were  the  Norsemen,  who  penetrated 
in  every  direction  from  the  Bosporus  to  New- 
foundland. Combination  being  the  only  security 
sgoinst  these  marauders,  the  medieval  navies  gradn- 
uly  sprang  up ;  the  most  conspicuous  being— in 
the  Mediterranean,  those  of  Venice,  Genoa,  Pisa, 
Aragon;  on  the  Atlaotio  sea-board,  England  and 
France.  In  the  Mediterranean,  Venice,  after  a  long 
stmggle  with  the  Genoese,  and  subsequently  with 
the  xurks,  became  the  great  naval  power.  The 
Aragouese  fleet  gradually  developed  into  the  Spanish 
navy,  which,  by  the  epoch  of  Columbus,  had  a  rival 
in  that  of  Portugal  Many  struggles  left,  in  the 
IStb  and  nth  centuries,  the  prindMi  naval  povrerin 
the  hands  of  the  Englidi,  French,  Dutch,  Spaniards, 
and  Portugese.  'The  present  state  of  these  and 
other  existing  naviea  will  be  briefly  {pven  nndra 
Navus,  Moderk. 


# 


NAVIES-NAVIGATIOS. 


NAVIES,  MoDBTLK.  Dating  tbe  modem  DKTJce 
of  the  world  from  the  ISth  c,  we  fiod  the  British 
navy  riiiag  from  insignificiince  b;  the  destruddou 
of  tne  Spiuith  Armada  in  1688  ;  a  blow  which  Spain 
never  leeovered,  and  which  the  Dutch,  whose  naval 
force  had  acquired  tremendotu  strength  in  their 
•tmggle  for  independence,  increaaed  the  weight  of, 
by  ^ir  triumph  in  1607,  in  the  Bay  of  Gibraltar. 
At  this  time,  there  was  no  dedsive  superiority  of 
the  fleet  of  England  over  that  of  Franoe  ;  hnt  each 
wai  inferior  to  the  Dutch  navy.  The  Common- 
wealth and  reign  of  Charles  II.  were  ■iaoBliaed  by 
the  struggle  for  mastery  between  the  English  and 
Dutch ;  when  victory,  after  many  alternations,  finally 
aided  with  the  former.  Through  the  18th  c,  the 
English  and  French  were  the  principal  fleets ; 
but  Louis  X.VL  gave  a  decided  superiority  Ut  the 
navy  of  France ;  and  at  the  period  of  the 
American  War,  the  nsvtl  power  of  Eugland  was 
■eriously  threatened.  Sjiain,  Holland,  and  Russia 
(now  for  the  &nt  time  a  naval  power}  had  mean- 
whQa  acquired  oonsiderable  fleets  ;  and  the  '  armed 
neutrality,'  to  which  the  northern  powers  gave 
their  adberenoe,  rendered  the  British  position  most 
critical.  However,  the  slowly  roused  energy  of  her 
government^  the  invincible  ooonge  of  har  seamen, 
and  the  genius  of  her  admirals,  brought  Britain 
through  ifll  her  tri&Uh  Comperdown  broke  the 
Dutch  power ;  many  battles  weabened  the  French 
navy;  and  at  Trafalgar,  in  1805,  it,  with  the 
SpMiuh  power,  was  swept  from  the  ooeao.    The 


United  States  had  in  the  meantime  augmented  their 
fleet,  and  in  the  war  of  1812—1814,  maintained  a 

Slorioui  struggle.  During  the  Amerioao  War  of 
ecessioo,  many  gnn-boab>,  '  monitor,'  and  iron- 
clads of  all  daases,  were  created ;  but  chiefly 
adapted  for  river  and  coast  servioa.  The  growtli, 
in  recent  times,  of  the  British  navy  will  be  foond 
nnder  Naty,  British.  The  Emperor  Napoleott 
IIL  greatly  enlaived  and  improved  the  French  n&vf , 
yet  m  the  war  of  1870— ISTl  it  had  no  opportnai^ 
of  proving  its  efleotiveness. 

The  contest  between  the  attack  and  defence  which 
has  been  going  on  for  some  time  appears  to  hava 
attained  its  liinits  in  the  lOO-ton  gnns  of  the  Italian 


taken  which  points  in  the  direction  of  steet-platea 
and  speed,  and  a  more  special  adaptation  of  ahipa 
for  particolar  services.  The  torpedo  system  has  intro- 
duntd  a  new  element  into  naval  warfare,  partioa- 
larly  in  horbonrs,  riven,  and  inland  waters,  whioh 
can  hardly  be  said  to  be  yet  fully  developed  (see 
ToBPEDo):  and  the  oataatrophes  of  the  Vangvardai 
the  British  navy,  and  the  Orouer  KurJUrst  of  tha 
Grerman,  have  pointed  out  danger*  connected  with 
the  ram  system  that  had  not  been  calculated  npon. 
The  following  table  gives  a  fair  estimate  of  the 
comparative  (length  of  the  chief  navies  of  the 
world.  Comparison  by  the  number  of  guns  i"  ' 
little  aooonnt  now ;  that  of  ormouraf  Meama 
more  to  the  point. 


■  WOBLD,   1880. 


Anitria-HDnniT- 

linzll 

Denmuk 

Osnoiinr, 

QnaCBcUaln 

Qreect. 

Italv 

Netherlandi 

FottngsL 

Hvaiu. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

BweJen  indNonny. 

Turkoy 

-imced  BUtas. 


S,£30 
80,1M 


i,im,*M 


*  The  gone  oTtlissnncraretl  itoraer*  ODly  are  given. 

KATIGA'TION,  HmuitT  o>.  Id  its  widest 
sense,  this  subject  is  divisible  into  three  sections — 
the  history  of  the  progressiva  improvement  in  the 
ooiietraction  of  nhipa,  uie  history  of  tha  growth  of 
naval  powen 
and  increase 
these  three  sections 

the  pr««ent  article  will  be  limited  to  ft  consideratioa 
e  last,  the  fint  two  being  sufficiently  described 
under  SsiP-BUiLDiNa,  and  NATm. 

Tliefint  use  of  ships,  a*  distingnished  from  boats, 
appean  to  have  been  by  the  emj  E^typtians,  who 
are  believed  to  have  reached  the  western  coast  of 
India,  besides  navigating  the  Mediterranean.  Little^ 
however,  is  known  of  their  prowess  on  the  waves ; 
and,  whatever  it  may  have  been,  they  were  soon 
eclipsed  by  the  oitizeni  of  Tyre,  who,  to  make 
amends  for  the  unproductiveness  of  their  strip  of 
territory,  laid  the  seas  under  tribute,  and  made  their 
city  tha  great  emporium  of  Eastern  and  European 
trade.  Thay  spread  their  merchant  fleets  throughout 
the  Mediterranean,  navigated  Solomon's  iqaMroDS 


Ttaa  nnmber  at  men  Laclodee  the  Royal  Naval  Keierve. 
to  the  Persisn  Gulf  and  Indian  Ocean,  and  plaotad 
colonies  everywhere.  Principal  among  these  coloniea 
was  Carthage,  which  aoon  outahone  tiu  parent  atata 
in  ita  maritime  daring.  The  Carth&gvnian  fleeta 
passed  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  and,  with  no  bettn 
guide  than  the  stars,  are  believed  to  have  ajmad 
northward  to  the  British  Islea,  and  southwanl  for 
some  distance  along  the  weat  coast  of  Afrira. 
From  the  Gth  to  the  4th  centuries  B.a,  the  Greek 


and  at  uia  time  of  the  Peloponnesiaa  war,  the  Atha- 
nians  appear  to  have  been  skilful  tacticiaiu,  capaUa 
of  concerted  maotBuvrea.  Tha  Gieeka,  however, 
were  rather  warlike  than  commercial  in  thmr  nanti* 
cal  affairs.  In  tha  4th  c  b.o.,  Alexander  dfatroyad 
the  Tyrian  power,  transferring  its  commerce  to 
Aletaodria,  which,  having  an  admirable  hwbonr, 
became  the  centra  of  trade  for  the  ancient  world, 
and  far  surpassed  in  the  magnitude  of  ita  '"•'■■"^ 
transactions  any  city  which  hwl  yet  existod.  Boma 
next  wrested  &om  Cartliasa  ita  naval  power,  and 
took  ita  vaat  trade  into  tiia  hand*  tA  the  ItiJiu 


iiz,x»Ci00glc 


KAVXQATION. 


Mulon.  After  tiie  b&ttle  of  Actinin,  I^typt  bectme 
B  Eomtui  proyinct^  knd  Angnetua  wm  muter  of  the 
enormom  conmieroe  both  of  the  Rontsn  and  the 
AlezandriaD  merchant!.  IhiriDg  all  this  period,  tha 
■ize  of  tha  vewela  had  been  oontiuiiallj  mcreaaiiiK. 
but  probftbly  the  form  waa  that  of  the  nllej',  atSl 
common  in  the  Meditermnean,  thoa^  ft  more 
clumBy  craft  then  than  now.  Sails  were  known, 
and  some  knowledge  waa  evinced  even  of  beating 
up  agaioit  a  foul  wind;  but  oars  were  the  great 
motive-power;  speed  was  not  thoaght  of,  a  voyage 
from  the  Levant  to  Italy  being  the  work  of  a  season ; 
and  BO  little  confidence  had  the  sailors  in  their 
skill  or  in  the  stability  of  tbeir  ships  (atill  steered 
by  two  oars  projectiDg  from  the  stem),  that  it  was 
ODstomaiy  to  hsnl  the  vessels  ap  on  shore  when 
winter  set  in.  During  the  empire,  no  great  progress 
seems  to  have  been  made,  except  io  lie  size  of  the 
vessels  ;  bat  regular  fleets  were  maintained,  both  in 
the  Mediterranean  and  on  the  coast  of  Gaul,  for  the 
protectdon  of  commerce.  Meanwhile  the  barbarian 
nations  of  the  north  ware  advancing  in  quite  a 
different  school.  The  8»xoq,  Jutiah,  and  UtoHe 
prows  began  to  loam  the  ocean  in  every  direction  ; 
m  small  vessels,  thoy  trusted  more  to  the  winds 


dered  them  masters  of  ijie  se«>  The  Britons  were 
no  mean  seamen,  and  when  Carsosios  assomed  the 
purnle  in  their  island,  he  was  able,  for  several  years, 
by  his  fleets  alone  to  maintain  hia  independence 
against  all  the  power  of  Bome. 

The  art  of  navigation  became  almost  eztinet  in 
the  Meditenaueon  with  the  fall  of  the  empire ;  but 
the  barbarous  conqnerora  soon  poixived  its  value, 
and  revived  its  practice  with  the  addition  of  new 
invantiona  tngKested  hy  their  own  energy.  The 
islanders  of  Temce,  the  Genoese,  and  the  Pisans,  were 
the  carriers  of  that  great  inland  sea.  Their  merchants 
traded  to  the  foi&est  Indies,  and  their  markets 
became  the  exohaDges  for  the  produce  of  tha  world. 
Vast  fleets  of  merchant  galleys  from  these  floariah- 
ing  republics  dared  the  stono,  while  their  constant 
rivalries  gave  occasion  for  Uie  growth  of  naval 
tactics.  So  rich  a  commerce  tempted  piracy,  and 
the  Moorish  corsairs  penetrated  everywhere  on  both 
ddeg  of  the  straits  of  Gibraltar  in  quest  of  prey ; 
evincing  not  less  shill  and  nautical  audacity  than 
savage  lory  and  inhaman  cmclty.  But  the  Atlantic 
powers,  taught  in  stormy  seas,  were  rearing  a  naval 
might  that  should  oulrival  all  other  pretenders. 
The  Norsemen  extended  their  voyages  to  Iceland, 
Greenland,  and  Newfoundland,  while  they  first 
ravaged  and  then  colonised  the  coasta  of  Britain, 
France,  and  Sicily.  The  sea  had  no  terrors  for 
these  hardy  rovers ;  their  exploits  are  impeiishably 
recorded  in  the  Icelandic  Sagas,  and  in  the  nnme- 
roos  ialands  and  promontories  to  which  they  have 

Eu'ly  in  the   ISth  o.,  tba  introduction  of  the 

mariner's  compass  rendered  the  seaman  independent 
of  BOD  and  stars— an  incalcniablegain,  as  was  soon 
■hewn  in  tin  ocean-voyages  of  Colomhua,  Cabot^ 
and  others.  In  1492,  Columbus  rendered  navigation 
more  secure  by  tha  discovery  of  the  variation  of 
the  compass.  Between  that  and  1614,  the  'cross- 
staff'  began  to  be  used ;  a  rude  instrument  for 
•scertainmg  the  angle  between  the  moon  and  a  fixed 
star,  with  the  consequent  longitude.  Early  in  the 
16tb  c,  tablee  of  decliuHtion  and  ascension  became 
common.  In  1537,  Nunez  (NoniuflJ,  a  Portugueaa, 
invented  various  methods  of  compntiug  the  rhuinb- 
linea  sod  sailing  on  the  great  circle.  In  1646,  the 
two  first  traatises  on  nttemstia  navigaldon  ^n)eared 
in  Spcdn,  one  by  Pedro  de  Medina,  the  other  by 
Martin  Corteo.    These  worka  were  ipeedily  baos- 


lated  into  French,  Dnteh,  Ttngli^h,  ^^  fg^  f^ 
many  years  served  aa  the  text-books  o{  practical 
navigatioit.  Towards  tha  end  of  the  century, 
Bonnie  in  England,  and  Stevin  in  HoUond,  improved 
the  astronomical  portion  of  tha  art,  while  the  intro- 
dnction  of  time-pieoes  and  the  Log  (q,  t.)  rendered 
the  computation  of  distance  more  easy. 

It  would  be  tedious  to  enumerate  tho  •acoewiTa 
improvements  by  wliich  the  science  of  navigation 
has  been  brought  to  its  present  high  perfection; 
but  OS  oonspicnons  points  in  the  history  of  the  ar^ 
the  following  stand  out:  The  invention  of  Met«a. 
tor's  chart  in  1569;  the  formation  by  Wright  of 
table*  of  meridional  parts,  1597  ;  Davis's  qn^krant^ 
aboat  1600 ;  the  appucatioa  of  log&rithms  to  nauti- 
cal calculations,  1620,  by  Edmund  Gunter  ;  tha 
introdactioQ  of  middle-latitude  sibling  in  1623; 
the  measure  of  a  d^ree  on  the  meridian,  by  Bicbaid 
Norwood,  in  1631.  Hadley's  quadrant,  a  centniy 
later,  rendered  observarions  easier  and  more  accu- 
rate; while  Barrison's  chronometent  U764),  rendered 
the  computation  of  longitndfl  a  matter  of  compara- 
tively small  difficulty.  WrWit,  Bond,  and  Norwood 
were  the  autiior*  of  wiiantSo  navigation,  and  their 
science  is  now  made  available  in  practice  by  means 
of  tba  IfauUcal  A  buanae,  published  annnally  by  the 
British  Admiralty.  Tha  more  important  points  at 
the  srnenoe  of  navigation  are  noticed  under  such 
head«  as  BBAD-RscKOHiKa,  LAnriTSB  and  Lohoi- 

TDS^  OBSA.T-ClBaLB  SAIUNO,  SaIUNUS,  &0. 

NAVIGATION,  Laws  A8  to.  By  the  law  of 
nature  and  of  nations,  the  navigation  of  Uia  open 
sea  is  free  to  all  tha  world.  The  open  sea  means  all 
the  main  seas  and  oceans  beyond  three  miles  from 
land.  The  sea  within  three  nulea  from  land  is  called 
tha  territorial  sea,  and  each  state  has  a  kind  ol 
property  in  such  sea,  and  bos  a  right  to  rt^nlata 
the  use  thereoL  Hence,  it  was  natural  that  in  early 
times,  before  the  laws  of  commerce  were  properly 
understood,  each  state  should  endeavour  to  exclude 
foreigners  from  tbat  port  of  the  sea  so  as  to  eeciire 
to  its  own  subjects  the  benefits  of  the  carriage  of 
goods  in  ships,  which  has  always  been  an  increas- 
ing source  of  wealth.  In  England,  however,  aa  in 
most  countries,  the  first  care  seems  to  have  been 
bestowed  on  tba  iinyy,  as  the  great  means  of  defend- 
ing the  realm  against  enemiea,  and  trading-ships 
came  to  be  fin*  subject  to  statutory  regulation  only 
OS  being  in  some  way  ancillary  to  the  interests  M 
the  mivy.  The  laws  of  Oleron  were  the  firet  code 
of  maritime  laws  which  obtained  notice  as  well  aa 
general  aooeptanoe  in  Europe,  in  the  time  of  Edward  I., 
and  the  anthorehip  of  those  laws  is  claimed  by 
Selden  and  Blackstone  for  Edward  L,  though  tbe 


of  England,  it  was  ordained  that  none  of  the  lieges 
should  ship  any  mercbacdisa  out  of  the  re^m 
except  in  native  ships,  though  the  statute  waa  aoon 
varied  and  seldom  followed.  At  lensth,  in  1650,  an 
act  was  passed  with  a  view  to  stop  the  gunful  trade 
of  the  Dutch.  It  prohibited  all  ships  of  foreign 
nations  from  trading  with  any  English  plantation 
without  a  licence  from  the  OonncU  of  Stata  In 
1651,  tbe  pn^ibition  was  extended  to  the  mother- 
country,  and  no  goods  wera  suffered  to  be  imported 
into  England  or  any  of  its  dependencies  in  any  other 
than  English  bottoms,  or  in  the  ships  of  that  Euro- 
peon  nation  of  which  the  merchandise  was  the 
gennine  growth  or  manufacture.    At  the  Restoration, 


repeated  and  continued  by 
Char.  IL  c.  181,  with  the 


the  Navigation  Act  (12  Char.  IL  c  IS),  with  the 
further  addition,  that  the  master  and  three-fourths 
oif  the  marinem  should  also  be  British  subjects. 
The  object  of  this  act  waa  to  encourage  Britisb 
shipping,  and   was  hag  believed  to  be  wise  and 


M7 


'"  v^iv^f' 


ej^ 


NAVIOATOHff  ISLANDS-NAVY. 


Mlobuy.  Adam  Smith,  howerer,  had  the  sagacity 
to  ■««  that  tha  act  was  not  favourable  to  foreign 
oommeroe  or  to  opulence,  and  it  vm  only  on  the 
gnmnd  tluit  defeooe  wai  mare  important  than 
opnlenoe,  that  he  nid  it  waa  '  perhapi  the  iriieBt  of 
lil  tha  commercial  regulationa  of  &Dgland.'  In 
1826,  tha  atatute  4  Geo,  IV,  «.  41  repe&led  the 
Navigation  Act,  and  eatablighed  a  new  system  of 
legnlatiolu,  vhich  were  further  varied  by  subse- 
quant  itatntea,  till,  onder  the  influence  of  tha  free- 
trade  doctrioea,  new  statntea  were  passed,  which 
rereraed  the  ancieDt  policy.  By  the  law,  as  now 
altered,  foreign  vessels  are  allowed  free  commercial 
intercouna  and  equality  with  the  ships  oF  this 
country  and  ita  depcndenciea,  except  as  regards  the 
ooasting'trade  of  the  British  possessioui  in  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America,  for  the  coaating-trade  of  the 
United  Kingdom  is  now  entirely  thrown  open  to  all 
comtn.  The  sdvantsf^  of  equality  and  &ee  trade 
are,  however,  so  far  qoalified,  that  in  the  case  of  the 
ahipa  of  diose  nations  which  do  not  concede  to 
British  ahipa  lika  privil^es,  prohihitians  and  restric- 
tdon*  may  be  imposed  by  order  in  conndL 

Aa  regards  tiiose  laws  of  navigation  which  aficct 
tbe  property  and  management  of  ahipa,  a  complete 
coda  of  regulations  is  contained  in  the  MercJiant 
Shipptnti  Acta,  which  are  17  and  18  VicL  o.  104,  18 
and  19  Vict,  c  91,  25  and  2S  Vict  c  63,  34  and 
39  Vict.  e.  110,  36  and  37  Vict  c  SS.  1.  Aa  to 
ownerahip,  registration,  and  transfer  of  merchant- 
abipa.  No  ship  ia  deemed  a  Bdtiah  ship  aniess 
she  belong  wholly  to  natoral-bom  sabjecta,  deni- 
zeni,  naturalised  persons,  or  bodies  corporate,  hav- 
ing a  place  of  business  in  tbe  United  Kingdom 
or  some  British  possession.  Every  British  ship, 
with  a  few  exceptions  as  to  old  ^ips  and  smalt 
vessels,  mnat  be  registered,  otherwise,  it  ia  not 
entitled  to  the  protection  of  the  British  flag.  The 
Commissioners  of  Customs  indicate  at  what  port  in 
the  United  Kingdom  ships  may  be  registered  by 
their  ofScers,  and  when  recristered,  the  ship  ia  held 
to  belong  to  that  port  The  name  of  the  ship  and 
Ub  owners  must  be  stated;  and  as  regards  joint- 
ownership,  a  ship  ia  capable  only  of  being  subdivided 
into  aixty-fouT  snares,  and  not  more  than  thirty-two 
owners  tnall  own  one  ahip.  Iheaa  r«giHtered  ownera 
are  deemed  the  Ic^al  owners,  and  so  long  as  the 
register  is  unchanged,  the  ship  is  betd  stilt  to  belong 
to  them.  The  only  way  of  transferring  the  property 
is  by  a  bill  of  aale  nnder  seal;  or  if  a  mortgage  ia 
made,  it  most  be  made  in  a  particular  form,  and 
duly  registered,  and  the  priority  of  title  as  between 
■everal  mortgagaea  is  regulated  by  the  date  of  tha 
entry  in  the  register.  2.  Air^ardathalawaconoem. 
ing  merohant  seamen,  there  la  eatabUHbed  in  every 
snch  seaport  a  superintendent  whose  business  it  is  to 
affiled  faoilitiee  tor  engaging  seamen,  by  keeping 
(Mlltets  of  leamen  and  superintending  the  making 
aiM  disehM^giog  of  oontracta.  No  person  is  allowed 
to  be  amployea  in  a  foreign-goiag  altip  aa  master,  or 
••  fint,  or  second,  or  only  mate,  or  in  a  home-trade 
paieeDKer-ship  aa  master,  or  firaC  or  only  mate, 
nnlesB  he  has  a  certittcate  of  competency  or  a  certi- 
ficate of  service,  issued  by  the  Board  of  Trade  only 
to  tlioae  who  are  deemed  entitled  thereto.  The 
master  of  evei?  ahip  above  80  tone  burden  ahall 
enter  into  an  agreement,  of  a  certain  form,  with 
every  aeaman  ha  carries  from  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  in  which  tha  names  of  the  seamen,  wages, 
provisiona,  capacity  o£  aerrioe,  Ac,  are  set  forth. 
The  seamen  are  not  to  lose  their  wages  though  no 
freight  ia  emmed,  or  the  ship  lost  The  men  are 
also  to  have  a  berth  of  a  certain  size,  and  the  ship 
to  be  supplied  with  medicinea,  log-book,  kc  In 
order  to  secure  general  information,  every  master  of 
a  Iore»pa-going  udp  ia  bound,  within  48  nout*  after 


arriving  at  tbe  flnal  port  of  destination  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  to  report  nis  ahip.  Unaeaworthy  or  over- 
loaded ships  may  be  surveyed  by  the  Board  of  Trade, 
and  detained.  3.  As  regards  the  liability  of  ship- 
owners tor  loss  or  dsmage,  it  ia  provided  by  statute 
that  so  owner  of  a  sea-going  ship  shall  be  liable  to 
make  good  any  loss  or  damage  occurring  without 
his  actual  fault  or  privity,  to  gooda  or  thingtf  on 
board,  by  reason  of  fire  on  board  the  ihip ;  or  to 
any  gold,  silver,  diamonds,  watches,  jewds^  or 
precions  stones  on  board,  by  reason  of  robbery  or 
embezzlement  unless  the  true  nature  and  value 
of  such  articles  have  been  inserted  in  the  bill  of 
lading.  And  in  caaea  where  loss  to  goods  occur* 
withoDt  his  actnal  fault  or  privity,  the  owner 
ahall  not  be  liable  in  damages  to  an  sggreg&t« 
amount  exceeding  £8  per  ton  of  the  abip's  tonnace. 
In  case  of  loes  ol  life  or  personal  injury  cansedby 
miamanagem ent  of  the  ship,  but  without  the  actoal 
fault  or  privity  of  the  owners,  they  shall  not  be 
liable  beyond  £1S  per  ton.  In  case  of  acddents, 
whereby  a  huge  number  of  pereona  have  been  killed 
or  jnjumj,  and  to  prevent  a  moltiplicity  of  actdoos, 
the  sheriff  of  the  county  is  to  cmpaniMl  a  jury.  Mid 
inqnire  into  the  question  of  liability.  If  the  owuen 
are  found  liable,  then  £30  ia  to  be  ataeMed  aa  the 
damages  for  each  case  of  death  or  personal  injnry. 
In  case  of  death,  such  sum  is  to  be  paid  to  the 
husband,  wife,  parent  or  child  of  the  deceased.  If 
any  person  oonaider  this  ia  not  sufficient  HM.m»ga«^ 
then,  on  retnming  suoh  anm,  be  may  commence  aa 
action;  but  unless  he  recover  double  that  anm,  ke 
most  pay  costs.  See  also  Pilots  and  Liaar-HOtms. 
NAViaA'TOKS"  or  SAMO'AN  ISLANDS,  » 
group  of  nine  islands,  with  some  islets,  in  the 
Facitic  Ocean,  lying  north  of  the  Friendly  Islanda, 
in  hit  13'  30"— 14'  30"  S.  and  long.  168'— 173"  W. 
The  four  principal  isUi&ds  of  tbe  group  are  Manna, 
Tutuila,  Upolu,  and  SavaiL  Of  these,  Savaii,  40 
miles  in  leozth  by  20  miles  brood,  and  baving  a 
popuUtion  of  12,000,  is  the  UctgetL  Area  of  tha 
group  estimated  at  250  square  miles;  population 
about  36,000.  With  the  exception  of  one  (Kose 
Island},  the  N.  I.  are  all  of  volcanic  origin.    For  tha 


feet  in  height,  and  covered  with  the  richest  v^e- 
tation.  The  soil,  formed  chiefly  by  the  decom- 
poeition  of  volcanic  rock,  is  rich,  and  the  climate  ia 
moist  The  forests,  which  include  the  bread- 
fruit, the  cocoa-nut,  banana  and  palm  trees,  are 
remarkably  thick.  The  orange,  lemon,  tacca  (from 
which  a  kind  of  sago  is  made),  coffee,  sweet  pota- 
toes, pine-apples,  yams,  nutmeg,  wild  sugar-can^ 
and  many  other  importajit  plants,  grow  luxuriantly. 
Until  recently,  when  swine,  homed  cattle,  and 
horses  were  introduced,  there  were  no  traces 
among  these  islands  of  any  native  mammalia  except 
a  species  of  bat.  The  nativesL  are  well  formed 
(especially  the  nalea),  ingenious,  and  affectionate 
The  women,  who  superintend  the  indoor  work  and 
manufacture  mate,  are  held  in  high  respect  Uony 
of  the  natives  have  embraced  Christianity,  To 
escape  anarchy,  (he  chiefs  have  repeatedly  petitioned 
to  be  taken  under  the  protectorate  of  Britain  or  the 
United  States.  In  1878,  a  commercial  treaty  was 
concluded  with  the  latter  power ;  and  in  1879,  a 
treaty  granted  to  Germany  the  rights  of  the  most 
favoured  nation,  and  oooceded  a  port  for  the  nae  cf 
the  German  navy — a  similar  treaty  being  concluded 
with  Blngland  later  in  the  same  year. 

NAVY,  BiunsH.  Owing  to  the  insular  positiaii 
of  Great  Britain,  her  navy  has  long  been  considered 
a  matter  of  vital  importance,  and  is  the  servioe  in 
which  every  inhabitant  takes  a  peculiar  pride.    Ia 


J.KillzTnOvGUUl^k" 


pertonTteL  The  latter  tud  no  dutLnct  ozvatuiatioa 
till  the  time  of  Eeuv  VIIL  ;  but  of  the  ^rmer,  we 
Tecogniie  in  the  earliest  timee  the  germ  of  subae- 
qnent  glories.  CamiuiuE,  a  HomBti  genar&l  who  had. 
thrown  offhia  dependence  on  the  empire,  maintainad 
himself  in  England  for  aeTsral  years  by  hjia  fleet,  with 
which  he  prevented  the  imperial  forces  from  reacliing 
the  ialan<L  The  Saxona  brought  maritime  prowess 
with  them  to  the  Britiah  shores,  but  appear  soon  to 
have  lost  it  amid  the  rich  provinceB  in  which  the; 
settled.  Some  arganiaation  for  the  defence  of  the 
coast  wsa,  however,  maintained,  and  Alfred  the 
Great  availed  himseU  of  it  to  repulse  the  Danes  ;  he 
at  the  aame  time  raided  the  emciency  of  his  navy 
by  increasing  the  size  of  hia  ^jalleya,  some  being 
built  which  were  capable  of  being  rowed  by  thirty 
pair  of  oara.  Under  his  succesaocs,  the  number  of 
vesaeU  iocreaaed,  and  both  Edward  and  Atbelatan 
fooght  many  naval  battles  with  the  Danes.  Edgar 
•spued  to  be  lord  of  all  the  northern  seas,  and  luul 
from  three  to  Ave  thousand  galleys,  divided  into 
three  fleets  on  the  western,  soathem,  and  eastern 
coasts  respectively ;  but  the  size  of  most  of  these 
ships  was  very  iosigmfioaiit,  and  the  greater  part 
were  probably  mere  row-boats.  Ethelred  II.  formed 
a  sort  of  naval  militia,  enacting  that  every  owner  of 
310  hydes  of  land  should  bmld  and  furaiah  one 
vessel  for  the  service  of  his  coontry. 

William  the  Conqueror  established  the  Cinque 
Porte,  with  important  privilegee,  in  return  for  which 
they  were  bound  to  have  at  the  service  of  the  crown 
for  16  days  io  any  emergency,  52  ships  carryiiig  04 
men  eBCh.  Rich^^  L  took  100  large  ships  and  50 
goUeys  to  Palestine.  John  claimed  the  sovereignty 
of  the  seas,  and  required  all  foreiguers  to  strike  to  the 
Eagliah  flag ;  a  pretension  which  has  beeu  the  cause 
of  some  bloody  battles,  but  which  England  proudly 
upheld  in  all  dangers.  (This  honour  was  formally 
yielded  by  the  Dutch  in  1673,  and  the  French  in 
1T04 ;  on^  although  not  now  exacted  in  its  fulness, 
the  remembrauce  of  the  right  survives  in  requiring 
foreign  vessels  to  salute  firat.)  In  the  some  king's 
ragn,  a  great  naval  engagement  with  the  French 
toi^  place  (1293)  in  mid-channel,  when  250  Flench 
vesseb  were  captured.  The  Edwards  and  the 
Henriea  muntained  tiis  glory  of  the  British  flag; 


Edward  lU,  in  peraon,  with  the  Black  Prinoe,  at  the 
battle  of  31iiya,  in  1310,  defeated  a  greatlysnperior 
Frsnch  fleet,  with  40,000  mea  on  board.    Henry  V. 


ondM  one  timo  collected ^ 

port  25,000  men  into  Normaudf.  Henry  VIL  was 
the  first  monarch  who  maintomed  a  fleet  during 
pease ;  he  built  the  OrecU  Harry,  which  was  tho 
earhest  war-vessel  of  any  size,  and  which  waa 
burned  at  Woolwich  in  1553. 

To  Hecry  VIIL,  however,  beloi^  the  honour  of 
having  laid  the  faandaHon  ol  the  British  navy  as  a 
distinct  service.  Besides  building  several  large 
vessels,  of  which  the  Henry  Orace  de  Diea,  of  72 

rs,  700  men,  and  probably  about  1000  tons,  waa 
most  coDSiderable^  he  constituted  a  permanent 
personnel,  defiuiug  the  pay  of  admirals,  vice- 
admimla,  captains,  and  seamen.  He  also  established 
royal  dockyards  at  Deptford,  Woolwich,  and 
Portsmouth  ;  and  for  the  government  of  the  whole 
service,  instituted  an  Admiralty  and  Navy  Board, 
the  latter  being  the  forerunner  of  the  present  Trinity 
Board.  When  this  king  died,  he  left  50  ships  of 
various  sizes,  manned  by  about  SOOO  hands. 

Under  Edward  VL,  the  navy  fell  off,  but  was 
sufficiently  important  in  the  succeeding  reign  for 
the  JE^IJsh  adjnirol  to  exact  the  salute  to  his  flog 
from  Philip  IL  with  a  larger  Spanish  fleet,  when 
the  latter  was  on  his  way  to  espouse  Queen  Maiy. 
Elizabeth  had  the  stru^le  with  the  Spanish  Armada 
to  try  her  navy,  and  le»  42  ships,  of  17,000  tons  iu 
all,  and  8346  men— 15  of  her  ahips  b^g  upwards 
of  600  toDB.  From  this  period  the  tonnage  of  the 
ships  steadily  increased.  Under  James  L  and 
Chsrlea  L,  m:  Phineas  Pett,  M.A.,  the  flrst  scien- 
tific naval  architect,  remodelled  the  navy,  abolishing 
the  lofty  forecastles  and  poops,  which  had  mode 
earlier  ships  resemble  Chinese  junks.  In  1610,  he 
tsid  down  the  Prirux-Sosal,  a  two-decker,  carrying 
64  large  guns ;  and  in  1637,  from  Woolwich,  he 
launched  the  celebrated  Soserdgn  qf  Vie  Seat,  the 
first  thiee-decker,  and  certaiidy  the  lorgeat  ship 
hitherto  constructed  on  modern  principles.  She 
feet  in  length,  of  1637  tons,  and  carried 
130  pieces  of  caunon  ;  but  being  found 
unwieldy,  was  cut  down,  and  then  proved  an 
excdient  ship.    She  waa  burned  in  1696. 

Prince  Ruperts  devotion  to  the  crown  was  bad 
for  the  navy,  for  he  carried  off  26  latve  sbipe ;  and 
Cromwell,  on  acceding  to  power,  bad  but  14  two- 
deckeia.  TTw  energy,  however,  soon  wrought  a 
change,  and  in  fire  years  he  had  160  ships,  of  which 
a'  third  were  of  toe  line ;  his  crews  amounted 
to  20,000  men.  During  the  Protectorate,  Peter 
Pett,  son  of  Phineas,  built  the  Conatant  Warwich, 
the  earliest  British  frigate,  from  a  French  design 
and  pattern.  CromweU  first  laid  navy  estimates 
before  parliament,  and  obtained  £400,000  a  year 
for  the  service.  The  Duka  of  York,  afterwards 
James  IL,  assisted  by  the  indefatigable  Air  Samuel 
Pepys,  did  much  for  the  navy,  establishing  the 
system  of  Admiralty  government  much  on  its 
present  footing.  In  his  time.  Sir  Anthony  Deane 
improved  the  model  of  ships  of  war,  again  after  a 
French  design.  James  left,  u  1688, 108  ships  of  the 
line,  aud  65  other  vessels  ;  the  total  tonnage  of  the 
navy,  101,892  tons  ;  the  armament,  69.10  guns  ;  and 
the  personnel,  42,000  men.  William  III.  sednbusly 
augmented  the  force,  foreseeing  its  importance  to 
his  adopted  countiy.  When  he  died,  there  were 
272  ships  of  159,020  tons,  and  the  annual  charge  for 
the  navy  had  risen  to  £1,066,915.  Qeorge  IL  paid 
much  attention  to  his  fle^»,  and  greatly  augmented 
the  size  of  the  ships ;  he  left,  in  1760,  412  ships  of 
321,104  tons.  By  1782,  the  navy  had  risen  t«  617 
saU  of  fiOO,000  tons ;  and  by  1802,  to  700  sail,  of 
which  143  were  of  the  line.  In  1813,  there  were 
1000  shipa  (266  of  the  line),  meaauring  about 
900,000  tODS,  aod  carrying   146/KKI   aeaiuen   and 


■KKJg\C 


NAVY-NAZAKETH. 


at  an  ammsl  charge  of  about  £18,OM^OO0l 
Sines  the  peaoo  in  1S16,  tb«  number  of  tmmIi  has 
iMfin  gwauy  diuuniahed,  altlioiigh  tludr  powur  baa 
vaatly  incirasBd. 

Hie  p_nx;TesdT«  angmantation  of  me  is  vet 
mw  be  judged  ftom  we  iocreMe  in  flist-ntes. 
1677.  the  lusest  veosel  wm  from  1600  to  1600  U 
hy  1720,  1800  had  been  reaohed ;   by  1746,  SOOO 
toiLBi  1730,  2200  ton»;  1796,  2360  torn ;  1800,2600 
tom;  1SD8,  S61S  tons;    1863,  4000  tana.     From 
1841,  a  gradnal  anhstitution  of  steam  for  lailing 
TOBBda  began,  whidi  vaa  not  oompleted,  bowoTer, 


Th*  Vairioi  Iroo-elad  Seieir  3< 


uVar-diip. 


till  1669L  Since  1S60,  another  reconabnotdon  haa 
taken  oSeat,  armoui-platad  frigates,  impemonB  to 
ordiJoary  alioi^  armed  either  aa  broadaide  veiaeli  or  in 
tuireto,  being  aabatituted  for  limber  Teueli.  At  the 
aams  tune  thiee  and  two  deckera  have  oeaaed  to  be 
employed,  enormous  frigates  and  tmret-ships  re- 
placing them  of  a  tODoage  far  exceeding  the  Urgeat 
three-oeokan  of  former  timea:  they  moout  fewer 
gona,  bttt  thoae  they  oarrr  are  of  stupendooa  calibre, 
and  of  rifled  bore.  The  Jforfltnniman^oneof  Oie 
largeat  fii^tea  (rf  thia  new  olaaa,  ia  of  6621  tona, 
13w  hoiee-power,  and  88  large  gaaa,  while  the 
Dev(ulation  carries  4  great  gnna  in  turrets  of  the 
moat  masaiTe  armour.  The  InflexSie  (huret-ship) 
eaniea  four  81-ton  gnoa,  370  men,  ooet  £800,000, 


veatela  oompriae  S3  jroruilada; 
4  veaaela  with  tnnet  and  rem ; 
defence,  and  4  for  India  and  the  ooloniea.  Tha 
Cololtut  and '  Maje/tic  in  couisa  of  oonatnictioii 
were  being  built  entirely  of  ateel ;  while  the  nMry 
was  beinc  equipped  with  torpedoee  and  torpedo- 
boat*,  and  pawerral  breech-losding  and  Nordenfeldfe 
gona.  In  1880,  there  were  236  veaaeli  in  com- 
misaioD.  The  penonnel  of  the  naTy  in  1881 
amounted  to  63,100  men,  including  13,000  Boyal 
Marines,  l^a  annnal  oharge  in  1878-0  was 
£11,063,091 ;  in<18S0-81,  It  waa  £10,403^036,  irtiiob 
may  be  thus  broadly  inbdivided : 

Wie«,  Tictnal),  and  Clotblng  ol  Oflcart 
Adniinltr  oiniia. 


»K.™i 


CTlna,a7ii 


UlKsUlDMnU  StTviMC, 

Half-pa;  and  PeniUiiu, 
" 1  at  llBop*, 


a,uo,80i 

1T1,5M 


The  Derastatlon. 


follows:  72  ironclads,  fnduding  thoaa        

tion;  360  steam-vesaela ;  and  120  sailing-vessels; 
givinn  a  total  of  4SZ  veiaela    The  72  armoured 


Information  on  the  varioas  points  of  detail 
connected  with  the  navy,  will  be  found  nnder  the 
respective  heada,  aa  Asuieal,  Captain,  Hau -fat, 
TDSRET-BBiFa,  -Abuodh-platxs,  in  SuFF.,  VoL  X. 

KA'ZOS,  the  laigeat,  moat  beautiful,  and  moat 
fertile  of  the  CyoIadeB,  ii  situated  in  tiie  Mgetn, 
midway  between  the  ooasta  of  Oreeoe  and  .Aaia 
Minor.  Extreme  length,  about  20  milea ;  breadth, 
IB  milea.^  Pop.  about  19,00a  The  shorea  are  ateen 
and  the  iiland  is  traversed  by  a  ridge  c^  mountain^ 
which  rise  in  the  highest  anmmit,  Dia,  upwards  ai 
SOOO  feet.  The  plaina  and  valleys  are  well  watered ; 
the  principal  prodnoti  and  articlsa  of  anmrt  t — 
wine,  com,  oil,  cotton,  fmita,  and  emery.  The  wi 
of  K.  (the  beat  variety  of  which  ia  itiU  called  in  tha 
iilands  of  the  JEgeixi,  Baedmt-t^iu)  waa  famooa  in 
ancient  aa  it  ia  in  modem  times,  and  on  this  aoooimt 
the  island  waa  celebrated  in  tlia  l^ends  of  Diooymn^ 
and  eE^cially  in  thoae  ralatiiig  to  AriadntL  Among 
ita  anttqnities  are  a  ouriona  Hellemo  tower,  and  «) 
unfinished  coloual  Ssore,  81  feet  long,  atill  lying 
in  an  ancient  marble  quarry  in  the  north  of  the 
island,  and  always  ealled  by  the  nativet  a  figure 
of  Apollo.  It  waa  ravaged  by  the  Fereiuia,  490  ^ix, 
and  after  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  In-  ttw 
Latins,  became  the  seat  of  a  dukedom,  founded  by  Um 
Venetians.  It  now  forma  a  portion  of  the  kinsc 
ofOreece^T.)^  NaxoB,thecapitBl,withapopaud 
of  about  fiOOO,  ia  dtnated  on  the  iMTth-weat  co_^ 
contaiua  16  Greek,  and  4  CathoUo  chnrohes,  and  3 
ocovents,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  and  a  I«ti 
IdshopL 

SAZAMSrSE  (Gr.  Naxarmot  and  N'ataraioa,  m 
inhabitant  of  Nazareth')  was  used  by  the  Jews 
ka  one  of  tlie  deeignations  of  our  Lord,  and  after- 
wards  became  a  common  appellation  of  the  eariy 
Christiana  in  Judma.  Although,  originally,  it  la 
but  a  looal  appellation,  there  oaa  be  no  doabt  that 
as  Nazareth  was  but  a  second-rate  city  of  the 
despised  province  of  Galilee  it  was  eveatnally 
applied  to  our  Lord  and  hii  fiulowets  as  a  name  of 
contempt  (John  xviii.  6,  7  ;  Acts  zxiv.  5). — For  tha 
Judaising  sect  called  Nazarenea,  see  S^ioiotes. 

NA'ZARBTH,  a  small  town  or  village  of  Pale» 
tine,  anciently  in  the  distriot  of  Galilee,  and  in  the 
territory  of  the  tribe  of  Zebuloo,  21  iniles  soiit^ 
east  of  Acre.  It  lies  in  a  hillv  tract  of  country, 
and  ia  built  partiy  on  the  Bides  of  some  rocky 
ridgea,  paztiy  in  soma  of  the  ravines  by  which  tbey 
are  Beamed.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  aoene  of  the 
Annunciation,   and  the   place  where   the  Saviour 

— .^s- 


NAZARITES— NEANDBR. 


■pent   the   gTMter   imrt    of   hii   life    in 

labour.  Pop.,  accordiog  to  Br  Bobuuon,  31S0,  <^ 
whom  low  are  Greeks,  620  Qreek  Catholic«.  4S0 
lAtiiu,4D0Maromtea,uid6a0Mohammediuis.  Porter 
thinks  4000  a  moderate  eetunate.  la  the  earljeat 
agas  of  Chriatiaiiit^,  N.  was  ijnifce  oTarlooked  by 
the  church.  It  did  not  contain  a  Binele  Chiistian 
rendent  before  the  time  of  Constantine,  and  the 
Srat  ChnEtian  pilgrimage  to  it  took  pliiaB  in  the 
6th  centmy.  The  principal  biulding  u>  the  Latin 
convent,  reared,  according  to  pious  tradttioQ,  on 
the  spot  where  the  tugel  annonnced  to  the  Virgin 
t^e  birth  of  her  Savioar-son  ;  but  the  Greeks  hare 
also  erected,  in  another  part  of  N,,  a  chnroh  on  the 
scene  of  the  Annunciation.  Besides  these  rival 
edificea,  the  traveller  i*  (hewn  a  Latin  chapel, 
affirmed  to  be  built  over  the '  workshop  of  Joseph ; ' 
also  the  cbapel  of  'the  Table  of  Christ'  {Metua 
Okriiti),  a  vaulted  chamber,  containing  the  veritable 
table  at  which  our  Lord  and  his  discdplei  nsed  to 
eat ;  the  synagogue,  out  of  which  he  wu  thrust  bjr 
his  townsmen ;  and  *  the  Mount  of  Pt«cipitation,' 
down  which  he  narrowly  escaped  being  cast  head- 
long. The  women  of  the  village  have  been  long 
famous  for  their  beauty. 

NA'ZABITE3  (from  Eeb.  nazar,  to  sapwate) 
denoted  among  the  Jews  those  persons,  male  or 
female^  who  had  consecrated  themselves  to  God  W 
certain  acts  of  abstinenoe,  which  marked  them  oS, 
or  '  separated'  them,  from  the  re«t  of  the  com- 
munity. In  ptuiicalar,  they  were  prohibited  from 
using  wine  or  strong  drink  of  any  kini' 
whether  moist  or  dry,  or  from  shaving  th<  ..   .. 

The  law  in  regard  to  N.  is  laid  down  in  the  Book  of 
Numbers  (vi.  1 — 21).  The  only  examples  of  the 
olaas  recorded  in  Scripture  are  Samson,  Samuel,  and 
John  the  Baptist,  who  were  devoted  from  birth  to 
that  condition,  though  the  law  appears  to  contem- 
plate temponuy  and  voluntary,  rather  tlian  perpe- 
tual Naznriteship. 

NEAGH,  LoooH,  the  loi^est  loko  of  the  British 
Islands,  is  sitoated  in  the  province  of  Ulster,  Ire- 
land, and  is  surrotmded  by  &e  counties  of  Armagh, 
T^ne,  Londonderry,  Antrim,  and  Down.  It  is  16 
miles  (Eh^ish)  in  leogtb,  and  II  miles  in  breadth, 
oontsuu  9e,20ff  acres,  is  120  feet  in  greatest  depth, 
and  is  48  feet  above  aea-level  at  low  water.  It 
receivGfl  the  waters  of  nnmeroui  streanu,  of  which 
the  principal  are  tho  Upper  Bann,  the  Blackwater, 
the  Moyob,  and  the  Mam ;  and  its  surplus  waters 
are  carried  oS  northward  to  ihe  North  C>hannel 
by  the  Lower  Bann.  Communication  by  means  of 
canals  snbaiata  between  the  Lough  and  Belfast, 
Newry,  and  the  ^^rone  coal-field.  In  some  por- 
tions of  the  Ldu^  the  waters  shew  remarkable 
petrifying  qualities,  and  petrified  wood  found  in  its 
watera  i*  nunnfactured.  mto  hones.  The  southern 
diora  of  the  Lough  are  low  and  marshy,  and 
dreary  in  appev^nce.  It  is  well  stocked  with  fish, 
and  ita  shores  are  frequented  by  the  swan,  heron, 
bittern,  teal,  and  other  water-fowl. 


was  educated  first  at  Merchant  Taylors'  School,  and 
afterwarda  at  Utrecht  and  Leaden,  in  HoUand, 
and  in  1706  succeeded  Dr  Smgletou  as  pastor 
of  a  congregation  La  bis  native  city.  N.'s  first 
work  was  nNulory  of  New  England  (1720),  wliich 
met  with  a  very  favourable  reception  in  America. 
Two  years  afterwards,  he  publishol  a  tract,  entitled 
A  Narrative  of  the  MeiAod  and  Sueetit  of  Inoculating 
At  Small-pox  in  Neie  En^and  bg  Mr  Bayamm 
Coltnan,  wnich  ezdted  cousiderahle  attention :  but 
the  production  on  which  his  rotation  rests  is  bis 
Eidorg  of  the  Purilaru  (4  vols.  1732-1788),  a  wotk 


of  great  labonr,  uid  invaloablo  i 


I  a  collection  of 

oburchmen  and 

interest 

controversies,   which    fuling    heoIUi   rendered 
impoB^ble  for  him  to  prosecute.    N.  died  at  Bath! 
A^  4,  1743. 


NEAL,  J< 
ottish  deei 


JoHH,  aa  Amerioan  author  and  poet,  of 
Moent,  was  born  at  Falmouth,  now  Port- 
land, Maine,  August  2t^  1793L  His  parents  belonged 
to  tiie  Society  of  Friends,  of  which  he  was  a 
member  until  disowned,  at  the  ace  of  25,  because  ha 
f^ed  to  live  up  to  the  rule  (^  'living  peaceably 
with  aU  men,'  With  the  scanty  education  of  a 
New-England  common  school,  he  became  a  shop- 
boy  at  the  age  of  12;  but  learned  and  then  taught 
penmanship  and  drawing.  At  tho  aga  of  21,  he 
entered  a  naberdaahery  trade,  first  in  Boston,  and 
then  in  New  York ;  and  a  year  after,  became  a 
wholesale  jobber  in  this  business  at  Baltimore,  in 
partnership  with  another  American  literarv  and 
pulpit  celebrity,  John  Pierpont.  They  failBd  in 
ISIG,  and  N.  turned  his  attention  to  the  study  of 
law.  With  the  energy  which  acquired  for  him  th* 
sobriquet  of  'Jehu  CCataract,'  affixed  to  bis  poem, 
The  Batik  of  Niagara,  he  went  through  the  usud 
seven  yeora'  law-course  in  one,  bedaes  studying 
sereral  languues,  and  writing  for  a  subsistence. 
In  1817,  he  puUitJted  Keep  Cool,  a  novd  i  the  nest 
year,  a  volume  of  poemsj  in  1819,  Oiho,  a  five-act 
tragedy  ;  and  in  1823,  tour  aoveia—SeaeiUy-six, 
Logan,  Randolph,  and  ErrtAt.  Thaea  impetoona 
works  were  each  written  iu  from  twenty-seven  to 
thirty-nine  days.  In  1824,  he  came  to  England, 
where  he  became  a  contributor  to  Stackaoo^a  ti^ 
other  magaKinee  and  reviews,  and  enjoyed  tho 
friendship  and  hospitality  of  Jeremy  Benuiam.  On 
his  return  to  America,  he  settled  in  his  native 
town,  practised  law,  wrote,  edited  newspapers,  gava 
lectures,  and  occupied  his  leisore  boms  in  t^ch- 
ing  boxing,  fencing,  and  gymnastics.  Among  bis 
numerous  works  are  Brollter  Jonathan,  J&ehel 
Dyer,  BenAam't  Morals  and  LtgMalion,  Auliorthip, 
Doara-etuUra,  Ac  After  a  long  silenoe,  devoted  to 
profeesioDal  business,  be  published,  in  1864,  One 
Word  More;  and  in  18S9,  True  Womanhood.  Tho 
latter  workj  though  a  novel,  embodies  the  more 
serious  religious  convictions  of  his  later  years.  In 
1870,  appeared  his  WanderiJig  BeeoUecKoiu  of  a 
Somewhat  Biuy  iij/e.  N.'s  voluminous  writmgs, 
with  all  their  glarug  faults  of  haste  and  inexpe- 
rience, are  full  of  gemus,  fire,  and  nattonality. 

NEANDEB,  Jobanh  Avotssi  WiLaauc,  by  far 
the  great«st  of  ecclesiastical  historians,  wss  bom  st 
O^tbngen,  16th  January  1789,  of  Jewish  parentage. 
His  name  prior  to  baptiam  was  David  MendeL  By 
tbe  mothm'a  side,  he  was  related  to  the  eminent 
ihilosopher  and  philanthropist  Mendelssohn  (q.v.). 
ie  received  his  early  education  at  the  Johaimeum 
o  Hambuig,  and  had  for  oompanioDS,  Vamhagen 
ron  Ease,  Cbamisso  the  poet.  Wilhelni  Neumann, 
Noodt,  and  Sieveking.  Already  the  abstract,  lofty, 
and  pure  genius  of  N.  was  beginning  to  shew 
itself.  Plato  and  Plutarch  were  his  favourite 
classics  as  a  boy;  and  be  was  profoundly  stirred 
by  Schleiermacber's  famous  IHewurtet  on  Bdigion 
(1799).  Bnally,  in  1806,  he  publicly  renounced 
Judaism,  and  was  baptized,  adopting,  in  allusion  to 
' '  nous  change  which  he  had  experienced,  tha 
I  N.  (Gr.  neog,  new ;  anar,  a  man),  and 
his  Chriatian  names  from  leveial  of  his 
friends.  His  sister*  and  brothera,  and  later  bis 
mother  also,  followed  his  exami^  He  now  pro- 
ceeded to  Halle,  where  ha  Btndied  thedogy  with 
wondertnl  ardour  and. '"    "-'-'-' ■--- 


iTGooglc 


NEAP-TIDES— NEBRASKA, 


Mtd  conolnded  hU  ncadenuo  ixniiu  ftt  bis  native 
town  of  CKittiiigett,  where  Planck  was  tb«n  in  the 
lanith  of  hia  reputation  u  a  chncdi  hiatoriaiL  In 
ISll,  he  took  up  Mb  residence  at  Heidelberg  Univer- 
■ity  OS  a  priTat-dooeDt ;  in  1812,  lie  was  appointed 
there  exteaocdlBaryprofessotot  theology;  and  in  the 
fotlowiog  jetx,.yiiu  called  to  the  newly  established 
nnirendty  ol  Berlin  as  Professor  of  Church  History. 
Here  he  bbonred  till  hia  death,  July  14,  1850.  N. 
enjoyed  immense  celebrity  as  a  lecturer.  Students 
flocked  to  him  not  only  from  all  parts  of  Qenoany, 
but  from  the  most  distant  Protestant  countries. 
Many  lUiman  Catholics,  even,  were  among  his 
auditors,  and  it  is  said  that  there  is  hardly  a  great 
preacher  in  Oermany  who  is  not  more  or  leaa 
penetrated  with  his  ioeas.  His  character,  religious^ 
considered,  is  of  so  noble  a  Chiistian  type  that  it 
calls  for  spedal  notice.  Ardently  and  profoimdly 
devotional,  aympathetie,  glsd-hearted,  profusely 
benevolent,  sod  vithont  a  ihadoir  of  selfishness 
resting  on  his  soul,  he  inspited  oniveisal  rerereoco, 
and  was  himself,  by  the  mild  and  attractive  sanctity 
of  his  life,  a  more  powerful  argument  on  behalf  of 
Christiani^  than  even  his  writings  themselves. 
Perhaps  no  professor  was  ever  to  much  loved  by 
hia  students  as  Nesnder.  He  used  to  give  the 
poorer  ones  tickets  to  his  lectures,  and  to  supply 
them  with  clothes  and  money.  The  greater  portion 
of  what  he  made  by  his  books,  he  bestowed  upon 
missiooary,  BiUe,  and  other  societies,  and  upon 
hospitals.  As  a  Christian  scholar  and  thinker,  he 
among  the  fint  names  in  modem  times,  and 


U   believed  t 


have  oontrihuted  B 


other  of  that  dead  Latiieran  formalism,  from  both 
of  which  the  religions  life  of  Oermany  had  so  long 
iuffered.  To  the  delineation  of  the  development  of 
historical  Christianity,  he  brines  one  of  the  broadest, 
one  of  the  most  sagadous  (m  rtgard  to  religions 
matters),  one  of  the  most  iropartiaJ  yet  generous 
and  sympathetio  intellects.  His  conception  of 
church  history  as  the  record  and  portraitiu^  of  all 
forma  of  Christian  thought  and  life,  and  the  skill 
with  which,  by  means  of  his  symMthy  with  all  of 
these,  and  hia  extraordinary  erodition,  he  elicits, 
in  his  Kir^engadiitAte,  the  varied  phenomena  of  a 
atrictly  Christian  nature,  have  placed  him  far  above 
any  M  his  predecessors.  N.'s  works,  in  the  order 
of  time,  ate :  UAer  den  Kaittr  JvUamit  uad  «e<n 
ZtitaXUr  (Leip.  1B12) ;  Der  BeiL  BemAard  and  tan 
ZtUaUer  (BerL  1613) ;  Oentiitekt  Bniaiekdung  dtr 
tomthmtlen  GiattUchen  Syiteme  (BerL  IBIS) ;  Der 
HeiL  ChrytoHomtu  taut  die  Sirdte,  baonderi  da 
Orkntt,  m  dewm  ZeUolUr  (2  vcJs.  BerL  1821— 
1622 ;  3d  ed.  ISIQ) ;  Dtnkioardigkalen  auM  der 
QadudiU  da  ChritlaUkvma  wtd  du  Chriglliehai 
LOent  (3  vols.  BerL  1622;  3d  ed.  1845—1346]  ; 
Aniignotiicua,  Geiit  da  TerOitiiamie  vnd  EiiUeitung 
in  daiai  SchriJUn  (BerL  1826) ;  Allgemeine  Oachichte 
der  ChrittiKhai  Eeligvm  tind  Kirche  {6  vols.  Hamb. 
1825—1862) ;  OackidiU  der  Pjlanximg  und  Latwag 
drr  Kirdit  dvrch  die  Apoiltl  (2  vols.  Hamb.  1633— 
1833 ;  4tb  ed.  1847) ;  Da*  LAen  Jau.  Cliristi  in 
ttSaem  geKhkhiUAm  Zutammenhange,  written  as  a 
reply  to  Strausa's  work  (Hamb.  1637 ;  5th  ed. 
]«i3) ;  Wi»»eatchafUiclii  Abhandlungen,  puhliehed 
by  Jaoobi  (BerL  1851) ;  Oeschieite  der  CAruilicften 
Doymoi,  also  published  by  Jaoobi  (1856).  The  majo- 
rity of  these  works,  iDcloding  the  most  important, 
have  been  translated  into  English,  and  form  more 
than  a  dozen  volnmes  of  Bohn's  '  Standard  Xiibraiy.' 

NEAF-TrDBS.    See  Tmss. 

NEA'BOBUS.  the  commander  of  the  fleet  of 
Alurandet   the  Great  in  his   Indian  e^editioo. 


327— '326  B.  a,  was  the  son  of  one  Audrotimni,  and 
was  bom  in  Crete,  but  settled  in  Amphipolis.  In 
329  B.O.,  he  joined  *  IcTanilBi-  jQ  Bactria  with  « 
body  of  Gre^  mercenaries,  and  when  the  latter 
ordered  a  fleet  to  be  built  on  the  Hydaai^  N. 
received  the  command  of  it.  He  condacted  it  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Indus  to  the  Persian  Gul^  i 
spite  of  great  obstacles,  resulting  partly  from  tha 
weather  and  partly  from  the  mutinons  diapositioii 
of  his  crews.  Ni  left  the  Indus  on  the  21gt  of 
September  325,  and  arrived  at  Susa,  in  Feisia,  in 
February  324,  shortly  after  Alexander  himself,  who 
had  marched  overland.  Fragments  of  his  own 
narrative  of  his  voyage  have  been  preserved  in  tha 
Indica  of  Arrian. — ^  Dr  Vincentf  b  Conaaarce  <md 
Navaation  of  the  An^enit  in  tiie  Indian  Stat  (1807); 
Geiers  Aleamdri  Magni  Hvlorkcrvn  Scr^torea  i 
and  the  histories  of  Greece  by  Grote  and  others. 

HEATH,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  boron^ 
and  river-port  of  the  oonn^  of  Glamorgan,  South 
Wales,  on  a  navigable  river  of  the  same  name,  seven 
miles  north-east  of  Swansea.  It  is  built  on  the  site 
of  the  Roman  station  Nid'am,  and  it  contains  the 
remains  of  an  aacient  oastle,  burned  in  1231.  In  tha 
immediate  vicinity  are  tlie  imposing  mins  of  Ne«th 
Abbey,  described  by  Leland  as  'the  fairest  abbey 
in  all  Wales,'  but  now  sadly  decayed  and  begrimed 
by  the  smoke  and  coal-dust  of  the  publio  works  of 
the  district  There  are  at  N.  several  extensive 
copper  and  tin  works.  Copper,  spelter,  iron  and 
tin  plates,  and  flne  bricks  are  extensively  exported, 
stones  are  quarried,  and  coal  and  cnlm  are  raised. 
The  trade  ii  the  port  has  largely  increased  wi^in 
late  years.    Pop.  (1881)  10,447. 

SBB-NBB,  or  KIB-NIB,  the  dried  pods  of 
Aea^  N^&ia,  one  of  the  spedes  of  Acacia  (q.  v.) 
which  yield  gum-arabic,  and  a  native  of  Aniia. 
These  pods  sre  mnch  used  in  Eeypt  for  tanning 
and  have  been  imported  into  Britain. 

NEBRA'SEA,  one  of  the  United  SUtes  dt 
America,  lying  in  lat  40°— 43°  N.,  and  long.  95*— 
104°  W. ;  bounded  on  the  W.  by  Wyoming,  and  N. 
by  Dakota,  beint;  partly  separated  from  flie  latter 
by  the  Uissonri  River,  and  its  branch  the  Nio- 
brara; E.  by  Iowa  and  Miasoori,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Missouri  River ;  S.  by  Kansaa 
and  Colorado.  This  state  is  about  426  miles  from 
east  to  west,  and  from  138  to  208  frem  north  to 
south,  and  has  an  area  (in  1880)  of  76,855  square 
miles.  Orlgtitally,  when  thia  state  was  a  territory, 
it  extended  from  the  Missouri  River  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  from  lat.  40'  to  the  boundary  of  wlu^ 
was,  at  the  time,  British  America.  The  chief  towns 
are  Omaha  City,  the  starting-point  of  the  Unioa 
PaciSc  H^way,  Nebraska  City,  and  Lincoln,  the 
cspitaL  N.isavaat^bunrisinggradnsllytowardtha 
Rocky  Moaatains,  with  immense  pnuries,  the  haunts 
of  vast  herds  of  buffiilo,  aod  with  fertile  and  well- 
timbered  river-bottoms.  The  chief  riven  are  tha 
Missouri  on  its  eastern,  and  the  Niobrara,  partly  on 
die  northern  bouadaiy,  the  Platte  or  Nebraska,  and 
the  Republican  Fork  of  the  Kansas,  and  their 
branches.  The  PIatt«  Valley,  running  through  the 
whole  centre  of  tlie  territoy,  is  broad  and  fertile. 
There  are  quarries  of  sandstone,  a  soft  limestone 
which  hardens  on  exposure,  and  thin  beds  of  ooaL 
In  the  mountainous  western  region  are  mines  of 
gold,  silver,  copper,  and  cinnabar.  Between  the 
fertile  lands  of  the  eaatern  and  central  portion  and 
the  mountains  is  a  great  desert  valley  of  30  by 
90  miles,  300  feet  deep,  full  of  rocky  pinnacles, 
and  rich  in  fossil  remains.  The  cliioate  is  dry 
and  aalnbriooi,  with  an  abundance  of  clear  sunny 
days.  The  couotty  produces  wheat,  maize,  hemp^ 
tolmoco,  and  fruits  in  abnndance,  while  the  loUing 


li.CiOoglc 


NEBIIASKA.— NECfiSSIXT. 


S:airieB  »fford  imecjtiAUed  psatnTage.  The  Omthta, 
KWneet,  Otoes,  Sionx,  ftnd  other  wild  tribee  have 
luree  rcBerrations,  bat  imnuKr^tioii  promtKea 
Tspidly.  It  waa  stade  a  temKiiy  in  ISM,  and 
a  state  in  1367.  Pop.  (1870)  12^117;  (1880) 
452,403,  beaidea  about  7000  Indiana.  See  Carley's 
If.  (1876). — Nkbhaska  Citt,  on  the  Minouri,  and 
on  the  PaciBo  Railway,  ia  leiB  popalooa  than  Lin- 
coln, the  capital,  and  Omaha,  tiie  largest  city  of  the 
Btata     Pop.  of  N.  City  (1870)  6050;  (1880)  4183. 

NEBRASKA,  or  PLATTE,  a  river  of  Nebraaka, 
U.S.,  rises  in  the  Rooky  Monntainj,  and  flowing 
easterly  600  miles  through  the  entire  territory, 
watering  its  great  Tolley,  falls  into  the  Missoori. 
VEBUCBADVTEZZXR.  See  Babtms. 
NE'BIJL.^  a  name  given  to  indistinct  patches 
of  light  in  the  heavens,  auppoaed  to  prooeed  from 
aggr^atiooa  of  rarely  diatribnted  matter  belooging 
to  distant  worlds  in  the  conrae  of  formation.  By 
the  giadnal  improvement  of  telescopea  in  power 
and  diaCinctneBS,  these  nebille  have,  one  after 
another,  become  resolved  into  oloaten  of  distinct 
stora,  and  it  ia  now  generally  anppoaed  that  each  a 
resolution  of  all  nebolie  which,  have  been  observed  is 


'alaxy  which  atndi  th«  firmament, 
woold,  it  tooked  npon  from  the  inuneainrable  dis- 
tances at  which  these  so.called  nebuhe  are  utnated, 
itself  assame  the  appearance  of  anch  a  nsbula ;  and 
that  in  the  tnterv^  there  erist  spaces  as  void  of 
atanr  worlds  as  these  are  comparatively  full  of  them. 
See  Stabs.  Some  nebulie  are  of  a  nnmd  form,  pre- 
senting a  gradual  condensation  towards  the  centre ; 
othen  consist  of  one  star  surrounded  by  a  nebnlona 
haze;  while  a  third  class  present  iust  the  same 
ince  aa  would  be  exhibited  by  the  solar  systei 
from  a  point  immensely  distant.    Th«ie 


appearance . 

if  seen  from  a  point  immensely  d 
other  phenomena  suggeated  to  lAplaoe  the  idea,  after- 
wards developed  into  a  theory,  and  knt 
ndntlar  hypolAetit,  that  these  nebulra 
in  process  of  formation  ;  thefirst  Eta~~ 
agglomeration  of  nebnlona  matter  of 

i^ch,  in  the  second  stage,  shewed  _   .  ...    . . 

gradual  condensation  towards  the  centre ;  and, 
Snally,  tlie  nebulous  matter  ronnd  the  now-formed 
centre  of  the  system,  separated  itself  into  distinct 
portions,  each  portion  becoming  condensed  into 
planet.  The  same  opinion  regarding  the  formation 
'inln  waspnt  forwatdb  "'"  '"'" 
iquent  i 


of  plsjiets  from  nebuln  was  put  forwatd  by  Sir  Wil- 
liam Herschel  in  1811;  bat  the  anbaeqaent  disoovi 
mode  by  Lord  Boase  were   pippoaed  to  exooi 
fallae  J  in  this  theory.    That  wonderful  ins 
the  apecbiMCope,  has,  however,  recently  n 
'   '  t  theoty,  by  shewiiw  that  amo  „ 

■  there  are  real  oebuln  devoid  of  solid 
iBtter,  and  oons 
gaa — apparently  nitrogen 

ITE'BULT,  one  «[  the  partition  lines  in  Heraldry, 

_.    ^— s.    ,— .    f—^    j^     whioh  runs  out  and  in, 

(_>   (_J    U    \jf   ^  in  a  form    supposed    ' 

Nabnly.  * 


tha  nelralar  theory,  by  shewiiw  that  among  these 

appearanoea  there  »x«  real  oebi 

or  liquid  ma 


NECE'SSITT.    This  word  o 


X  of  olonda^ 


belief  in  fundamental  truths,  such 

the  azioma  of  toathematicft  It  is  alleged  by  soi 
philosophers,  that  the  truths  held  by  ns  as  mi 
certain  are  the  result  of  experieoce,  and  that  t 
dwee  of  certainty  is  but  a  measure  of  the  onivi 
uSty  of  the  eiperienoe.  Others  contend  that  anoh 
fint  prindplea  as  the  axioms  of  mathematics  are  not 
only  true,  bat  weeMaarily  true.      8aoh  neoewity. 


argued,  cannot  oome  from  mere  ei;>ecienoe, 
and  therefore  implies  an  innate  or  intuitive  sonroe. 
Hence  the  theory  of  necessary  truth  is  only  nnotber 
name  for  tha  theory  of  instinctive  or  intuitive 
truth. 

Necessity  is  a  word  too  vagne  in  its  iignifioation 
_.  serve  as  a  leading  term  in  philosophy.  Thereore 
several  meanings  attaching  to  it,  which  should  be 
clearly  set  fortii  before  entering  on  the  discussion 
ch  questions  as  those  above  mentioned. 
Necessity,  in  the  first  place,  means  that  one 
fact  or  statement  is  implied  in  another.  Thus,  if 
we  say  that  all  the  apostles  wete  Jews,  it  followa 
necessarily  that  Peter  was  a  Jew  ;  this  is  not  a  new 
fact,  but  merely  a  re-assertion  of  a  portion  of  the 
some  fact.  We  are  not  at  liberty  to  afBnn  a  thing 
n  one  form,  and  tiien  deny  the  some  tbinf;  when 
ixpreased  in  *  different  form.  If  we  say  this  room 
s  hot,  it  is  repeating  the  assertion  in  another  way, 
to  say  that  it  is  not  cold.  These  truths  follow  by 
necessary  inference.  Hence  the  general  axiom  of  the 
syllogism,  that  what  is  true  of  a  whole  otoss  most 
be  true  of  each  individnol,  is  a  ueoessaiy  truth  in 
this  sense.  In  affirming  such  a  truth,  we  merely 
declare  that  we  shall  be  consistent,  and  that  when 
we  have  affirmed  a  proposition  in  company  with 
oQut  propodtions,  we  are  prepared  to  affirm  it 
when  taken  apart  from  the  other*.    This  kind  of 

sity  ia  aometiines  colled  Logical  necessity,  and 

times  Mathematical  necessi^.  We  might  call 
it  Deductive  neoeadty,  or  necessity  by  Implication. 

2.  A  second  meaning  is  Inductive  certainty ;  or 
tha  certainty  Uiat  arises  from  »  well-gronnded 
ezperienc&  That  lead  will  sink  in  water ;  tiiat 
«nim»la  need  food  and  air  in  order  to  live ;  that 
warmth  pramotes  vegetation ;  are  trutha  that  we 
call  necessary,  in  the  sense  of  being  so  certain  that 
we  may  always  count  upon  them.  We  presume 
with  the  hidiest  confidEuce,  that  on  unsnpported 
body  will  f^  to  the  ground,  not  because  the  fact 
of  uJIing  is  implied  in  the  fact  of  matter,  bot 
becauae  nature  has  uniformly 


nl^  conjoined  tie  two 

:  moral  necessity ;  by 

a  sequence  and  oon- 

aequent  certainty.    When  we  declare  that  children. 


1  only  onifarm  sequence  » 


whose  education  has  been  neglected,  must 

evil  courses,  we  declare  what  experience  has  shewn 

I  wilt  happen  in  relation  to  the  human  mind. 

3.  Wtuoi  necessity  means  neither  deductive  impli- 

tion,  nor  inductive  certainty,  it   refera  us   to  a 

peculiar  test  supposed  to  appV  to  the  trutha  in 

dispute — namely,    the   inccnceivableness   of    their 

opposite.      It  IB  said  that,  not  only  can  we  not 

bt&oK  in  the  opposite  of  the  axiom,  that  'the  sums 

of  equala  are  equal,'  but  we  cannot  even  coneeiBe, 

imagme,  or  picture  to  ourselves  the  oppodto  of  it. 

This  impossibility  of  conceiving  tiie  contradiction  of 

any  statement,  ia  regarded  by  many  as  a  peculiarly 

the  axiomatic  fint  piinciples  from  the  trutlis  of 
inductive  science,  these  having,  it  is  said,  on  inferior 
order  of  certainty.  To  this  it  may  be  replied,  however, 
that  men's  power  of  conceiving  is  so  much  sheeted  by 
their  edncatioD  and  baUta,  t£at  many  things,  whose 
oppontes  were  at  one  time  inconceivable,  nave  since 
been  found  to  be  false.  For  example,  the  notion 
that  men  oonld  hvs  at  the  antipodes  was  once 
reckoned  incoriceival)Ie,  and  we  now  know  it  to  be 
a  fact  An  unvarying  association  will  often  produce 
a  disability  to  conceive  anything  different. 

In  commencing  a  discussion  as  to  tiie  necessary 
charaoter  of  any  tntth,  the  disputants  should  agree 
beforehand  whiolk  of  tlM  tiiree  meanings  th^  intend. 
In  the  oimtroTer^  on  Hm  Mathenutiol  axioniiS, 
maintained  between  Dr  Wbewell  on  the  one  hand, 
and  Sir  John  Henchel  ud  Mr  J.  S.  VM 


t;(iy>glit 


test  of  tenth,  has  been  pot  forward  by  Mr  Eeibeii 
Spenocr,  nndar  the  title  of  the  TJniTcml  Postnlmte 
IPrincipiet  of  PtyAokgy,  Put  L). 

KE'OH^S,  •  rivet  oE  Texas,  V.  %.,  rues  ii 
central  eaatem  portion  of  the  state,  and  Qavn  soutli 
by  eastv  200  miles,  into  Sabine  Bay,  where  ite 
waters,  witli  those  of  the  3abine  River,  find  their 
iraj,  by  Sabine  Pass,  into  the  Oolf  of  Mexico. 

NE'CKAB,  one  of  the  largeat  tnbntaries  of  the 
Bhina,  and  the  principal  river  of  WUrtemberg,  rises 
ne«r  to  the  •oorce  A  the  Danube,  on  the  eutera 
deelivily  of  the  Black  Fore«t,  and  doee  to  the 
village  of  Sdnreningen.  It  has  a  winding  oonrae  of 
240  milei,  fint  norui-eaat  to  it«  junction  with  the 
Fils,  then  north  to  its  jaaction  wiHi  the  Jait,  fmd 
finally  north-weat  to  HanDheim,  where  it  joins  the 
Bhine.  The  principal  jilaces  on  its  buiki  are 
Tubingen,  HmlbRmn,  Heidelberg  and  M«iiiiliaiin 
Its  conne,  leading  first  Uuoagh  a  deep  and  narrow 
dale,  leads  afterwards  Uuon^  a  saocession  of  wide 
and  fettiie  tracts,  endooed  by  soft  vine-olad  hills, 
The  scenery  of  its  banks  ti,  in  ceueral,  very 
beantifnl,  md  in  many  places  hi^ly  ronautio. 
Vrani  Cannstadt,  abont  midway  in  iti  oonne,  the 
N.  U  navigable ;  iteHnen  fdy  regndariy  to  Heidel- 
berg. OoM  wines  are  grown  on  its  bank*.  Chief 
afflnents,  on  the  left,  Um  Ens  {  on  tbe  ri|^t,  the 
Fils,  the  Rema,  the  Kocher,  and  the  Jaxfc 

NECKER,  Jacquxs,  ■  famous  finander  and 
mioister  of  Franct^  was  born,  SOth  September  1732; 
at  Geneva,  where  nia  father,  a  native  of  Branden- 
burg, bat  of  Anglo-Irish  descent,  was  professor  of 
German  law.  He  became  a  tanker  in  Paris,  and 
acquired  a  large  fortune  daring  (he  Seven  Years' 
War.  After  retiring  from  bniinesB,  he  became  the 
representative  of  Eis  native  city  at  the  French 
court;  and  also  acquired  a  hi^  bat  not  exactly  a 
solid  reputation  by  his  {mblications  on  ^litical 
economy  and  finance,  particularly  hia  Emia  mr  Ea 
Lfgiilaaon  d  le  Cammrrce  de  Oratiu  (Par.  ITTE).  In 
this  essay  he  appears  as  the  opponent  of  Oxb  wise 
Tnrgot's  liberal  meastirea  in  reeard  to  the  traffic  in 
griun,  and  claims  for  the  state  the  risht  of  fixing  its 
price,  and  if  it  thinks  it  necessary,  ot  prohibiting;  its 
exportation.  On  the  removal  of  Tnrgot  from  omce 
in  June  1776,.  N.  was  called  to  asait  in  financial 
affairs,  and  after  the  brief  administTiition  of  Cln^y, 
he  was '  made  General  Director  of  Finances  in  June 
1777.    N.  could  not  conceal  bis  tJation.    This  was 


onij  m  mecimg  uia  exigencies  oi  tne  Amencan 
war,  but  in  rcfltoring  to  some  degree  of  order  the 
general  financial  affairs  of  the  couDtlT,  though 
mainly  by  the  penlous  expedient  of  borrowing, 
which  he  was  enabled  to  do  t«  an  almost  nnlimit<S 
extent,  owine  to  the  confidence  reposed  in  his 
financial  dexferi^.  Some  years  he  borrowed  as 
much  OS  490  miUions  of  francs.  His  Protestantism, 
however,  and  some  retrGnchmenti  which  he  made 
the  royal  household,  with  his  pnblicatii 


itired  to  Geneva,  where  he  was  visited,  from 
motives  of  sympathy  and  respect,  by  the  hiehest 
persooages  in  the  realm,  the  Priace  of  Cond^  the 
Dukea  of  Orleans  and  Chartres,  the  Prince  of 
Beanvan,  the  Duke  of  Luxembourg,  Marshal  de 
Biohelieu,  the  Archbishop  of  Faria,  to.  but 
ralumed  to  Paris  in  1787,  from  which  be  was  soon 


attack  whidi  ha  pob- 
gement  of  the  reckless 
and  ignorant  Calonne.  In  thefinaoeialaadpolitieal 
crisis,  howevsr,  which  followed  npon  Um  financial 
administratiim  of  LomSnis  de  Bnenne,  Loois  XVL 
found  himself  nnder  the  neoeari^  of  calliiu  N.  in 
November  17SS  to  the  offloe  of  Comptroller  Oenenl 
ol  Finances  and  Minister  of  Sb^  N.  raoom- 
mended   the   calling   of  the   States  Qeum^,   and 


having  no  capacity  for  political  affairs  in  other  than 
their  mere  Mianeial  aspects.  When  the  court,  on 
23d  Jons  1789,  determined  upon  nnllihring  the 
resolution  of  the  third  estate.  If.  heaitatei^  mdO.  the 
kiog  therefore  dismissed  him  on  11th  Joly,  and 
required  him  to  leave  the  French  domtnioDi 
immediately.  He  obeyed,  but  the  disturbances  of 
the  12tb,  13th,  and  14th  of  July  (on  the  last  of  which 
days  the  Bastille  was  token)  were  the  result  of 
hia  dismissal,  and  the  king  vras  nnder  the  neceesitr 
of  recaJiing  btm  He  nov  allied  bi'iMATf  vith 
Mounier  and  other  ministeit  for  the  introdnetion 
of  a  constitution  like  that  of  Britun,  witli  two 
chambers  or  Honses  of  Parliament ;  but  this  eauaed 
a  great  diminution  of  hie  popalarity,  and  ha  waa 
unable  to  contend  in  debate  with  Mirabean  and 
other  great  leaders  of  the  National  Assembly.  On 
tbe  rejection  by  the  assembly  of  his  scheme  of  a 
loan,  and  the  adoptioa  instead  of  it  of  Mirabean's 
scheme  of  assignats,  he  resigned  his  office  in  Sep- 
tember 1790,  and  retired  to  his  estate  of  Oopnet, 
near  Oenevi^  where  be  died,  9th  April  1S04. 
Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  he  pnbliabed 
sereraJ  on  political  and  on  relimous  subjects,  pat^ 
Uoulorly  a  work  on  the  French  Kevolntion  (4  vols. 
Par.  1796),  nhich  has  been  frequently  reprinted. 
His  daughter  was  the  celebrated  Madame  de  StaHl. 
NECK-MOULDIIfG.  A  moulding  at  the 
notion  of  the  capital  and  shaft  of  a  oolumn.  The 
,  ain  space  between  the  astragal  of  tbe  shaft  and 
the  mouldings  of  the  cap  ui  tiie  Roman  Doric  ddflr 
n  called  tbe  nect, 

NE'CROMANGT  (Gr.  ndtrot,  dead,  and  tnnnMa, 
divination),  a  mode  of  divination  by  the  ODujnring 
up  of  the  dead  to  question  them  concemiDg  the 
future.  It  originated  in  the  east,  and  in  times  of 
the  most  remote  antiquity.  It  is  oondemned  in  tbe 
Old  Testament ;  and  the  stOTy  of  t^  witch  of 
Gndor  affords  a  remarkable  illustration  of  it,  which 
has  not  a  little  perplexed  interpretea  of  Soriptuv. 
The  eleventh  book  of  Homer'*  Odytmj/  bears  the 
title  of  ViiftftMiruu,  and  in  it  the  shade  of  Tireslas 
is  represented  as  brought  np  and  oonndted  hy 
Ulysses.      In  most  parts  of  Greece,  aoainauuj 


■pirit*  mi^  be  ooosnltod  «i«  thsr  flatly  passed 
into  tbe  knnr  worid.  The  sstatdishment  of  Chria- 
tianity  nndar  Constantin*  caased  nscronaiKy  to  bs 
placed  nnder  the  ban  i^  the  ohnrch.  lime  an 
evident  trace*  of  necKnnanoyin srane  <A  Ou older 
Noise  and  Teutonio  ^Mema.  The  medieval  belief  in 
the  evocation  of  spirits  belongs  rather  to  soieeiy 
than  to  necromancy.  See  Psncsi'*  Comatmtafvu 
de  Pracgndt  Dinnaftonum  Omaibiu  (Zecbs^  JS91). 


love  or  appetite  for  the  dead  which 


J  and  revoltinK 
luH  maiiif ettaa 


NBOBOPOLia-NEEDPTRE. 


HMdt  in  TuiooB  my.  Consorting  or  living  wiUi 
the  dead  has  bean  observed  m  a  chwaeteriitio  of 
melanaholia.  Individaala  lure  inhabited  Krove- 
yardi,  prefeiring  the  prozimitf  and  aHodktion  of 
corpeei  with  wblch  thev  had  no  tie,  to  the  cheer. 
fnlne«B  and  comforti  of  home ;  and  there  ia  reoorded 
one  Dotoriooa  ease,  in  wliiah  a  gentli 


placing  the  coffin   ._   .._ 

tendeninr  may  enter  into  certain  deTElopmenta 
coiimbtuiim,  where  the  feast  ia  celebrated 
memory  of  a  departed  friend,  rather  tlian 
triumph  over  a  elaiu  foe.  It  is  aflirmed  that  thara 
were  anthropophagous  epidemics  in  143S  imd  IGOO : 
and  the  history  of  vampirigm  connects  that  deluaioi. 
with  the  moral  perversioa  now  described.  Patients 
ID  aaylnms,  eepeoiaUy  in  continental  aaylmna,  ore 
■till  often  enconntered  who  bemoan  the  crime  of 
having  devoured  the,  dead,  and  violated  cbamel- 
houBea.  The  moat  ertraordinary  exhibition  of 
necrophiliam  ia  where  individuals,  not  in  fancy  but 
in  reality,  have  exhnmed  corpaea,  to  see  them,  to 
kiss  them,  to  cany  them  away  to  their  own 
bomea,  or  to  mutilate  and  tear  them  to  pieces.  It  ia 
worthy  ti  notico  that,  so  for  sa  such  coses  have 
been  observed  in  this  country,  they  have  been 
confined  to  commonitiea  living  in  remote  places, 
of  rude  and  nnenli^tened  character,  and  cherishius 
the  aupetstitions  3  ages  and  states  of  society  with 
which  they  have  no  other  connection,  and  of  which 
they  have  almost  lost  1^  recollection. — Armaht, 
itedico-Ptyr^ologiqua,  t  viiL  p.  472. 

NECBCyPOLlS,  a  Greek  term,  mesmng  the  dty 
of  the  dead,  and  applied  to  the  oemetenei  in  the 
vicinity  of  ancient  citdes.  It  occurs  in  classical 
antiquity  only  as  applied  to  a  suborb  of  Alexandria, 
lying  to  the  wot  en  that  city,  having  many  shops 
and  gardens  and  places  Eaital>le  for  the  reception  of 
the  dead.  The  corpses  were  received  and  embalmed 
in  it.  Here  Cleopatra,  the  last  of  the  Ptolemies, 
a]iplied  the  asp  to  her  breast,  to  avoid  the  igoo- 
miny  of  being  led  in  trimnjih  by  Augustus.  Xhe 
ute  of  the  necropolis  of  ancient  Alexandria  seems 
to  have  been  where  are  now  the  catacombs,  con- 
sisting ot  Kolleriea  and  tombs  hollowed  out  of 
the  soft  cucareous  atone  of  which  the  city  ia 
bnilt,  and  lying  at  the  extremity  of  the  city.  The 
term  necrt^lisia  now,  however,  used  in  a  much  more 
extended  sense,  and  i»)plied  to  all  the  cemeteries  of 
the  ondent  world.  These  conaiated  dther  of  tombs, 
couEtmcted  in  the  shape  of  houses  and  temples,  and 
arranged  in  streets,  like  a  city  of  the  dead ;  or  else 
of  chambers  hollowed  in  the  rock,  and  ornamented 
with  facades,  to  imitate  houses  and  temples.  Such 
cemeteries  ore  to  be  distinguished  from  the  colum- 
baria, or  Enbterraneoos  chamben  of  the  Bomana,  in 
which  their  nms  were  deposited;  or  the  rows  ot 
tombs  along  the  Via  Apjpiai  or  the  cemeteries  of  the 
Christians,  whose  bodies  were  deposited  in  the 
Round.  The  most  remarkable  necropolises  are 
uiat  of  Thebe*  in  %;pt,  situated  at  a  place  called 


of  Et-Eab  or  Eileithyia ;  ot  Beni-Eassan,  or  the 
Speos  Artemidosi  and  <^  Madfou  or  Abydoaj  of 
Siwoh  or  the  Oasis  of  Ammon.  See  Oisis.  In 
Africa,  the  necropolia  of  Cyrene  is  also  extensive ; 
and  those  of  Vuloi,  Cometo,  Tarquinii,  and  Capua 
ate  distuwiished  for  their  painted  tombs  (see 
Tohb),  and  the  numerous  vases  and  other  objects  of 
ancient  art  iriiieh  have  been  exhumed  from  them. 
Laive  necnpoliset  have  abo  been  found  in  I^rcia, 
Sid^,  and  ebawhonh 


Strabo,  zviiL  p.  79S— 790;  Plutarch,  vit  Anton; 
Letronne,  Jtnmial  da  Savatu,  IS28,  p.  103 ;  Denni^ 
OMa  and  CemOaria  o/ECruria,  I  412,  i.  276—368. 

VBCKO'BIS  (Gr.  it&troi,  dead)  ia  a  term  employed 
to  denote  the  death  or  mortification  of  Ixme,  but 
often  restricted  to  tiie  casea  in  which  the  shi^  of 
a  long  bone  dies,  either  directly  from  injury  or  from 
violent  indammation,  and  is  enclosed  by  a  layer  of 
new  bone ;  the  death  of  a  thin  snpei^cial  layer, 
which  is  not  enclosed  is  a  shell  of  new  bone, 
being  nsually  termed  eifoliaiion. 

The  bones  of  the  lower  extremity — the  femur  and 
tibia — ore  those  which  are  most  frequently  affected 
by  necrosis.  The  lower  jaw  is,  however,  extremely 
often  affected  by  it,  in  persona  engaged  in 
making  Incifer-matches ;  the  disease  being  set  up 
by  the  pemidons  action  of  the  vaponr  of  phoa- 
phorns.  The  dead  bone,  known  as  the  itqiie^rmit, 
generally  consists  of  the  circumference  of  the  ahaft 
only,  and  not  of  the  interior,  and  the  inside  of  the 
dead  portion  preeents  a  rough  appeuanoe,  as  if 
wonn-eat«).  U  the  membrane  investing  the  boos 
(the  neriooteum)  remain  healthy,  it  deposits  lymph, 
which  speedDy  ossifies,  forming  a  shall  of  healthy 
bone,  which  completely  invests  the  dead  portion. 

The  essential  point  in  the  treatment  is  the 
removal  of  the  meptalnna,  wliich  is  too  purely  a 
sorgical  operation  to  be  described  in  these  pagea. 

NE'OTAB,  the  name  given  by  Homer,  Hesiod, 
Pindar,  and  the  Greek  poeta  generaUy,  and  by  the 
Bomans,  to  the  beverage  of  the  coda,  their  food 
being  called  Ambrotta  (q.  v.).  But  Sappho  and 
Alcman  make  nectar  the  food  of  the  gods,  and 
ambrosia  their  drink.  Homer  desoribea  nectar  as 
nbling  red  wiue,  and  represents  its  continued 
as  causing  immortality.  By  the  later  poets, 
nectar  and  ambrosia  are  represented  as  of  most 
delidons  odour;  and  sprinkling  with  nectar,  or 
anointing  with  ambroria,  is  spoken  of  as  conferring 
perpetuu  yoath,  and  they  are  assmned  as  the 
symbols  of  everything  most  delightful  to  the  taste. 

HECTARINE.    See  Pmch. 

KB'CTABV,  in  Botany,  an  orran  in  the  floweia 
of  many  nhaneronmous  plants,  devoted  either  to 
the  secretion  or  tiie  reception  of  honey.  Of  the 
former  kind  are  nectariferous  glands  scalea,  and 
porea;  of  the  latter,  tubes,  oavitias,  fta  Bi^  the 
term  was  for  a  long  time  very  vagoely  employed  by 
botanists,  and  seemed  to  be  used  for  any  part  of  a 
fiower  which  had  no  other  name.  Thus  amongst 
the  parts  once  called  nectaries,  are  those  now  oal&d 
DUe  (q.  v.)  and  Corona  (q.  v.). 

NEDJED,  or  KEJD,  the  central  highlands  of 
Arabia  (q.  v.). 

NBEDFIRE  (Ger.  mt^euer;  allied  to  Sw. 
ffnida,  to  mb ;  £^g.  Imead),  fire  obtained  by  the 
Motion  ot  wood  npon  wood,  or  the  friction  ot  a 
ipe  on  a  stake  of  wood,  to  which  a  wideepr^ 
iperatition  assigns  peculiar  virtues.  With  vanetiea 
of  detail,  the  praotioe  of  raising  needfiie  in  cases  of 
calamity,  paiticuLu'ly  of  disease  among  cattle,  baa 
been  fonnd  to  exist  among  most  nations  of  the 
IndO'European  raca  It  baa  been  supposed  offeotnal 
to  defeat  the  sorcery  to  which  the  diaeaae  ia  aaaigned. 
When  the  incantation  is  taking  place,  all  the  firea 
in  the  neidibonrhood  must  be  extingnuhed,  and 


raising  of  needfire  was  practised  not  long  ago,  and  it 
is  perbape  still  bad  recourse  to  in  some  very  remote 
loralities.  The  saorifioe  of  a  heifer  waa  thon^t 
neceassiy  to  insure  its  efficieiicnr.  The  ways  of 
obttuoing  fire  from  wood  have  oeen  various;  one 
is  t^  an  ApfmntnM  which  has  been  called  tJia  |flre^ 
wuiDi'  a  o^inder  tuniing  m  a  pivo^ 


HEEDFtEE— NEEDLES. 


with  apokea,  by  meuiB  of  which  itis  nude  to  re^ 
vtry  rapidly,  and  fire  ia  generated  by  the  friction. 
Fire  itruck  from  metal  hta  been  tnpposed  not  to 
poBaesa  the  iame  virtae,  and  in  some  metancea  the 
persona  who  perfonned  the  ceremony  were  required 
to  divest  themselves  of  any  metal  which  migl 
about  them.  In  its  origia,  the  fire-cbnni  was 
■idered  a  model  of  the  apparatos  by  which  the  fires 
of  heaven  were  daily  relundled.  It  is  still  in  daily 
nee  in  the  temples  of  the  Hindus.  The  same  snper- 
stition  wsa  doobtlesa  the  otigin  of  the  story  of 
Prometheos  (q.  v.).  See  Grimm's  Deutsche  MyAo- 
logie;  Supplement  to  Jnmlesoa'a  SeoOiA  Dictionary. 

NEEDLES  an  instmments  of  metal,  or  otbsr 
material,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the  thresd 
in  uwing,  embroidery,  knitting,  nettinc,  and  other 
Mmili  operations.  They  are  generauy  made  of 
metal,  but  bone,  ivory,  and  wood  are  also  n«ed ;  for 
Ordinsiy  needle-worl^  called  sewinK,  they  are  made 
of  fine  steel,  and  are  too  well  Known  to  need 
description ;  for  otber  kinds  of  work,  they  are  of 
rnnoh  larger  ftod  difieKntly  foitned,  accmroicg  to 
requirements  of  the  work  to  be  done. 

Keedle-makina  JB  au  Important  branch  of 
dustrisl  art,  and  it  has  of  late  years  attained  to 
extraordinary  perfection.  Small  bars  of  steel, 
not  thicker  than  a  good.siied  brisUe,  can  ba  made 
perfectly  roiud,  pointed  at  one  end  with  wonderful 
accuracy,  pierced  at  the  other  and  with  an  oval  hole, 
the  ndet  of  which  are  so  smoothly  rounded  that 
there  is  no  friction  upon  the  thread,  snd  the 
whole  of  each  instrument,  not  more  than  an  inch 
in  length,  beautifully  polished,  and  sold  at  les 
than  a  sbiUiof;  per  huniued,  notwithstanding  that 
large  part  of  the  operations  required  in  their  manu 
factnre  are  manual.  The  firBt  operation,  after  the 
wire  has  been  selected,  and  its  thicknesa  accurately 
gauged,  is  to  cut  it  into  eight-feet  lengths;  this  is 
dona  by  winding  it  in  a  coil  of  16  feet  circum- 
ference, and  then  cutting  this  coil  into  exact  halves 


with  powerful  cutting  aheara.  The  coiling  of  tho 
wire  is  no  managed,  tlut  there  are  100  piece*  in  each 
half  when  cut ;  the  bundles  of  100  wires  are  aeun 
out  into  the  neoeesary  lengthi  for  two  neeSea; 
and  so  well  arranged  are  the  cutting  shears,  that  a 
man  can  easily  cut  enough  for  1,000,000  needles 
in  a  day  of  12  hours.  The  pieces  cut  from  a  coil, 
altiiough  now  reduced  to  the  length  of  two  small 
needles,  are  nevertheless  somewhat  curved;  l^ey  are 
therefore  collected  into  bundles  of  abont  6000,  and 
|ilaced  in  two  iron  rings,  which  hold  them  loosely 
together,  as  in  fig.  I ;  they  are  then  sliffhtly  softened 
by  firing,  and  are 

plate    or    bench. 
Fig.  2.  and   are    pressed 

with      a      small 
onrved  bar  '(fig.  2)  in  two  or  three  posit 


which  the  opetator  manages  to  maie  them  aU 
prafectly  strai|[ht.  They  are  now  taken  to  the 
grinder,  who  sits  in  bant  of  hia  grindstone  upon 
a  seat  which  i*  hollow,  and  forms  an  air-shaft 
open  towards  the  stones  through  this  a  blast  of  air 
ia  forced  when  the  wheel  ia  in  motion,  which 
earries  away  from  the  grinder  evety  partici  of  the 
■nbtle  duat  from  the  needle  points  and  tiie  stone. 
Before  this  humane  invention,  which  has  rendered 
the  operation  quite  innocuous,  the  loss  of  life  in  this 
maamaotare  wm  more  serious  than  in  Hiy  otW 
m ' 


industrial  occupation.  Hie  oimator,  with  ^ceat  taet 
holds  abont  25  of  the  wires;  by  meana  of  his  thaml^ 
pressed  aguost  the  iuaido  <rf  nis  fingera,  the  wireai 
which  are  held  straight  and  applied  to  the  grind- 
stone, beina  dexterously  turned  round  on  the  inside 
of  the  baiul  by  means  of  the  thomlv  until  th^  are 
ground  shaip  at  one  end;  they  are  then  rev — ■" 
and  the  other  ends  are  similarly  sharpened  (1 
They  are  next  taken  to  the  tmpnamg  m» 
which  in  principle  conaiata  of  a  weight  hanging 
to  a  block,  which  i«  raised  by  the  hand  and  let 

und^  -Sds,  so  Uiat  the  fslling  w^bt  strikee  each 
wire  exactly  in  the  middle,  and  there  flattens  i^ 
M  in  flg.  4.    Tho  hardening  of  the  fiattened  part  by 


KgB.3,4,6,6. 

the  blow  ia  removed  in  the  annealing  oven,  and  tha 
holes  are  next  punched,  two  in  each  flatteued 
portion,  as  in  fig.  S.  Kieae  are  either  dona  by 
hand-punches  wealed  by  children,  who  acqi ' 
great  nicety  in  the  operation,  or  by  a  machine  on 
same  principle  as  Uie  tmpTeming  machine ;  this  not 
only  punches  the  two  holes,  but  also  forms  a  Email 
croaa-cnt  between  tbem  (aa  seen  tu  fig.  6),  which 
is  otherwise  made  by  a  file.  At  this  erosa-cut  the 
wire  is  broken  in  two,  and  may  now  be  r^acdad  as 
two  rudely-formed  needles  (fig.  6),  each  having  a 
fiattened  and  pien:ed  head,  as  ahewn  in  fig.  7.  A 
number  of  these  are  now  threaded  [tpiOtii  on  a  thin 


wire,  aa  in  fig.  8,  and  are  placed  in  a  vice,  which  holds 
them  film  and  atraight,  so  that  the  workman  can 
file  the  heads  on  the  top  and  aides,  so  aa  to  remove 
all  the  burred  edge   oatside  the  dotted  linea 


coat  them  Uiorougbly;  the  oil  is  then 
burned  oS,  an  operation  which  renders  the  needles 
brittle^  They  are  then  weighed  out  into  lots  of 
about  500,000  each,  and  after  being  shaken  so  that 
they  lie  aide  by  side,  they  are  laid  on  a  sqosie  piece 


of  strong  oanvaa,  and  a  quanlity  of  sand  and  emery- 
powder  being  mixed  witb  them,  they  are  corded  op 
vety  seoore^  into   a  long  roll  (fig.  9),  frctn  IS 


NEEU'TBEE— HEQATIVE  QUANTITIBS. 


inchet  to  2  feet  is  leoglh.  A  munber 
roll*  or  bundles  are  plaoed  oa  a  movable  woodeii 
eUb,  in  the  teotmag  madiint,  and  over  them  is 
jjaced  another  heavily  weighted  nUb.  The  action  ' 
the  machine,  of  whidt  these  slab*  fonn  part^  ia 
move  them  backwordi  and  forwards  in  opposite 
diiectuuu,  the  bundles  of  needles  acting  as  rollers, 
the  piessnre  upon  which  works  the  enclosed  needles, 
aaaa,  &&  togeuier.  to  that  after  eight  to  tea  honn, 
which  t^operation  occupies,  instead  of  the  blackened 
appearance  they  had  when  it  commenced,  they 
white  and  silvery-looking  They . 


and  are  removed  to  other  canvas  squares ;  and  when 
mixed  np  with  a  paste  of  puUy-amider  and  oil, 
are  again  corded  np,  and  made  to  roll  backwards  and 
forwards  under  the  weighted  wooden  slab  of  the 
polithmg  madune  for  four  hours  mar&  The  next 
process  is  to  remove  them  from  the  canvas,  and 
aetata  them  in  a  vessel  with  soft-soap  and  water, 
to  remove  the  oil  and  putty-powder,  and  next  to 
^  them  ia  sah-wood  saw-dost  They  ore  now 
bighly  polished  and  vrell  tempered,  bat  not  all  of 
cmcuy  the  same  length,  nor  are  the  eyes  perfect ; 
they  are  therefore  p«sed  to  a  person  who.liy  nice 
imuuwement  of  a  small  gauge,  sorts  them  very 
quiddy  into  certain  lengths  {evening),  and  arranges 
them  all  in  one  direction  {heading).  Th^  then 
pass  on  to  be  drilled,  on  operation  requiring  great 
niceW,  as  the  small  oval  holes  have  to  be  so 
polished  all  ronnd,  as  not  to  oaiue  any  frictioa  on 
the  thread  in  sewing  with  them  ;  a  clever  workman 
will  drill  and  polish  the  holes  of  70,000  needles  per 
week.  The  needle  ia  now  practically  finished,  but 
many  minor  operations  are  considered  necessary  to 
produce  hieb-bnish ;  theae  we  purposely  omit^  to 
avoid  complicating  our  description.  It  is,  however, 
worthy  of  remark,  Uiat  this  little  instmmant,  which 
easts  so  much  labour  for  its  formation,  has  )^  these 
operations  acquired  immense  value.  The  wire  of 
which  the  ordinary-sized  needles  are  made  it  so 
thin,  that  6^  pounds  go  to  form  74,000  needles. 
Of  ordinarily  sized  neetUes,  2^  millions  weigh  3  cwt., 
and  are  worth  rather  more  tban  £200,  although  the 
steel  wire  of  which  they  were  made  vras  only  worth 
£14  at  the  commencement  of  the  manufacture. 
English-made  needles  are  the  best  in  the  world, 
and  are  ohieSy  made  in  Redditoli  and  the  neigb- 
bonrbood,  where,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  coonty  of 
Worcester,  this  manufactnre  employs  a  large  number 
of  persons. 

NEEAI-TREE.    See  Mbuacba 

NBB'EWINDEN,  a  small  viUage  of  Belgium,  in 
the  north-west  comer  of  the  province  of  Liege,  is 
celebrated  in  histoiy  tor  the  great  victory  gain^  by 
the  French  under  Luxembourg  over  tiie  English 
under  William  III.  (29th  July  1S93)  ;  aod  also  for 
the  defeat  of  the  French  nnder  Dumonriez  by  the 
allies  under  the  Prince  of  Coburg  (IStb  March  1793). 

ITE  EXEAT  REQNO  is  the  title  of  a  writ  issued 


abide  a  decree  of  that 


The  writ  n 


_.Jety  of  the  state,  but  is  now  issued  in 
where  an  equitable  debt  or  demand  is  sought  to  be 
substantiated  by  a  bill  or  proceeding  in  Chancenr. 
The  writ  is  oi^y  granted  where  the  party  nsoally 
resides  within  tiie  jurisdiction.  It  resembles  the 
process  which  is  known  in  the  common-law  courts 
aa  arresting  and  holding  to  boil,  uid  in  Scotland  as 
•nesting  a  person  ia  meditatioae  fiigcs, 

NE'QATIVE,  in  Photography,  is  that  kind  of 
photographio  picture  in  which  the  lights  and  shadows 


of  the  natural  object  are  transposed  ;  the  high  li^ts 
being  black,  and  the  deep  shadovra  bonspBien^  or 
ne«rly  so-  Negatives  are  token  on  glass  and  paper 
by  various  processes,  and  should  indicate  with 
extreme  delicacy,  and  in  reverse  order,  the  various 
gradations  of  light  and  shade  which  occur  in  a  land- 
acape  or  portrait.  A  negative  differs  from  a  positive 
inasmnch  as  in  the  latter  case  it  is  required  to 
prodoce  a  deposit  ot  purs  metalUe  silver  to  6b  viewed 
oy  Tfflecled  light ;  while  in  the  latter,  density  to 
(roTutniiRed  li^t  is  the  chief  desideratum ;  acoord- 
inglv  inorganic  reducing  and  retarding  agents  are 
employed  m  the  development  trf  «  positive,  while 
thMe  of  oigoaie  ori^  are  nsed  in  the  prodoctton  of 
a  nwttdve.  Adopting  the  collodion  process  (which 
haa  almost  completely  replaced  every  other)  as  a  tjrpe 
of  the  rest,  the  conditions  beat  adapted  for  securing 
a  good  negative  may  bs  briefly  indicated,  leaving  it 
to  the  reader  to  apply  tiis  principles  inv<jved  to  any 
process  he  may  desire  te  practiee. 

The  poBseesion  of  a  good  lens  and  camera  being 
taken  for  granted,  and  favourable  conditions  iM 
well-directed  light  being  secured,  all  that  is  ne- 
cessary is  to  establish  a  proper  and  harmonious 
relation  between  the  coUodion  bath,  developer,  and 
time  of  exposure.  A  recenUy-iodiaed  oollodion  will 
generally  be  tolerably  neutr^  in  which  esse,  if  the 
developer  be  at  all  strong,  and  the  weather  warm, 
the  bath  should  be  decid^y  acid,  ix  Jogging  will 
be  the  result.  Should  the  collodion,  however,  be 
red  with  free  iodine,  a  mere  trace  of  acid  in  the 
bath  will  suffice,  wlule  the  development  may  be 
much  prolonged,  even  in  warm  weather,  vriuiout 
fogging.  If  the  simple  fact  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  presence  of  add,  either  in  the  bath  collodim 
or  developer,  retards  the  reducing  action  of  the 
developer,  it  will  suffice  to  guide  the  operator  in 
many  difficulties.  The  value  of  a  negative  consists 
in  the  power  it  gives  of  multiplying  positive  proob. 
See  FosiTIVB  PsiKTiNa ;  also  FHOTOOKAf  BY. 

NEGATIVE  QUAKTITIES  an  generally 
'fined  as  quantities  the  opposite  of  'positive'  or 
Lumerical '  quantities,  and  form  the  first  and  great 
point  of  difference  between  algebra  as  a  aerate 
science,  and  arithmetic.  Ia  the  oldest  treatises  on 
algebra  they  are  reci^nised  as  distinct  modifications 
if  quantity,  and  existing  apart  from,  and  independent 
if  positive  ouantity.  In  later  times,  this  opinion 
was  vigoroouy  combated  by  many  matbematidans, 
among  whom  Vieta  occupied  a  prominent  place ;  but 
the  more  eminent  analysts  retained  the  oM  opinion. 
Newton  and  Euler  distinctly  assert  the  existence  of 
negative  quantities  as  quantities  less  than  zero,  and 
the  latter  anuports  his  opinion  by  the  well-known 
illustration  <tt  a  man  wbo  has  no  prcfierty,  and  is 


in  debt,  to  whom  £50  requires  to  be 
r  that  he  may  have  nothing 
discussion    is   little  more  than   a  verbal  quibble. 


r  have  nothing.    After  all,  tUs 


onlty  of  satisfying  the  requiremeata  of  a  constantly 
progressing  science  by  the  use  of  signs  and  forms 
— itaming  their  original  limited  signilication.  It 
as  soon  felt  that  Uie  limited  inte^iretation  must 
B  given  up ;  and  accordingly  an  extension  of 
gnScation  was  allowed  to  signs  and  modes  td 
.aeration.  +  and  — ,  which  were  formerly  oon- 
sidered  as  merely  symbola  of  the  arithmetical 
operations  of  addition  and  subtraction,  were  now 
considered  as  '  general  cumulative  symbols,  the 
:se  of  each  ^her,'  and  could  ugniiy  gain  and 

,  upwards  and  downwards,  right  and  Mt,  same 

and  opposite,  to  and  from,  ftc  Applying  this 
extendi  interpretation  of  signs  to  a  quantity  such 
as  —  4,  we  obtain  at  once  a  true  idea  of  a  negative 
quantity;   for  if    +  4  signifies  4  inches    above  a 

SgL 


NBOBITOS-NnafU)  HmBTBISLSV. 


lereL  aod  tlierafora,  mtn^  m  poaitJTe  quantity  in 
hwtl  (» iMgatiTS  b«uig,  ttnot^  ipaakn^  ui  impo*- 
•ible  wditaiM),  it  iaa,j  be  furi;  oonudared  to  be 
Im*  th«i  Ben,  •■  it  expreitae  >  qtumtity  Un  fay  4 
than  0  incIuB  kboT«  the  lereL  Eeeping  tbi*  i(W  in 
view,  it  Im  been  eonventioiMll^  egrwd  to  admit 
the  axiitence  o(  negative  qoantitiee  »■  ezMing  pa- 
le. The  only  erron  which  can  flow  from  this 
ante  trom  minnterpictation  of  reralti,  for  the  four 
fnndamental  operationi  of  addition,  rabtraction, 
mnlti^ieatitnt,  and  diviiion  an  unaffected  by  the 
extcooad  inteniretatioii  of  slgna.  The  foUowiuc 
ia  an  illaabaean  of  the  nim  at  an  extended 
intoipretatian  of  the  nwfttiTa  ngn,  shewing  at 
tbe  lame  time  how  maw  more  general  are  the 
idea*  oottT^ed  hf  algebiaio  espmtiona  thaa  bj 


pnUam,  iitaa  adved,  givea  — S  at  the  nnmber  of 
Tean  wldah  mnat  el^ie  before  tbe  father'a  age 
M  three  time*  the  aon'i.  Now,  at  flrat  sigbt, 
tbia  lenlt  appears  to  be  abeord,  bot  when  we  con- 
aider  the  terma  of  tiie  problem,  iti  explanation  ia 
eaay.  The  qneetion  asked  pointed  to  a  ntunber  of 
yeacB  U>  eome,  and  bad  the  leaolt  turned  ont  to  be 
po*itive,  Kwh  would  have  been  tbe  oaw,  and  tbe 
Mot  ot  ita  brinii  n^atire  direota  u  to  look  in  a 
'  oontiary' direcBon,  or  baokwarda  to  time  fxuf;  and 
thia  fa  foand  to  aatiffy  the  problem,  aa  S  yean '  ago' 
tbe  eoher  waa  4ft  and  bie  (on  1». 

Nf^tiTe  qnantitiee  arin  ont  of  the  nie  of  general 
aymfaoli  in  aaUiMotiou,  ai  in  the  formula  a  -  b, 
where  we  may  afterward!  Snd  that  b  ia  greater  than 
a.    See  8uBTSi.onot(. 

NBORI'TOB,  or  NEGRI'LLOS  {Spanish, 
diminvtire  of  Hearoee),  ia  tbe  name  given  by  the 
fipauiarda  to  oenain  Kegro-Iike  trib^  inhabitinK 
the  interior  ot  acme  of  tne  Philippine  Isknils,  and 
diffariiu  eeaentially  both  in  featurei  and  manners 
bom  ue  Malay  inliabitanti  of  tbe  Eastern  Archi- 
pela^  niey  bear  a  very  utanig  raoemblance  to 
the  If^roea  of  Ooinea,  but  are  mnoh  imaUer  in 
•iie,  averagiDg  fn  height  not  more  than  four  feet 
eight  inahes,  whence  their  appellation  of  N.,  or 
litue  Hegroea.  They  are  alao  called  by  the  Span- 
iards Ntgritot  dd  M<mU,  from  tbeir  innabitiiiR  the 
moontainons  diatricta  for  the  moat  part;  and  one 
of  the  ialanda  when  they  are  meet  numenma,  bean 
tbe  name  ot  Ua  As  lo*  Negrot.  Theae  N.  an  alio 
known  by  the  namea  Ael*,  Aigta,  Ite,  Inapta,  and 
Igolote  or  Igorot«i  Tbey  are  described  aa  a  ^ort, 
email,  bat  well-made  and  active  people,  tbe  tower 
part  of  the  face  projecting  like  that  of  the  A&tcui 
Negroea,  tite  hair  either  woolly  or  frizzled,  and  the 
complexion  exceedinglydark,  if  not  quite  eo  btaok at 
that  of  the  Negroes.  The  Spamaid*  describe  them 
as  lest  black  and  leas  ngly  tiian  Uie  N^roea— 
Jffliof  Negro*  y  menot  fio*.  AH  writen  ooncor  in 
speaking  u  them  aa  lonk  in  tbe  lowest  depths  of 
aavagedSm,  wandering  in  the  woods  and  nunmtaina, 
witboDt  any  fixed  dwellings,  and  with  only  a  strip 
of  baik  to  corer  their  lukedneBs.  Thetr  only 
weapons  are  tbe  bow  and  arrow;  and  thev  live 
npon  roots,  wild  fmits,  and  any  aoit  of  animals  that 
they  can  surprise  fn  their  haunts,  or  eonqner  in  the 
chase.  Bytbe Malays, they aredeepisedandhated; 
and  tbe  bafblo-bunters  in  the  woods,  when  they 
meet  wiOi  Ib^  do  not  scruple  to  shoot  tbem  down 
like  wild  beaita  or  rane.  '  It  has  not  come  to  my 
knowledge,'  aays  •  Spanish  writer,  *  that  a  family  til 
these  NeKToes  ever  took  up  their  abode  in  a  vilkge. 
U  the  Hobammedan  inhaUtant*  make  sUvea  of 
tbun,  they  will  rather  submit  to  be  beaten  to  death 
tban  nndwgo  any  bodi^  (atigiie;  and  it  Is  id^as- 


aible,  uther  l^  force  or  petmadon,  to  bring  them  to 
labour.'  Tbe  same  wriur,  an  eccleaiaBtio,  speaks  at 
tbem  aa  gentle  and  inofotave  in  their  mannen^ 
whenever  lie  hlmadf  came  in  oontaat  with  them  ; 
and  althoudi  inlmned  that  some  of  *li*n*  wefs 
j»TiniK«ifj  be  <na  not  inclined,  to  bdieva  the  refteib 
Dr  Cari  Scdierzer,  the  historian  of  (be  cinnrnmavi* 
ffSitya  of  ^  Novara,  when  at  Manilla,  bad  an 
opportunity  of  seeing  a  Negrita  giri  whom  be  tiina 
deacribeai  'This  was  a  girl  of  about  twelve  or  four- 


wide  everted  lipe  whieb  characterise  tbe  _  .^ . 
tone.  This  pleanns-Iooking,  aymmetrtoally-foTmed 
giri  had  bambroadnt  up  in  iJie  honae  of  a  Spaniard, 
^ipaimtly  with  ue  proos  object  of  reeoning  her 
soul  from  heathenism.  Tbe  poor  little  N^nlla 
hardly  understood  her  own  mother-tongue^  beaidea 
a  very  little  Tsgal,  ao  Qui  wa  had  oonaiderBbla 
difficiuty  in  understanding  eadi  otiier.' 

Aocoraing  to  Spanish  stotements,  tiie  N.  no  fomtd 
only  is  five  of  tbe  Pbilii^ne  Islands — namely, 
Luzon,  Mindoro,  Panay,  Negroa,  and  Mindanio — 
and  are  estimated  at  about  20)000  saula.  Bon- 
nants  of  tbem  exist,  however,  in  tbe  interior  o( 
some  df  the  other  islands  in  the  Eastern  Aiohi- 
pelago;  and  thty  an  soattered,  also,  thoa^  in 
imaU  nnnbera,  through  certain  islandB  of  Po^neaia, 
Tliey  an  altof^ther  an  island  peophv  and  are  beneo 
treated  ot  by  Piichard  wider  tne  designation  of 
Pelagian  Negroes.  By  Dr  Pickering  ^i»y  an 
treated  of  as  a  distinct  race,  resembling  the  P^nian, 
but  differing  from  it  in  tbe  diminutive  stature  the 
general  abeence  of  a  beud,  tbe  inojecting  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  face  ot  the  incUned  profile,  and 
the  exaggented  Negro  features.  The  hair,  also,  ia 
more  woolly  than  £at  of  tbe  Papnaae.  Latham 
classed  them  under  (keanie  MongolidcE.  MQller 
(1873)  makM  them  Papoans ;  Peecbel  (1875),  'Aaiatio 
Papuans ; '  while  A.  B.  Wallace  tnata  them  as  dia- 
tinct  from  the  Papuans.  {See  Keane's  ethnological 
appendix  to  Wallace's  Auibraiatia  (ISaO),  and 
Wallace's  Malay  Archiptlagc.)  There  ate  nntneroua 
tribra  of  N.  in  Uie  Phibppines,  who  speak  quite  dis- 
tinct and  mutually  unintelligible  languages.  Soma 
find  N.  in  New  ftiinea.  New  Britain,  New  Ireland, 
Ac,  and  in  Tasmania.  Keane  r^arda  tbe  Stunangs, 
an  aboriginal  tribe  in  the  pemnsnla  of  Malacca,  aa 
unmistakably  N^rito ;  uid  latterly  the  Andaman-, 
eae  have  beni  teterred  to  the  same  stock.  Others 
have  aoudit  to  tntce  a  connection  betwem  tbe  N. 
with  theBushmen  and  other  dwarfish  Africans-on 
one  hand,  and  with  tbe  Ghonda  and  other  dark 
aboriginal  tribes  of  South  ibidla  on  the  other ; 
and  affirm  that  the  Negrito  race  once  occupied 
more  space  than  it  does  at  this  time,  and  that  it 
baa  in  many  instances  preceded  the  diseanination  d 
other  races.'  We  conclude  with  a  description  of  a 
Negrito  native  of  Erromango  (the  island  where  the 
missiouary  Williams  was  murdered),  supplied  to  I>r 
Picksring  by  Horatio  Hales,  his  associate  in  the 
United  States  entloring  expedition.  'He  was 
above  five  feet  bign,'  says  Mr  Hnles^  'slender  and 
long  limbed ;  he  had  '  — 
ing  arcbed  findiead, 
small  snub  nose,  thi«  ,  .  , 
ntreating  chin,  and  that  ejection  of  the  jaws 
bwer  p^  of  the  face,  which  ia  one  of  tbe  distino- 
tive  characterittica  of  the  Seao  race. ....    Placed 

a  crowd  of  African  blacks,  there  was  notlnng  about 
which  he  could  have  been  distinguished 
See  Papdaks  and  PoLTMnun. 

NB'OKO,  £io.    See  Rio  Nbqbo. 

NBOBO  MQTSTBELST,  a  speoiea  of  (dujpng 
lAiob  originrted  among  tit*  nepo  tlavet  at  tta 


I  teet  nign,  says  au  naies^  -sienaer  ana 
id ;  he  had  close  vouUy  hair,  and  retreat 
[  foidwad,  short  and  soanty  eyelaowB,  and 
J  nose,  thick  lips  {espedaUy  the  upper),  a 
chin,  and  that  projection  of  the  jaws  and 


SEOBfi  MmnffllW-NIoKom 


wiuiIh  moftlj  broken  Eagliih, 

confinad  chiefly  to  two  ohorda — the  tome  Mid  doDi' 
inimt.  How  tlie  ftira  were  compoaed  hM  been 
«  matter  of  cnrioM  utqoirjr.  Some  of  thsm  are 
beliered  to  be  broken  down  and  oOitnriae  altered 
old  pubn-tnnes,  which  had  been  osnght  np  by  the 
more  modcal  of  the  negro  race.  In  aome  instiuices, 
the  ■  ainging  of  the  melodiea  ia  accompanied  with 
sroteoqne  geatnrea;  the  effect  being  to  nve  the 
ides  <^  good-natnre  and  love  of  fan  in  t£e  dark- 
ridnned  minetrela.  Negro  melodiea  may  be  said  to 
hare  been  made  known  Dy  Mr  D.  Eice,  who  first  in 
New  York,  in  1831,  and  afterwarda  in  London, 
created  •  geneation  bj  hia  ainging  of  Jim  Orme. 
Other  aong*  followed,  anch  oa  Jtm  along  Jimy, 
■nd  Baffaio  Gait;  and  from  len  to  more,  them 
VM  created  a  very  chfttacteriaticallr  national 
muaio,  if  the  Americana  will  allow  na  to  call  it  ao. 
Becoming;  ertensiTely  pt^nlar,  and  addreBsed  to 
faBhionable  andiencea,  thu  n^ro  minatreli^  now 
oomtmJietida  a  large  variety  of  aonga,  with  ain  of 
a  pleaaing  kind,  tiie  whole  mnch  in  adTsnee  of  the 
on^nal  negro  compodtiona.  Por  these  improTe- 
menta,  the  world  ia  indebted,  among  otiiers,  to  Mr 
E.  F.  Chriaty,  who  began  sa  condnctor  of  a  band  of 
minetrelB  at  BaflUo  m  1S42,  and  who  eatabliihed 
himeelf  in  New  York  in  1646.  At  flrat,  hia  troupe 
were  called  the  'Ylr^ia  Minstrds,'  bat  after- 
warda they  were  known  aa  the  *  Chriaty  Hinatrela.' 
bb  Chriaty'BgrGat  aucceaa  brought  other  tronpea  Into 
the  field.  The  minitr«ls  are  often  only  negroea  in 
name,  with  faces  aod  handi  blackened.  A  company 
of  edncated  n^pxi  /oiUM  Singers,  daging  chara^ter- 
itlio  religioiu  ionga,  were  ancceaafol  in  raiaing,  here 
and  at  hom%  a  la^e  aam  of  money  for  Fiak  College 
in  the  U.S.,  designed  lor  oolonred  atndenta. 

NEOBOES  (from  the  Sponiah  word  nsjrro, 
black ;  Lat.  niger)  ia  the  name  given  to  a  conaider- 
able  branch  of  the  human  family,  posBeeaing  certain 
physical  characteriatica,  which  diatingniah  it  in  a 
very  marked  d^ree  from  the  other  branches  or 
vaneties  of  mankmd — more  capccially  the  ao-called 
whites  or  Europeans.  In  BlnmenMch's  fivefold 
diTisiaa  of  mankind,  the  Negroes  occupy  the  first 
place  under  the  varie^  EOiiopian,  which  likewise 
embraces  the  Safir^  Hottentots,  Anatraliona,  Alfo- 
rians,  and  Oceanic  Negroes.  In  Latham's  three- 
fold division,  they  are  placed  among  the  AUaniidm, 
and  form  the  primary  anbdivilion  olNCffro  AlUcrUidre 
in  that  author's  clsasification  ;  while  in  Fickerinc'a 
elevenfold  division,  they  occnpy  the  last  place  m 
hi*  enumeration  of  tlie  races  of  mankind. 

Both  Prichard  and  Latham  atrongly  protest 
Uainat  t^e  common  error  of  looking  upon  the  term 
Negro  aa  synonymoua  with  African.  '  It  ought  to 
be  remembered,  aays  the  former,  'that  the  word 
Kegra  is  not  a  national  appellation,  bat  denotes  the 
id^  type  conatitnted  by  the  assemblage  of  certain 
phyaical  characteriatica,  which  is  exemplified  in  the 
nativea  of  Oninea  in  Weston  Africa,  and  in  their 
descendants  in  America  and  the  West  Indie*.'  And 
Latham  in  like  manner  observea :  '  No  fact  ia  more 
necessary  to  be  remembered,  than  the  difierence 
between  the  Negro  and  African ;  a  fact  which  is 
well  verified  by  reference  to  the  map.  Here  the 
true  Ne^  area — the  area  occupied  by  men  of  the 
black  akin,  thick  Up,  depressed  noae,  and  wooUy 
hair— is  exceedingly  small ;  as  small  in  proportion  to 
tile  rest  of  the  contment,  oa  the  area  of  the  district  of 
the  stunted  Hyperboreana  ia  in  Asia,  or  that  of  the 
Laps  in  Europe.  Without  going  so  far  as  to  maintain 
that  a  dark  complexion  is  uie  exception  rather  than 
the  rule  in  Afnoa,  it  may  safely  be  said  that  tba 


hue  of  thd  Arab,  the  Indian,  and  the  Australian  ia 
the  prevalent  colour.  To  realise  thia  we  may  ask, 
Triiat  ar«  the  true  Negro  diitriotil  andiriiat  t^ose 


and  p«ta  about  Sannaar,  Koidofan,  and  Darillr ;  to 
the  latter,  the  whole  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  the 
Deaert,  the  whole  of  the  Kafir  and  Hottentot 
areaa  soath  of  the  line,  Abyssinia,  and  the  Middle 
and  Lower  Nile.  Thia  Icavea  but  little  for  the 
tyjneal  Neom.'  Bearing  in  mind  thia  limitation  of 
the  primitive  an*  <d  the  Negro,  we  ahall  next 
proceed  to  apaak  of  hia  prominent  phyaical  charac- 


The  Negro  has  »  black  skin,  unctnon*  and  soft ; 
woolly  hair ;  thick  li;^ ;  the  lower  part  of  the  face 
prognathic,  or  projecting  like  a  mtusle;  the  skoU 
long  and  narrow ;  and  a  low,  retreating  forehead. 
The  akull  of  the  Negro  ia  remarkably  aolid  and 
thick,  BO  that  in  fighting  they  often  bntt  against 
each  other  like  ntma,  without  mnch  damage  to 
either  combatant ;  and  it  ia  likewiie  ao  flat  tiiat 
burdens  are  esnly  carried  upon  it.  According  to 
Camper'a  lateral  admeaanrement,  the  head  of  the 
N^p^  shews  an  angle  of  70%  while  that  of  the 
European  shews  one  of  80°,  on  which  diference  of 
10%  as  he  considered,  depends  the  superior  beauty 
of  the  latter.  There  i«  not  nmch  dependenoe,  how- 
ever, to  be  placed  on  auch  a  mode  of  admeasure- 
ment ;  and  the  aaroa  m»'  be  aud  of  Bhuneobach'a 
TCortiMl  metttod.  Accortung  to  this,  a  coniiderable 
differenee  would  u^ear  to  exist  between  the  skull 
of  the  N^ro  and  tliat  of  the  Eoropean.  *  Bat,'  aaya 
Dr  Prichard,  '  I  have  oorefully  examined  the  aitoa- 
'  the  fOTamen  magnum  in  many  Negro   '    " 


bisecting  the  antero-posterior  diameter  of  the 

basis  cranii.  Thia  is  predaely  the  place  which 
Owen  has  pointed  out  oa  the  general  position  of  the 
occipital  hole  in  the  human  skull.  In  those  Negro 
sknOa  which  have  the  alveolar  process  very  pro- 
tuberant, the  anterior  half  of  the  line  abore 
described  is  lengthaied  in  a  alight  dwne  by 
Uiia  oircnniBtance.  If  allowance  is  made  tor  it,  no 
difference  i*  perceptible.  The  difierenos  ia  in  all 
inatancea  extnmely  slight ;  and  it  ia  eqnallv  per- 
ceptible in  heads  Delonajips  to  other  raoes  oi  men, 
if  we  examine  crania  wnich  have  ptominent  upper 
iaw&  If  a  line  is  let  fall  from  the  summit  of  the 
nead  at  right  an^ea  with  tlie  plane  of  tiie  baaia,  the 
occipital  foramen  will  be  fonnd  to  be  aituated  imme- 
diately behind  it ;  and  thia  is  precisely  the  case  in 
Negro  and  in  European  heads.  There  is,  in  fact, 
uoiUier  in  this  respect — the  oonformation  of  the 
Negro  akull — nor  in  any  other,  solid  ground  for  the 
opinion  hazard^  by  some  writers,  and  supported 
either  through  ignoianoe  m  from  interested  motives 
by  many  persons— that  tha  Nqpfi  torraa  a  con- 
necting link  between  the  higher  order  of  apes  and 
the  rest  of  mankind.  Hie  difierence  ia  cwtainly 
conaideTable  between  tha  hidieat  European  and  the 
tyinoij  Negio,  bnt  the  gulf  MtwetD  them  both  and 
tne  higben  irf  the  Sinus  is  K  neariy  ot  the  same 
width,  that  the  difference  ia  scarcely  diatingniahable. 
But  the  akin,  hair,  skull,  lips,  maxillary  profile,  and 


from  the  European,  ai 
tinct  variety  of  the  hi 
Prichard,  '  the  bones  of  the     „ 

and  Lawrence  have  obaerved  that  the 


eeem  to  stamp  him  aa  a  dis- 
an  race.   *  In  uie  N^ro,'  saya 
are  bent  ontwaids. 


meriiw  and  Lawrence  have  ol 

and  fibnla  in  the  Negro  an 

front  tlian  in  Europeans ;  the  calve*  of  the  legjs  an 
nry  high,  so  oa  to  encroach  upon  the  hama ;  Ibe 

I .(i^ffial 


feet  and  hudi,  tmt  pBrticnlftrlv  the  totmttt,  are  fist ; 
And  the  tm  ulcu,  iiutead  of  bemg  mrclud,  is  coa- 
tinoed  nearly  in  «  Btmight  line  with  the  other  bone* 
«f  the  foot^  which  is  tenarkablj'  broad.'  Aa  to  the 
■opposed  eso«nire  leu^h  of  the  farearm  in  the 
Kqpw,  •  drcnmHtancs  auo  dwelt  upon  as  ahewing 
—    — iroach   to   the    anthropoid  apea,  facta    are 


:  the 


greater  difTerenoe  than  ia  obserrabla  in  indiTidiuIa 
of  any  other  varieW  of  mankind.  In  ttatore,  the 
Negro  ia  rery  mnoh  on  a  par  with  the  European, 
often  reaohing  six  feet,  and  rarely  declining  below 
fiTG  and  a  hau.  Into  the  diacimion  at  to  the  caiue 
of  the  blaokneaa  of  the  akin  in  the  Nc^ro  we  have 
not  apace  to  enter.  It  ia  generally  mppoeed  to 
depend  upon  the  greater  amoont  of  pigment  cella  in 
the  Btle  Malpigim,  and  in  the  greater  nnmber  of 
eataneona  ^uida,  aa  compared  with  tho  akin  of 
Enrt^ieaiia.  In  the  akin  of  the  Negro  there  ia  much 
)rafaBely,  which  oerres 
....  it  diffiuea  a  amell  for 

byttandera  whoae  olfactonr  nerre* 
._  _  at'all  aenaitiTe.  Of  the  hair  of  the  N^ro,  Dr 
Prichard  remarka  i  *  I  am  convinced  that  the  Negro 
has  hair  property  ao-called,  and  not  wool.  One 
difFereoo*  between  the  hair  of  a  Negro  and  that 
of  a  European,  coniista  in  the  more  curled  and 
friziled  condition  of  the  former.  Thia,  however,  ia 
only  a  difference  in  the  degree  of  crispation,  eome 
Enropean  hair  being  likewise  vety  crisps  Another 
difference  ia  the  mat«r  qoantity  of  colouring  matter 
or  pigment  in  tiie  hair  of  the  Negro.  It  i«  very 
proDMile  that  this  quality  ia  connected  with  the 
former,  and  ia  iti  cause,  thoogh  we  cannot  deter- 
mine in  what  manner  one  depends  upon  another; 
tat  aa  these  propertiee  -my  aimultaaeously,  and 
an  in  proportion  one  to  another,  we  may  infer  that 
thOT  do  not  depend  upon  independent  cansea.' 

Ite  Negroes,  in  their  native  aeat,  comprise  variooa 
independent  tribes,  which  am  thus  cutaaided  and 
numerated  bv  Dr  Latham ;  I.  WtMter*  Negro 
AUeaUidtt,  embracing  the  Woloffs,  Sererea,  Sera- 
wolli,  Mandingot,  Felnps,  Ac;  Fantia,  ^ ;  the  Oh&, 
the  Whidah.  Maha  and  Benin  tribea,  the  Orebo,  Ac 
2.  CtiUrai  Nrgro  AUanixdce,  embracing  the  Yarriba, 
the  Tapoo,  Hauiaa,  Fulahs,  Cnmbri,  Songai,  Kiatrfir, 
Bomll,  to.;  Begharmi,  Mandara,  Mobbo,  Foriano, 
KoldagL  3.  Eattem  Negro  AUaniidix,  embracing 
the  Shilllik,  kc  ;  Q&mamyl,  DalUa,  to.  i  Tibboo, 
Oongas.  Mora  recent  clowificatiooa  of  the  Negro 
races  and  tonguee  aeparste  the  Fulah  and  Nuba 
groups,  as  well  as  the  Bantu  famUy,  from  Negroes 
proper.  See  article  Atbtca  ;  also  Keane's  appendix 
to  AJriea  in  Stanford's  Oompaidiain  of  Oeoffraplty. . 

While  these  several  tribes  have  their  distinctive 
pecnlioiities,  they  yet  bear  a  strong  general  reeem- 
blanae  to  each  other,  not  only  in  their  phyaical 
appearance,  but  in  their  iDtellectoal  capacities, 
moral  instincts,  oostoms,  and  mannera.  The  Negro 
intellect  is  generally  acknowledged  to  be  inferior 
not  only  to  the  £aropean,  bnt  to  that  of  maoy 
primitive  races  not  aa  yet  brought  within  the  pale 
of  civilisation,  while  it  is  superior  to  that  of  the 
AnstraUana,  Bnriunen,  and  Esquimaux.  Some  tribes 
•re  sank  in  the  lowest  deptiu  of  barbarism,  and  are 
either  ferocioDS  lavues,  or  atnpid,  sensual,  and 
indolent.  This  is  &o  case,  for  tile  most  port, 
■ocording  to  Prichard,  when  the  exaggerated  Negro 
type  ia  dtscemible,  aa  among  the  Bufioma,  Papals, 
and  other  tribes  on  the  coast  of  Western  Guinea ; 
also  among  the  tribes  near  the  slave  coast,  and  in 
the  Biffht  of  Benin,  where  the  slave-trade  has  been 
carried  on  totbegreateatextent.  In  other  ports  they 
•hew  a  capacity  Tor  practising  the  arts  of  ufe.  They 
are  ingenious  in  the  coostniation  of  their  dwellings, 
they  have  some  knowledge  of  the  working  of  iron 


prepare  t 
fabricate  i 


and  fabricate 


9  useful  houaehold  utensilB. 


Neither  ore  they  altogether  deficient  in  a  knowledgi 
of  agricnltote.  These  marks  of  civilisation  ar«,  f ol 
the  most  part,  appsrent  in  the  districts  either 
wholly  or  paitiall;^  converted  to  Miilu.mnmii1  miam 
Mnngo  Park,  in  lua  account  of  Sego,  the  capital  at 
Bambana,  deacribea  it  as  a  city  of  30,000  inhabit- 
ODts,  with  houses  of  two  stories  high,  having  Ost 
roofs,  moaques  in  every  quarter,  and  ferries  con- 
veying men  and  horses  over  the  Niger.  '  The  view 
of  this  extensive  city,'  he  saya,  '  the  nnmerom 
canoes  npon  the  river,  the  crowded  populatian,  and 
the  ciiltirated  state  of  the  surronncUng  coanby. 
formed  altogether  a  proapact  of  civilisation  and 
magnificence  which  I  little  expected  to  find  in  the 
bosom  of  Africa.'  All  tribes  ot  Negroes  appea*  to 
be  passionately  fond  of  tntisio,  and  shew  no  little 
skill  in  the  manufacture  of  musical  instrumentsL 
They  also  expreea  their  hopes  and  feara  in  extem- 

Krory  songs.  Where  Mohuntaedoajsm  has  not 
en  introduced,  the  religion  of  the  N^roes  in 
nothing  but  a  debased  fiiuh  worship.  They  make 
fetishes  of  aerpenta,  elephants'  teeth,  tigers  claw^ 
and  other  parts  of  ""'""t'lj  at  the  dictation  of  their 
fititli  man,  or  priest.  They  also  manofactore  idok 
of  wood  and  stone,  v^ch  they  worship ;  and  yvt, 
under  all  this,  they  have  some  idea  of  a  Snjwcma 
Being.  They  beheva  in  good  and  evil  apirilB,  and 
are  perpetuaJly  practimns  incantations  to  waiil  off 
tha  Mnefnl  inflnence  ol  theii  spiritaol  enemies. 
Their  religion,  in  fact,  is  one  altogether  of  fear ; 
and  as  this  generally  leads  to  cruelty,  we  find  them 
for  the  most  part  indifi'erent  to  the  asaifice  of 
human  life.  In  some  parts  they  even  offer  op 
human  victims  to  propitiate  their  t^tiea.  They  aie 
cruel  to  their  encmiea  and  prisoners,  and  often  ahed 
blood  for  the  mere  aavoge  del^ht  they  experienos 
in  seeing  it  flow  from  their  victimiL  We  need  (mly 
allude  to  the  inhumas  autonu,  as  they  are  called,  ^ 
Dahomey,  and  the  Yam  and  AdaX  eatlonu  of  the 
Aahanteea,  aa  deaoribed  by  Bowdich,  in  oupport  of 
this  statement. 

This  some  indifference  to  human  suffering,  coupled 
with  the  passion  of  avarice,  has  doubtJeaa  tieen  the 
mainspring  of  the  elave-trade  carried  on  during  so 
many  centuries  between  the  Negroes  and  European 
traders  in  the  weatem  coast  of  Africa.  B^un  1^ 
the  Portuguese  as  early  aa  1503,  when  Negro  alav«s 
were  first  imported  into  the  Wcet  Indies,  sanctioned 
by  Ferdinand  ot  Aragon  in  1511,  and  snbseqttentlj 
by  Charles  V.,  legalised  iu  England  xmder  ""■ 
beth,  and  eventuafly  practised  by  every 
nation  of  Europe,  this  infamous  trade  : 
under  the  sanction  of  law  aa  late  as  the  year  1807. 
when  it  was  happily  abolished  by  act  of  parliament 
in  Great  Britain,  and  is  now  treated  as  piracy  by 
almost  every  civilised  nation.  Even  still,  however, 
it  is  practised  by  lawless  men,  notwithstanding  the 
humane  efforts  of  Great  Britain,  FrsJice,  aocT  the 
tJnit«d  States  to  suppress  it ;  and  the  encourage- 
ment which  it  has  given  to  the  petty  chieftains  on 
the  slave  coast,  and  the  country  behind  it,  to  «nricb 
themselves  at  the  expense  of  their  fdlow-conntry- 
men,  has  contributed  more  than  anything  else  to 
retard  the  progresa  of  civilisation  in  that  part  of 
Africa,  '"rhe  region  mentioned,'  says  Pnchord, 
'  has  been  the  great  seat  of  the  exportation  of  N^ro 
slaves,  and  the  tribes  on  the  coast  have  been 
reduced  to  tha  lowest  state  of  physical  and  moral 
d^Todation  by  the  calamitiea  and  vices  attendant 
on  that  traffic  Throoghoat  Negrolasd,  and  espe- 
cially thia  part  of  it,  the  inhabitaals  of  one  disbict 
in  tEie  interior,  the  dwellers  on  one  mountain,  are 
the  watch  to  seize  the  wives  and  children 


wCiOO^lC 


NBQKOPONT— NEILGHERRT  HILLS. 


ol  the  neigbbomins  clans,  and  to  nil  them  to 
BtranKeni ;  manr  teU  theii  own.  Ereiy  recess,  and 
almoA  every  retired  comer  oE  the  land,  fau  been  the 
Bcene  of  hateful  rapine  and  Elaaghter,  not  to  be 
excused  or  palliated  bj  the  niirit  of  varfare,  bat 
peipetrated  in  cold  blood,  and  for  the  lore  of  gain.' 

The  onstom  of  polygamy  prevails  among  ul  the 
Negro  tribes,  and  -where  tneta  are  constituted  into 
nationa  or  kingdoms,  as  in  Dahomaj,  the  sovereign 
has  often  m  many  as  two  or  three  thousand  wives, 
whom  be  occasionally  dif^oee*  <d  as  pramnts  b 
chief  ofGcerB  and  favourites. 

The  languages  of  the  various  nationa  and  tribea 
of  Negroes  are  very  numeroDS.  Vocabulariee  of 
nearly  200  languages  have  been  brought  from 
Africa  by  the  Sav.  Dr  Koelle.  '  A  slight  exami- 
nation of  these  vocabularies,'  says  Mr  Edwin  Norris, 
'  seems  to  shew  that  there  are  among  the  Nee;ro 
idioms  a  dozen  or  more  classes  of  laDgnages,  differ- 
ing from  each  other  at  least  as  much  as  the  more 
remote  Indo-Germanio  languages  do.'  To  these 
Negro  idioms  Dr  Erapf  has  Riven  the  name  of 
Nigro-Hamiiie  Languagen,  "fiiese  may  perhaps 
have  affinities  witJi  some  of  the  other  African 
tongues,  but  not  with  any  of  the  great  well-deHned 
families  of  languages.  For  further  information 
upon  this  subject,  we  must  content  ourselves  with 
referring  to  Dr  Prichard's  Natural  EUtory  of  Man, 
and  especially^  to  a  learned  note  by  Mr  Edwin 
Norris,  m  voL  i.  of  that  work,  page  323. 

Of  Uie  conditioa  and  prospects  of  the  Negroes  in 
the  various  countriea  into  which  they  have  been 
imported  during  the  prevalence  of  the  slave-trade, 
we  have  scarce^  room  to  speak.  They  are  found 
in  all  the  West  India  Islands,  to  the  number  of 
about  3,000,000 ;  in  the  United  States,  Brazil,  Peru, 
and  other  j^rts  of  South  America ;  also  in  the  Cape 
de Verde IslaDdB,Arabia,Morocca,&o.  Inthe  British 
West  India  Islands  they  were  emancipated  from 
slavery  in  1834,  and  in  those  belonging  to  FVnnce  in 
134a  Slaverr  now  exists  nowhere  in  the  West 
Indies,  with  Uie  exception  of  Cuba.  In  the  United 
States,  the 'colored  persona' inoreased from  4,S86,387 
in  1S70.  to  6,577,497  in  1880.  Many  of  the  slaves 
were  emancipateil  in  the  coarse  of  the  unhappy 
civil  war,  all  the  Negroes  of  Secession  masters  being 
dtclared  emancipated  by  proclamation  of  President 
Lincoln  and  act  of  the  Federal  congress  ;  .at  the 
some  time  that  indemnities  were  promised  to  such 
loyal  states  OS  of  their  own  accord  decreed  emancipa- 
tion. Negro  slavery  in  the  United  States  has  been 
ntterly  destroyed,  and  the  great  problem  which  used 
to  exercise  philanthropic  minds,  has  been  solved — 
tile  N^ro  havine  become  a  United  States  citizen  at 
a  fearful  cost  of  blood  and  treasore  to  bo^  their 
possessors  and  their  liberators. 

NE'GROPONT.    SeoBrara*. 

NB'OBOS,  Ikla.  dk.    See  PaiLipriHi  Islands, 

NEGU'NDO,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Aeeracea  (see  Maplb),  differing  from  the  maples 
chiefly  in  the  ditecious  flowers  being  destitute  of 
petals,  sod  in  the  pinnated  ash-like  leaves.  The 
CoMMOir  N.  or  Asr-lkavkd  Maple,  is  a  native  of. 
North  AmericA,  and  now  not  nnfrequent  in  Britain 
as  an  ornamental  tree. 

NE'GUS,  a  componnd  of  ^ther  port  or  sherry 
wine  and  hot  water  sweetened  with  sugar  and 
flavoured  with  lemon-peel  and  spices.  It  is  a 
favourite  beverage  in  Eogland,  and  derivet  its  name 
from  a  Colonel  N^as,  who  claimed  to  be  the 
inventor. 

NEHBMI'AH,  son  of  Eachaliah,  probably  of 
toyal  descent,  is  first  mentioned  in  the  Bible  as 
cupbearer  to  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  in  his  palace 
at  Shushan  about  444  B.C.     Having  learned  the 


9  promotmg  its  prosperi^ ;  and  finally, 
'e  alt,  rekindling  the  flame  of  aooient 
1  the  enthusiasm  for  the  observance  of 


sad  fate  of  the  returned  coloniits  in  Jerusalem,  be 

prevailed  apim  the  king  to  send  him  to  his  brethren 
there  with  fnll  powers  '  to  seek  their  welfare.'  For 
twelve  years  (444 — 432),  he  was  untiringly  engaged 
as  '  (k)vemor '  in  works  for  their  safety  from 
within  and  without :  refortifying  the  city  walls, 
notwithstanding  the  hindrances  and  dangen  that 
beset  him  an  all  udes ;  inducing  people  &om  the 
countiy  to  take  up  their  permanent  abode  in  tha 

and   above 

piety  and  _    _   

the  Law  in  the  bearis  of  the  rough  immigrani 
He  then  returned  to  Persia,  trusting  to  the  new 
vitahty  which  his  reforms  had,  as  he  thought, 
infused  into  the  Jewish  commonwealth.  But  not 
long  afterwards — within  a  period  which  it  is 
extremely  difficult  now  to  fix — ha  had  again  to 
obtain   leave   from    the     king,    for    the    purpose 

'     '  uses  that  had  crept  in 

from  Jernsalem.      His 
__  chiefly  directed   against   the 

foreign  elements  mixed  up  with  the  people,  both 
privately  and  publicly.  He  enforced  the  rigorons 
observation  of  Feast  and  Sabbath,  and  rearranged 
the  Temple  eervice  in  accordance  with  its  primeval 
puri^,  procoring  at  the  same  time  the  meaos  for 
its  proper  support  by  inducing  the  people  to  offer 
the  tithes  as  of  old.  His  second  stay  at  Jerusalem, 
seems  to  have  lasted  between  ten  and  fifteen  years ; 
but  the  dates,  as  gathered  from  circumstantial 
evidence  only,  are  exceedingly  vague.  He  seems  to 
have  lived  to  an  old  age,  but  the  place  and  year  oE 
his  death  are  unknown.  What  was  the  part  he 
took  in  the  formation  and  redaction  of  the  biblical 
,  cannot  be  investigated  in  this  place.  Bat 
there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt,  that  among  the  refor- 
matory works  undertaken  by  him,  the  collection, 
and  perhaps  the  edition  of  some  of  the  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  must  be  included. 

The  Book  known  under  his  name  (in  13  chapters) 
is  believed  only  partly  his  own  work-  Becent  mves- 
tigation  ascribes  to  him  only  the  first  six  chapters, 
pu-t  of  the  seventh,  and  the  last  chapter  and  naif ; 
the  rest  being  a  compilation  by  other  hands.  Its 
style  and  character  are  very  simple,  free  from 
anything  supernatural  or  prophetic  Its  language 
resembles  much  that  of  Chronicles  and  Ezra,  and 
i^ete  with  Aramaiams  and  other  foreign,  partly 
Persian  words.  Originally  considered  a  mere  con- 
tinuation of  the  Book  of  Ezra,  it  was  by  the  Greeks 
and  lAtins  at  first  colled  '  The  Second  Book  of 
Ezra.'  Graduolli^,  however,  it  assnmed  its  present 
independent  position  in  tiie  canon  after  Ezra.  It 
is  supposed  to  have  been  written  or  eompiled 
towards  the  end  of  N.'s  life. 

NBILGHE'BRT  (prvperiy  NILGIRI)  HILLS 
(Skr.  tiUa,  blue,  and  ^iri,  mountain),  a  remarkable 
group  of  mountains  in  the  south  of  Hindustan,  entirely 
isolated,  with  the  exception  of  a  precipitous  granite 
ridge,  16  miles  in  width,  which  connects  it  with  the 
high  table-land  of  Maisur  on  the  north.  Lat.  11° 
N.,  long.  78°  30"— 77°  10".    The  shape  of 

^ ^  .9  that  of  a  triangle,  of  whioh  one  side 

faces  the  distnct  of  Malabar  on  the  west    Greatest 

length,   about  40  miles ;    average   breadth,  about 

15  miles.    The  base  of  the  mountains  is  covered 

a  dense  and   unhealthy  forest,  swarming  with 

d  sn'T'^l"!  among  which  are  the  elephant  and 

or;  but  in  the  higher  **g'0'>''  of  the  Hills,  wood 

comparatively  scantj[.    The  surface  of  the  group 

undulating,  rising,  in   the  peak  of  Dodabetta, 

_.jr  the  centre,  to  the  height  of  ST60  feet,  the 

greatest  height,  as  yet  ascertsined,  in  India  south 

of  the  Himalayas.     The  Hills   for  the  most  jnrt 

consist  of  granite^  GATend  often  to  the  d( 


m 


NMLOHXRRT  HETTLE— ITELSOIT. 


npmrda  of  tan  feet  by  *  nehly  productive  bliok 
■oiL  Th««  an  •arml  numases  yielding  peat, 
wliioli  ii  wed  fat  fneL  nie  higbu  lutdi  lonn  » 
fine  open  gnta  oomitiy,  oorared  'witli  tho  vege- 
tation cf  the  temperate  looe,  and  fii>i»h;^»J  by  ■ 
mart  ramukable  tribes  the  Tudat  or  Ttewnuv 
(heidnnen).  Tbi*  tribe  oninben  only  about  SOOO 
penoni.  The  men  are  tall;  and  handeoniB,  with 
Soman  noeea,  fine  teeth,  and  large  expiuwiiu 
^ea ;  the  women  are  singnlariy  beantiiuL  llieir 
ralifpon  ia  Theiam ;  tbey  have  no  idols.  Owing  to 
their  great  eleration,  the  N.  H.  have  a  aeli^it- 
fnlly  oool  dimat«^  Nid  are  mnoh  nsortod  to  on 
thia  acoonnt  by  invalided  Enropeana.  The  princi- 
pal (tation,  and  the  only  place  on  the  Hilu  that 
aewrvea  the  same  of  a  town,  ia  Utabamand,  «itn- 


ated  in  tiie  centre  cf  tiie  HiUa,  at  an  eLevation 
of  7300  feet  above  aeo-leveL     Ita  elimate  ii  oold 
and' damp  doling  the  monaoon;  at  other  timi 
ii  inteiuely  dry,  and  the  mean  annual  temperatore 


ITBILOHERRY  NETTLE  (Oitm-diaia  LttcKt- 
tuaiUii),  »  plant  of  the  natural  order  UrUcea,  nearly 
allied  to  the  true  nettles^  and  pOBBeadng  in  a  high 
degree  the  itingiDg  power  which  ia  common  in  them. 
It  la  (r^oent  on  all  the  higher  ranges  of  the  Neil- 
gherry  Hills.  The  bait  yield*  a  valuable  fibre, 
which  the  nativea  obtain  t^  first  boiling  the  whole 
TiUnt.  to  destroy  ita  stinging  propeitdes,  and  Uies 
the  stalu  The  tilne  ia  of  grMt  delioa<7 
mgth,  and  ii  worth  £200  a  ton  in  England, 
The  coltivation  <rf  the  plant  ia  therefore  thonght 
likely  to  be  lemonerative. — Marhham's  TVowlt. 
NEIIIA.    See  Molucca& 

NEI'SS^  a  town  of  Pmsaiaji  Silcaia,  and  a  fortiesa 
of  the  aeoond  rank,  ia  dtnated  in  a  broad  valley  oc 
tile  Neisae,  an  afSuent  of  the  Oder,  30  miles  aouth' 
west  of  Oppeln.  It  oonsists  of  the  town  proper  on 
the  right  bank,  of  the  Friedrich'a  Town,  ajid  of  the 
Prea«sen  Fort  on  the  left  bank.  It  contsins  two 
great  squares,  has  eigUt  Catholio  and  two  Evangeli> 
cal  ohurchea,  a  hospital,  theatre,  tc.  It  oarries 
on  mannfactorea  of  anna,  chemical  prodnoti,  and 
tobaooo,  and  establishments  for  spinning  and 
weanoK  are  in  operation.  The  entire  popula- 
tion in  ISSO  was  20,607.  N.  was  formerly  the  chief 
town  of  a  prinoipahty,  and  remdence  tn  a  princo- 
bishop. 

NBJD.  See  Axabu  ;  Wahabis. 
NEJI'N,  an  ancient  town  of  Little  Enaais,  in  the 
government  of  Tchemigov,  on  the  Oster,  an  affluent 
of  the  Dnieper,  aboat  &)  miles  north-cut  of  Kiev, 
It  fell  into  die  hands  of  the  lithnaniana  in  1320, 
and  of  the  Poles  in  1386,  bat  was  annexed  to  Bnsaia 
in  U5i.  K.  is  an  induatriona  town  ot  (1880)  21,690 
inhabitants,  many  of  whom  are  desoendants  of 
Greek  immigranu  who  settled  here  in  tike  reign 
of  Catharine  IL  The  principal  branch  of  industry 
is  the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  which  is  very  exten- 
sively carried  on.  The  chi^  institutions  are  two 
monasteries,  26  churches,  and  a  lyceum. 
NSLLOBE.  See  SfPP.,  Vol  X. 
NEL80IT,  Horatio,  the  neatcat  of  Britun's 
admiral^  was  bom  on  the  29u  September  17S8,  at 
Bomham  Thorpe^  Norfolk,  of  which  place  his  father, 
Edmond  Nelson,  was  rector.  His  mother'a  maiden 
name  was  3uokiing,  and  through  her  he  could  claim 
a  collateral  kinship  with  the  celebrated  Sir  Robert 
Walpole.  As  a  child,  he  was  feeble  and  sickly  : 
and  throughout  life  bis  small,  fnil,  and  attenuated 
frame  seemed  to  consort  but  poorly  with  the  daring 
and  impetuous  surit  which  '  stined  and  li^ed  him 
to  hi^  attempU.^  At  the  age  of  13,  he  enterad  the 
royal  navy,  oommenoing  hia  career  in  the  BaitM- 
nable,  64  guns,  oommanded  by  his  unole,  Captain 


Suckling,  nien,  even  more  than  now,  promotiin 
in  thedist  ata^  of  tbe  ]^feasian  was  determined 
by  Admiralty  mterest ;  and  fortunate^  for  him  and 
im  Bogland,  his  ancle,  shortly  afterward*  becomii^ 
OMnptnller  of  Uie  navy,  was  able  to  facilitate  his 
rise.  Hia  promotioD  was  neariy  aa  ramd  as  it  could 
be,  and  befwe  he  waa  quite  21,  be  bad  atUned  the 
rank  of  post-captain,  which  fairly  in)ened  the  way 
for  him  to  the  hif^ier  honour*  <a  the  Bervic«b 
Up  to  thi*  time,  no  oppoitnniw  had  been  afforded 
him  of  aohieviiig  any  maricea  distinction,  but  to 
all  who  were  brought  into  contact  with  him,  he 
had  alreadv  awroTOd  himaelf  a  bold  and  caiudile 
officer.  Hanodorwaid,  for  senile  yean,  be  was 
nearly  ooostantly  employed  in  a  variety  of  haras- 
sing services;  and  in  all  his  conduct  was  soeh, 
thM  in  no  long  time  he  had  made  for  '■'T""''^  a 
brilliant  reputation.  His  growing  fame  wss  as 
yet,  however,  chiefly  oonfiaed  to  professional  citdss, 
no  very  signal  exploit  having  bronght  hia  muna 
prominently  before  the  pubGc  But  with  tlu 
advent  of  the  war  with  revolutionary  Franca,  the 
time  had  come  when  he  was  to  *  flams  amasement' 
on  the  worid  by  a  series  of  noble  deeds,  in  the 
lusbe  (A  which  all  other  naval  glory  loi^  palth 
In  his  obscurer  jreats,  he  seema  to  luve  been  cheered 
mdar  what  pained  him  aa  unmerited  neglect  by 
that  prescioioa  of  a  grand  destiny,  which  has  so 
often  preluded  to  a  oaretr  of  exceptional  qden- 
dour.  Thus,  on  one  occasion,  he  writes :  'Tbtj 
have  not  done  me  justioe.  Bi^  never  mind.  One 
day  I  'II  have  a  gaaette  of  my  own.'  And  subse- 
auentl^  the  same  confidence  is  expressed  with  aoma- 
uiing  like  the  depth  of  a  reUzioDB  conviction :  *  One 
day  or  other  I  will  have  a  kmg  gazette  to  myseU 
I  fed  tliat  such  an  opportunity  will  be  given  me. 
I  cannot,  if  I  am  in  tlie  field  ti  glory,  be  kept  oat  of 
sight ;  wherever  there  ia  anything  to  be  draie,  (Acts 
iVon^sMx  it  tart  to  dinet  my  tlept.'  In  1791^ 
appointed  to  the  Agamaanon,  64  guns,  be  took  a 
distinguished  port,  among  other  aervices,  in  the 
-• — Es  of  Bastia  and  Calvi,  in  Corsica,  losing  an 
,  at  the  last  of  these ;  and  in  the  celelvated 
action  of  Sir  John  Jervis  off  Cape  St  Vincent 
with  the  Spanish  fleet,  to  a  mantnuvre  of  extreme 
and  masteiiy  daring,  executed  by  Ifelson  in 
defiance  of  orders,  that  officer  was  mainly 
indebted  for  the  sfdoidid  socoeas  obtained,  asd 
the  peerage  with  whicli  it  waa  rewarded.  Thoa|^ 
in  toe  interval  an  enwdition  which  be  commanded 
against  TeneriB'e  had  failed  disastnuslv,  with  iom 
to  himself  of  his  right  arm  in  the  aieanlt,  it  was  on 
all  hands  admitted  that  everything  was  dcme  on 
which  sidll  and  valonr  m  their  bi^eot 
could  effect,  and  N.,  -'  ^' ' —  '- 


witli  a  fleet,  he 
idependent  command  d 
any  magnitude  b^  the  stupendous  victory  of  the 
Nile,  memorable  m  oavol  annals  aa  the  completeit 
annihilation  of  an  enemy  on  record.  See  Aboueib. 
Finding  the  French  fleet— to  which  his  own  was 
considerably  inferior  in  force — skilfully  moored  so 
as  to  defy  oidinary  attack,  he  adopted  the  novel 
expedient  of  doabliag  on  the  enemy's  ships,  ud  was 
rewarded  with  auocess  the  most  "" 


action  prostrated  N.,  did  . 
their  ten^orary  safely.    Honours 
from  all  quarters  showered  upon  him .   ..  _  _ 
particDlac  the  gratitude  and  entimaasro  ii  hia 


I  signified  by  the  t^  bertow^ 

v.GooqIc 


NEiaON  EIVER— NBMATELMIA. 


riaonable 

Tha  only  Osw  in 


on  him  of  Banm  Ndam  of  the  Ni1«l  mud  a  gnat 
of  £2000  ft  year  fW  bit  own  lif e,  ud  the  livM  of 
hia  two  iminiMti>te  nooeason.  Pot  hi*  aervico 
intmediataly  (nbaeqaaiit,  in  effectuut  the  ezpnlaioi 
of  the  EVoich  from  Naples,  thsNeapolitan  king 
nwatdsd  him  with  the  Dukedom  of  Brante  aiS 
ft  domaiD  of  £3000  ft  year.  IhMa  la«t  honoim, 
faowerer,  were  in  one  tenw  dM^jr  pvrohMad.  Tho 
•ingle  mnloioD  of  »  blot  on  hu  pnblio  fiuna 
i«  in  lemxA  of  hia  lelataona  with  the  oormpt  oouit 
a  Nft^ta,  and  of  oeitain  qneetionahle  a  '-  ' 
whioh  hj  theae  he  wia  letL  IThe  only 
hi*  priT&ta  ohaneter  waa  hia  infi^oated  _,_^- 
ment  to  iMdy  HamiHon,  the  wife  at  the  ibgliih 
amNiatudor,  a  woman  of  qaertionaUe  anteoedeato, 
bat  perilous  faeciikation,  with  whom  he  wa«  here 
thrown  in  contact  The  influence  which  ahe  now 
obtained  orer  him,  ahe  continued  to  tiie  end  to 

oiBe.     Early  in  life  he  had  married,  ^nit  tni 

happily.    Il  to  the  charma  of  an  impure  adventoraa 
he  lamfloed,  m  hia  retom  to  England,  the  wife 
whom  before  ha  had  been  tenderly  devoted,  it  is  E 
neoeaaary  to  indulge  in  oonunent.    I;et  na  comp: 
uonate  the  one  cmel  frailty  of  a  man  in  all  eUa 
and  in  hia  i^oper  natmet  ac  gentle  and  generooa  aa 

waa  the  battie  of 

^     — „ ,  _ ,  after  ft  atmggle  of 

terrible  aBreri^,  he  ahattered  the  naval  power  of 
Denmark,  and  ulona  with  it  tiie  dreaded  cmlitdon 
i«ainat  England  of  the  three  northern  kingdoma. 
Never  were  the  charactetiatio  and  heroic  qu^tiea 
of  the  man  more  brilliantly  displayed  than  on  thia 
moat  trying  occasion.  In  the  moral  ooorage  to 
ftocept  responsibility  at  all  bozatds,  no  man  ever 
anruased  nim.  In  the  heat  of  the  battle,  hia  ohief. 
Sir  Hyde  Parker,  in  deadly  anxiety  aa  to  the  iaaae 
of  what  at  a  diatenoe  aeemed  to  be  a  hopeless  con- 
flict, rignalled  him  to  disccntinne  action.  '  Damn 
the  signal  1 '  said  N.,  when  thia  wm  reported  to  h™ 
'  Step  mine  for  doter  baUlefising.  Tb&i't  the  way 
I  answer  aach  signals.  Nul  mine  to  the  maat.' 
And  with  the  certainty  of  profesaional  disgrace  and 
ruin  staring  him  in  uie  Face  in  case  ot  fallort^  he 
worked  ont  his  grand  triumph. 

Had  N.'s  BBTTicea  here  o«s«ed,  hia  fame  would 
still  have  been  assured  as  the  greateet  of  £kiEland'a 
naval  heroes.  But  a  crowning  glory  awaited  him. 
In  the  earlier  pMt  of  1806,  gfowing  with  fieros 
ardour  and  impatienoe,  hs  had  chased  half  round 
Hie  world  a  French  fleet  of  n^rly  double  the 
force  of  hia  own,  scared  by  the  rery  terror  of  his 
name;  and  en  the  morning  of  -Uie  memonble 
21st  October  ot  that  year,  uie  desire  ot  hia  eyea 
was  satisfied,  when  in  the  Bay  of  Trofalnr  he 
saw  befoie  him  the  combined  oaviea  of  Franoe 
and  Spain  moving  to  meet  h't"  in  frank  fi^L  Of 
the  glorious  oonanmmation  which  followed,  we  need 
not  apeak  in  detail  Ere  night,  the  power  of  Franoe 
opon  the  aeaa  waa  annihilaied,  and  her  threateaed 
invaaion  of  England  had  become  an  abortiva  dream. 
Bat  N.  waa  no  more.  He  died  aa  anch  men  wiah 
to  dic^  amid  tita  thnndera  of  hia  mightiest  victory. 

The  character  of  N.  woe,  for  a  man  of  hia  great- 
neaa,  imuaiiaUy  rimide  and  transparent  A  more 
abacdnte  a^leneaa  of  aim  and  aspiration  than 
his,  it  is  difficult  even  to  oooceive  oL  Literally  on 
fire  with  ardour  and  enthusiasm,  he  waa  driven  by 
it  imperionsly  in  one  direction.  The  greatest  of 
sulora — he  was  a  sailor  and  little  else.  In  ooolneaa, 
foremght,  promptitude,  instant  intnitive  decision, 
and  ft  dwing  which,  even  when  it  seemed  at  times 
to  toooh  temerity,  waa  yet  iwolated  by  reasoD,  he 
haa  perh^H  never  been  eqiu^ed.  His  natnre  was 
moat  noble  and  humane.  Soathey'B  Ljfs  <^ir,  ia  » 
modd  1nogt^>hy ;  there  are  also  live*  by  Clarkcy 


Pettigrew,  Allen,  and  others.  N.'a  Dispatohes  and 
Lettaw  ware  edited  by  Sir  Harris  mcolaa  (7  vda,. 
18M— IMS).    

HBLSON  EIVEE,  a  Urge  river  of  Caaada,  iasoea 
from  the  ncrtit  end  of  Lake  Winnipeg,  and  falls  into 
Hudson's  Bay.  Its  coutao  is  only  403  miles,  but  it 
discharges  on  enormous  quantity  of  water  into  the 
sea.  Fort  Nelaon  at  its  mouth  is  important  as  one  ot 
the  points  by  whioh  it  has  been  proposed  to  establish 
dirret  water  communication  between  the  Canadian 
north-weet  and  England ;  but  the  river  is  navi- 
gable for  large  steamers  oi^y  some  70  or  SO  mil^. 

NELTJ'MBO  {tftlumbium),  a  genua  of  aquatic 
plants  included  by  aome  botanists  in  the  natural 
atdetJiymphitaeeaX'i.-v.);  but  by  othera  constituted 
into  on  order,  Ndmahiacea,  differing  in  the  want  of 
atbumen  in  the  seed,  and  in  thedistiact  carpels, 
which  are  buried  in  the  cavitiea  of  a  large  fleshy  re- 
ceptacle. The  flowera  and  leaves  are  very  similar 
to  those  of  water-lilies.  The  apedea  ore  few,  and 
are  found  in  the  wann  parts  of  Asia,  in  the  north 
of  Africa,  and  in  North  America.  They  are  all 
distinguished  by  the  beauty  ot  their  flowers.  2f. 
■pecMUunt  ia  iha  Eotptuh  Bk&N  of  Pythagoras 


Lotus  (JVefunKKSt  Q 


tiM  Iwi*  ilnoiat*  wbktt  tbsj  aasloaa. 

the  XoCui  (q.  V.)  of  the  Hindus,  held  sacred  by  them 
and  by  the  people  ot  Thibet  It  ia  also  much 
esteemed  and  cnltivated  in  China,  and  elsewhere  in 
the  East,  for  its  seeds,  roota,  leaf-atalka,  and  flower- 
atolk^  all  of  which  are  eUen.  It  haa  been  used 
as  food  by  the  Egyptians  from  remote  antiquity. 
The  seed*  are  in  aiie  and  ahape  like  acorns,  with  a 
taste  more  delicate  than  that  ot  almondi,  Tho 
root  containa  mnch  ataroh,  and  CAmsm  urrWD-roal 
~d  to  be  obtained  from  it.  Slicea  <id  it  are  often 
served  up  at  table  in  China.  Great  quantities  ara 
~iokled  with  salt  and  vinegar,  and  eaten  with  rice, 
^he  powdered  root  makes  excellent  aonp  witi  water 
r  milk.  The  flowers  are  generally  roae-oolonred, 
seldom  white.  The  anoieut  Egj^tian  mode  of 
sowing  this  plant,  by  enclosing  each  seed  in  a  ball 
of  clay,  and  throwing  it  into  uie  water,  ia  practised 
at  the  present  day  in  India. — y.  faUotm  is  a  North 
American  speoiea,  extending  almost  aa  for  nortli  aa 
Philadelphia;  with  vellow  flowers.  The  aeeds  are 
eonght  after  by  children  and  by  Indiana,  and  the 
fannaceous  roots  are  agreeable  when  boiled. 


B  beloosinK  to  thia  class  ai« 


NEMATOIDEA-NENAOH. 


ct  »  more-oF  lew  elongated  i^UndiioAl  form.  Their 
Bkia  is  thick  and  atnnig,  and  it  ojsaaUy  'wrinkled 
in  Buoh  a  manner  u  to  give  tlie  body  an  annulated 
appearanoe,  which,  however,  diaappeara  if  the  uutnol 
18  placed  in  water.  The  nerrous  system  in  the 
higW  Eonni  (as  the  AKarida)  consiats  ot  two  lateral 
ganglia  at  the  anterior  extremity,  which  ace  united 
by  a  slender  nervous  ring,  and  from  which  two 
lateral  nervous  trunks  proceed  to  the  posterior  part 
of  the  body;  while  in  the  lower  forms  no  di^tmct 
nervoiu  ijatem  con  be  recognised.  No  special  organs 
of  Ule  teases  are  met  with;  hut  a  general  sense  oE 
touch  is  probably  present.  The  digestive  organs  are 
extremely  simple.  In  one  order  (the  AcantJtotx- 
^ala),  no  trace  of  an  intestinal  caaal  can  be  detected; 
in  another  order  (the  Oordiacfa),  there  it  a  mouth, 
bnt  no  anas ;  while  the  higher  forms  are  provided 
with  mouth,  intestinal  canal,  and  anus.  In  the 
higher  formi,  a  kind  of  vascular  system  is  developed 
in  the  skin,  in  the  shape  of  canals,  in  which  the 
nutrient  fluid  is  propelled  by  the  movements  of  the 
body.  No  distinct  respiratoty  organs  can  be 
detected;  bnt  in  some  genera  there  are  glands 
whose  object  it  not  clearly  known.  These  worms 
ue  uniseioal ;  bat  the  males  are  comparatively 
rarely  found,  and  are  always  smaller  than  the 
females.  With  the  exception  of  two  families — the 
UrolaJita  and  AitguiUvlida,  ot  pteio  and  vinegar  eels 
— all  the  animals  of  this  class  are  parasitic  (see ' 
AscAHia,  liicHiNA,  Gdikka-Worm,  Eklh  in  paste, 
Stgonqyi-us)  ;  Cams  said  that  'probably  all  the 
nematelmia  live  as  parasites,  either  during  their 
whole    lives    or    during    certain    stages    ol   their 


The  N.  are  sometimes  termed  Sound~ta>7i7is, 
Just  as  the  Flatyelmia  (tape-worms,  Sukes,  &c.) 
are  called  FJat-womu.  Most  commonly,  however, 
ths  term  roond-worm  it  restricted  to  the  A»eari» 
biwhricoide*,  the  most  common  of  the  human  entozoa. 

This  elaai  is  divisible  into  three  very  distinct 
orders — viz.,  the  ^cantAoarpftti^  which  are  destitute 
of  ao  intestinal  canal ;  the  Qordiacta,  which  posseBS 
Ml  intettinti  canal,  but  no  anus ;  and  the  KeTiut- 
Undta,  which  possess  a  perfect  intestinal  canal, 
provided  with  two  orifices. 

NEMATOIDEA  oonrtdtnte  the  highest  order 
of  the  Nematelmia,  and  indeed  of  intestinal  worms 
generally,  inaamtuJi  ■«  they  present  a  distinct 
nervoas  system,  a  aompIet«  intestine  provided  with 
mouth  and  anus,  and  distinct  sexual  organs.  The 
history  of  their  development  is  not  fully  known;  but 
there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  these  animals 
undergo  any  remarkable  metamorphoses,  althongh 
some  perforate  the  intestinal  walls,  and  become 
encysted  in  parenchymatous  organs.  The  great 
majority  of  the  N.  are  parasilac.  The  N.  are 
divided  by  Carua  into  twelve  families,  alt  the 
tnemben  m  which  are  known  only  in  a  parasitic 
•tote  of  eustence,  excepting  certain  genesa  of  the 
first  and  second  family. 

Althondi  Hie  intestinal  canal  is  the  most  com- 
mon r«tideace  of  these  worms,  Bome,  sa  3'ricAina 
gpircUil,  are  found  chiefly  in  the  muscles ;  others, 
as  FUaria  niei^inensif,  in  the  snbcataneous  cellular 
tisane;  and  others  in  the  kidneys,  lungs,  ko.  See 
Entozoa.  For  further  information  re»rding  these 
worms,  tile  reader  is  referred  to  Eberth^s  Unlerttuh- 
Kftgen  iilxr  Jfemaioden  (4to,  1663). 

NE'MBA,  anciently  tile  name  of  a  deep  and 
well-watered  valley  of  Arsolis,  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
between  Cleonm  and  Fmins.  It  lies  north  and 
■outh,  and  is  from  two  to  three  miles  long,  and  more 
than  half  a  mile  broad.  It  possessed  •  sacred 
grove,  with  a  magnideent  t«ni>le  of  Zeua,  and  was 
celebrated  for  the  gamea  called  the  jr«ni«in  Qamtt, 


which  took  place  fonr  times  in  two  Olympiads  in  mi 
adjacent  woody  valley.  This  wat  one  of  the  great 
national  featirolt  of  th«  Greeks,  and,  aecordi^  to 
one  l^^end,  was  founded  by  the  seven  princes  who 
were  combined  against  ThdMa ;  aooordiiu  to  another, 
by  Hercules  after  his  victory  over  the  Nemean  Ijon. 
"Tha  games  consisted  partiy  of  exercises  of  bodily 
skill  and  ttrength^-siich  at  chariot-neing,  qooit- 
throwing,  wre^ling,  running  in  armoor,  horso- 
racing,  boxing,  thniwing  the  spear,  and  archeiy, 
sad  portly  of  musical  and  poetical  competitiona. 
The  prize  was  originally  a  crown  of  olive  twin 
afterwards  of  parsley.  We  have  eleven  odes  bj 
Pindar  in  honour  of  victon  in  the  Nemean  Qames. 

NEME'RT^S,  a  genus  of  marine  AmOida,  tba 
1^^  of  a  family,  itemtrCida,  remarkable  for  tiie 
prodigious  length  which  some  of  the  species  attain, 
which,  in  their  most  extended  state,  is  30  or  40 
feet.  But  the  animal  which  stretches  itself  oat 
to  this  length,  is  capable  of  suddenly  contntcting 
itself  to  three  or  tour  feet  The  structure  it 
similar  to  that  of  leeches,  bat  there  is  no  sucker. 
These  annelids  feed  upon  molloscs  by  sucking 
them  out  of  their  shells.  They  generally  lurk  in 
the  mud  or  sand  of  the  sea-coast,  and  are  sometimes 
drawn  tip  with  the  nets  or  lines  of'tishermen.  They 
twine  themselves  into  knota  and  coils,  apparently 
inextricable,  bub  without  any  real  entanglement. 
The  life-history  of  the  Nemertida  is  curious.  The 
embryo  hsa  at  first  a  ciliated,  non-contractilo,  ovil 
body ;  from  which  there  issues  a  small  activdy 
contractile  worm,  leaving  behind  it  the  oval  BUin, 
and  thit  worm  grows  to  the  eite  already  mentioned. 
The  larval  state,  however,  exhibits  a  cleft  with 
raised  edges,  which  becomes  the  mouth  of  the 
perfect  animal, 

NEMESIS,  according  to  Hesiod,  the  daaehter 
of  Night,  was  originally  the  peisoaification  cf  tiie 
moral  feeling  oF  right  and  a  just  fear  of  criminal 
actions — in  other  words,  of  the  conscience.  Aftsr> 
wards,  when  aa  enlarged  experience  convinced  men 
that  a  Divine  will  found  room  for  its  activity  amid 
the  little  Dccurrence«  of  human  life,  N.  came  to  be 
regarded  as  the  power  who  constantly  preserves  <c 
restores  the  moral  equilibrium  of  earthly  affiuis — 
preventing  mortals  from  reaching  that  exceesive  pros- 
perity which  would  lead  them  to  forget  the  reverence 
due  to  the  immortal  gods,  or  visiting  them  wiUi 
wholesome  calamities  in  the  midst  of  their  happineat. 
Hence  originated  the  latest  and  loftiest  conoeptioa 
of  N.,  as  the  being  to  whom  was  intmsted  the 
execution  of  the  decrees  of  a  strict  retributive 
providence— the  awful  and  mysterious  avenger  ot 
wrong,  who  punishes  and  humbles  haughty  evil- 
doers in  particular.  N.  was  thus  regarded  aa  allied 
'  A(6  {•l.v.)  and  the  Enmenides  (q.  v.).  She  was 
called  AdrastSa    and   lUuuunusiA,   the 


.   .„.  .       .__. ..  temple.    She  WM 

represented  in  the  older  times  as  a  yoang  virsiii, 
resembling  Venus ;  in  later  times,  aa  clothed  with 
the  tunio  and  peptua,  sometimes  with  awtntls  in  her 
hands  and  a  wheel  at  her  foot,  a  griffin  also  having 
his  right  paw  upon  the  wheel;  sometimeB  in  a 
chariot  drawn  by  griffins,  N.  is  a  freqnent  figon 
on  coins  and  gems. 

NE'NAGH,  a  market  town  of  Tipperary  county, 
Ireland,  distant  95  miles  soilth-west  from  Dublin ; 
pop.  (1S8I)  G422,  of  whom  the  Boman  Catholic* 
were  twelve  timet  aa  many  as  the  Proteetants  c/ 
the  EpiacopBlian  Church,  and  there  were  fif^  or 
sixty  Protestants  of  other  denominations.  N.  is  the 
assize  town  of  the  North  Riding  of  Tipperary,  ai>d 
is  a  place  of  more  than  ordinary  pretensions  in 
its   pnblia    buildings.     The   auoient   keep,   caUtd 


.i,!iu,i,:!,jCiOOglC 


MEOPHTTB— NEO-PLATONISTS. 


attidaa  mmnufactnred  at  N^  are  wc 

•Mpv  Bod  cviille*.    It  ii,  ItoweTW,  a  place  of  very 

oODiidwabU  inland  tnde. 

ITKOPHTTE  (Qr.  neophuloa,  from  naw,  new,  and 
pAuo,  to  grow),  the  name  gjvea  in  early  ecclcsi- 
aiticol  language  to  persont  recently  converted  to 
'  e  word  ia  used  in  Una  '     "' 


Chriatiiuiity. 


lebySt 


planted  in  the  faith '  (Epp.  b.  v.  ep,  SI ).  It  differed 
from  Catechamea  (q.  t.J,  inaonach  as  it  Bupposed 
the  person  to  have  not  only  embraced  the  doctrines 
of  the  chnrch,  but  also  to  hare  received  baptimn. 
St  Paul,  in  the  pasaage  referred  to,  directs  Timoth; 
not  to  promote  a  neophyte  to  the  epiacopate ;  ani 
thia  prohibition  woa  geaerally  maiatained,  although 
occasionally  diaregarded  in  very  extraordinary  cir- 
etimBtanoM,  inch  aa  those  of  St  Ambrose  (q.  v.). 
The  dnration  of  this  exclotdon  wu  left  for  a  tuna  to 
the  disci«tioi)  of  luahopa ;  bat  aeveral  of  the  ancient 
avDoda  lenalated  legardine  it.  The  third  council  of 
Aries,  1^  and  the  tiiird  of  Orange  in  53S,  fix  a  year 
aa  the  least  limit  of  probation.  In  the  modem  Roman 
Cathdio  Chnrch  the  same  disdphna  is  observed, 
and  ertenda  to  persana  converted  not  alone  from 
heatheoiEm,  but  trom  any  sect  of  ChriitiaoB  srpar- 
ated  bom  the  commnnion  of  Rom&  The  time,  how- 
aver,  ia  left  to  be  detenninedbvidieDinBtanceB.  The 
name  neophyte  ia  also  applied  in  Roman  usage  to 
tteuiif-ordamed  prialt,  ana  sometimea,  though  more 
nrsly,  to  tile  tioviea  of  a  nligjons  otikr. 

NE[0-PIiATONISTS,  the  name  given  to  an 
illnstrioiu  tocoesaion  of  ancient  philosophen  who 
dunied  to  found  their  doctrioea  and  specolationB 
on  those  of  Plata  Strictly  speaking,  howeva,  the 
Platonio  philosophy — that  is,  in  ita  oriiniLal  and 
Senuina  form  — expired  with  Plato',. 
disdples,  SpensippoB  and  Xeaocrates. 


immediate 

pensippoB  and  Xeaocrates.      Arceailaoa 
tovmder  of  the  New  Academy,  and  at 


destroyed  that  earnest  and  reverent  spirit 
ristio  of  the  g 
of  political  ev 


intellectual  inqniry  so  characteristio 
pnpil  of  Socrates.  The  course  of  pn 
m  the  andent  world  also  largely  assisted 
about  th«  same  resnlt.  The  triumpba  of  the  Bomon 
power  had  been  accomplished  at  the  expense  of 
national  libertiea,  and  had  issued  in  a  genraal  dete- 
rioration of  moral  cbaraoter.  both  in  me  East  and 
the  West.  Publio  men,  e^edally,  sought,  above 
all  things,  material  gratifiaaaona,  and  came  to  look 
npmi  philosophy  itadf  aa  only  a  nMii«  exqoisita  kind 
was  quite  natnnJ,  titenfora^  that 
Eclectioiam  should  become  the  pr«- 


nnsatisfaetoty.  „  -    ..      . 

long  succession  of  contradictory  or  divei^nt  sya- 
tems  that  hod  prevailed  sioce  the  tdme  of  Thdes 
the  Milesian,  in  the  my  dawn  of  Greek  histoiy,  a 
■napicion  appears  toliave  sprung  up  that  reautv, 
certainty,  troth,  was  either  not  attomable,  or  could 
only  be  attained  by  selecting  something  from  every 
■yatem.  Moreover,  tlie  imnumseW  extended  inter- 
course of  notiona,  itaeU  a  result  of  Bomon  oonqoeat^ 
had  brought  into  the  closest  proximity  a  crowd  of 
eonfiicting  opinion^  beliefs,  and  practices,  which 
could  not  help  occaaionally  nndeigoing  a  confused 
gjn  ^igȴH  f^^^^^  m^  i]^  thia  way  presented  to  view 
» practical edeo&iam, lea refineaimd  {dkilosophical 
iiMsed  than  the  specidative  syitemB  of  the  dj^,  but 


not  essentially  different  £rom  tium.  Thia  tendenej 
to  amalgamation  shewed  itself  most  prominency  in 
Alexandria.  Placed  at  the  junction  of  two  con- 
tinents, Asia  and  Africa,  and  close  to  the  most 
cultivated  and  intellectual  regions  of  Europe,  that 
celebrated  dty  naturally  be<ame  a  focua  for  the 
chief  religions  and  philoso^es  of  the  ancient  world. 
Here,  the  East  and  the  West,  Greek  ooltore  and 
Oriental  enthosiaam,  met  and  mingled;  and  here, 
too,  Christianitv  sought  a  home,  and  strove  to 
quell,  by  the  liberoUty  of  its  sympathies,  the 
myriad  disoords  of  Fa^mism.  '  Greek  Sceptioism,' 
says  Mr  Lewes,  '  Judaism,  Platonism,  Chnstiani^ 
— all  hod  their  interpreters  within  a  small  ili»fjni-n 
of  the  temple  of  Serapi&'  It  is  not  wonderful, 
therefore,  Uiat  a  philosophy,  which  so  distinctly 
combines  the  pecuLor  mental  oharactetistiaa  of  tlie 
East  and  the  West,  aa  that  promulnted  by  the 
Neo-Platonists,  should  have  ori^natM  in  Alexan- 
dria. Yet,  at  the  some  time,  it  ia  but  ri^t  to 
notice,  as  does  M.  Matter  in  his  HUtmrt  de  VEeoU 
i£ Aiesoandrie,  that  it  soon  ceased  to  have  any  local 
connection  with  the  city.  Its  most  illnstrions 
representatives  were  neJUier  natives  of  Alexandria, 
Dor  memben  of  ilie  famous  Muaeum,  and  they  bod 
their  schools  elsewhere — in  Bome,  in  Athens,  utd  in 

It  is  not  esay  to  say  with  whom  Ifeit-Plaioiaam 
commenced,  ^cholara  differ  aa  to  how  mnch  should 
be  included  nndet  that  term.  Bv  some  it  is  used 
to  designate  the  whole  new  intellectaal  movement 
proceeding  from  Alexandria,  comprising,  in  thia 
brood  view,  the  philosophy,  lat,  of  Phuo-Judnus 
and  of  Kiimeniua  the  Syrian ;  2d,  of  the  Christian 
Fathers  (Clemens  Alexondriuus,  Oiigen,  ftc);  3^ 
of  tliB  Gnostics  ;  and  4tli,  of  Ajumomos  Soocas  and 
his  Euooesaors.  Others,  again,  would  exclude  the 
second  of  these  (though  the  Alexandrian  divioea 
frequently  Platonise);  while  a  third  party  is  dis- 
posed to  restrict  the  application  of  the  tenn  to  the 
fourth.  The  last  of  these  modes  of  regarding 
Neo-Flotoniam  is  the  one  most  currenti  and  is 
perhaps  the  moat  convenient  and  definite ;  yet 
'     Ifflinemaiu],  Lewee,  &&,  agree  :in  con- 

.   ..-.  „ lo-Jnd»aa  (q.v,),  an  AJexaudrion  Jew, 

Bad  {in  port)  ooutemporsry  of  Jesus  Christ,  as  tha 
first  of  the  Neo-Platouista — that  is  to  say,  as  the 
first  who  endeavoured  to  nntt«  the  mysteries  of 
Oriental  belief  with  the  dialectics  and  speculations 
of  the  Platonists.  A  similar  coarse  was  at  least 
partislly  pursued  by  the  Christian  fathers  of  Alex- 
andria, partly  from  a  predilection  for  the  philo- 
sophy in  which  they  had  been  reared,  and  partly 
from  a  desire  to  hiumouiBe  reason  and  faith,  and 
to  make  their  religion  acceptable  to  thoughtful 
and  educated  pagans ;  hence,  they  too  may,  not 
without  reason,  be  classed  along  with  Philo,  Uiongh 
their  spirit  and  aim  are  distinctively  and  even 
strongly  Christian.  In  Gnosticism,  on  the  other 
hand,  speaking  generally,  tha  lawleas  mystidsm  of 
the  East  predominated,  and  we  see  little  either  of 
the  spirit  or  logic  of  PlatoL  Th^  may  therefore 
be  dismissed  from  the  category  ot  Ifeo-Flatonista. 
Regarding  Fhilo-JudKus  and  the  Alexandrian  divinea, 

~* '  he  noticed  that  they  wroto  and  taught  in  the 

s  of  tiieir  own  religion,  and  had  no  idea  of 
Fending  or  propagating  a Iteatheu  philosophy.  It 
Uiia  which  strikingly  Hirtiingni.liJt  them  tnmi  the 


school  founded  by  iomnonina  Saccaa^  and  also  from 
ndent  group  of  pagan  teocheifl  and  anthon 
wise  nourished   in   t^  first  and  seecmd 

after  Christ,  and  whose  main  object  waa 

ipnlariaa  and  diffuse  the  ethic*  ana  religio- 

"'lic  system  o[Plato,byal]egoikallyexpUin- 

mcient  mysteiiea  of  the  popular  belief  in 

with  the  ideif  of  their  master,  bnt,  at  the 


pbiloeai 


NBO-PLATONiaTa 


e  time,  blending  with  these  many  Pythagon 


and  Ariatoteliau  notiona.     The  beat-known 

of  tliii  group  are  Plataroh  (q.T.)  and  Appoldni 

S,  T.).  These  men  have  a  better  olaim  to  toe  title 
Neo-PIutoaiatt  than  ftnj  of  the  othen.  They 
adhered  far  mora  closely  to  theb  great  maHter,  and 
were,  in  fact— to  the  beri  of  their  ability^aimply 
popular  ezpoonder*  of  his  philosophy.  living  at 
a  tmie  when  paganian  was  in  a  moribund  oondUion, 
tiiey  longht  to  revive,  purify,  and  elevate  the  faith 
in  which  their  fathers  had  lived.  Ohrittiaiiity,  • 
young,  vigorona,  and  hoatila  ;Byatem,  wna  rootitig 
itself  m  the  heu^  of  men  deeper  and  deeper  every 
day,  and  these  discipleB  of  Pkto— tenderly  attached 
to  their  ancestral  retidon— felt  that  aometliiiig  must 
be  done  to  preaerve  from  going  out  the  firea  that 
were  feebly  burning  on  the  utatv  of  the  ancient 

But  Utese  oommeutatoia  and  erpodtoia  of  Plato 
wet«  not  remarkable  for  their  philosophical  power ; 
a  freah  stream  of  life  was  first  niured  into  the  old 
channels  of  Platonto  speonlstion  by  Ammoniiis 
Saccas  (q.  t.)  and  Flotinus  (q.  v.),  and  it  ta  this  fact 
which  give*  the  achool  wMch  they  ectabliahed  iti 
beat  claim  to  the  exduaive  title  of  Jfto-PUxlcniiL 
'  In  no  apeciea  of  grandeur  voa  the  Alexandrian 
iobool  deflcient,'  aa  M.  Saisset  joatly  obaervea: 
Igenius,  power,  and  duration  have  consecrated  it 
^-animating  during  on  epoch  of  decline  the 
fecondity  of  an  aged  civilisation,  it  OMated  a  whole 
family  of  illastnoua  names.  Plotinus,  ita  real 
founder,  resuscitated  PUto ;  Fioclua  gave  the  world 
another  Aristotle ;  and  in  the  person  of  Julian  the 
Apoatate,  it  became  master  of  the  world.  For  three 
oenturiea  it  wa*  a  formidable  rival  to  the  greatest 
power  that  ever  appeared  on  earth— the  power  of 
Christdanity ;  and  if  it  auccujabed  in  the  atrnggle, 
it  only  fed  with  the  dviliaation  of  which  it  nad 
been  the  last  rampart '  [Lewes'a  Bhg.  ffitt.  Phil. 
p.  259).  The  essence  of  aU  the  Alezandiion  specu. 
lotions,  we  have  stated,  consists  in  the  blending 
of  Platonic  ideas  with  Oriental  mysticism;  the 
peculiarity  of  the  Neo-PiaUmiili,  strictly  ao-t^ed, 
tiea  simply  in  the  novelty,  audacity,  and  ingenuitr 
ci  thur  naaoningi.    They  aimed  at  constructing 


b^ond  the  limits  of  his  penonslity,  and  acquiring 
an  intuitive  knowledge  of  the  absolute,  the  true-^ 
that  which  ia  beyond  and  above  the  fluctuations  and 
dnbietiM  of  '  opinion.'  This  impersonal  focolty  ia 
called  Ealata.  By  means  of  it^  man — ceasing  how- 
ever, it  ahomd  be  observed,  to  be  individual  man, 
L  a,,  Mmaeff— can  identify  himaelf  with  the  Absolute 
(or  Infinite).  Plotinos,  In  fact,  aet  ont  from  the 
belief  that  '  philosophy '  (L  e.,  ■  Absolute  Truth ')  is 
only  possible  throueb  the  identity  of  the  thinker,  or 
rather  of  the  subjective  thoogbt,  with  the  thing 
tiiougjht  of,  or  the  objective  thought.  This  intuitive 
grasp  or  '  vision '  of  the  Absolute  is  not  oonatant ; 
we  can  neither  force  nor  retain  it  by  an  effort  of 
will;   it   apringa   from   a  divine   inspiration   and 


■m,  higlier  and  purer  than  tl^t 
(Topliet,  and  is  the  choicest  *  eift  of  Ood.' 

Tbib  god  of  PIotinuB  and  the  other  Alexandrians 
is  a  mystical  Trinity,  in  the  exposition  of  which 
they  dispU^  a  dialectical  subtlety  that  even  the 
most  ingeuouB  of  the  schoolmen  nerer  reached. 
The  Divme  Nature  contuns  within  it  three  Eypo- 
atases  {Substances) ;  ita  basLS,  if  we  may  so  speak, 
'a  ctUled  Tnity,  also  poetically  Primitive  light,  Ac 
rhia  TTni^  ia  not  itseu  any  thmg,  but  the  principle  c 


Om  nnderstaading,  ther«  ia  Hud  in  man  Uiat  bmotss 
him  that  it — the  inoomprehenaible,  the  inefibbla,  ss, 

reaaoD  nor  aoni ;  it  exists  neither  in  motlan  nor 
repose;  neither  In  apace  nor  tims;  it  ia  not  ft 
numeria  uni^  nor  a  point  j  ....  it  is  pun  fksa 
without  Accident ;  .  .  .  .  it  ia  sxempt  from  all  want 
or  dependencj;,  aa  well  )■  from  all  thoasht  or  will  [ 
it  is  not  a  tliinlritig  Beuu,  but  Thoujln  itadf— Uie 
principle  and  canae  of  all  things.'  "So  tba  aceptio 
this '  Primitive  Liditi'  we  are  afraid,  wiU  not  seem 
very  InminoniL  Tirom  'Unity,'  aa  the  primordial 
source  of  all  things,  emanates  '  Pure  Intelligaice  * 
(JTotw— the  F«mti^  erf  modem  German  met*- 
pbjaica) ;  its  reflection  and  image,  that  by  whicb 
it  is  intuitively  apprehended;  &om  Pnre  Intelli* 
geuae,in  turn, emanates  the  'Sokd  of  the  World' 
(Pjycit  toa  panioa),  wbooe  creative  activity  pro> 
duces  the  souls  of  men  and  animals,  and  '  Nature  f 
and  finally,  from  Natnra  proceed*  '  Matter,*  which, 
however,  is  sobjected  by  Plotinna  to  snoh  reHn»- 
ment  of  definition  that  it  loses  all  its  groasDeaa. 
Unitr^,  Pnn  Intelligenas,  and  the  World-Sonl  thna 
oonstitnta  Um  notuian  Triad,  with  whioh  ia  ooo- 
iMted,  aa  wa  have  seen,  the  doctrine  id  an  eternal 
SmanatiiHi,  the  necessity  of  which  he  endeavoura 
o  demonstrate  by  the  most  atringent  loan. 
iumon  aouls,  •mha»»  source  ta  the  Pure  Int^- 
gence,  are — by  soma  myaterious  fate — imprisoned 
Eete  in  periahable  bodies,  and  the  hj^er  aort  ara 
aver  striving  to  reaacend  to  their  origi^home.  So 
Plotinn%  when  in  the  agonies  of  death,  said  calmly 
to  hia  friends:  'J  am  atruggling  to  liberate  tha 
divinity  witiun  me.' 

The  most  distinguished  pupl  of  Plotinna  waa 
Porphyrins  (q.  v.),  who  mainly  devoted  himself  to 
expounding  and  qnalifying  the  philosophy  ri  bia 
master.    In   him  we  see,  for  t^e  first  tune,  the 

S«sanoe  of  a  distinctively  anti-Christian  tendency. 
eo-FlatoiUBm,  which  can  only  bo  propsriy  nndw- 
stood  vrtien  we  r^aid  it  aa  an  attempt  to  ^ao* 
Paganism  on  a  ^Mloso^hioal  bada— to  nujie  tlw 
Ot«ek  relinon  philoeoiduoal,  and  Gratk  phnosofAj 
religious— did  not  omsctdutly  set  out  as  the  antag- 
onist of  Ohristianity.  If  either  Ammuuna  Soocaa 
nor  Plotinna  assailed  the  new  faith ;  but  aa  tb« 
latter  continued  to  grow,  and  to  attract  many  cC 
the  most  powerful  mt«Ilecta  of  the  age  into  ita 
service,  this  latent  antipathy  beran  to  Uiew  itaeU. 
Porphyry  wrote  against  it ;  Iar3>lichaa  (q.  y.l,  tha 
most  noted  of  hla  papUs,  did  the  same,  llis  latter 
also  Introduced  a  theurglo  or  '  magioal '  element  into 
Keo-PIatonism,  teaching,  among  other  things,  that 
certain  mysteriona  pianice*  aiM  aymbols  exa-ciaed 
a  Eupem^ural  inflaenoa  ovsr  the  diviidtiee,  and 
made  them  grant  our  deairea.  Kb^^o  la  always 
popular,  and  it  ia  therefore  not  wondnfol  that 
lamblitiina  ahonld  luiTe  had  nnmerona  foQowaa. 
.iSdestus  snoceeded  to  bis  master's  chsjr,  and  appears 
to  have  hod  also  a  considerable  number  of  disoiplea. 
To  the  school  of  one  of  them  tile  Emperor  JtSiaa 
belonged,  whose  patronage  for  a  momeat  shed  a 
gleam  of  ajilendour  over  Keo-Platonism,  and  aeeowd 
promise  it  a  ntiivereal  victory.   After  a 


belongs  to  the  Sth  c,  a  man  irf  prodi^oos  leuninj^ 
and  of  an  enthnriastio  temperament,  in  whom  tiw 
pagan-religions,  and  consequently  anti-ChriatiaB, 
tendency  of  the  ITao-Platonio  philoeo|diy  onlminated 
His  ontology  was  baaed  on  uie  Triad  of  Plotinna, 
but  was  considerably  modified  in  detail ;  he  axaltad 
'  Faith '  above  '  Science '  as  a  mean*  of  reaching  the 
Absolnte  Unity ;  was  a  believer  in  Thenmy,  and  ao 
naturally  laid  ^^at  stress  npon  the  ancient  Cbal- 
dtean  oracles,  Orphio  hymns,  mysteries  ftc,  whitA 


„  Google- 


BEOZOIC— HEPHKITB. 


he  reguded  m  divine  WTwlrtinfm,  and  of  which  he 

ooittidered  hinuelf — u,  indeed,  ha  wu— the  lut 
great  '  interpreter.'  TTw  hootilitf  to  the  Ohriitian 
rehgion  m*  keen ;  in  its  mcceu  he  law  only 
the  trinniph  of  a  Ttilgai  popular  aopentition  over 
tha  t^ned  and  beaatifal  Uieoriea  of  pbiloeopby ; 
it  waa  ai  it  he  beheld  a  horde  of  baibuiana 
defacing  the  ttatneB  and  reoorda  of  the  Pantheon. 
The  ^aciplee  of  Pioolna  were  pret^  nnmeKHU,  bnt 
not  remarkable  (or  hi^  talent  Perhqis  the  ^leat 
of  hii  (nocenoi*  wa«  Damaadna,  in  whoee  time  the 
Emperor  Jutinian,  hj  an  arbitrary  decree,  doaed 
the  achool*  of  the  heathen  philoaophera.  '  Th« 
Tiotinui,'  Ban  Cooain  iOourt  SMUioirt  de  la  Pkilo- 
•opAw  Moaane),  'of  fierce  retaliation,  and  of  an 
obetiData  penecntion,  these  poor  Alexandrian!, 
after  having  Bought  an  a^lnm  in  their  dear  Eaat, 
at  the  conrt  of  Choeroea,  returned  to  Enrope  (033 
~.)t  were  diapened  over  tb«  face  of  the  ei^^  and 


Thebaia.'  Bee  Fiohte,  De  PUUMqikia  Sooa 
PUUonieot  Origwe  (BerL  1818) ;  Bouterwek,  PftO- 
oiopAonaA  Alexandrmontm  ae  Nea-PUiiomoorviai, 
Tteavio  mBauTaSor  (GHttL  1821);  Itattor,  Btai 
ffitlorigue  tur  tBaOt  aAkxmidne  (8  toIb.  Far. 
1820] ;  Simon,  Butoin  (Je  eEeoh  aAleetrndrie  & 
Tola.  Par.  ISU) ;  Baithfloiv  8t  Eilajn,  De  tBeok 
<PAlt»u»dTii  jFlir.  lS4fi);  Lewei^  Biomtphieai 
HMory  <tf  PhUotojAg  (lSIi7);  and  nebCTirBg'a 
Biiloiy  ^  PUioto^  (Tranalation,  Hodder  amd 
Btonghtoni  1872). 

NEOZOIC  <Gr.  new  life),  a  term  inttodaoed  t^ 
Edward  Forbe*  to  indnda  all  the  atrata  from  Uu 
Triaa  to  the  moat  recent  depoaitB.  They  are  gener- 
ally divided  into  the  two  creat  aronm  of  Seeonduj 
and  Tertiary  Bockf.  3%ia  tCvieion  \b,  however, 
quite  arbitrvy— the  diiot  point  tA  diSarence  depend- 
ing on  the  occurence  in  the  Tertiary  deponls  <rf 
Bpecies  sapposed  to  be  the  aame  a*  aome  atul  living. 
There  ia  no  paheontobgioal  nor  petnbwcal  break 
aimilar  to  that  which  exiata  between  the  Permian 
sndTriaa.  Forbea,aoooidingl7,mAgeBtedtlieabliter- 
ation  of  the  diviaion  between  the  Seoondaiy  and 
Tertiary  aeiio,  and  the  diviaioa  of  all  geologiaal 
time   into   two   epooha— the   Faheoxoio    and   the 


NETA  AXD  "SSPYDM.    See  Waixe-Soobpioh. 

KEPAU'L,  or  KIPAL,  an  independent  kingdom 
□f  Hindostan,  lying  on  the  aoutnem  slope  of  the 
HimaUraa,  is  bdanded  on  the  N.  by  Tibet,  on  the 
aand  W.  by  British  India,  and  on  the  E.  by  SikiBi, 
a  protected  state.  Long.  80°  15'— 88°  15'  B.  It  ia 
COO  milee  in  length,  by  about  100  miles  in  averafie 
bcaadth.  Area,  ^,000  sq.  in. ;  pop.  estimated  (1880) 
at  3,000,000.  The  kingdom  is  separated  from  the 
{■loins  in  India  by  the  long  narrow  atrip  of  land, 
resembling  an  T-lngliiiTi  down,  but  nnhealthy,  called 
tjie  Terai,  which  extends  along  the  whole  sonthera 
bOTder.  IforUi  of  this,  and  rtinning  parallel  with 
it,  ia  the  great  forest  of  N.,  from  6  to  10  miles 
broad.  North  of  thia  strip  ia  a  tract  of  hilly 
ooaot^,  and  above  that  are  two  tracts  of  greater 
elevatwm,  the  flnit  cf  which  may  be  called  monn- 
tainoua,  while  the  aecond  might  appropriately  be 
eallad  Alpine,  if  it  did  not  compnse  among  its 
monntaina,  peaks,  which,  like  Mount  Everest  and 
Dhawalagin,  attain  almost  twice  the  elevation  of 
Uont  Blanc  The  prinoipal  rivers  are  the  Kumalli, 
the  Gogra,  the  Rapti,  the  Qnnduk  with  its  tcibn- 
tarieB,and  theKoei.  The  climate,  most  unhealthy  in 
the  Terai,  ia  healthy  and  pleasant  in  the  hilly  and 
moontainouB  districts,  in^eating  that  ot  Southern 
Europe.  In  the  Koifey  o/3?. — the  district  surround- 
ing the  capital — the  he(^  ot  Bengal,  whioh  ia  felt  in 


the  hoUowB,  may  be  exchanged  for  thoooldcfStuma 

hv  ascending  the  alopes  of  tiie  hUla  which  encloae  it. 
T%9  soil  la  extremely  rich  and  fruitfuL  Barley, 
millet,  lice,  maize,  wheat,  cotton,  tobacco,  augar- 
cane,  pine-apple,  and  variooa  bopical  fruita  are 
coltdvated.  Qold  has  not  been  found,  but  iron  and 
copper  minca  are  worked.  The  inhabitants  oonsiat 
mamly  of  two  tribes — the  Ohutkaa,  whose  chief 
ooonpation  is  war,  and  the  Newars,  who  are  princi- 
pally artisans.  The  oapital  of  the  country  is 
Khatmaudu  (q.  v.), 

KEFEirTH^S,  the  only  known  genua  ot  a 
natnral  order  of  exogenous  plants  culed  Nmea- 
Uiacta,  oonaiating  of   herbaceous  or  halt-shrubby 


a  it  itweie  the  [oolongatian  of  the  midrib  ot  a  le 


Fildier  Plant  iStpaOtm  dMOiaioiiii^ 

and  terminating  in  a  pitcher  (oseUium],  from  whid) 
the  name  Pticbkb  Plini  has  been  very  generally 
Mven  to  the  apecies  of  this  oidet.  The  pitcher  fs 
terminated  by  a  hd,  which  is  r^nrded  as  the  tme 
blade  of  the  leaf.  The  fluid  fom^  in  these  pitchen 
is  a  secretion  ot  the  plant  itself.  Insects  often 
enter  the  pitcher,  and  ore  apparently  there  dis- 
solved and  absorbed  \  so  that  the  N.  would  rank 
amonf^  the  plants  called  '  Insectivorous '  by  Mr 
Darwm.  Pitcher  plants  {N.  diatiliatoria)  are  not 
uncommon  in  our  hotbouscB. 

HEPHKXIUM:    ScoLitchi. 

NE'PHBITE,  s   mineral  which   is   not  tmin- 

?[nently  oaQed  Jsde  (□.  v.),  and  of  whidi  Azestone 
q.T.)  is  vury  general^  considered  a  variety-  It 
ia  composed  (d .  silica,  moBneaia,  and  lime ;  ia 
compact,  with  a  coarse  siSintety  fracture,  very 
tenacious,  sometimea  transluoent,  greasy  to  Uls 
touch,  and  ot  a  green  or  greenish  oolour.  It  is 
found  in  granite,  gneiss,  greenstone,  ftc,  in  many 
parts  of  tlu  world.  Very  fine  specinuna  are  brought 
from  PeiBia,  Siberia,  and  China,  and  are  known  aa 
OriaOai  Jade.  The  kind  called  IndicM  Jade  ia 
olive  green,  and  strikes  fire  with  steed ;  that  from 
China  is  whitish,  and  does  not  strike  fire.  K.  ia 
used  tor  oraamenta.  The  Turks  make  it  into 
handles  tor  sabrea  tad  daggers.  Uony  imaginary 
virtues  were  once  ascribed  to  it,  sooh  aa  the  core  ot 
epileptic  fits  and  ot  nephritio  (Or,  MspArM,  kidney) 
complaints  :  hence  its  name. 

^ 


ITEPHRITIS  (Or.  nephroa,  Udnsf ),  influnina- 
tion  of  the  Blidiugn  (q.  v.). 

NEPOMUO.     See  John  ov  Nkpoude. 

KB'POS,  OoRKBLlUB,  a  Boman  hiatorian,  bom  in 
the  Itt  c  B.  0.,  but  the  place  and  pieciie  time  of  hia 
birth  am  nnknown.  He  w«s  the  friend  of  Cieero 
and  CatnUn*.  The  only  work  of  N.'a  which  has 
■nrvived  (if  indeed  it  be  his),  is  a  eeiiea  of  twenty- 
five  genraallf  brief  biographiea  of  warriors  and 
itateunen,  moatly  Qreeka.  These  biographiea  are 
di«tingni»hed  1^  the  parity  of  their  LBtmity,  the 
conoiaeneM  of  their  style,  imd  their  admirable 
exhibition  of  character,  but  ai^fficient  care  has  not 
been  eierciaed  in  the  examination  of  authorities,  nor 
ii  &o  relatire  importanoe  of  things  duly  regarded. 
Until  the  middle  of  the  ISth  &,  tbeie  bio^phiee,  on 
the  strength  of  the  titles  given  in  the  rarioua  MSS., 
were  generally  aocnbed  to  .^Imiliua  Probus,  a  writer 
who  Gved  in  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  c. ;  but  in 
1669,  an  edition  was  pat  oat  by  the  Eamoot  Diooy- 
aiu*  I^mbinna,  who  pronoonced  the  so-called  Liva 
of  ^Imilini  Probus  to  be  in  reahty  the  lost  work  of 
Comdioa  Nepot,  Dt  VirU  lUiutrUnu.  His  weigh- 
tiest argument  is  drawn  from  the  eicellenoe  of  Uie 
I^tin,  and  the  chastity  of  the  st^le,  ao  onlike  the 
ootmpt  and  florid  language  of  the  Decline.  Many 
critic*  hold  that  these  Lives  ou^t  to  be  regarded  as 
an  abbreviation  of  the  work  of  rf.  by  ProbmL  This 
hypotiuaia  ia  not  without  its  difSiniltieB,  but  it  is 
perhaps  the  least  objectioaable  of  any.  There  are 
many  edition*,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
thoae  of  Van  Staveren  (Leyd.  1773),  of  Tzschucke 
(Oott.  1801),  and  of  Bremi  (Zdt.  1820);  and  the 
Imok  is  in  general  nae  aa  a  sohool-book.  It  baa  been 
very  frequenUy  tnosUted  into  English  and  other 
language* 

HETTT7ITE,  an  andent  Italian  god.  It  is  doubt- 
fnl  whether  he  ma  <«iginaUy  a  manoe  deity  at  all. 


Neptnne. 


for  the  old  Italians  were  the  very  opposite  of  a  mari- 
time people,  yet  bis  name  ia  commonly  connected 
with  nato,  to  swim ;  hence  at  an  earlier  period  he  may 
have  borne  another  designatdoa,  afterwards  forgotten. 
When  the  Bomans  be«une  a  maritime  power,  and 
had  grown  acquainted  with  Grecian  mythology, 
they,  m  accordance  with  their  nsual  practico,  iden- 
tified him  with  the  Greek  god  whom  he  most 
resembled.  This  wsa  PoieidSn,  aUo  Foteidaa  (con- 
nected with  potot,  a  drink,  pontot,  the  sea,  and 
potamot,  •  river).  Poseidon  appears  in  his  moat 
primitire  mythological  form  a*  the  god  of  water  in 
general,  or  the  flmd  element.  He  was  the  son  ot 
Cronos  (Satnm)  and  Rhea,  and  a  brother  of  Jupiter. 
On  the  partition  of  the  onivene  amongst  the  sons 
of  Cionaa,  he  obttuned  the  sea  aa  his  potion,  in  the 
deptiia  of  whioh  he  had  his  palaoe  neai  Maa,  in 
EobcBMi  Here  also  he  kept  hu  brazen-hoofra  and 
golden-maned  steeds,  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  whioh 


he  rode  over  tlte  waves^  irtiiiih  grew  calm  at  faia 
approach,  while  the  monster*  of  the  deep,  reoo^ 

watery  path.  But  he  aometimss  presented  himself 
at  tlie  assembly  of  the  gods  on  Olympus,  and  in 
coDJonotion  viui  Apollo,  biiilt  the  walla  of  Troy.  In 
the  Trojan  war  he  sided  with  the  Greeks ;  nerer- 
theleas  he  aubaeqnently  shewed  hJTmnlf  inimiral  to 
the  great  sea-wanderer  Ulysses,  who  had  blinded 
hia  son  Polyj^emue.  He  was  also  believed  t» 
have  created  t^e  horae,  and  tangfat  men  its  nae. 
The  ^mbol  of  hia  power  was  a  trident,  with 
which  he  raised  and -stilled  stonna,  broke  rocks, 
Ac  According  to  Herodotus,  the  name  and  wonbip 
of  Poseidon  came  to  the  Greeks  dxim  Li^ra.  oi 
was  worshipped  in  all  part*  of  Greece  and  Soatheni 
Italy,  et^iecially  in  the  seaport  towni.  Tha 
latluDian  gamee  wera  held  in  his  honour-  Blacic 
and  white  bidla,  boars,  and  rama  were  offered  in 
sacrifice  to  him.  S.  was  commonly  rapeaented 
with  a  trident^  and  with  hoiaes  or  ijolphin*,  often 
along  with  Amphitrite,  in  a  chariot  drawn  by 
dolphins,  and  sorrounded  by  tritona  and  other 
sea-monsters.  As  befitted  the  flaotuating  element 
over  which  he  ruled,  he  ia  aometimea  figured  asleep 
or  reposing,  and  sometimes  in  a  state  of  violent 
agitation. 

NERBUDDAH,  •  river  of  Sndastan,  rise*  m 
the  Vindhya  Mountains,  at  a  height  of  from  3000  ta 
4000  feet  above  sea-level,  in  lat.  22*  M*  N..  Joaa. 
81°  5Sf  E.  It  flows  west,  part  Jabalpnr  (100  milea 
from  its  aonrce),  where  the  great  depraaaion  between 
the  Vindhya  Uountoina  on  tba  north  and  th«  S«t> 
pura  Monntains  on  the  south,  known  ss  the  VoD^ 
of  the  S^  begins.  The  other  principal  towns  <m  jto 
banks  ue  Hoshaogabad,  Burwoni,  and  BomdL  At 
Hoahangabad  it  is  900  yards  wide,  and  from  five  to 
six  feet  in  depth.  At  Bameh  it  begins  to  expand 
into  a  wide  estuary,  and  after  flowing  30  milea 
farther,  it  foils  into  the  Gulf  of  Combay.  Entire 
lenjjth  about  800  miles,  of  which  65  nules  are 
navigable  f«  ahips  of  considerable  size. 

NBBCHI1ISK,  an  important  mining  town  id 
Husaio,  Eastern  Siberia,  in  the  Tnuis-Bukal  Teni- 
tory,  on  the  Nercha,  a  tributaiy  of  the  ShiJka, 
in  fat  61°  E8'  N„  long.  116*  36'  £.,  4707  milea  from 
3t  Fetecsbnrg.  It  woa  foonded  in  1S5S,  and  had, 
in  1877,  3747  inhabitants.  The  district  of  which 
N.  is  the  centre  yields  a  good  deal  of  gcJd 
yearly,  together  with  large  quantities  of  auver, 
lead,  and  iron,  and  precious  stone*.  The  only  tin- 
mine*  in  the  empire  are  worked  here.  The  soU 
in  the  vicinity  is  fertile,  and  the  climate  niild  and 
agreeable. 

NEltEIS,  a  genus,  and  NERErD.£,  a  family  o{ 
Aruulida,  having  a  long  slender  body,  a  distinct 
head,  with  tentacles  and  eyes ;   the  whols   bo^ 


oovsred  with  tubercles,  and  the  ffUm  lobed  and 
tufted.  They  are  all  marine,  and  generally  hide 
under  rocks  or  in  the  aand.    Uiey  svim  aetivdy, 


J  Google 


Vy  npid  tad  nndnlBting  infleetaon*  of  tits  boAy,  aai 
br  Uie  aid  of  nnmeroni  oan  uroiiged  along  the 
■idea ;  each  fom«d  of  a  «tont  footstalk,  nnmetoiu 
brittloa,  aad  b  Step.  The  proboBoi*  is  thick,  atnnig, 
and  armed  with  two  jawE. 

IfEHEITES,  the  name  mven  to  animali  whioh 
have  left  their  impress  on  Uie  Silurian  Soaks,  and 
which  exhibit  a  form  ■imilBt  to  the  modem  Neteia. 
Thej  occur  on  the  «nrfac«  of  the  Ikminn  of  fine 
■bale^  OTer  which,  when  it  was  soft,  tha  cmature 
moved,  leaving  a  long  and  tortnons  trail,  which  il 
generally  found  to  terminate  in  a  more  defined 
repreaentation  pTodncod  apparently  by  the  bodv 
ftaell  ahhongh  even'  tnce  of  it  has  diMppeared. 
See  loHiiOLOOT,  fig.  2. 

NEBI,  PaiUF  DB,  •  saint  of  th«  Boman  Catholio 
Chnreh,  and  foDodM'  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Ooktorj  (q.  T.l,  was  bora  of  a  diibn^iahed  family 
in  fWeuoe,  Jnly  21, 1C16.  Hia  chuacter,  even  in 
boyhood,  foreahadowed  the  career  of  piety  and 
bmevolfflice  to  which  he  wm  destined,  and  he  waa 
commonly  known  ami^s  his  yonthful  conmanions 
by  the  name  of  '  good  Philip.'  On  tha  death  of  his 
parents,  he  was  adopted  by  a  very  wealthy  uncle, 
with  whom  he  lived  for  some  time  at  San  Gemumo, 
near  Monte  Casaino,  and  by  whom  ha  was  reoog- 
niaed  a*  his  destined  heir.  Bat  be  relinqnished  dl 
these  prospects,  for  a  life  of  piety  and  charity, 
and  having  oome  to  Borne  in  1534,  he  there  com- 
pleted hia  philosopMoal  and  theological  atndies,  and 
won  tlie  Mteem  and  reverence  of  all  by  his  extra- 
ordinarx  piei^,  and  hia  benevolence  and  activity  in 
•VBry  good  work  whether  of  oharity  of  of  reli^oik. 
Althoiuh  he  did  not  receive  priest's  orden  till  ICSl, 
he  haa  already  been  for  years  one  of  the  most 
earnest  and  devoted  in  all  tha  pious  works  of  Some 
tor  the  inatructioQ  of  the  poor,  the  eaia  of  the  nek, 
and  the  reclonmtioQ  of  the  vicious  ;  and  in  ISBO,  in 
nnisou  with  several  of  his  friends,  he  established  a 
oonfratenity  for  the  oare  of  poor  pilgrims  visitins 


many  of  the 
led  members  of  the  Boman  Catholio 
confraternity,  however,  is  chiefly 
nocewonjiy  as  having  been  the  germ  of  the  far 
more  oetebiated  Conqkbo&tiok  or  thb  Ooatort 
(q.  v.).  which  was  founded  by  St  Philip  in  concert 
with  his  friends  Baronius  and  Tarueio,  both  after- 
wards cardinals,  Sabriati,  and  some  ouien.  Beaidea 
the  general  objects  above  indicated,  and  the 
■piritnal  duties  designed  for  the  personal  sancti- 
ncation  <rf  the  meoibers,  the  main  object  of  this 
aModatJcn  «m  the  moraJ  instruction  and  religions 
tnuoiDK  of  the  joong  and  uneducated,  who  were 
asMmbled  in  chapels  or  oratorios,  for  prayer  and  for 
religious  and  monl  instruction.  As  a  further  means 
of  withdrawing  yoQth  from  dangerous  amusements, 
sacred  musical  entertainments  {thence  called  by  the 
name  of  oraiorio)  were  held  in  the  oratory,  at  first 
consistinK  solely  of  hymns,  but  afterwards  partaking 
of  the  nuure  of  sacred  operas  or  dramas,  except  that 
they  did  not  admit  the  scenic  or  dramatic  accom- 
paniments of  these  more  secular  compositions. 
Beligioni  and  literaty  lectures  also  formed  part  of 
his  plan,  and  it  was  in  the  lectures  originally  pre^ 
pared  for  the  Oratory  that,  at  the  instance  of  N.,  the 
gigantia  Church  Bulory  of  Baronios  hod  its  origin. 
Tat  personal  character  of  N.,  the  nnselfish  devoted- 
ness  of  his  hfe,  hie  unaffected  piety,  his  genuine 
lava  of  the  poor,  his  kindly  and  obeerful  dis^uition, 
•nd,  perhaps,  as  much  as  any  of  tha  rest,  a  certain 
quaint  humour,  and  a  tinge  of  what  may  almost  be 
called  drollery  which  pervaded  many  of  his  saying 
and  doings,  contributed  to  popularise  his  institute, 


and  to  engage  the  pnblio  favonr  for  himself  and  his 
fellow-labonrers.  He  himself  enjoy^  the  repnta- 
tton  of  saoctity  and  of  miracles  among  his  f^ow- 
religionists  almost  beyond  any  of  the  modem  saints ; 
and  he  may  still  be  described  as  emj^iatically  the 
popular  saint  of  the  Boman  people.  He  Uved  to  an 
extreme  age  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  all  his  faculties, 
and  in  the  active  discharKe  to  the  lost  of  all  tho 
charitable  duties  to  which  nls  life  had  been  devoted. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  80,  May  26,  lfi9G.  He  waa 
canonised  by  Gregory  XV.  in  1622.  His  only  lite- 
roiy  remuns  are  his  Zelieri  (8vo,  Padua,  1761) ;  ijie 
CoiutUtiHoTti  of  his  oongr^aldoa,  printed  in  1612; 
some  short  spiritual  trSitises,  and  a  few  sonnet* 
which  ore  printed  in  the  coUectioD  of  Rimt  OnetU. 

NE'BTDM.    See  OLUtroaB. 

KB'BO,  Boman  emperor  from  Si  A.11.  to  68  A-D., 
was  bom  at  Antiom,  on  the  coast  of  I^tinm,  15th 
December  37  A.11.,  and  waa  the  son  of  Cn.  Domitini 
Ahenobarbus  and  of  Agrippino,  the  daiubter  of 
Germanicus  CEesar,  and  sister  of  Cal^u£k  Hia 
mother  becoming  the  wife  of  the  Emperor  Claudius, 
Claudius  adopted  bjm  {50  A.D.),  aod  his  namei  origi- 
nally Lt  Domitins  Ahenobarbus,  waa  changed  to 
Kero  Claudius  Cieear  Drusns  Germanicns.  After 
the  death  of  Claudius  (M  A.V.),  the  Pnetorian 
Guards,  at  the  instigatioD  of  Afranius  Borrbus,  their 
prefect,  declared  him  emperor,  instead  of  Claudius's 
■on  firitannicns,  and  their  choioe  was  acknowledged 
both  by  the  smiBte  and  tha  province!.  Eii  reign 
began  with  the  Mmblonce  at  moderatjon  and  good 
promise,  nnder  the  gnidanae  of  BnrrfiuB  ana  hia 
tutor  Seneca  the  pbUotopher;  bat  the  balefol  infla- 
ence  of  his  mother,  ti^ether  with  his  own  moral 
weakness  and  sensuality,  friistrat«d  their  efforts,  and 
be  soon  plunged  headlnw  into  debauchery,  extrava- 
gance, and  tyranny.  He  caused  Britamiicns,  the 
■(m  of  Clandins,  to  be  treaoheronaly  pdsoned  at  the 
age  of  14,  becanse  he  dreaded  him  »•  »  rival,  and 
merward*  (G9  jlv.)  caused  his  own  mother  Agrip- 
pina  (with  whom  he  was  lotteriy  on  bad  terms)  to 
be  B  wsisinsted,  to  pleaae  his  miitess  Pi^pwa  Sabina 
(the  wife  of  hia  principal  boon-oomponion  Otho, 
afterwards  emperor),  in  order  to  marry  whom  ha 
also  divorced  and  afterwards  put  to  death  hia  wife 
Octavia  (aged  20),  the  sister  of  Britannicoa.  The 
low  sm^ility  into  which  the  Boman  senate  had  sunk 
at  this  tine,  may  be  estimated  from  the  fact  that  it 
actually  issued  an  address  congratulating  the  hateful 
matricide  on  the  death  of  Agrippina.  N.  himmlf, 
on  the  other  hand,  confesswl  tiiat  be  was'  ever 
haunted  by  the  ghost  of  his  murdered  mother.  Ths 
affairs  of  the  empire  were  at  this  time  far  from 
tronquiL  In  61  a.i>.,  an  insurrection  broke  out  in 
Britain  under  Queen  Boadicea,  which  was,  however, 
suppressed  by  Suetonius  Paulinas.  The  following 
year  saw  an  unsuccessful  war  against  the  Farthiana 
m  Armenia.  At  home,  matters  ware  not  much 
better.  The  emperor  was  lampooned  in  raise  ; 
tha  senate  and  priesthood,  alike  vensl,  were  also 
satirised  by  audacious  malcontentB;  Burrhus,  a 
vahiable  fnend,  died ;  and  even  Seneca,  though  not 
a  great  moralist,  ont  of  hia  books,  thought  it  only 
decent  to  remove  from  court  In  July  64,  occurred 
a  great  oonflagratiou  in  Bome,  by  which  two-thirds 
of  the  ci^  were  reduced  to  ashes.  N.  himself  is 
usually  beueved  to  have  been  the  incendiary.  It  is 
said  that  he  admired  the  spectacle  from  a  distance, 
reciting  verses  abont  the  bumiog  of  Troy,  but  many 
scholars  are  doubtful  whether  ne  really  had  any 
hand  in  it.  At  all  eventa  be  laid  the  blame  on  the 
Christians— that  mytterions  sect,  who,  like  the 
Jews  in  the  middle  ages,  were  the  cause  of  all 
otherwise  inexplicable  calamities,  and  persecuted 
them  with  great  fnry.     Moreover,  he  nbnilt  tlie  i 

^-"«3g' 


HEKVA— HEfiTOUS  SYS1XU. 


dty  with  great  nu^uficeuce,  tod  nared  for  Umalf 
on  the  PalittinG  H[0  &  ■plewlid  palace,  called,  trom 
the  imineDge  profuaicm  of  ha  gomcn  omament^  tiie 
Auna  Domvs,  or  Golden  House;  and  in  order  to 
provide  for  this  eipenditme,  and  for  the  gntifieation 
of  the  Roman  populace  by  spectacle*  and  distribn- 
tions  of  com,  Italy  and  the  provinces  were  nnspar- 
iugly  plundered.  A  oonspiraCT  against  him  faJed 
iu  the  ;ear  65,  and  Seoeca  and  the  poet  Lncan  fell 
tictiiDS  to  his  TenecAnca.  In  a  fit  of  passion  he 
murdered  hia  wife  Foppffia,  by  kicking  her  when  she 
was  pregnatiL  He  then  proposed  to  Antonis,  the 
daaghter  of  Claadius,  but  was  refused,  wherenpon 
he  caused  the  too  fastidious  lady  to  be  pnt  to  death, 
and  married  Statilia  Messallina,  after  killing  her 
husband.  He  also  exacntsd  or  banish«d  many  peiv 
sons  highly  distingiusbed  fix  iobsaity  and  Tiitne. 
Bis  vamty  led  him  to  seek  distin^ou  as  a  poet,  a 
pbilosopaer,  an  actor,  a  muMdan,  and  a  chanoteer, 
and  he  reouved  aycophantio  applause*,  not  only  in 
Italy,  but  in  Greece,  to  whio^  upon  inritatjon  of 
the  Greek  dtiee,  he  made  a  visit  iji  67.  But  in  6S, 
the  Gallio  and  Spanish  legions,  and  after  them  the 
Pnetorian  Guards,  rose  against  him  to  make  Oalba 
emperor,  and  N.  fied  from  Bome  to  the  house  of  a 
freedman,  Phaon,  about  foni  miles  distant  The 
senate,  which  hod  hitherto  been  most  subservient, 
decUred  him  an  enemy  of  his  ooontrv,  and  the 
tvrant  ended  his  life  by  suicide,  11th  June  68. 
One  is  sorry  to  learn  tt^t  such  a  wretch  had  a 
taste  for  poetry,  and  was  skilled  in  painting  and 
modelling. 

HE/BTA,  H.CociCBnn,»BfniM&  anparor,  elected 
1^  the  lenate  after  the  mnrder  of  Domildaii,  IStli 
B«ptenber  90.  Ha  wa*  bom  32  A.D.,  of  a  nmily 
belonging  to  Haniia,  in  ITmbria,  and  twice  held  tlie 
boikonr  at  oonmlship  befors  his  eleotioii  to  tiw 
dignify  of  emperor.  He  displaced  great  wisdom  tnA 
moderation,  rectified  the  ummistmtion  of  instdcc^ 
and  dimimihed  the  taxes ;  Intt  fim^mg  himseu,  upon 
aooonnt  of  his  advanced  tga,  not  visoiona  enoosh 
to  rejness  the  insolence  of  tbt  Pn&nian  Onar& 
he  adi^ted  U.  Vhimt  Trajamu,  then  at  the  head 
of  the  army  of  Germany,  who  succeeded  him  on 
laa  deatji,  27th  January  96.  After  his  flnfiiWi, 
he  obtained  an  ^otbeosii. 

NERV0178  STSTEM,  Tot,  is  oomposed  in  all 
Tcrtebrated  mim^Tn  of  two  distinct  portions  or 
systems— *i&,  tlie  csretro-ipiRat  and  tjfatpaihdie 
m  gangiiimie. 

The  ter^inh^nat  tysUm  incIndEs  tlie  brain  and 

Sinai  oord  (which  form  the  cerAro-tpindl  axis),  and 
e  orauial  and  qiinal  nerves.  It  was  termed  by 
Kchat  the  nervous  system  of  animal  life,  and 
comprise*  all  the  nervous  organs  oonoemed  in 
sensation,  volition,  and  mental  action. 

The  ^/mpaihftie  lyitem  consists  essentially  of 
a  chain  of  ganglia  connected  by  nervous  cords, 
extending  from  the  cranium  to  the  pelvis,  aloi^ 
each  side  of  the  vertebral  column,  and  from  whii^ 
nerve*  with  large  gsuglionio  msese*  prooeed  to  the 
viscen  and  blood-venels  in  the  cavitie*  d  the 
chest,  abdomm,  and  pelvia.  It  was  termed  by 
Bkhat  the  Dervona  nvtem  of  organic  lifcv  nnce  it 
seems  to  regulate — almost  or  quite  independently 
of  the  will — the  dne  performanoe  of  the  functions  <^ 
the  organs  of  reparation,  circulation,  and  digestion. 

The  e«aentisl  ftttt  of  the  eerAr<htpiaal  axU  are 
described  in  the  aridcles  Bbadt,  Cerebbdh  and 
CsBEBELLm,  and  Spinal  Cokd.  The  brun  and 
spinal  cord  are  covered  and  protected  by  three 
membranes  or  meTiinget,  as  they  are  fK^neotly 
tamed — viz.,  the  dura  tnaier,  the  tmuJmoxd,  and 
the  pia  mater.  The  dura  mater  is  a  strong  fibrous 
membrane,  which  supplies  tlie  cranial  bone*  with 


blood  in  eariy  life,  and  adhsrse  finnly  to  their  inner 
■urfaeci  It  is  kesdoady  attached  to  the  bon^  wall* 
of  the  s^nal  ^*»**l  liuide  the  enidnm  it  give*  off 
proooBSc*  (sQcb  as  tiie  fdto  c^f6i^  ftntoHuns 
Koifidx  eerefoUt)  whioh  divide  and  anp 
parts  of  tlieln«inj  it  |jtM  »  rtMiwI 
to  evmynerve^  and  1^ splittdns  into 
eerladn  ptunta,  it  ftmi*  reoqitacle*  for  venov*  Uood, 
which  an  t«nued  Sixhsb  (q.  v.).  The  aradmoid 
(so  called  from  its  kong  supposed  to  be  as  thin  •■ 
a  spider**  web)  is  a  ewous  memlvane,  and,  tik* 
all  serous  meujirane*,  is  a  elosed  sac,  connsting  of 
a  parietal  and  a  visc^sl  layer.  The  parietal  layer 
adheres  to  the  inner  surface  cd  the  dura  mater,  to 
which  it  gives  a  smooth,  polished  t^pearanoe  ]  wldl* 
the  visceral  layer  somewhat  loosely  mvesta  the  brsin 
and  Birinal  cmd,  from  direct  oomtaot  with  which, 
however,  it  is  separated  by  the  iiit«vetttien  of  Um 
pitt  mater  and  some  loose  BMolar  tissue.  In  nunt 
tegicai*  then  i*  sa  Inteml  between  the  visceral 
layer  of  the  araAnotd  and  the  pia  mater,  which  li 
called  the  nib-araAno(d  taeUf,  and  is  filled  doriiu 
life  by  the  etrebro-miiluU  JIM.  lUs  fluid,  wUeS 
varies  in  qnantify  from  two  to  ten  ounee*,  kMf* 
UiB  opposed  surface*  of  the  araohnoid  in  do** 
oontact,  and  aflbida  mechanical  proteetien  to  tbe 
nervous  centre*  iriuoh  it  aoironnds,  and  guard* 
Uiem  against  external  sho<&*.  It  is  accumulated  in 
considerable  qnantify  at  the  base  of  tlie  brain,  wluia 
it  serve*  tor  tlie  protection  of  the  large  vessA  and 
nerves  ntoated  there.  In  fracture  ot  tbe  htao  of 
the  skuU,  the  draining  away  of  tins  fluid,  often  fn 


i  is  pndottged 
*  MMrpMiCMn 


vary  lai^  aiiantJfy,^nron^  tjie  external  snditoTy 
meatus,  1*  often  one  of  tlie  meet  significant  symptmUL 
It  is  '.donbtless  secreted  hy  the  pia  mattr,  vrtiieh  is 
the  immediate  investing  membiuie  of  the  hrtSa  and 
e^nal  cord.  Hiis  membrane  oonsirti  of  minote 
blood-vessels,  held  together  by  an  exbemely  fine 
areolar  tissue.  It  dip*  down  between  tike 
hitioDa  and  fissuita  m  the  brun,  and  is 
into  the  interior,  forming  tiie  velum  m  . 
and  the  ckvoid^eiases  <n  the  fourth  renttide.  . 
is  by  means  of  iOs  membrane  tiiat  the  blood-veanii 
are  conveyed  into  the  nervous  substance. 

We  now  proceed  to  notice  tile  nerves  connerted 
with  the  oerebro-spinal  centre  or  aiu  Theae  ate 
nsoally  deeoribed  in  two  cU»ea— tite  spinat  and  tbe 
cranioj  or  emxphalie.  The  former  das*  conaistB 
of  all  those  which  arise  from  the  stnnal  cord.  Bad 
emerge  from  the  spinal  canal  through  the  inters 
vertebral  foramina;  while  the  latter  indades  Vtmaa 


The^nnaI.y(rti9i(Bidusiveof  thespind  ..., 

nerve,  which,  from  IJie  fact  that  it  emerges  from  tM 
skuU,  is  usually  ranked  among  tiie  crmial  nerre«) 
are  thirty-one  on  either  side,  there  being  a  pair 
tor  each  _paJT  ot  intervertebral  foramina  (whose 
formation  is  described  in  the  aridde*  Seeletoit  and 
Spinai,  CoLtniH'),  and  for  Uie  foramina  botweu 
the  atlas  (the  first  or  highest  vertebra)  and  tlte  ocd- 
ptd  bone  at  the  base  of  the  sknlL  Bveit  spind 
nerve  arises  frran  the  cord  by  two  roots;  an  anterior 
and  a  posterior,  of  which  the  latter  is  distinctly  the 
larger.  Each  root  passe*  out  of  th*  spinal  cand 
by  a  distinct  opening  in  the  dura  mata".  Imme- 
diately after  its  emergence,  a  gang^on  is  eeeu  on 
the  posterior  root,  and  m  the  anterior  snrEsca  of  Uiis 
ganglion  the  anterior  root  lies  imbedded.  Jnrt 
beyond  the  ganglion,  but  not  at  all  previondy,  the 


separates  immediately  after  it  has  passed  through 
the  intervertebral  cand  into  two  dividons— tts 
anterior   and  posterior — tmik  of  irtdch  'yHrtrriii* 


NEET0U8  SYSTEM. 


filunenta  from  bath  roofs,  and  poBseflnng,  m  will  be 


Fig.  L— Boot*  ol  a  botmX  SfAaC  Nena,  and  ito  oni 
-with  the  Sr^P'^BtiB : 

«,  e,  mterln  ttm*  of  tl»  iplail  nrd ;  a,  uiterlBi  root ; 
pMtirlai  met  «l(h  Ita  fiagUiin;  a',  interior  dlTliko  — 
DTflDcta;  f^.  posterior  bnooh;  t,  iTmpAthptla;  t,  lu  doabl* 
jDDOtlDn  with  tb«  uiMliOT  bnncb  of  tlu  iptnal  ocrre  b*  ■ 
vUta  uA  ■  gnj  filimBnt,  ths  rcspudTS  nitarta  of  wUota 
m  abHqaaill;  ilM(iribBd.~Fioni  Todd  and  Bowmui. 

distiibiited  fa>  the  ikin  and  the  miuclea.  Thi 
anterior  bnnoh  commimicabBt  with  the  Hympathetit 
nems  «•  ii  shewn  in  the  fignra.  The  mode  of 
ODnnection  of  the  Toota  of  Vie  nerves  with  the 
coid  i*  Doticad  in  the  article  Sfhiai.  Cokd.  Tbtae 
nerrea  ai«  amtnged  in  claMee,  aooording  to  the 
region*  of  the  nnne  in  which  they  originate  —' 
we  tbu  gpetk  of  eight  oervical,  twelve  dorsa^ 
lumbar,  and  nx  Mwral  nervea  on  either  side. 

The  diieoveiy  ot  the  separate  fonctioiw  of  the 
ButeriM  and  posterior  roots  of  the  ipinal  nwres, 
which  has  been  ohsnoteiiaed  •*  the  first  inqiwtant 
step  towards  >  right  uidEntMidinffof  Out  ftymik>gy 
of  the  nervow  nitem,  «u  made  by  onr  disbn- 


ibs^rad 


similsT  oondosou  at  nearly 

originsl  experiments  oonsisted  in  laying  open 

X'nol  oanal  in  rabbits,  and  irritating  or  dini 
I  roots  of  de  spinal  nerres.  It  was  obsei 
that  irritation  of  the  anterior  roots  caused  nnuonlar 
moTcment,  and  thftt  the  posterior  roots  mi{^t  be 
irritated  without  siring  rise  to  any musonlar  action; 
.e  posterior  roots  did  not  impair 
" '--     "noe  it 

(or  conveyed  motivo  power  to  tnnsdes),  and  tiie 
posterior  roots  not  mat(»' ;  but  it  was  not  fnlly 
detennined  what  degree  of  sensibility  remained  in 
parts  supplied  from  tha  divided  roots.  Knmerooa 
pbvaiologists  arrived  at  similar  results  to  those  of 
Bell ;  but  the  most  eonclnsive  e]q>eriments  are 
those  of  MlUler,  iriio  operated  cm  frogt,  in  which, 
from  the  great  width  of  the  lower  part  of  the  sirinal 
canal,  the  roots  of  the  oravea  can  be  exposed  with 
crest  facility.  In  theM  ezptrimecits,  it  was  fonnd 
uiat  irritation  of  the  anterior  root  always  excited 
musctUar  contractioD,  while  no  such  effect  ftdlowed 
posterior  root ;  that  section  of  the 
wed  pwalysis  (or  loss  of  power)  of 


anterior  root  oaniied 


motion,  while  section  of  tlie  posterior  root  oansed 
pualysis  of  sensation ;  aoi  that  when  the  anterior 
roots  of  the  nerves  going  to  the  lower  extremity 
were  cat  on  one  side,  ana  the  posterior  roots  on  the 
other,  voluntary  power  without  sensation  remained 
in  the  latter,  and  sensation  without  voluntary 
motion  in  the  former.  The  obvious  conoluaian  to  be 
derived  from  these  experiments  is,  that  the  anterior 
root  of-each  qdnal  nerve  is  nwtor,  and  tbe  posterior 
lauitiue.  (Li  plaoe  of  tiie  terms  tmtUive  and  motor, 
tlie  tmns  e^eraa  and  ^erait  are  now  frequently 
used.  ThefODotionBofthenervesbnngtoeatBblisha 
conununioation  between  the  nervous  centres  and  the 
various  parte  of  the  body,  and  ctm  ferri;  an  i^ertnt 
nerve  commtmicates  the  imprereions  nude  upon  the 
peripheral  nervous  ramificatiana  to  the  centres, 
while  an  ^atnt  nerve  conducts  the  impulses  of  the 
nervous  centres  to  the  peripheTV.) 

The  CVanW  Nervtt,  although  twelve  in  number 
on   either   side,  were   arranged  by  Willis  (CSw«W 

1664),  whose  system  is  still  Kenerally  adopted,  in 
■       '      I  Defoie  Di  '^       '"  "'" 


L  wM^  taken  from  n 


ackwards  ii 


liiikB  p«uih  WUUiUJ,  wu&vii  uuiu   iKivn    i.jau»niu\La   lu 

tbe  (nder  iDiriuaii  they  are  Uansmitted  throusjt  tlie 
foRunina  at  the  base  of  the  ekull,  stand  as  foOows: 
1st,  Olfactory;  2d,  Optic:  3d,  Motores  Ocnlorum; 
4tti,  Pathetic;  fith.  Trifacial;  6th,  Abdncentea; 
7tb,  Portia  Dura  or  Facial,  Portio  Mollis  or  Audi* 
tory ;  6th,  Olosaopharyngeal,  Par  Vagum  or  Pnen- 
m^astric.  Spinal  Accessory ;  Oth,  HypoglossaL 

■flley  may  be  subdivided  into  three  groups, 
according  to  their  functioni — viz.  Nenrt  ofSpeaid 
Senm-the  Olfactory  (see  Nose),  O^ttio  (see  Evx), 
and  Auditory  (q. v.);  Nena  of  MoUoii,  ar  Efereni 
Nena — the  Mototes  Oculomin,  Pathetio,  Abdu- 
cente^  Fadal,  and  Hypoglossal ;  and  Compoatid 
NervM—Vbe  Trifacial,  GlasBophatyngeal,  Pneumo- 
gastrio,  and  Spinal  Accessory. 

The  reason  why  no  nerve  of  Taste  is  included  in 
the  above  arrangement  amongst  the  nerves  of 
■pedal  sense  will  b«  subsequently  seen ;  and  we 
pt«oeed  briefly  to  notdoe  the  mictions  of  the  motor 

The  3d,  tih,  and  fith  pain— the  Molortt  Oadontm, 
PaHiMo,  and  AbcbtemUt — together  make  up  the 
i^ipantns  by  whiidi  the  musdes  of  the  orbit  (the 
four  Becti,  the  superior  and  inferior  Oblique,  and 
the  Levator  Palpebra)  are  called  into  motion,  and 
are  sofficiMitly  noticed  in  the  article  Eie. 

The  Fadal  Nanx,  or  ths  Portio  Dura  of  the  7th 
pair,  is  divisible  into  three  st^ea.  The  first  stage 
IB  tiie  interdauial,  from  its  on^n  to  its  exit  from 
the  crsoial  cavity,  in  association  with  the  PorUo 
JfoSis,  or  Atidilory  Nerve  (q.  v.),  at  the  internal 
auditoiy  meatus.  The  second  stage  is  contained 
in  the  Aq\i^act  of  FaMopiiu,  a  bony  canal  lying  in 
tiie  petrous  ptwtion  of  the  temporal  bone^  In  this 
stage  it  anastomisee  with  other  nerves,  and  thus 
aaaory  fibres  are  introduced  into  it  from  the  6th 
pur  ud  other  sources,  which  make  irritation  of 
soma  of  its  hramohes  to  cause  pain.  The  third 
st^B  commuioea  with  the  emergence  of  the 
nerve  tiirough  the  s^lo  -  mastoid  ^ramen.  _  The 
nerve  now  lies  in  the  parotid  gland  (which  is  not 
shewn  in  the  figure],  and  after  giving  off  the 
poderioT  auricimr,  and  a  few  snuller  brancheiL 
finally  divides  into  the  temporal,  faeial,  and  eertfi«al 
branches  (see  3,  6,  and  9  in  fig.  2).  This 
divereing  distribution  of  ths  nervous  branches  over 
tiie  UM  forms  the  pet  arueria'at  <A  the  older 
anatomista,  fiom  tiie  supposed  resemblance  to  the 
expanded  foot  of  a  goose.  Careful  dissection  of 
this  nerve  ^wi  that  the  great  majority  of  its 
fibies  an  distributed  to  musdos ;  and  indeed,  if  we 
exoept  the  muscles  of  masticaaon^  which  receive 
tiiMr  motor  powsr  from  the  3d  division  of  the  fith 


uCdogl( 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


hj   tha    f»CUj    UBTTS 


1  motor 
le  mnicleB  whic^  ure  mpplied 
e  ohieSjr  thoM  upon  whiob 


I,  ths  fi 


•  ban  Uh  njln-niutold 


(IS» 


frontal  bnottica  of  the  flflL _._  _,  _.  

orhUal  kniutaM,  eomnmnleiUnc  niOt  (t)  Um  Inm-orMul 
tnntikM  of  tha  nnh  nerrsi  r,  muilUrr  bruohn  eommiml- 
■atlnf  with  (SI  Um  maotil  Imnoh  of  thi  fltlh  nnTo;  S, 
MTtleo-tMttl  bnnibH;  U,  lb*  apliii]  umhocx  nerre 
ftTln^offabnooh  to  tlH  tnpuiiu  mniala. 

ths  upoot  ol  tba  oonnteiiMice  and  the  balanoe  of 
Um  featDTM  depmd.  Hie  power  of  closing  the 
ejdidi  dependa  upon  thi>  nerve,  as  it  alone  mppliea 
tn«  orbicularis  julpebramm ;  and  likewisa  tltat  of 
frowning  fram  ita  inflaenoe  upon  the  cotnigator 
■apeidlS  Anatotnj  iiidicat«  tiiat  tliia  nerve  ia 
the  motor  nerve  of  the  mperficial  muBclea  of  the 
face  and  ear,  and  of  the  deep-aaated  mniclea  within 
the  ear.  This  conclumon  i«  abnndanti;  confirmed 
by  comparative  anatomy.  For  wherever  the  anper- 
ficial  oHWclea  of  the  face  are  well  developed,  and 
the  plaj  «f  the  featorea  ia  active,  this  nerve  ia  large. 
Id  mookm  it  ia  eapeciaUr  ao.  That  extremely 
mobib  inatmment,  the  elephant's  trnnk,  ia  provided 
with  a  large  bnadt  <^  the  facial  aa  its  motor  nerve. 
In  birda,  on  the  other  hand,  it  ia  very  amalL' — Todd 
•nd  Bowman,  Phyndogieal  A  ruUomy  attd  Phyiiotogy 
<l/'Jf(Ui,voLiip.  107. 

Before  Sir  Cnirlea  Bell  oommenosd  hii  eiperi- 
menta  on  the  fanddonl  of  the  nerves,  it  was  believed 
that  the  facial  was  the  nerve  of  sensibiUty  of  the 
face,  and  it  was  on  several  occasion*  divided  with 
the  view  of  relieving  tio  donlonreux,  of  which  it  was 
anppoaed  to  be  the  seat.  Bat  the  operation,  of 
conne,  yielded  no  relief,  and  always  inflicted  a 
permanent  injury,  nooe  it  wsa  succeeded  by  paralysis 
of  the  facial  muaclea,  with  total  loss  of  contxol  over 
the  featnrea  and  over  the  cloaing  of  the  eye,  on  the 
aide  on  which  the  operation  was  performed. 

The  treatntent  of  facial  pal^  which  is  often, 
eapecially  if  it  arises  from  cold,  a  veiy  temporary 
affection,  althaQsh  nmally  a  very  alarmiiu  one  to 
tiie  patient  and  hia  friuids,  ia  deaoribed  in  1^ 
article  Pabaltsis. 

The  Hypogloital  Nerve  (derived  from  the  Greek 
words  hypo,  under,  and  gloUa,  the  tongue)  eecapes 


the  pharynx  to  the  interior  aorfaoe  of  t1 
whrae  it  breaka  op  into  ita  terminal 
which  supply  the  mnaonlar  atraotare  of  ' 
with  motor  power.  Iliia  nerve  oomm — 
the  pneumogaatrio  nerve,  with  the 
(by  blanches  derived  inm  the  anpi 
guidon),  and  wiUi  the  oerviod  plexus, 
its  emeigenoe  from  the  craniom ;  and  ant 
•a  it  onrvea  round  the  occipital  artery  [i 


e  tODsne, 
brancnes. 


aftw 
ibaegnentl;, 
lee  %  3),  it 


Fljt  3.— This  flgnn  fllnsttatea  the  Anafamv  of  the  Sd* 
of  the  Me«k,  sad  shews,  iiiUr  aiia,  the  Nerves  goinf 
to  the  Tongne ! 

1,  poTtSob  of  tompont  boB^  ihtwinff  tin  sztamil  mdlCoiT 
Dwatstuid  mMtaM  sad  itjlold  procesH* ;  B,  the  toBtna;  13^ 
the  commoii  anUd  ■rtar ;  U,  iba  intanial  japiUr  vela  ; 
U  BBd  IS,  Um  euarnsl  sod  InMtnal  MnlMs;  IT,  tba  (Ban- 
toTj  bnibah  of  tha  flfUi  DflTT* ;  10,  th*  floaBopharTB^BBl  Dam ; 
n,  Um  hnioglosnil  iMrT*:  3»,  tbs  dasiinilleiia  nool ;  1^  i 
tba  pneiirnoffBBtrle  barre,  Ijlnff  batweea  Uie  carotid  artcfj  I 
BBdlhajDentirTtlD;  U,UMtuUln*m. 

gives  off  the  long  anastomosing  branch  known  aa  , 


the  motor  nerve  of  the  tonnie^    Ib 
'er<S  artica- 

M'  .  '  ,      . 

often  one  in  the  first  sympbans  which  lead 
the  phyaician  to  qiprehend  senons  coebral  lesion. 

We  now  proceed  to  th«  consideration  ci  ths 
Compound  Nrrvet,  beginning  with  the  Trifa/tiat  or 
F\flk  Nerve.  This  nerv^  aa  was  flret  pointed  out 
by  Sir  Charles  Bell,  preeenta  a  remaAable  reaem- 
blance  to  the  apinal  nerves  in  its  mode  of  origin  ; 
for  it  arises  b^  two  roots,  one  large  and  the  other 
Small,  and  on  its  larger  root,  aa  on  the  posterior  and 
larger  root  of  the  spinal  nerves,  ia  a  distinct 
ganglion ;  the  two  roota  being  qoite  distinct  until 
after  the  formation  of  the  ganglion,  when  the  loa^ 
—  -  coalesces  with  the  lowest  branch,  which 


from  the  ganglion  to  form  the  inferior  mazillarj 
nerve.  This  eanglion,  which  is  known  as  tAS 
Gasserian  Gannon,  and  which  is  formed  opon  the 


larger  root  of  the  nerve,  lies  upon  the  oppn 
snriaoe  of  the  petrous  portion  of  the  temporal  bcsii^ 
and  is  of  a  somewhat  triangnlsi  form,  with  its  base 
directed  forwards  and  outwards,  f^mn  this  baas 
there  proceed  three  nervea— vii.  the  ophthalmio^ 
on  the  inside ;  the  inperior  maxilluy,  in  tn^  middle ; 
uid  the  inferior  maxillary,  externally.  The  firat 
two  of  these  nerves  consist  exdnaively  of  fibrsa 


NZSTOtJS  9T8TEU. 


from  the  gaoglionlo  n>ot,  while  tiie  thiid— the 
inferior  maxillMT— U  compoead  of  fibre*  from  both 
roota,  imd  ic  therefore  »  compoaad  nerve.  From  the 
mode  of  diatribntion,  u  well  aa  from  that  of  origin, 
it  ia  inferred  that  the  ophthalmio  and  anpeiior  maxil- 
la^ are  pvrely  eenaoiy,  while  the  infenor  maxillary 
ie  a  motor  ud  sensiMy  nerve.  {We  have  not 
inaoted  a  ipedal  figure  of  thii  comjidicated  nerve ; 
fhe  frontal  DrvtA  of  the  ophthalmio  diviaion  ia, 
howerer,  ahewn  in  No>  4,  fig.  2,  while  the  infi^- 
orbital  bnoobea  of  the  anparior  masiUaiy  diviEion, 
and  the  mental  branches  of  the  inferior  maxillary' 
division,  are  ahewn  in  Nos.  6  and  8^  of  the  aame 
figure ;  while  the  gnstatory  or  lingnal  branch  of 
the  last-named  divinon  ia  abewn  in  Ha  17,  fig.  3. 
The  naaal  branohea  also  ahewn  in  one  of  tiie  diagrams 
illnstrating  the  article  Noac)  Experiments  on 
Uving  »ni inula  oonfirm  the  infei^ice  that  have  been 
drawn  on  knatonuMl  gronndb  Diviaion  of  the 
ophthalroio  or  of  the  Eaperior  maxillary  nerve, 
indoesa  loss  of  sensibility  without  any  lerions  im- 
paiiment  of  mnscnlar  power ;  bnt  when  the  inferior 
maxjllaiy  nerve,  on  either  nde,  ia  divided,  the 
poww  of  maeticntion  ia  destai^Bd  on  Uiat  nde,  and 
the  sensibility  of  the  tongne  and  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  face  on  that  side  ia  lost. 

The  lingnal  or  gnatatory  branch  of  tha  inferior 
maxilluT  ia  distnbnted  to  the  mncona  membrane 
and  papUlra  at  the  fore  part  and  aidea  of  the  tongne, 
where  it  a«ta  both  aa  a  nerve  of  common  aentibtlity 
and  of  taate.  (The  ocmsideTation  of  Uie  respeotiva 
parts  whioh  this  nerve  and  the  glcesophaiyngeal 

{lay  in  the  aenae  <rf  taate,  ia  «onnder«d  in  the  articles 
'OHOtiB  and  Skhbb  or  TAan.) 
The  trifacial  nerve  ia  the  seat  of  the  affection 
known  as  tic-donlotu'eax,  and  deacribed  in  the  article 
NecBAUitk.  It  ia  in  the  dental  btanebea  of  this 
nerve  that  toothache  ia  aitnated ;  and  in  the  proceae 
of  teething  in  yonng  children,  the  irritation  of  these 
branches,  conaeqaent  npon  tiie  preasnra  of  the  teeth, 
often  gives  liae  to  convnlsiona,  by  being  conveyed 
to  the  siedoUa  oblongata,  and  exciting  motor  nerval 
by  reflex  action. 

The  aioaaopiiaryngtdl  Nerve  is  principally  an 
afferent  or  aensoiy  nerve,  bnt  has  a  small  motor 
root  It  eacapea  from  the  craninm  in  aasociation 
with  the  pnemnogastric  and  spinal  acctmoTy  nerves, 
through  the  same  foramen  as  that  thronch  which 
lescencb  " 


thejngi 


n  onerges.    It  then  descend  by  the 


in  twigs  to  the  diffistric  and  _  ,  ....^_j,..._ 
muscles ;  ao  that  its  custribntion  is  aunost  entirely 
to  sentient  surfaces  (see  fig.  S,  No.  20).  From  a 
careful  examination  of  the  invEstigatioas  of  Dr 
John  Reid  and  othera  regarding  the  :hnctions  of  this 
nerve,  Todd  and  Bowman  arrive  at  the  following 
conclusions;  I.  'It  is  the  sensitive  nerve  of  the 
mncous  membrane  of  the  fauces  and  of  the  root  of 
the  tongue,  and  in  the  latter  situation  it  ntinister* 
to  taste  and  touch,  aa  well  to  common  aensibili^; 
and  being  the  sensitive  nerve  of  the  fancea,  it  is 
probably  concerned  in  the  feeling  of  nauaea,  which 
may  be  so  readily  excited  by  stimalating  the  muooos 
membrane  of  this  nffon.'  2.  '3uch  are  its  peri- 
pheral orgamaati<»  ud  central  connectiona,  that 
stdmnlation  of  any  part  of  the  muoona  membrane 
in  which  it  lamifiea,  excttes  instantly  to  oontraetion 
all  the  facial  muscle*  anpplied  by  tha  pnenmogaatric 
and  the  facial  nerves ;  and  the  permanent  imtation 


'e  likewise    It  ia  therefore  an  a: 


Qovements  necessary  to  pharyngeal  dsglntition.' 

I.  eU.  ToL  ii  p.  119. 

.e  Pnamiogtutric  Nerve,  or  Par  Foount,  is  die- 
d  to  BO  many  important  organa  (the  larynx, 
lungs,  stomach,  im.),  and  is  of  snch  great 
l<wi«d  importance,  that  a  speoial  artide  is 


the 

Pneumogtutria  Nerve,  or  Par  Vagvm, 
tributed  '     ' '  -"  '^'^    ' 

Shysiol<^«d  importance,  that  a  speoial 
evoted  to  ita  consideration. 

The  SpiivU  AeeeMory  Nerve  is  more  nmadcabia 
for  ita  pecoliar  course  tnan  in  anv  other  respect  It 
rise*  fi«m  tha  apmal  cord  at  tha  level  of  the  fifth  or 
aixth  cervical  nerve,  passes  upwards  between  the 
anterior  and  posterioT  roota  of  the  cervical  nerves  into 
the  skoll,  and  emerges  from  the  cranial  oavity  with 
the  two  preoeding  nervea.  It  is  chiefly  distnbnted 
to  the  trapezius  muscle.    See  Fig.  2,  No.  IS. 

In  the  above  remarks  on  the  cranial  nerve^  we 
have  omitted  all  notieeof  their  pointsoforigin,aa  that 
subject  ia  soESdently  noticed  in  the  article  BbjUk. 

We  shall  now  briefly  notice  the  mode  in  uliioh 
the  extremitiea  receive  their  nerves.  These  nervea 
are  derived  from  the  spinal  nervea,  throngh  the  inter- 
vention of  what  ia  termed  in  anatomy  a  pUeut. 
Four  or  five  nervea  proceed  from  the  apmal  oord  for 
a  oertun  distance,  without  any  oommnnication  with 
each  other.  They  then  divide,  and  from  the  con- 
junction of  the  adjacent  branches  new  nerves  resnlt^ 
which  again  anbdivide  and  interchange  fibres.  From 
the  net-work  or  plexus  thns  formed  nervea  emei^ 
each  of  iriiich  is  composed  of  fibres  derived  from 
aeveral  of  the  original  Ivanchea.  The  most  important 
of  theaa  plexuses  ara  fimnd  in  the  r^tms  of  the  neck, 
the  axilla,  thoiloins,  and  the  saorum,  and  ore  known 
aa  the  cervical,  brv^ii^  lumbtt',  and  aaoral  plexuses. 

The  BradAA  Plemu  ia  formed  bf  oommunieation 


Pig.  C — A  disnam  ihewing 
tho  BnohiiJ  Pfciiai  of  Nerves 
of  the  left  dde,  with  iU 
branches.     Front  view. 


ncrrn;  4,  lh«  plimilfi  nirrs 
mini  to  ike  dliphnpDl  T  >nd 
»,  0,1  nitniil  Hid  Inuratl  odU- 

lh«  madtiin  aim  (vhleh  leeelTH 
iX9  ntme  from  Uklnr  ■  eonnt 
•long  the  middle  of  (£■  liinsrD 
Id  Um  pilD  gl  the  hind)  i  11  and 
13,  liruKhn  of  Ihli  D«m;  11, 
Uw  palDt  u  which  It  futm 
nndar  tha  Hinntiur  UiunaBt,  and 
dMriraiBto  iCatemiliial  bmiobta, 

tionrl  llie  IHtlB  llnifer  and  Iha 
art  tappllad  1^  49)  lb*  nlair 


■pinl  ntrri 


I  ttia  ndlal  narra, 


KBBV0U8  BYSTStt 


amtij  •qtul  in  aiaa,  and  tluii  mode  of  diitribation 
ii  nffiountlr  expUined  bjr  the  dugrwn.  iTha 
brsnelua  •marging  from  thia  plezui  mpply  Ui« 
ibovldw  aad  tM  uni ;  and  the  names  of  t&a  most 
ituportant  of  thaw  bnuohM  M«  given  in  the  dewiqi- 
tioa  attMlwd  to  the  figure. 

Hie  XmiAiirand  Sacral  PUaua,  with  the  nerree 
vt  the  lower  •ctnBiitjri  are  ehewn  in  fig.  0.     Hie 


VIk  S.— a  diagnun  ihawiiv 

HeiOMi,  with  the  ITerrea 
e(  the  lowet  eEtTMnitr. 
1,  the  Int  fim  tnmbn  enm 
which,  wlUi  tha  bruiah  from 
tt*  iBt  donel,  ronn  tha 
te>li»r  flani)  >■  ttw  Iber 
BHMT  Hunl  aWTM.  whIA, 
vtUi  tha  tHt  lombiT,  Airm 
the  Moril  Dleni ;  f,  the  anu- 
riei  innt  ot  hmonil  Mrre ; 
T,  B,  ^  U^  Ita  bnndiat  11. 
M  tnoUd  btaub,  tb*  loM 
er  IntnuilMplHuiu  I II,  tha 
alnlaal  Btmt  It,  tha  haeet 
iKhlUltB***;  U^tkignMiT 
IWUiU*  or  nUU*  aane  (the 
Urnrt  Bum  In  the  bodj), 
UtMIdc  U  aboat  tha  la«ai 
lUrdd  tka  think,  lala  ir,  tha 
pepllMd  MTT*^  an!  IB,  tha 
ptrooaal  arm ;  lit  mtuenUr 
onnohH  ol  tba  popliteal,  glT« 
ellB  tka  poMcrbn  t^oB  of 
Uw  knaa;  n,  the  poalarlor 
tlbtal  aaiTe,  dlTldlsi,  at  U, 
law  Uw  Inlarnal  ud  eitanul 

Smtar  nama,  wUah  ara  dit- 
buted  to  tba  aidaa  oT  tba 


deacriptJon  attached  to    the    diagram    anffidenUy 
exi^ama  the  mode  of  formation  and  the  diitribntion 


„ of  the  tvmpalhetic  ty»- 

tem,  or,  aa  it  ii  aaautimet  tenned,  uie  tympalMic 
fienw,  haa  been  alieadr  notioed  at  the  beginning  ot 
Out  utaelek  Ita  omtaalio  porti<Mi  oonaiate  of  fonr 
gansli*  on  «ther  nde — via.,  (I)  the  Ophthalmia,  or 
LenBotilar  Oanglion ;  (2)  the  Sidmio-palatine,  or 
Meckel'a  Gannon ;  (8)  the  Otio,  or  Amold'a  Ganglion ; 
and  (1)  ttie  Sohmaxillatx  Oanglion.  Hie;  are  all 
eloeelj'  oonnected  with  the  bianehea  of  the  trifacial 
nerTA  Hie  oervical  portion  contain!  three  ganglia, 
tiie  donal  twelve,  the  Inmbat  four,  the  eacral  bve, 
and  the  oooiTgeal  one,  which,  instead  of  I^in^  on 
the  aide  of  tbe  Tertebral  oolnmn,  ia  placed  m  mint 
of  tlM  ooooyx,  and  fonna  a  poiiit  of  conremnoe  for 
the  two  gaoglionated  oonii  which  nm  srom  i^ 
cemcal  to  the  aacrtl  r^on  parallel  to  one  another. 
TSacb  gan^iMi  tnay  be  regarded  a«  ft  diatuiot  nervooi 
eentre,  frcm  which  bimiidua  pMa  off  in  niiooa 


direotlona.  Id  addition  to  the  oioda  of  commwnica- 
tdon  between  tba  ganglia,  omtun  aata  of  nerrea  may 
be  oinally  traced — via.  {llriMerotnarrea,  which  gen- 
wally  acoompany  branchea  of  arteriea  to  the  viaoeia 
(the  Innga,  haut,  kidneyi,  liver,  aplem,  and  intea- 
tine,  ka.)  |  (S$  inleriat  branchea,  diabribnted  to 
artnica  in  the  vidni^  ot  the  ganglia;  and  (3) 
btanohea  of  eoHumMlealltm  with  the  oerebral  and 
■rmiplA  of  which  ia  ahewn  ia 


ninal  n 
fig.1. 


light  Hde  ia  ahewn  in  fig.  6.  The  only  nerve  tliat 
onr  limited  apaoe  will  pomit  oa  to  notice  ia  the 
areattptaMAtue.  Iliia  nerv«  ariaea  bv  aepafate  loota 
&om  fbrn  Oh,  dOi,  7th,  6th,  and  9tii  uonoie  {pngjia. 
These  roota  (aee  the  figure)  nnito  to  fonn  >  large 
nmtd  OMd,  which  paaaea  oUiqnely  downward*  and 
formrda,  and  after  enttcing  the  abdomea  t^  piacing 
the  dii^hngm,  enda  in  a  li^  and  mnidex  ganglion, 
tha  aMnfhmar  poafttiMt,  whiah  lies  moa  the  tUa  and 
frant  of  the  aorta,  at  tbe  cnigin  ol  tbe  oadiao  axia. 
~  ■•  '^^  -itertagMtd 


« cKigin  o 
ithOene 


pltuu,  whidi,  &om  tha  maaa  ot  nnToiw  natter 
which  it  eontaina^  Iiai  been  tanned  tike  abdamlmat 
brain.  It  is  in  OHMeqnenae  (rf  tbe  eiiBtenoa  of  Qua 
great  nervmi*  oentrnt  that  •  Mow  in  ttw  re^cn  in 


^ ,_„ Jinioal  obearvatioDe  lead  totta 

oonidaaiooi'tliat  the  ampatiietie  i^atau  su^ka 
motor  power  to  duh^  <»  we  internal  viaoem,  eapeci- 
ally  tha  heart  and  the 


ve  fibtea,  aa  ia  ehewn  bf  the  aoffinngt 
of  patienta  during  the  pwaage  of  a  gall-Bttma  or  a 
mol  ealonlna  thnm^  a  doet,  whose  sole  nervooa 
anwgy  ii  derived  fnmiQiiaayat«an;  that  it  praaides 
over  tiie  prooesa  of  seateUoa  in  the  most  iuqiartBat 
^aoda  t  and  that  it  operates  on  Hm  blood-vMsels  in 
oaudng  theni  to  oontraot^  iriule  tine  oetetxo-i^inal 
oervea  prodvoe  tiie  onposite  effect. 

On  T»i«lnitig  doimnt  parte  of  the  nervosa 
ayatem  under  ua  miCToacope,  we  find  that  the 
nervcoi  mattn  ia  diattibated  in  two  foima,  the 
MicBJar  and  the  Jibrvut.  The  venonlar  matter  is 
gray  in  ooloor,  and  granular  in  tntnre^  oontaina 
nndeated  nerve  odla,  and  ia  lain^  aiqiplied  witik 
blood ;  it  ia  immediately  aaaoe&tod  with  nNntol 
aotiona,  and  i*  the  aeat  in  which  the  force  mani- 
feeted  in  ntrvona  notion  erwnatea.  Hie  fibrous 
mattw  ia,  in  moat  parta,  white  and  eompoeed  ol 
tnhnlar  fibree,  thcn^  in  sobia  part*  tt  ia  fnij  and 
conaiita  of  eolid  flwee ;  it  ia  leae  vaaenlar  tiian  tiM 


made  npon  it. 
nnited  together  into  a  man  they  form  a  nertww  earing 
•uoh  a*  Uie  brain  or  spinal  eord,  while  the  Neraea 
pasting  to  and  from  thetn  are  oompoaad  of  Hliiila 
of  fibnraa  matter.  The  nervona  matter  of  both 
kinda  ia  a  arit,  nnotnona  snbetaace,  with  veay 
alight  tenacity;  the  ecftneaa  bung  in  >  ntnt 
meamre  dne  to  tlia  large  qnantity  <K  water  mdcji 
it  cMitaJn*. 

The  it&nlM  form  ia  the  most  extenaively  diffbaed 
tiirongnont  the  body.  It  fonni  a  large  portion  of 
the  nervona  oentrea,  and  ia  the  main  oonatitaent  of 
all  the  narvea.  It  oocnts  in  two  varietica — via.  aa 
the  ttiviitr  jibrt,  or  the  nene  ttdie,  and  the  gia- 


When  a  tidndar^m  ia  viewed  'bf  refloated  light, 
it  praaapti  a  beantifol  peaify  htstra,  and  appean  to 
be  bomogeneana.     fiat  if  viewed  by  f  '"   * 

lidit,  wii£  a  snffloient  raagmMog  power, 
of stniotara beoome viaibM.   Ertonally,' 


UtoVoua  svsr&L 


(tii«tor  iwmhmK  (A  <i,  d,  fig.  7),  •  lw«nogeneon«  and 
ptob«blT  Terr  deliMto  elmrtLo  tuBne,  according  to 
INidd.  ^tbinUwadgeof  UiatabulumembcBne,on 


intectinee,  IiTer,  ipleen,  Htd  [Wiiei«M  being  nmored 

to  bring  it  in  tiaw : 
,  3,  »,  th«  mpctdor,  mlditB,  uid  InferlDr  etrrletl  luigUkt 

gimglU ;  S,  Inelads  ths  fgnr  lumUr  guglln ;  I,  Indoda  Iha 
Bn  lunl  gtinglit ;  I,  tlia  gugUoa  Impu ;  a,  (irdlM 
plsnu  i  t,  Blv  pltvu :  10,  urtie  pluni ;  11.  hrpivulrla 
pleni;  a,  tha  linnxi  t,  tha  tnahn:  (^(nb  of  to*  uru; 
e',  axUmal  MTDtld;  ^  ,  inMiuil  Mnddj  ^tlw  baut;  t,  *, 
Uut  dlipbri^m ;  /,  the  oardlan  and  <d  tiw  aaoptacgva;  A 
thanudii,  Md  /,  ■bdoinlBil  uiTta  |  i,  Iha  kUsaj ;  1^  Um 
•Dpn-Tcut  oapiula;  k,  Ihaftemin;  L  tha  aeotl™  of  haia 
of  the  gkoU ;  wh  tba  bliddn  t  n,  to«  unm  parllnn  of  lb* 

either  dde  are  leen  two  tliickeF  and  darka  linea 
iA.e,c,  b),  wbicb  appear  to  nuu-k  the  outer  and  inner 
limits  of  the  itmctiiro  known  u  the  tehile  tuittana 
ofSA»patat,  wluch  fonns  a  tube  irithin  the  tabular 
membnuie ;   and  within   Ste  white    aabatanoe   of 


and  commonly  known 
as  the  axil  eyHndtT 
(A  a).  By  the  appli- 
cation of  reagenta,  it 
ii  weea  that  the  chemi- 
cal componlaon  of  the 
white  nbatanoe  i»  dif- 
ferent from  that  of 
the  axla  nrlinder,  attd 
hence  the  Rinctdona  of 
thwe  two  parta  are 
doobticra  different : 
the  latter  i«  in  genmd 

'  pulpy. 


nerve-tnbea  Me  < 


ptuvUel  to  one  anotheo', 
withont  any  inoscula- 
tion, if  we  except  their 
frequent  tetnunation* 
in  loope.  Their  aver- 
age diameter  i«  abont 
t^ntb  of  an  inch. 

the  gdatinoui  JB>ra 
»re  flattened,  toft, 
and  homogeneou*  in 
appeanuice,  and  con- 
tain namerona  roujid 
oral  nnolei  (lee 
7,  C).  Their 
diameter  ia  abont 
nWtb  of  an  inch.  Id 
appearance  ^"7  msdi 
resemble  the  nbrea  of 


Eg.  7. 

,  dlagrui  cC  tobalu'  fltin  of  ■ 
iploal  iiarTB  t  a,  aiii  ojUndar; 
t,  ttiOBt  border  ol  wblta  nb- 
nuM ;  «,  s,  II*  ontei  bordar; 
i,  i,  Mbvlu  membruu;  B, 
tulnlir  abTMi  a.  In  ■  natnnl 
■ula,  ibavlw  tba  put*  u  In 
A  i  /,  the  *Uta  aDb«*D(M  and 
*da  erllBdeT  InUrnipted  bj 
vmmat,  wbUa  tba  tnbdjt 
nntUui    t,    the 


OD9  flbna  (ram  the  aoUr  plaxiu, 
traawd  iriai  isetie  «e1d  f  — 
blUt  Ibalr  Mll-nnalal;  E 
C  mlgnlfled  ltd  diunetci 
on  1  oiRiildBHblT  lirgsr 
— Fiom  Todd  and  Bowmn 


of  nerTOUB  inattcr  ii 
of  a  dark  reddith-gray 
oolour,  ij  found  only 
in  the  nerroiu  centres, 
ia  always  well  supplied 
vrith  capillaTies,  and 
contdsts  eseentisJIy  of 
nucleated  ceUa  or 
T€«ioIe»,  which  are 
commonly  globu- 
!».  u»  ovoidal,  bnt  often  present  one  i 

like  procease^  when  th^  are  tenncd  

fiz.  8).  These  caudate  yesidea  pcennt  gwat  differ- 
ence  in  shape  and  «i«e.  The  prooeaaaa  an  wj 
ddicate,  and  rewlily  break  off  doae  to  the  vesicle, 
They  probably  «&«  Berve  to  eonnwt  diitant 
veaicles,  or  else  become  conlinnoM  with  the 
cylinders  of  the  tubular  fibres 
We  may  now  consider  the  way 

uatomical  elementa. 


tte  way  m  which  the 
are  miade  np  of  thaae 

iiu...nvGo(yjlcl 


SEtlVOtIS  SVsTfilt 


A  iwm  k  oompOMd  of  *  btmdle  ot  tnbnUr  fibTM 
■omHtnded  ud  comteoted  by  areolw  tduoe,  which 
toTtat  •  ahuth  known  m  the  tiaavlemma,  whoae 


tht  spliul  «ordf  nu^nUlfd 


from  tlia OmiHrlui  tu>lUon  ot  ._. 

;    w,   iia  dlUlMU  ;   t,  lU  nuoltOllU,   BUfslflld 

/,  MvdHta  Teadnle  fnnii  tba  inj  mat' —  ~' 


The  nertouM  centnt  exhibit  >  union  of  the  resi- 
cnlar  and  fibroiu  textoree,  which  may  be  variooaly 
airanged.  In  the  Bnin  (q.  t.)  the  Teaieolar  matto' 
'■""  -'--'■  foiming  toe  gray  or  aineiitiolu  sab- 
qrinal  cord,  oa  the  other  hand,  the 
ffKj  matter  Iia  in  the  central  portion, 


Elt^O.— AinuUpi«iie(^theOtiaOangIion  irf  the  Sheep, 
dlghtly  oompnued,  ihewing  the  inlerUounsnt  of  the 
nemnu  flbiei  and  reiumlar  matter. 

and  the  flbrona  or  white  matter  ia  external  to  it ; 
while  in  the  ganglia  the  two  atructarca  are  more  or 
Uoa  nniformly  anooiated  (see  Qa.  9). 

Vtcan.  the  oheemtions  which  have  been  made  in 
an  earlier  part  of  this  article  on  the  fnnctiona  of 
individual  nerrea,  it  ia  infficiently  obvioiu  that  itia 
throoxh  the  inatnunentahty  of  tiie  nervoni  ayatem 
that  the  mind  inflnenoea  the  bodily  organa,  ai  when 
volition  or  emotion  excitei  them  to  action  ;  and  that, 
conversely,  imprcaaiona  made  on  the  organa  of  the 
body  affect  the  mind,  and  excite  mental  perceptiona 
throngh  the  aame  chuueL  '  In  thia  way,'  to  quote 
the  worda  of  Dr  Todd,  *  the  nervooa  ajatem  becamea  I 


the  main  agent  of  what  luw  been  called  the  1^  of 
relation ;  for  without  aome  channd  for  fhe  bans- 
miaaion  of  the  mandate*  of  the  will  to  the  oicana  «l 
motion,  or  aome  proviakm  for  the  nception  M  tliose 
impreaaionB  which  eiiemal  obieota  am  citable  of 
exciting,  the  mind,  thna  completely  iaolated,  ooold 
hold  no  oommouion  with  the  external  worid.'  ^m 
nature  of  the  connection  between  tiie  mind  and 
nervooa  matter  is,  and  most  ever  be,  the  deepest 
myatoy  in  physiology,  and  one  into  irtich  the 
human  intellect  can  nerer  hope  to  pmetrate. 
There  are,  however,  many  aoidona  of  the  body  in  the 

EroductJon  of  which  the  mind  haa  no  ahara.  01  thia 
ind  are  the  nerrooa  actions,  which  are  aaaodated 
with  the  fnnctiona  oE  organic  life,  anch  aa  digea- 
tion,  teepiration,  and  circulation.  Again,  theta 
ia  •nothu'  daaa  of  actions  for  which  Wo  aervea 
(an  afferent  or  exdtor,  and  a  mob^  and  a  Berv«BB 
cenbe  are  neceaaaiy,  Theaa  ate  the  aotioni  known 
as  r^Iee  or  excito.ffip(orjr,  for  the  fall  tnTaeligstioa 


labonra  of  the  late 
the  movement  of  the  (Esophaffua  in  propelling  tlw 
food  onwaida  to  the  atomadi,  ia  oauaad  by  tlw 
atimnlua  of  the  food  acting  on  the  exotor  at 
afferent  nerves,  which,  throogh  the  apina]  ctwd, 
excite  the  motor  or  efferent  nerves,  and  thoa  giTe 
riae  to  the  neoeaaary  muacular  action.  When  the 
edge  of  the  eyelid  ia  touched,  the  exdtor  nerve  (a 
bruich  of  the  ophtbalmio  division  of  the  fifth  or 
trifacial  nerve)  conveya  the  imprcaaion  of  Uw 
atimnlna  to  the  nervous  centre,  and  t^  e^  i*  at 
once  dosed  by  the  motor  inflnenosi  which  u  traoa- 
nntted  by  a  branch  of  the  fadal  nerve  to  the  wbienlar 
muacle.  In  auch  caaea  aa  these — and  they  fdnn  m 
daaa — the  mind  takes  no  part  In 
aome  of  them  it  ia  conaciooa  of  the  application  of 
the  atimnlua,  aa  well  as  of  the  moaenlar  act  which 
foUowsi  but  even  in  these  cases  no  effort  of  the 
will  conld  modify  or  interrupt  the  aeqoenoe  of  t^ 

It  haa  been  already  ahewn  that  the  stimuli,  by 
which  the  action  of  nervca  ia  oommimly  excited,  am 
of  two  fcinda,  mental  and  physical,  and  the  change 
which  tbeae  atimnli  produce  in  a  nerve  develops 
the  power  known  to  pbyaiologista  as  the  tiit  turooaa, 
or  nervoua  force.  'The  nervous  foroe,'  saya  Dr 
Shoipey,  in  his  Aidr«*»  on  Phyiiologg  in  1S62, 
*haa  long  been  likened  to  electricity,  bat  ntho' 
through  a  vague  perception  of  analogy  than  from 


It  ii 


true  that  electric 


modiflcationa  connected  with  different  conditioDa  of 
action.  Still,  it  must  be  home  in  mind 
that  the  evolution  of  electricity  is  a  common  accom- 
pmceasea  involving  chemical 
change,  whether  within  the  living  body  or  in 
extenial  natnte ;  and  the  tendoicy  m  rec«it  apecn- 
lation  ia  not  towaids  the  identification  of  the  nerro 
force  with  electrLctty,  but  rather  to  sugcest  that 
stand  related  in  the  aame  way  aa  electricity 
and  other  phjrsical  forcea  are  related  to  each  other 
"    ■   ■  —    .   .■  .    I  common  force  or 


tranamitted  by  the  nerves  has  been  recently  maida 
the  aubject  of  investigation,  bnt  it  ia  doabtnil  how 
far  the  observationB  are  to  be  depended  on,  in  ooo- 
aeqnence  of  the  various  aources  of  fallacy  by  whic^ 
snoh  experimente  are  beaet  According  to  Hicsch, 
the  velooity  is  34  metrea,  or  about  112  feet  per 
seooud  in  nun ;  while  EelmholtE  fixn  it  at  190  feet 
per  second  in  the  frog. 

The  description  of  the  norvona  system  dvcn  im 
the  foregoing  page*  is  applicable^  with  sli^t  modi- 
fications, to  ul  the  Yertebrates  i  tha  main  i£ffai«Deea 

CooijIc — 


being  in  the  deffree  of  the  developmant  of  the  bnin 
— K  point  wllioii  tuH  been  klieady  noticed  ftt  the 
oamneDoeinent  of  the  utiole  Bkaut.  For  m  gnl- 
floient  notice  of  the  pkn  of  the  nervoiu  naten  ia 
the  iDTcrtebrate  aniniale,  the  reader  ii  reieired  to 
the  Miielea  AniKmi^TO)  Aimuis,  Molldsca,  and 
Radiata.  It  ii  onlj  in  the  loweet  mbdivia' 
the  Animal  Eiogdom,  the  Pbotozoa,  that  no 
ot  a  nerroni  •yttem  oaa  be  detected. 

Foe  fntiher  information  on  the  inbjeot  of  thia 
article,  the  reader  ii  referred  to  Br  Carpenter'a 
worka  on  f  umoa  and  Comparative  Phwioloj/y,  to 
Dr  ToddTa  article  on  'The  Nerroiu  Syitem'  in 
TAe  Cydopasdia  qf  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  and 
to  the  nhyEiolo«<^  -worka  of  Todd  and  Bowman, 
Dalton,  Draper.  Marahall,  Flower,  Footer,  and  other 
anthoritiea  on  this  and  cognate  aabjecte. 

KES3  (identical  with  £W  note,  A.-a  mtm,  Oer. 
MO*;,  Ic^  HM,  Lat  »iasu»,  ft.  ne),  a  geographical 


1, mgniftTna  promontory.    Names™   ..™, 

Abonnd  amoDC  the  Or&iey  and  Shetland  Islands,  and 
oathecoaetofOaithneaei  and  they  occnr,  though  lea 
frequently,  along  the  eoat  ooart  of  Great  Britun,  aa 
fkr  aa  Dungeneei  in  Kent  Aa  the  corresponding 
Soandinavian  termination  -noM  preraila  in  the  namei 
of  piomonbwiea  in  Norwigr,  Sweden,  and  Denmark 
1«.  g.,  Undeanaea,  in  aonth  of  Norway),  die  exiatence 
of  uamea  in -neu  in  Britain  ia  held  aa  an  erUence  of 
Sftandinavian  and  Daniah  colonitation.  Qrianes,  on 
the  north  ooast  of  France,  pcdnte  to  the  aame  aoorce. 

IfSSS,  Loch,  a  long  narrow  lake  in  luvemeaa-Bhire, 
Scotland,  extends  north-east  and  aouth-weat,  and  is 
23  miles  in  length,  and  l\  mile  in  aTerage  breadth. 
Its  north-east  extremity  reaches  a  point  S  miles 
tonth-weat  of  the  town  of  Invemeas.  It  receives 
the  MoTriatoD,theOicb,theFoyerti,and  other  streams, 
and  its  mrplus  waters  are  carried  off  to  Uie  Moray 
firth  \tj  the  Biver  Ness.  It  lies  ia  the  valley  of 
Olenmore,  and  ia  enclosed  by  aoimtain  masses 
averaging  1000  feet  in  height ;  but  iba  scenery  on 
its  banks  is  not  strikingly  picturesque.  In  many 
places  it  is  about  130  fathoms  in  depth,  and  owing 
to  the  length  of  time  which  this  immense  body 
of  water  takes  to  cool  down  to  the  freezing-point, 
ioe  never  farms  to  any  oouaiderabla  extent. 

HESSELBODE,  Karl  Bob.,  Codnt,  one  of 
the  most  eminent  diplomatists  of  modem  time^ 
waa  bom,  14th  December  1780,  at  Lisbon,  where 
bis  father,  a  descendant  of  an  ancient  noble  family 
on  the  Lower  Rhine,  nits  then  Russian  ambas- 
sador. He  early  devoted  himself  to  a  diplomatio 
career,  gained  in  a  high  degree  the  esteem  and 
oonfidenoe  of  the  Bnperor  Alexander,  and  in 
1613  waa  one  of  Uie  I'epreientatiTea  of  Bussia 
in  the  important  negotiatiana  which  took  place 
between  the  powers  'mut  combined  against  France. 
In  1814,  he  accompanied  tiie  Roasian  emperor  to 
France,  and  on  1st  Haroh  signed  the  beaty  of  the 
Qoadmplo  Allianoe  at  Chaumont  He  was  also  one 
of  those  who  concluded  the  treaty  with  Marshal 
Marmont  for  the  surrender  of  Paris.  He  continaed 
to  take  ft  prindpal  part  in  all  the  negottatioDa  which 
anded  in  the  Peace  of  Faiia  ;  and  waa  one  of  the 
most  prmninent  and  active  of  tk«  idenipotentiariea 

the  CongreH  of  Vienna.    He  waa  one  tj  the  most 


Aix-la-Chapelle.  Troppau,  ItuWh,  and  Verona. 
The  £knpen»  Nicholas  reposed  in  him  the  same 
oonfldenee,  and  under  his  reign  he  condncted  the 
Bossian  policy  in  Uie  afiaira  ofGreeoe  and  Turkey. 
Amidst  the  European  convnlsiona  of  1848  and  1849, 
RusaiA,  under  his  guidanoa,  refrained  from  inter- 
ference, tUl  opportuni^  oceuRed  of  deeding  a  deadly 
blow  to  Uie  roTolutionaiy  cause  in  Hungaiy;  aiu^ 


-        par^  in  Boaaia,  N.  is 

sapposed  to  have  exsrted  taimaelf  strenonisly  to 
weaetve  peaoa  with  the  Western  Powen ;  and  after 
the  war  had  bn^ea  ont  in  1854,  and  the  ill  snoeesi 
of  Russia  waa  manifest^  ha  nndonbtedly  sbwe  for 
the  re-establishment  of  peace,  and  for  the  asMm* 
bling  of  a  oongrev  to  settle  ^  dispntes.  After  the 
accession  ot  Alexander  IL  he  retired  from  the 
directiOD  ot  fore^  affairs,  and  waa  saooeeded  in 
that  department  by  Prince  Alexander  Gortchakov, 
but  retained  Uie  dignity  of  chancellor  of  the  empir«^ 
and  a  seat  in  the  ministerial  counoiL  He  died  at 
8t  Fetenboig,  23d  Uorch  1862. 

NE'STOR,  according  to  ancient  Grecian  legend, 
the  sou  of  NeleuB  and  Chloria,  bom  in  the  Messenian 
^tos,  escaped  destruction  when  Hercnlee  slew  all 
his  brothers,  being  then  a  dweller  omoniF  the  Oero- 
nians,  with  whom  oe  was  brought  up.  He  married 
Bnrydice,  by  whom  he  became  Uie  father  of  a  name- 
roos  family.  In  his  youth  he  waa  distingnished  for 
valour  in  wars  with  the  Arcadians,  Eleioni,  and  the 
Centaurs,  snd  in  his  advanced  age  for  wisdom. 
Althoodi  he  waa  an  old  mim  when  the  expedition 
linat  Trt^  was  undertaken,  hs  joined  it  with  hia 
,  liaus  in  kjAj  ships.  Homer  makes  him  the  great 
counsellor  of  the  Grecian  chiefs,  and  extols  hia 
doqnenoe  aa  superior  even  t«  that  of  Ulyssee.  Bis 
antnority  was  even  considered  equal  to  that  of  the 
immortal  gods.  N.  returned  in  safety  to  his  own 
dominions  after  the  fall  of  Troy,  along  with  Mene- 
laus  and  Diomedes,  and  eimtinuad  for  long  to  nila 
~  rer  the  people  of  Pyloa, 

NESTOHIANS,  a  sect  of  the  fiUi  c,  so  ooUed 
from  its  founder  NsSTOBinB,  under  which  head  their 
distinctive  doctrine^  as  well  as  their  history  up 
to  the  time  of  its  condemnation,  are  safficieotly 
detailed.  Of  the  lat«  history  it  will  be  enough  to 
say  Uuttf  even  ottn  the  Council  of  E^kesot,  Nesto- 
rianism  prevailed  in  Assyria  and  Feiaia,  chiefly 
through  the  influence  ot  u«  well-known  school  5l 
Edeosa.  Although  vigorously  repressed  in  ihe  Roman 
empire,  it  was  protected,  and  probably  Uie  more  on 

established  by  King  Pherozes  as  the  u^mial 
church,  with  a  patriarch  resident  at  Selenda ;  its 
fundamental  doctrine,  as  laid  down  in  the  synod 
of  Seleuda  in  49S,  being  the  existence  of  two  distinct 
persons  as  Christ,  united  solely  by  a  unity  of  will 
and  affection.  Under  the  rule  ol  the  califs,  the 
N.  enjoyed  considerable  protection,  and  throughout 
the  countries  of  the  East  their  communis  extended 
itaelf.  Of  their  oondition  in  Central  Asia  during 
the  medieval  period,  some  aocount  wiU  be  found 
under  the  head  of  PniaiZB  Johk.  In  the  middle 
of  the  12th  a,  titeb  church  reckoned  no  fewer  than 
90  bishops  under  r^iilor  metropolitans,  togetiier 
with  5$  others,  whose  special  dependendes  are 
unknown ;  but  in  the  deals^ctive  career  of  Tamer* 
lane,  they  shored  the  common  fate  of  all  the  repre- 
sentativea  of  the  eastern  civilisation.  In  the  16th 
,  4  gickt  y**'""  took  place  in  this  body,  of  which 
_  portion  rcmounoed  their  distinctive  doctrine,  and 
idseed  themselves  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Uie 
Roman  pontiff  to  whom,  under  tne  title  of  ChaUeaa 
Christius,  Ui^  have  since  remuaed  faithful.  The 
others  still  "r*"**'"  their  old  creed  and  their 
ancient  organiaation.  Their  chief  seat  is  in  the 
raoMS  of  Kurdistan.  They  ore  at  present 
and  ilhterate  race,  numbering  about  l40fSW, 

ibject  to  a  patriarch  residing  at  Dis  (who  ia 

always  diooen  from  the  same  fuiily,  and  takes 

name  of  Schamnn,  or  Simon)  and 

All  these   are   boand  to  observe 
nr 


nsTOBins— msitL 


MlilMMy,  but  huruwb  ii  permitted  to 
■nd  ialana  clergy.   Theii'  fitnrpoal  boot 


bot 


iofreqautt,  if 
diaMlnbla  bjr 

and  ftHhoiuh  tht  bngiuga 
i^ia*  tha  HliBf  ot  tnunb- 


■ot  atti^athar  diraaed.    Haniage  la 

tiw  leatwiw  of  the  patriMroh  i 

airt«i«d  in  both  kind* ;  and 
ot  the  litnigy  plainlr  im^ia. 
•tantistiini,  ji^  aoooiding  to  ImyiA,  that  doetcine 
ii  not  fomitxfy  held  emoiig  them.  "Bm  faata  ara 
•trict,  and  of  vetj  long  domion,  amonntijig  to  very 
neaiW  one  half  of  the  entin  year.  The^  pray  {or 
the  dead,  bnt  are  aaid  to  rejeot  the  notion  d 
porgatoiT,  and  the  oaiy  Mored  imi^  which  they 
OH  or  lerereiuie  ii  that  <d  the  oroM.  The  V.  of 
Emdiatan,  like  the  Chiistdani  of  the  Lebanon,  have 
■uScmd  much  from  time  to  time  thraiigh  the  fana- 
ticiem  ot  tbe  wild  tribei  unoiig  whom  they  Keide. 
In  a  maeaacM  in  ISiA,  and  again  in  ISU,  many 
fell  Tictima,  and  even  itilt  they  owe  moeh  of  tiieir 
•ecori^  to  the  Inflnenoe  exeioiMd  In  their  faTonr 
by  the  f  oraien  Teprewntativea  at  the  Tnrkiah  and 
PeniaDComii. 

There  ii  another  body  of  N.  who  hare  axisted 
in  India  from  the  period  of  the  early  migrations  of 
the  aeot,  and  who  ara  called  by  the  name  of  Sjiian 
ChriatianiL  Th^  chief  Mat  it  in  Travoncore,  where 
they  oomber  about  100,OOCL  Among  both  bodlee  of 
K.,  Buropean  miauonariea.  Catholic  and  Proteetwit, 
have  of  late  yean  endeavoored  to  effect  an  entranoa. 
See  PerkWa  Raidenu  </  Eight  Tear*  m  Pertia, 
among  the  Nettorian  Christiana  (Andorer,  1843) ; 
Audenaa'i  Oriental  Ohtireha  (1872) ;  and  Dean 
Stanley's  Hiitory  qftitt  Eatiem  Church. 

HESTOHIUS,  a  native  of  Oermanicia,  a  city  ol 
Northern  Syria,  in  the  patriarchate  of  Antioch,  wai 
probably  a  disciple  of  tha  celebrated  Theodiwe  of 
Mopau^a ;  and  having  reoeivBd  prieat'a  order*  at 
Antioch,  became  lo  eminent  for  hia  flnency,  if  not 
^ognence,  ai  a  preaoher,  and  for  ^ve  demeanoor 
and  exemplary  Ufa,  that  on  oooation  ot  a  diapute 


eleotion  ot  a  patriareh  of  Oouatantinople 

Mted  by  tha  emperor,  in  428  A-D.,  to  fill  the 

Ttoant  Me.    Soon  after  nil  conaecration,  a  oontio- 


Teny  aroee 
our  Xord,  h 


a  MnuOD,  ^^ch  woe  by 
ascribed  to  N.  l»irn«nlf  denied  that  the  Yirgin  Mary 
could  be  truly  called  the  '  Mother  of  Gml,'  haag 
only  in  truth  the  mother  of  the  man  Chiiat,  K 
wumljr  defended  Anaataaina,  esponaed  this  view, 
and  dabotated  it  into  the  theory  whioh  baa  einoe 
been  known  by  hie  name,  and  which  equivalently, 
if  not  in  fmmal  terma,  eiageerated  the  distinction 
of  two  natnrea  in  our  LoraTinto  a  diatinctLon  of 
two  pentons — the  human  peraon  of  Chriat  and  Uia 
Divijie  Peieon  of  the  Word.  An  animated  oontro- 
veny  enaned,  which  extended  from  Oonstantino^Je 
to  the  other  patriorchatea,  and  drew  from  Cyiil, 

gtrioroh  ot  ^exandria,  a  formal  condemnatioa  ot 
a  dootnoe  of  N.  in  twdve  anathemaa  still  pre- 
served, and  a  (imilar  oondtonnation,  aooompamed 
t^  a  threat  tA  deposition  and  excommunication,  from 
CJeleatine,  biahop  of  Bome,  unless  he  would  withdraw 
the  obnoxdoni  dootrine.  N*  remaininff  finn  in  hia 
opinions,a  general  oouncil  waa  convened  at  Epheana 
in  431,  at  whloh  Oyril  took  the  moat  active  and 
prominent  part,  and  in  which,  notwithstanding  the 
abaenoe  of  the  patriarch  of  Antioch  and  his  bianopa, 
N.  waa  oondunned  and  deposed.  Conaideroble 
opposition  was  offered  to  thia  jodgmmt  tor  a  time, 
but  nltitoately  N.  was  confined  in  a  monaatery  near 
Constuitinople,  whence,  after  fonr  yeaia,  stiu  per- 
sisting in  his  views,  he  waa  banished  to  tiie  Greater 
Ooaia  in  Upper  £gypt.  and  after  several  ohanj 
<rf  hia   place  of  coi 


"S 


hia  toiigna  was  eaten 
by  worma,  reats,  according  to  Ei^iiC^oi  himiilT^  cm 
a  aingte  and  unnamed  authozi^.  Ite  more  prolwbla 
narratives  ascribe  hia  death  to  the  effects  M  a  faD. 
The  date  of  this  event  is  nnoerbun.  It  was  after 
439,  wbm  Socrato*  wrote  his  history  {BiiL  A& 
viL  84^,  bnt  there  is  httk  donbt  that  he  was  alreadj 
dead  m  4C0,  when  the  Ent7ohian  oontioveifly  fint 
began  to  atbaot  notice. 

NBSTS  (Lat.  ntiui,  OaeL  asod;  allied  to  OeB. 
mIAm,  Sax.  Mokm,  Lat.  neeten,  to  sew,  tdnd,  or 
tie)  are  the  etiuotuies  which  *"'""*■  pMpare  for 
the  rearing  cf  thmr  yoimg;  !I1iey  ara  vsiy  different^ 
not  only  iriiea  the  creatarei  whieb  oonstmct  them 
belcoff  to  wid^  sepanted  divisions  of  the  animal 
kingtbm,  bat  often  when  the  animals  are  of  the 
SUM  -'"-.  or  even  when  they  ara  nesdy  nllied; 
and  whilat  soma  amatmct  vray  simple  neala^  and 
tluaa  of  ottan  ara  very  cuiiona  and  dabomtdy 
framed,  some  make  no  nest  at  sIL  Amoiu  Uam- 
MAijij  the  only  nest-boHdeia  ara  oe^ain  rodenta,  as 
mics^  dormioe,  aquirrela,  &c.  The  itmjatorea  <d 
soma  of  the  speoiea  are  as  artfully  contrived  and  sa 
beautiful  as  the  neata  of  birds.  It  is  among  Bmni 
that  nest-making  ia  moot  general ;  although  there 
are  not  a  few  spemaa  which  meralv  scn^  a  hcde  in 
the  graand,  and  many  aea-fovria  1^  their  egRS  on 
ledges  of  naked  rook.  The  sttuatianB  ohosen  iTbitds 
forlheir  nests  are  vary  various,  eadi  qieaiea  abat- 
ing some  partioular  kind  ot  situation,  a*  each  apedcs 
also  exhibits  a  uniformity  in  choice  of  matierials 
and  in  form  and  mode  Ot  stmotnrai  these  parti. 
culars,  however,  bdng  all  liable  to  modificatum — 
within  certain  limita — aooording  to  cnrcumstaacea. 
Some  birds'  neets  consist  merely  <d  a  few  stmwa  or 
leavea  collected  together ;  aome,  of  anoh  materiala 
"  twigs,  atrawa,  mosi,  hair,  Ac,  veiy  iiicely  inter- 


woven, and  often  with  a  linine  finer  tnan  the  f 
— rk;  some,  aa  those  ot  awaUows,  are  made  (a  okj 
otW  soft  materlaLwhich  ^»^^1An■  ■■  it  dries. 


s,are  madeot  cl^ 

irdena  sa  it  dries. 

n  at  Xm,  but  some,  as 

i  under  a 


Biida*  neata  ara  generally 

thoee  (d  sw^lows,  are  so, ,__, 

of  rock  or  of  a  boildino,  as  to  be  eovered,  and  iutve 
the  openuu  at  the  sioe ;  whilst  others  are  vMilted, 
and  have  the  opening  at  the  side.  Soma  ore  situated 
in  holes  excavated  in  dayey,  loamy,  or  sandy  bank*. 
The  nest*  ot  tronpials,  baltimoies,  weavsr-tnida, 
ko.,  are  remarkable  iac  the  ingenious  oontrivance 
diapUyed  in  them ;  and  a  very  ""p^inT  nest  ia  that 
of  the  tailor-bird,  made  by  sewing  togidher  the 
edge*  of  leave*.  These  are  noticed  in  vba  artiale* 
on  these  birds.  Many  tnrda  are  as  aolitair  as 
possible  in  their  nidifloation  ;  whilst  otters,  aa 
rooks  and  herons,  congregate  in  laige  commnnities. 
— No  Rcnnja  am  known  to  construct  naats ;  their 


instinct  of  some 

till' 1838,  when  Ur  Edwards 
aoiaB  of  Stickleback  (q.v.>.    U 
many  a  fresh-wstar  agaariai& 
<  yet  known  aa  neat-buildera. 
are  goUea  and  the  soramy.    Uaoy 
iwn  not  to  oonstruct  nests.    The  aalmon  and 
others  exhibit  an  qiproach  to  the  nest-building 
haUt  in  makiof;  noplace  tat  their]  ^ga  in  the  sand 
'    .  choose  for  a  fawning-bed. 
smdl  proportion,  however,  of  the 


discovered  it 
now  gives  interest 
"-'  — ny  «»■—  - 


Among 

ior*  t 

Xa,  in  making  ■place 

'  Eisvel  which  they  ol 

■UsnylNB»nB — asmdl,       ....     , , 

whole  number,  and  moatly  Hymmevt«*<i — oonatonot 
neata.  as  be«a,  waapa,  and  aota.  The  neata  of  tha 
social  bees  and  waapa  are  also  Uiair  oidinaiy  babi- 


tationa,  but  tiio  n 


=  B.Google 


=  B.Google 


=  B.Google 


=  B.Google' 


WESTS— JUSTHBRLAJTPa 


devoted  to  their  yoiuig;  A  few  inKoti,  not  hymm- 
optaroni,  as  wnis  weerili,  may  aiao  be  Bkid  to  make 
neatti  bnt  •mong  insects  prorimon  fbr  the  mnts 
of  the  joohb  is  niraally  mMe  in  Ytirj  diSerent  vayi. 
Certun  amtbn,  amonsst  which  nutjr  be  named  we 
mter-spioer,  consfcriun  neati. — The  initiiioti  of  neat- 
nuikiii^  oooneoted  as  it  it  with  the  inatinotiTe  care 
tor  their  joung  which  the  Creator  hu  made  so 
importaDt  a  p^  of  the  natnre  of  so  maay  animals, 
ia  by  no  maana  an  index  either  of  that  care  or  of 
the  affwtion  with  which,  ia  manj  caaea,  it  is  con- 
joined ;  and  aome  of  the  aniTniLlii  which  constnict 
no  nert  om  among  those  in  which  affeotioa  for  their 
young  i*  exhibited  in  the  highest  degiee.^rhe 
neat-making  inatinota  of  animals  seem  to  be  a  very 
essential  i«rt  of  their  cooatitntion  ;  and  even  in 
the  most  perfect  domeaticatioD  are  still  retained 
and  exhibited ;  althon^  the  accommodation  to 
oirciunatances  which  is  atao  manitcatcd  shews  eome- 
thing — and  that  not  inoansiderable — of  reason. 
IfSiSTS,  B"1W-^  an  important  article  of 
merce  between  the  Eastern  Islands  and  China, 
and  of  Inznty  in  China,  ara  the  nseta  of  several 
apeciea  of  Sirallow  (q.  xX  of  the  genu  CetlocaUa. 
The  best  known  of  these  biTds,  O.  tteuUnta,  is  about 
4i  incliM  in  length,  11  iaches  in  expanse  of  wing, 
dusky  blaok  above,  pola  aah-colonr  beneath.  The 
nest  ia  shaped  like  that  of  the  ooromon  swallow, 
and  adheres  to  a  rock ;  vaat  numbers  being  found 
togeU^r — often  in  absoIut«  ooctiguity— in  c 
of  the  Bsstam  Aichipehtgo ;  as  those  of  the  i 
and  allied  speoieB  aie  in  other  islands  of  the  East 
Indies.  The  luab  thenuelves  are  farmed  of  grasL 
sea-weed  fibres  small  leaves,  tux,  and  are  attached 
to  tfca  Mck  by  a  sort  of  bracket,  made  of  a  gelatin- 
ous sabttanc^  which  is  the  part  really  eaten.  This 
wsa  formerly  thought  to  be  mads  of  sea- weeds,  but 
is  now  known  to  counat  of  saliva,  which  the  swallow 


exudes  from  the  aalivaif  glanda  nnder  the  tongue. 
The  neeta  are  collected  by  means  of  ladders,  and 
often  by  meana  of  ropes,  which  enable  the  gatherers 
to  descend  from  the  summit  of  a  predpioe,  like  the 
Tock-fowlen  of  the  North.  The  gatherine  of  the 
nests  takes  plaoe  after  the  young  are  fledged,  thrice 
in  a  vear.  la  the  Chinese  market  the  neria  am  gold 
for  from  £2  to  £7  per  lb.,  aoaordinK  to  the  quality, 
and  they  are  of  course  oaed  only  by  Uie  most  wealthy, 
chiefly  for  thickening  rich  soaps.  Tlie  imports  at 
CaotoD  are  reckoned  at  1200  picnli^  or  108,000  lbs., 
representing  about  8,400,000  netts.  The  nests  are 
very  wholesome  and  noonshing,  but  quite  devoid 
of  the  peculiar  propertiea  which  the  Chmeoe  aacribe 
to  them.  Five  caverns  at  Karana  Bollong,  in  Java, 
contain  330,000  swallows,  and  yi^  annn^y  about 
600,000  neata.  The  Datoh  export  them  to  China. 
The  nests  weigh  abont  half  an  ounce  each. 

KE'XHBBLANDS,  Thz   Kinodou  or,  lies 
between  CO*  43*  and  G3°   3G'  N.  lat.,   and    3°  22' 


I  bounded  cm  the  N.  by  tha 


and  7°  16'  B.  „  _ 

North  Sea,  £.  by  Sanorar  and  the  western  part  of 
Proasia,  3,  by  iAiat,  Belgian  Limbarg,  Antwerp, 
East  and  Wert  FUndns,  W.  by  the  North  Sea. 
Its  greatert  leugUi  from  north  to  Boath  is  1 96  Enf^iih 
milea,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from  the  weat,  on  th« 
North  Sea,  to  the  extremity  of  Ovenaael,  on  the 
east,  110  English  milea.  It  oontuna  12,630  aqoare 
nuleii  Fop.  in  16S0  (without  Lnxemborg,  q.v.), 
3,309,138.  The  following  table  gives  the  popoU- 
Uoa  at  the  decennial  otnaas  <»  Slat  Peoember 
1679,  the  area  of  the  provinces,  and  the  provincial 
capitala  i 


Morth  Bnlanl. . 

Gelduluid 

Bontli  Hollud. . 
NorUi  Holland.. 

Zeelimd. 

Utrecht 

Frtesltuid 

Groniu^tm ...... 

Ltmburg........ 

Gnnd    DoBb; ) 
of  Laxembqig  / 

Tcilal 


H»,£M 


«.i2a,Esg 


The  pop.  {Dea  31, 1880)  had,  eiclnaive  of  Luiem- 
bnrg,  increased  to  4,060,630,  averaging  317  to  the 
square  mile.  In  Breathe  it  ia  103,  and  in  S.  and  N. 
Holland  rises  to  769  and  G97  i  Utrecht,  limbu^ 
and  Zeeland  <being  the  next  denaely  peopled.  In 
1871,  the  births  amounted  to  128,306,  of  which  4S99 
were  iUc^timate.  The  average  was  1  to  27*90.  In 
N.  Brabant,  1  to  MM ;  GeMerhmd,  1  to  30-04 ;  8. 
Holland,  1  to 2273 ; N. Holland,  1  to 2423 ;  Zeeland, 
1  to  26'30;  Utreeht,  1  to.21'43:  Friesland,  I  to 
3G-M;  Overyaiel,  I  to 4507;  Grooucen,  1  to  2264; 
Drentbe,  1  to  3203 ;  limbnrg,  1  to  37'44. 

The  leading  places  ara  Amstetdsm,  Rotterdam, 
Pordrechtj  ^kmsar,  Middelbnr^  Bchiedam,  Ley- 
dfoi,  Delft,  Gouda,  Utreoht,  Amersfort,  Qroningen, 
Ueppd,  Zwolle,  Eampen,  Deventw,  Amhem, 
Nymegeo,  Tiel,  Gorinchem,  'a  Hertogenbosch,  Til- 
bonb  and  Breda. 

Phyneid  Aipea.—Th»  land  ia  generally  low, 
mnch  of  it  being  under  the  level  of  the  sea,  liveia, 
and  canals,  especially  in  North  and  South  Holland, 
Zeeland,  the  loathem  part  of  Geldetland,  and 
FriceUnd.  Along  the  west  coast,  the  low  lands 
are  protected  from  the  sea  by  a  line  of  sand-hills  or 
dunes ;  and  where  that  natural  defence  is  wonting, 
strong  dylces  have  been  constructed,  and  are  main- 
tained at  great  eitpense,  to  keep  back  the  waters. 
The  greatest  of  these  dykes  are  those  of  the  Helder 
and  of  West  Eapell^  on  the  east  cosst  of  Wal- 
chereD  (q.  v.),  which  require,  each,  upwards  of 
jCeOOO  annoally  to  keep  them  in  order.  Bngineera, 
called  the  officen  of  the  Wsterstaat,  take  special 
charge  of  the  dykes  and  national  hydraulie  works, 
the  expense  of  wl^  is  reckoned  at  about  half  a 
million  sterling.  A.  hilly  district  stretidiea  from 
Prussia  throng  Drentbe,  Overvssel,  the  Telnws 
or  Amhem  district  of  Gelderhmd,  the  eastern  part 
of  Utrecht,  into  the  Betuwe  or  country  between  the 
Maaa  and  ibe  WoaL  Thia  tract  of  country  has  manv 
pretty  spots,  is  of  a  light  sandy  aaiL  well  watered, 
and  wb^  not  caltivatod,  is  covered  with  heath  or 
oak-coppice.  The  gi«atest  part  <rf  the  N.  is  veir 
'    '" 9,  the  low  Un£  and  drained  Ukea,  called  Pol- 


lakes,  called  Pof- 
.  tuiing  cattle^  and 
froitsi  pntin  some, 

■  Ufflwlh 


HITHEELANDS. 


diftricta  there  are  «»ody  hMtll-cUd  pluDS,  eztenaive 
peftt'Undt,  ftnd  andraiiied  oormwrn,  wliicii  iodiutt; 
U  TapidlT  bringing  nndar  cnltiTatioiL 

jjandt,  Sipert,  Oanal*,  Ac — The  iiUndi  may  be 
divided  into  two  groDptii  of  which  the  foutheni, 
forated  hrthe  months  o£  the  Schelde  Mtd  Man*, 
MDtaini  Walaheren,  Sonth  and  North  Bereland, 
Schonwen,  DiUTelud,  Tholen,  St  Philipaland, 
Qoere«^  Toonu,  Fntten,  BeTerlaod,  Yseelnioude, 
Botenbuig,  and  the  ialimd  «f  Dordrecht.  The 
nortiiam  fP'onp  contain*  the  ialanda  at  Uie  entiaiioe 
of  the  Zo^er  Zm  and  along  the  ooaata  of  Groningen 
and  Friealand,  m  'Wierin^  Tezel,  Tlieluid,  Tei- 


Ihe  chiat  riven  are,  the  Rhine,  Maas,  and  Scheldt 
Important  branohea  of  theae  are  the  Waal,  Lek, 
YanX,  Boer,  ftc 

Water-mye  an  mote  nnmeron*  than  in  any  other 
European  oountiy,  t^e  ^TnTmnm  traoti  of  meadow- 
land  and  the  femle  poldera  being  girdled  b^  large 
oanali,  and  cut  in  all  directiolu  bj  unaller  oner  '-  - 
drainage  and  oouunnnieation.  Those  of  most  imi 
ance  to  the  national  trade  are,  the  North  Hoi 
Canal,  eonttrncted  1819—1825,  to  connect  the  port 
of  Amsterdam  with  the  North  Sea;  the  Voome 
Canal,  from  the  north  Bide  of  Voome  to  Hellevoet- 
■lui*,  which  ahorteni  the  outlet  from  Rotterdam ; 
the  South  WUIemEVHATt,  through  North  Biabant, 
batch  and  Belgian  Limboiv,  from  'a  Hertogenbosch 
to  Maastricht,  beiiu  71}  Endish  milei  in  length, 
and  having  ^  Iocul  Beiidea  these,  there  ore 
nomerooa  important  canals,  oonnecting  risers,  and 
catting  the  kingdom  into  a  net-work  of  water- 
coones.  To  improve  the  entrance  to  the  Hoo^ 
the  Hoek  of  EoUand  baa  lately  been  cut  A  new 
canal  throng^  the  Y  and  peninaula  of  HoUaud  was 
opened,  Nov.  1,  1876.  It  is  Qowhera  loss  than 
SO  fanls  brood,  wiUi  sluices  nearly  400  feet  in 
length,  and  a  depth  of  nearly  S3  feet.  This  has 
reduced  the  distance  from  Arosterdam  to  the  sea  to 
about  16  miles,  and  providea  a  safe  way  for  large 
■hips.  The  harbonr,  in  62"  Zff  N.  lat  and  4°  36*  E. 
loDg.,  ia  fonoed  hy  piers  of  oonorete  built  into  the 
North  Sea.  Ilie  expense,  including  the  recovery 
of  16,000  acres  of  land  from  the  Y,  amounted  to 
about  two  millions  aterliiig. 

About  1240  miles  of  railway  have  been  eon- 
ttrncted, and  connect  the  N.  with  Prussia  and  with 
Belgium.  Considerably  more  than  half  of  the  entire 
railway  lyitem  belongs  to  the  state.  The  postal 
service  conveyed  iu  IS78  above  65,000,000  letteni 
and  cardi  and  about  33,000,000  newspapers.  The 
income  of  the  post-office  wss  3,600,000  florins,  as 
agaioit  2,600,000  of  eipenditure.  About  350  tele- 
gnipli  offices  conveyed  about  2,500,000  despatches. 
(^imaie,  Agriealliir*,  Prodvce,  ic — The  olimate 
at  t^  N.  ia  variable,  chilly  eoldt  often  closely  sno- 
ceeding  hij^  temperatorea,  inducing  various  forma 
<rf  fever  and  ague,  and  reqniring  peculiar  care  as 
to  clothing  kts.  In  summer,  the  uiwmometer  some- 
timet  ritea  above  SO*,  and  even  to  90*  F.  in  the 
ibade,  and  >  winter  of  great  severity  usually  occurs 
ereiy  fifth  year,  when  carriages  and  heavuy-Iadrai 
wagoD*  oroBa  the  rivers  and  the  Y  on  the  ice^  and 
thousands  enjoy  the  national  pastime  of  skating. 

The  forms  are  generally  amall  and  well  culti- 
vated, though  the  implements  ore  old-fashioned 
and  clumsy.  Much  progress  is  being  made  in 
reolaiming  the  sandy  wastes,  in  Dreuthe  and 
Overyase^  by  planting  them  with  fir  and  oalc,  and 
■owing  buckwheat,  oats,  and  rye.  The  best 
implements  are  also  being  gradually  introduced 
from  En^and,  and  the  steam-plough  was,  in 
lSiS2,  put  in  operation  on  the  lands  of  the  drained 
Haarlem  I^e.      The  foUowiog  table   shews   the 


asricaltural  piodncts,  with  their  values,  for  s  good 
year  in  the  period  1870— 1S80 : 

What  to  tlu  nine  St       ....      £l,tU,NW 

Rj", 4,tll,7» 

Bul«T, l,OM.tU 

cun, tmfiM 

Bsuu, VMM 

Paw 4»,41« 

Bnokwlmt.       ......  SIS,«S 

Oolia, t7fi,««a 

POUUM, 4,M»,*U 

Middar, m.US 

Cbieorj <*.CeS 

nu, WI.IMO 

Htup, U.U3 

Bnt, 3»,«M 

TirtOBi,'  *.*.'.'.*.'.".         tl|*M 

ToUl,    .  .      £U,g«,lH 

In  1874,  the  total  volne  of  agricultural  products  was 
about  £17,500,000.  In  1879,  wheat  occupied  329,845 
acres;  rye,  496,96S  acres;  barley,  117,418  acres; 
oats,  282,143  acres ;  pcUtoes,  301,496  acres;  back- 
wheat,  136,232  acres. 

In  1879,  the  K.  potsetted  278,700  horsey  1,461,540 
head  of  Cftttle,  897,600  sheep,  166,700  goats,  and 
337,000  pigs.  Hie  leading  agricnltuiaf  products 
of  Zeeland  are  wheat  and  madder;  iu  Soullh 
Holload  madder,  hemp,  batter,  and  oheeoe ;  in 
North  Holland,  batter  and  cheeee  are  extensively 
mode,  and  cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs  i^ared  and 
exported.  The  horses  ot  Frieslao^  Zeeland,  and 
Gelderland  are  of  first-nt«  quality  Tbe  exptnte- 
tion  of  butter  from  Holland  and  Friesland,  and  of 
Edam,  Leyden,  Gouda,  and  Frisian  cheese,  is  large  ; 
in  1880  the  value  of  the  exports  of  cheese  wsb 
£818,330,  of  butter  £%403,40a  Fruit  is  abundant 
and  in  several  provinces,  as  Gelderlaud,  Utrecht, 
and  Drenthe,  much  att^tion  is  pidd  to  bees.  Ia 
Haorlnn  and  ueighbonrhood,  tolipa  and  hyaoinl^ 
ore  much  coltivated,  realising  a  large  annual  amount. 
In  1874,  the  foreign  trade  in  bulbs  reached,  in  th« 
district,  £37,500.  The  inland  sales  realised  £47333. 
Wild  ducks,  snipes,  plovers,  and  hares  are  pleutaful; 
and  there  ore  also  conies,  partridges,  pheaMnta,  and 
deer — game  foroune  an  armole  of  export. 

Qaotogy,  MiTiert&gj/,  <te~ — The  K.  ore  of  reeent 
f  onnatJon,  and  consist  of  an  allnvial  depodt^  chiefly 
<d  a  deep,  rich  clayey  soil,  saperimpossd  on  bsnks  of 
sand,  marine  ahells,  and  beds  of  peat  and  day.  It 
appears  that  at  some  distant  period  thme  had  be«a 
a  depression  of  the  land  below  its  former  levd, 
enabling  the  sea  to  burst  through  its  tand-banka, 
submerge  the  land,  and  form  new  depooita.  The 
higher  mstricts  ore  composed  of  sand-^ift  minded 
with  fertile  earths,  and  resting  on  a  bed  of  day. 
Coot  ia  worked  in  Limburg ;  and  a  soft  sondatona, 
which  becomes  fit  for  building  purposes  after  haviiu 
been  some  time  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  n 
quarried  in  the  southern  port  of  that  province,  which 
has  also  pipe  and  other  days.  Valuable  clays  fM- 
pottery,  tile  and  brick  making,  abound  in  tbe  various 
provinoea. 

Mantifaduret,  Indiulries,  itc — The  chief  manu- 
factures ore  linen,  woollen,  cotton,  and  silk  fabrics  ; 
paper,  leather,  gloss,  &c  Leyden  and  Tilburg  arn 
famed  for  wc<iUen  blankets,  wool-dyed  pilot,  fine 
dotha,  and  frieies  ;  's  Herto^boach  for  lineos 
and  rich  damasks ;  calicoes,  ehirtings,  drills,  table- 
cloths, striped  dimities  are  made  at  Almelo,  Amers- 
fort,  and  in  the  leading  towns  of  OverysseL  Good 
imitation  Smyrna  and  Scotch  carpets,  and  carpets  of 
hair  and  woal,  are  manufactured  at  Devent«^  Delft, 
Amhem,  Hilversum,  Utrecht,  and  Breda ;  "nufcey- 
red  yarns,  dyed  silks,  and  silk  stnSs  at  Boermood, 
Uti«oht,  Haarlem,  JEO. ;  leather,  ^ass,  firearms,  at 
Maastricht  and  Delft;   iron-fonnding,  rolling  and 

ui,iiiz,»»Googk — 


SETHERlANDa 


bunmaring  of  lead  and  oopper,  oannon-foundins;  are 
oarried  on  at  tha  Hsffne.  oc. ;  and  powder-miua  at 
Muiden ;  Oudenkerk,  Middelbnrg,  'o  HertogeDboBoh, 
Amaterdam,  Nymegen,  A:a.,luive  important  we  weriea, 
tlioN  of  'b  Hertogenbcwch  and  Amsterdam  manufao- 
taring  vwj  luge  qoantitiM.  Wtaivryk,  Hensden, 
and  anrromidiDs  distriots,  tuanatactnre  boota  and 
ahoes,  of  whioh  Hensden  aenda  to  North  and  Soath 
Holland  1,000,000  pun  yeariy.  <^  U  distUled  at 
Siddcdam,  Delft,  Botteiaam,  and  Weeap.  Amiter- 
dam  hai  tho  largeat  diamond-cattiiig  trade  in  the 
world,  10,000  penona  depending  on  that  branch  of 
indnitry.  Sngar-Tefiuing  is  largely  carried  on  at 
Amfterdam,  Brttardam,  and  Dordrecht,  from  all  of 
which  mgar  ii  exported  to  Riusia,  the  Levant,  and 
eoantriea  of  Europe.  Paper  ia  chiefly  made  in  Hol- 
land aad  Oelderknd.  The  leading  letter-type 
fonnderB  are  at  Amsterdam  and  Haarlem.  Mana- 
fscturea  of  every  hind  ore  being  rabidly  increoaed  in 
number,  and  adding  to  the  material  prosperity  of 
the  Netherlands.  The  chief  motive  power  ia  the 
windmill,  whkh  fonni  a  never-failing  element  in 
■cenery ;  bat  of  late  yearg,  ateam  is 


Many  people  are  employed  in  the  immense  inland 
ahipping-trade  which  the  canal  networlc  liaa  fostered, 
there  being  about  70O0  ahips  inhabited  by  families. 
Fishing  not  only  in  the  inland  waters,  vm  coasts, 
and  bays  of  the  North  Sea,  but  also  on  the  coast  of 
Scotland,  ia  vigorooily  pursaed.  The  total  aonoal 
take  has  a  value  of  Bcvsral  hondred  thousand 
ponnda,  The  anchovy  tahe  may  amount  to 
£50,000.  There  are  prodoctive  oyster  beds,  besidee 
extensive  fiBbings  of  cod,  ling,  torbot,  floondere, 
•oles,  shrimps,  hoddach,  fto. ;  and  from  the  riven, 
salmon,  eels,  perch,  &e. 

Exports,  Jmporls,  SMpping. — The  Patch  have 
loDg  been  famed  for  the  extent  and  valne  of  their 
■ea  trade  and  thcLT  oommercial  enterprise.  The 
total  annual  value  of  importa  into  Holland  (partly 
for  home  consumption,  portly  in  transit  to  other 
countries)  between  1870  and  13S0  range  from 
£43,000,000  to  £67,000,000.  In  tha  latter  year,  the 
chief  articlee  of  import  were  coffee,  sugar,  rice, 
cotton,  cotton  gooda,  tallow,  petroleum,  iron,  flour, 
groin,  drags,  timber,  wool,  .tobacco.  The  exports 
ranged  from  £31,000,000  to  £52,000,000  a  year,  the 
chief  articles  being  coffee,  sugar,  butter,  cheeae, 
cotton,  dmga,  goano,  hides,  iron,  rice,  spirits,  cattle 
(many  oC  tiie  most  important  items  being  first 
imported).  The  total  value  of  the  imports  from 
Great  Britain  decreased  during  the  same  period 
from  £16,000,000  to  £9,250,000;  ttie  exports  to 
Oreat  Britain  increased  from  £14,00(^000  to 
£26,000,000^  The  exports  hither  are  mainly  butter, 
<wi"'<jt,  BnA  cheese;  the  importa  from  Britain, 
cotton  goods,  iron,  and  woollen  manufactures. 

In  1S80,  the  mercantile  marine  consisted  of  917 
vesaeU  of  263,900  tons,  and  79  steamera  of  6^000 
tons.  The  total  toniuwe  of  Dutch  veasels  that 
entered  Dntch  porta  in  t£at  year  wm  1,059,000,  and 
of  foreign  Teeaeb,  2,400,000. 

Seti(iion.~'A.t  the  census  of  187S  there  were 
2,469,t)14  Protestants,  1,439,137  Boman  Catholics, 
81,693  Jews,  and  22,049  belonging  to  small  sects. 
The  Protestante  belong  to  varions  oonfeaaioaa,  a 
lai^  proportion  of  the  clei^  being '  advanced '  in 

Lanffuagt  and  LUertUare. — The  langoage  ot  the 
K.,  called  bv  oa  nsoally  Dutch,  bnt  by  the  Nether- 
landers  JfeOerdttiltA  or  HederiaitdtiA,  ia  one  of  the 
Low  German  laagaages,  or  langn^es  spoken  in  the 
lowlands  of  the  TeutoDio  part  of  Europe,  in  ccntrast 
to  the  HiRh  German  oi  Upper  Germany,  The 
principal  Low  German  langiiages  are  Old  Saxon 
(and  in  some  respeots  Gothic],  modem  Low  German 


North  Germany,  and  having  a  copions  literature 
distinct  from  we  literary  High  German,  which  ia 
now  the  usual  medium  for  all  educated  Germans), 
Anglo-Saxon  or  Old  English,  modem  Engli^ 
Dutch,  Flemish,  and  Frisian.  Frisian,  considerably 
different  from  Dutch,  is  the  popular  tongae  in  a 
considerable  part  of  the  N.  (see  FniaiAHa).  Flemish 
(q.  V.)  is  harilly  diaJectoUy  different  from  Dutch, 
and  mainly  distinguished  by  having  anotber  way 

of  spelling  certain  double  voivels,  is  sjiokea  in  si 

ports  of  the  kingdom  of  the  N.,  aa  well  as  in 
Flemish  provinces  of  Belginin, 

The  early  history  of  Dutch  and  Flemish  is  hardly 
to  be  separated ;  bat  the  seat  of  literary  cultare 
was  at  first  mainly  in  the  region  where  tl^  form 
now  spoken  is  Flemish  rather  than  Dutch  ;  and  the 
material  common  to  both  forms  or  directs  baa 
ahready  been  disoussed  under  the  head  Flehish 
Lahuhaoe  AifD  Literature.  Dutch  writen  can 
to  be  of  European  fame  in  the  16th  c.,  and  daring 
the  17th  o.  Eolland  was  not  merely  a  powsrfid 
commercial  and  military  state,  bnt  was  pre-eminently 
in  the  front  rank  of  European  literature.  Many 
of  its  most  famous  sons  wrote  mainly  or  wholly  ia 
lAtin,  as  Eraimoa,  Grotius,  Huygens,  Spinoza, 
Boerhaave  (see  the  separate  articSes  on  these  great 
men).  Hooft,  historian  and  poet  (1581—16^7) ;  the 
popular  poet  Cots  (1577—1660) ;  Vondol  (1587— 
1679),  a  truly  great  poetical  genius,  ore  names  of 
which  any  country  might  be  prood.  Tan  der  Goes, 
Coster,  Rotgaos,  HeemskerV,  Brandt,  are  otber 
Temaeulor  writera  of  the  same  period.  In  the  18th 
c.,  French  influence  predominated;  Van  Haren, 
Bellamy,  Van  Dekeu,  are  notable  representatives  of 
the  period.  In  the  19th  c,  there  waa  o  revival 
of  national  feeling,  represented  in  literature  by 
Bhijnvis  Feith  and  the  greotest  of  modem  Datcu 
poets,  Willem  Bilderdiit  (1766— 1S3I);  Tollens 
(1780—1850)  is  a  well-known  poet;  and  Van 
Lennep  (1774—1853)  is  the  moat  powerful  of 
romance  writers.  Holland  did  mucb  for  classical 
philolo^  and  for  science  in  the  17th  and  I8th 
centuries ;  was  long  a  centre  of  theological  scholar- 
ship (in  which  department  it  has  again  taken  a 
Erominent  port) ;  and  in  art,  the  nomea  of  Rem- 
racdt,  Gerard  Dow,  Jao  Steen,  Patd  Potter,  and 
Rnysdaal  m^  suffice  to  iodioate  the  share  the  N. 
have  hod  in  European  culture. 

JUdttcation. — There  are  ancient  aniversitses  at 
Leyden,  Utrecht,  and  Groaingen ;  since  1876,  a 
new  university  at  Amsterdam,  supported  by  the 
municipality.  The  four  univeisitiea  have  about 
ISOO  students.  The  Polytechnic  Instttnte  at  Delft 
has  180  pupils.  There  are  Latin  achoob  in 
chief  towns.  There  are  also  the  Boyal  Military 
and  Naval  Aosdemy  at  Breda,  and  that  for  engineers 
and  the  India  civil  service  at  Delft ;  seminaries  in 
several  places  for  the  trainins  of  the  Boman  Catholio 
elergy  ;  and  others,  eniacidly  in  Amsterdam,  for 
thoae  o(  the  smaller  Protestant  sects  ;  and  many 
literoiT,  adentiiic^  and  ogricaltural  institutes. 

Each  communis  or  parish  must  hav^  at  least, 
one  elementaiy  school,  supported  from  the  local 
public  funds,  in  which  reading,  writing,  arithmeti<^ 
nistoiy,  geography,  &a.  are  taught;  A  higher  class 
of  schools  mcludes  also  foreign  languages.  All 
are  under  government  inspectors,  and  the  teacfaera 
must  undeivo  stringent  eiominations  on  all  the 
branches  before  obtaining  permission  to  teach.  Many 
society  or  subbcriptioa  schools  have  beem  erected  all 
over  the  land,  with  a  normal  sehocJ  at  Nymeee~ 
not  under  government  anrveiUanoe,  and  i]>alutui.„ 
reli^oaa  inatmction,  which  ia  excluded  from  the 
national  publio  schoola.  There  are  several  aati( — ' 
uonnalschoola.  UndartheproviatonaoItliePriDi 

2iiiUJ 


NEIHEELAITDS. 


Inttructioii  law  ol  187S,  the  ttata  part  30  per  cent 
of  the  ezpenditure  od  the  public  Khoola,  and  the 
commnnes  or  parishefl  TO  per  oeat  Id  ISSO,  there 
mra  abont  2SO0  public  lehools  with  6600  mWen, 
600  mifltnwea;  sod  2200  private  uhoola  The 
pnpila  in  the  public  achook  nomber  above  390,000; 
and  at  Uie  private  achooli,  111,782.  There  are  80 
middle  Bchoola  with  over  7000  pupils,  and  over  GO 
lAtinaohoola  with  about  lOOOpttpiiL  NevertiialeBi, 
in  1668-7S;  there  were  609  maniageB  where  the 
meo  could  not  write,  2021  whcce  the  women  could 
not,'aiid  603  where  neither  men  nor  women  could 
mite.  It  ii  believed  that  of  tbe  rural  popnlatiai 
a  fourth  of  the  men  and  a  third  of  the  women  oai 
neither  read  aor  write. 
it— 1 
.  was  2334  offioen  and  62,779 
of  the  coloured  army,  1495  ofBeers  and  33,999  men! 
It  ia  oompoaed  of  voln&teeri,  uid  of  a  Tarying  pro- 
portion of  men  diawn  hy  lot  for  five  yean'  aervice. 
There  i*  al«o  a  local  foroe,  called  the  Schattery, 
drawn  by  lot  from  those  between  26  and  34  yean  of 
aoB,  to  aaaiit  in  keeping  order  in  peaoe^  and  in  caae 
at  war,  to  act  aa  a  molule  corp&  and  do  gairiaon 
doty.  If  attacked  on  the  land-ride,  90,000  men  are 
required  for  the  detenoea,  and  if  by  land  and  sea, 
106,00a  The  fint,  or  Uaa«  Ime  of  defence,  ii 
formed  by  Uaastricht,  Venlo,  Grave,  'a  Hertogen- 
boech,  Wondriehem,  Qeertmidenber^  Willematad, 
Breda,  and  Bergen-o^Zoom.  The  second  Ime  i« 
farmed  by  Nymeeen,  Forts  St  Aedriee  and  Loeve- 
itein  and  OonDohem.  The  inner  line  of  Utrecht  ii 
formed  by  variou*  forta  from  Naardan,  Utrecht  to 
Gotiuchem,  which,  by  inandationa,  can  moke  the 
provinccB  ol  NorUk  aAd  South  HoUaod  iato  an 
island.  There  are  many  other  forts,  batteries,  and 
itrsDEths  at  the  months  of  the  rivers,  and  a  new 
line  lit  defence  was  agreed  upon  in  1874. 

The  royal  navy  consisted  in  13B1  of  103  steamem 
carrying  389  guns,  and  17  sailing  veesela  with  153. 
Seven  are  irondada  of  the  first  class,  iacludiug 
tniret-ahips,  and  ten  are  of  Uie  second  class,  all  oon- 
■tmcted  on  the  same  model,  and  intended  chiefly  for 
coast  defence.  The  sailors  and  mariDcs  'numbered 
in  the  aame  year  8470  officers  and  men,  including 
701  native  East  Indiuis, 

Jlevenue,  Escjxnditurt,  ^— The  revenue  of  IS7S 
WH  Mtimated  at  ^^,630,  and  the  expenditure  at 
£9,849,941.  The  pnneipal  receipts  are  from  direct 
taxes,  excis^  indirect  taxes,  import  and  export 
dues.  The  ^idia  revenue  for  1878  was  estimated 
at  £12,000.478  i  the  expenditure  equals  the  revenue. 
The  East  India  colonies,  which  were  once  a  burden, 
have  long  been  a  source  of  profit.  In  the  budget  of 
ISSO,  the  home  revenue  was  given  at  £9,211,498, 
and  the  expenditure  at  £9,S4fi,£21. 

From  1850  to  and  with  1874^  there  waa  paid  off 
£25,376,218  from  the  national  debt.  In  ISSO,  the 
debt  amounted  to  £78,601,216;  and  the  annual 
interest  payable  on  it  waa  £2,328,00a  The  material 
Ptospari^  of  the  N.  is  increaaiDg,  and  a  sum  of  pro- 
DaUy  not  lees  than  300  million  pounds  is  inveated 
by  N.  capitalista  in  the  funda  of  other  nations. 

Cobnua. — The  colonies  of  the  If-  are  said  to  have 
an  area  of  upwards  of  660,000  square  milee  (more 
ihau  three  tmiea  the  area  of  the  German  Empire), 
with  a  population  of  abont  24,000,000.  They  faU 
into  two  groups :  U)  the  East  Indian  possessions, 
including  Java  and  Madura,  Sumatra,  the  Mo- 
luccas, Celebes,  Timor,  parts  of  Borneo,  and  {Mrt 
of  New  Guinea ;  and  (2)  the  West  IiMies,  of  which 
the  chief  are  Surinam  and  Curasao,  There  are  also 
factories  on  the  coast  of  Qninea.  The  principal 
colonies  are  treated  at  length  in  separate  articles. 

Govtmment,  Frandutc^  etc — The  govemmeDt  of 
the  N.  is  a  limited  oonititutionBl  monarchy,  heredi- 


of  Orangey  and  attains  hts  rnKtan/Cj  at  IS,  whim  he 
takes  his  seat  in  tha  ooddcQ  of  state.  Ilia  axeea- 
tive  is  vested  in  the  kin^  with  a  omncU  of  stat* 
imposed  <A  twelve  memben,  nominated  by  !■■ 
Mjestjr,  and  the  mimstos  of  the  Interior,  For«|p 
.{bii%  Finance,  War,  the  Cdonies,  Marine^  and 
Justice,  ^ta  Isst-nsmed  taking  oha^  of  eodesl< 


SBorabkries  of  state,  for  the  Proteatant  moA  *>""-t 
Catholic  Chnrehes.  Hie  l^slative  power  is  sharad 
by  the  king  and  the  two  ebambert  «f  the  Stated' 

-ral;  the  first  chamber  having  39  membeta, 

Bd  for  nine  yeara,  by  the  provincial  states,  oim- 
third  of  their  number  retiring  every  thive  yeant 
The  second  chamber  ha*  80  membera  chcaen  fay 
eleotor*  oumberiuK  in  1882,  126,290,  above  23  veaia 
of  age,  who  pay  from  £1,  14*.  to  £0,  It.  of  direct 


qoalifieaticn  is  half  the  above 
of  both  ohambera  must  be  30  Tean  of  age  befora 
the  day  of  election,  and  tboce  uigible  for  the  firat 
chamber  are  the  nobility.  This  exceedingly  high 
franchise,  which,  in  Amsterdao,  is  a  high^  direct 
tax  than  the  rental  qualification  of  Ckeat  Britain, 
mi^es  an  electiim  a  tiling  of  no  interest  «xc^  to  a 
few.  In  1871,  only  36-2  per  cent  of  the  electors  of 
North  Holland  gave  their  votes,  and  the  maximnsa 
in  any  place  was  66'9  per  cent,  in  Limbnr^  62-5  in 
North  Brabant,  the  average  being  48-6> 

The  king  nominates  tM  govemon  of  ptovinoe^ 
the  burgemeesten  of  every  dty,  town,  or  village 
and  a  host  of  other  officials.  The  dtiesi  towna,  and 
rural  parishes  an  governed  bv  a  council,  bono* 
mewter  (mayor  orprovost),  and  wethondeis  (aldar* 
n  or  bailies].  The  council  consiEtB  tA  fnun  7  ta 
members,  according  to  the  population,  who  ai* 
chosen  for  six  years,  one-third  part  retiring  aveiy 
two  years.  The  council  selecte  out  of  their  number 
from  2  to  4  wethoodera  for  six  yeart^  one-halt 
retiring  every  tiiird  year.    These  with  tlie  borg^ 

'--,  form  the  local  «aeoutiveL    The  law  depart- 

are  the  Hidt  Council,  the  provincial  conrts 

of  justice,  those  ofMoarrondissements  and  oantona; 
appeod  in  many  cases  being  open  from  the  lowor  to 


^isbtry;— Nothintr  is  known  regarding  the  original 
inhabitants  of  the  N. ;  but  about  a  century  and  a 
hall  befora  our  era,  the  peoide  known  »•  the  Batavi 
came  out  of  Hesse,  where  they  weie  liviiu  in 
hostility  with  their  neighbours,  and  settled  down 
between  the  Rhine  and  the  WaaL  At  this  time, 
the  Frisians  occupied  tiie  conntiT  north  of  the 
Rhine  to  the  Elbe.  The  Batavi  and  Frimana 
difiered  littie  in  appearance,  manner  of  life,  and 
religion.  They  clothed  themsdvea  with  skins,  lived 
tj^Sahing,  hnntiog,  and  paatnrina cattle, posaesaiiu 
honea,  cows, snd  sheep;  werefaitiifnl,4»en-beartect 
'     '      and  hospitaUe.     The  son^  of  th     ^  -'- 


E  the  bards 


composed  thdr  Uterature  and  history.  Warlike  and 
brave,  they  selected  their  leader  for  his  courage  and 
prowees,  were  armed  with  the  bow  and  a  short 


spear.    Tbey  worshipped  the  sun  and  k 
u^ij  4.1...:..  **ti^*iTt^  in  consecrated  woods. 

^ving  subdued  the  Beign,  next 
jaca,  who  agreed  to  pay  a  tribute 
horns,  but  continned  lestieea  and 

.„„,...„.„      ^tavi   beoame  allies   of  Borneo 

paying  no  tribute,  but  sapplyicg  a  volunteer  contin- 
gent, chiefly  of  cavalry,  which  decided  the  battle  of 
Fhartalia  in  favour  of  Cesar,  and  formed  a  gallant 
-      -  -     -  -      in  all  patto  of  the 

,v  Google 


banJd  of  the  'p-™—'  t 


aupire.  AlMDt70A.D.,  CIandiiuCiTilu,aBat«Tuui, 
whoBa  oiuiiul  name  hM  not  been  preoerred, 
made  m  b<da  effort  to  overthrow  the  Boman  power 
in  Blieiiiali  or  Gemumio  Gaol,  but  he  wm  finally 
oompelled  to  sae  for  peao&  Towards  the  cloae  of 
tlte  3d  &  b^an  the  inroads  of  ths  Franks  followed 
Iwthe  Sazont  and  other  noes;  imd  in  tile  Sth  c., 
the  Batavi  had  ceased  to  sxiit  aa  a  diatinot  peoples 
The  Franks  oontinned  to  spread,  and  with  them  the 
Christian  religion,  DavAiert  L,  one  (€  tlieir  prinoes, 
creetinK  a  <Anndi  at  Utrechi  which,  691^  Mume 
t^  seal  of  a  bishcfirio.  The  Frisiana  were  opposed 
to,  and  the  last  to  embrace,  ChrietianitT,  to  which 
V^  were  forcibly  converted  by  Charbs  MarteL 
At  the  end  of  the  Sth  o.,  all  uie  Low  Countries 
■nbmitted  to  Charlemagne,  who  bnilt  a  palaoe  at 
Nym^;eu,  on  the  WaaL  The  fendal  syrtem  now 
bq^an  to  develop  itself  and  expand  into  dukedoin% 
"—    lordahips,    and    bisaoprics,    iriuch    tlM 


Utrecht, 
with  aa  little  snbmisnon  to 
tbnr  taperior  aa  poanble.  The  Cnuades  weakened 
Ha  power  and  dmined  the  itsotuces  of  the  nobles 
and  pneeHiood,  so  that,  during  ths  middle  agea, 
cities  b^^  to  assume  importance,  strengthen  them- 
selvM  with  walli^  choose  t^eir  own  rolen,  and 
appear  in  the  state  meetings.  In  13S4,  the  connty 
lu  Flandcow  passed,  thronj^  marriaj^  to  the  Doke 
of  Bnrgnndf,  whose  grandson,  Philip  the  Oood, 
made  it  his  spei^  life-effort  to  form  the  N.  into  a 
nowetfol  kingScm.  He  bought  Namnr,  inherited 
Brabant  with  Limbnrg,  and  compiled  Jacoba  of 
Bavaria  to  resign  Holland  and  Zeelaod.  CIurle8V.,as 
heir  of  tbe  hoosa  of  Bargnu^,  inherited  and  onited 
the  K.  undo'  his  sceptze,  and  the  ooontry  attained 
to  pneperity,  throaga  the  enconragements  which  he 
gave  to  commerce  and  shipping.  Philip  IL,  who 
succeeded  his  father,  1S68,  l^  his  hanh  government 
and  peTae<!ation  of  the  Beformers,  excited  the  N. 
to  rebellion,  which,  after  a  strngfile  of  80  yean, 
reanlted  in  the  firm  establishment  w  the  Republio  of 
the  United  Provinces.    ITie  founder  of  Om  indepen- 


of  thoKco^innairtingaiaSpamahyoke.  Betiring 
to  Holland,  and  banding  together  aevGral  provincea 
for  mutual  defence,  by  an  agreement  made  at 
Utrecht,  1679,  he  peraeveringly  opposed  the  efforte 
of  Spain ;  and  in  1609,  the  m<upendenoy  of  the 
United  Provinces  [the  bonndariea  of  which  nearly 
ooincided  with  those  of  the  present  kingdom  of 
the  N.},  was  virtually  acknowledged  by  the  Spanish 
kins,  on  armiatica  for  twelve  yean  being  signed 
at  Antwerp,  April  9  of  that  year.  The  stn^le 
was  renewed  and  carried  on  till  1648,  when  all 
Hm  powws  acknowledsed  the  independence  oC  the 
United  Provinces  by  t£e  treaty  of  Monster,  while 
tbe  Belsio  provinces,  divided  among  themselves, 
remained  snbmisuve  to  Spain  and  to  the  Boman 


Ctetholio  Church, 

Prince  William  t^  Bilent  did  not  live  to  see  his 
efforts  for  freedom  crowned  with  sucaeos.  Excited 
by  religions  foEiaiicism,  and  the  hope  of  a  great 
rewaid,  Baltliazar  Gersjd  or  Guion,  I5S4,  shot  the 
prince  in  his  honse  at  Delfts  from  a  narrow  passage, 
aa  he  waa  stepping  from  the  dining-room  to  ascend 
HD  adjoining  stair  which  led  to  the  second  floor. 
Witli  the  ITth  c,  the  United  Provinces  be^  to 


and  raged  with  fury  tor  many  years  (  G 
otiien  fleeing  to  othv  lands,  and  the 


January  1795,  were  obliged  to  esctqie  from  Sch 

r^e  began.    The  United  Provmces  now  bte»a 


Oldenbomeveld  suffering  on  the  soaScU  at  the  age 
of  72.  The  United  Provinces  were  preeided  ovw 
by  the  Princes  of  Orange  till  the  tronblea  at  the  end 
of  the  ISth  c  began  t£e  long  European  war,  which 
the  battle  of  Waterloo  brought  to  a  close.  The 
National  Convention  of  France  having  declared 
war  agwnat  Qreat  Britain  and  the  Stootbolder  d 
Holland,  1793,  French  annies  ovemn  Belginm, 
17M ;  and  being  welcomed  bv  iim  so-called  pMriota 
of  the  United  Kovinoes, 

Scheven- 
fVenoh 
became  the 
Batavian  Kepnblio,  paying  eight  and  a  half  millifnm 
sterling  for  a  Frenofa  army  of  25,000  men,  besides 

S'ving  up  important  parts  of  the  country  ^ong  the 
el^n  frontier.  After  several  ohongea,  Louia 
Bonaparte  Sth  June  1606,  waa  appointed  king  of 
Holland,  but,  four  years  later,  was  obliged  to  nmgn 
beoatue  he  refused  to  be  a  mere  tool  in  the  hands  of 
the  French  emperor.  Hdland  waa  then  added  to  the 
Emmre,  and  formed  seven  d^orbnants.  Hie  tall 
of  Napoleon  L,  and  dismembOTmant  Of  the  French 
Empire,  led  to  the  recall  of  the  Orange  family,  and  the 
fonootion  of  the  Sonthem  and  Northern  novinces 
into  the  iil-ossorted  Kingdom  of  the  N.,  which  in 
1830  was  broken  np  by  the  seoession  of  Bel^nm. 
In  1839,  peace  was  nnidly  concluded  with  Belgium ; 
but  almost  immediately  after,  national  discontent 
with  the  govermneDt  shewed  itself,  and  William 
L,  in  1340,  abdicated  in  favonr  of  bis  son.  The 
N.  being  moved  by  the  revolutionary  fever  of 
1848,  King  William  IL  eranted  a  new  consldta- 
tion,  occwliDg  to  whitUL  new  chomben  were 
ohoeeu,  bnt  had  scwoely  met  when  he  died,  Maroll 
1S49,  and  William  III  asoended  the  tlironsL 

A  bill  for  the  emancipatdon  of  the  alaves  in  the 
N.  West  India  possessions  was  passed  in  1862.  It 
decreed  a  compenaation  of  300  gnUden  for  each 
slave,  exoept  those  of  the  island  ta  St  Martin,  who 
were  to  be  conpeniated  for  at  30  guildera  each. 
The  freed  negroes  may  choose  the  place  to  labour, 
bnt  must  be  able  to  satisfy  the  government  cSoera 
that  they  are  employed  somewhere.  This  sorveil- 
lanoe  to  continue  during  ten  years.  The  law  came 
into  force  in  1863.  In  the  budget  for  1863,  pro- 
vision wsB  made  for  the  expenses  of  emancipation 
to  the  amount  of  £1,066,366,  of  which  £867,000 
was  compensation  for  the  slaves  of  Surinam,  and 
£21,260  preminma  for  free  labour.  For  Cnracao 
and  its  dependencies,  £166,090  (^  compensation 
money,  fully  £12,000  being  for  various  otier  outlays 
connected  with  the  change.  The  number  of  slaves 
set  free  may  be  stated  in  ronnd  numbers  to  be 
42,000,  of  whom  36,000  are  in  Patch  Ouiana. 

On  16thJuly  1863,  a  treaty  waa  signed  at  Brussels 
by  all  the  naval  powers  for  the  buying  op  of  the 
toll  levied,  under  treaty  arrangamentB,l)y  the  king 
of  the  N.,  on  vessels  navigating  the  S<^eldt  (q.  v.), 
the  king  of  Belgium  bindmg  himself  also  to  reduce 
the  harbour,  puot.  and  other  chaiges  on  shipinng 
within  tbat  kingdom. 

Iq  1868,  the  Luxemboi^  question  ended  in  an 
advantage  for  the  N.  (see  WnxuH  IH).  Next 
year,  capital  pnnishment  was  abolished.  Jbl  1870, 
the  chi^  subject  of  interest  was  tiie  cdlooial  policy. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-Oerauui  war,  the  K. 
dechu«d  their  neutrality ;  and  since  then  much  has 
been  done  to  strengthen  the  army  and  national 
defences.  In  1873)  a  very  tedious  and  difficult  war 
broke  out  with  the  small  state  of  Atcheen,  in  the 
north  of  Sumatra.  Of  late,  in  spite  of  somewhat 
frequent  cbangea  of  miniitoy,  tlis  prosperity  and 
progreM  of  the  N.  hara  been  manifest ;  and  various 
reforms  in  finance,  the  army,  the  ednoatioDal  ^stem, 
and  the  penal  code  have  been  oairied  out 

>  -^^m 


'■^ 


IRLANDS  TRADINQ  COMPANT— HETLET. 


nut  N.  Ii>4s  coffsred  inach  fcom  flooda,  either 


firen  of  the  Bhjue  delta  were  blacked  up  with 
TheZuiderZee  (q.T.),  which  oontaiiiB  1305  un 
milea,  *>■  of  trifling  extent  till  the  flood  of 
Sttoti'  Dfty,  1247>  vhen  the  North  Sek  (wallowed  np 

•  lufjQbaotof  ooantiy.  In  1277,  the  Dollait  Golf,  in 
Gronnwm,  ma  formed  at  the  month  of  the  Ems, 
by  flocio*  in  the  ipnng  and  aatumn  of  that  year, 
irtuchde«bn)y«d  33  TilU^  and  100,000  people.  The 
immenw  wane  of  watras,  known  aa  tha  aanken 
SoDtb  Hdland  Waarde,  or  Bicebosch,  oroae  oat  of 
the  breaking  of  one  of  the  dykes,  1421,  by  which 
72  villagea  woe  laid  nnder  water,  only  34  of  them 
teappearinft  tn  modem  timea,  gi«at  floods,  bat 
fbrtonately  with  only  tempoiMT  reaolta,  hare 
occtirred  in  1600,  1623,  and  1866.  That  of  1860 
placed  the  town  of  Veenendaa),  in  Oelderiand,  and 
an  ext«D»iTa  tract  of  coontry  under  water,  a  thaw 
in  Oennany  havii^  aent  down  torrents  of  water, 
while  the  nven  t^  Holland  were  still  frozen. 

See  the  historie*  of  the  N.  by  BUderdiik  (12  vdla. 
1839^  Qroen  Tan  Frinsterer,  Arend,  Nuyena, 
WiJDQc  (5tb.  ed.  1S79),  Wenzelborser,  Kemper,  and 
Motley  (/fUtorji  o/the  Uniiad  NeUuriandt,  4  vola.). 
For  itatiitice,  aee  works  br  Tan  Beaaden,  Rijkeni ; 
the  AUgeoKfie  StatitliJt  van  Ntderland ;  the 
BUuiidcnndig  Jaarboetje  ;  and  other  annual  reporta. 

NBTHEftUJmS    TRADING    COMPANY. 

•  chartered  joint-atock  aasociation,  with  limited 
liability,  filmed  to  aid  in  developing  the  natural 
resouToea  of  the  Datcb  Eait  Indian  poaseoaionB.  The 
Company  ]iaa*e«ea  peculiar  privileges,  acting  ei- 
clntrively  as  the  ooDimiasion-agents  ot  the  Nether- 
lands government  in  importing  and  selling  the 
produce  of  the  ooloniea,  as  weu  as  doing  a  large 
buaineas  as  merohanta.  Private  enterprise  bavins 
failed  to  develop  tiie  trade  of  Java,  after  that  island 
waa  reatored  to  the  Netherlands,  King  William  L  in 
1824,  erected  &»  Tndins  Company,  with  a  capital 
of  npwarda  of  8  mimona  ateriing,  not  only 
becoming  a  large  ahareholder,  bnt  guaranteeingan 
interest  of  4  per  cenL  on  the  paid-up  capital  The 
early  transactiona  were  unprofitable,  and  in  182!I 
the  king  had  t»  pay  a  part,  and  in  1830  the  whole 
of  the  guaranteed  intereat  From  that  date,  it  haa 
proapered  and  handed  over,  from  the  trade  of  Java 
(q.T.),  large  antploa  bslancea  into  the  national 
revenue.  The  head  office  of  the  directors  ia  at 
Amsterdam,  with  ag^ta  at  Rotterdam,  Middelboig, 
Dordrecht^  and  Schiedam ;  tJie  principal  factory 
at  Batavia,  with  agencies  at  the  chief  porta  in 
Java  and  the  oUmt  Netherlands  poaaeasiona  in 
the  Esateni  Archipelago.  Formerly  the  company 
aent  large  qnaotitiea  ofgooda  to  the  colonial  marketa 
for  the  account  of  the  Dutch  goTamment ;  bat  aince 
tbe  b^inning  of  1876,  the  buaineas  for  the  govern- 
ment  has  bnn  confined  to  colonial  produce,  which 
is  placed  in  factories,  forwarded  to  Hollaed,  and 
diapoaed  of  at  the  compauys  aales  in  Amsterdam, 
Rotterdam,  fto.  In  1875,  they  sold  for  the  govern- 
ment 756,959  bales  of  coffee,  which  realised 
£^378,292;  136,768  blocks  of  Banca  and  2956  of 
Billiton  tin,  at  £376,548  j  432  packages  of  einchoDs 
i.._t_  __^  powder  at  fW77.      On  the  company's 

colonial  produce  waa  aold  to  Uie  value  of 


account,  colonial  produc 


d  money,  to  the  value 


(ooda,  precious  atone^  i  .    _,  .. 

114,68^  were  sent  to  Netberlanda- India,  Singa- 
pore, Britiah  India,  Chini^  Japan,  and  Surinam. 
The  company  also  advance  money  to  planters  and 
manufacturer  in  the  colonies,  who  bind  themselves 
for  a  number  of  yean  to  consign  their  produce. 
They  are  also  owner*  of  a  large  sugar  plantation, 
Beaolutics  in   Surinam.      The   present   capital   ia 


30,140,000  gnildera,  or  £3,011,a66L  The  oommiaaion 
paid  iy  sovenment  ia  a  chief  somce  of  profit.  For 
1876,  the  net  gun  waa  £180,354,  from  which  th« 

bareholden  recdve-"  " '  .     m. .    _      . 

lave  beem  more  favt 
BUStained  in  the  Jui 


s  oontractois.    Hm 


utained  m  the  Juiaa  nade. 

The  auccess  of  the  Trading  Company  depends 
ainly  on  the  cnltare  ayatem,  which  was  intro- 
duced into  Java  in  1830.  Under  the  native  rule, 
the  land  belonged  to  the  princes,  and  the  caltivBtors 
nud  one-fifth  of  the  produce,  and  one-fifth  of  their 
labour  as  ground-rent.  Tbe  Putch,  by  conquest 
are  now  the  proprietora  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
island,  and  exact  the  old  produce  rent^  relaxing  tlw 
labonr  to  one-aeventh.  and  canaing  the  holders  of 
oown-land*  to  plant  one-fifUi  i^  their  cultivated  fi^da 
with  tbe  crop  best  adapted  for  the  soil  andreqoired 
for  the  EnropeM)  marlut  The  govenunent  also  has 
anjpplied,  frra  ot  interest,  euteiprinng  young  men 
with  the  capita  necenarr  to  erect  and  oatTT  on 
works  for  the  preparation  of  the  raw  materiab,  to 
be  repaid  in  ten  yea^  inatahnsita,  befjinuin^  with 
the  third  year-  Ilielandhdden  of  a  certain  dis- 
trict allotted  to  a  augar-mill  were  bound  to  siip[dy 
a  fixed  quantity,  receiving  advances  open  the  crop 
to  enable  than  to  bring  it  toward.    The  nlo  ot 

fixed  quantity  was  rdaxed  in  1860,  —'  '-— " 

great  discontentment 
European  reudents  ai 
princes,  chiefs,  and  village  head-men,  receive  a  pa^ 
oeotage  aooording  to  the  quantity  which  is  mao*- 
faeturad  from  the  produce  delivered,  so  that  all  uo 
interested  in  taldng  care  that  the  lands  are  culti- 
vated and  the  crops  oared  for.  Sugar,  tcbsccc^  and 
tea  are  prepared  1^  contractor* ;  md^  ooohmeal, 
coffee,  cinnamon,  and  pepper  by  the  natives  under 
European  surveillance,  all  passing  into  the  ^Mding 
Company's  factones  for  ahipment  to  the  Netheriands. 
The  objections  to  the  ayitem  are,  that  it  does  not 
leave  the  labonr  of  the  natives  free,  and  that  tho 
poasins  of  so  much  of  the  export  and  import  trade 
throu^  one  favoured  company  injnra*  the  genenl 
merchant-    On  the  other  hind,  it  must  be  aaid  that 


jgwdedt^  the  r ___j  

an  infringement  of  their  rigfata ;  and  the  merchants 
and  eapitaliate  of  the  Netherianda  did  not  of  them- 
aelvea  put  forth  sufficient  efibrta  to  work  cut  the 
natural  capabilities  of  Java  when  it  returned  under 
Patch  rule. 

NETLET,  BoTAb  TicioiUA  Hosfitai.  at,  is  » 
superb  building,  on  the  shore  of  Southampton  Water, 
for  the  nception  of  invahda  from  the  army  on  foran 
aervioe,  and  from  among  the  troopa  serving  in  Uib 
adioining  militaty  diatricta.  In  times  of  peace,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  use  a  portion  of  the  vast  atriw- 
ture ;  but  in  the  event  of  a  Eurcmean  war,  in 
which  the  British  army  ahould  take  par^  tb» 
exigencies  of  the  aervice  would  probably  tas  itft 
accommodation  to  the  utmost.  There  ia  provision 
for  1000  patients,  with  power  to  inct«aae  the  number 
if  necea«ai^.  The  medical  alaff  of  coum  varies 
in  proportion  to  the  work  to  be  done ;  bnt  at- 
present  it  conaista  of  a  governor,  an  adjutant,  a 
-i^maater,  an  aasiatant-commandant,  and  medical 
ifficera,  and  officers  of  orderlies  of  various  t«nka^ 
The  total  coat  of  the  construction  (rf  tiiis  hospital, 
which  waa  commenced  in  1855,  has  been  about 
£350,000.  Attached  is  the  Medical  School  for 
candidates  for  (he  army  medical  department,  the 
atudeuta  having  the  beat  meana  of  practical  instrao- 
tion  in  the  wards  of  the  hoapitaL  N.  ia  also  the 
headquarten  of  the  female  nuraee  of  the  army,  who 
are  under  the  control  of  a  lady  atationed  here  «• 
supenatendenb  Complete  arrangements  have  been 
nude  for  the  landing  of  wonnoed  men  in  front. 


NSIS— NViTlKOt 


but  m 


0  donbt  u  to  the 
gnat  hospitBl  for  its  pniposea ; 
have  been  nieed,  under  hiffh 
,  mOumty,  aa  ta  the  aalnbrity  of  the  am, 
adjacent  u  it  ia  to  the  wide  baoka  of  mod  irbitdi 
Sonthampton  Water  mcoven  at  low  tide. 

NETS  are  fabrics  in  which  the  threads  cron  each 
other  at  right  anglee,  leaving  a  comparatively  large 
opea  apace  between  them ;  the  threads  are  also 
blotted  at  the  intersections.  In  this  respect, 
netting  diffen  enentialljr  from  weaving,  where  the 
intersecting  threada  mmply  cross  each  other.  The 
open  apaces  in  nets  are  called  me^e*,  and  theae 
correipond  in  size  with  an  instnunent  nsed  in  net- 
making,  oonsisting  of  a  flat  piece  of  wood  or  other 
hard  subitanoe,  tuoally  about  the  shape  and  size  of 
■  common  paper-knife.  In  addition  to  this,  a  peon- 
liar  hind  of  needle  (fig.  1)  is  used,  upon  which  a  large 
quantity  of  the  thread  is  placed,  by  winding  it  &om 
end  to  end  between  tike  forKed  extiemities ;  uie  holes 


Kg.L 

ara  used  to  insert  Ho)  end  of  the  thread,  to  prevent 
it  slipping  off  at  the  commenceioait  of  tiie  winding; 
The  art  St  net-making  baa  been  practised  from  the 
earliest  times  hy  the  most  savage  as  well  as  the 
most  civilised  nations.  Even  where  the  art  of 
weaving  waa  quite  unknown,  as  in  some  of  the  South 
Sea  Islands  when  first  discovered,  that  of  netting 
was  well  understood ;  and  it  is  ea^  to  see  that  the 
human  race  could  not  help  leomng  the  valae  of 
this  art  from  seeing  bow  frequently  uad  and  water 
iminiBls  get  entangled  in  the  shraba  and  weeds 
through  which  the?  attempt  to  poai ;  henoe  we 
find  amongst  savage  tribes,  almost  vnivetsally,  nets 
are  need  not  only  foe  fiahing,  aa  with  ns,  bat  also 
for  entrapping  land  animals.  We  have  ample  illne- 
trations  of  the  use*  of  nets  for  both  porpoaes  in  the 
baa-reliefs  of  Assyria,  Oreece,  and  Rom*,  and  in  the 
mural  paintings  Ot  Egypt. 

Until  recentiy,  nets  have  been  always  mads  by 
hand,  and  genenlly  the  thread  has  been  a  more  or 
lees  thick  twins  M  hemp  or  flax,  tlie  tiiicknesB  of 
the  twine  and  the  size  of  the  mesh  depending  npon 
the  Idnd  of  fish  for  whioh  it  was  made ;  recently, 
however,  great  improvements  have  been  made  in 
the  manoucture  of  nets,  and  mocbineiy  of  a  most 
beautiful  automatic  kind  has  been  introduced  by 
Messrs  Stuart  of  Musselburgh,  whose  mannfactory 
i«  of  vast  extent.  This  estabtisbmeot  eommencea 
with  the  raw  materials,  which  are  hemp,  flax,  and 
«Dtton,  the  last  having  been  extensively  em^oyed 
for  herring  and  sprat  nets  of  late  years.  Bempy 
however,  i*  the  chief  material  for  net-making  ; 
and  in  order  to  prepare  it,  it  is  first  passed  in  long 
roUs  through  a  machine  consisting  of  two  rollers 
with  blunt  ridges,  the  upper  ol  which  is  kept 
down  OD  the  material  by  means  of  a  hanging 
wei^t,  eonaiflting  of  a  liMuled  box  suspended  to  a 
chain  from  the  ule  of  the  roUer.  After  the  fibre 
has  passed  through  this,  it  is  much  more  supple 
than  before,  and  is  then  hadded ;  this  process  i* 
also  done  by  machinery,  which  waa  first  introduced 
into  this  manufactoiy  for  hemp-hackling,  and  sno- 
ceeda  admirably.  It  subsequently  posses  throagh 
the  carding,  roving,  and  spiumng  processes,  as 
in  all  other  kinds  of  yam,  and  is  finally  twisted 
into  threada  or  twvoes  of  the  required  thickneas. 
Messrs  Stuart  have  in  one  room  4O00  smndlea  at 
work,  besides  the  carding  and  twiat  macmnes.  Of 
their  patent  loom  they  have  200  at  WOTk,  the  largot 


of  which  makes  nets  480  meahea  in  width.  ItwcnUd 
be  nselees  to  attempt  to  describe  theae  ingeniona 
looms,  which  are  w<n4[ed  by  hand,  oUierwise  than 


s  shuttles  possius 

one  box  on  each  side  A 

n  fig.  2,  which  ahewa  the  box,  a,  with 


^3 


ahnttle-needle,   h,  protruded;   e  ia  the  bobbin  tA. 

twine  which  feeds  the  needle,  and  for  this  purpose 
most  have  a  oonical  form,  which  is  moat  ingenioualy 
given  it  by  a  special  oontrivance,  in  the  twisting- 
machine  \i,d,d  are  small  ringB,  throagh  which  the 
twine,  ee,  passes,  to  prevent  it  beinc  given  off  too 
qnickly,  or  in  knots  <x  kinki.  Tnis  simple  ]ret 
most  effective  contrivance  is  worked  by  wheels  and 
jointed  rods,  and  might  be  advantageously  applied  to 
many  other  purposes.  After  the  net  comes  from  the 
loom,  it  goes  to  the  finishers,  who,  by  baud,  make 
the  addition  of  a  kind  of  selvage,  consirting  of  several 
thicknesses  of  twine,  to  give  strength  to  the  edges; 
The  nets  are  then  ready  for  use,  and  are  sent  in  vast 
numbers  to  oil  parts  of  the  world.  Machine  net- 
making  is  now  becoming  general. 

A  great  variety  of  nets  are  in  ose  amongst 
fishermen,  but  the  piiucip^  are  the  seui^  trawl, 
and  drj^  ntU.  The  seine  is  a  very  long  but  not 
very  wide  net,  one  side  of  which  is  loaded  with 
pieces  of  lead,  and  consequeuUy  sinks ;  the  other, 
or  npper,  is  buoyed  with  pieces  of  cork,  and  con- 
sequentiy  ia  kept  np  to  the  surface.  Seines  ore 
sometimes  aa  much  as  190  fathoms  in  length. 
When  stretched  oat,  tiiey  constitute  walls  of  net- 
work in  the  water,  and  are  mode  to  encloee  vaat 
ahools  of  fish.  IThe  trawl  is  dragged  along  the 
bottom  by  the  fishing-boat ;  and  the  diift-net  ia 
like  the  seine,  but  is  not  loaded  with  lead ;  it  ia 
irel  fishing. 
aro  nsed  in  bird-catching, 
one  of  which  is  noticed  in  the  article  Clu-set. 
Nets  are  osed  in  catching  quadrupeds,  chiefly  for 
the  purpose  of  enclosing  spaces  within  which  they 
are,  bat  sometimes  also  for  throwing  upon  them  to 
confuse  and  entangle  them. 

Nets  am  nsed  by  gardeners  to  protect  crops  from 
birds ;  also  to  protect  the  blossoms  of  tr^  from 
frost,  and  it  ia  wonderful  how  well  this  object  is 
accomplished,  even  when  the  meshes  am  pretty 
wide,  and  the  sun's  rays  have  very  free  access. 

NETTING,  Navu.  Aftoordftiff-RcUiii^isformed 
of  strong  rope,  and  stretched  above  the  railwa^a  of 
a  aidp,  over  tiia  port-boles,  ftc,  to  a  omsiderable 
height,  for  the  pnrpose  of  preventiog  the  entrance 
of  boudets  from  hostile  boats.  In  positions  where 
boat  attacks  are  feasible,  ships  are  thns  protected  at 
night,  and  at  other  times  when  attempts  at  boarding 
are  anticipated. 

The  AanMn«ct-n«aln^  is  in  the  bolwaika  of  a  ship, 
usually  in  the  wmst,  and  its  pmpoae  is  to  keep  the 
hammocka  of  the  crew  when  stowed  there  during 
the  day ;  thna  netted  together,  the  hammocka  form 
a  valuable  barrier  against  hullets. 

Hatdaeay-n^iiAgt  ore  of  inoh  rope,  aad  an 


Xio^^l' 


NETILE— NJSrrLB-BASB. 


pnrmt  p«naiu  from  filing  throng 

NETTLB  (UrOea),  >  genmi  -A  puats  at  tne 
BBtonl  order  Uriicta,  lumiig  nnuexnal  flowera,  tho 
nule  and  fsinalo  on  the  nme  or  (^Mtnte  pluita  j 
tho  male  flowers  with  ft  4-p«rted  peruuth,  uid  fonr 
■ttunena;  th«  femsls  flower*  with  ft  Z-pnted 
perianth  and  a  tufted  stigma;  the  fruit  an  acheoinm. 
^e  opedM  are  hetbaMoni  flaoto,  ihnibB,  or  even 
trees,  many  irf  them  covered  witii  itiiigiDg  hMr% 
whioh  fneioa  the  akin  when  tonched,  and  emit  an 
acrid  juice,  often  causing  much  inflammation  and 
pain.  When  a  N.  is  grasped  in  such  a  way  aa  to 
preas  the  hain  to  the  stem,  no  atinj^  ensaea  ;  bnt 
the  slightest  inadvertent   touch   of  some   of   the 

riet  prodnces  very  serere  pain.  The  stinging  of 
Dative  nettle*  of  rhirope  is  trifling  in  oompanaon 
with  that  of  soma  East  Indian  spedes.  U.  ertatdata 
is  partienlarif  notable  for  the  aeverit;  of  the  pun 
whidt  it  producea,  without  ather  poatnle*  or 
^tparent  inflammation.  The  first  sensation  is 
mwely  a  slight  tingling,  bnt  within  an  honr  violent 
pain  a  felt,  m  IE  a  t«d-hot  iron  were  conldnnally 
applied,  and  the  pain  extends  far  from  the  origin^ 
■pot,  continnea  for  abont  twenty-four  honrs  and 
tnea  abates,  bat  is  read^  to  retnm  in  its  original 
intcnsit]'  on  the  applicattoa  of  cold  water,  and  does 
not  cease  for  folly  eight  days.  Cold  water  has  a 
inmilar  effect  in  increasing  or  renewing  the  pain  of 
til  kind*  of  iwttle*.  Still  mora  formidable  than  this 
specie*  is  U,  UTetUittima,  the  DeeiFa  Lenf  of  Timor. 
0£  British  species,  the  moat  venomons,  bnt  the  most 
rare,  is  the  Bokak  N.  (17.  pUulifera) ;  next  to  it  it 
the  Shall  N.  (IT',  urou),  frequent  aboDt  towns  and 
vill^es,  and  in  waste  and  cultivated  ground ;  whilst 
the  least  venomous  is  the  most  common  and  only 
perennial  species,  the  Great  N.  ( U.  dioiea),  every- 
where abandant,  bnt  particaliLrly  near  boman  habi- 
tations,  or  their  former  sites,  tlie  desolation  of  which 


of  tiie  •talk*  and  leave*  ha*  been  osed  to  dye 
woollen  stufb  of  a  beantifnl  and  permanent  green. 
The  yoDng  shoots  of  U.  dunea  are  used  in  some 
parta  of  Scotland  and  other  countries  as  greens,  and 
their  peculiar  flavonr  is  mnch  relished  by  some, 
althoogh,  in  general,  the  a«e  of  them  ii  confined  to 
the  poor ;  which,  however,  is  probably  the  result  of 
mere  prejudice.  Whatever  it  is  that  gives  nettlce 
their  stinging  power,  is  dissipated  by  boiling.  The 
high  value  of  nettles  as  food  for  swine^  is  well 
koiwn  to  the  peasantty  of  roony  conntrie*;  the 
Great  N.  is  cultivated  in   Sweden  for  fodder  of 


ly  esteemed 

Kiven  to  horses  by  jockey*,  in  order  to  make  them 
Lvely  when  they  are  to  be  offered  for  sale.  The 
stalks  and  leave*  of  nettles  are  employed  in  some 
part*  of  England,  for  the  manufacture  of  a  light 
kind  of  beer,  called  y.  beer,  which  may  be  seen 
advertised  at  stalls,  and  ia  humble  shops  in  Man- 
chester and  other  towns.  The  ba^  fibre  of  nettle* 
"    "olli,both 

._  _.  . ,. , be  made 

of  it.  The  fibre  oi  U.  dioiea  was  used  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  and  is  atill  used  in  Piedmont 
and  other  coantrie*.  Wh«i  wanted  tta  fibres  the 
^ant  ia  ont  in  the  middle  of  ■nmmco',  and  beated 
£ke  hemp.  N.  Cloth,  or  Qraa  Ob>ik,  i*  »  beaatifal 
&brio  made  from  Eheea  (q.  v.)  filwe,  or  AzAmeria 

S.  V.)  niwo.  See  also  ORAsa  Cloth  and  China 
uss. — The  fibra  of  U.  camuAitut,  a  native  of  the 
aooth  of  Siberia,  Central  Asia,  i*  much  used ; 
and  from  tJiat  of  U.  WkUlaiBi.  both  fine  laoe 
and  strong  ropes  can  be  manufactiued.    The  fibre 


U.  OamdmtU  ia  naed  ia  Canada.— The  •eed* 
herbi^  of  V.  Membranooaa  are  naed  in  Egypt  a* 


riniilar  proportka  sie  Moribed  to  U.  dimceL — U. 
luierofa  prodnoea  tnber*,  vrtdoh  an  natritiaa*,  and 
•ce  eatan  in  India,  nw,  boiled,  or  roaated. — 
Ansttalia  prodncea  a  magnifioent  tree-iiettle,  U. 
gigat,  abundant  in  some  pwt*  of  New  Sovtlt  Wales, 
ordioBrily  from  2S  to  60  feet  hi(^  bnt  ■omstjme* 
120  or  140  fe«ts  witb  tnmk  of  g^at  Uuoknesa^  and 
TOj  large  green  leavea,  which,  vrtien  yoon^  sting 
violantly.  In  tome  places,  it  fonn*  «eru(  Eoresti, 
and  its  stinging  leavea  form  a  great  impediment  to 


the  baveller. 

NETTLE-RASH,  __    

a  nettle),  ia  the  term  ^iplied  to  a 
eruption  on  the  akin.  Tb»  empuiui  oouBBtB  (■ 
wheals,  <a  little  aolid  csninencaa  of  irK^nlar  ontlinet 
and  either  white  or  red,  or  most  conuoonly  both 
red  and  white,  there  btoug  a  white  centre  with  * 
red  marein.  The  raah  ia  accompanied  witli  great 
heat,"  ^'  


md  imtatioa ;  toe  tqipearance  on  tha 
sensatioa  bdng  very  moeb  like  Uia 
appearanoe  and  feeling  prodnoed  by  the  clinging  of 
nettles  ;  and  hence  the  oriein  of  its  names. 

The  disease  may  be  ^toer  acute  or  chronio.  Ia 
the  acute  form,  foTerI*hues*  nsnallf  precedes  Um 

raah  by  a  few  hours,  although  sometimes  tiiey 

mence  together.  He  disorder  is  slwaya  godw  . 
with  aome  derangement  of  the  digestivB  organs, 
it  may  often  be  traoed  to  the  impOTfeot  digestioa  of 
•pedal  artide*  of  food,  such  aa  oabneal,  the  k«tiels 
of  fmit.  sttawberrie*,  euoumbeta,  muihrooiua^  and 
especially  oysters,  mnsaels,  and  orabs.  which  az* 
eaten  with  perfect  impuni^  by  most  persons.  Aa 
boor  or  two  after  the  offentUiw  •nb*t*iM)e  has  been 
■wallowed,  there  ia  a  feeling  of  nausea,  with  oppraa- 
sioD  about  the  pit  of  tha  stomadi ;  the  patient  often 
complains  of  giddiness,  and  tike  face  freqnenlly 
swell*;  the  skin  then  b^fina  to  tinf|J<^  and  tJte 
eruption  breaks  forth ;  vomiting  and  dianfacea  ofken 
anpervene,  and  act  as  a  natural  curs ;  but  area 
when  they  do  not  occur,  the  violence  of  the  raah 
usually  subsides  in  a  few  hours,  and  the  diaoidfr 
altogether  disappears  in  a  day  or  twa 

l£e  chronio  form  is  often  very  troubleaoms^  and 
frequently  oomea  on  periodically  in  Uie  evening. 
Cases  are  reported  in  which  persons  have  bean 
afflicted  for  toi  yesrs  contiooonsly  by  thj*  tana  at 
the  disease.  Patient*  have  left  off  all  tiidr  cus- 
tomary artidee  of  diet,  one  by  one,  without  in  aU 
cases  meeting  with  rehef ;   and  hence  it  may  bs 

inferred,  tiiat  althoogh  the  disear~   ' '"  '      " 

case*  on  a  disoidered  condition 

orguu,  it  is  not  always  the  oou   ^ 

speoial  offending  article  having  been  swallowed. 

The  main  treatment  of  the  aonte  form  coasiata  u> 
ezpelliog  the  ofeiding  mattw  by  an  emetio  and  by 
purgativei^  and  tha  cure  is  thus  usually  oompletei 
In  the  chroiua  form,  the  patient  should,  in  the  first 
place,  determine  whether  the  raah  is  caused  liy  nty 
partioalar  aiticte  of  diet,  and  if  thia  seems  lutt  to 
be  the  oase,  an  attempt  must  be  made  to  improva 
the  state  of  the  digestive  organs.  A  few 
of  rhubarb  taken  daily,  just  Wore  break! 
before  dinner,  will  sometimes  efflgct  a  cnrcb 
simple  remedy  fails,  Sr  Watson 
brial  of  a  draught  compoaed  m  tne  mminna 
>»alf). 


M  depend*  in  aD 
of  tha  dioeative 
laqnenoe  ttt  som* 


iy  fsils,  Sr 
draught  oo 
ia    (at>oiit    : 


with  a  scruple  each  of  tlie  carbonate*  of 

and  soda.    Be  adds,  that  although  eztenud  appli- 

catioDS  are  nsoally  of  litUe  avul,  he  has  found  that 


■  o.Guu^lc 


NBTTIiE-TREEV— NETJHAUSEL 


•pplwation  if  >  btion  cranpoaed  o(  a  draobm  of  tite 
oarbob*t«  of  ammonu,  »  anohm  of  the  •ceUte  ti 
lead,  tudf  aa  oquc^  of  laudamu&t  'uid  eight  onucee 

IfETTLE-TREB  [Cdlu],  •  genn*  of  decidwnu 
tree*  ot  the  iiatiml  Mder  Uimaua,  with  nmpk  and 
SVnerally  setrated  leavea,  ooniid^bly  rcBembling 
loia  of  the  Common  Nettle,  but  not  stiiigiDg.  The 
a  diitJngniihad  ehiefly  by  it*  fniit,  which  is  a 
globoee,  or  enb-f^oboae  1-celled  dnipe.  The 
m  or  Enropeau  N.  T.  (O.  AvMtra&i)  ia 


Se^, 


Batire  of  the  Muth  of  Eiuope,  the  we«t  of  Ana, 
and  the  nortli  of  ^f""*  It  srovs  to  the  height  of 
SO — 10  feet,  and  ia  a  very  nandsome  tree,  often 
planted  along  pnblia  mltg  in  the  aoutli  of  France 
■ad  north  A  Italv.  The  vood  ia  Tery  oompaet, 
very  dnnble,  and  takes  a  hi^  pdiah.  It  vu 
formally  mni:ii  imported  into  Britam  for  the  me  of 
ooachmakera.  It  la  need  in  Italy  by  mnsioal-inBtn- 
mrat  makeia  lor  flntca  and  pipes.  The  Bowers  are 
inoonapicnoQik  axillai^,  and  solitaiy ;  the  frnit  black, 
KaemEUng  a  tmaU  wild  cherry,  not  eatable  till  after 
the  flmt  &0>tB,  and  then  very  sweet.    The  kernel 


North  Ameiioa  from  Canada  to  Carolina, 
thereoalled  tiieN.T.,Bome(ime)i  tbeSnQAB  Berbt. 
Its  leavM  are  mnch  broader  than  those  of  0.  A\u- 
train*,  its  frait  very  mmilar.  It  is  a  mach  larger  tree, 
Attaining  a  height  of  QO'-SO  feet. — Another  American 
niedes,  O.  tra^Mia,  often  called  HACKsaBBT  or 
Hmbbbet,  asd  Hoop  Ash,  is  very  abondant  in  the 
badn  «f  the  Ohio  and  westward  of  the  MississipiH. 
It  gram  to  a  great  hei^t,  hut  the  b-onk  is  not  Terr 
thick.  The  wood  is  uiA  much  valued,  but  is  Mid 
to  mak«  veiy  floe  oharco*].  The  fruit  is  bUi^  and 
•bout  the  *i»  of  a  pea. — The  inner  bark  of  O.  ontn- 
taiit,  oonsiBting  of  reticulated  fibres,  forms  a  kind  of 
natiual  doth,  ued  l^  some  triba  ot  India.— A 
nnmber  of  oUicnr  spedes  are  natives  of  the  warm 
part*  of  Amcoiea  and  of  Aii& 

N  B  U  -BBAITDBNBnBa,  a  town  of  Hecklen- 
botR'^traUt^  the  prettiest  and,  after  the  capital, 
the  laiveet  in  the  duchy,  is  situated  on  Lake  Tollens, 
17  miles  north-north-east  of  Neu-Strelits.  It  is 
regularly  built,  contains  two  chuiches,  a  castle,  ^., 
is  the  oentre  of  a  picturesque  district,  and  the  seat 
of  oonsiderable  industry.  Fop.  (1880)  8406.— About 
half  a  league  from  N.,  on  a  rod^  overlooking  Lake 
Tollens,  stiuids  the  ducal  pleasure-cattieof  Belvedere, 
oommanding,  it  is  said,  the  most  beantifnl  prospect 
in  Mecklenburg. 

NEUXUBO;  an   snoieut  town  of  Bavaria,  is 

B'cturesquely  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
uiube,  29  miles  north-north-east  of  Angsburj^  It 
contains  a  handsome  palace,  the  ch&tean  M  the 
Dukes  of  Bavaria  of  the  line  of  Ffalz-Nenbnrg,  who 
resided  here  from  1S9S  to  1742.  The  piUaoe  contains 
a  collection  of  ancient  armour.  Brewing  and  dia- 
lilliag  are  carried  on,  and  there  i*  a  oonaidentble 
commercial  trade  on  the  Danube.  Fop.  (ISSO)  7G90. 
NEDFCHATBTL,  or  NEOCHATEL,  known 
also  as  Neuenburg,  a  canton  in  the  west  of  Switzer- 
land, between  Lake  Neofchatel  and  tlie  French 
frontier.  Area,  310  square  miles.  Pop.  (1870) 
97,2U  i  (1880)103,732.  Above  17^000  families  speak 
French,  and  2700  Uerman.  N.  liee  in  the  midst  of 
the  Jura  Honntaina,  four  chains  of  which,  running 
from  north-east  to  south-west,  traverse  the  canton, 
and  tte  separated  bv  elevated  longitudinal  valleys. 
The  matt  easterly  of  these  b  a  brokea  chain, 


B  beyond 


vhich,  L»  Tonrne,  h 


n  elevation  ot  aboot  4000 


France,  consist  for  the  most  part  of  barren 
separated  by  elevated  vallevs ;  but  here  and  there 
theae  high  lands  am  well  wooded  and  Irnitful, 
producing  corn,  good  pasture,  fmits,  Ac  Tbs 
greater  number  ot  the  nnmerons  stt«ams  whidi 
water  the  canton  flow  into  the  Bhioa.  Among 
these  mountain  toirent^  the  principal  are  the 
Reuse,  the  Seyon,  and  tho  Serriere,  the  two 
farmer  of  which,  together  with  the  rivers  Orbs  and 
Broie,  are  the  feeders  of  tha  Ijike  at  Nenfcbatel, 
known  ako  as  the  Lake  of  Yverdun.  Hie  Hiiele 
serves  as  its  outlet,  and  carries  its  waters  into  the 
neighbouring  lake  of  Bienne,  and  into  the  river  Aar. 
The  lake  is  25  miles  long,  and  from  3  to  6^  milss 
wide.  Its  level  above  the  sea  is  1420  feet,  and  it 
has  a  depth  of  400  or  SOO  feet. 

The  natural  products  are  iron  ores,  ooal,  asphalt, 
fruit,  including  grapes — from  which  good  red  and 
white  winea  are  made— timber  and  com,  although 
the  latter  is  not  grown  in  snffiaient  quantity  for  Um 
demand*  of  tho  home  oontnimption.    The  tearing  of 


speciality  of  the  canton  is  watch-making, 
occupies  from  18,000  to  20,000  persons,  aiul 
scented  in  detail  at  the  homes  of  the  work-people^ 
in  the  rural  districts,  where  some  families  mann< 
factore  only  special  parts  of  the  maohineiy,  whils 
ethers  are  engaged  solely  in  putting  together  the 
separate  portions  that  have  been  mannfactorad  by 
otheis;  and  the  watohea  thus  prepsied  are  exported 
in  lar^  quantities  to  every  part  of  Europe  and 
America  Mudiu-printing  em^oys  upwards  of 
10,000  persons,  and  lace  is  extensively  made  by  tbs 
conntiy-women  of  the  Yal  de  Travera. 
The  climate  o(  N.  varies  sreatly  with  the  localitf; 
shores  of  the  lake,  cooler 


being  temperate 
in  i£e  valleys,  ( 


ning  p*r»U<^  to  the  l^e  oE  NeuEcbatel,  on  whose 
baus,  and  on  the  teocnd  and  lower  ranges 

it,  the  vine  is  earefaUy  cultivated,     "fbu 

chun  has  five  principal  passes,  tike  highest  of 


Protestant 

denominatiouB. 

The  historv  of  K.  was  identical  with  titat  of 
Burgundy,  till  the  lltbc.;  and  after  the  principality 
had  been  for  a  time  incorponted  with  the  tenitoriss 
of  the  Counts  of  Chalons,  to  whom  it  bad  been 
granted  in  12SS,  by  Budolph  of  Hapebnrg,  it  paued 
b>  the  House  of  Lcnigueville.  In  1707,  on  the  extinc* 
tion  of  the  K.  branch  of  the  latter  family,  IJS 
claimants  came  forward  to  advance  more  or  less 
valid  pretensions  to  the  N.  territory.  Frederick  L 
of  Prussia,  who  based  his  claim  to  the  principality 
of  N.  on  the  ground  of  his  descent  from  the  Sist 
Prince  of  Oramp,  a  descendant  of  the  House  of 
Chalons,  was  the  tncceasful  candidate;  and  from 
his  time  it  continued  asBOoatsd  with  Prussia  till 
1806,  when  Napoleon  bestowed  it  npou  General 
Berthier;  but  in  1814,  itwas  restored  to  the  House  of 
Brandenburg.  This  connection  with  the  Prussian 
monarchy  has  been  wholly  dissolved  since  1657,  and 
N.  is  now  a  member  of  the  Swin  Confederation. 

NEUFCHATEL,  or  NEITIZIBUBO,  is  the  chief 
town  of  the  canton,  and  oconpies  a  magnificent  site 
on  the  north-west  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Neufchatel, 
and  is  noted  for  its  man;  oharitable  institutions, 


NECHAUS,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  tiie 
Kescharico,  abont  70  milea  saiith.soiith.east  cj 
PiBgne.  Its  palace,  beboging  to  Connt  Csemy,  is 
a  splendid  edifice.  Cloth,  paper,  and  chemical 
products  are  manufactured.    Fop.  (1880)  8703. 

NBU'HAnSEL  (Hong.  BnA-UMr),  a  town  of 
Hungary,  on  the  ri^t  bank  ol  the  Nentn,  74  miles 


ivGUU^lJ 


NEURALGIA. 


noTth-Tert  of  Peath,  hj  the  Vienna  And  Pesth 
Bailway.  It  wu  formerly  rtrotiKly  fortified,  and 
played  an  important  part  in  the  Tiiriuab  van.  No 
traces  of  ita  fortiQcationi  now  remam.  PopL  (1880) 
10,584,  chiefly  engaged  in  agricnltare  and  the  rear- 
iog  of  cattle. 

NBUEA'IrOIA  (Gr,  nruron,  a  nerve  j  otao*, 
pain)  ia  a  term  employed  to  detignate  pain  of  a 
pordy  nerronB  character,  nmaUy  unaccompanied 
In  inflammation,  fever,  or  any  appreciable  change 
M  itrnctnre.  The  pain,  which  occura  in  ^paraiyanu, 
Qsnally  followed  by  complete  lenuauona,  la  of 
eveiy  potaible  degree  and  character,  being  dea- 
eribed  in  difierent  cases  aa  piercing,  teoriag, 
bnminc,  tc  These  parozysms  may  occur  at  inter- 
__!_  .iP'jj  jg^  second!  only,  or  they  may  take  place 


daily  ot 


a  alternate  daye,  c 

.  longer  intervals, ". -^^ ^ 

I  always,  of  a  rcgnlar  length.  With  the 
pain,  xnere  is  frequently  spssmodio  twitchins  of  the 
kdjacent  mnsclea.  The  duration  of  the  disease  is 
veiy  uncertain.  The  patient  may  have  only  a  single 
attack,  or  he  may  be  liable  to  recurring  attacks  tor 
montha,  yean,  or  even  for  his  whole  life ;  it  is, 
however,  very  sddom  that  the  disease  occurs  bwt 
onea  Death  scarcely  ever  results  directly  from  this 
aflection,  but  the  pain  may,  by  ita  severity  and 
persigtence,  gradually  nndermine  the  constitution. 

The  disease  may  attack  any  port  of  the  body 
where  there  ore  nerves ;  bnt  in  no  part  does  it  occur 


facial  branches  of  tiie  fifth  pair  of  nerves  (the  tri- 
facial nerves— see  flg.  2  in  Nkuves).  The  following 
graphic  description  of  the  ordinary  varieties  of  this 
form  of  neuralgia  is  borrowed  from  Dr  Watson's 
Xedures  on  (A«  Prindpla  and  Practice  of  Phytic: 
'When  the  uppermost  branch  of  the  trifacial  nerve  is 
the  seat  of  the  complaint,  the  paia  genmlly  shoots 
from  the  spot  where  the  nerve  issues  through  ihe 


■nperciliary  hole ;  and  it  involves  the  parts  adjacent, 
upon  which  tiie  fibrils  of  the  nerve  are  distributed — 
the  forehead,  the  brow,  the  upper  lid,  Bometimes  the 
eyeball  itself.  The  eye  ia  usually  closed  during  the 
paivxyim,  and  the  skin  of  the  forehead  on  that  side 
corrugated.  The  neighbouring  arteries  throb,  and  a 
copious  gush  of  tears  takes  plaoa.  In  some  instances, 
the  eye  Decomes  blood-shottea  at  each  attack;  and 
when  the  attacks  are  frequently  repeated,  this 
injection  of  the  conjunctiva  may  become  permaoent. 
*  WLen  the  pun  depends  upon  a  morbid  condition 
or  morbid  action  of  the  middle  branch  of  the  nerve, 
it  is  sometimes  quite  sudden  in  its  accession,  and 
■ometimet  comes  on  rather  more  gradually ;  being 
preceded  bv  a  tickling  or  pricking  sensation  of  the 
cheek,  and  by  twitchea  of  the  lower  eyelid.  These 
symptoms  are  shortly  followed  by  pain  at  the 
infra-orbitary  foramen,  spreading  in  severe  flashes 
(so  to  speak)  over  the  Aeek,  dfecting  tho  lower 
eyelid,  ala  nasi,  and  upper  lip,  and  often  terminating 
abruptly  at  the  mesial  line  of  the  fac&  Sometimes 
it  eriends  to  the  teeth,  the  antrum,  tiie  bard  and 
•oft  palate,  and  even  to  the  base  of  the  tonoue,  and 
induces  ipaunodic  contraotions  of  the  neighbouring 


*  When  the  pain  is  lefeirible  to  the  inferior  or  max- 
illary branch  <rf  tite  fifth  pair  of  nerves,  it  darts  from 
the  mental  foramen,  radiating  to  the  lips,  thealveolar 
processes,  the  teeth,  the  chin,  and  to  ute  side  of  the 
tongne.  It  often  stops  exactly  at  the  symphysis  of 
the  chin.  Frequently  it  extends  in  the  other  direc- 
tion, to  the  whole  cheek  and  to  the  ear.  During  the 
paroxysm,  the  features  ore  liable  to  be  distotted  by 
spasmodic  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  jaw,  amoont- 
ing  sometimea  to  tetanic  rigidity,  and  holding  the 
jaw  fixed  and  iiomovBbl& 


'  The  parozynn*  of  suflering  in  thia  frightfiil 
disease  are  apt  to  be  brought  on  by  apparently 
trivial  causes — by  a  slight  touch,  by  a  current  M 
air  blowing  upon  the  face,  by  a  sudden  jar  or  sboka 
of  the  bed  on  which  the  patient  is  lying,  by  a  knock 
at  the  door,  or  even  by  directing  the  patieof  s  atten- 
tion to  his  malady,  by  speaking  of  it  or  asking  bina 
qneetirais  about  it.  The  noccsssry  in 
tiiefaoe  in  apeokina  or  eating  aia  oftm 
provoke  or  renew  tEe  paioiysm.  At  the  same  Vtma, 
firm  prewore  made  npcm  the  painful  part  fraqneotlT 
gjvea  relief,  and  canset  ■  lense  of  nnmbnsM  '" 


which  is  by  far  the  most  commonly  me 
reason  probably  being,  that  the  trimdol  nerve,  lying 
superficially,  ami  being  disfaribnted  over  a  mit  M 
the  iurfaoo  which  ia  nmal^  nnproteoted  by  anj 
artificial  oorering,  ia  very  liable,  for  that  reason, 
to  be  affected  by  expoenre  to  atmo«pheiM  inflnenoe^ 
which  are  undoubtedly  to  be  included  among  the 
"•^"t'ng  oansea  of  tus  disease.  Amongst  other 
•eats  of  neuralgia  may  be  mentioned  the  arm, 
especially  the  forearm,  the  spacaa  betweMt  the  riba, 
espeoiolly  between  the  sixth  and  ninth,  and  ths 
lower  extremity,  wh«B»  it  meat  frequently  affecta  tha 
Kdatic  nerve,  giving  rise  to  the  affection  known  aa 
ScuTTca,  which,  however,  not  always  being  pui« 
neuralgia,  will  be  noticed  in  a  aeparate  article. 

The  cansea  of  neuralgia  are  various.  Hicludiiig 
inflammation  of  tha  nervoaa  trunk  or  neuii&t,  tha 
pain  may  be  excited  by  a  tumonr  preasing  «n  tiha 
nervG^  or  originating  in  its  subatanoe ;  or  1^  rovg]l- 
nea  of  a  bony  surface  with  which  Uie  nerve  mi^ 
be  in  contact,  aa  when  it  passes  thraogh  a  foramsn ; 
or  it  may  be  doe  to  tumours  wifbin  the  cranium,  or 
a  morbid  state  of  the  spinal  cord.  Sometiine*, 
again,  irritation  applied  to  one  branch  of  a  narva 
will  give  tise  to  pain  at  the  extremity  of  anoAer 
branch  of  the  same  nerve,  the  •ensation  being 
reflected  along  the  branch  which  is  not  directly 
exposed  to  the  irritation.  In  this  way  we  may 
explain  the  pain  in  the  shoulder  which  often  accom> 
panics  disease  of  the  liver ;  the  pain  in  the  thi^ 
which  is  often  associated  with  irritation  of  Uia 
kidney  ;  the  pain  in  the  left  arm,  which  is  oftoi 
coincident  with  disease  of  the  heart,  Ac  Feraona 
suffering  from  debiLty,  aiuemia,  and  a  gouty  or 
rhenmatio  coustitutioo,  ore  so  e«pecially  Labia  to 
neuralgia,  that  these  conditions— aa  also  eiposnia 
to  malarious  influences — must  be  placed  among  tha 
predisposing  causes.  Amongst  the  exdtine  causes, 
exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  or  to  a  cold  dry  east 
wind,  ia  the  most  frequent;  but  fatipie,  strong 
mental  emotious,  the  abuse  of  tea,  coffee,  tobacco, 
snd  alcoholic  drinks,  a  wound  or  bruise,  the  retro- 
ceadon  of  gout,  rheumatism,  or  cutaneous  emptions, 
&C.,  occasionally  suffice  to  excite  the  disease. 

The  resources  ot  the  materia  medica  have  been 
exhausted  in  searching  for  remedies  for  this  cruel 
disease.  Dr  Elliotson  nelieves  that  '  in  all  casea  of 
neoralgio,  whether  exquisite  or  not,  unaccompanied 
by  in&mmation,  of  evident  existing  cause,  iron  ia 
the  best  remedy ;'  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
when  the  disease  is  accompanied  with  debility  and 
paleness,  no  remedy  is  likely  to  be  so  serviceable. 
If  the  digestive  organs  are  out  of  order,  tho  neuralgia 
may  not  unfrcquently  be  removed  or  alleviated  by 
ootrecting  their  unhealthy  state.  '  Dr  Rigby  telu 
us  that  iMving  suffered  in  his  own  person  an  intense 
attack  of  tic  douloureux,  which  opium  did  not 
assuage,  he  swallowed  some  carbonate  of  soda  dis- 
solved in  water.  The  effect  was  almost  immediate ; 
carbonio  acid  was  eructed,  and  the  pain  quickly 
abated.    In  this  case,  the  pun  depended  upon  tM 

D,a,L„,  Google 


mere  preaenoa  of  ftdd  in  the  rtoroaeh.  More  often 
tiia  canaa  of  offenoe  appeora  to  lie  Id  Bome  put  of 
the  intestinea ;  uid  purgatives  do  good.  Sir  Charles 
Bell  achieved  the  cnre  Si  a  patient  upon  whom  much 
previous  treatment  had  been  eipended  in  vain,  by 
Mme  pilU  composed  of  cathartic  extract,  croton  ou, 
ftnd  galbanam.  He  mixed  one  or  two  drops  of  the 
(noton  oil  with  a  drachm  of  the  compound  extract 
of  colocjntb ;  and  gave  five  graina  of  this  mass, 
witli  ten  grains  of  ue  compoond  galbanam  pill,  at 
bedtime.  Other  caaes  have  been  since  leportied, 
both  hj  Sit  Oharle*  and  by  othen,  in  which  the 
•una  prcaeriptiDQ  ma  followed  b;  the  aame  suo- 
«ua.'— Watson,  op.  cit  p.  727. 

When  the  disease  occurs  in  a  rheomatio  person, 
iodide  of  potaadum  (from  three  to  five  grains  token 
in  solution  three  times  a  day  before  meals)  some- 
times gives  great  rehef.  When  the  paroiysms  occur 
periodically — as,  for  example,  with  an  interval  of  24 
or  48  hoora — snlphate  of  quinine  in  doses  of  from  10 
to  20  grains  between  the  paroxymns,  will  usually 
eOeet  acnre;  and  if  the  disease  reaiit  eomparatively 
■mall  doses,  tlie  quantity  may  be  iuoreased  to  half  a 

the  same  manner  as  quinine  in  these  cases,  but 
usually  less  affeotnally. 

The  inbalatiaa  of  chloroform  wQl  sometimes  give 
permanent  rehef,  and  always  gives  tempomry  ease, 
and  shortens  the  period  of  suffering. 

The  injection  ot  a  certain  quantity  of  a  solution 
of  muriate  ot  morphia,  by  means  of  a  sharp-pointed 
•yrinxe,  into  the  cellalar  tissue  beneath  the  skin 
over  the  painfol  spot,  very  often  gives  immediate 
reliel  For  the  discovery  of  this  mode  of  treating 
neuralgia,  we  are  indebted  to  Dr  Alexander  Wood 
of  Edinburgh.  At  one  time — about  half  a  centory 
ago — it  was  a  common  practice  to  divide  the  trunk 
of  the  painful  nerve,  with  the  object  of  cutting  off 
the  oomraonication  between  the  painful  spot  and 
the  tnain ;  but  in  many  instance*  the  operation 
signally  foiled,  aud  it  is  now  never  leeorted  to.  A 
much  simpler  operation,  namely,  the  extraction  of  a 
canine  tooUi,  has  often  been  found  to  give  penna- 
nent  relief  in  cases  oC  facial  neomlgia,  and  in  inch 
case  a  careful  examination  of  the  teeth  sfaonld 
nsnaUy  be  madsL 

Lo<^  applicationa  can  be  of  no  permanent  service 
in  cases  where  the  pain  results  frcnn  organic  change, 
or  from  general  constitutional  causes ;  they  w3l, 
however,  often  give  consideraUe  temnorwy  relieL 
Amongst  the  most  important  looal  applications  may 
be  mentioned  laudanum,  tincture  of  aconite  (or 
aconitina  ointment,  in  the  proportion  ot  one  or  two 
grains  to  a  drachm  of  simnle  ointment  or  aerate), 
belladonna-plaster,  and  chloroform  (which  should 
be  applied  npon  a  piece  of  linen  saturated  with  it, 
and  covered  mth  oiled  silk,  to  prevent  evaporation). 

Lastly,  neanUgia  bedng  a  purelv  nervous  affection, 
is  often  influenced  by  means  ealonlated  to  make  a 
strong  impression  on  the  mind  of  the  patient ;  and 
hence  it  is  that  galvanio  rings,  electric  "hfiin",  mes- 
meric passes,  homceopathic  ^bules,  and  other  appli- 
catinns,  which,  like  these,  act  more  upon  the  mmd 
than  upon  the  body  of  the  patient;  oocasioDally  effect 

If  BUBITIS  is  the  tenn  a^ed  to  inflammation 
of  the  nerves  Hie  disease  li  rare,  and  not  very 
well  defined.  The  symptom*  closely  resemble  those 
of  neuralgia.  Bhenmatism  seems,  in  moat  cases,  to 
be  tiie  causa  of  the  disease,  which  must  be  treated 
by  bleeding,  leechii^  purging,  and  low  diet.  Ano- 
dynes are  also  required  for  tiie  relief  of  the  poJn ; 
and  of  these,  Dover's  Powder,  in  tolerably  fall 
dcsea,  is  perhaps  the  best. 

irEUBO'PTEKA  (Of.  nerve-winged),  an  order  of 


mandibulate  insects,  having  four  nearly  equal  and 
tnembranoos  wings,  all  adapted  for  flight,  divided 
byitheir  nervnres  into  a  deCcate  net-work  of  little 
spaces,  and  not  covered  with  flne  scales,  as  in  the 
Ltpidoptera,  The  wings  are  often  extended  hori- 
zontally when  at  rest,  nearly  aa  in  flight ;  but  ths 
position  is  various.  The  form  of  the  wing  is  geno- 
raUy  somewhat  elongated.  The  body  ia  generally 
much  elongated,  particularly  the  abdomen.  The 
head  is  often  large,  the  compound  eyes  very  hirge, 
and  there  are  often  also  simple  or  stemmatic  eyes. 
The  habits  are  predaceous,  at  least  in  the  larva 
state  i  often  also  in  the  pupa  and  perfect  states,  the 
food  condeting  of  other  inoecta,  often  caught  on  the 
wing.  The  power  of  flight  a  accordingly  gr^i 
in  many.  The  brvs  and  pup»  are  often  aquatio. 
The  femoles  have  no  sting,  and  onl^  a  few  have  an 
ovipositor.  The  metamorphosis  is  complete  in 
some,  incomplete  in  others.  Dragon-flies,  May-flies, 
scorpion-fliee,  ant-lions,  and  termites,  or  whits 
ants,  belong  to  this  order. 
KBU'aAIZ  (also  lf«oi^anla  ttt  UJ-  Fufft],  a  town 


opposite  Peterwardein.  Its  origin  dates  from  the 
year  ITOO,  and  by  the  year  1S49  it  nnmbered  nearly 
20,000  inhabitants.  A  bridge,  840  feet  la  length, 
extends  between  N.  and  the  town  and  fortress  of 
Peterwardein,  K.  ia  the  seat  of  the  Greek  non- 
united  Bishop  of  Bica.  On  the  11th  June  1840,  it 
was  taken  from  the  Hungarian  iusursenta  by  the 
imperial  troope,  and  was  almost  wholly  destroyed. 
It  has  been  rebuilt  in  excellent  atyle.  N.  is  a 
station  for  steamers  on  the  Danube,  Mid  oarriea  on 
an  important  and  active  trade.    Pop.  (1830)  21,381. 

ITEUSE,  a  river  of  North  Carolina,  United  State* 
of  America,  rises  near  the  middle  of  the  northern 
boundan  of  the  state,  and,  after  a  south-easterly 
comae  <i  250  miles,  fall*  by  a  broad  channel  into 
Pamlico  ISound,  whid)  omimunioateB  b^  several 
inlete  with  the  Atlantio  Ocean.  It  foims  the 
harbour  of  Newbem. 

NETTSIEDL,  Lakk  (Hong.  Ftrlo-latxi),  a,  email 
lake  on  the  north-west  frontier  of  Hungary,  22 
miles  Boath-east  of  Vienna.  It  is  23  miles  in 
length,  and  about  6  miles  in  average  breadth,  with 
a  mean  depth  of  13  feet.  Its  waters  are  Ught-green 
in  appearance,  and  are  brackish  in  taste.  The 
slopes  of  the  Leitha  Mountains  in  the  vioinily 
proiuoe  excellent  wine. 

ITEU'SOHL  (Hung.  Btt^ertM-Banya),  abeantiful 
and  thriving  town  of  Hon^vy,  the  chief  place  of 
the  richest  mining  district  in  the  country,  is  sita- 
ated  in  a  hill-anclosed  valley  on  the  right  tuink 
of  the  Oran,  about  85  mues  north  of  Pesth. 
N.,  consisting,  oa  it  does,  ot  the  town  jciroper 
and  five  suDurbs,  contuna  a  population,  m  all, 
of  (1880)  7159,  who  are  employed  in  the  copper 
and  iron  mine*  of  the  vicimty,  in  the  smeltmg- 
hooses,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  beet-root  sugar, 
paper,  colours,  &e.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and 
oontams  a  beautiful  cathedral,  a  bishop's  palace, 
and  two  evangelical  ohorches,  and  several  other 
handsome  edifices. 

5TJSS,  an  ancient  but  flonriahins  manufacturing 
town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  near  the  kft  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  the  river  Erft; 
4  miles  sonth-waat  of  DUaseldort  lis  church  of  St 
Quirinits,  a  beautiful  edifice,  and  a  notable  specimen 
of  the  transition  from  the  round  to  the  pointed  style, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  bniH  in  120ft  N.  is  the 
principal  grain-market  of  the  province,  and  carries 
on  manuuustnre*  of  wooUen  and  other  cloths, 
ribbons,  hat*,  vinuiar,  &c.      It  ia  supposed  to  be 

'-^^ 


KEOSTADT— NXUTEALa 


O*  Iforaium  of  the  Bouuju,  woked  t^  AttOk  in 
tite  year  Ul.    Pop.  (1885)  20,038. 

NETTBTADT  <Po!iah,  PrudnUx),  a  town  «f 
PnucuD  SileeiA,  29  milca  loath-west  of  Oppeln.  It 
is  the  ae&t  of  comader&ble  manafactiiHttg  ludurtiTr 
woollen  and  linen  fabrics  being  the  ataple  goooe 
mumfaotiired.  Danuuk-'weaTiiig  alone  empIovB  660 
hands  and  380  looms.     Fop.  (IsS))  14,292: 

ITBUSTADT,  or  WTENER-NEUSTADT,  one 
of  the  most  besntifal  towns  of  Lower  Aostria. 
called,  from  its  loyalty,  'the  ever-faithfal  town* 
f^Big  gdrtite  Sladl),  is  sitosted  28  miles  south  of 
Vienna,  m  tiie  Tienna  and  Gloggniti  Bailway,  and 
ii  abo  ooonected  with  the  capitftl  by  a  omuiL  It 
if  mRoimded  bif  a  broad  and  deep  ditch,  and  b^ 
k  fortiSed  wall  piBroed  by  fonr  nteo.  Hie  town  it 
orerlooked,  by  tAe  lar^  old  castle  of  the  Dokes  of 
Babeober^  now  a  militwy  academy  for  *'—  — 
paratoiy  mstmction  of  officen  of  the 
aooommodates  from  400  to  600  pupils.  The  castle 
contains  a  Site  Qothio  ohapel  (date,  1460),  rich,  in 

K'ated  wiftdowi.     It  is  the  bnrial-^aoe  lA  the 
peror  Maximilian  L  On  the  14th  8e[%ember  1834, 


I  eonflsffrstioi 

ves.     l%e  ne' 


which  inTolTed  the  loss  of  many  lives, 
town  has  been  lud  out  with  great  taste  aod  rega- 
larity.  The  oanal  {40  miles  in  length)  and  the  nil- 
way  to  Vienna,  and  the  converging  roads  from 
Styrik  and  Hmigary,  are  the  sources  of  the  pnw- 
perity  of  the  town.  In  N.  machinery  is  ertennvely 
consbucted ;  and  sagar-refining  and  manofactnres 
of  silk,  velvet,  and  cotton  fabnca,  fayence,  leather, 
Jta,  are  carried  on.    Pop.  (18S0)  23,735. 

NBU8TADT  AH  DER  HARDT,  a  smaU 
town  of  Bh«niah  Bavaria,  charmingly  situated  on  the 
Speyo'baoh,  at  the  foot  of  the  Haidt  Monntiuns, 
12  miles  nortii  of  I^ndaa.  Its  churchy  with  several 
onrions  monnments  of  the  Counts  Palatine,  and  with 
■ome  ancient  fresco-puntings,  was  finished  in  the 
14th  ooitniy.  It  carries  on  manufactures  of  paper, 
doth,  oil,  brandy,  4c.    Pop.  (1880)  11,411. 

KEU'aTADT-E'BEKSWALDfi  (dnce  .„.„ 
called  officially  Ebfrtamide  only),  a  town  of  Prussia, 
in  the  provinee  of  Brandenbnrg,  28  miles  north-east 
of  Berlin.  It  is  well  known  on  account  of  its 
mineral  springs,  and  carries  on  extensive  mann- 
fsotures  in  steel,  iron,  copper,  brass,  paper,  and 
porcelain.    Pop.  (1880)  11,624 

KED'aiADTL  AN  DER  WAAG,  a  town  near 
the  north-west  frontier  of  Hungary,  33  milea  north- 
north-west  of  Neutra,  Here  excellent  red  wine  is 
Sawn,  and  there  is  a  jtood  trade  in  grain,  wool, 
eep-skins,  and  wax.  Pop.  (1880)  6164,  near^ 
half  of  whom  are  Jews. 

N BU-BTRE'LITZ.  the  capital  snd  the  residence 
of  the  court  of  the  grand-dnohT  of  :Mecklenbnrg- 
Strelitx,  pleasantly  situated  b  a  hilly  district,  between 
two  lakes,  60  miles  north.north-weit  of  Bo'lin.  It 
was  foDDded  in  1733,  is  built  in  the  fonn  of  an  eight- 
rayed  star,  and  contains  the  dacal  palace,  wi^  a 
Lbrary  of  70,000  voU.,  and  haviuif  m^nifii 
gardens  attached.  Pop.  (1880)  8JOT,  snpported 
chiefly  from  the  expeutlittire  of  the  coart,  and  by 
brewing  and  fli«tHlling  a  mile  wnth  of  the  town 
is  Alt-alrelit^  with  the  largest  hotse-moiltet  in  the 
duchy. 

NEU'STRIA,  or  WEST  FEANCB  {Fnmda 
OeadtntaUt),  the  name  given  in  tha  timea  of  die 
Merovingian*  and   Carlovingians  to    tl«   western 

Srtion  of  the  Frank  empire,  after  the  qnodmple 
lision  of  it  which  took  puce  in  fill.  N.  coutained 
three  of  these  divisicnt.  It  extended  originally  from 
the  month  of  the  Scheldt  to  tha  Lcdr^  and  was 


-and  Anstraiia  (/Voncia  Onenfolia)  on  uie  K  TI^ 
priooipal  cities  were  SoisMUkt,  Paris,  Orleans,  and 
Tonn.  Btetssne  was  always  looeeljr  attached  ta 
Nenstiia,  <A  -miiah  the  strength  lay  in  the  Dnchy 
U  Fnuica  Aftec  the  oeauon  of  the  territory  aftet^ 
wude  called  Nonnandy  to  the  Normans  in  91%  th» 
name  Nenstria  aoon  fell  into  disuse. 

NEUTITSOHEIN,  a  small  manafaotaring  town 
of  Moravia,  on  the  Titsch,  80  milea  north-east  tA 
BrOnn.  It  oontains  an  old  castle,  and  carries  oa. 
manafootare*  of  cloth  and  woollen  good^  dyeing 
and  wagon-making.    Pop.  (1830)  10,274. 

NEUTBAI.  AXIS,  the  name  given  to  an 
imagiiugy  line  through  any  body  which  is  being 
subjected  to  a  trausveise  strain ;  and  sepanting  titft 
forces  of  extension  from  those    '  '™ 

the  ratio  of  the  resistances  to 
preaaion  were  the   same  for  all    _  . .   .  _ . 
depended  merely  on  the  form  of  the  body, 
all  bodies  of  the  same  form  the  neutral  axis  would 


a  separate  valne  for  each  sob- 
nancet  ui  wooo,  wnen  tlie  ratio  is  one  of  eornali^, 
the  neutral  axis  in  a  beam  sopported  at  berth  en<u, 
whose  section  is  rectangular,  passes  tengthwiss 
through  the  centre  of  tiie  oaam ;  while  in  oast-irtm, 
in  which  the  renstaDce  to  comprenion  is  greater 
than  that  to  extension,  it  is  a  httle  above,  and  in 
wroQ^t  iroD,  in  which  tha  oontraiy  is  the  caas^ 
it  is  a  little  bdow,  the  centre. 

KEUTEAIi  SALTS.    SeeSAios. 

NBUTRAtiS,  nations  who,  when  a  war  ia  beong 
carried  on,  take  no  port  in  the  oiHiteet,  and  evinoa 
no  partionlar  friendship  tar,  or  hostility  to^  any  of 
the  oelligerents.  Aaaceneral  rale,  nentrala  Bhoold 
duct  themselvea  wiu  perfect  impartdsli^,  and 
nothing  which  can  be  cousida«d  aa  faTonring 
one  bdligerent  more  than  another. 

The  dntin  and  oUigaticais  of  neubals  at  aea  havn 
„  ven  rise  to  many  cmnplicated  qneetiatuL  It  ia 
allowed  on  all  hands  that  a  neutral  state  fdrfata 
her  character  of  neutrality  by  fnmiahing  to  eitii^ 
belligerent  any  of  the  articles  that  come  under  tlu> 
denomination   of  Contraband  of  War  (q. 

she  doe*  so,  the  other  belligerent  it  wan; 

intercepting  the  succours,  and  oonGscating  them  am 
lawful  prize.  Contraband  of  war,  besides  wailik* 
storos,  has  sometitnes  been  held  to  include  TaiioiM 
other  articles,  asnpply  of  whichisneoeitaary  tor  th» 
-^osecutiini  of  the  war;  and  it  hat  been  doubted 

iw  fax,  in  accae  oircnmstaucea,  eon.  Lay,  and  ooal 

ay  not  eome  under  that  oategoiT. 

An  impcrtsnt  queatioD  regarding  the  righta  <rf 
nentrala  it,  whetiker  cnemiea'  goods  not  wnbahatMl 
of  war  toajr  be  lawfully  conveyed  in  neatnl  bottoma. 
The  principle  that  free  thipa  make  free  goods,  w^ 
innrr  resisted  by  this  and  other  maritime  ooontarie^ 
the   general    underBtaading   bat   bean,   that 

belligerents  have  a  right  of  vanting  and *•= — 

neutral  vessels  for  the  purpose  of '"' 

whether  the  ship  is  really  neutraL,  _  . 

of  a  neutral  fiag  aflTordt  no  alwolute  security  tliat 
it  is  so ;  Sd,  whether  it  has  contraband  of  war  ot 
property  on  board.     Neutral  ships  hAT« 


cargo,  , 

when  sammoned  by  the  cruisers  of  eiUier  belligerent 
It  has  been  considered  that  a  neutral  ehip  which 
seeks  to  avoid  search  by  crowding  sail  or 
force,  may  be  captured  and  cocSiscated. 
a  merchant-ship  it  tailing  under  ocmviJF  ci  i 


Trt^ 


I II...  nv  Google 


HEDWIGD— NEW  BEDFOBS. 


of  mr,  it  has  heea  Mid  that  tbe  dacUrfttdon  of  the 
<dloer  in  oommMid  id  the  ooDToy  th&t  then  U  no 
oODtnbaiid  of  war  or  belligeMot  property  on  board, 
ii  anfficient  to  bar  tha  azereiaa  <i  tlu  right  of 

A  deelaration  lumng  impcntant  bearingi  on  tiie 
lighta  of  neotrala,  ma  adopted  hj  the  plenipoten- 
tiariea  of  Great  Sritais,  Aiutria,  Francs,  Pmuia, 
Biuna,  Saidinia,  and  Tniley,  aawmbled  in  oongrera 
at  Pana,  on  .^lil  1S|  ISSO.  B7  ita  praTisioDa, 
L  PrivatMriw  ia  aboliahed.  2.  A  nentral  flag 
oovera  anemiargoodi,  with  the  exc«ition  of  oontra- 
band  of  war.  &  Neubal  gooda,  witn  the  ezoeplion 
(rf  ooDtralMud.  ot  war,  are  not  liable  to  c^tore 
imder  tite  MManjr'a  fl*^  4.  Blookadea^inorder  toba 
binding,  mnrt  be  efreotivi^  that  ii,  muntajned  b7 
ft  force  nifficieDt  really  to  pBvent  aoceaa  to  the  coaat 
ottheenemj. 

It  baa  aomeliinea  been  propoMd  to  ezonpt  private 
property  at  sea  from  attack  dnring  war — inoli  a 
project  howerer,  leema  inexpedient.  There  may  be 
«  proprie^  in  rejecting  the  prop«^  of  indindoala 
<m  land,  in  a  lime  of  war,  becMue  iti  destrwjtioa, 
howover  injnriona  to  the  persona  immediately  con- 
cerned, can  hare  little  inflnenoe  on  the  dedaion  of 
the  conteaL  But  at  aea,  pivate  proper^  ia 
deebvjred  beoaose  those  from  whom  it  ia  takm, 
being  puireyora  or  oarriera  for  tite  community  at 
large,  ita  loae  must  aeriotulT  affect  the  pnblic,  and 
haTs  no  email  inflnence  in  biinging  tha  owdcet  to 
an  end.    See  Blockajib,  Tbivaimkb. 

NEU'WIED,  a  town  of  Rheniih  Pmama,  on  the 
light  bank  of  the  BJiine,  8  miles  below  Coblena. 
It  ia  the  oapibj  of  the  principality  of  Wied,  now 
medialdaed  and  attached  to  Prnnia,  and  ia  the  aeat 
of  the  prinooi  of  Wied,  with  a  beantifal  cestle.  It 
waa  founded  in  the  beginiuDg  of  the  18th  c.  by 
Prince  Alexander  of  Wied-Newweid,  who,  ofiering 
perfect  toleration  in  religions  matters,  aa  an  induce- 
ment, invited  coloniata  of  whatever  penuosion  to 
aettle  here.  The  town  ia  well  buO^  witii  wide, 
Btraight  Btreet*.  Tunning  at  rioht  angles  to  Moh 
other,  and  contuna  the  chnrch«a  of  Protestaota, 
Gatholica,  Jem,  EamihuteTS,  &c.  The  inhabitants 
are  well  conditioned  and  industrioas.  Pop.  (18S0) 
9656,  who  cony  on  manofacturee  of  hodery,  woollen 
and  cotton  fabrics,  iron-warea,  leather,  ana  tobacco. 

NBTVA,  a  river  of  Rossia,  in  the  eovemment  of 
St  Feterabuigi  flows  westwaid  from  uie  sonth-weet 
oomer  of  Lake  Ladoga  to  the  Bay  of  Cronstadt,  in 
the  Qolf  of  FioUnd.  Its  length,  including  wiiuluiga, 
ia  about  40  miles,  9  miles  of  which  are  within  ^e 
limita  of  the  ci^  of  St  Petenbnig;  and  in  aome 
placea  it  ia  2100  feet  broad,  ancT  about  66  feet 
deep;  although  at  Sehlnaaelhiu^  where  it  iamM 
from  the  lake,  and  at  St  Petersburg  where  it  entera 
the  aea  by  aeveral  branchea,  it  ia  ahallow.  Fiom 
Cronstadt,  goods  are  brought  to  8t  Fetorgburg  in 
lighters  or  in  amall  steomen.  By  the  Ladoga 
Canal,  the  N.  oommnnicates  with  Uie  vast  wat^ 
system  of  tha  Voln,  and  t^na  it  may  be  lajd  to 
join  the  Baltic  with  the  Caspian  Sea.  Ita  eorrent 
la  very  rapid,  and  the  volume  of  it*  waters  ia 
immense.  It  ia  covered  by  drift-ice  for  opwarda 
of  five  months — from  about  the  26th  Kavember  to 
the  27th  ApriL  An  extensive  traffic  ia  carried  on 
on  ita  waten,  both  from  Uie  interior  and  from  the 
Baltic. 

NEVA'BA,  one  of  ttie  atatea  of  North  America, 
Ii  bonnd  on  the  W.  by  California ;  on  the  S.  by 
California  and  Arizona ;  on  the  E,  by  Utah  and 
ftTiT^iiift  •  uid  on  the  N.  by  Oregon  and  Idaha 
Area,  100,700  aqnare  milco.  Pop.  (1870)  42,491  i 
(1880)  £3,266  (Including  6120  Chmeae),  beaidea 
about  4000  tribal  Indiana. 


Walker  and  Carson  Lakes.  N.  is  the  centre  of  that 
elevated  basin  which  reaches  westward  from  the 
Hooky  Mountuna  to  the  Sierra  Nevada,  at  a  mean 
altitude  of  about  4000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
NumeroDs  mines,  either  of  gold  or  silver,  have  been 
discovered.  The  whole  coontry  ia  rich  in  mineral 
wealth.  Besides  gold  and  silver,  quicksilver,  lead, 
and  antimony  ara  fonnd.  The  temtorial  capital  ia 
Carson  City  (pop.  3042),  bat  the  principal  town  ia 
ViiKmia  City  (pop.  7048).  The  product  of  silver  in 
N.  dnring  the  decade  1S50— 1869  was  valued  at 
137,382,000  dollars ;  in  1881  N.  yidded  2,700,000 
dollars'  worth  of  gold,  and  8,860,000  of  silver. 

NBVEBS,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  t^e 
department  ol  Nifivre,  and  fonnerly  the  capital  of 
the  province  of  Nivemus,  is  built  on  a  hill  in  the 
midst  of  fertile  plains,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Loire  and  the  Nibvn^  140  miles  aoath-south-east  ol 
Faria.  Highly  pictnreaqne,  as  seen  from  a  di«tano& 
its  interior  shews  steep,  winding,  and  badly  paved 
streeta.  It  contains  a  beantifolcathednl  of  the  lOth 
a,  and  a  fine  pnblio  gardm;  the  large  candry 
bairack,  the  fine  bridge  of  20  archea  over  the  Loire, 
and  the  triomphal  arch,  erected  in  1746,  to  com- 
memorate the  battle  of  Fontenoy,  are  also  worthy  of 
mention.  N.  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  contains  a  pobHo 
libmy,  and  has  numerous  educational,  scientific,  and 
benevolent  institations,  and  an  aieoiaL  There  ia 
here  an  important  caonon-fonndry,  and  the  princi- 
pal mannfacturca  are  porcelain  and  earthenware, 
glass,  brandy,  iron  cablea  and  chains,  and  anvil& 
Pop.  (1681)21,722. 

N.,  the  Jf^ariodumim  of  the  Bomans,  existed 
prior  to  the  invasion  of  Oaul  by  Julias  Ctesar.  It 
has  been  the  seat  of  a  bishop  since  the  beginning  of 
the  6th  a,  when  it  was  called  Nevimum,  Decame  a 
county  in  the  10th  c.,  and  was  erected  into  a  duchy 
by  Francia  L  in  163& 

NE'VILUrS  CROSa    See  Bboob,  David. 

NETIS,  a  imall  island  of  the  West  Indies, 
belonging  to  Great  Britain,  forms  one  of  the  gronp  of 
the  Lesaer  Antilleis,  and  lies  immediately  south-east 
of  St  Christopher's,  bun  which  it  ia  separated  by  a 
strut  called  the  iPamnu,  two  miles  wide.  It  ia 
ciroulai  in  form,  rises  in  a  central  peak  to  the  height 
of  about  2600  feet,  and  has  an  area  of  60  square 
miles.  Fop.  (1881)  11,861,  of  whom  very  few  are 
white.  Charlesbown,  a  seaport,  with  a  tolerable 
roadstead,  dtuated  on  the  Bouth-wett  shore  of  the 
island,  is  the  seat  of  government,  consisting  of  a 
government  eooncil  and  general  assembly  of  11 
members.  The  arable  lani£,  oompriwng  6000  acres, 
are  all  well  cnltivated.  The  soil  la  fertile,  and  the 
OTindpal  producta  are  sngar,  molasses,  and  ram. 
The  revenne,  which  amonnted  to  £15,734  in  1871, 
was  only  £8447  in  1381.  The  imports  in  1870  wero 
valued  at  £64,286 ;  in'  ISSO,  £30,646.  Exports 
(1870),  £64,119;  (1880)  £37,212.  Tonnage  of  ships 
entered  and  cleared  in  1870,  23,046  tons  ;  in  188(X 
19,03a 

NEW  AliBANT,  a  dt?  in  Indiana,  tJ.  8., 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  Ohio  Biver,  at  the  foot 
of  the  falls,  oppodie  Portland,  and  2  miles  below 
Lonisvill^  Kentacky ;  a  finely  situated,  well-btdlt 
town,  having  22  mUes  of  streets,  6  slup-yards,  S 
foundries,  80  ohnrohes,  and  is  the  ute  of  Asbury 
ColWe  and  a  collegiate  institute.  It  has  a  large 
river%ade  and  railway  connections  with  Indiana 
and  Kentucky.    Pop.  (1870)  16,396 ;  (1881)  16,422, 

NEW  BK'DFORD,  a  seaport  dty  of  Masaa- 
^osetts,  TJ.  S.,  on  Busaud'a  B»j,  S5  milea  aoath  of 
Boston.  Since  1766,  it  has  been  the  chief  centre  of 
the  American  whale  fisheries.    The  value  of  this 


,.t?St: 


NEW  BBTTAIN— NEW  BBUN8WICE. 


indnatrj  hu  been  for  inaay  yean  on  the  decline. 
The  trade  wae  at  its  height  in  1853-4,  when  there 
were  in  the  district  410  whalers  of  132,966  tons, 
which  bronght  boms  44,923  barrels  ot  sperm  oil, 
118,672  barrels  of  whole  oil,  sad  2,838,800  lbs.  of 
vholebone.  In  1873,  N.  B.  potsaaaed  128  whalers, 
which  brought  home  30,961  barrels  of  sperm  oil, 
2G,729  barrels  of  whale  oil,  and  150,698  Iha.  of 
whalebone.  It  has  oil  and  candle  factories,  cotton 
mills,  icon  mills,  copper  and  glass  works,  30  churches, 
6  bankii  2  daily  and  2  weeuy  neM'apapers,  a  pubhc 
library  of  30,000  volumea,  mty-holF,  custom-house, 
Ud  almi-honse.     Fop.  (1870)  21,320;  (1880)  26,S43. 

NEW  BRI'TAIN,  a  maoufacturbg  town  in  Con- 
neoticot.  United  States,  10  milea  aoutk  of  Hartford, 
enraiged  in  the  production  of  stockinet  goods, 
locu,  jewellery,  hooks  and  eyes,  and  various  Kinds 
of  haraware.  It  has  six  chDroheB.  The  water 
■umily  is  from  a  nserroir  of  176  acres,  with  a  head 
of  20O  feet,  supplying  public  fountains  with  jets  of 
140  feet,  and  dispensing  with  fire-engines.  Popt 
(1870)  0480 ;  (IS60)  11,800. 

NEW  BRITAIN,  the  name  of  one  princijial, 
■nd  of  several  subsidiai?  islands  in  the  Focifio 
Ooean,  in  lat.  between  4°— 6°  30*  8.,  and  long. 
between  14S°— 162*  Sff  S.  The  principal  island, 
800  miles  in  length,  and  having  an  area  of  12,000 
square  miles,  lies  eaaC  of  New  Guinea,  from  which  it 
ia  separated  by  Dompier's  Straits.  The  surface  is 
mountainoQB  in  the  uterior,  with  active  volcanoes 
in  the  north,  but  along  the  coast  are  fertile  plaina. 
Forests  abound  in  the  island,  and  palms,  sugar-cane, 
breadfruit,  &c,  are  produced.  The  inhabitants,  the 
nnmbw  of  whom  is  unknown,  are  deacribed  m  a 
taibe  of  'oriental  negroet,'  and  are  well  formed, 
active,  ud  of  »  very  dork  oomplezion.  They  are 
further  advanced  in  oivilisatiDn  than  is  usual  among 
the  Polynesiana,  have  a  fonnal  religions  worship, 
temple*^  and  imagea  oi  their  deitie*.  N.  B.  via 
fint  seen  by  Le  Moire  and  Schouten  in  ISIS,  but 
Dampter,  at  a  later  date,  was  the  fiist  to  land. 

NEW  BRITNSWICK,  a  city  of  New  Jersey, 
U.  B.,  is  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Baritan  River, 
At  the  head  of  navigation,  IS  miles  from  its  month, 
30  miles  south-weat  of  New  York,  on  the  New 
Jersev  Boilway,  and  the  Delaware  and  Roritan 
CanaL  It  has  extensiva  manufactures  of  cotton. 
leather,  india-rubber,  naper-hangings,  iron,  and 
machinery,  17  churches.  2  banks,  and  4  newspapers. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Butger^s  College  and  a  theological 
seminary.     Pop.  (1870)  16,058;  (1880)  17,167. 

NSW  BRUNSWICK,  aprovince  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  in  North  America,  is  bounded  on  the  N.W. 


of  27,322  square  miles, ,_,.,_,. 

acres  (rather  less  than  the  area  of  Scotland).  Poa 
(1871)  286,694;  (1881)  321,128,  The  eoasHine 
u  600  miles  in  extent,  and  is  indented  by  spacious 
bays,  inletsj  and  harbours,  which  afford  mUe  and 
eommodious  anohorags  for  shippiaa.  The  chief 
are  Fundy,  Chi^ecto,  and  Cumberland  Baya, 
the  last  two  being  merely  exfenaions  of  uie 
first;  Fassamsquoddy  Bay  in  the  south;  Verte, 
Shediac,  Cocaigoe,  Bichihncb),  and  Miramichi  Bays 
on  the  north-east,  and  the  Bay  of  Chaleur,  80 
miles  long  by  27  broad,  in  the  north-weet.  The 
province  of  N.  B.  abounds  in  riverK.  The  prin- 
dpol  are  the  St  John  and  the  St  Croix,  the 
former  450,  and  the  latter  100  miles  in  length, 
sod  both  falling  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy;  and 
of  the  river*  that  fiow  eastwafl  into  the  Gulf  of 
8t  Lawrence,  tho  Bichibucto,  the  Miramichi,  and 


the  Bestigouohe.  The  province  oontuui  Dnmerona 
lakes,  one  of  which.  Grand  I^ke,  is  100  square  milea 
in  area.  Most  of  the  others  are  much  smaller..  Tlia 
mihco  is  for  the  moa:t  part  flat  or  uodnlating.  Witb 
the  exception  of  the  district  in  the  north-west 
bordering  on  Canada  and  the  river  Bestigonche, 
no  portion  of  N.  B.  is  marked  by  any  cousiderabla 
elevation.  Here,  however,  the  country  is  beauti- 
tully  diyeiaifled  by  hilla  of  from  600  to  300  feet  in 
height  These  elevaliona,  frtiich  form  an  extenaioB 
of  the  Appalachian  range,  are  interspersed  witb 
fertile  voUeya  and  tablelands,  and  are  clothed 
almost  to  their  summits  with  lofty  forest-treea. 
In  this  diatriot  the  scenery  is  remorkobly  beaotalnL 
In  the  south  of  the  colony  the  surface  is  broken  apby 
great  ravines,  and  the  coast  is  bold  and  rockjr.  The 
shores  on  the  east  coast,  and  for  twenty  miles  ittboid. 
are  flat.  The  soil  is  deep  sud  fertile.  Of  the  wbolo 
acreage,  14/NX^QOO  ociee  are  set  down  as  good  land, 
and  ^400,000  acres  as  poor  land.  N.  B.  containa  a 
rich  and  extensive  wheat-producing  district ;  but 
the  inhabitants,  dividisig  their  time  between  farm- 
ing, lumbering,  fishing,  ship-building,  and  other 
puiBuits,  and  following  no  n^^nlar  system  of  tillage^ 
have  not  till  quite  recently  attempted  to  keep  uoa 
with  modern  agricultural  improvementa.  Tba 
farming  boa  not  been  judicious ;  many  parts  of  the 
country  have  been  allowed  to  become  exhausted ; 
and,  although  signs  of  improvement  begin  to  be 
manifest,  stul  there  is  prevalent  a  deplorable  lauk 
of  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  acientifio  agricnl- 
ture.  Several  cheese-factoriee  have  been  estob- 
liahed  in  the  province  within  the  last  few  yeoia. 
In  one  year,  one  of  these  has  manufactured  as  much 
as  26,000  lbs.  In  the  three  years  1879—1881,  the 
value  of  exports  varied  from  (6,371,000  to  $6,400,000 ; 
that  of  imports  from  |5,300,000  to  $5,900,00a 
The  crown-lands  are  aa  much  as  possible  res^^ed 
for  grants  t«  actual  settlers.  A  male  of  IS 
years  of  age  or  upwards  may  obtain  lOO  acres, 
either  by  payment,  in  advance,  of  SO  dollan 
(abont  £4,  Sk),  to  aid  in  the  coiiBtructioa  of 
noda  and  bridgea  in  the  vioinity  of  bis  location ; 
or  upon  his  pertorming  labour  on  such  roada  and 
bridges,  to  the  value  of  tO  dollars  a  year,  for  tbiee 
years.  He  must  also,  within  two  years,  bnild  a 
hause  on  his  land,  and  clear  two  acres.  After  a  resi- 
dence for  three  years  in  aucceseian.  he  receives  a  deed 
of  grant,  if  he  has  paid  the  20  dollars  in  advance,  or 
cultivated  10  acres.  The  Act  ot  1872  ia  still  mora 
hbeiaL  A  settler  can  obtwn  100  acres  of  crown  land 
if  a  single  mon,  and  200  ocres  if  married  and  hsvinp 
children.  A  house  must  be  built  and  part  of  the  land 
cultivoted  within  3  years,  when  he  reoeives  a  present 
of  30  dollars  from  government.  Thechmateia  remark- 
ably healthy,  and  the  autumn— and  eapecioUy  the 
season  called  the  Indian  anmmer — is  particolatly 
agreeable.  In  the  interior,  the  heat  in  summer  riaee 
to  80°,  and  sometimea  to  95°  ;  ond  in  winter,  whi<ji 
lasta  from  the  middle  of  December  to  the  middle  of 
March,  tie  mercury  sometimes  falls  as  low  as  4(r 
below  zero.  At  Fredericton,  the  capital,  situated 
on  St  John's  River.  C5  miles  from  the  south,  and  130 
milea  from  the  north  coast,  the  temperature  range* 
from  35°  below  to  95°  above  zero,  and  the  mean  ia 
about  42*. 

The  north-western  portion  ot  the  province  is 
occupied  by  the  upper  SUurian  formation.  Next 
are  two  belts  of  lower  Silurian.  Small  patches  of 
the  Devonian,  Euronion,  ond  Lsnrentian  aj'stena 
are  found  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  A  lai^  part  ot 
the  province  ia  occupied  by  carboniferous  strata. 
The  mineral  coal  is  for  the  moat  parb  impure  or  in 
thin  aeama,  and  is  hardly  worked ;  but  the  so-called 
Albertite  of  Albert  county  is  the  moat  valuable 
deposit  of  bituminous  matter  on  the  American  cod- 


,,  Google 


NEW  CALEDONIA— MEW  FOBEST. 


tinenL  It  yields  100  galloiu  of  crnde  oQ  pef  ton. 
Salt  spring!  un  nnmerona.  Copper  and  iroa  ore  are 
toond,  M  kUo  aDtimony  uid  monguteae;  g^uto, 
plumbago,  and  limestone  are  reiy  abandant,  and 
the  f reoBtona  of  tlia  provinces  iintnrpaBud  for  beauty 
and  darabilitv,  commanda  a  hi^  price  in  the 
States.  Wild  wiitn*l»  abound  in  the  province  ; 
the  lakes  and  river*  are  veil  stocked  with  iUb, 
and  along  the  couts,  cod,  haddocks,  aalman, 
and  other  Bth  are  cangbt  in  great  plenty.  The 
foreatfl  of  pine,  cedar,  and  spruce  snpply  timber  for 
export  and  ship-building  purposoB,  and  are  one  of 
the  chief  souroM  of  wealth  in  N.  B.  There  are 
nearly  600  miles  of  railway  in  the  province. 
Around  the  coasts  and  along  the  banlu  of  the 
rivers  there  are  exoellent  puUio  and  ooadi  roadK. 
B7  an  Act  of  IS71  a  system  of  free  pablic  schools 
was  established ;  and  in  1674  the  number  of  schools 
in  operation  was  1049.  Chief  towns,  the  dty  of  St 
John  and  Frederictoo,  the  political  capital  N.  R 
send.s  10  senaton  and  16  representatives  to  the 
Dominion  parliament.  Tiu  provincial  govemmeut 
is  administered  by  a  lientenant-covemor  and  council 
of  9,  a  legislative  council  of  IS  members,  and  an 
•saembly  M  41  members. 

The  province  of  N.  B.,  together  with  that  of  Nova 
Scotia,  originally  farmed  one  French  ookmy,  called 
Acadia,  or  New  FrancSi  It  was  ceded  to  the 
English  in  1713,  and  was  fint  settled  by  Britiah 
colonists  in  1764.  In  17Bi,  it  was  separated  from 
Nova  Scotia,  and  erected  into  an  independent 
ooloay.  It  joined  the  Dominion  of  Canada  m  1S67. 
NBW  OALEDCXNIA,  am  isUnd  of  the  South 
Pacifio  Ocean,  belonging  to  iiVance,  and  lying  about 
720  miles  east-north-eut  of  the  coast  of  Queens- 
land, in  Australia,  in  lat  20°— 22°  30'  fl.,  long. 
164'~167*  E.  It  i«  about  200  miles  in  len;^, 
30  miles  in  breadth,  and  in  1631  had  a  population 
ot  60,703.  It  i«  of  volcanic  origin,  is  traversed  in 
the  direction  of  its  length,  from  north-west  to 
south-east,  by  a  range  of  mountains,  which  in 
Mount  Humboldt  attain  a  height  of  fi3SD  feet, 
uid  is  siuTounded  fay  sand-banb  and  coral-reefs. 
There  are  secure  harbours  at  Port  Balsde  and 
Port  St  Vincent,  Uie  former  on  the  north-east,  the 
latter  on  the  south-west  part  of  the  ishuid.  lii  the 
TalleyB  the  soil  is  fruitful,  producing  the  cocoa-nut, 
banana,  numgo,  breadfruit,  &C.  The  sugkr-cane  is 
cultivated,  and  the  vine  grovrs  wild.  The  coasts 
support  considerable  tracts  of  forest,  but  the  moun- 
tains are  barren.  The  inhabitaota,  who  resemble 
the  Fapnan  race,  consist  of  different  tribes,  aome 
of  which  are  cannibals.  N.  C  was  discovered  by 
Captain  Cook  in  1774.  In  1863  the  Trench  took 
pceseaiion  of  i(^  and  it  has  since  1672  been  used  by 
the  French  authorities  a*  a  iieoal  settlemenf. 
Misuon  stations  have  been  established  In  1878, 
some  of  the  na^iTsa  rose  in  insurrection  and 
massacred  a  number  of  the  white  residents. 


Maiy  of  Winchester,  in  Oxfnd,  comm(m&  called 
New  College^  waa  founded  by  William  of  Wyko- 
ham,  Bishcn  ot  Wmchester  and  Lord  H^  OLaa- 


edlor  in  13S&  The  buildings  tte  maggifoeat,  and 
the  gardens  of  great  beauty.  The  most  remark- 
able pecnliaii^  of  New  College  is  its  connectios 
with  Wincheatw  School,  anotJier  noble  foundation 
of  Wykeham.  After  the  kin  of  tiie  founder  (to 
vhom  a  preference  was  always  given),  the  fellows 
were  to  be  taken  from  Winchester.  The  late 
practice  was  that  'two  fonndera,'  as  they  were 
called,  weis  put  at  tho  head  of  the  roll  for  Win- 
chester, and  two  ethen  at  the  head  at  the  nil 
for  New  College,  In  1801,  the  coUue  oonaisted 
nt  •  wardm  and  70  fellows  (deoted  w  this  ynj 


from  Winchester),  10  chaplains,  3  derks,  and  IS 
dioristera.  By  the  ordinances  under  17  and  18 
Vict.  0.  81,  ctmsiderable  ohansea  weifl  introduced, 
but  the  connection  of  the  oolWe  with  Winchest^ 
was  in  great  measore  preserved.  The  nomber  of 
fellows  was  fixed  at  30.  Ot  these,  16  are  open  only 
to  those  who  have  been  educated  at  Winchester,  or 
who  have  been  for  12  terms  members  of  New 
College.  The  other  16  are  open  without  restriction. 
The  value  of  the  fellowships  is  not  to  be  more  than 
£200  per  aonnni,  so  long  as  their  number  is  less 
than  4a  There  are  also  to  be  30  scbolaTships, 
tenable  for  five  yean,  (^  value  not  less  than  £80 

RT  annum,  inclusive  of  rooms,  to  be  appointed 
■  the  warden  and  fellows  of  New  College,  by  the 
efectioti  of  boys  receiving  education  at  Winchester 
School  No  conditions  &  birth  are  to  be  regarded 
in  the  election  either  ot  fellows  or  scholaia.  By  • 
subsequent  statute,  the  chaplains  are  made  3  in 
number,  and  from  8  to  10  choral  scholars  are  added, 
to  be  upon  an  equahty  with  the  other  scholars. 
This  col1«^  presents  to  40  benefices,  and  elects  the 
warden  of  Winchester  College. 


tinctively  known  as  Yankees,  and  mostly  descended 
from  an  English  Puritan  and  Scotdljl  ancestry,  are 
eneaged  in  commerce,  fisheries,  and  manu&ctures, 
ana  are  celebrated  for  indnstrf  and  enterprise.  This 
region  was  granted  by  James  L  to  the  fl?""^'^ 
Company  in  1606,  under  the  title  of  North  Vin^nia, 
and  the  coast  was  explored  by  Captain  John  Snitlt 
in  1614.    See  accounts  of  the  sevMsl  States. 

NBW  FOREST,  the  name  ot  a  district  in 
Hampshire  (q.  v.),  trianguhu'  in  shape,  and  bounded 
on  the  W.  by  tile  river  Avon,  on  the'  3.  by  the 
ooast,  and  on  the  N.-E,  by  a  line  running  from  the 
borders  of  Wiltshire  aloug  the  Southampton  Water. 
Area  about  04,000  acTe&  This  triangle  appears  to 
have  been  a  great  wooded  district  from  the  earliest 
times,  and  its  present  name  dates  from  the  Norman 
Conqnes^  when  it  was  regularly  afforested  Since 
that  period  it  has  remained  a  possession  of  the 
crown,  anbject  to  rights  of  '  pannage^'  vert  (green- 
wood) and  tnrf^mtting,  claimed  by  y— ' *-'^-- 


lasts  for  six  weeks,  the  borderers  drii 
of  swine  to  feed  on  the  mast  in  the  Forest,  and 
this  right  they  obtain  by  paying  a  small  annual 
fee  in  the  Stewarts  Court  at  Lyndburst,  which  la 
considered  the  captal  of  the  ForeeL  Formerly,  this 
district  was  the  haunt  of  numerous  '  squatteii,'  but 
their  huts  are  now  rarelyto  be  seen.  Oipaies,  how< 
ever,  still  congr^ate  here  in  oousiderablB  numbers. 
In  1861,  a  commisuon  was  appirinted  to  examine 
the  extent  and  nature  of  the  rights  of  pannage, 
i&,  claimed  l^  the  foresters  and  Doiderers,  and  in 
a  large  majon^  of  cases  the  olaims  were  confinnei 
The  principal  trees  in  the  forest  an  the  oak  and 
beech, withtargepatcheaofhdlyasandenrood  The 
oaks  have  been  much  used  as  tunber  for  the  British 


this  district  by  the  Conqueror,  eoforoed  by  savagely 
aevera  Forest  laws,  was  regarded  as  an  act  of  the 
greatest  cruelty,  and  the  violent  deaths  rnet  by  boUi 
of  his  sous,  Richard  and  William  Rnfns— liotli  ot 
whom  were  killed  bv  accideutal  atrow-wonuds  in 
tlie  Forest — were  loosed  upon  as  special  judgmenta 
ot  Frovidance.  A  small  breed  ot  pony  lives  wild 
under  its  shelter. 

^ 


BXW  ORAITADA— NEW  HAMF8HIBS. 


NEW  ORAJfADA,  ainOB  8«pt  1861.  haa  been 
offidallT  ctyled  7^  ITiulAi  Slota  t/Oobaiia.  Thu 
f«denbT9  ranoUio  ma  formed  at  the  oiinT«ntioii 
of  B<^E^  at  the  date  Bpecified,  and  oonmala  of  niae 
*Btot«i,'  Paouia,  Santander,  Catioa,Bo7aca,Cnndin»- 
mana,  Antiaqnia,  Tolima,  Bolivar,  Magdalwt.  It  u 
bonnded  on  the  N.  by  the  Caribbean  Sea :  on  the 
W.  by  Coita  Bioa,  a  repnblio  of  Central  AmMinL 
and  bj  tlie  Pacifio;  on  the  8.  by  Ecnador  and 
Bnudl ;  and  oa  the  E.  by  Venezaela.  Are*,  613,783 
■qaare  milea ;  pop.  (ISTO)  2,SH992,  of  wbom  nearly 
a  naif  are  of  Eoropean  deeoenb  By  a  eonitttntion 
d«ted  May  1863,  the  executive  anthoiitT  ia  reated 
in  a  piendent  elected  for  tvo  yeam,  while  the  l^a- 
latira  powor  reata  with  a  Senate  and  a  Hooae  of 
Bqn«aentatiT««.  The  federal  army  conaiata  of  3000 
meo  on  the  peaM  footing.   In  1881,  ttaerereiniewaa 

S 917,000  doUan;  the  expenditure  «,S29,fiS0;  and 
le  debt  30,000,000  dollara.  The  total  importa  in 
1880-81  hadavalne  of  12,071,800  dollaia;  the  t^porta, 
11(^7,000  (one  third  of  wbioh  gow  to  ths  United 
States,  and  another  third  to  Great  BritMn).  Beaidea 
tbe  tulway  acroaa  the  lathmua  of  FaaatOM,  there 
are  two  other  abort  lines.  M.  Leaaepa'  great  camd, 
in  conatmction  from  Colon  to  Paoiuna,  p&wes  throttgb 
the  territory  of  the  republic 

The  connt^  ii  intenected  b^  three  great  ranges  ol 
the  Andes,  which  apreod  ont  like  the  raye  of  an  oj)en 
bond  froro  the  platean  of  Paato  and  Tnquerrez  in  the 
■onth  (14,000  feet  high),  and  are  known  aa  the  Weat- 
em.  Central,  and  Eastern  Cordillenk  Between  these 
ohiwa  lie  the  long  and  beantiful  valleya  of  the 
Canea  and  the  Ma^ena.  The  Central  Cordillera 
is  the  higliest  chain,  riaiog  in  Nevada  de  Tolima  to 
a  height  of  18,020  feet,  and  from  one  of  ita  peaka, 
near  the  frontiers  of  Ecuador,  colled  Paramo  de  Ua 
Papas,  descend  the  two  principal  rivera  of  N.  O., 
the  Magdalena  and  ita  trihubtry  the  Canca,  flowins 
north  into  the  Caribbean  8«a,  besides  aevetd 
afflneata  of  the  Amatoo  in  the  eaat,  and  one  or 
two  atnamaflowiiij^  westward  into  the  Fscifia  The 
Eastern  Cordillera  w  by  far  the  largest  chain,  and 
omaiata  tt  a  eeriea  ti  vast  -table-landa,  oool  and 
bealtby,  where  the  white  laoe  floorishea  aa  vigor- 
oosly  aa  in  Europe.  Thia  temperate  remon  is 
the  uoBt  densely  peopled  portion  Ot  the  Ct»3edera- 
tion,  being,  in  aome  places,  at  the  rate  of  2600  to  the 
■qnare  league.  Bo^ita  (q.  v.)  the  present  capital,  ia 
situated  on  one  of  tiieae  plateanx,  at  an  elevation  of 
8694  feet.  Eastward  from  this  Cordillera  atoetch 
enormoos  plains  u  far  as  the  Orinooo,  ths  greater 
part  of  which  belongs  to  N.  O.,  and  tluoogh  which 
flow  the  Meta,  the  Gnaviare,  and  other  tnbntariaa 
of  tits  Orinoook  The  geology  of  tlie  oonntiy  is  veiy 
extraordinary.  'Evraywhere,'  we  sm  told,  'are 
'  traces  of  itupcudoas  ostselvsms,  and  a  dis- 
[mient  and  mtemiixtiira  of  primitive  and 
I,  which  seem  to  pot  all  daaaifi- 
canon  as  aenance.'  In  the  course  of  one  day's 
jonmey,  the  traveller  may  erperienoe  in  thia  country 
•11  the  climatea  of  the  world.  Perpetual  anow 
ooven  the  anmmita  of  the  Cordilleras ;  while  the 
tidi  vegetation  of  the  tropica  covets  the  valleys. 
With  ita  great  variety  of  levela  and  climatea, 
N.  Q.  yielda  naturally  aa  equally  great  variety  of 
OTodnctioDt :  cattle,  horaea,  wheat,  and  other 
Enropean  gruus,  maize,  tobacco,  coffee,  plantains, 
oottoQ,  eaoaoi  angar,  oedsr,  mahogany,  cinchona 
bai^  ipacacnanha,  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  and 
lead,  coal,  emeralds^  pearls,  and  rock-salt 

Ify  the  ooDstttntiMi,  oomfdate  toleratdon  in  matters 
of  religion  and  worship,  the  freedom  of  the  press,  a 
system  of  parish-schools,  with  gratiutons  primary 


point  irfhteraiy  and  sdentificcalfairsL  Therear* 
present  aboot  1000  pnblio  sohoola  in  the  ooontiy, 
maay  seminaries  and  odl^es  for  hi^itt  and  profe*- 
nonal  inatmction ;  there  are  printing  eataUialuneata^ 
peiiodiosla^  and  nnmnoiis  literary,  soiiitilto,  and 
D^isvi^eiit  institntiofk& 

The  <Auef  abnigineB  of  tiw  oomittT,  oaUed  CMMos 
or  JTttMMi^  held  a  hirit  rank  smoDC  the  semi- 
civilised  nstioBS  ot  the  Hew  Worid.  xW  are  ssid 
to  havs  been  frngal  and  indnstrioDB,  wiui  a  wejl- 
organiaed  government  and  »  vsiy  pssaable  rdigkMS 
—lor  hestbens.    They  were  oonqnered  by  XimCTW 

icvn  ^  .1   *■      1    .  .  .-  a.-t—   ^„^ 


lo  (1B36— 1637),  and  th^ 
now  'Chrisfaana,'  and  speak  the  Spanish  langoaga. 
Sevenlof  the  other  tril>e8  still  maintain  a  nvags 
mods  of  life ;  and  some,  as  ths  Hesayos,  are  «v^ 
•aid  to  be  oannibala.  In  1718,  N.  O.  was  ereotsd 
into  a  vice-royalty  by  Spain.  In  1819,  it  becams 
indqotdent,  and  then  ]<nned  with  Ecuador  ami 
Venemela  to  form  the  repnblio  of  Colombia ;  but 
"     --'--  was  dissolved  in  1829— 1830,  and  N.  a 


1853),  a  complete  fondamental  change  waa  mads 
in  IS58,  by  which  ths  sepsrate  'pravincaa'  w«rs 
changed  into  'states,*  associated  under  a  federal 
government  like  the  *  United  States '  ci  North  Ain^ 
rica,  but  seU-goveniing  in  all  internal  a&ira.  In 
I860,  another  tevolation  broke  ont;  and  for  more  Uian 
two  yews,  the  oooutry  was  davastated  by  cavil  war. 
Finally,  on  the  29th  September  1861,  *  conventioa 
>a  oonclnded  between  ths  Craservatives,  or  Peds- 


chaogea  have  again  been  made 
and  the  connti?  ia  now,  sa  stated  abor^  ofEoally 
dwignated  ths  'United  SUtes  of  Colombia.'  Ths 
first  president  under  the  new  form  of  the  oonstatn- 
tion  oommenced  his  term  of  office  on  April  1,  186^ 

NEW  GUl'NEA.    See  Patoa. 

NEWHA'MPSHIRB.o 
United  State)  of  America,  i 
long  70°  40*— 72^  28'  W.,  is  176  miles  long,  and  on 
an  averags  45  miles  wide,  hai '  ' 

squaw  mflea,  or  6,955,200  aorei 
by  Canada,  E.  by  Maine  and 
S.  by  Masaachusetts,  and  W.  by  Vermont,  boaa 
which  it  is  ae;^arated  by  the  Comiectiaat  Birer.  It 
has  ten  counties ;  the  chief  towns  are  Manduster, 
Portsmouth,  Dover,  Nashua,  ^eene,  and  Conocwd, 
the  capital  The  popolotioti,  except  the  recent 
influx  of  Irish  in  the  manufacturing  towna,  is  almost 
entirely  descended  from  the  origmal  T^gl"*"  mai 
Soottish  settlera.  It  ha*  18  miles  <d  ssa-coast,  sad 
oat  seaport,  Portsmouth,  at   ths  moath  of    this 


The  White  Mountains  lie  in  the  north  central 
region.  Their  highest  summits  are  Mount  Washing- 
ton, 6285  feet ;  and  Monnt  Lafayette,  6600  feet^ 
A  notch  in  the  Whits  Monntaim,  2  milea  lon& 
and  in  the  narrowest  part  only  22  feet  wide,  affords 
passage  to  a  road  and  mooatain  stream,  and  is  mnch 
viaited.  The  lakea  and  rivers  of  N.  H.  oocnpy  in 
all  about  110,000  acres.  I^ke  Wiimejnseogee  is 
25  milea  long  by  1  to  10  milea  wide,  with  360 
islands,  from  a  few  yards  to  many  acres  in  ares, 
mostly  covered  with  overgreeos.  The  rocky  stmta 
consist  of  metamorpbio  rocks,  mica  and  talcoas 
slates,  quarts  granular  limestones,  granite,  gneiss, 
and  oontain  m^uetio  and  specular  iron  ores, 
beryl^  tonrmslin^  micS|  gn^hite^  and  steatite  or 


,,  Google 


HEW  EABMONY— NEW  JEBSET. 


aOBp-rtoiM.  Tba  khI,  exoept  in  the  fertile  valleys,  is 
better  wlftpted  to  paatan^  thaa  eoltnre.  Tbe 
vinteni  are  long  and  oald,  so  that  in  the  monntsinoni 
rc^oiui  mejcnry  sometimea  fniGEea.  In  the  forest! 
are  oak,  maple,  pine,  hemlock,  apraot^  tco.  The  chief 
Bgricoltaral  prodacta  are  vaUza,  rye,  oats,  apples, 
potatoes,  and  prodacta  of  tbe  diury.  Namerona 
waterfalls  give  motive-power  to  nuLny  cotton  fse- 
tohea,  wooUen,  iron,  and  paper  milla,  &e.  liie 
state  bat  915  milea  of  railway,  45  natiooal  and 
63  aavingt  banks,  a  college  (at  Bartmontii),  700 
choTcbea,  50  newspapers,  an  excellent  system  of 
frae  schools,  and  goTamment  and  jndiciary  nmilar 
to  all  the  American  states.  N.  H.  was  settled  in 
1623  by  colonists  from  Hanipabire  in  England,  who 
■nffered  during  tbe  colonial  period  from  Cidian  wars 
and  depredations.  Tbe  state  was  organised  in  ITT6. 
It  baa  foTnisbed  a  mnltitnde  of  emigrants  to  tbe 
more  fertile  western  states.  Pop.  (1810)  214,360; 
(1840)264,674;  (1870)318,300;  (1880)  346,99L 

NSW  HAICMONT,  a  village  of  Indiana,  fint 
settled  in  1315  by  a  German  commmiity  of  religions 
eodalista,  called  HarmaDigts,  nnder  the  leadership 
of  Qeorge  Sapp.  In  1324,  the  village  and  domain 
was  pnTchaaed  by  Robert  Owen,  for  an  eiperi- 
mental  cammnoity  on  his  system.  After  the  speedy 


HEW  HATEN,  the  chief  eitj  and  seaport  of 
Connecticnt,  TJ,  S.,  at  the  head  of  a  bay,  4  miles 
from  Iai^  Island  Sonnd,  76  miles  east-north-east 
of  New  York.  Its  bn>ad  streets  are  shaded  with 
elms,  and  the  public  sqosns^  parks,  and  gardens. 


Wykebam  in  1392.  "nie  first  prindpal  on  reooid 
oconrs  in  I43a  DnrioK  tbe  Civil  War  it  waa 
nscd  as  a  mint  for  ChariM  L  It  was  reatored  to 
tbe  pnrDosea  of  instmction  by  Dr  Cramer,  tJie  lat« 
prinoiptu,  wbo  erected  a  handaomo  bnUding  for 
''He  nse  of  th«  stndenta. 

NEW  IHEIiAND,  a  long  narrow  island  En  the 
Fadfio  Ocean,  lying  to  the  north.«aBt  <k  New 
Britain  (O-T.),  from  which  it  is  separated  by  St 
Oeortn's  Channel ;  lat.  2*  40'— 4*  52'  S.,  long.  160°  W 
—15?  OC  E.  Le^th  abont  200  mika ;  average 
breadth,  12  miles.  Ilie  bills  rise  to  a  hught  of  frvu 
1600  to  2000  feet,  and  are  richly  wooded.  Tbe 
principal  trees  are  ooooaa  on  the  coast,  and  in  tbe 
mterioT  forests  of  areca-palsL  Tbe  chief  products 
are  sugar-cane,  bananas,  {^ams,  oocoa-nnta.  Dom 
narenfly 
kibat 
oar  information  about  them  is  extremely  scanty. 


doaan  lares  bnilduiM  and  a  Oothio  ]ibn«y, 
it  long,  l^ere  are  a  nandacone  onstom-boiui^ 
louse,  hoipital,  61  ohnrobea,  aeademie*  sod 


of  Yale  Colle^  (q.  v.],  which 

than  a  doaan  large  '—"■' ^  -  "-''■ 

150  feet  long,    fiu 
atate-house,  hoipital, 

schooU,  9  lunks,  S  daily  p^era,  and  3  ornamental 
cemeteriea.  There  are  large  maoufaetoriea  of  car- 
riages^ docks,  and  lestber,  iron  and  india-rubber 
works.  The  population  in  1670  woa  50,840 ;  in 
1880^  6^882. 

NEW  HETBBIDBS,  a  gnmp  of  islands  in  Uia 
Paoifio  Ocean,  to  the  N.E.  cHt  New  Caledonia,  and 
tiie  W-  of  tbe  Fijis,  in  &  lab  betweoi  14"  and  2C, 
and  in  £.  lonfi  between  167°  and  170*.  Total  ar«a 
estimated  at  3500  sq-m.  They  an  regarded  aa  tlw 
moat  easterly  point  of  the  western  divuion  ot  Poly- 
nesia. The  eionpembraow  Ekpiritn  Santo  (66  miles 
long  by  20  broad),  MalUcoUo  (60  miles  long  by  2S 
bread),  Vati  Amtnyni,  Annatom,  Emmango,  and 
Tanna,  with  an  aotive  volcano.    Aurora,  Mie  of  the 


if  the  gronp  are  hilly  and 
The  n--^ 


ipal  edible  products,  yams,  bauMiss,  cucumbers, 
oocoa-nute,  and  sweet  potatoes;  and  the  only 
animal  of  oonsequenoe,  a  diminntive  species  of  hog, 
which,  wben  full-grown,  is  no  Hwa  than  a  rabbit. 
The  inhabitants,  wbo  number  sSoot  200,000,  are 
fiei««,  but  ^oemvely^r^  and  unintelligent.  Erro. 
mango  is  a  well-known  name  in  missionary  history, 
being  the  scene  of  the  barbarous  massacre  of  tbe 
Bev.  John  Williams — geneially  called  tbe  Mar^ 

NEW  HOXIjAND,  tbe  focmer  name  for  Ans* 
tralia  (q.  v.). 

NEW  INN  HALL,OxroBi)^  This  HaU,  wi 
oertain  gardens  adjoining  waa  presented  to  t 
warden  and  fUlom  of  New  College,  by  William 


I  of  the  original  tbirteea 
U.  &,  in  lat.  88*  65^—41*  21'  N.,  and^  long.  73*  W 
—76'  ZSf  W.,  les  miles  long,  with  a  breadth 
whiob  varies  from  69  to  32  miles,  oontaining  an 
area  of  7815  square  miles,  or  6^1,60()  acres;  bouitded 
N.  by  New  York,  E.  by  tbe  Hudson  Biver  and  the 
Atlaintio  Ocean,  S.  by  the  Ocean  and  Delaware 
Bay,  and  W.  by  Delaware  Bay  and  Biver,  wUcb 
separate  it  &om  Delaware  and  Pennsylrsnia.  It 
hu  21  countiea.  The  chief  towns  are  Trent«n  (tha 
capital),  Newark,  Patterson,  Jersey  Ci^  Elizabeth, 
Camden,  Hoboken.  Its  coslst-line  i*  120  miles,  or, 
'  icluding  bay^  640  miles.  Besides  its  bordering 
rivers,  uio  Hudson  and  Delaware,  its  ^indpd 
itrewns  are  the  Passaic,  Hackensack,  and  llaritan. 
The  northern  portion  of  tbe  state  is  hilly  and  moun- 
tainous. Tha  Palisades,  a  wall  of  perpendicolai 
trap-rocks,  from  200  to  600  feet  high,  form  the 
weMem  bank  of  tbe  Hudson  Biver  for  fifteen  miles, 
and  one  ol  the  grandert  features  of  its  scenery.  The 
central  portion  of  tbe  state  is  a  rolling  ooiintty,  and 
the  southern  and  eastern  portion  a  sandy  plain 
declining  to  tbe  sea.  Five  ^logical  belts  cross  the 
state,  containing  a  sandy  pme  plain  with  bog  iron 
ore,  shelly  marls  used  for  manure,  glass  sand,  green- 
sand  or  marl,  plastic  clay,  used  in  making  firebrick^ 
metamorphic  rocks,  aivillaceons  red  sandstone^ 
copper  orea,  gndss  wit£  spocnlar  and  magnetic 
iron  oreo,  red  oxide  d  one,  and  Franklinita  iron. 
Among  the  most  attractive  features  in  the  scenerf 
are  the  Falla  of  the  Paawo,  the  DeUware  Water 
Gap,  and  Scbodc^'s  Moontain.  Atlantic  City,  a 
Intmng-pbuse  on  tbe  sea-coait,  oormected  by  rail- 
way wiUi  Philadelphia,  ia  a  fashionable  summer 
resort.  The  climate  is  mild,  the  soil  north  ct 
the  pine  plains  fertile,  tiie  country  healthy,  except 
the  malarioos  river-bottoms.  Tbe  agrioultural  pro- 
dnots  of  the  state  are  wheat,  maiie,  oata,  ooromcn 
and  sweet  potatoes,  apples,  peaches,  plums,  grapes, 
mdona,  and  garden  vegetables  for  the  great  neigh- 
bouring marketa  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia 
There  are  cotton  and  woollen  factories,  iron-worki^ 
extensive  manufootorica  ot  maohinery,  locomotives, 
oarrisgea,  glaas,  boots  and  ahoes,  Ac.  The  stata 
draws  a  large  revenue  from  1723  miles  of  railway 
and  several  important  canala,  connecting  New  York 
and  the  coal  r^ons  of  Pennsylvania.  There  ore  4 
colleges,  normal  and  free  schools,  numeroua  oburche^ 
periodicals,  and  daily  papers.  The  governmant  is 
similar  to  those  of  all  tbe  states. 

N.  J.  was  setUed  in  1620  by  Dntch  and  Swede*. 
Taken  by  tbe  English,  it  was  ceded  by  Charles  IL 
to  tha  Doke  ot  York ;  it  wsa  retaken  by  the  Dutoh 
in  1673;  and  afterwards  bought  by  William  Penn 
and  otlitt  Friends,  wbo  have  here  numerons  dsa- 
cendanta.    It  wia  the  scene  o(  aama  of  tbsiwirt 

^ 


ITEW  JOHORE— NEW  BED  SANDSTONE. 


important  milituy  moTCmento  of  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence, mnd  of  the  batUea  of  Trenton,  Piinoeton, 
Monmoath,  and  Oemuuitowil.  Pop.  in  IM), 
373,306;  in  1870,  906,080;  in  1830,  1,131,116. 

NEW  JOUO'BE,  formerly  Tanjong  Putii,  & 
IStity  lettlement  on  the  aoathera  extremity  tA  the 
MaUt  p«niiiBDla.  Here  the  ntjah  or  TommouKDn); 
of  Johor«,  irho  is  an  independent  ■orereign.ocoaaion- 


1  exteimve  tctda  are  in  opeiatiot 


foresU  ve  yet  icarcely  known,  bat  mast  find  their 
m^  to  the  Indiu),  if  not  Eiu^)peaa  markets,  ere 
long.  Population  in  tlie  N.  J.  temtoiy  abont  20,000, 
dliray  Cliineae. 

NEW  LOWDON,  a  dty  and  port  of  entry,  in 
Coiuieoticnt,  IT.  S.  of  America,  on  the  mht  bank  of 
the  river  Thames  3  milea  from  Long  Isbnd  Soosd, 
40  milea  S.E.  of  New  Haven.  It  is  a  rich  and 
handeoma  town,  with  a  cuitom-honw,  11  ohurchea, 
academy,  publio  Mhooli,  a  daily  and  a  weekly 
paper,  6  banko,  leTeral  iion-fonndrie*  and  iteam 
iaw-milli,  a  mBchine-mannfactiiring  company,  a 
deep  secure  barbonr,  pwtected  by  a  fort  of  80  gnns, 
with  20,000  tons  of  shipping,  much  of  it  engag^  in 
the  whale  Baheiiee,  and  railway  and  stekm-bnat 
communications.  Pop.  (1880)  10,537,  It  was  settled 
in  IM4,  and  in  1781  bamed  by  General  Arnold. 

NEWMAXTON.    See  MiLTOS. 

NEW  ME'XICO,  a  territory  belon^g  to  the 
U.  3.,  formerly  a  atate  of  Medoo,  in  lat  31°  22r 
—37°  N.,  long.  103°— 109°  9'  W.,  350  mUea  from 
east  to  west,  and  360  to  400  from  north  to  south, 
with  an  area  of  122,580  square  miles;  bounded 
N.  by  the  state  of  Colorado ;  E.  by  the  Indian 
territory  and  Texas;  8.  by  Texas  and  Mexico; 
and  W.  by  Arizona.  Its  chief  towns  are  Santa 
J6,  Albuquerque  Taos.  SUver  City,  Medlla.  Its 
ohief  rivera  are  the  Bio  Grande,  which  crowes 
the  territorv  from  north  to  south ;  the  Pecos,  a 
branch  of  the  Bio  Grande  ;  the  Colorado,  on  the 
California  boundary;  the  Oila,  which  rises  in  the 
Bocky  Mountains,  and  flows  wefitwards  into  the 
Colorado  These  rivers  and  their  branches  water 
broad  and  fertile  ralleys,  and  supply  the  lack  of 
nun  by  irrigation.  Two  great  chama  of  the  Bocky 
Mountains  or  Cordilleraa  pass  through  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  territory  from  north  to  sont^  and 
lesser  mountain-ranees  diveraify  the  west,  rising  to 
elevations  of  12,000  teat.  The  climate  is  cold  in  the 
devatod  regions,  hot  in  the  plains,  bat  everywhere 
dry  and  healthy.  Heavy  rains  fall  in  July  and 
August,  but  the  rest  of  the  year  is  dry.  The  pro- 
ductions are  wheat,  maize,  fruits,  and  tobacco,  with 
abundant  pasturage.  There  are  numerous  mines  of 
Bold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  and  salt  Merdiaudise  is 
&an^orted  from  St  Louis  and  Texas  in  wagon  or 
mule  trains.  The  Indian  population  consists  of 
2e,268  who  sustain  tribal  relaUons,  and  1309  out  of 
these  relations— total,  26,577.  The  tribes  are  the 
wild  and  predatory  Navajoea,  Apaches,  TJtahs, 
Comanches,  Ac,  who  possess  lai^  herds  of  horses, 
and  make  perpetual  war  upon  the  neighbouring 
•ettlemeats.  This  territory  was  explore  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1537,  who  opened  mines,  and  estab- 
luhed  misuoni.  In  1&46,  Santa  F6,  the  capital,  was 
taken  by  an  American  expedition.  In  1848,  N.  M. 
was  oeiad  to  the  United  States,  and  erected  into  a 
territory  in  1S50.  Pop.  {excluding  Indians)  in  1870, 
91,874;  in  1880,  119,665. 

NEW  O'KLEANB,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of 
Iioniaiana,  United  States  (capital  of  the  state  from 
J868  tia  1880),  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Uissisi 


Biver,  100  milei  from  its  mouth,  lat  29°  eff  N.,  long. 
90°  W.  The  diy  is  built  on  the  alluvial  banks  of 
the  river,  on  ground  lower  than  the  high-water  lev«l, 
protected  from  inundations  bv  the  Ime  or  embank- 
menla,  which  extend  for  hundreds  of  mtlee  on  both 
backs  of  the  river.  The  streets  descend  from  th« 
river  bank  to  the  swamps,  and  the  drainage  is  b^ 
canah)  which  open  into  lAke  Fontcbartrain,  which  la 
on  a  level  with  the  G«lf  of.  Mexico.  The  dty  is  long 
and  nanow,  extending  abont  six  nules  along  the  river, 
on  an  inner  and  outer  curve,  ^ving  it  the  ah^e  <rf 
the  letter  S.  The  older  portioa,  extending  around 
the  outer  curve,  gave  it  the  name  of  '  the  Cresoeikt 
City.'  N.  0.  is  the  great  port  of  transhipment  for  * 
large  portion  of  the  cotton  crop  of  the  soathem 
Amencan  States,  the  sugar  crcm  of  Louisiana,  and 
the  produce  of  the  vast  region  luained  by  the  Mia- 
sissippi  and  its  tributaries.  It  commands  10,000 
miles  of  steam-boat  navigation,  and  is  the  natural 
entrepAt  of  one  of  the  ricliest  regions  of  the  woriiL 
The  miports  into  New  Orleans  are  from  $16,000,000 
to  (20,000,000;  the  exports  (cotton,  tobaccf^  Ac), 
nearly  $100,000,000.  The  sugar  product  of  Lonisian* 
(in  18S0,  213,500  hogsheads)  is  mainly  required  for 
consumption  in  the  United  Stateo.  The  custom- 
house is  one  of  the  largest  buildings  in  AmericsL 
The  hotels,  theatres,  and  publio  buildings  are  on  a 
magaiiiccnt  scale.  There  are  a  branch  mmt,  S5 
hospitals,  infirmaries,  and  asyliuns,  several  colleges, 
Roman  Catholio  cathedral,  160  churches,  7  daily 
newspapers,  extensive  cotton- presses,  cotton  and 
sugar  warehouses,  several  banks,  and  all  the  facili- 
ties for  a  vast  commerce.  Besides  the  great  river, 
N.  0.  hss  railways  connecting  it  with  the  north, 
east,  and  west  It  is  a  beautiful,  and,  but  for  tha 
very  frequent  visits  of  tiie  jreSow  fever,  a  healthy 
city.  Toe  visitation  of  this  dresded  epidemio  in 
the  lower  Mississippi  valley  in  1878  was  one  of 
the  most  terrible  on  record.  The  soil  is  full  of 
«r,  so  that  no  excavations  can  be  made.  The 
;est  buildings  have  no  cellars  below  the  »aitae« ; 
in  the  cemeteries  there  are  no  graves,  but  tha 
dead  are  placed  in  tombs,  or  '  ovens,'  above  ground. 
N.  0.  was  settled  by  the  French  in  1713 ;  with 
Louisiana,  it  was  transferred  to  Spain  in  1763 ;  soon 
after  retraneferred  to  France,  and  sold,  with  a 
vast  territory  drained  by  the  Mississippi  and  Mis- 
souri, by  Napoleon  L  to  the  United  States  in  ISOa 
In  1816  it  was  successfully  defended  against  a 
British  army,  under  Qeneral  Packeoham,  by  General, 
afterwards  President  Jackson.  In  18W,^iii>iui* 
having  seceded  fron  the  Union,  N.  0.  became  an 
important  centre  of  commercial  and  military  opem- 
tions,  and  was  closely  blockaded  by  a  Federal  fleet. 
An  expedition  of  gun-boats,  under  Commander  Far* 
ragut,  farced  the  defences  near  the  month  of  ths 
river,  AprU  24,  1862 ;  the  city  was  oompeUed  to 
surrender,  and  occupied  by  General  Butler  as  mili- 
tary governor.  In  1803,  on  its  cession  to  the  Union, 
the  population  was  about  8000,  mostly  EVench  and 
Spaniah;  in  1820,  it  bad  increased  to  27,000;  in 
18G0,  to  16^823  j  in  1870,  it  was  191,418 ;  in  ISSO^ 
218,100. 

NEW  BED  SANDSTONE.  A  large  series  ot 
reddish  coloured  loams,  shales,  and  sandstoneo, 
occurring  between  the  Carboniferous  Bocks  and  tha 
Lias,  were  grouped  together  under  this  name,  in 
contradistinctton  to  the  Old  Bed  Sandstone  eroupv 
which  lies  below  the  Coal-measures,  and  has  > 
similar  mineral  structure.  Convbeare  and  Back- 
land  proposed  the  title  Poikilibe  (Gr.  variegated) 
for  the  same  strata,  because  some  of  the  most 
characteristio  beds  are  variegated  with  spots  and 
streaks  of  light-blue,  green,  and  buS|  on  a  red  base. 
In  the  progress  of  geology,  however,  it  was  found 
tliat  two  veiy  distinct  perioda   ~       ^    <  >  ■       • 


lii.m-nvGOOl^lC 


SKW  EOSS— NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 


m>up 


btuae  n&mea ;    tmd  the  contaiaed   fnssita  of  each 
found  to  be  BO   icmorkably  dlfierent, 

i  period  was  referred  to  the  Pitlieoznio 

tne  name  Permian    (q.  v.),  while  the 

other,  known  os  the  Triaa  ((J.  v.),  was  determined  to 
belong  to  the  Secondary  scnea. 

NEW  ROSS,  a  market-town  and  seaport  of  I^in- 
etcr,  Ireland,  sitaated  on  the  estuary  of  the  Barrow, 
partly  in  the  county  of  Kilkenny,  but  chielly  in 
that  of  Wexford,  distant  84  miles  south-south- weat 
from  Dnblin.  It  i»  an  ancient  town,  having  been 
BDrrouoded  by  waits  about  the  middle  of  the  13th 
century.  Before  the  union,  it  returned  two  members 
to  parliament,  and  down  to  t^  year  1SS5  it  still 
returned  one.  It  ig  now  a  place  of  coosiderable 
commerce,  and  the  modem  iiart  of  the  town  on 
the  Wexford  side  is  built  with  great  regnlaritj 
and  taste.  On  the  Kilkenny  side  is  a  atiagslin); 
suburb  called  Hosbercon,  connected  with  N.  K.  ny  a 
metal  bridge,  erected  at  a  cost  of  £50,137,  which 
luis  a  BwiTd-pillar  in  the  centre,  to  allow  vessels  to 


approachable  at  spriog-tideB  by  ships  of  SIX)  tons, 
and  at  all  times  hy  vessels  of  600  tons  ;  and  there 
is  a  communication  by  river  and  canal  with  Dublin, 
and  also  with  Limerick.  The  town  is  managed  by 
a  board  of  twenty-one  commissioners.  It  possesses 
no  manufactures  of  any  importance.  Pop.  in  1671, 
6773 !  (18S1)  (iC3G. 

NEW  RUSSIA.    See  Russia. 

NEW  SHO'EEHAM.    BeeSHORKaAM. 


of  the  Kiver  Lena,  in  Eastern  Siberia.  Lat  73° 
2ff—W  12-  N.,  long.  135°  20"— 150°  20"  K  ;  area, 
Z0,480  square  miles.  The  principal  are  Eotelnoi 
(the  lai^eat),  Liakov,  Fodievskoi,  and  New  Siberia. 
The  coasts  are  in  general  rocky,  and  are  covered  all 
the  year  round  with  snow,  lie  islands  are  very 
important,  on  account  of  the  immenso  multitude  of 
bones  and  teeth  of  mammoths,  rhinoceroses,  buffaloes, 
tc,  which  are  found  in  tJia  soil.  They  are  now 
nninhabitcil,  but  there  are  traces  of  former  inhabi- 
tants.    Neither  bush  nor  tne  ii  to  be  seen  any- 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  a  British  colony 
iu  the  south-east  of  Australia.    It  originally  com- 

friscd  all  the  Australian  settlements  east  of  the 
3jth  meridian,  but  the  formation,  successJTely,  of 
the  separate  colonies  of  South  Australia  (1830), 
Victoria  (1S51),  and  Queensland  (I860),  has  reduced 
it  to  more  moderate  dimensions.  It  is  now  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  a  line  which,  beginning  at  Point 
Danaer,  in  lab  2S°  8'  S.,  fallows  several  lines  of 
hcishts  across  the  Dividing  Range  till  it  meets  the 
S9tn  por^iUel,  which  forms  the  rest  of  the  boundary 
westward ;  on  the  W.  hy  the  141st  meridian ;  on 
the  K  by  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  and  tJie  line  separating 
it  from  Victoria  on  the  S.  runs  from  Cape  Howe, 
■t  the  south-cast  of  the  island,  north-wciit  to  the 
source  of  the  Murray  Kiver,  and  then  along  that 
stream,  in  a  direction  west  by  north,  to  the  western 
boundary  of  the  two  colonies.  Area,  310,700  sq.  m., 
or  somewhat  more  than  2J  times  that  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland;  pop.  (lS71i  603,981,  of 
whom  276,551  were  males,  and  228,430  females; 
(18S1)  751,468.  The  more  genera!  physical  character 
of  the  country  is  described  under  Australia. 
Within  the  colony  of  N.  S.  W.  the  mountain. 
range,  which  girdles  nearly  the  whole  island,  is 
— "   continuous  and  elevated,  and   is   known  as 


oolony,  colled  the  Australian  Alps,  rises  in  Mooot 


Kosciusko  to  7308  feet  From  this  the  range  extendB 
nortliward,  the  watet-shed  being  from  60  to  180 
miles  distant  from  the  east  coast,  and  thus  divides 
the  colony  into  two  slopes,  with  two  distinct  wster- 
systems.  The  rivers  on  the  eastern  side  descend 
with  great  rapidity,  and  in  oblique  lortnons  courses, 
their  channels  often  forming  deep  ravine*.  Many 
of  tbem  are  navigable  tn  their  lower  course  for  sea- 
poing  steamers.  The  principal  are  the  Richmond, 
Olarence,  M'Leay,  Maiming,  Hunter,  Hawkesbury, 
and  Shoalhaven.  The  Hunter  River,  about  60  miles 
north  of  Sydney,  opens  up  one  of  the  most  fertile 
nnd  delightful  distrida  in  the  country.  The 
Dividing  Range,  which,  opposite  to  Sydn^,  is 
called  l£e  Blue  Mountains,  being  singulariy  abrupt 
and   rugged,   and   full   of   frightful   chasms.   Ions 

E resented  an  impenetrable  barrier  to  the  west,  and 
ept  tJie  colonists  shut  in  between  it  and  the  sea, 
and  utterly  ignorant  of  what  lay  bevond.  At  last, 
in  1813,  when  the  cattle  were  likely  to  perish  in 
one  of  tjiose  long  droughts  that  appear  to  visit  this 
country  at  intervals  of  a  dozen  years,  three  adven- 
turous individnals  scaled  the  formidable  barrier,  and 
discovered  those  downs  oD  the  western  slope  which 
now  form  the  great  sheep-ranges  of  Australia,  A 
practicable  line  of  road  was  immediately  conatmcted 
by  convict  labour,  and  the  tide  of  occupation  entered 
on  the  new  and  limitless  eipanaei  The  numerom 
streams  that  rise  on  the  west  side  of  the  water-shed 
within  the  colony,  all  converge  and  empty  their 
waters  into  the  sea  through  one  channel  within  the 
colony  of  South  Australia.  The  southern  and  main 
brandi  of  this  great  river-system  is  the  Hurray. 
The  other  great  tmnka  of  the  systen  are  the 
Murrambidgee,  which  is  navigable ;  the  Lachlan,  at 
times  reduced  to  a  string  of  ponds ;  and  tba  Darling. 
The  Macquarie,  passiug  through  the  rich  district  M 
Bathurst  (q.  v.),  is  a  lajge  tributary  of  the  Darling, 
but  it  reaches  it  only  m  the  rainy  seasons.  Tm 
coast-line  ^m  Cope  Howe  to  Point  Danger  is 
upwards  of  700  miles  long,  and  presents  numerotti 
good  harbours  formed  by  tJie  estuaries  of  the  riven. 
Owing  to  the  great  extent  of  the  colony,  stretching 
as  it  does  over  eleven  degrees  of  latitude,  the  climate 
is  very  various.  In  the  northern  district^  which  are 
tiie  wannest,  the  climate  is  tropii^  the  snnuner 
heat  occasionally  rising  la  inland  districts  to  120% 
while  on  the  high  table-lands,  weeks  of  severe  frost 
are  sometimes  experienced.  At  Sydney,  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  year  is  about  66°.  The  mean 
heat  of  summer,  which  lasts  here  from  the  beginning 
of  December  to  the  end  of  February,  is  about  80*, 
but  it  is  much  modified  on  the  coast  by  the  refresh- 
ing sea-breeze.  The  annual  fall  of  rain  is  about  60 
inches.  Rain  sometimes  descends  in  conttnuons 
torrents,  and  canses  the  rivers  to  rise  to  an  extra- 
ordinary  height.  Sometimes  the  rains  almost  fail 
for  two  or  three  years  in  succession  (see  Adstkalia). 
The  coast,  for  300  m.  from  the  northern  boundary, 
is  adapted  for  growing  cotton,  and  in  1868,  when  a 
large  quantity  was  grown,  the  average  produce 
was  180  lbs.  per  acre ;  but  cotton-plantmg  has 
long  been  quite  abandoned.  Farther  south,  the 
climate  is  more  temperate,  and  is  fitted  to  pro- 
duce all  the  grain  prodacts  of  Europe.  Immense 
tracts  of  laniC  admirably  adapted  for  agriculture, 
occur  in  the  south-western  interior;  whUe  in  the 
south-east  coast  districts,  the  soil  is  celebrated  for 
its  richness  and  fertility.  In  the  north,  the  cotton 
and  tobacco  planta,  the  vine,  and  sugar-cane  are 
grown,  and  pine-apples,  bananas,  guavas,  Icmonii, 
citrons,  and  other  tropical  fruits  ore  produced.  In 
the  cooler  regions  of  the  south,  peaches,  apricots, 
nectarines,  oranges,  l^pes,  pears,  pomegranates, 
melons,  and  all  the  Bntiah  fmits,  ara  grown  in 
perfection,  and  fometimea  in  snoh  abundance  that 


■  Cooijle 


NEW  STYLE— NEW- YEAR'S  DAY. 


reslwa: 


barley  oi 

•  ol  Eon 


Agricdtore  U  thna  ii 

thouj;h  the  predomiiuitii^ .  ^ 

Id  1830-81,  there  were  3^992  freeholdere  ud  leue- 
holden  ocoiipTiiig  37,766,317  aorei  of  land,  of  whicb 
706,418  aorea  were  under  cnltiTation,  21,351,433 
Mrei  incloeed  bat  not  eiUtivated,  and  the  renuinder 
(0,707,386  mtm)  not  iadoMd.  The  largett  orop« 
'ware— wheat  (202,040  aoraa)  and  maize  (12S,6?9 
Mm).  The  other  orepa  incladed  oato,  barlej,  n^ 
poUtoei;  millet,  Jcc  Coiuuderable  attention  ha« 
M«u  b««towed  oa  the  cnltJTtttiuu  of  the  vine  and 
the  mamifactiue  of  wine.  The  produce  in  1881-82 
WH  684,282  galloni  of  wine,  and  "'"'  —"  —  -  -• 
brand]',  be«idea  1676  torn  of  grapei.. 

The  great  prodace  of  the  colony  i»  wool,  the 
eiportl  in  1880  amonntjnc;  to  164,871,832  pounds, 
valned  at  £8040,626.  SheeD-fannIng  require*  a 
large  capital,  together  with  AiU  and  experience ; 
•na  the  •heep-farmen  at  aqoattera  form  the  terri- 
torial uiabxnef  of  the  eolony.  All  the  beat 
oMtDre-land  has  Irag  been  talcen  up  and  rented 
(for  geriocb  of  10 — 10  7M14  fmn  the  crown  tinder 
certain  o<»iditioiia.  Stotioni,  or  the  rioht  of  grazing. 
with  the  itock  on  them,  an  continn^j  advertU^ 
for  sale ;  the  prioe  of  a  itation  ia  aoctwdiug  to  the 
number  of  cattle  or  iheep  on  it  The  queetif-  -' 
aquattera'  ah    " 

to  be  idxnit  £10),  and  ol  the 

the  paatpre-landa  should  be  held,  waa  long 

of  agitatdon  and  bittemeai  in  the  coloiu'.  T 

pay  aboat  a  farthing  a  year  for  each  ueep  the  nm 

oan  mpport.     Aooordiiig  to  the  preaent  regulation!, 

arable  landa  are  diipoiea  of  by  two  diatinot  aystemi 

of  mJb  1  one,  to  the  highest  ludder  at  aootion  ' 

nnlimited  qnantities ;  ttu  other,  at  a  &xei  price 

limited  quantities.      By  this  last^  known  in  t 

ookav  as  'Free  Selection  before  Sorvey,'  the 
intending  cultivator  oaa  first  seleot  for  hitoielf,  and 
then  seonra  in  fee-simple  a  quantity  not  leis  than 
40,  snd  not  more  than  320  acres,  at  the  rate  of  20t. 
pw  acre,  on  condition  of  reeidiug  on  his  farm, 
unworing  a  portion  of  it,  and  not  sublettiiig  ib 

The  ooal-fields  of  N.  S.  W.  are  exteiuive,  and  the 
■earns  of  great  thlckneaa.  In  ISSO,  1,466,180  tons, 
valued  at  £626,336,  were  railed.  Iron,  lead,  oopper, 
and  ml-ahale  are  abimdaDb  Qold  was  disoovered 
here  in  Kay  1801,  and  in  that  year  gold  was 
expected  to  Uie  amotint  of  £408,336.  This  amount 
was  increased  to  £2,660,946  in  1862,  but  lubee- 
qoently,  owing  to  the  discovery  of  the  richer  dig- 
gings M  Victoria,  gold-mining  in  tbia  colony  began 
fo  GmgoUb.  From  1867,  however,  till  1676,  the 
amount  annoally  found  and  exported  steadily  ia- 
creaaed.  Inl87Sthe  valueexported  was  £2,094,5i)5, 
□early  all  coin;  in  1878  tbeamoaotwwonly  117,978 
OS.,  valued  at  £423,184  In  1681  there  were  m 
the  odony  32,309,647  sheep,  2,680,040  catUe,  and 
390,9S4hoiMS.  In  1880,  the  revenue  was  £4,904,21Gi 
the  eipenditnre,  £4,864,706;  in  lSS3,the  revenne 
amonnted  to  £7,076,636,  and  the  ezpenditore  to 
£7,418,636.  The  exporia  in  1682  amounted  to 
£16,716,961,  comprising  bailey,  oats,  potatoea,  live- 
■tacli,  prsaerved  meats  leather,  wool,  tallow,  coal, 
gold  dusts  and  sovereigna ;  ,theimporta,aimBiBtJngof 
clothing,  drapery,  hardware,  sugar,  spirits,  tc,  were 
£21,281,130.  The  Sydney  brauch  of  the  Boyal  Mint 
was  instituted  in  1666,  and  isauea  large  quantities 
of  gold  in  aoTereisna  and  half-aovereiffua.  There 
were  in  1880  above  760  mile*  of  railway  uready  open 
in  the  colony,  while  about  200  mUea  additional 
were  in  ooorse  of  construction.  The  railway  across 
the  Blue  Moontsins  is  a  remsrkable  triumph  of 
Length  of  telegraph  wire  in  ISSO, 


16,000  miles.  N.  S.  W.  ia  self-govemed,  witb  • 
governor  appointed  by  the  Queen,  a  reaponubls 
ministry,  a  Leeislative  Connol  nominated  by  ths 
crown,  and  a  House  of  Auembly  elected  by  per- 
manent reudents.  As  regards  reugion,  all  sects  am 
on  a  footing  of  equality.  On  Jan.  1,  ISSl,  thou  weiv 
1389  regular  puces  of  worship,  affordiOK  iiccom- 
modatioD  to  77,535  Episcopalun^  00,000  £onia« 
Catholics,  28,000  Presbyterians,  05,000  Methodista, 
to.  The  number  of  schools  under  the  Department 
of  Public  Instruction  in  1880  was  over  1370;  beoids* 
these  there  are  630  private  schools.  TWe  were,  in 
all,  169,141  saholat«. ' '  For  the  higher  edncation,  se« 
SvDKET.  The  capital  is  Sydney,  with  a  pop.  of 
220,427  ;  and  the  other  chief  towns  are  Parramatta, 
Batiiurst,  Gonlbom,  Uaitland,  Newcastle^  Grsf- 
ton,  WoUongonfb  and  Aimidale,  with  populaiioaa 
rangiiif  from  3000  to  17,00a 

S.  ^  W.  took  its  origin  in  a  penal  establiahmraiti 
formed  by  the  Britiah  Government  in  1788  at  Fort 
Jackson,  near  Botany  Sty  (latitude  34°).     The  pria- 


>aiiBpor  .  . J 

and  np  to  that  date,  the  total  number  of  coavicta 
seat  thither  amounted  to  60,700,  of  whom  only  870O 
were  women.  Id  1833;  there  were  2^000  free 
males  and  13,600  free  females,  to  2^000  male  and 
2700  female  convicts ;  and  of  ths  free  popnlatioi^ 
above  16,000  were  emancipists; 
The  following  table  shews  the  recent  r»te  at 


1881 ais,oM        iM.ire       sss.BB 

isn ns.ui        SS&.410       nb,wi 

I8SI Ul,l<>         SIO,U«         7G1,«S 

In  1870-80,  N.  8.  W-  adopted  tree-trade  prindpl«  ; 
and  this  departure  from  toe  usa^  of  all  the  other 
Australasian  colouea  seems  justified  by  the  devejop- 
ment  of  commerce  and  manufacturing  mdustiy.  in 
1881,  there  were  13,857  person^  of  whom  209G  wei« 
females,  employed  in  miacellsneous  industries,  wages 
ruling  somewlut  liighw  than  in  Englond- 

NEW  STTLB.    See  CaLKNSU,  Datb. 

NBW- YEAR'S  DAY,  the  first  day  of  the  year. 
The  custom  of  celebrating  by  some  lehgions  observ- 
ance, generally  accompanied,  by  festive  rejoiang, 
the  first  day  of  the  year,  appears  to  have  preva^M 
among  most  of  the  ancient  nations.  The  Jswb,  the 
Egyptians,  the  CJhinese,  the  Romans,  and  the 
MoluunmedaDS,  although  differing  as  to  the  tame 
from  which  they  reckoned  the  conunencement  of 
the  year,  all  regarded  it  as  a  day  of  special  interest 
In  Rome,  the  year  anciently  b^an  in  March ; 
and  when  Numa,  according  to  the  ancierat  l^ead, 
transferred  it  to  the  1st  of  Januaiy,  that  day 
was  held  sacred  to  Jamu  Bifrmu,  who  was 
thus  suppowd  to  turn  at  once  back  upon  the  old 
year  and  forward  into  the  new.  On  the  estab- 
lishment of  Christianity,  the  usage  of  a  aolemn 
inauguration  of  the  New  Year  was  retained  ;  bnt 
CQDSiderable  varie^  prevailed,  both  as  to  the 
time  and  as  to  the  maimer  of  its  celebration. 
Christmas  Day,  the  Anniuiciatioil  (ZOth  Harch}, 
Esster  Day,  and  1st  March,  have  all,  at  different 
times  or  places,  shared  with  the  1st  of  January  the 
honour  of  opening  the  New  Year ;  nor  waa  it  till 
late  in  the  16th  o.,  that  the  1st  oC  January  was 
□niveraally  accepted  as  the  first  day  of  the  New 
Year,  lie  early  fathers — Chrysoilom,  Ambrose, 
Aufpistine,  Peter  Chrysologoi,  and  otbera— is  repro- 
bation of  the immoru andsopervtitious obeervaneea 
of  the  pagan  festival,  pndiibited  in  Christian  nee  all 

Ll,|IIZCC»CLW30glC 


KEW-YEAB'S  DAT— NEW  YORK. 


(ertiTe  oelebration ;  mad,  on  tbe  oontru;,  direoted 
Out  tlw  Qmitun  yeu  ihonld  be  opened  with  a 
day  of  prayer,  fisting,  and  bDmiliatian.     The  man- 
data,  however,  waa  Dat  partially  observed.     The 
featal  charaoter  of  the  day,  generally  apeaking 
pertiuaoioiiBly  preserved,   but   the   dav   wai 
nbaerved  aa  a  day  of  prayer ;  and  this  cWaoter 
the  more  readily  attached  to  it  when  the  yeai  began 
with  the  lat  <x  January,  aa  that  day,  beina  the 


il21). 

The  Bocialobaervanoeaof  the  first  day  of  the  Hew 
Year  appear  to  have  been  in  anbatanoe  the  aame  in 
all  ijtea.  Front  the  earliest  recorded  celebration, 
we  find  notioe  of  feaatjog  and  the  interofaaiue  of 
preaenta  aa  naagee  of  the  day.  Snetoniua  alhidea 
to  the  bringing  of  preaenia  to  the  capital ;  and 
IWitna  makea  a  aimilar  referenee  to  the  practioe  of 
giving  and  reeeiving  If ew-Year'i  gift*.  Ttiia  onatom 
was  oontinned  by  the  Christian  Idngdonu  into 
which  the  Waatern  Empire  waa  divided.  In  England 
we  find  many  examplea  of  it,  even  aa  a  part  cS  the 
publio  expenditure  ot  the  oourt,  ao  far  down  aa  tiie 


Tei^  of  Chailea  II.  .  . 
wnten  mention,  the  cnatom  of  interchanpng  preaenta 
waaoommoDin  tJlcUsaaaof  aooisty.  InEfuoeand 
Kngi.nil  it  (till  aabeiati,  althongh  eclipsed  in  the 
latter  oonntoy  by  the  atiU  more  popnisr  practioe 
of  Obriatmaa  gi&.  In  many  ooontnes,  the  ni^t 
ot  New- Year'*  Eve,  *8t  Bylveeter'a  Eve,'  waa  cele- 
brated with  great  festivity,  which  waa  prolonged 
till  after  12  o'clock,  when  the  New  Year  waa 
oabered  in  with  ocmgratalations,  cotnpliineDtary 
viaiti,  and  mntnal  wiahea  for  a  happy  New  Tear, 
This  is  an  a&dent  Scottiah  cnatom,  which  alao 
ptevaila  in  many  parts  of  Oermany,  where  the  font 
of  wish— '  Prosst  (lot  the  I«t  yro«i()-Non-iahr'— 
■May  the  New  Year  be  happy'— anffinianUy  attests 
the  antiqnity  of  the  onatom.  In  many  pUcea  the 
practice  of  tolling  belli  at  midnight,  and  thus 
'ringing  in  the  New  Year'  i»  still  obaerved.  Many 
religiooa  comnumiona  are  wont  to  celebrate  it  with 
a  ipeoial  lerrioe.  In  tiie  Roman  Catholio  Church, 
the  Te  Demit  is  still  sung  at  the  close  ot  the  old 
yeu;  and  New-Yaw's  IM^  ia  a  holiday  of  ttri«t 
obligation. 

NEW  YORK,  one  ot  the  thirteen  original  states 
of  the  United  Statea  ot  America,  now  the  most 
important  in  popnialion  and  wealth,  occniues  an 
irregnkr  triangnlar  area  from  the  Atlantic  Ooean 
to  &m  great  lakes,  lat  40*  SO*  4(^—46*  ff  42"  N., 
long.  7r  61'— Te*  47'  26"  W.  The  atate  is  412 
mi^  from  east  to  west,  31 1  from  north  to  aontb, 
with  an  area  of  40,170  square  miles,  or  31,468,800 
acres ;  bounded  N.  by  Lake  Erie,  Lake  Ontario,  the 
river  8t  Lawrenoe,  and  Canada;  B.  by  Lake 
Champlain,  and  the  states  of  Veimont^  Massachn* 
setts,  and  Conneoticnt,  and  by  the  Atlantio  Ooeuj 
S.  Wtheoown,New  Jeta^.andPenna^rama:  W. 
by  Pennsylvania,  the  Niagam  Biver,  and  the  lakes 
lAich  make  its  irr^nlar  nortb-weatem  boondaiy. 
The  state  haa  60  oonntiee.    Its  chief  town  are  New 


thirty-ni 
N.  Y.,; 


towns  are  ho^  mves  ot  industry;  in  1880, 
had  a  popnlation  of  10,000  and  npwardi. 
_..  _., '^thoogh  resting  only  one  cimer  upon  the 
Atlantic,  has  its  sea-ooaat  extended  by  Long 
Idand,  Btaten  Island,  Ac.,  to  34S  miles;  while  lE 
has  a  lake  ooaat  of  362  miles,  and  borden  for  281 
miles  on  navigaUe  riven.  The  HndMO,  broad  and 
deep,  with  tides  flowing  160  miUa,  kdna  at  Albai? 
a  system  ot  canals,  which  oonneot  Hew  Ynk  01^ 
with  the  great  western  lakea  and  the  river  St 
Lawieaoe.    The  state  is  also  travanad  by  railway- 


lines  m  every  direction.  The  centre  is  beautified 
by  many  piotoresque  lakes,  and  its  north-eaetem 
portion  and  the  biuiks  of  the  Hudson  by  fine 
mountain  scenery.  The  Blue  Ridge  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies  formt  the  Highlands,  whose  peiOu  rise  1600 
leet  frcHU  the  Hudson  ;  north  of  these,  the  Eatskilla 
rite  to  a  height  of  3800  feet,  with  a  large  hotel  for 
■mnmec  viaitota  at  an  elevation  of  2000  teet ;  while 
Motmt  Mamy  and  Mount  Anthony,  peaks  of  the 
Adirondacka,  in  the  wild  region  west  of  Lake 
Champlun,  are  6337  and  SOOO  feet  hi^h.  The 
chief  riveis,  besides  the  Niagara  and  St  Lawrence, 
are  the  Hudson,  its  chief  branch  the  Mohawk,  the 
Qeuesee,  and  the  Bources  of  the  Delaware,  Sasque- 


of  the  Carbooiferoos.  Red  sandstone  of  the  Middle 
Secoodarv  period  is  found  on  the  borders  of  New 
Jereey;  drift  and  bouldew  are  found  everywhere; 
the  great  Silurian  belt  passes  along  the  eastern  line, 
and  granite  with  iron  occurs  in  the  north-eaib 
There  is  no  coal,  but  rich  beds  ot  marble  near  New 
York  City ;  prodnctive  aalt^pringi  in  the  centre  of 
the  state,  which  yield  annually  about  7,000,000 
bushels ;  and  petroleum  and  natural  ga^  enough  in 
some  cases  to  li|^t  large  villagei,  in  the  west 
Among  the  mineral  springs,  those  of  Saratoga  and 
Ballston  have  a  wide  repMatbn.  Ihe  climate,  mild 
on  the  coast,  is  cold  in  the  northern  counties.  Mora 
than  half  the  total  area  of  the  state  ia  nnder  success- 
ful cultivation ;  the  average  value  of  cleared  land 
in  1S50  was  about  $68  per  acre,  and  timber  land 
was  $40^  The  northern  counties  and  the  hill  regions 
on  the  sonth  border  are  best  adapted  far  sheep  and 
dairy  farming ;  while  the  aoil,  particularly  of  the 
western  and  limeatone  wgxma,  is  very  fertile,  pro- 
dnoing  the  finest  whest,  maize,  ap^es,  peaoDes, 
melons,  giwes,  ko.,  inabnudance.  In  the  Chemung 
Valley,  m  Omaidaga  and  Wayne,  tobacco  is  grown  j 
and  hops  in  the  counties  of  Madison,  Oneida,  OCh^^ 
aud  Schoharie.  Maple  sugar  is  largely  produced  in 
the  north  and  centra  of  the  state,  and  peaches  in 
Ulster  county.  In  order  to  supply  the  neceesitiea 
of  the  city  of  New  York,  tracts  of  land  on  Long 
Island  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city  are 
devoted  to  gardena  and  dairiea,  where  vegetable^ 
milk,  bntter,  Mg^ond  oheeae  are  produced  in  large 
quantities.  InTB80,N.  Y.  statein^ncedll,6S6,;&4 
busbeb  of  wheat,  37,676,606  ot  oats,  26,62(^162  of 
'  I,  aud  2,432,750  lbs.  of  tobacco.  Amnix  the 
_. .  al  curiosities  are  the  Falls  ot  Nisgans  3i  the 
Oenesee,  of  the  IVentoo,  the  Taghonio  Falls,  and 
the  oft-painted  Falls  of  the  KaaterskilL  In  1670, 
there  were  in  N.  Y.  86,206  manufoctauinit  eetab- 
ents,  employing  351,800  persoiu.  In  1680 
there  were  6008  miles  of  railway  in  the  state ;  the 
Erie  Canal  is  350  miles,  and  the  New  York  csaols 
together  66$  miles :  there  am  360  banks  of  issue. 
In  1870,  there  were  6474  ohurcbes ;  11,678  publio 
■cheda;  274  rlsmicsl,  jiiofesuonal,*  and  teennical 
sohoda,  incloding  7  uuvenitiea,  24  colleges,  and 
189  academies;  and  1068  boarding  and  other  aoho(d& 
In  1870,  tiie  total  oomber  of  chiUien  at  school  wm 
1.628,727,  and  the  outlay  aa  eduoatdtm  was  close  on 
110,600,000.  In  1880^  the  number  of  newspapma 
and  periodicals  iMued  in  the  state  was  1241.  Tha 
ststa  receipts  for  the  year  1680  were  $11,836,670; 
-  epoblio  debt  at  the  same  dat^  $9,114,064. 
The  eariieat  ex^orstiona  <rf  Hew  York  by  Euro- 
isns  woe  in  ICOS  by  Heodrick  Hudson,  who 
lok  paaMUOB  iA  the  country  on  the  river  which 
oean  bis  name  for  the  Dutch ;  and  l^  Champ- 
lain,  a  Frenchman,  who  ezpbrad  Lake  Champlam 
frem  Canada.  It  was  possessed  by  the  Iroquois;  ot 
Five  Natiou,  and  the  Algonqoins.  In  1621,  the 
Dntoh  mads  a  isttlMiMat  «n  ManhsWan  Island, 

c;ct(-k. 


which  wai  held  In  the  Britiih  till  the  end  of  the 
w&r ;  but  Weatpoint  wu  held,  aod  Bur}!Ofiie,  after 
tvo  severe  battles  near  Saratoga,  compiled  to  sar- 
reoder.  The  state  constitutioa  was  adopted  in 
1777,  and  haa  lioce  been  repeatedly  ametidet 
governor  in  elected  for  three  years,  32  senators  for  tvo 
years,  and  128  membeni  of  Assembly  for  ooe  year. 
In  1820,  the  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal  gave  a  graat 

impetus    to   trade.      Pop,  (1800)  686,756;   

1,372,812;  (1870)4,382,769;  (1880)6,083,57; 

NEW  TORK,  the  most  important  city  and 
seaport  oE  the  U.  S.,  and  the  thinl  in  (he  civilised 
worbt.  is  situated  on  the  east  aide  of  the  moath  of 
tbe  Hudson  River,  at  it*  couSuence  with  a 
■trait  called  East  River,  which  opens  into  Long 
Islaiid  Sound,  in  the  state  of  New  York,  18  miles 
from  the  ocean.  Lab  40°  42'  43'  N.,  long.  74°  0'  3" 
W.  The  city  comnrises  the  island  of  ^donhattan, 
formed  by  the  Haoson  Biver  and  the  East  River, 
and  separated  from  tbe  mainland  by  a  narrow 
strait  called  Harlem  River,  on  the  E.,  and  on  the 
W.  by  Spnyten  Duyvel  Creek  ;  includes  several 
■mailer  islands,  containing  the  fortifications  ' 
the  harbour,  and  the  public  institatious  in 
East  River ;  and  also  part  of  tbe  mainland  N.  of 
Manhattan  Island.  The  island  on  which  the  city 
is  built  is  13J  miles  long,  and  with  an  aveo 
breadth  of  IJths  of  a  mue,  comprising  22  sq, 
A  rocky  ridge  runs  throngb  the  centre,  rising 
Washington  Heights,  238  feet.  Tbe  compactly 
built  city  extends  five  miles  from  the  'battery'  at 
it«  southern  paint,  and  is  laid  oat  regularly  into 
141,486  lota.  Avenues,  100  feet  wide  and  8  miles 
long,  in  straight  lines,  are  orossed  at  right  angles  by 
streets  from  60  to  100  feet  wide,  extending  from 
river  to  river.  The  city  is  connected  with  tbe  main- 
land of  N,  Y.  by  bridges  across  the  Harlem  River, 
with  Long  Islaod  b;  a  fine  suspensioa  bridge,  and 
with  New  Jersey,  Long  Island,  and  Stafen  Island 
by  numerous  steam-ferries.  Several  railways  radi- 
ate from  the  city,  while  the  finest  passeoger  steam- 
boats in  the  world  pass  up  tbe  Hudson,  Long  Island 
Sound,  and  down  the  Narrows,  through  the  lower 
bay.  Tbe  harbour,  formed  by  the  npper  and  smaller 
bay,  with  its  two  arms,  which  almost  enclose  the 
city,  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  There  are 
80  piers  for  shipping  on  tbe  west,  and  70  on  the 
east  side  of  the  city.  The  harboor  is  defended  by 
fourtecD  forts,  mouotJog  1500  guns.  Tbe  streets 
are  traversed  by  tramways.  The  East  River 
Bridge,  connectiiig  N,  Y.  with  Brooklyn,  and 
one  mile  in  length,  was  begun  in  1877. 

The  city  is  built  of  brick,  brown  sandstone,  and 
white  marble.  Amons  its  finest  edifices  ore  the 
new  PoetKiffice,  City  Hall,  Custom-house,  Trini^ 
CbuTch,  Grace  Chnrdi,  two  universities  ;  the  Oothic 
cathedral  of  St  Patrick,  built  of  white  marble,  the 
largest  and  finest  church  in  America;  Academy  of 
Music,  Cooper  Institute,  and  the  numerous  great 
hotels.  Of  372  churches,  72  are  Episcopal  56 
Roman  Catholic  There  are  306  public  schocda,  with 
3276  teacbers,  and  an  attendance  of  276,000  children ; 
and  tbe  College  of  the  City  of  New  York.  Besides, 
there  are  36  Roman  CktAoUo  schools,  and  coUesea 
and  academies  of  the  reLgiDus  orders.  Columbia 
Collun  is  one  of  the  oldeBt  in  tbe  country ; 
the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York  baa 
been  more  recently  established.  Each  has  depart- 
ments of  law  and  medtdne,  and  there  are  two 
other  medical  colleges,  several  theolc^cal  semin- 
aries, and  many  private  academies.  The  hospitals 
and  institntioDS  of  charity  an  oi  k  liberal  smIb  ; 


and  besides  legal  ontdoor  reUef,  the  poor  am 
visited  and  cared  for  by  a  pubLc  society,  witii 
agents  in  every  district.  Among  the  cbartties  ftrs 
asylums  for  insane,  blind.  de»f  and  damb,  tnag- 
dalens,  foundlings,  &c.  The  Astor  Free  hbraiy, 
founded  by  John  Jacob  Astor,  baa  190,000  care- 
fully selected  volnmes ;  the  Mercantile  library, 
160,000  volumes,  with  a  large  reading-room ;  So- 
cie^  Libraty,  64,000  ;  Apprenticef^  library,  60,000; 
with  rich  museums  of  antiqnilrie« ;  the  Cooper 
Institute,  a  present  to  tbe  city  by  Peter  Cooper, 
has  a  free  reading-room,  picture-gallery,  art-school^ 
&C,  Annu^  ut  exhibitions  are  given  by  t^e 
National  Academy  of  Design,  Dnsseldorf  and  later- 
national  Galleries.  Tbe  Academy  of  Uosio,  or 
Opera-bousB,  has  seats  tor  4700  persons,  and  eight 
or  ten  theatres  give  nightly  entertainment  to 
20,000.     The  Central  Park,  laid  out  in  the  finest 


long    , 

smaller  public  parks  are  scattered  over  the  city. 
Tbe  CrotoD  Aqueduct  brings  a  river  of  pare  soft 
water  from  40  miles  distance,  which  is  reaeived  in 
reservoire  of  a  capacity  of  1,600,000,000  gaUons,  and 
distribated  through  370  miles  of  pipes,  with  snc^  a 
bead  as  to  supply  publio  fountains  of  60  add  80 
feet  jet,  and  the  upper  itories  ot  most  bnildingc 
Eleven  market*  supply  annually  14(^000,000  lb& 
beef,  26,000,000  lbs.  mutton,  66,000,000  lbs.  pork, 
and  immense  quantities  of  poultry,  gam^  fl«li, 
oyB(«ts,  fruits,  and  vegetables.  Tbe  aty  sovera- 
ment  is  composed  of  a  mayor,  boards  of  aldennen 
and  counctlmen,  and  bureaux  of  various  depart- 
ments. The  police  numbers  abont  2620,  witb 
sahuies  of  $1000  to  $6000  a  year.  The  aUtioiB 
are  connected  by  telegraph,  and  have  lodgings  lor 
destitute  persons.  A  sanitary  sqnad  has  diarga  of 
the  publio  health.  The  Commissioners  of  ChoriW 
and  Correctioa  have  direction  of  asylums,  bocpitafa, 
and  prisons-  Commissioneis  of  Emigration  rec«iva 
and  attend  to  the  wants  of  immigrants.  Hw 
volunteer  brigade  of  firemen  has  been  replooed  by  a 
paid  fire  dei«rtment^  which  is  fonnd  to  be  modi 
more  effeclive  for  the  protection  of  proper^.  It 
consist«of  upwards  of  890  men,  with  above  40    ' 


N.Y.B 


fire-engmes,  and  a  large  nnmber  of  telegrai^  steti 

K  V  ..  ii..  1  — 1_  j(  .Ajnorican  finance  __^ 

per  cent,  of  oU  imports, 


great  centre  of  American 
ft  receives  66  per  cent  . 

per  cent  of  all  eiporta.'  Hjo 


I  year  < 


ana  sends  out  W)  per  cent  of  all  eiporta.  n»o 
total  value  of  imports  in  1879  was  $606,969,406 ;  at 
exports,  $790,947,491.  Vessels  entered,  11,428,  of 
which  2828  were  British.  The  export  ot  grain  in 
1879  was  96.000,000  busbek  Of  five  cattle,  there 
were  shipped  33,926 ;  of  carcases  of  beef,  72,029  - 
livesheep,  24,611  ;  oaroases  of  mutton,  7^61 ;  and 
dressed  hogs,  0522.  The  total  number  of  vesaeh 
belonging  to  the  port  of  N.  Y.  was  6630,  <rf  1,318^1^3 
tons.  There  are  about  10,000  various  manittito- 
toring  establishments,  l^e  num 
that  arrived  in  N.  Y.  during 
December  31, 188%  was  372,S8a 
"  Y.,  the  Nieu  Amsterdam  of  ths  Dotoh,  irmt 
■^   <n  1621 ;   in   1664  it  was  taken  by  the 

^ At  the  period  of  the  revoIntioD>  it  was 

smaller  than  PbibKlelphia  or  Boston ;  bat  inf  mined 
in  importonoe,  especially  after  the  completion  of  the 
Erie  Canal  had  opened  to  it  the  commeroe  of  tfae 
west  In  1769,  2086  penons  died  of  yetlW  fever ; 
in  1832, 3613  of  cholera ;  in  1846,  a  fire  destroyed  a 
larae  portiim  ot  the  bunnsM  part  of  the  m^,  with 
a  loss  of  $16,000/100,  In  1741,  in  oonaeqaenoe 
cl  a  BDppoied.  negro  plot  to  bom  the  city,  13 
n^p'oea  were  bnmed  at  the  stak^  20  hsiwed,  and 
7S  tiwuported.  In  1863,  in  a  riot  causacf  by  the 
conscription,  the  popular  fury  again  turned  gainst 
the  n^toes,  and  niunben  were  murdered.      The 


founded  i 


=  B.Google 


Diaiiizscm  Google 


D,a„,.s=.,,  Google 


=  B.Google 


HEW  TOEK— NEW  ZEALAND. 


morWity  of  U»  city  i«  I  in  35.  Pop.  (1830) 
202,589;  (1860)  615^7;  (1870)  042,292;  (1880) 
1,206^77.  But  with  Brooklyn,  acrov  Eart  Biver, 
•nd  Jeney  Gty  and  Hoboken,  acro«  the  Hadton, 
the  popL  ia  (1880)  1,925,006. 

NEW  ZBAIiAlfD,  ■  Britiih  ooloay  in  Uie  South 
Pacilio  Ocean,  coniuta  of  three  iaUnds,  two  itrge 
and  one  much  Emaller,  and  oE  a  number  of  Uleta 
scattered  ronad  the  coasts.  These  iaUnda,  which  are 
named  reapectiTely  North,  South  (sometsmea  alio 
Middle),  and  Stewart's  Iidand,  are  situated  aboat 
G500  m.  W.  from  the  coast  of  South  America,  and 
about  1200  m.  S.E.  of  Anstnilia.  The  group  il  irregu- 
lar inform,  but  may  begaidtoeztendfrom  the  south 
in  a  nortb-north-eaat  direction,  and,  like  the  peninsula 
of  Italy,  reaemblea  a  boot  in  ehape.  North  Island  u 
COO  nulea  long,  and  200  mile*  in  greateit  breadth 
from  ea«t  to  west ;  Sooth  Island  ia  660  nules  lon^ 
and  210  miles  in  greateit  breadth ;  Stewart^i  laUna 
ia  triangular  in  shape,  and  has  an  area  oE  abont 
000  square  miles.  JM»  of  the  three  islands  aboat 
100,000  aqnare  miles.  The  North  i«  separated  from 
the  South  Island  ly  Cook's  Strait,  which  is  18 
miles  wide  at  its  eastern  and  90  miles  wide  at  its 
western  end ;  the  Soath  ia  separated  from  Stewart's 
Island  by  Foreanz  Strait,  which  averages  abont 
20  miles  m  width.  The  group  extends  in  lat.  from 
34°  15'  to  4r  30"  S.,  and  m  long,  from  166°  to  179° 
E. ;  being  thus  almost  the  antipodes  of  tlie  British 
Isles. 

Coiut  Line. — Of  the  entire  coast  line  of  abont 
4000  miles,  nea^  ISOO  miles  is  foimed  by  the 
■horea  of  North  uUnd,  which  are  deeply  indented, 
and  contain  many  excellent  harbonra.  Commencing 
from  North  Cape,  and  going  south-east  round  the 
island,  the  chief  harbours  are  Monganoi,  Wangaroa, 
the  B^  of  Islands,  Auckland,  Mercoiy,  and  Tau- 
nmga  Bays,  and  the  ports  of  Wellington,  Manutan, 
and  Hokianga,  On  the  north  and  south  coasts  of 
South  Island,  which  are  much  broken,  tho  harbours 
are  nnmerous  and  excellent ;  on  llie  eastern  coast, 
the  principal  barbooTS  are  Akaroa,  Victoria,  and 
Dunedin.  On  the  coaste  o£  Stewart  s  Island,  there 
are  also  goodports. 

Surface. — Tiie  New  Zealand  lalands  are  ot  volcanic 
origin,  and  a  great  portion  of  the  '    '' 
occupied  by  mountains,  among  which  are  many  ex- 
tinct and  a  few  active  volcanoes.     In  North  Island, 
Mount   Buaptt'hm,    tiie   highest   summit   of 
central  range,  is  9100  feet  in  height,  and  is  ca 
with  parpetnal  snow.    In  the  same  range  is  ' 
gariro,  an  active  volcano,  6500  feet  high.    A 
tdnuona  range  of  mountains  runs  along  the  western 
coast  of  South  Island,  and  assumes  the  form  of 
table-lands  and  isolated  peak*  towards  the  east 
Its  highest  peak.  Mount  Cook  (12,349  feet),  was 
first  ascended  in  1SS2.    Stewart's  Island  rises  to 
abont  3000  feet    In  North  IsUnd,  the  mountain! 
are  mostiy  clothed  with  evergreen  forests  of  luiu- 
— — ''  growth,  interspersed  with  fem-clad  ranges. 


id  oocaaionajly  with  treeless  graasy  plat 
Lre  and  rich  valleys  and  sheTt^vd  dale 

the  east  of  South  Island  there  are  many 


s  abound 


expanaive  plains  of  rich  meadow-land,  admirably 
adapted  either  for  agriculture  or  cattle-breeding. 
Water  and  water-power  are  found  in  great  abun- 
dance in  the  colony,  and  the  numerous  rivers  are 
snbj^  to  sudden  Boods  trom  the  melting  of  the 
mountain  snows.  As  a  rule,  however,  tiis  streamr 
are  short,  and  ate  not  navigable  for  more  than  01 
miles  above  tiieir  mouths.  The  chief  is  Waikati 
Kiver,  in  North  Island,  which,  issuing  from  thi 
Taupo  I^ka  (30  miles  long  by  20  broad),  flows  ii 
a  northern  direction  for  2M  miles,  and  reiiches  the 
■ea  on  tiie  we«t  eoasL  In  South  Island,  the  rivers 
Clath^  Matanra,  and  Waiau,  all  flowing  south,  are 


among  the  chiet  Around  Lakes  Rotomahana  and 
Rotorua  are  a  number  of  grand  and  beautiful 
geysers,  which  throw  up  water  heated  to  2°  above 
the  boiling-point.  The  geology  of  N.  Z.  is  remark- 
able ia  a  high  degree.  "Hie  mountains,  which  an  ot 
every  variety  of  ontline,  are  chiefly  composed  of  the 
lower  date-rocks,  intersected  with  basalt,  and  mixed 
with  primary  sandstone  and  limestone.  Beds  of 
coal  and  lignite  exist,  and  the  fonner  have  been  to 
extent  worked. 

S,  Cl^natr,  iwd  ProduetUmt. — Of  the  whole 
surface-extent  of  N.  Z.  (nearly  70,000,000  acres, 
little  short  of  the  combined  area  of  England  and 
Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland),  one-fonrtii  is  esti- 
mated to  consist  of  dense  forest  tracts,  one-half  of 
excellent  soil,  and  the  remainder  of  waste  lands, 
scorite-hills,  and  nigged  mountain  regions.  Nearly 
40,000,000  acres  are  supposed  to  be  more  ot  less 
suitable  for  agriculture  and  cattle-breeding.  The 
soil,  although  often  clayey,  has  in  the  volcania 
districts  more  than  a  nediom  fertility ;  but  the 
luxuriant  and  semi-tropical  vegetation  is  perhaps  as 
much  due  to  excellence  of  climate  as  to  nchaess  of 
soil  Owing  to  the  prevalence  of  light  and  easily- 
worked  soils,  all  agricultural  processes  are  performed 
with  unusual  ease.  The  climate  of  N.  Z.  is  one  of 
the  finest  in  the  world.  The  country  contains  few 
physical  eomces  ot  disease;  the  average  tempera- 
ture is  remarlcably  even  at  all  seasons  of  the  year, 
and  the  atmosphere  is  continually  ^tated  and 
freshened  by  winds  that  blow  over  an  immense 
expanse  of  ocean.  In  a  word,  the  climate  much 
resembles  that  of  England,  with  half  the  cold  of  the 
English  wintCT ;  while  the  summer  is  longer  and 
somewhat  warmer,  the  atmosphere  is  more  breety 
and  pure,  and  there  are  many  more  fine  days 
throughout  the  year.  In  North  Island,  the  mean 
annud  temperature  is  68*;  in  South  Island,  52*. 
The  mean  temperature  of  the  hottest  month  at 
AncUand  is  68%  and  at  Otago  68* ;  ot  the  coldest 
month,  61*  and  40".  The  air  is  very  humid,  and 
the  fall  of  rain  is  greater  than  in  England,  but  there 
are  more  dry  days.  All  the  native  trees  and  plants 
are  evergreens.  Forests,  shrubberies,  and  plains  are 
clothed  m  green  throughout  the  year,  the  results  ot 
which  are,  that  cattle,  as  a  rule,  browse  on  the 
herbage  and  shrubs  of  the  open  country  all  the 
year  round,  thus  saving  great  expense  to  Uie  cattie- 
breeder ;  and  that  the  operations  of  n  '  ~ 
cultivating  land  can  be  carried  on  at  all 
The  seasons  in  N.  Z.  are  the  reverse  of  oun ; 
January  is  their  hottest  month,  and  June  the 
coldest.  All  the  grains,  grasses,  fruits,  and  vege- 
tables grown  in  England  are  cultivated  in  this 
country  with  perfect  tnccess,  being  excellent  in 

auality  and  heavy  in  yield ;  wliile,  besides  those^ 
]e  vine  is  cultivated  m  the  open  air,  and  moite, 
the  taro,  and  the  sweet-potato  are  cultivated  to 
some  extent  in  the  sunny  valleys  of  North  Island. 
The  entire  acreage  under  crop  m  N.  Z.  in  1851  waa 
29,140 ;  in  I35S,  ^  was  141,007 ;  in  1881, 4,768,192 ; 
while  in  1871  the  total  acreage  fenced  was  6,778,773. 
OE  the  crops,  the  prindpal  were  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
potatoes,  and  sown  grass,  which,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  are  grown  to  great  advantage  in  New 
Zealand.  Besides  a  few  harmless  hzards,  a  small 
species  of  rat  is  the  only  indigenous  four-footed 
animal  tonnd  in  eitiier  of  tlie  ^reat  islands.    Hawks 


The  country  is  destitute  of  snakes, 
and  possesses  no  insect  so  noxious  as  the  Eng- 
lish wasp.  The  pig,  introduced  by  Cook,  runs 
wild,  and  Uie  red  and  fallow  deer,  the  pheasant, 
partridge,  quail,  Jtc,  and  the  commoner  domestic 
animals  introduced  by  colonists,  thrive  well.  In 
March  1881,  there  were  in  the  colony  137,768 
horses,  578,430  cattle,  13,069,333  sheep,  207,337  pigs. 


KEW  ZRALASJy  FLAX— NEWBUROfi. 


&ud  1^23,542  headj  of  poaltrjr,  btflidu  miilea,  uses, 
and  goftU.  Coal  in  abundance,  and  of  good  qnality, 
ai  wall  M  iron,  gold,  lilver,  tin,  copper,  &o,,  an 
diitribnled  orer  Sie  coIodj.  For  itatutioa  oC  the 
qoantilv  of  Kold  exported,  lee  article  Otaqo. 
Valuable  timtor  ia  in  great  abundance.  In  1383, 
the  revenue  (of  whicb.  the  aources  are  princi- 
pally customs,  reoeipti,  and  sale  of  crown  lands) 
amounted  to  £3,742,666 ;  the  debt  of  the  general 
gOTemment,  which  was  £13,8B7,1S5  in  1876,  had 
risen  to  £30,357.311  in  1883.     The  eiporti. 


The  total  eiporta  of  gold  &oni  13^7 
S,662,l&4  oz.,  in  valae  £37,380,e3a  The  imports 
oonristmg  of  British  maDufiLcturei,  kc,  amounted 
to  £8,600,270  in  1882.  In  1883  there  were  about 
1S68  milei  of  railwara  in  operation,  and  several 
hundred!  in  course  of  formation ;  there  ware  also 
SCOO  miles  of  telegraphic  wireo.  'Qie  rerenne  of 
thepotUiffice in  1880  waa  £160,315. 
Toe  colony  waa  divided  into  the  following  nine 

EivinceB:  Anch]And,Taranaki,  Wellington,  Hawke'a 
y,  Ifelioii,  Harlboroogh,  Canterburv,  Oiaao,  and 
Westland.  The  province*  vere  abouihed  Dj-  the 
ctdonial  parliament  in  1876,  uid  a  aystMn  of  anmtiea 
■ulatitated.  The  soreniment  ii  adminiitered  by  a 
governor  appointed  1^  tbe  ocown,  and  a  miniatiY, 
a  L^iilative  Conndl  oominated  b;  the  crown,  aiid 
•  Home  of  Bepresentatives  elected  by  the  peo^ile. 
The  chief  edncational  inititutiona  are  the  tmiversity 
of  New  Zealand '  (which  grants  degrees)  and  the 
nnivenity  of  Otago,  and  Cutorbnry  College,  with 
nnmerona  hidi  sduoU  for  higher  and  seixukdary 
edncation,  and  private  schools.  Beddes  these,  the 
namber  of  priinair  sohoola,  in  188(^  snppM^ted  '^ 
the  steta,  VM  83^  wiOi  an  attendanoe  of  82,0 
The  prinoipBl  dmrohes  ore  the  Chorch  of  England, 
Tnredominuias  in  Canterbory  i  the  Presbyteriao 
Qiurch,  whi<3i  ptedominates  in  Otago ;  the  Wes- 
leyan ;  and  the  Roman  Catholio.  In  1380-81,  the 
immigrants  into  New  Zealand  amounted  to  16,151 
persons :  the  emigrants  from  it,  to  7023.  Thi 
population  in  186S^was  69,328 ;  in  1871,  266,260 
and  in  1881,  489,933.  The  New  Zealonders,  m 
Uaoiies  (q.v.),  mostly  in  North.  Island,  are  sup- 
posed to  luve  been  120,000  in  nmnber  when  the 
colonists  landed.  In  1881,  the  oensuB  shewed  them 
to  be  44,099-«n  inereatt  as  compared  with  1871. 
The  military  fcrce«  of  N.  Z.  are  the  rolnnteers, 
numbering  about  8500;  and  there  are  armed  — 
stabniary  in  the  If  orth  Island. 

N.  Z.  WM  disooverad  hj  Tasman  in  1642,  and  was 
repeatedly  visited  In  GqitHn  Coc^  who  surv^ed 
the  cossts  in  1770.  After  the  settlement  of  Fort 
Jackson,  in  New  Soath  Wale^  the  English  and 
American  whaling  shipi  hod  recourse  to  w  coasts 
of  N.  Z.  for  provisions  and  shelter.  N.  Z.  flax  oome 
also  to  be  on  article  of  traffio,  and  indiTidoal 
Snglishmen  began  to  settle  on  the  ooasta,  and 
intermarry  with  the  natives,  and  acquire  land  in 
right  of  their ,  wives  or  of  p«irchase>  Missionarr 
enterpiiM  began  in  1814,  fiaTonred  by  TsricDS  ohitfs, 
and  uie  nuMioiiariea  ni^  only  laboored  to  convert 
the  natives,  bnt  introdnced  improved  culture  among 


ate  any  portion.  Thus  N.  Z.  became  a  rwUar 
colony,  the  seat  of  government  of  which  was  fixed 
on  the  Bay  of  Woitemata,  and  called  AockUnd. 
The  previous  year  an  ossodatiou,  colled  Uie  New 
Zealand  Company,  had  made  a  pretended  purchaae 
of  tracts  amoontmg  to  a  third  of  the  whole  UUnij^, 
and  for  a  dozen  years  most  of  tiie  colonisatiOD  of 
N.  Z.  was  conducted  nnder  its  ons^cea.  The 
condnct  of  the  compouif  is  considered  to  have  been 
'lie  whole  prejndiciol  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
ujiuuy ;  and  after  a  long  conflict  with  the  govern- 
ment,  they  resigned,  in  IS>2,  all  their  cb^oi — irtlidl 
the  government  had  never  ocmflrmed — on  oondilion 
of  receiving  £268/100  M  compensatioD  for  their  out- 
lay.  The  Qoaompnlons  way  m  which  the  Cmnpany 
and  otheia  often  took  possession  of  lands  bronght 
on,  between  1843  and  1847,  a  series  of  bh)ody  oim- 
flicts  with  the  warlike  native^i  whose  hostility,  after 
having  subsided  for  some  time,  in  1861  'ffi"  broke 
out  in  a  Beri«e  of  intermittent  stm^es.  These  con- 
tinued until,  on  the  withdn,wal  of  the  imperial 
troops,  the  colonists,  from  their  knowledge  of  boah 
life  and  inteoaiSed  eomeabuas,  com^tely  sobdned 
the  re&oototy  native^  who  are  now  tnraing  tbar 
attention  to  agricnltore  wid  trade.  In  I8f^  oon- 
stitational  govemmeat  was  established,  and  in  1865 
the  seat  of  govcrament  was  bansferred  from  Anck- 
land  to  WeUington,  t^  present  capital. 

NEW  ZEALASD   lITiAX      See  Flax,  Nkw 


them,  and  tried  to  protect  Hum  from  the  injustio& 
band,  and  oppression  of  tiie  Enropeaiu  VaiA  baa 
acquired  settfements.    A  British  rssidant  or  eoasal 


I  appointed  in  1833,  but  without  authori^.    __ 

nut  an  end  to  the  state  of  anarchy  induced  by  a 
desultory  colonisation,  and  the  purchase  of  Imds 
for  a  few  hatchets  or  muskets,  a  lieutenant-governor 
was  appointed  in  1840,  and  a  trea^  concluded 
with  the  native  chiefs,  whereby  the  sovereignly 
ot  the  iduda  waa  ceded  to  Britain,  while  the 


Midland  lUilwajn,-  sod  on  * 
kUe  branch  of  the  river  Trait,  slzteea  milee 

'West  of   IJnooliL       The   pansh   ohnrdi,    * 

large  and  d^ant  edifice,  thongh  often  rebnil^  still 
shews  traoes  of  its  original  Norman  dianctor.  N. 
is  approacdied  from  the  ncrtb  by  a  oaasswm  a  mile 
anda  half  long,  oarried  ovn  the  flat  island  formed 
by  the  Trent  on  the  west  and  the  Newarik  twondi 
on  the  east.  The  owtle  of  Newark,  in  which  King 
John  died  in  1 2 1 6,  waa  built  eeriy  in  the  12Qt  centntT. 
N.  is  said  to  be  the  greateat  maltiiig  town  in  Kift- 
land ;  there  are  flonr-mills,  fareweriee,  and  trade  in 
com,  moh  flour,  oettle,  wool,  and  ooaL  A  oora 
exchange  has  been  erected.  N.  returned  two  mem- 
bers t^  1886.     Tap.  (1871)  12,218;  (1881)  14,019. 

NKW'ABK,  a  city  and  port  of  entrj  of  Now 
Jersey,  IT.  8.,  on  the  west  bank  of  Hie  Passaic 
River,  twelve  mile*  from  New  York,  on  the  Hew 
Jersey  Railway.  It  is  a  bondsome  and  indnsfarioias 
city ;  its  principal  street  ia  two  miles  km^  ISO  fe«t 
wide,  shaded  by  grest  ehns,  and  bordering  on  three 
publio  park*.  It  contains  a  custom-house  and  post- 
offioe,  v&  drarches,  muneroaa  [nblio  schools,  11 
bonk*.  17  newspapm.  and  extensive  manvfaetorie* 
of  leather,  patent  leather,  enamelled  doth,  CMiriagea, 
saddles  KDd  harness,  boots  snd  shoes,  dotdiiag,  hula, 
jeweUery— 1010  establishmenta  producing  annually 
76,000,000  dollsra.  It  wo*  settled  in  1666  by  > 
Puritan  colony  from  Conneetfamt  Pop,  (1970) 
106,069;  (1880)186,608. 

NEWVXiBK,  a  city  and  pnt  of  entt;  of  NorSi 
Carolina,  U.  S.,  on  the  8.  bank  of  the  Nense  JUvcr, 
at  its  oonflnenoe  with  the  Trent,  30  miles  from  its 


m 


naval  stores,  flour,  and  lumber.    Pop.  (1880)  6449. 

NEWBUROH,  a  city  of  New  York,  U.  8-  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson,  61  mile*  north  of 
New  Tork,  amid  the  grand  sceneiy  of  the  high* 
landi,    Its  handsome  edifjcet,  villa^  and  girdeaMi 

<  ^nnjli-- 


NEWBUEY— NEWCASTtE-DPON-TYNU 


on  »  gentle  dope  from  the  rmr,  . . 
noble  proapect.  It  contuna  a  court- hmue,  Ave 
fonadnee,  a  cotton  factoiy,  breweriBH,  a  railway 
oarrian  manufactory,  2  pianoforte  mumfactories, 
■toam^iler  works,  6  soap  factoricc,  41,000  tons 
of  ahipping,  •  lanp  lumber  trade,  23  cbnrchei,  6 
baiibB,acbooIs,  anaaoademiea.  It  was  Washii^n'i 
headqaartoiB  during  a  critical  portion  of  the  War  of 
Independence.    Pop.  (1870)  17,014;  (1880)  IS.OfiO. 

NEWBUBT,  a  mnnicipal  boroash  and  market- 
town  of  Engluid,  Berksliire,  on  boUi  banks  of  the 
Kennet,  aeventeea  inile«  weat-aonth.weat  of  Reading. 
The  chnrch,  a  Bpecimen  of  the  PgrpendiciOar  atyle, 
was  built  in  the  reifn  of  Henry  TIL;  bat  the 
tower  wia  boilt  by  John  Wiachcombe,  a  clothier 
and  famoiu  citizen  of  K.  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  Since  1S63,  an  annnal  wool-ma^et  baa  been 
held  here.  In  1862,  a  new  oom  exohanKe  waa  bnilt. 
N.  is  belt  known  for  two  haid-fonght  battles  be- 
tween the  Royalist  and  Parliamentarian  forces — 
the  first  in  September  1643,  the  second  in  October 
1W4.  In  the  former,  victory,  was  undecided , 
the  latter,  the  advantage  was  on  the  side  of  the 
Parliamentarians.     Pop.  (1871)  6602 ;  (1881)  10,I43L 

KBWBURTPOBT,  a  dty  and  port  of  entry  of 
HassacbiuettB,  V.  S.,  en  the  sonth  bank  of  the 
Merrimack  River,  three  miles  from  its  month.  Si 
Balm  north-east  (rf  Boston.  Lab  42°  48'  30"  N., 
ton^  70*  62'  3"  W.  It  is  a  pretty  town,  built 
on  a  swell  of  land  rising  100  feet  fram  the 
High  Street,  three  miles  long,  shaded  with 
•  beautiful  Mall,  and  pond  of  six  acres,  a 
chief  omaments.  It  has  16  churches,  in  a 
which  is  the  tomb  of  Wbitefield,  who  died  here 
(1770),  4  banks,  4  manufacturing  oompanicB, 
making  16,000,000  yards  of  cloth  annually,  several 
Bhtp-yards,  and  manufactories  of  machinery,  hata, 
clothing,  &C. ;  two  daily  papers ;  a  free  high  sohool, 
and  a  free  library  of  10,000  volumes.  Pop.  <1870) 
12,695 ;  (1880)  13,537. 

MEWOASTLH,  DuKI  0»,  3^0)t&S  Fklhik 
HoLUB,  minister  of  the  first  two  Oeorgea,  bom  in 
1692,  and  representative  of  the  nobte  family  of 
the  Pelhsms,  played  a  prominent,  but  by  ~ 
illustrious  part  in  the  political  histo^  of  his  time. 
While  a  very  young  man,  he  sncceedod  to  the  fMuily 
peen^  by  the  d^th  ol  his  father.  Lord  Pelham, 
and.  Qeorge  L  rewarded  his  attachment  to  the 
House  of  Bmnswiok  by  oresfcing  him  first,  Sari  of 
Clare,  and  afterwards  Dnke  of  Nc         -'       — 


made  Secretary  of  State  when  bnt  thirty  yean  old, 
although  Om  lung  declared  that  he  was  not  fit  to  be 
chamberlain  to  the  smaUest  court  in  Germany. 
There  was  much  of  the  absurd  wid  grotesque  in  his 
character.  Macanlay  says  of  him,  that  '  his  gait 
Was  a  shuffling  trot ;  his  utterance  a  rapid  stntter ; 
he  was  always  in  a  hurry ;  he  was  never  in  time ; 
he  abounded  in  fulsome  caresses,  aod  in  hysteriinl 
tears.'  Yet  this  man  was  during  thirty  years 
Secretary  of  State,  and  for  near  ten  years  First 
Lord  of  the  Treamry  I  He  served  nnder  Sir  K, 
Walpole,  retained  his  secretaryship  in  the  '  broad- 
bottomed  admimstration'  in  1744,  and  in  17&1 
■ncceeded  bis  brother,  Mr  Pelhun,  as  head  of  the 
eovemmeot.  lo  I75T,  he  was  compelled  to  take  the 
Snt  William  Pitt  (afterwards  Earl  of  Chatham) 
into  his  ministry,  and  to  nve  bini  the  lead  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  (he  supreme  direction  of 
and  of  foreign  affairs.    A  succession  of 


had  almost  broo^t  Un  war  to  a  snocessful 
tenniiiatioD,  when  tbe  aocessioD  «f  Oeoige  III.  led 
'  the  rerjaoement  of 


ministry.    N.  declined  a  proffered  , , 

remark  that  it  he  oonld  no  longer  serve  he  would 
not  burden  hi*  oonntry.  In  the  Rockingham  min- 
istry, formed  in  17B5,  N.  filled  the  offioe  of  Privy 
Seal  He  died  November  17,  I76S.  HU  title 
descended  to  Henry,  9th  GmI  of  Lincoln,  yrhout 
great-grandson, 

Hbhkt  Pblsam-Cuntos,  fifth  Duke  of  Nkw- 
<U9i%x,  and  twelfth  £arl  of  Lincoln,  was  bon 
1811,  and  educated  at  Christ-Church,  Oxford.  He 
represented  South  Notts  in  pariiament  froia  1832  to 
1^6,  wboi  he  was  ousted  oy  the  ioflnenoe  of  his 
fathm,  the  fourth  duke,  for  ainiportiiig  Sir  IL  Peal 
in  hii  free-trade  measores.  Em  ad(^[ited  polities 
aa  a  profession ;  was  a  Lord  of  the  Treamur  in 
the  brief  Conaervalive  administration  of  1834— 1B3S ; 
and  First  Commissioner  of  Woods  and  Forests 
in  the  Peel  administeation,  from  1841—1846.  He 
was  tlien  made  chief  Secretary  to  the  Lord- 
lientenant  of  Ireland,  bnt  went  out  of  office  with 
his  chief  »  few  months  afterwards.  He  snooeeded 
to  the  dukedom  in  18S1,  and  returned  to  ofBoe  in 
1S52,  flllinK  the  post  of  Secretary  of  Stato  for  the 
iee  (indch  fonnerly  included  the  department  of 
-'-  "-  -   ■  'itvdeen  government.    The  war  with 


ar)L 


e  Ab«vdeen  government.    ' 
ke  outv  ftnd  in  Jane  1B54 


it  was  found 
of  State  for  War, 
Newowtle;    The 


suffotinoa    of  t 

ipol   in    the   wint 


BoMia  broke 
neceseai7  to  create 
and  the  ihw  office  w 
'  harrible    and    heart-i 
British    army   before 

months  of  1864  raised  a  atonn  of  popular  discon- 
tent, and  when  tbe  House  of  Commona  determined 
to  inquire  into  the  conduct  of  the  war,  the  duke 
resigned.  Yet,  aa  is  now  acknowledged,  no  blams 
was  attribnti^)ls  dtber  to  the  Minister  for  War  or 
hia  subradinats,  Mr  Eddney  Herbert.  They  were 
called  upon  to  adsiinister  a  vicious  system  of 
military  ormniaation,  which  broke  down  under 
the  strain  brought  to  bear  iq)on  it.  N.  was 
re-uipointed  Oobnial  Seoretaiy  in  the  sec<»d  admin- 
iatrAion  of  Litfd  Palmsrston,  and  held  the  sssis  with 
general  approval  fonn  1859  to  the  yew  of  his  death, 
1864.  InfseO,  heaooompsniedthePrinoeofWales 
on  a  tour  in  Caiuda,  and  received  the  Order  of  the 
Garter.    He  died  October  1864. 

NEWOA'STLE-nNDEB-LYME,  •  pariiament- 
ary  and  munidnl  borough  of  England ,  in  the 
cooaty  of  Stafford,  16  miles  north-north-west  of  the 
town  of  that  name.  A  branch-railway  connects  it 
with  the  North  Staffordshire  line,  and  a  bnuoh- 
caiud  with  the  Grand  Trunk  Navigation.  One  of 
its  churches,  rebuilt  earfy  in  last  centun%  has  a 
very  old  square  tower  of  red  sandstone.  TIh  Free 
Grammar  School  has  an  income  of  about  £100  a 
year,  and  was  founded  in  1603.  Hata  are  the 
principal  branch  of  mannfaotnre,  and  silk,  cotton, 
and  paper-mills  are  in  operation.  N-  is  surrounded 
by  famous  potteries,  and  coal-mines  are  workAL  in 
the  vicinity.    Pop.  (1871)  15,949  ;  (1881)  17,606. 

ITBWOASTLE-UPON-TYNB,  the  chief  town 
-.  Northumberland.  It  has  tbe  jKJril^es  of  a 
coun^  of  itaell  and  is  the  see  of  one  of  the  new 
bishoprics  provided  for  in  the  Act  of  1878  (whan 
£5(^000  should  be  raised).     Gateshead,  on  the  oppo- 


site VUQ  Ul     UH,     C1¥V1>   IB     lU    B     ULU«1,uv    vuuu«j,    m.-^ 

baa  a  separate  jurisdiction,  but  is  virtually  a  part 
of  Newcastle.  In  1871,  N.  contained  a  popnl^on 
of  128,443;  (1881)  145,228.  Gateshead,  (1871) 
48,627;  (1881)  6S,873:  together,  (1871)  177,070; 
(18S1)  211,101.  N.  sends  two  members  to  par- 
liament. 

The  Bomans  bad  a  stationary  camp  htK,  called 
Pons  JWii — one  (^  the  chain  of  fonts  by  which  the 
Wall  of  Hadrian  was  fortified.  On  the  withdrawal 
of  the  Romuis,  the  deMtt^  ouip  bemnw  tiu 


"rr 


ITEWCASTLE-DPON-TYME. 


reaidence  of  k  colonj  of  monks,  aad  the  town  wu 

colled  MookcheRter.  Boberi,  eldest  log  of  the 
Conqneror,  commenced  to  build  &  cutis  here  in 
1079  OF  lOSa  Hence  tbe  modern  name  of  New 
Castle.  William  Rufui  built  hia  brother's  caatJe, 
■umnmded  the  town  witb  a  wall,  uid  gave  the 
tnhabitanta  peculiar  privileges.  The  present  cutte, 
which  displays  better  than  any  other  in  England 
ths  genius  of  Nonnan  military  nrchitecture,  was 
erected  by  Henry  II.  between  the  years  1172  and 
1177.  N.  being  made  the  rendezvous  of  the  vast 
annaments  which  tbe  first  three  Edwards  led  into 
Scotland,  it  was  in  their  time  surrounded  with  ne 
walls  of  nnuBual  strength  and  ma^^nitude  ;  portioi 
of  them  yet  remain. 

The  town  stands  partly  npon  an  elevated  plat- 
form,  and  partly  apon  the  north  bank  of  the  river. 
The  more  ancient  houses  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  town  are  chiefly  built  of  timber ;  those  in  the 
centre  of  the  town  are  mostly  of  stone ;  but  the 
generally  are  of  brick.  Chiefly  through  the 
nentality  of  one  man  of  humble  origin — 
Richard  Orain^— N.  has,  in  modem  times,  re- 
ceived the  addition  of  manyelegant  streets,  squares, 
and  public  buildines.  Ths  river  is  crossed  by  three 
bridges — the  High-level  Bri<^ ;  the  Redheugh 
Bridge  ;  and  a  swing  bridge  (completed  in  1874),  one 
of  the  larKest  structures  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 
The  High-level  Bridge  forma  one  of  tbe  engineering 
triumphs  of  Bobert  Stepheuson.  It  ooosiata  of  six 
oast-iron  arehes,  Btipported  upon  piers  of  masonry. 
The  length  of  the  viaduct  is  1337  feeL  and  tlie  height 
of  the  milway  above  high-water  mark,  112.  It  Has 
•  broad  oarriage-way,  by  which  the  ordinary  traffic 
avoids  the  precipitons  streets  on  both  sides  of  the 
river,  with  passenger-path  on  each  side,  and  the 
lailway  above.  A  quay,  at  which  the  depth  of 
water  at  ebb-tide  is  22  feet,  has  been  constructed 
by  the  corporation,  at  a  cost  of  over  a  quarter  of  a 
million,  or  at  tbe  rate  of  about  £120  per  lineal  yard. 

There  are  16  churches  and  chapels  in  the  town 
connected  with  the  Established  Church,  and  about 
60  belonging  to  other  classes  of  worshippeni.  Tbe 
mother-tmurch  (St  Nicholas)  is  a  noble  ediflce, 
chiefly  in  ths  Decorated  style ;  its  steeple,  which  is 
■ingnlarly  lisht  and  bold,  is  early  Perpendicular. 
In  the  Guild  Hall,  an  old  and  somewhat  incon- 
venient building,  situated  beside  the  river,  the  town 
assizes  are  opeued,  and  the  quarter  seasions  held. 
Under  the  Guild  Hall  proper  there  is  an  exchange 
for  the  merchants,  shipowners,  and  brokers  of  the 
quay-side.  In  the  Moot  Hall,  a  modem  and  very 
handsome  Qrecian  building  overlooking  the  swing-  I 
bridge,  the  town  and  county  assizes  are  held.  A 
new  and  very  spacious  town-hall  was  built  (18G3)  at 
a  coat  of  £100,000,  on  a  block  of  ground  facing  St 
Nicholas'  Church  ;  associated  witTi  it  are  a  com- 
market  and  offices  for  tbe  transaction  of  the  town 
busineaa.  The  market  for  the  sale  of  butcber-meat 
and  vegetables  is  probably  the  most  spacious  and 
eommodious  in  the  kingdom.  All  the  railways 
entering  the  town,  terminate  in  a  large  station  near 
its  centre.  Tbe  jail,  a  heavy  and  costly  mass  of 
bnilding,  occupies  a  low  and  confined  situation. 
The  central  police-station,  police-court^  and  ofBces, 
bnilt  in  1873,  are  comprised  in  a  large  and  hand- 
some stnictmre  in  Pilgrim  Street  The  new  postal 
and  telegraph  ofiice,  begun  in  18T3,  is  one  of  the 
largeot  and  finest  of  the  public  buildings  in  the 
town.  There  are  two  theatres— the  Boyid  (the 
great  ornament  of  Grey  Street^  the  handsomest 
street  in  the  town),  and  the  Tyne  Theatre  in 
Weatgate  Street.  N.  has  two  monuments — a  col- 
luounted  by  a  statue  of  Ear]   Qrey,   ' 


The  com-mai^et  is  held  on  Tuesday  and  Sator- 

day;  the  hay-market  and  the  cattle-market  oa 
Tuesday.  During  the  year  1873.  81,635  fat  c»tUe, 
350,638  sheep  and  lambs,  and  39,685  swine  weiu 
brought  to  the  cattle-market  A  very  lai^  market 
is  held  every  Thursday  morning  for  the  sale  ot 
butter,  bacon,  cheese,  eggs,  and  other  article* 
of  countiy  produce.  Saturday  is  general  market- 
da^.  N.  is  well  sujiplied  with  surface  water,  the 
chief  place  of  collection  being  Holliogton,  about  20 
miles  north-west  of  tbe  town. 

The  trade  of  N.  consists  chiefly  in  coal,  and  in 
those  articles  in  the  production  of  which  great  heat 
is  required.  The  N.  ooal-trwie  had  its  origin  in  tlie 
reign  of  Henry  HI.  This  branch  of  industry  is  not 
now  confined  to  N.,bQt  is  spread  over  the  greater 
pwt  of  the  sea-board  of  Morthnmbcrland  and  the 
whole  of  Durham.  Nearly  thirty-four  miUiona  of 
tons  of  coal  and  coke  were  produced  in  the  northern 
coal-field  in<1880;  of  which  about  seven  million 
tons  were  shipped  to  foreign  ports.  The  number  of 
persona  employed  in  Connection  with  the  pita  may 
be  computed  at  80,000.  Since  the  discovery  of  tbe 
Cleveland  ironstoue,  the  manufacture  of  iron  ha* 
-"gioualy  increased  in  the  district  emhraeod  by 
lorthern  coal-field.  The  make  iu  1876  waa 
about  830.000  tons.  There  are  annually  prodaoed 
on  the  Tyne  about  3000  tons  of  steel.  Large 
quantities  of  lead,  the  produce  of  the  mines  of 
Alston  Moor  and  Weardale,  at^  brought  to  N.  for 
lufacture.  A  very  large  quantity  of  unrebned 
IS  also  imported  from  Spain.  Having  been 
refined  and  deailverised,  the  lead  is  rolled  into  sheets 
and  pipea,  or  converted  into  shot,  Uthargo,  red  and 
white  lead.  The  value  of  these  imjjorta  is  aboat 
£ljO0^0OO  per  annum.  Copper,  to  the  ertent  of 
*2WJ,000  worth,  is  annnoUy  got  from  the  copper 
'at  the  chemical  works  of  the  Tyne. 
JN.  tne  railway  system  had  ila  origin.  Here, 
igbt  be  eipected,  locomotive  and  engineering 
establishments  are  found  upon  a  great  scale.  The 
ordnance  works  of  Sir  William  Armstrong  at 
Elswick,  the  western  part  of  N.,  are  well  knovm. 
Iron  ship-building  and  various  branches  of  engineer- 
ing are  extensively  carried  on  npon  the  Tyne.  N. 
occupies  an  important  position  in  the  manu&cturo 
of  soda,  Lleaohing-powder,  vitriol,  and  other  chemical 
products,  the  annual  value  of  which  is  about 
£1,300,000.  There  are  decomposed  in  tbe  district 
200,000  tons  of  salt  per  annum.  Earthenware  is 
largely  manufactured  ;  window-gUas  and  flint-gja«8 
have  declined ;  impressed  glass  is  latgely  manu- 
factured, and  plate-glass  is  made.  Glass-stain  ing 
has  attained  great  perfeution.  The  fire-brick  trade 
IB  a  new  industry,  which  has  attained  gigantic  pro- 
portions. About  80,000,000  iire-bricka  are  annuaUy 
made,  besides  gsa-relorts  and  sanitary  pipea,  which 
are  sent  all  over  tbe  workL  About  100,000  grind- 
stones leave  tbe  N.  quarries  annually.  Portland 
and  other  cements  are  made  to  the  extent  of  1 1,000 
tons  in  a  year. 

The  river  Tyne,  from  the  aea  to  N.,  fonna   « 
natural  dock  for  the  accommodation  of  shippiniE. 


Three  artificial  docks  have,  however,  been  con- 
structed at  a  coat  of  £1,700,000.  Within  the  last 
twenty  years,  improvements  ujion  a  large  scale 
have  been  made  by  the  River  Tyne  Commiaaion. 
The  entrance  to,  and  many  parts  of  the  river  have 
been  deepened  by  dredging.  The  depUi  of  water 
on  the  bar  baa  been  increased  from  6  to  33  feet  at 
low  water.  In  1880,  17,187  veasels,  of  5,S67,0i2 
tons,  entered  the  Tpie  ports  (N.  with  North  and 
South  Shields) ;  and  17.990,  of  G,299,507  toaa, 
cleared. 

Of  the  benevolent  institutions  eatablialicd  in  N., 
there  are  an  infirmary,  adispenaaiy,  asylums  for  the 


,,  Google 


KEWEL— KEWFOTJNDLAKD. 


Uind,tbe  deaf  and  domb,  and  two  orpbuiage*.  The 
Litenry  tu>d  Philoaophical  Society,  the  Society  of 
Antiqiuoiu,  ths  Nntnrel  Hiitorj^  Society,  the 
Mechanics'  Institution,  and  the  Inititnte  of  Mining 
Enzineera  (to  which  has  been  recently  added  a  large 
hnll,  aa  a  memorial  of  Nicholaa  Wood,  sn  engineer 
of  celebrity)  Bnceesrfully  cultivate  their  several  tields 
of  labour.  A  CoUege  of  Phyacnt  Science,  with  four 
profesaorahipg  (geology,  experimental  philosophy, 
chemistry,  and  mathematics),  was  eetabliahed  in 
lS7l>in  connection  with  the  university  for  Durham; 
and  there  i>  also  in  N^  associated  witii  the  aiune 
universitf,  a  college  of  medicine. 

Lords  Stowel,  Eldon,  and  CoUingwood,  Mark 
Akenside,  and  Eutton,  the  mathematician,  were 
natives  of  N.  Intimately  connected  with  it,  though 
not  born  in  it,  were  Thomas  Bewick,  the  engraver; 
Kobert  Morrison,  the  Chinese  scholar;  and  George 
and  Boberb  Stephenaon. 

NEWEL,  the  central  column  or  spindle  formed 
by  the  ends  of  the  steps  of  a  circular  staircase,  and 
round  which  the  stair  winds.  Id  torret-staini,  it  is 
A  plain  roll ;  bat  in  Elizabethan  ood  old  Scotch 
castles,  there  are  frequent  examples  of  handsome 
of  this  kind  with  ornamental  newels. 


BEWFOU'NDLANI),  an  island  and  British 
colony  of  N.  America,  not  yet  incorporated  with  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  Use  at  the  mouth  of  the  Qulf 
of  St  Lawrence,  separated  from  Itimicit  on  the 
north  by  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle  (aboat  12  miles 
broad),  and  extending  in  lat.  from  46°  3S'  to 
61°  3T  N.,  and  in  long,  from  52°  44'  to  S9'  30"  W. 
In  shape  it  resembles  an  equilateral  triangle,  of 
which  Cape  Bauld  on  the  north.  Cape  Bacb  on  the 
south-east,  and  Cape  Ray  <»  the  sonth-west,  form 
the  anEles.  It  is  370  mile*  in  length,  290  miles  in 
breadth,  and  has  an  area  of  40,200  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1869)  146JS36  ;  (1874)  161,486;  (18S1)  17'J,509. 
The  island,  as  seen  from  the  sea,  presents  a  wild 
and  sterile  appearance.  Its  surface  is  diversified 
by  mountains,  marshes,  barrens,  ^nds,  and  lakes. 
The  mountains  in  the  Avalon  Peuinsula  (stretching 
south-east  from  the  main  portion  of  the  island,  and 
connected  with  it  by  an  isthmus  of  only  about  three 
miles  in  width)  rise,  in  some  cases,  to  1400  feet 
above  sea-level ;  while,  both  here  and  along  the 
western  shore,  Uie  height  of  1000  feet  is  frequently 
reached.  The  nnmber  o£  the  lakes  and  '  [londs ' 
(ths  latter  name  being  nsed  indiscHminately  for  a 
large  or  ■  small  lake)  is  remarkable,  and  it  has 
been  estimated  that  about  one-third  of  the  whole 
•nrface  is  covered  with  fresh  water.  The  '  barrens ' 
occupy  the  tops  of  hills.  The  coast-Une  is  every- 
where deeply  indented  with  bays  and  estuaries, 
~~~  spacious  enongh  to  contain  the 


liere   deeply   ii 
Einy  of  which  a 


Hare,  White,  Notre  Dame,  Bonavista,  Trinity, 
Conception,  St  Mary's,  I'lacentia,  Fortnoe,  St 
George's,  and  St  John  a  Bays.  These  bays  vary  in 
lenctk  from  25  to  70  miles,  ore  of  great  breadth, 
and  ore  lined — as  indeed  the  whole  coast  is — with 
excellent  borbonis.  Ths  rivers,  none  of  which  are 
nariKable  for  any  distance,  conunmiicate  between 
the  lakes  of  the  interior  and  the  shore,  and  are 
narrow  and  winding.  The  main  streams  are  the 
Exploit,  with  its  affluent  the  Great  Kattiing,  and 
the  Eumber.  Much  of  the  soil  is  sterile  and  unpro- 
ductive, although  there  is  considerable  culiivation 
along  tjie  sea-board  of  the  settled  districts,  limited 
prIncipaUy  to  the  south-east  coast ;  exploration  has 
shewn  that  the  best  land  and  the  best  timber  are  in 
the  interior.  The  great  body  of  the  people  being 
employed  either  in  the  iiaherieeorin establishments 
connected  with  tbeln,  little  attention   used  to  be 


paid  to  the  onlture  of  the  soil ;  but  very  consider- 
able improvements  in  this  respect  have  latterly 
been  made  by  the  enterinising  islanders.  In  IS45, 
the  only  crops  raised  were  oats  and  hay  ;  but 
within  recent  years  large  supplies  of  grain,  vegetable, 
and  garden  seeds  have  hiea  imparted ;  and  now 
aboot  600,000  bushels  of  potatoes  are  prodnced 
annnally,  and  turnips,  hay,  carrots,  clover,  barley, 
and  oats  are  cultivated  with  success.     The  iahind 

isesses  some  minerals,  among  which  are  marble, 
^-lestone,  gypsum,  rooling-alato,  and  coal — the  hist 
found  only  in  small  quantities  ;  also  copper,  nictel, 
lead,  and  iron.  One  rich  copper  mine  is  worked, 
though  mining  is  still  in  its  infancy  here.  Trees,  of 
which  the  chief  are  pine  and  fir,  birch,  and  willow, 
thrive  only  in  Uie  more  fertile  districts. 

The  ttsheriee  are  of  two  kinds — the  '  Shore  Fiaheiy' 
and  the  '  Bank  Fishery ; '  the  former  comprises  the 
shores  and  bays  of  N. ;  the  latter  comprises  a  great 
tract  known  ss  the  '  Bonks '  of  N.,  from  600  to  600 
miles  in  length,  and  about  200  miles  in  breadth.  The 
Banks  form  the  greatest  submarine  plateau  known ; 
the  depth  of  the  water  is  from  20  to  108  fathoms. 
and  the  most  jiroductive  *  ground '  is  said  to  extend 
between  lat  42°  and  46°  N.  Great  variety  of  valuable 
fish  is  found  in  the  waters  around  the  colony,  ta 
the  ood,  salmon,  herring,  Ac  The  principal  articles 
of  export  are  fish — oomnrising  dry  cod,  herring,  and 
salmon — and  cod-oiL  Of  dry  cod.  1,163,934  qnmtals, 
valne  £984,677,  were  exported  in  1883 ;  2937  tuns 
of  nnreSned  cod-oil.  value  £76,866 ;  404  of  refined 
cod-oil,  Toloe  £16,160;  5341  of  seal-oil,  value 
£137,969;  and  322,603  seal-skins,  valne  £67,209. 
The  imports  are  chiefly  provisions,  as  brea4  butter, 
tea,  ka. — cordage  and  cables,  and  manufactured 
goods.  The  imports  and  exports  for  1883  amounted 
in  valne  to  £1,902,388  and  £1,470,570  respectively. 
The  revenue  of  ».  in  1883  was  £261,038 ;  the  ex- 
penditure, £258,171.  In  138.^,  the  total  tonnage  of 
vessels  that  entered  and  cleared  the  ports  was 
629,896.  In  1883,  the  exports  and  imports  to  and 
from  Britain  were  valued  at  £345.406  and  £678,1 13. 

The  seal  affords  one  of  the  most  important  fishing 
interests  of  Newfoundland.  This  industry  may 
commence  any  day  from  the  26th  of  Febnioiy  to 
the  6th  of  March,  according  to  the  winds — a  north- 
east wind  blocking  up  the  coast  with  ice,  which  the 
tirst  strong  westerly  wind  clears  away.  At  the 
'  "  resent  century,  the  seal-fiabing 
.  vessels  of  from  30  to  40  tons, 
manned  by  8  or  10  men.  Vessels  of  from  70  to  180 
tons,  manned  by  from  25  to  90  men,  were  substituted 
for  Uiese,  the  moet  suitabla  being  vessels  of  from  120 
About  1868,  steomers  were  introduced 
1-fishlng,  and  ' 
serviceable.  The  total  vali 
was  £57,000 ;  in  1881,  it  was  £74,000.  '  In  pro- 
portion  to  the  population  of  N.,  its  religions  insti- 
tutions are  ample,  while  education  is  within  reach 
'  all  classes. 

In  1881,  arrangements  w^e  completed  for  laying 
down  the  first  railway  in  N.,  from  St  John's  to  Hall 
Baf,  a  distance  of  over  300  miles.  Rood-making  in 
N.  IB  a  matter  of  great  difficulty.  There  are  no  roods 
across  the  island ;  they  are  confined  chiefly  to  the 
south-eastern  and  Bonti-weatem  sea-board.  There 
is  weekly  communication  for  nine  months  in  the 
year  between  N.  and  Europe.  In  the  colony  and 
connected  with  it,  400  miles  of  lines  of  telegraph 
have  been  constructed,  and  the  AUontia  telegraph 
has  its  western  terminus  on  this  island. 

The  early  history  of  N.  is  involved  in  obscurity. 
;  was  discovered,  June  24,  1497,  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  VII.,  by  John  Cabot ;  and  the  event  is 
noticed  by  the  following  entry  in  the  accounts  of 
the  privy-pune  expenditure:  '1497,  Aug.  10.    To 


SEWtOtTSDliAMB  DOG— IteWMAN. 


llyin  ihrnt  found  the  New  Me,  £10b'  It  yna  vimted 
by  the  PortiUDeae  navigator,  Qupar  de  Corterekl, 
in  1600;  ua  vithin  two  yean  after  that  tinu^ 
f^folai  filheliea  had  been  eEtabliehed  on  iti  ihorei 
l^tiie  Fortoguen,  BucaTaiu,  and  Frenoh. 
1878,  40O  TMMla,  of  which  ""  ■"    -  ■ 


harbour,  Ansoat  1C83,  and  fonnally  took  poaeeBitOD 
of  the  uUnd  in  the  name  of  Qneen  Elizabeth.  In 
the  return  voyue,  the  expedition  waa  aoattered  by 
a  Aona,  and  t£s  conunaader  loft  In  1621,  Sir 
Qflorge  CalTert  (Aftcrwuda  Lord  Baltdmor^  lettled 
in  the  great  penuwila  in  the  EOnth-eait^  and  named 
it  the  Province  <tfAvaltm.  The  hiitoiy  of  the  isIoDd 
during  the  17th  and  part  of  the  18t£  cantnries,  is 
littla  more  than  a  reoord  of  rivajriea  and  fends 
between  the  En^diBh  and  Prench  fisbermeD ;  bnt 
by  the  Treaty  ot  Utrecht  (1713),  the  island  woe 
oeded  wiiolly  to  England ;  the  French,  however, 
retaining  the  privil^e  of  fiahing  and  drying  their 
fl(h  on  oertMU  portiODi  of  the  cout.  A  governor 
waa  appointed  in  1728.  The  present  form  of  govern- 
ment establiahed  in  1666,  connita  of  the  governor, 
a  legialative  conndl  {M^iointed  by  the  crown),  and 
a  general  anembly  (elected  by  tin  people).  The 
coMt  ii  lAbtador  on  the  maiiUand,  ud  the  island 
<rf  AntiDOeti,  have  been  incloded,  ainoe  1809,  within 
the  jurisdiction  «[  the  governor  of  Newfonndlaiid. 

NEWFOTnfDIiAim  DOG,  one  of  the  most 
■agadons  and  cateemed  of  tile  U)^  kinds  of  dog. 
It  is  Mud  to  have  been  oridnmy  derived  from 
Kewfonndlaod,  where  it  is  us^  cbieflv  as  a  beast  of 
draught,  to  convey  light  loads  of  wood  or  proviBions, 
on  sledges,  over  mgged  tracks.  Multitudes  of  theao 
dogs,  in  St  John's  and  elsewhere,  are  left  to  shift 


Nawfonndland  Dag. 
for  themselves  dnring  the  fishing  season ;  and  a 


ticnlorly  a  smooth  breed,  with  rather  small  head, 
white  and  spotted  irith  black,  which  seems  now  to 
be  extinct ;  a  very  large  breed,  with  broad  mnxzle, 
head  ndsed,  noble  expression,  waved  or  curly  hair, 
very  thick  and  bnshy  cnrled  tail,  black  and  white 
colonr ;  and  a  smoIleT,  almost  black  breed.  Some 
of  the  breeds  tetaa  to  be  crossed  with  hounds  and 
other  dogs.  The  N.  D.  is  remarkable  for  memory, 
and  for  patience  and  forbearance  of  temper.  It  is, 
however,  apt  to  become  irascible  in  confinement, 
and  will  then  bite  even  its  master.  Some  of  the 
most  interesting  anecdotes  of  the  affection  and 
Sjigaoi^  cj  the  dog,  relate  to  the  ITewfonndland 
Po^  So  dog  exceu  it  as  a  water-dog.  Ita  paws 
aranalf-webfaed.  Its  power  of  endurance  in  swim- 
is  very  great. 


"« 


SuwOATE,  a  OBlebrated  London  prison,  standa 
at  the  western  extremity  of  Kewgate  Street^  opponts 
the  Old  Bailey.  13ie  exterior  presents  tush  daik 
stone  walls,  without  windows.  It  was  long  the  chief 
criminal  prison  of  city  and  county;  bnt  is  no  longer 
used  for  prisonen  to  be  tried  at  the  Central  Cour% 
and  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Coart  of  Aldermen.  Ilia 
earliest  prison  here  was  in  the  portal  of  the  ncu  gate 
of  the  city,  as  early  as  1218 ;  and  hence  the  nama. 
About  two  centuries  afterwarda,  it  was  lebuilt  by 
the  executon  of  Sir  Richard  Whittington,  wboae 
ststne  with  a  cot  stood  in  a  niche,  till  its  deetrao- 
tion  by  the  great  fire  of  London  in  1666.  Shmtly 
alter,  it  was  reconstructed,  from  which  time,  till 
17S0,  the  date  of  the  erection  of  the  present  ecUfiiM, 
ita  condition  was,  in  a  sanitaiy  point  of  view, 
horrible.  Mr  Akeiman,  one  of  Ue  keepers,  in  hia 
evidence  before  the  House  of  Commona  in  1770, 
stated,  as  a  proof  of  this,  that  in  the  spring  of  1750 
the  jail  distemper,  spreadins  to  the  adjoining  Ses- 
sions Honse,  caused  the  death  of  'two  of  the  judges, 
the  lord  mayor,  and  several  of  the  jury  and  oQiera, 
to  the  number  of  sixty  pereons  and  upwarda.'  The 
place,  however,  is  now  kept  in  the  cleanest  poaaible 
condition.  The  cells  for  condemned  prisanna  are 
at  the  north-east  comer,  next  to  New^tte  Street. 
The  NoBgaie  OaJaidar  contiuns  biograplucal  noticea 
of  the  moat  notorious  morderera,  bni^lan,  thieraa, 
and  forgers  who  have  been  confined  within  its  walla. 

NEnVHAIT,  John  HzinLT,  D.D.,  waa  bom  in 
London,  February  21,  1801,  and  educated  at  tlu 
school  of  Dr  ^'icnolas,  at  Ealing,  whence  he  passed, 
in  1816,  to  Trinity  College,  Oz%d,  of  which  oo1U«b 
he  became  a  scholar  by  oompetitiTS  iTamJnitrm  m 
18ia  Having  oradnated  in  18!!0,  ha  was  deeted 
Fellow  of  Oriel  College  in  182%  where  he  attascted 
the  notice  of  Dr  Whately,  and  was  by  him  onidoyed 
in  the  preparation  for  publication  of  his  well-known 
Trmtitt  on  Logie,  and  introduced  to  the  editor  of 
iiiaJEtuydopadiaMetrvpolilatta,to  which  he  became 

!i  atmtriDntor.  He  was  ordained  in  1821;  and  in  tlta 
allowing  year,  hia  friend  Dr  What^  haviiw  been 
appoints  head  of  6t  Alban'a  Hall,  N.  waa  by  him 
selected  as  his  vioe-principal ;  bnt  (■>  being  "wnwd 
tutor  in  his  own  college  in  1S27,  as  alao  pnblia 
examiner,  he  resigned  tne  vice-prin(Mpsldup.  In 
1828,  he  wiB  presented  to  the  vicarage  of  St  Mary's, 
Oxford,  in  which  church  the  sermons  which  he 
delivered  at  a  late  period  had  an  ertraordinaiy 
influence   in   forwarcUng   the   religions   movement 

list  of  the 


Bonian  Cauiolic  Church.  He  was  one  of  thoee  who 
transferred  their  support  from  Sir  Bobert  Peel  to 
Sir  Robert  Inglis  on  occasion  of  the  former's  inbr>- 
duoiiiR  the  Roman  Catholic  Relief  Bill  j  and  he  waa 
one  of  the  most  active  in  commenoiw  and  carrying 
on  the  so-called  Oxford  movement^^ue  gieat  o^ect 
of  which  was  to  counteract  as  well  the  Bomanising 
as  the  dissenting  tendencies  of  the  time,  by  restor- 
ing and  bringing  into  notice  what  S.  and  his  friends 
believed  to  m  <£e  catholic  character  of  the  English 
Church.  With  this  view,  he  commenced,  in  1^3, 
the  series  known  as  the  Oxford  Traeta,  to  whi<j| 
be  was  himself  one  of  the  chief  contributors ;  and  in 
1838,  he  also  became  editor  of  the  Bri&A  Oritie, 
which  waa  an  organ  of  the  same  views,  and,  in  con- 
junction with  Dra  Pusey  and  Seble,  of  a  I/3jTora  ig 
TrceadaJkmt  /ram  Oit  Orat  and  Latbt  Pathierg, 
He  continued  the  publication  of  the  l^racta  up  to  the 
90th  Number,  which  was  written  by  himself,  Mtd 
the  tendency  of  which  was  so  distasteful  to  tfae 
Anglican  autboriti«a,  that  the  Heads  of  Houses  at 
Oxford  condemned  the  I^ac^  and  the  F'  ~ 
Oxford  called  on  N.  to  disoontinue  the 
taon — a  request  witb  iriiiah  he  at 


)  Bishop  of 
lie  pumioik- 


i.CiOoglc 


KfiWitAN-lltEWtOlll 


Ths  BritUh  OriHe  oontinaed  for  iome  tiine  longer  to 
kdvoc«te  the  wime  opinioiu ;  bnt  la  1843  Uutt  pab- 
lioatioii  alaa  was  ducontiiiiied ;  tuid  N.,  wlio  nod 
for  some  tuna  redded  at  Littlamore,  near  Oxford, 
encaged,  in  company  with  Rome  of  hiii  more  yot 
fnf adherents,  in  stody  and  a«cetio  exercueB,  tbei 
forward  oonfined  hiniietf  chiefly  to  hii  Littlemore 
Ksidenoe,  and  arentoally,  in  October  1845, 
admitted  into  tbe  Roman  Catholio  Church,  %  _._, 
which  ma  immediately  followed  by  the  jiublioation 
of  a  work  on  the  Daidopmettt  of  Dodrine,  which 
W1U  intended  as  an  explanation  of  the  procesg 
throngh  which  the  writei^i  own  mind  had  passed. 
Soon  afterward!,  N.  repaired  to  Rome,  where,  after 
■ome  preporatioD,  he  was  admitted  to  orders  in  the 
Roman  Catholio  Charch ;  and  in  1848,  on  hie  retnni 
*  ~  "    '   id,  he  eatabliahed  a  branch  of  the  Coogre- 


five  yeora,  afterwords  retnming   to  o        . 

where  he  rtillretidei,  and  in  connectioD  with  which 
he  ha*  e»tabligh«d  a  iohool  of  higher  stndl«s  for  the 
youth  of  tbe  Roman  Catholic  teligion.  Dr  N.,  in 
addition  to  the  largo  ihare  which  he  had  in  the 
publjcstiona  already  named,  ii  the  anthor  of  serenil 
very  important  wortu^  written  aa  well  before  aa 
after  big  withdrawal  from  Anglioaniim.  Of  the 
former  period,  are  his  Hutory  qf  Iht  AtUom,  Fro- 
^ttkal  Office  qf  the  CAureS,  The  Ckurth  of  Oie 
yathert,  an  Snaj/  on  Mirada,  a  Trandatum  ofOit 
Tnatita  of  St  AlAanruiia,  wiUi  many  leuned 
DimertatJona,  and  serersl  volnmea  of  aermona.    To 


Qbtbfon^*  Expotnialion  (1876).  '  N.  is  alw)  the 
author  of  two  religioua  talea,  Lom  and  Coin  and 
ValUxt/tf  and  of  some  fine  hymna.  He  was  mado  a 
cardinal  deacon  of  the  ehurch  in  1879. 

NEWMAN,  Frakcm  Wiuoam,  brolier  of  the 
preceding,  was  bom  in  London  in  1805,  and  edu- 
cated at  uie  ichool  of  Ealing.  Thenoe  he  paned  to 
Worcester  College,  Oxford,  where  he  obtained  first- 
dasB  hoQouni  in  daadca  and  mathematioa  in  1320, 
■nd,  in  the  sune  year,  a  fellowship  in  Baliol  Col- 
lege. This  fellowship,  however,  he  resigned;  and 
lie  withdrew  from  the  nniversity  in  1830,  at  tbe 
approach  of  the  tuna  for  taking  the  degree  of  M.A., 
declining  the  labecription  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles, 
which  was  required  from  candidates  tor  tbe  d^^ree. 
After  a  lengthened  tonr  in  the  East,  be  vas 
appointed  classical  tutor  iu  Bristol  College,  1834 
In  1840,  be  accepted  a  similar  professordiip  in 
Manchester  New  Collwe,  and,  in  134Q,  bis  great 
reputation  fi^  saholmnip,  and  bii  general  accom- 
plishments, led  to  his  being  appointed  to  the  choir 
of  L«tin,  in  Unimsi^  C9l^«k  Xiondon,  which  he 
heldtiUISSS.  Dnringallthia  tune,  he  liaa  not  only 
been  an  active  oontribnttH;  to  nomeioaB  literary  and 
sdentifie  periodioil%  and  to  Taiiooa  branches  of 
aodent  and  modem  literatnre,  but  baa  also  had  a 
leadin|i  part  in  the  coDttorenies  on  rdigion,  in 
which  ne  has  taken  the  line  directly  opposite  to  that 
chosen  by  his  elder  brother,  being  no  less  ardent  as 
a  disciple  o(  tbe  extreme  ratiaaolistio  school  than 
John  Henry  Newmon  of  the  dognutticoL  These 
opinions,  and  the  system  founded  upon  them,  form 
the  subject  of  bis  well-known  woA,  Fhatu  of 


(tSSO) ,'  and  of  many  essays  in  the 
Seleetie,  and  other  Reviews ;  bnt  he  is  also  the 
Mthor  of  very  many  separate  publioatdon*.  Of 
these,  seTSTtd  regard  the  controvert  to  which  we 


have  referred— as,  OaAoKe  Union;  Bmctg*  TominU 
a  Chiirrh  of  tht  Futan  {1S44);  A  SM»  Omrth  in* 
D^mtBM  (1846) ;  a  Hitbtrg  ofOe  Hebron  JTonarQ^ 
{1817);  The  8oui,iU  Sorrow  and  AifilraaoiitaSI^. 
Others  are  on  political  or  social  topios — as,  SadktU 
B^onnM,Finaaebii<mdOrga»>iellSiSi;  TheOiimet 
ta  lAe  Hovm  of  Haptburg  (ISfil);  Laiuna  on 
PoUHad  Seonomjf  (18S7);  Xurope  <if  Iht  Kear 
Fuiart  (1871).  A  larse  number  ate  devoted  to 
biatoricd,  olassieal,  and  sdentifio  snbJBots,  ttie  moat 
important  of  which  are  Contnutt  of  Artdant  and 
Modem  Hiitory  (1847) ;  Segal  Jtomt  (1862) :  trans- 
lations into 'nnrbymed  metre' of  the  OdetqfSoraee 
(1853),  and  the  Iliad  qf  Homer  (ISMt);  atreatiie  on 
I)iff!/^iltit*  of  ElemeTtlary  Qtomebry;  Handbook  qf 
Arabic  {1366) ;  OrlAoepy  {1369),  Ao. 

NEWUA'RKET,  a  market-town  of  England, 
famous  for  its  barse-races,  is  situated  in  a  volTcy  13 
milea  east-north-east  of  Cambridge,  and  is  partly  in 
the  coim^  o£  that  name  and  partly  in  Snublk,  It 
contains  many  well-built  ana  elegant  bouseo,  the 
reddenoee  in  many  case*  of  gentlemen  who  ore 
drawn  hither  from  their  interest  in  the  T^f.  The 
market-bouse  and  the  famous  Jockey  Clnb  ora  the 
chief  edifioeo.  Malt-making  and  brewing  an 
carried  on  to  soma  extent ;  bnt  the  town  owea  its 

Srosperity  to  the  hone-races,  and  nearly  the  half  of 
le  popnlatjan  are  jockeys,  grooms,  trainers,  or 
stablemen.  The  roce-oonrse  of  N.,  owned  partly 
by  the  Jockey  Club,  and  partly  by  the  DiUce  A 
Rutland,  Is  said  to  be  the  finest  in  the  worid, 
and  tbe  tcaininfF^Kround  bears  a  similar  character 
for  eiceUenoe.  There  are  seven  rtKe-meetings  held 
here  annnolly.  See  Hossi-RAoma.  The  popn- 
lotion  in  1871  was  4531 ;  18S1,  5160. 

NEWPORT,  a  monidpi^  (and  until  1SS6  por- 
bsmentary)  bonnwh  and  river-port  of  Bnalond, 
chief  town  of  the  isle  of  'Wight,  and  ntoated  near 
the  centre  of  that  island,  on  tbe  Medina,  which  is 
navirable  op  to  this  point  St  Thomas's  Cbuich, 
fonnded  in  1804,  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  ttmo- 
ture  bnilt  in  the  ndgn  at  Henry  IIL,  is  a  hand- 
some edifice,  and  contains  a  monnment  erected 
by  Her  Majesty  in  memory  of  the  Princees 
Elizabeth,  dongbter  of  Cborlea  L,  who  died  at 
CoHsbrooke  Castle,  September  8,  16C0.  Among 
tiiQ  educational  establishments  c/  N.  is  the  Free 
Grammar  School,  in  which  freqaent  meetinn  and 
negotiations  between   ChaTlea   L   and  the  Fariia- 

:tai7  Commissionns  took  places    Aboot  a  mile 

h  of  N.  is  Carisbrooke  Castts^  whsn  the  kins 

confined  nnder  tbe  goanllanahip  of  Colond 
Hammond  foi  twelve  month*  {1647— 164S).    There 

9venl  important  institutions  in  the  vicinity,  as 

Ubeny  Bamcks,  tbe  Honaa  of  Indnatrr,  and 

the  FaAhnnt  Prison  for  juvenile  oonviota.  Mauu- 
fttcturea  of  lace  ars  earned  on  to  some  extent. 
Vessels  of  oonsiderabls  tonnage  can  asoand  to  tbe 
quay  at  hi^  tide&  Pop.  (1871)  7956;  {1331)  943a 
NEWPORT,  a  thriving  market-town,  pailia- 
cntory  and  municipal  borough,  and  rivsr-port  of 
nglond.  in  tlie  county  of  Monmouth,  ond  34  miles 
__utii-sonth-w«(t  of  the  town  of  that  come,  on  the 
Usk,  and  about  four  miles  from  the  month  of  that 
river.  It  was  anciently  the  port  of  the  dty  of 
Caerleon,  about  three  miles  further  np  the  rivar; 
but  during  the  present  century,  it  has  become  a 
shipping  port  of  oouriderable  importance,  being  l^e 
outlet  of  the  produce  of  the  axteniiva  oolheries^ 
and  iron  and  bn  works  of  the  nmghbonriioad.  It 
possesses  a  Dumber  of  reoently-ereoted  pubho  bnild- 
in^  has  spadons  docks,  manufaotnrea  nula  aod 

e  extciisively,  exports  iron  Mid  eoal  largahr, 

OBrriea  on  on  excellent  gsneral  taade>     u 
1S80,  9899  veMcls,  of  1,031,959  tons,  enttoed,  and 

-_ ^£s2g|c 


NEWPOKT— NEWSPAPER. 


tow,  of  1,576,27S  toni^  clewed  the  port.  N.  unitei 
with  Monmouth  uid  Fik  in  aeuding  a  member  to 
pcrlijUDeat.  The  remaini  of  Newport  Castle  ue 
now  uMd  u  m  breweiy.  Pop.  (1871)  27,069;  (1881) 
36,362. 

NEWPORT,  A  city  udport  cj  entiT,  and  letni- 
Mpital  ta  Rhode  liUad,  V.  8.,  on  the  weat  ahoni 
of  the  i^and  of  Bbode  Island,  in  Narniganset 
Stty,  B  miles  from  the  oceui.  It  baa  s  dwp. 
ezodlMit  harboiir,  defeodcd  by  Forts  Adams  and 
Woloott  It  has  •  state- home,  custom -house, 
market,  the  Redwood  Library,  many  Urge  hotels, 
and  eWant  villas  ;  is  renowned  for  fine  aoeneiy 
and  lea-bathing ;  and  is  one  of  the  most  [aslitoDabfe 
wateriog-placea  in  America.  The  town  also  oon- 
ti^  cotton  and  other  manafactiir«a.  It  was  settled. 
Id  1038,  bjr  17  adherents  ol  Foger  Williams,  who 
followed  *n"i  in  hia  banishment  from  Massachusetts. 
In  1874,  N.  had  136  sailing  and  steam  vessels,  ot 
8SG0  tons.  It  was  for  a  time  the  reudcuce  of 
Bishop  Berkeley.   Pop.  (1870)  12,662  ;  (1880)  15,693. 

NEWPORT,  a  city  of  Kentucky,  TJ.  8.,  on 
the  Ohio  BiTer,  opposite  CinoinDiti,  and  on  the  east 
side  of  the  month  of  the  Lickins  lUver,  opposite 
CoTingtoB.  It  contain*  a  United  States  arsenal, 
and  several  iron  foundriea  and  rolliug  mills.  Pop. 
(1870)  16,087  i  (1880)  20.433. 

N  EW'PORT-PA'GNBI.1.,  a  small  inarkel-town 
tS  England,  in  Buckinghamshire,  on  the  Ousel,  60 
mile*  north-north-west  of  London.  Lace  is  manu- 
factured eztensively,  and  there  is  a  good  bade  in 
com,  ooat,  and  timber.    Pop.  (1881)  3686. 

NEWBT,  a  aesport  and  parliamentary  borongh, 
Dtoated  partly  in  the  coun^  of  Armagh,  but  prin- 
cipally in  the  CDonty  of  Down,  Ireland,  distant  from 
Dnblm  63  mile*  north,  and  from  Belfast  38  milea 
■onth-Mvtli-WMt,  with  both  which  places  it  is 


nearly  coeval  with  the  English  invamm,  havins 
CTDwn  nn  aronnd  »  monastery  founded  in  I1S3,  and 
bly  erected  by  Da  Cooroey.    This 


■  castle  subsequently  ei 
castle  was  the  i 
meet  of  the  civil 
It  was  inoorporated  as  a  borou^  with  a  corporation 
and  two  members  of  parliament,  by  James  L 
Since  the  Union,  it  return*  but  one  member,  and 
the  corporation  having  been  abolished  by  the  Irish 
Municipal  Reform  Act,  the  aSaiis  of  the  town  are 
now  administered  by  21  commissioners.  It  is 
traversed  by  a  river  of  the  same  name,  which  falls 
into  Oaiiin^ord  Lough,  and  by  a  canal,  by  which 
the  navigation  i*  prolonged  to  Lough  Neogh,  a 
distance  of  32  milea.  A  commission  which  was 
appointed  for  improving  Cariin^ord  Lough,  has 
a&«ady  spent  £80,000  upon  it.  The  town  is  hand- 
somely and  compactly  built.  The  quays  are  lined 
with  spadons  warehouses,  and  there  are  several 
mills,  tanyards,  coach  and  car  manufactories,  and 
iron-foundries.  Extensive  water-works  have  recently 
been  ooostraoted.  Linen,  cotton,  and  iron  mannfsc- 
tnrea  are  carried  on.  The  income  of  the  port  ia 
£6000  yearly.  Steam-vessels  ply  to  Liverpool  and 
Glasgow  from  Warreupoint,  a  port  live  miles  distant, 
on  Carllngford  Lough ;  and  tiie  Newry  and  Greenore 
B4ulway  connects  the  Newry  and  Armagh  line  with 
Carlingford  Lough.  Pop.  (1871)  14,168;  (1881) 
16,086. 

NEWSPAPER,  a  periodical  publication  printed 
and  distributed  for  the  circolation  of  news.  Prom 
the  broadsheet  relating  the  most  meagre  intelligence 
without  comment  or  inference,  the  newspaiier  has 
gradually  ^wn  up  into  a  powerful  political,  as 
Well  as  social  engine,  diffusing  information  on  all 
anbjoots  of  interest,  drculating  adii'ertlBements,  and 


actjng  on  the  publio  mind,  in  times  of  exoitemetit, 
to  an  extent  tliat  has  led  it  to  be  called  a  fourtti 

estate  of  the  realm. 

The  earli«at  approach  to  the  newspaper  ia  to  ba 
found  in  the  Acta  Diurna,  or  Aela  PuUkn,  of 
andent  Borne,  an  official  gazette,  which  in  the  later 
times  ot  the  republic,  and  during  the  empire, 
appeared  daily  under  sanction  of  the  government. 
The  contents  of  these  Ada  conaiated  of  an  ennmer- 
ation  of  the  births  and  deaths  in  Bome,  an  account 
of  the  money  paid  into  the  treasury,  and  everything 
relattne  to  the  supply  of  com ;  extracts  from  the 
Ada  ForBunca,  including  the  edicts  of  magistrate*, 
the  testaments  of  distingiiiahed  men,  reports  of 
trials,  with  the  muucs  oi  the  acquitted  and  con- 
demned, a  list  of  the  magistrates  who  were  elected  ; 
extracts  from  the  Ada,  Seriatut,  an  accoant  of  publio 
afTaits  and  foreign  wars,  of  the  births,  deaths. 
festivals,  and  movements  of  the  imperial  family;  and 
generally,  news  relating  to  public  buildings,  foncnila, 
games,  fires,  sacrifices,  and  miracles,  as  well  oa 
amatory  stories.  The  Acta  seem  to  have  been 
drawn   up  under  the  enparintendence   of  censors, 

L J  .^u ._^..   v..  office™  caUed 

les  i  and  their 
n  some  public 
}  read  by  any 

..  _  —  ^. —    ._  jeia*ued  nntu 

the  downfall  of  the  Western  Empire,  but  tba« 
seems  never  to  have  been  anything  corresponding 
to  them  at  Constantinople^ 

The   beginnings    ot  the    newspaper   of   modem 
Europe  are  traceable  to  Germany  and  to  Vcaicc 
SooD  after  the  invention  of  printing,  in  the  latter  liaif 
of  the  16th  c,  smalt  news-sheets,  called  Rdalioneu 
and  the  Ifeax   Zeytung,   appeared   in   Angsbnrg, 
Vienna,  Batisbon,  and  NUraberg,  generaUy  ia  the 
form  of  a  letter.     The   extant   numbers  contain, 
amoDg  other  matters,  accounts  of  the  discovery  of 
Amenco,  of  the  couqueets  of  the  Turks,  of   the 
French  and  Austrian  war  in  Italy,  with  such  local 
occurrences  as  executions,  inundations,  earthquakes,   I 
burnings  of  witches,  and  child.murdera  committed 
by  the  Jews.    More  important,  perhaps,  were  the  ' 
olficial  Noliat  ScriUe,  first  issued  by  the  Venetian   I 
government  in  the  16th  c,  containing  acconnts  of  I 
the  ware  carried  on  by  the  Bepublic,  and  other  j 
events  of  general  iotcrest.    At  first  they  were  not   . 
printed,  but  were  to  be  seen  in  various  public  place*  ' 
on  payment  of  a  small  coin,  called  a  0<ada,  wlience 
the  name  'Gazette.'    After  they  were  allowed  by 
the  government  to  be  printed,  they  obtained  •  wide   < 
droulation  over  the  whole  of  Europe.  | 

The  earliest  English  newspapers,  or  news-lctten,   I 
belong  to  the  reign  of  James  L,  and  were  printed   I 
in  the   form   of  small  quarto   pamphlets.      S^ne 
copies   of    a   sheet,   colled  the   EngtUh  Mtrcury,   ' 
purporting  to  be  published  by  authority  of  Qaecn   '. 
Elizabeth    in    16SS,   the    period   of   the    Spanish   | 
Armada,  have  been  proved  by  Mr  Watts  oE  the   ! 
British  Museum  to  be  literary  forgeries,  executed 
about  17G0.    The  first  English  newspapers  ameaied 
at  occasional  and  irregular  intervals — the  earheat  of 
them,  BO  far  as  aacertained,  is  entitled  Nam  ov(  of 
JloUaiul,   and  was  published  for  M.  Newlxay  u 
1619.    Id  1C22,  these  occasional  pamphlets  were  con- 
verted into  the  first  prmted  newspawr,  entitled  The 
Caiaiae   Neun   <tf  tht   Preaeni    Wedc,  edited   by 
Nathaniel  Batter.    Abont  the  same  time  appeared 
the  London  Wtddy  Courant.    A  large  nnmW  of 
publications,  hardly  deserving  tiie  name  of  news- 
papen,  were  circulated  during  the  dvil  war,  with 
such  names  as  EnjlamTt  iltmoraile  Aeddentt,  The 
Kingdom't  Intdiigenea;   Meraaitu  Aulktu,    TAe 
ScoU  InUUigawxr,  The  Parliamoiet  Set/at,  The  Par. 
liamenl'i  ScouCt  Diteovery,  or  Certain  Information, 


„  Google 


NBW8PAFXB. 


Tht  Scott  Dove,  The  Parliammt  Kite,  The  Barrel 

Old,  Mavuriia  Jfiufix,  Mercvrixit  Democriliu,  Mir- 
euTius  Adierontieiui,  or  Ntiet  from  Heli,  hx.  The 
arrasKement  of  the  news  ii  poor  in  tha  extreme, 
and  wtiat  few  commente  there  le,  ue  of  the  most 
virulent  description.     The  Long  Parliament  sub- 

C:tcd  the  newspaper  press  to  a  censorship,  which 
come  more  strict  imder  Charles  11  The  liiEt 
Bnglish  QewBpaper  irhich  could  properly  be  con- 
udered  a  vehicle  of  general  information,  was  the 
FuUie  InUUigemxr,  established  by  8ir  Koger 
L'Efitrange  in  1663 ;  it  was  dropped  on  the  appeor- 
aace  of  The  London  OazelU,  the  first  namber  of 
which  was  pnUiahed  November  7.  1S65,  at  Oiford, 
where  the  court  was  reuding  in  conaequenca  of  the 
pWia  being  then  in  Lonaon.  A  second  paper, 
colled  The  Obetrvatar,  was  afterwards  started  by 
L'Eatrange,  who,  in  1680|  exorcised  his  authority  as 
licencer  of  the  press  by  iseniog  a  proclamation  '  for 
suppressing  Uie  printing  and  publishing  of  imUcenced 
news-boou  and  pamphlets  of  news.'  Small  as  was 
the  aheet,  a  difficulty  often  arose  how  to  fill  it.  One 
publisher  wm  in  the  way  of  supplying  the  dearth  of 
newsbyapassagefrom  the  Bible  ;  anoCJier  announced 
that '  blank  space  is  left  that  any  gentleman  may 
write  his  own  private  business.' 

Up  to  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  few  of  the  news- 
papers appeared  oftener  than  once  •  week.  From 
the  interest  excited  by  Marlborou^'*  victories 
arose  a  demand  for  more  frequent  intelligence,  and 
besides  17  nawspapeia  publianed  three  times  a  week, 
the  Daily  Caurimt,  established  in  1709,  was  issued 
every  day  except  Sonday.  Of  t^e  more  noted 
London  newspapers,  the  London  Daily  Poil  and 
Qeneral  Advertiter  was  established  in  1726,  and  in 
1762  became  the  PtdtHe  Advertieer;  a  celebrity 
attaches  to  it  from  having  been  the  medium  in 
which  '  Juniud's  Letters '  hrst  appeared.  The  St 
JatiKt't  daronide  arose  from  an  amalgamation  of 
two  papers,  tlie  St  Jamiu'*  Pott  and  St  Jam^i 
Evening  Post,  both  which  began  in  J715.  The 
Jforih  Briton,  edited  by  Wilkes,  first  appeared  in 
1762,  The  Morning  Chronide,  disoootinncd  in  1862, 
dates  from  1770;  the  Morning  Pott,  from  1772  ;  the 
now  defunct  Morning  Herald,  from  1781 ;  the  Thna 
first  appeared  in  1788,  as  a  continuation  of  the 
London  Dailg  Univeraal  Begitler,  established  three 
years  earlier. 

During  the  reign  of  Qeor^  HX  proaecntions  were 
rife  agamst  newspaper  writers  and  editors  (  their 
result,  generally,  was  to  give  a  greatly  increased 
cnrrency  to  the  doctrines  assailed,  and  to  confer  a 
fictitiona  importanea  on  the  traders  in  politics,  by 
whoDi  many  of  tha  jonmals  were  conducted.    The 


itary  reporting  was  resented 
ns  as  a  breach  of  privileire. 


by  tha  House 

but  the  resolutions  and  the  imprisonments  of  1771 
all  ended  in  the  tacit  concession  of  publicity  oC 
discuBsioa  which  has  ever  snce  prevailed. 

The  newspapers  of  Great  Britain  have,  within  the 
present  century,  greatly  increased  in  size  and  im- 
proved in  literuT  character.  In  both  respects  they 
are  far  in  advance  of  thejoumala  of  any  other  country. 
Each  nnmber  of  the  Tima  now  consists  in  general 
of  16  pages,  occasionally  24,  and  contains  upwards  of 
6000  adverUsaments.  The  niccess  of  the  7'iinM  is 
mainly  due  to  the  enterprise  of  its  original  pro- 
moter, Mr  WaltcT,  who  first  introdocM  various 
improvements  in  the  srt  of  printing,  and  made  a 
strong  effort  to  secure  the  best  litetwy  talent  attain- 
able in  all  departments  of  big  jonmaL  One  of  the 
most  notable  incidenta  in  the  histo^  of  tha  Timet, 
was  the  exposur*,  throndi  mMna  d  its  Paris  oorres- 
ponden^  d  a  dgantio  BCheme  of  f<^«ry,  pUaned  in 
France  in  184&— •  schema  which  oonteiaplated  the 
almost   simuHaneon*  prwentalion. 


iteinplated  tl 
at  tha  ohi 


from  Olyn  and  Co.  The  faUnre  lA  the 
oonspinoy  was  mainly  due  to  the  exertions  made  by 
the  Tima.  One  of  the  parties  imi^oated,  brought 
an  action  for  libel  agaiiut  the  printer,  and  obtuned 

a  verdict  of  one  farthing  damages.  A  public  «nb- 
Bcription  was  raised  to  defray  tlu  expenses  incnrred 
in  defendine  the  action ;  when  the  proprietors  of 
the  Timet,  declining  personally  to  accept  the  sum 
subscribed,  iavestea  it  in  two  Timet  scholarships  in 
connection  wiUi  Christ's  Hospital  and  the  City  of 
London  School,  for  the  benefit  of  pupils  proceeding 
thence  to  Oxford  or  Cambridge. 

The  editing  of  one  of  tha  leading  London  news- 
papers involves  an  immense  daily  expense,  and  the 
co-<iperation  of  a  nuisber  of  talented  writers.  Tha 
principal  editor,  as  Kpreeentative  of  the  proprietors, 
has  the  whole  oversi^t  and  responsibility  intrusted 
to  him.  He  occasionally  fnnushei  the  leading 
artdcla,  but  it  is  more  frequently  composed  by  one 
of  a  staff  of  literary  contributors,  who  are  bound  on 
the  shortest  notice  to  write  on  any  subject  which 
tha  editor  may  assign.  The  leader  is  in  form  a 
relic  of  the  time  when  the  newspaper  wo*  the  news- 
letter; it  is  itsprofeased  object  to  analyse,  condense, 
and  expUin  public  transwjtions,  to  scrutinise  what 
is  doubtful  or  sospicious  in  the  conduct  of  raiblio 
men,  and  to  expose  sophistry  and  imposture.  iJnder 
the  editor  ore  various  sub-editras,  having  the 
snperintendence  respectively  of  the  London,  the 
provincial,  the  foreign,  the  litenuy,  Uie  industrial, 
and  other  departments  The  commercial  arrida  tl 
furnished  every  evening  by  a  contributor  in  the 
City.  There  are  twelve  to  sixteen  parliamentary 
short-hand  reporters,  who  are  continually  relieving 
one  another,  besid«e  reporters  attached  to  the  courts 
of  law,  and  correspondents  who  furnish  accounts  ol 

Eblio  meetings  and  local  news  of  various  kinds. 
e  foreign  intelligence,  a  most  important  depart- 
ment in  the  great  London  journals,  is  furnished  by 
correspondents  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  some  M 
them,  particularly  those  employed  in  time  of  war, 
being  men  of  very  high  reputation  in  tha  literary 

A  stamp-duty  on  newspai>er*w«a  imposed  in  1713 
tiy  10  Anne,  &  19,  amounting  to  one  nalfpenny  on 
'  half  a  sheet  or  less,'  and  one  penny  '  if  luger 
than  half  a  sheet,  and  not  exceeding  a  whole 
sheet'  The  duty  was  rsised  \d.  by  30  Geo.  IL  o. 
IS;  another  halh)ewiywai  added  by  16  Geo.  HL 
c  34  ;  still  uiother  by  29  Geo.  IIL  o.  60 ;  and  a 
further  addition  of  lU.  was  made  by  37  Geo.  IIL  o. 
90,  amom>tinsto4(I.iDalL  Act  6  and  7  WilllV.  & 
76,  reduced  the  stamp-duty  to  l<t,  with  the  addition 
of  \d.  or  \d.  when  the  sheet  contained  upwards  of 
1560,  or  of  2295  square  inches  on  each  side.  An 
additional  lA  was  diargeabla  on  a  Supplement  By 
IS  and  19  Vict.  c.  27,  passed  in  1S6S,  the  newspaper 
stamp  was  abolished,  a  change  whicii  occasioned  an 


newspapen,  ai 
diminution  of  tbeir  price,  though  many  <u  the  cheap 

Kpers  then  started  were  of  vety  ant£  duration. 
le  repeal  of  the  paper-duty,  which  took  effect  on 
October  1, 1861,  also  added,  though  to  a  mndh  leas 
considerable  extent,  to  the  nnmbsr  and  cheapness 
of  newspapers.  The  nnmber  of  stamps  issued  on 
British  newspapers  was  7{  millions  in  1763,  16 
millions  in  160U,  and  65,741,271  in  ISGO. 

In  1843,  the  nnmber  ot  newspapers  publiahed  in 
London  was  79 ;  in  1880  tt  was  about  340.  18  of 
these  are  doily  papers,  6  of  them  published  in  the 
evening,  and  one  of  these  5  is  a  mere  reprint  of  the 
morning  paper,  with  what  news  had  been  reosived 
during  tlie  day.  Of  these^  the  most  inflaential  for 
40  yean  back  hM  been  tha  Timet,  established  in 
17SS,  of  wbioh  iwariy  -""—■  ■  ■  - 


".^Je 


NEWSPAPER. 


dafly,  and  ita  cirea)»ti(m  haa  been  hrgar  on  oom- 
Hona  ol  pablio  intcnat.  It  pnfeaaea  independeiiae 
in  pobtioa.      Tli*  Dai^  Jftiot,  PaU  MaUQaM^ 


Poit  {the  OTUD  M  tba  Mou-monde)  ire  tha  moat 
important  libenl  daily  panen ;   tiie  8t  Jamaft 
gaxeOe  calla  itaeU  anti-ndiod ;  white  the  Standard 
eniiif  paper),  are  ConaemtiTe. 
b*  &UJ  papwa  Ttriea  fmn  )<i.  to 
B  nempapen  not  daily,  moR  an 


QaatOa 

and  ahAa  (an  erening  paper),  are  ConaemtiTe. 

Theprioe  of  tha  ^^ '  -  ' —  '^ 

M.  («  the  una  I  .  . 
nubliahed  ODoe,  aoma  twioe^  aome  three  linuc, 
lour  timea  a  weak,  aMue  onoo  a  fortnight,  and  aome 
monthly.  They  oompriae  agriooltural,  (porting, 
oommereial,  and  railway  jou^ala ;  a  docen  or  ao 
pnrely  litenuy,  or  literary  and  adentifio ;  military 
and  naval,  mnaical  and  theatrical,  legal  and  medical 
jotuvaU.  There  ia  a  Coart  Oirealar,  and  a  Couri 
Joumcd,  a  Frencb,  a  Qennan,  an  Anglo-Amerioau, 
and  a  Spauiah  weekly  paper.  There  are  a  few 
^ctorial  and  about  hall-a-aosMi  hnmorona  papera. 
CM  theaa  laat,  Punch,  which  baa  been  in  enatenoe 
•inoe  1S41,  ii  ably  conducted,  and  wielda  no  amall 
infloence.  A  large  number  are  the  orrana  of  par- 
tionUr  religioua  aecta  or  parties.  The  baken, 
draper*,  grooeia,  printera,  bookaellen,  brewer*,  Ac.,  i 
baTo  their  reapeotiTe  joomala;  the  boilden  have' 


A«ci!W,&o.,areBa-called'aociety-papei«.'  Theprioe 
ot  tlw  we^y  papera  variea  from  6d.  to  \d.  or  id. 

The  aariiaat  Eagliah  prorinoial  uewapaper  l*  be> 
lieved  to  be  the  NorvkK  Potlman,  pabliahed  in 
1706,  at  the  price  of  a  penny,  bnt  '  a  haUpeDoy  not 
rafuaed.*  It  waa  followed,  in  1714^  by  tbe  Nonineh 
Cmtr<mt,or  WtdOa PaAH.  A  YorhCoaraia,Lt«i» 
Counml,  and  Tork  JovnuU  were  ectabliahed  about' 
IT20;  tha  UancItMer  OaasOg  in  1730,  and  the 
Oojford  Journal  in  174a  In  1S43,  212  newtpapei* 
werepnblialied  in  ptoviudal towna  id  Endand, and 
8  in  Walea.  The  provindal  nawapapera  H  England 
nnmbered  in  IBSO  over  1000,  beaidea  60  belonKing 
to  Walea,  and  20  to  the  lilanda.  About  a  fifth 
of  the  niunbar  psofeaa  Conaervaldve  or  Liberal- 
Conservative  principle!,  a  half  Libitral,  a  amall 
number  perfect  indepandenoe  in  politics,  and  the 
rest  are  arowedly  nentraL  Oul^  a  vei?  few  of 
theaa  are  oonduoted  with  anythmg  like  ability. 
Among  the  more  important  are  the  llanchtittr 
BxamSur,  which  ia  nndelttood  to  have  a  drcnlatian 
id  3fi,000,  and  the  JfemtuO*  Ckronkle  of  36,000, 
and  t^  Jfaneheiler  Ouardian.  A  chaiacterUtio 
featnre  of  nuui^  aaoond-olaaa  pnmDcial  papeia  is  a 
colonin  of  goeaip  or  f'M*"'^^,  entitled  a  letter '  Fnun 


cdled,  1 


OnrL 

The  nempaper  preia  of  Scotland  began  dnring 
the  dvil  wan  of  the  17th  oentnry.  A  par^  of 
Cromwell'a  troops,  who  arrived  at  Leith  in  1662  to 
garrison  the  citadel,  broi^t  with  them  a  prioter 
named  Cbriataplier  Higgina,  to  remint  the  London 
paper,  MtratriM  PolUieu*.  The  nist  uomber  waa 
laaued  on  the  26th  Chjtober  1663,  and  in  November 
1654  the  eatabliahment  was  b«naferred  to  Edin- 
burgh, wliere  the  reprinting  went  on  till  1660.  On 
the  31st   December  1660,  the  first  number  was 

Enbliahad  tA  the  Mereariu*  OtJedonint,  which  pro- 
laaed  to  fnmiah  information  ragarding  the  '  affiurs 
in  asitatioD  in  Sootland,  with  a  survey  of  foreign 
int^geace.'  It  lived  only  three  montha,  and  waa 
BDOM^ed  by  The  Emgdom't  InttiUgoKtr.  Tha 
EdUAurgh  OateUe,  an  offidal  paper  published  by 
authority,  waa  ostabliahed  in  1669  by  James 
Wataon,  a  printer  of  eminenoe  and  akin.  In  1702, 
Wataon  ti»o  started  the  EdittbitrgK  Ootumai,  which 
attained  it»  216th  number,  and  in  1706  the  SooU 

Oainua.     In  1718    "  " 

gave  a  privilago  t 


Bdinburgh  Botaing  Owront  tiiree  timea  a  week,  od 
condition  that  bdore  paUieataon  be  should  Ktva 
■  ane  ooppie  of  his  print  to  the  mapstrates.'  Thia 
paper  atul  exists  as  the  SdMurifi  Couraat,  now  m 
daily  paper,  and  the  principal  C<HiaBrvatave  joomal 
in  Scotland.  The  uilsdoaion  Mareurt/,  now  ds- 
fuDct,  waa  first  puUiahed  on  the  SSth  of  April  1720. 
The  Sootmtan,  wbioh  oame  into  extstenoe  in  1817, 
under  the  oondoot  ef  Ur  Charlea  Hadaren,  and  waa 
for  a  ahort  time  edited  by  Ifr  J.  B.  ICCnllodlt,  Uib 
poUtieal  economist,  ia  the  most  infioential  Liberal 
journal  in  Scotland,  and  ia  believed  to  havB  a  oir- 
cnlataon  of  60,000.  The  earliest  Scottish  pro- 
vinciBl  newspaper  was  the  Qlatgoa  Courast,  eatab- 
Ushed  in  1716 ;  the  OIa»goa  Earaid,  next  in 
importance  to  the  Seotmaan,  was  established  in 
1762.  The  Aherdttn  Journal  was  founded  in  1746 
by  Mr  James  Chalmers  ;  the  first  number  contained 
on  account  of  the  battle  of  Cnlloden.  Tlie  nomb^ 
of  newspapers  pnbhahed  in  Scotland  in  1S43  waa 
GO  ;  it  u  now  about  ISO.  A  few  of  the  leading 
jonmola  of  Scotland  contain  articles  littie  inferior 
in  talent  to  those  of  the  beat  English  newspapers, 
and  ezerdie  considerable  politioal  mllimii-a,  About 
a  aoore  of  tha  Scottish  pi^«n  are  regarded  as  Oon< 
servBtive,  60-70  Liberal,  and  the  rert  Independeofe 
or  neutral  in  politica.  Edinburgh  has  in  all  12 
newspapers,  including  the  weekly  issues  oi2  ot  the 
4dailies;Qlasgaw,  19 (with 6  dailies);  Aberdeen,  5  i 
Dundee,  0  ;  Paisley,  &  The  price  of  moat  of  the 
dailv  papeis  is  Id  :  of  some  it  i*  Id. ;  that  of  the 
weeklie*  and  bi-weeklies  varies  tromldL  to  4ill 
In  Ireland,  a  newa-abeet,  called  wiaratUed  7U- 


bnt  the  first  Irish  newspaper,  propcriy 
~-  the  Di^lin  NtwtUtia;  conaimaced  la 
1  Oceuirmoet,  a  Dublin  daily  paper, 
originated  in  1700,  was  continued  for  half  a  centot^. 
It  was  followed,  in  1728,  by  another  ds^  P^per, 
j'ouftner'j  Journal,  established  by  Gmtkb  niukner, 
'  a  man  celebrated  for  the  goodness  of  huheut,  and 
the  weakness  tt  his  heA'  The  oldest  Snblin 
newspiqwr  was  Saundar^  NeunieOer,  \xmn  in  1746>, 
now  stopped ;  tha  Hemhtg  Pott  waa  loatatated  in 
172eL  The  Limeriek  Chronide,  the  oldest  Irish  pco- 
Tinolal  pafier,  dates  tnm  1766.  Inland  iiiiaaiiisi  il 
70  newspt^srs  in  1843,  and  had  in  1880  about  I4a 
One  or  two  of  the  'National'  jouiuala  wge,  at 
times,  on  treason ;  and  most  of  the  Irish  pi^Mis  are 
characterised  by  an  energy  of  langusge,  uid  a 
strength  ot  political  bias,  unknown  in  the  other 
parts  of  the  United  Kinzdom.      I^  Irith  Titiue* 


Seenin^  MaU,  pabliahed  in  Dublin,  and  tlw 
Se^aa  i/em  Letttr,  are  influentjal  daily  papers. 

The  Isle  of  Man  supports  1  Conservative,  2LibeiKl, 
and  1  neutral  journal    Jersey  has  9  ionmals,  4 

rinted  in  French  and  5  in  English ;  4  are  liberal. 
Conservative,  2  Idberal-CooservaUve,  I  Independ- 
ent^ and  1  nentnd.    Onemsey  has  an  official  gasett« 
Cted  in  French,  which  is  Protestant  and  neutral, 
les  2  libsral,   1    Iiberal-C<«aervat)ve,  and   2 


□d  other  native  languages.    Hiddnjft  CbaeUt,  the 


sheet,  the  CalcaOa  OaieUe,  or  OriaUat 
Tbe  still  surviving  B«n^  S*u^mth  was  established 
in  179G>  In  the  earlier  tame*  of  Indian  newspwsra, 
thongb  there  was  no  direot  oensiKship,  ezemplsry 
pnniiSiment  was  often  inflicted  on  ue  anthora  ait 
offensive  paragraphs.  In  1794,  Hr  Ducan^  aditm' 
of  the  World,  was  banswwted  to  Europe  for  an 
infiammatcoy  addreH  to  the  army  which  appeared 


IT^WTC 


,^,. 


ia  hia  paper ;  >Dd  a  Bimilsr  remit  followed,  in  1793, 
to  aDother  editor,  who  made  wma  eerore  oburra- 
tioiui  on  tJie  offloialcondnct  of  a  baalmagufcrate.  A 
ceiiKiraliip,  establiatied  by  Lord  Wellealsy  in  1799, 
was  aboliaiied  by  tba  Marqnia  of  Haatingl  io  1816 ; 
but  a  licenoe,  revocable  at  pleasnre,  WM  required  to 
be  taken  ont  by  every  printer  of  a  newspaper.  In 
1S32,  the  Indian  preag  ooniiBted  of  S  European  and 
5  native  ionmalB.  The  lioansing  •yetem  was  done 
away  widi  by  Lord  Metcalfe's  law  of  183B,  a  step 
disapproved  of  by  the  £!aat  India  direoton,  but  waa 
again  reverted  to  on  the  occurrence  of  the  mutiny 
in  1857.  In  1S78  an  Indian  preaa  law  tantamount 
to  a  cenBorship  waa  enacted,  applicable  to  the  verna- 
cular press  only.     In  1S75  there  were  in  India  13fi 

Eng.,  270  vemacolar,  and  55  mixed  newspapers 

The  first  Australian  paper  waa  the  Sydney  OauMe, 
founded  in  1803.  Hobart  Town  hod  its  jonmal 
in  1804,  andin  1824  newspaper  began  to  multiply  in 
the  Atutralian  colooiee.    The  principal  are  now  the 

Sitney  Herald,  the  Sydney  Mail,  the  Argus  of 
elboume,  and  the  S<nUh  Auitratiati  Rt^tter.  The 
materials  for  prictiag  thia  last-named  paper  were 
carried  ont  by  tba  ontpiul  Sontii  Anatnliaa  oolon- 
iete.tbe  first  number  having  been  previously  jointed 
in  England.  A  similar  course  wa*  adopted  by  1^ 
first  Sew  Zealand  colony  in  1839  in  founding  their 
Nete  Zealand  OaielU  and  2feie  Zfolcmd  AdvaHter. 
Tahiti  haa,  since  1M4,  had  its  L'Oclanie  Franfoite. 
There  is  also  the  ^'i  Timca,  the  Figi  QtaOU,  and 
the  Ceniral  Polyneiian, 

Franee. — The  earliest  French  newspqier  is  saU 
to  have  been  established  \>j  ThSophnate  Benaudot^ 
a  physician,  in  the  b^^innuig  ol  (he  17th  oentury. 
The  tint  number  of  lua  QiaMe  qipeared  in  1631. 
In  the  following  year,  tluon^  intraett  <A  Cardinal 
BichelieQ,  he  obtained  a  loyal  privil^s  for  hia 
QtaetU;  ik  waa  oontinned  weekly  up  to  1762,  and 
then  began  to  appear  twice  in  the  week,  and  to 
eombine  advertiaemeati  with  pablio  news.  Com- 
mercial intelligence  was  added  m  1765,  and  in  1792, 
theatrioal  announcements.  In  1650  waa  started 
the  OazeUa  BtlHaque,  a  journal  in  verse,  edited  by 
the  poet  Jean  Loret,  devoted  in  a^reat  measnre  t« 
the  chroaiqiu  Kondaieute  of  Pons ;   and  in  167!^ 


down  to  1816.    The  fint , 

waa  the  Journal  de  Parit,  which  began  in  1777, 
and  waa  disoontinned  in  1819.  A  large  crop  of 
jonmal*  sprang  into  being  with  the  Bevolntion, 
organi  reapeohrely  of  Bepnblieana,  Jaoobina,  and 
Boyalista,  but  most  of  them  had  a  very  brief  exist- 
moe.  Under  the  first  Napoleon  the  fieedom  ik  the 
press  was  modi  restricted.    By  one  of  hia  earliest 

'~'' First  Consul,  all  Gie  newmapers  were 

13,  and   under  the  Empire  the 

were  allowed  to  be  little  mora 

tjian  echoes  of  the  official  ilorUlevr.     From  the 

which  attended  the  handling  of  political 


snppreaaed  ezoept  1 
tolerated  journals  w 


of  tba  aheet  with  the  '  Fenillcton,   consisting  of  a 
iketoh  or  tale  by  a  pc^olar  writer,  which  baa  ever 
I  a  cdMnetMiatii) 


fettered,  there  waa  a  large  increase  m  the 
nomber  of  newspapers.  In  1826,  there  were  127,  and 
in  1829,  307  nawspapen  published  in  Paris.  The 
July  devolution  at  first  added  etJU  further  to  their 
number;  but  the  restrictive  meaaurea  of  1834,  oon- 
siating  in  the  impoaition  of  a  stamp-doty,  and  of  an 
ebligattoD  to  find  aeoority  to  the  amount  of  24,000 
francs,  led  to  the  otJl^iae  of  a  larn  proportion  of 
the  then  exiiting  jonmala.  The  Mtmiiair,  JMbaU, 
and  Preiie  were  in  poaMMcn  of  the  gorenuiMn^ 


and  for  a  time  also  the  Chnililuthrmel,  and  ev«ry 
shade  of  pc^tical  opinion  had  its  rea^^nised  organ, 
Emile  de  Girardin'a  scheme  of  widening  the  dranla- 
tion  of  the  government  organ,  the  Preste,  by  bringing 
down  the  snbscription  price  from  80  to  40  francs, 
had  the  result  of  reducing  the  price  of  the  oppoaition 
ionnials  also.  Cheap  newsp^ien  being  thus  eatab- 
lished,  it  soon  appeared  that  with  the  olaas  among 
whom  thOT  draidated  most  widely  the  feniUeton 
was  regarded  of  mraa  importance  uian  the  political 
article,  and  it  thna  became  the  policy  of  tns  jour- 
nalists to  pay  enonnous  sums  to  the  cleverest 
novelists  of  the  dav,  in  order  to  retain  them  in  their 
service.  100,000  fnuios  paid  hy  Dr  Veron  of  the 
Coiuiituiumael  to  Eugene  Sue  ^r  his  Juif  Btrant, 
turned  out  as  profitable  a  speculation  for  the  joui^ 
nalist  OS  for  the  novelist. 

The  Revolution  of  I84S,  like  the  ravolntjons  that 
had  gone  before  it,  inve  birth  to  a  moltitode  of 
short-lived  journals.  There  were  89  different  politi- 
cal  joomala  started  into  ephemenl  existence  in  Paris 
during  the  lata  Commune,  from  March  19  to  the 
27tli  of  May  1871-  When  the  late  Dnpeior  Nap»< 
leon  was  resident  of  the  republic,  a  law  was  passed 
obliging  the  anthor  of  every  newspaper  article  to 
affix  his  name  to  it.  In  February  1852,  the  press 
laws  were  incorporated,  with  increaaed  stringency, 
into  a  Bieret  orgattique  iw  la  Prtm.  Louis  Napo- 
leon, during  the  empire,  relaxed  Uie  stringenty  a 
little.  The  ropublio  holds  newspapers  in  as  great 
bondage  aa  did  its  imperial  predecessor.  Among 
the  most  important  daily  papers  published  in  Pana 
are  the  Ripahliqae  Franfoue,  Payi,  SUcle,  Prette, 
Dibati,  Bien  PubUc,  France,  Joumai  Q^tid,  Tempt, 
L'  Uaiiert,  Charivari,  and  Figaro. 

Sdgium. — In  the  Low  Countries  an  illottrated 
war  fflzette,  called  the  NUu)e^dittghe,  waa  first  pub- 
liah^  in  1609 ;  it  waa  the  ^recunor  of  the  Qazelte 
van  Anluterpen,  which  aurvived  till  1805.  During 
the  Spanish  and  Austrian  rule,  each  town  hod  ita 
privileged  newspaper,  hnt  the  prees  was  consider' 
ality  fettered  in  the  expression  of  political  opinion. 
Under  the  French  rule,  moat  of  these  jonroals  dis- 
appeared or  sunk  into  insignificance.  The  Annalet 
P^ili^[ua  was  a  political  journal  of  considerable 
populariW  during  last  century.  Since  the  Bevolu- 
tion  of  1830,  the  press  has  been  subject  to  few 
restraints,  the  newspapera  have  been  numerous,  and 
some  few  of  them  wdl  conducted.  The  Indfpend- 
once  Beige  has  a  large  circulation,  and  exercises 
conaideiable  political  iuflaenc«h  It  is  the  [ovperty 
of  a  company  of  bankers,  and  is  conducted  by  a 
EVenclunan  of  talent  and  liberal  sentiments.  The 
MonUeur  Edge  was  instituted  aa  the  official  organ 
of  the  ministry  in  1830.  Le  Kord,  a  Russian  organ 
published  in  Bruaaels,  ia  conducted  with  great  ability. 
A  large  circulation  is  enjoyed  by  the  Joumal  d» 
BriaMea,  the  Bmantipatioa,  and  the  EltMe  Edge— 
all  papers  in  the  int^-eat  of  the  parti  prttrt,  and 
supplied  with  correspondence  from  Bome.  The 
Echo  de  BruxeHet  and  the  Joumat  de  Selgique  are 
independent  papers.  The  PrSairteai-  ^Anvere,  and 
the  BiieaiU  of  Aritwerp,  have  a  good  circulation — the 
latter  is  at  once  ultramontane  and  ultra-democratic 

Holland.— The  earlier  newspapeia  of  Holland 
w««  in  acane  reapaot^  particularly  in  the  accuroqr 
td  their  information,  ui  odvukce  of  those  of  other 
countries,  but  gave  tar  more  jttominence  to  commer. 
cial  than  to  political  intell^enca  They  all  bora 
the  Dame  of  Couratit  appen£d  to  the  name  of  the 
town  whera  they  wera  published.  Though  subject 
to  no  oenMinfaip  nnce  UiS,  it  was  not  tiU  1830 
that  Uii^  bsgan  to  ocmment  on  political  occur- 
TOUMi.  At  preamt  tbe  principal  Dutch  journals 
are  the  AUgamtne  HandeUtiad  of  Amsterdam,  and 
jJMitfiTrfm-  OomoMt;  the  Sariemtehe  Couraia;  and 


A.<S2g!t 


NEVBPAFEE. 


the  Journal  d«  ia  Saye,  De  NederkmdtAt  Sloompoit, 
•ud  Slaait  Ceurani — published  at  the  Hune. 

Saiaerbutd. — SvitserlMid  bein^  a  coi^ederation 
of  (tatei,  each  with  ita  own  institutioDB,  the  Swim 
newspaper!  have  a  Teiy  local  character ;  but  tiley 
are  numerooa,  and  some  of  them  have  of  late  yeara 
greatlj'  improved  in  oharacter.  The  Staits  Timet, 
publiBhed  in  Geneva,  and  printed  in  both  French  and 
£n[;liib,  is  now  freqnentlj  quoted  in  all  countries. 

Otrmany. — Thoagh  in  Oermanjr  the  Selationai, 
above  alluded  to,  were  In  some  >ort  the  precunwn 
o[  newipapen,  yet  no  wrial  newspaper,  properly  so 
called,  aeenii  to  have  existed  tiU  l6l&     Frankfurt 


earliest  Lcdpag  newspaper  was  inatitated  in 

The  first  newspaper  with  a  staff  of  foreiRn  correB- 
pondents  was  the  ffamburgiefie  Correspotident ;  bnt 
no  German  newsnaper  can  be  said  to  have  had  any 
political  weight  tiU  the  institution  of  the  AO.ganam 
Zeitang,  founded  by  Cotta  in  IT98,  now  published 
at  Munich,  which  still  takes  rank  as  the  tiivt 
paper  in  Uermiuiy.  During  French  ascendancy,  the 
German  paners  were  little  more  than  echoes  '  "* 
Parisian ;  but  a  number  of  journals  of  a 
national  character  sprune  np  dnring  the  war  of 
liberation.  The  abuse  of  the  liberty  of  the  preas 
i^ter  1S30,  led  to  the  imposition  by  the  diet  of 
'  '  ' '  *         lomewliat   severe  character  on 


jnpera,  the  Socialist  Law  of  1878  is  a  severe  restric- 
tion of  the  liberty  of  the  press.  Among  the  principal 
Berlin  daily  papers  are  the  VoitiKht  ZtOung,  the 
Jforddmiteke  AUgemeine  Zeitung  (eemi-otficial),  the 
Nme  Prewatdie  Zeitung  (usually  known  as  the 
Krrta  Zeiiang),  Pott,  National-ZeUitng,  and  f^oits- 
zeiiung.  Many  of  the  papers  Tmbliijied  ii 
vaTJnii.  rjonnon  ttatam  ..-..  influential  journals. 


taken  ol  the  advance  in  the  newspapeE 
Oemany.  The  most  important  of  tnei 
Wiener  Zeiiung,  with  its  evening  reprint,  the 
Wittier  Abendpott,  not  insigniiloant  either  in  a 
literary  or  political  point  of  view,  and  the  Jfev^ 
Frrit  PTe*". 

Italy.— "Vie  have  mentioned  Uie  early  No^at 
Striae  or  Oszettes  of  Venice.  The  news-sheets 
which  followed  them  were  in  disfavour  witi  the  see 
of  Borne ;  and  a  memorable  boU  denouncing  them 
was  issued  by  Gregory  XIIL  Up  to  1847,  the 
newspapers  of  Italy  were  small,  pobtically  insigni- 
ficant, and  subject  to  a  strict  censoiship.  With  the 
accession  of  Pope  Pius  IX.,  a  flood  of  political 
journals  nude  their  appearance,  one  or  two  of  which 
only  were  conducted  with  any  approach  to  talent, 
and  few  lasted  above  a  year.  In  the  Sardinian 
dominions  tilers  continued  to  be  no  fewer  than  45 
political  papers  published  in  1852,  41  of  which 
■  ,t^  in  It  •  -     ■    -       -       "-    - 


were  pnnte< 


Italian  and  4  in  Fnnch.    Of  tiist 


removal 

other  parts  of  the  Kingdom  ot  Italy  has  started  into 
life  a  number  of  newspapers.  Seventera  political 
and  ten  partially  political  papers  are  now  published 
in  the  dominioos  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  besides  31 
periodicab,  many  of  which  answer  more  or  less  to 
our  iA<Sia  at  a  newspaper.  Few  of  these  newspaper* 
are  as  yet  of  much  promise.  The  leaders  ore  poor, 
no  great  social  or  commercial  questions  are  die. 
cussed,  and  each  journal  is  the  mere  advocate  of 

of  them,  on 
which  may 
EVench  papera. 


rPflaUa  is  the  ministerial  organ,  and  L'llaUt,  pub- 
lished in  France,  is  looked  upon  as  the  organ 
of  the  department  of  Foreign  Affairs.  Homoroua 
newspapers,  after  the  model  of  our  PmeA,  are 
abundant.  The  Voce  delta  Verita  i*  the  paper 
which  advocates  the  cause  of  the  pope.  La  lAberfa 
and  U  FimfuUa  are  pobliahed  in  Rome  ;  Geno* 
issues  its  Carriire  Memantik;  Milan,  La  Perte- 
verataa  ;  and  Naples,  the  Pungoh  and  Patria. 

Spain — Sheets  called  ReladoTK*,  giving  accoant* 
of  important  occurrences,  used  to  appear  in  Spain 
at  irregular  intervals  in  the  17th  c,  occaeionaUy'  in 
the  form  of  romances ;  but  no  Spanieh  newspaper, 
properly  so  colled,  existed  till  last  cenduy,  and  fifty 
years  ago  Madrid  possessed  but  one  joumaL  Tha 
first  approach  to  political  journalism  followed  in 
the  wake  of  the  Peninsular  War  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Cortes.  Tha  groes  licence  with  which 
many  of  the  then  established  papers  were  conducted, 
led,  in  1824,  to  the  suppression  of  all  except  tha 
Diario  and  Qofuta  of  Madrid,  the  Qa(eta  de  Bagtma, 
and  a  few  which  were  purely  commercial  or  scien- 
tific. At  present,  aboat  40  journals  are  published 
in  Madrid,  pohtically  and  in  every  other  reopect 
very  unimportant ;  the  most  read  is  the  Eipaiia. 
The  press  of  Fortiigal  is  as  insignificant  aa  that 
of  Spain :  the  official  organ  ia  the  Diario  do 
QoverTio. 

Smden  and  ATonoijE.— The  eatiieat  Swedish  news- 
paper seems  to  have  been  tiie  OrdinarU  Pait 
Tidende,  established  in  1643,  and  continoed  till 
1680.    It  was  followed  by  tha  Sdaliimet  CuriotiB  in 


the  political  parties.  Perhaps  the  beat 
e  whole,  are  /( ih'riMo  and  L'OpHuont, 


existed  in  Sweden  in  the  second  half  of  last  coturri 
but  poUtically  the  newspaper  press  cannot  be  said 
to  have  had  any  infiuence  untd  the  establishment 
of  the  Argaa  b^  Johanasen  in  1620.  ¥ar  a  number 
of  years  the  prmcipal  joomals  of  Sweden  were  the 
FUdemedatuiel,  the  organ  of  the  royalists,  and  Oie 
A/Umhtadtt.  that  of  the  refonners.  The  latter,  on 
King  Oscar  s  acceasion,  ceased  to  be  an  oppcaitian 
jonroaL  The  official  paper  is  Uie  Po»t  odt  Jnrtte 
TidniagaT.  Every  provincial  town  has  now  ita 
journal,  and  there  are  about  114  newspapers  in  all 
published  in  Sweden.  Of  the  Norwegian  p^>erB, 
the  oldest  is  the  Ckriatieaia  IrUeUigenUaaiia;  founded 
in  1703;  Dea  Consiiiuliotielie  is  the  government 
joomal,  and  Den  MorgejibCad  the  organ  of  the 
oppcailion. 

I)enjnaTk. — In  Denmark  jonmaliam  is  still  more 
recent.  Up  to  1S30  only  two  newspapers  were 
published  in  Copenhagen,  both  ent^y  nude  np  of 
extracts  from  foreign  joomals.  Since  1834,  there 
boa  been  an  improvement  in  the  chai«cteT,  and 
increase  in  the  number  of  the  Danish  joumals. 
They  numbered  36  in  1849.  The  oldest  newspaper 
now  existing  in  Denmark  is  the  semi-ministeri^ 
Berlingike  Tidtitde,  founded  in  1749.  Tha  Fddn- 
landtl  is  the  journal  of  the  Scandinavian  popular 
party.  _ 

PvMia. — The  earliest  newspapera  in  Roasia  wera 
published  coder  the  peis<aial  snrveillaDce  of  Peter 
the  Great,  first  in  Moscow  and  afterwards  in  Peten- 
bni^,  to  report  the  progress  of  the  war  with  Sweden. 
Pohtical  journalism,  ^perly  so  called,  hat,  however, 
never  flourished  in  Russia,  and  has,  in  fact,  oalj 
been  allowed  in  important  political  criaes — a*  the 
French  invasion  of  1812,  the  Polish  insurrection  el 
1830,  and  recently  during  the  Crimean  War,  when 
the  journalists  were  ^owed  to  exercise  their 
ingenuity  in  defending  tiia  gorenment  policy.  The 
largest  circulation  was  at  that  time  attained  by  the 
Sjfwemaja  Plteh'eta,  at '  Northern  Bee,'  which  had 
itafeuilleton.  GeneriUJy  speaking,  the  Bnssiannewa- 
papen  occupy  themselves  with  aoentifio  and  literary 


X^oogtc" 


ol  Om  oonrt,  uid  hu  conaderable  oiiCDlation  out  of 

Turkeg. — Tha  fint  newspaper  in  Tnikqr  wai 
tonnded,  in  1795.  by  M.  Vermmhac,  anToy-extra- 
(ndinary  of  the  French  goTemment  to  tha  conrt 
of  SelJm  HL,  -and  printed  in  FreacH  lA  Pem.  A 
Franohman  i^  tha  name  of  Blaeqne  eitabliBked  at 
Smjnma,  in  1826,  the  Speciaieur  de  L'Orient,  after- 
wards the  Couirier  dt  Smyrne,  which  had  oonaidar- 
■Ua  political  influence  doiinz  the  Qreek  war.  The 
aame  M.  Blacqna  afterwaida  edited  the  oflSoitd 
Jonmal  of  the  c'oTta,  called  the  Moniteur  OUomm, 
which  haa,  eioce  183!!,  been  reprinted  in  Turkish 
under  the  name  of  the  Ta^nii  Fo^dL  The 
Taqidmi  woa  till  lately  a  very  badly  printed  sheet, 
but  it  has  much  improTed,  and  now  issues  weekly 
instead  of  monthly,  Bometimee  containing  verv 
fur  litenux  ^'^^  jmlilical  artidee.  Bat  the 
lar  is  the  DjfTidd  Ea 
r  AJEred  Churchill,  an  Eng- 
cey.  It  embraces  a  greal 
iety  of  tnatter,  a  oonrt  gazette,  official  appoint- 
menta,  home  and  foretim  news,  adTertisements, 
of  itCKik^  and  a  feoSleton.  There  aif,  besid 
Constamtmopla  two  new  and  popular  papen,  called 
tha  Ttrgmnan  Ahvxd,  or  'Interpreter  of  Events,' 
published  three  times  a  week,  and  the  Taa  veeH 
^ijbiar,  or  'Mirror  of  ThoQ^^bts^'  published  twice  a 
ireek.  The  latter  has  a  scientific  and  literary  re- 
pute. The  Turkish  ^pras  have  no  leading  articles, 
and  from  the  eonstitntion  of  political  society  in 
Turkey,  there  oan  be  no  avowed  opposition  to 
the  poli<^;(rf  Uie  noveriJinent.  The  CoarrUr  de 
GoMtaiUiaopk,  in  fWch,  ii  one  of  the  principal 
journals  of  tha  o^tal ;  here  appear  also  the  Xeixint 

pubh^ed  in  varjoiw  parta  of  tha  empire. 


ir  utetary  and  political  ai .    ._.   _.  . . . 

iportaat  Turktah  paper  is  the  DjfTidd  EavadU, 
tonoded  in  1843  by  fclr  Alfred  Churchill,  an  Eng- 
lishman bom  in   Turkey.      It  embraces    a    great 


pabluned  m  lireeoe  was  tne  neaimm  satpigx, 
toonded  in  1824,  ud  bood  followed  t^  tlie  Helmita 
Chrtmika  and  HMlnika*  Tij^raphaa  m  Miasolonshi, 
tiia  PMm  tou  NomoK  at  mrdn^  the  ^pUmende* 
Athmaikai  at  Athans,  and  l£e  official  Cfaiikt  epU- 
mtrulit  SdladoM  published  at  Kaaplia,  with  its 
(mponent  the  ApoBSa,  which  aftarwaids  became  the 
AuOna,  Most  of  titeee  papen  diaappaaied  in  1833 
on  the  lyrtem  of  snretdee  Deing  introdnoed.  The 
BUiT  waa  established  as  the  goTemmeut  orgao  in 
1839.  Upwards  of  eighty  newspqieia  aie  now  pub- 
lished in  Greeoe,  the  largest  number  of  them  in 
Athens.  Of  these  several  af^iear  in  French,  Italian, 
and  T'^g'"^  Tha  leading  political  journal  of 
Athens  is  the  semi-montUy  Speolauur  SOritnl; 
but  gemerally  speaking,  the  Greek  papers  make  no 


paper  was  Publici  Oeaimncei,  1690  ;  the  neit  the 
j}o«toii  SeuuletUr,  foonded  in  1T04,  insignificant  in 
size,  and  conducted  by  Campbell,  a  pOBtmoater.  A 
rival  appeared,  ;in  1719,  in  the  Boiion  GaltiU, 
'  publiatod  by  authority.'  The  BotUm  NeatttUrr, 
however,  throve  in  spite  of  oppoaition.  With  the 
name  changed  to  the  Masiac/mtdis  OaxdU  ixad 
Botlon  JfeiedtUer,  it  waa  the  support  of  the  British 
rale  i^i^iwt  the  denre  for  independenoe,  aikd  ceaaed 
to  appear  when  tha  British  tnxm  evacuated  Boston. 
™   *-<?-     r.    ....   „ r^^,:.^..  .„  ij2i_ 

1  after- 


2fea  Bni^Ttd  Ctmntnt,  «rtablisbed  in  1721, 
was  at  tint  printed  by  James  Franklin,  and 
wuds  edited  liy  hia  brother  tiie  fai 


a  for  a  long 
,   .  .*%!  in  a 

Wpeared  Joba  Adams's  'Lettos  of  Novanglns.' 
The  AfoMaduutUa  Spy  was  another  paper  of  note 
on  the  revolutionary  aide.  It  was  aftwwarda 
removed  from  Boston  to  Woroeeter,  aud  still  appears 
as  the  WorcaUr  Spy.  At  Uio  revolution,  the  New 
England  colonies  poaseeeed  14  newspapers;  Penn- 
sylvania, 9;  New  York,  4;  and  the  middle  and 
MUthem  oolonie^  10.  All  save  the  semi-wedcly 
.>4(lMreiasr  of  Phuadelphia  wme  pnbliahed  iieAls. 
Hie  development  of  uie  newspaper  trade  haa  kcnot 
pace  with  the  advancingprospentyoftheooimtiy,  £a 
1800,  the  nuoiber  of  newspapen  bad  inoieaaed  to  200, 
of  which  several  were  daily  papers.  In  1810,  there 
were  3S9,  tnotuding  27  daily  sheela.  In  1828,  SG2 
papers  appeared ;  in  1850,  no  leas  than  2620 ;  while 
m  1870  filers  were  5871  newspapers,  with  a  oircola- 
tion  of  20,642,476,  and  a  yearly  issue  of  l,G08,2fia 
In  1874,  the  number  of  weekly  papers  had  reaohed 
6644,  gome  of  the  New  York  weeklies  have  an 
cdroiilation,the  Xa^wr  havingoccasionally 
sent  out  opwatds  of  400,000  oopiea.  The  Germans 
publish  320  pH)eni  in  their  own  t(mgue ;  tlie  F>iTnih, 
"' ;  tha  Scandinavians^  20  ;  Spaniards,  2S ;  Italians, 
,  Welsh,  6  i  Bahenuan*,  10 ;  Poles,  2 ;  PortoguMt^ 
2 ;  while tbm ia a  Chinieoe newqHqKTpnbliahed at 
San  Fnndsoo,  and  a  Cherdcee  one  at  Tahlequah  in 
the  Indian  Territory.    In  1880,  abont  ll,Ow  peri- 

"*■"-""   "^'- »ed  annual  aggrt^te  mrou- 

oopiei;  wen  issued  in  the 
United  States  ;  some  980  of  these  were  issoed  daily. 
Among  the  leading  nawspapera  of  New  York,  tha 


The  principal  religious  papers  published  in  New 
Yoric  are  tha  Obterver  hiiA  SvaaqeUtt,  orgaai  of  ttie 
Presbyterians  ;  Indtpendait  and  CAHs&n  Union, 
of  tha  Cougregationaliata ;  the  Ohwrdatum  ia  "B^ 
copal ;  the  Chrittkm  Advoeate,  Methodist ;  and  the 
.^ainuna*,  Baptist  The  Unitarians  are  rejo^eented 
by  the  LibenU  Chritlian ;  the  Cathdica  hy  the 
Tahiti;  and  the  Swedeoborgiana  aud  Jews  have 
also  thair  papers. 

All  the  other  numeioiu  journals  of  the  Aimwin^Ti 
States  arc^  oompwed  wiui  those  of  New  YoA, 
accounted  provinoiaL  but  many  are,  nererthelus, 
vigorously  oonduoted.  Each  couuty,  oompriaing, 
on  an  average,  300  square  miles,  haa  generally  two 
or  three  papers — one  neing  tepnblican,  another  de- 
mocratic, uid  if  there  is  a  t^ird,  it  is  probably 
the  organ  of  some  religious  or  c4her  sack     The 

C inter  i^  in  most  oases,  tha  editor,  and  the  villass 
wyer  supplies  leaders  seasoned  frequently  wim 
peraonal  actacka.  Some  of  them  have  been  Bneceea- 
folly  started  with  no  larger  a  cafutal  than  £100  of 
botrowed  money. 

There  is  an  immense  ooUeotion  of  newspapers  in 
the  British  Museum,  which  belonged  in  nirt  to  the 
library  of  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  in  port  to  that  of  Dr 
Chatle!  Bumey.  Sea  Andrews's  Hillary  of  BrUiA 
/ouTTiaJiimi  (London,  1869).  Grant's  TA*  if noipa^ 
Pra» :  it»  Origin,  Prograi,  omf  Pretenf  Condition 
(London,  1871). 

NEWT,  or  £PI  (TriUm),  a  genua  of  batnohiana 
of  tha  family  SaJdniondruia,  more  agnatic  in  their 
habits  than  the  salamander,  to  which,  in  form  and 
characten,  they  ore  very  similar,  having  an  elon- 
nted  body  and  tail,  and  four  small  weak  limbs. 
The  tail  is  vertically  comwested,  and  a  crest  is 
often  deveh»ied  on  the  back  and  ti^  but  the  crest 
is  chataotenstio  of  the  malea  in  the  breeding  season, 
and  tiie  tail  beoomea  ronnded  when  the  animala 
Iwra  i^M  «»ter,  aa  t^ey  (£tm  do,  particDls^  in 


_L.^bgi 


HBWT— NEWTON. 


the  lattar  put  of  ■ 
kloo^  witi  oOua  ft  ... 

on  aiiciiinrtuic««,  h»Ta  CKued  no  little 
tion  ol  q>ecifio  uamei.  Hie  moit  •bondknt  Britiili 
apwnei  !•  the  Couhui  N.,  or  Smooik  N.  (31  {nmo 
talu*,  Li4totriio»  pvmalaMu,  or  i^iipAwMt  jwwtaftwl, 
wiiion  ii  {rom  « to  4  nuibe*  long  ibravniih  gtar 
kbora,  y«llowuh  MnaBth,  apotted  with  blook,  witL 
a  aoflvimootli  ikin,  MidtwobMidB  of  pona  on  the 
hMd;  aweU-kiKnniinhabitaiktofrtafftiHitpocJaMid 
ditoh«i,  (dtan  found  also  under  itonM  and  in  aHux 
imp  nUuJdooM.  The  Warit  N.  iT.  ptAulru,  at 
eriMnhu),  «lao  pcet^  oommoi^  ia  8  (^  6  iaohea  in 
louth,  bUekith  brom  above  witJi  tonnd  apota  ol 
»  (Co^MT  tint,  bright  louige  w  oranse-fellow  with 
Uaok  apota  on  wa  under  jpaita,  the  atdea  dotted 
with  mita,  and  the  tul  often  exhibiting  m  white 
' — -*    Om  akin  toiuh  or  warty,  and  with  manv 

The  donal  anil  widal  oiata  of  the  Wait^  N. 

[laiate;  tboae  cf  tba  Common  N.  an  muted. 


Many  other  gMwifla  ooonr  in  other  parte  of  the 
worid.  They  all  lead  on  animal  food,  of  whioh 
tadpolea  and  aqnatdo  inaeota  lonn  the  chief  pcotioikB. 
Th^  dapoaib  uuir  asaa  <m  the  UaTta  ti  aqoatio 
planta,  eaoh  egRamamidr,  twiatins  or  folding  the  leaf 

with  thnr  fmi  eo  aa  to  txmo*tX  the '■■-'■  '- 

Borronnded  bjr  a  vlaooaa  enbatanoe,  I 
retained  in  thia  foroL  Thetaranafoi 
are  notioed,  and  illoatratlona  giren,  in 
BAtaaOHU.  They.  Tery  frequently  ohaoge  their 
akin.  Tbey  poaiiea,  in  an  extraordinary  dtiree^  the 
poww  of  lejuodnoiiig  loat  membeia — a  limb,  a  tul, 
eren  an  eye— in  every  raapeot  perfsoi  SpalUniani, 
who  made  many  obaerrntfooe  on  thia  iobjecrt,  found 
that  the  aame  member  ooold  be  rtp«dnoed  a  num- 
ber of  tdmea  aaeoBaalvdr.  Newta  are  alao  capable 
of  aorriving,  althon^  long  frozen  np  in  ioe,  and 
return  to  activity  when  a  tiiaw  takee  i^ace.  A 
strong  and  ahnoat  oniTetaal  popnlur  pre(n£ce  exists 
againat  them  aa  most  noxioua  snimua,  although 
they  are  not  in  the  slightest  degree  venomoiu. 
They  have  reoenth,  however,  begun  to  be  more 
favonrably  regarded  in  oonsequence  of  the  frequency 
of  aqnaria,  at  Which  they  are  interesting  inmatea. 
— It  la  a  onrioni  fact  that  linuena,  oontran  to  hia 
tua^  Hiif<^ininfcting  penetratdon,  oonfbnnded  newts 
wHh  tifiHi,  which  Uiey  resemble  merely  in  form, 
diSuing  widely  in  tlie  moet  important  characten. 
nkat  they  are  often  confounded  Dy  the  anadentiflo 
ia  not  vonderfnL 

KEWTOV,  Snt  Isaac,  the  most  remarkaUo 
mathematiaian  and  natural  philoeopber  of  hia  own  or 
perhapa  of  anj^  other  age,  waa  bom  at  Woolathoipe,  in 
linoMnahire,  in  the  year  1642.  That  yeej*,  remark> 
able  in  Eoglith  biifany  for  the  breaking  out  of  the 
dvil  war  between  Charlea  L  and  the  inrliamentl  ia 
doubly  remarkable  in  the  history  id  science  by  the 
birth  of  N.  and  the  death  of  Ostileo.  The  oiroam- 
atanoea  witii  which  the  pursuit  of  truth,  in  adentific 
matter!,  was  at  thia  time  aarraanded  in  the  reapeo- 
tive  coontriea  of  theae  great  philosophers,  were  not 
more  different  than  the  duracters  of  the  pbiloaoplisis 
themselvea.  Galileo  died  a  priaonar,  noder  the 
curveillaooe  of  the  loquiaition,  'for  thinking,  in 
astronomy,'  aa  Milton  taya,  '  otherwise  than  the 
Fnuiciscon  and  Dominican  licensers  thought.' 
In  England,  it  had  become  the  pmetioe,  and 
•con  boiuune  the  fashion,  throngh  the  infloenoe  of 
Bacon  and  Descartes,  to  disciud  altogether  the 
dictate*  of  auOiority  in  matters  of  acienee.  The 
dispositioni  of  the  two  phUoaophers  were  happily 
•nited  to  the  mtcstions  in  which  they  Oius 
found  themselves.  Galileo's  was  a  mind  whose 
strength  and  determination  gnw  by  the  opposition 
it  Gncountered.  The  disposition  of  N.,  on  the  other 
hand,  diffident  of  the  valne  and  intenst  of  hia  own 


labour^  and  iTiwnV^wg  from  the  enoounter  of  av^^ 
Boiuitifia  controvet^,  might  have  allowod  hia  moat 

it  not  been  for  the  constant  and  urgent  soHatatuB 
of  hia  fitienda  that  they  ahould  he  paiidiahed  to  tKi^ 
world. 

N.  received  hia  earl^  edncatioa  at  tha  nmBoar 
achool  of  Qrautham,  m  the  neighbonriiooa  of  him 
home,  at  Woolsthorpe.  On  tiie  «th  of  June  1G61. 
he  left  hcnne  tot  Combrida^  where  he  waa  admitted 
aa  anbaiaar  at  Trinity  College.  On  the  Sth  (d  Jnly 
foUowii^  he  matancolatad  aa  aiaw  of  the  aame 
college.  He  imntadiately  wpUed  himaeU  to  the 
iwfc^:^anrtfctifta.i  studio  of  tuo  luaoe,  and  within  a  ▼^T 
few  yean  mast  hava  not  oi^nude  binUalf  maaber 
of  most  of  the  worka  of  any  value  on  auoh  aubjecta 
then  eziatinA  but  had  also  begun  to  make  ■ft— ^ 
pKuneaa  iatM  methoda  for  ex&iding  the  atgeaoeb 
In  uo  year  1660^  he  committed  to  wining  ^^  finat 
fluiiQna  i  and  it  '       ■■-'■■    ■■ 


year,  the  fall  of  an  apid^  aa  he  aat  in  hia  garden  «t 
Woolathorp^  anggMted  tiie  moat  "tyi^"™*  «E  hia 
aubaequent  diaooveriea— the  law  of  univenal  gravit*- 
tion.  Onhia  flrst  attempt  however,  by  meana  of  tba 
law  ao  eoggested  to  hia  mind,  to  enlain  tha  luaar 
and  planetary  motions,  be  employed  an  eatimata 
then  m  oaa  of  tba  radiua  of  tlw  earU^  lAioh  vraa 
ao  aiMiMoaa  aa  to  produoe  a  diaorepaw?  batw«ea 
the  leal  force  of  gravity  and  that  required  bw 


theory  to  endain  the  n: 

'  t  %irea  Ifrl 

d  the  bypothena  for  other  stndiea    IStesa 
other  pnisuita  to  wlucb  ha  thua  betook  '■""'»'*i 


of  11^^  and  dte  oonatnio^on  of  taUaoopea.  By 
a  vane^  <tf  ingenions  and  interesting  a^arimente 
upcn  sunlight  refracted  tbroiu^  a  pnan  in  a 
datkened  apartment,  Ite  waa  lea  to  tha  ooachiaioD 
thatraya  ot  li^  which  difler  in  oolonr.  differ  alao 
in  refrangibili^.  Thia  disoove^  enahled  lum  to 
txpUn  an  imperfeeticai  of  the  teJMOOpe,  which  had 
not  tin  then  been  aoooantad  for.  The  indiatiaot. 
nsaa  ct  the  imwe  formed  by  the  lA^eet-^aM  waa 
not  neoesiarily  mie  to  any  imperf  eotioa  oi  ila  fonn, 
but  to  the  feet  of  the  difiteant  oolcued  f^n  ot  li{^ 
bans  brought  to  a  focus  at  diSsrenl  diatMaea  ^Ba 
oonoluded  lightly  that  it  waa  impeanbla  for  an 
objeet-glaaa  oonautingof  a  atn^baa  topndnoe  a 
diatinof  imue.  He  went  fnrUwr,  and  too  haatilr 
eonoluding  irom  a  mt^  azpenmen^  ttat  tba 
diapernve  power  of  different  anbataaaaa  waa  pro- 
pcMiooal  to  thsii  refractive  power,  tw  pnoonnoad 
It  impOBuble  to  [oodnoe  a  pcrieel  rn^T  I7  a  otm- 
binaoon  of  lensaa.  Ihis  minnlinjisi  ajnna  provad 
etconeona  by  the  djacovery  tA  the  otdiromatia 
taleaoope  by  Mr  Cheater  Mora  HoU,  of  More  Hall,  in 
Eksez,  about  1729,  and  afterwarda,  iadepandmtly, 
by  Mr  DoUond  in  IT&l— tamed  H.'e  attantiw  to 
the  conatniction  of  refleoting  hdesoimaa  j  and  the 
form  devised  by  him  ia  tha  one  wbidi,  at  latur 
periods,  TMohed  snob  perfection  in  Um  hand*  of 
Sir  William  Herachel  and  Lord  Roase. 

It  waa  on  the  11th  January  1«71  Oat  N.  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  B<iyal  Socdety,  havBig 
become  known  to  that  body  firam  hia  lefleotinff 
teleaoopea  At  what  period  ha  resamad  bis  oaf^ 
ouhitionB  aboat  gravitation,  amploying  the  mars 
correct  measiire  of  the  earth  ODtauiea  1^  Fioard 
in  IQTO,  does  sot  clearly  appear;  but  it  waa  in 
'^1   vear  1SS4  that   it  became  known  to   Halley 

tt  he  waa  in  posaeasion  ot  the  whole  tbaoiy  and 
demonstratioil.     It  waa  on  tha  urgent  solicita- 


wGuu^Il 


NEWTOH— NEWTON'S  HING3. 


mm  «ftennrda  mora  otniipletdy 
tllifold«d  ilk  the  great  «e(k  entitlad  Pkilotapiiia 
Jfabtraiii  Prineipia  MaOtemntka,  vbiab  wh  finaUy 
pobliihed  About  iwHaHi^wnff"  1667« 

GOiortlv  befoM  tlie  PriKOipia  wu  given  to  Uie 
poblit^  a.  had  been  MUed  to  take  an  *ctiTa  ^ut 
la  defendiju  the  rif  hti  of  Uie  oiuTeniW  lUEMiut 
tiie  illegil  enaroMhaenti  ol  Jsmet  tL    The  toa- 


jmemei . , 

n  whidi  be  nt  fnnn  Jtiaurj  1689  to  ita  diBolntiM 
IB  lesa  In  16S6,  lie  me  Appointed  Wwden  of  the 
Wat,  and  wm  nfterwardo  promoted  to  the  office  erf 
Muitcr  of  tbe  Mint  in  16nt  >°  o^^  whioh  he  held 
till  the  end  of  hi*  life.  Ma  eguB  took  a  leeA  in 
Iperliemen^  in  the  je»t  1701,  h  the  leproiGPtrtiTe 
<if  hit  wnigiwity.  Thm  eiuAged  in  the  pnblie 
ywfirt^  ho  had  utile  t*""*  le^  for  nure  aoientiflo 
araite  whioh  be  alway  held  of  eeoowlaiy 


importaDoe  to  the  poUio  dntie*  in  iriuob  he 
engaged.  In  tlie  interral  of  pnblio  dnty,  howerer, 
N.  ahawed  that  he  (till  retained  the  eeiertiflo  poirer 
by  vhiob  bia  gnat  diaooveriea  had  been  made, 
3iua  waa  ahewn  in  hia  aohitini  of  two  celebrated 
pnblana  propoaed,  in  Jnne  1696,b7JohnBerBODilli, 
aa  a  challange  to  the  *w*tfiMi***i'waifca  ^f  £hirope<  A 
^^■l^r  ^n^jwna  t^t^)  feat  IB  noordad  of  bim  ao  late 
aa  1716,  in  aelTing  a  pndilani  pnmiaed  by  Leibnit^ 
for  the  porpaae,  aa  ba  azpreaaed  t^  of  feeling  the 

rie  of  the  Skidiah  an^yata.   When  in  parliament^ 
mmi,ia.aumaAS    Vha   pntitin    enDOUagemeUt    (A    ttlO 

invention  of  a  method  tor  deteoninin^^tba  limgitade 
—-the  firat  nward  in  oonaeqaenea  being  gained  t^ 
John  Harriaon  for  bia  clinnuoneter.  He  waa  Fi«n< 
dent  of  the  Bojal  Society  from  1703  tiU  bia  death, 
a  period  of  ttran^-flre  yean,  being  eaoh  year  re- 
elected. In  tiiia  poiitioii,  and  enjoying  the  oonfl- 
denoa  at  Aiuoo  Geoi^  oE  Deraiaric,  ha  had  mnoh 
in  hi*  power  towaida  tha  advaBoement  <d  aoenoe; 
and  «na  of  hia  moat  important  woA*  dniing 
thia  time  mM  the  anperintoadanoo  of  the  publica- 
tion of  FLunataed'a  Oret$tmA  OSanottima— a  taak, 
bowerar,  not  «a«am].ii.tni^  witbont  mndi  oontM- 
reriy  and  aema  luneniaaa  between  bimaelf  and 
that  aatroncner.  The  Dontroraiy  between  N.  and 
Lubnit^  aa  to  priori^  of  diaoovory  ol  ths  differential 
odknlitat  or  the  method  of  iu^aoat,  waa  laiied 
mtbw  tbiDDgh  the  partiMuhip  at  jaahnia  frieoda, 
than  thnn^  tha  anxie^  id  the  philnaorhwra  them- 
aalTea,iriiower«^  however,  induced  to  entw  into  ami 
carry  on  the  diapnte  with  wana  dcgi«e  of  bittemeM 
and  mntnal  recriminatioii.  The  Terdwt  of  the 
impartdsl  hiatorian  of  aeienoa  muat  be^  that  the 
aAB^ods  wwe  invented  quite  indqwndwitly,  and 
that,  altlunuh  N.  waa  the  firat  inventor,  a  jjreater 
debt  ia  owing  by  bdor  auajyata  to  iMboiti^  — 
aooount  ef  &o  anperior  fambtjr  and  oompleten 


anperior  fambtjr 
ti  hia  method.  The  detail*  of  l^cee  oontroreniei, 
with  all  othw  information  of  the  life  of  thia  phil- 
eaopher,  will  be  found  admirably  aoUeated  in  the 
life  by  ^  D.  Brawater,  who  writca  with  not  only 
an  intimate  aoquaintanoe  with  N.'a  work*,  but  in 
Uie  DMaaanon  of  all  the  matenal*  oollected  in  the 
han£  of  hia  family.  N.  died  mi  BOth  Mani  1727, 
■nd  hia  remaina  reoeiTed  a  leatlng-plaae  in  Weab- 
minattt  Abbey,  whera  a  mcmumeot  waa  ereoted 
to  bia  memccy  in  1731.  A  magnifioent  full-lenf;th 
ttatoe  of  tha  philoaopher,  exeonted  by  BonbiUiac, 
WW  ereoted  in  1765  in  tha  antechapal  o!  Trinity 
College,  Gambridoe.  Tbia  work  waa  aaaiatad  bj  a 
eaat  S  the  faoa  taken  after  death,  whioh  ia  pcaaemd 
U  the  nnivtraty  lUnry  at  Cambridge^  In  1699, 
N.  had  beta  ueotad  a  londgn  aaaomate  of  tha 
Aoademy  of  Soiiuoea,  and  in  1703,  he  teoeived  the 
iKHioar  of  kni^tbood  bom  Qneen  Anncb  Among 
the  beat  oditiona  of  N.'a  pindpal  wm^  are  the 


,.  qnalto  edition  of  the  PriacMHla,  publi^ied  at 
CaBihii^ial71& 

NKWTOK,  Thouas,  an  £b^iih  i«elata  of  tha 
18tb  0.,  waa  bom  at  lichSel^  January  1,  1704 
He  waa  educated  at  Westminitw  School,  and  after- 
warda  at  Trini^  College,  Oamt»idge,  where  ba  took 
tiie  ^^ee  ti  M.A.  in  ITSOi  in  whioh  year  alao  he 


and  died  14th  of  Pebmary  1782.  Without  any 
lemaikable  merit,  N.  baa,  one  cannot  well  aay  how, 
ancoeeded  in  obtaining  a  place  in  littnuy  hiatwy. 
Hia  two  prodootiona,  whoae  fortunea  have  aarpaaaed 
their  deeerti,  are  an  edition  ol  Mttion'i  Paradltt 
Lott  (2  vob.  1749),  with  a  memoir  of  the  poet,  and 
critical  and  ezplanatoiy  notes ;  and  DiuertaHont 
(W  lAe  iV()pieeiw  (3  voti.  1T61-176S).  Baatdea 
theae,  ha  wrote  ocoaaioual  aenaona,  and  a  boat  of 
•eriptural  diaaertalion*,  the  theology  of  whioh  ti 
leokoned  not  alwaya  *  orthodox.' 

KEWTON,  a  townahip  in  Manaohnaetta,  United 
Htatea  of  America,  on  Charle*  Biver,  eight  mllea 
west  of  Boeton.  It  oontaiui  two  viUageiL  Upper 
Falls  and  Lower  Falli,  with  8  paper-milla,  3  ootton 
and  hoeieiy  factoriea,  a  Baptiat  theologisal  atmiuaiy, 
and  12  ohurchea.    Fop.  (1880)  16,990. 

NBW^rON- A'BBOT,  a  maAet  town  of  Qigland, 

the  county  of  Devon,  beaotafnlly  aituated  in  a 
▼ale  on  the  nver  Loncn,  19  milea  aoutb-aout^-weat 
of  Exeter.  Ibe  portion  of  the  town  called  Newton- 
"    '   '  '  the  left  aide  of  the  atraam.    It  baa 

ig  aoiiaid<nMe  improreBMOta  within 
reoent  yean.  William  of  Orange,  after  landing  at 
Torbay,  in  1688,  made  hia  firat  public  declaration 
■^ire.    Pop.  about  7000. 

NEWTON -DT-MA'KBBFIBLD,    a    thriving 


Lanoaahiro,  11  

Manoheater  and  liverpcol  Railway.  Two  large 
iron  foundriea,  aa  well  a*  printing  P*p<*  end  ragar 
woAa,  an  cdl-diatillery,  and  a  briok,  til^  and  pot 
mannfaotoiy  are  in  full  operation.  Hibm  ia  a  beau* 
tifnl  lake  in  the  town,  called  Newton  Her^  irtiich 
ia  eovered  during  the  aommer  montha  with  the 
jdeaaaie-baata  ot  the  townapeoida.  Eoiae-moea  are 
ndd  hN«  ia  Jnne^  and  borse  aiid  eattle  fuia  ia  May 
and  Anguat  annnally.  Tie  election  of  llP.'a  tit 
Booth  lAucaabiretakeB  place  in  Newton.  Cottonand 
flour  mill*,  livn  touDdriea  and  |da*8-worka  ara  ia 
Oparaldon;  and  bricka  are  made.  Fop.  {1881}  10^B80t 
NEWTON-TTPON-ATB,  a  burgh  of  barony 
and  pariah  of  Scotland,  in  t^  couuty  of  Ayr,  on  tlw 
noitbBide  ot  Vod  river  Ayr,  and  united  with  tlia 
town  of  that  name  by  three  bridgDa.  See  An. 
'.uded  in  that  rf  Ayr.     N.  haa 


NEWTON'S  Bisaa  L»  bia  inwatigationa  of 
the  oolouTB  produced  by  thin  plates  of  any  material, 
aolid,  fluid,  or  gaeeotw.  Sir  laaao  Newton  hit  upon 
the  following  mode  of  elbiMtina  the  oolonw  pro- 
duced by  a  fihn  of  air.  He  took  two  leniea,  one 
oonvazo-plane,  ita  ooDvex  aide  bavins  a  radioa  o( 


oonvazo-plane,  ita  ooDvex  eide  havms  a  radioa  ol 
14  feet,  tAa  other  eqni-oonvex,  with  tha  radii  of  ita 
(urfaoaa  60  feet,  and  lud  the  fint  with  ibi^I^ne 

aorfaca  do  "         "^  ' 

produdng 
film  being 


film  of  air ... 

____{fft  near  the  oantre,  and  beooming 
aradually"  thicker  outwaida.  On  alcwly  preasing 
the  upper  lena  againat  tha  nndea  <aie,  a  nnmber 
of  eonoenbio  ocloured  ring*,  having  the  point  ot 
ccoktBCt  of  the  lenaea  for  their  centre,  appsKced,  aiul 


X.oo'jir 


KEWTOWH-ITOAML 


«  properljai 
uid  eaob.  of 


of  riogi.  Me 

,  .^ eaoh'of  them  is  compoasd 

of  •  Dnmber  (nuginx  from  eight  in  the  fint  or 
■malleat  riiUi  to  two  m  tha  outennoEt)  of  Hug*  of 
difiemit  ouowi,  the  oolonn,  thon^  different  in 
«Mh  of  the  ^atenu  of  rings,  pt«eerving  the  ume 
ttfnuigement  at  the  coloon  of  tlie  tpeotnim,  of 
whid)  thej  seem  to  be  modificationB ;  thuv,  in  the 
■eoond  ring  tha  inside  colosi  ii  violet,  tad  tha 
ontnda  eoarlet  red.  The  cokmre  aie  Teiy  distinct 
in  the  fint  three  eystemi  of  ringi,  bnt  become 
gi«d>uUy  confosed  ^id  dull  towsrda  the  onteid^ 
till  they  almost  fade  away  in  tha  seventh  system. 
The  oeutie  is  deep  black.  The  thiokness  of  the 
•ir-film  at  the  centre  is  aboat  half  a  millionth  of 
an  ineh,  and  increaiea  gradually  to  nearly  nnU^ 
ti  an  inch,  whan  the  ooloun  disappear. 

NBWT0W3T,  a  modem  manufacturing  town 
el  North  Watea,  in  the  county  of  Hon^cmay,  S 
mil—  Boatli-weat  of  the  town  of  that  name,  mi  tiie 
li^  bank  of  the  Sarem,  and  on  the  Montgcmiaiy 
Canal,  whii^  oonnects  it  with  the  inland  naviga- 
tion of  the  oonntiT.  It  ii  tha  centre  of  the  flaiuel 
manufacturea  of  ^a  county.  It  hai  40  &etoiiea, 
employing  in  all  960  men.     Pop.  <1681)  7170. 

NBWTOWNABDS,  a  maAet-town  of  the 
oonnty  Down,  Ireland,  12  milea  east  from  Belfast 
by  railway.  Pop.  (1B81)  S676.  It  contains  a  conrt- 
hotue,  a  town-hall,  and  a  market- sqnare ;  a  Protes- 
tant church,  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel,  seven 
Picabyterian  meeting-honses,  ^  numerous  schools, 
and  a  union  workhouse.  It  U  a  neat  and  well- 
bant  town,  of  considerable  trade,  and  with  extensive 
mnslin,  flax-spinniDg,  and  weaving  factories.  Sinoe 
the  Union,  it  has  ceased  to  be  a  parliamentary 
borongb.  The  aSure  of  the  town  are  administered 
by  commissioners. 

HBWTOWIf-LIMAVA'DT  (Ir.  Letm-a-madha, 
'The  Dog's  Leap'),  a  market-town  of  the  ooonty 
•t  Londonderry,  Ireland,  and  16  miles  east-north- 
east of  the  town  of  Londonderry.  Pop.  in  1881, 
2954.  N.-L,  in  tha  period  anterior  to  the  estab- 
lishtnent  of  Eogliah  rule,  was  the  seat  of  the  power- 
ful sept  of  the  O'Cahaos,  or  O'Kanes ;  and  daring 
tha  wore  of  the  Berolutiou  it  was  the  scene  of  more 
than  one  straggle  between  the  followers  id  Jamea  IL 
and  those  oi  William.  Its  chief  importance  at 
present  is  as  a  cental  of  the  flai  bade,  onoe  the 
staple  of  that  district,  and  again  rising  in  import- 
ance. It  pcssosBCS  a  town-hall,  weaving  facti^, 
extensive  flbnr-mills,  markets,  and  brewery;  union 
workhoose,  Protestant  ohurch  and  other  plooea  of 
worship,  and  two  comfortable  hotels. 

NEXT  FBIENS  is,  in  Qi^ish  Law,  the  name 
given  to  the  person  in  whose  name,  or  rather  by 
whose  agency,  on  infant — i.  e.,  a  person  nnder  the 

Xof  21 — snes  in  the  courts  of  law  and  equity- 
object  is  chiefly  to  have  soma  party  reapoDsibla 
for  coats  in  case  the  infant  fails  in  the  actum.  In 
practioe,  the  father,  if  alive,  is  osnally  the  next 
friend,  but  any  substantial  person  may  be  eo.  In 
the  Court  of  Chancery,  a  married  women  sues  or 
appears  by  the  intervention  of  a  next  friend,  where 
■he  is  personally  interested. 

NE?,  MicHKi,  a  odebrated  musbal  of  the 
first  French  empite,  was  the  son  of  a  cooper, 
and  was  born  at  Saarlouis,  10th  January  1769. 
He  was  a  non-commissioned,  officer  in  a  hussar 
regiment  when  the  Revolution  began,  and  after- 
wards raindly  rose  to  high  military  tank.  For  tile 
captnre  of  Mannheim  b^  a  eouf  dt  main,  he  was 
made  a  genenl  of  division  m  1799.  He  was 
interim  commander  of  the  army  of  tha  Rhine  for 
a  ahort  tinu^  dnriog  whidi  bt  {rustnted  l^  n  bald 


diversion  an  important  novement  <A  the  Aniidiike 
Charlea  against  Massma  and  the  amj  of  Switzei^ 
land.  After  the  peaoe  <A  Lnnftville,  BtmatNwte, 
unions  to  win  N.,  with  otbsr  rapnbltaanB,  to  Ida 
y,  bronght  about  his  marriage  with  »  yonng 
id  of  Horteose  Beauharnaia,  and  appunted  him 
inspector-general  of  cavalry.  On  liie  iwtaMishmwi* 
of  the  empire,  he  was  made  a  marshaL  In  1800^ 
1m  stmrned  Uie  intrenchments  of  Elchingan,  and 
was  creatad  Duke  of  ElehinMn.  He  afterwarda 
Kodeied  important  services  m  tha  Tyrol ;  contn- 
bnted  much  to  the  French  snoceMSs  of  1806  oad 
1607 ;  and  served  in  Spain  witli  great  abili^  in  1808 
and  ISOO,  till  he  was  dismissed  by  Mssawia,  tha 
commander-in-ehief,  on  a  dispute  about  the  plan 
of  the  campaign.  Chagrined  by  this;  and  diwitimwl 
with  Napoleon's  des^tism,  he  remained  for  sonw 
time  inactive;  bat  in  1812  received  the  eommaad 
of  the  third  oorpt  ^armte,  and  greatly  distugoulied 
himself  at  Smolensk  and  the  Moakwa,  in  ooosa- 

Sienoe  of  whii^h  ha  was  created  Prince  of  tiM 
oskwo.  He  also  displayed  great  abilitaea  in  tho 
French  retreat  He  had  a  princmal  part  in  ttM 
camnatens  of  1S13  and  1814,  but  atl«  tiw  o^tnre 
of  fans,  he  urged  tha  emperor  to  abdicate,  and 

~  oitted  to  Louis  XVIIL,  who  loaded  him  with 
favours.  On  Napoleon's  return  &(Hn  Mba,  N. 
assured  the  king  of  his  fideli^,  and  was  sent  agaiaat 
Napoleon  at  tha  head  of  4000  men;  but  findingtliB 
empanx  to  be  received  with  general  eathoBiaam, 
aad  his  own  soldiers  to  be  favourable  to  hia  canae^ 
N.  went  ever  to  his  side.  In  the  battle  of  Waterimv 
he  commanded  the  centre,  and  had  five  hones  ahot 
mder  him.  After  the  capitnlatiim  of  Paris,  he 
ielded  to  the  entreaties  of  his  familyto  retira  to 
Jwiberland;  but  a  coaUy  £{[yptiaD  sabm,  the  gift 
of  Napoleon,  led  to  his  being  au^eetad  \>y  am 
official,  aiul  onested.  He  was  condemned  to  deatt 
for  high  treason,  and  was  shot  in  tha  garden  of  ii» 
Lniembourg  on  Tth  December  181GL  H«  IcA 
three  sons,  who  pnbliahed  his  Mimairt»  (2  vol*. 
Par.  1833). 

-I'OA'MI,  Lake.  The  existence  of  lakes  in  the 
interior  of  Africa  was  v^:nciy  known  as  far  back  «a 
the  days  vt  Herodotus;  and  the  earliest  modem 
maps,  anew  at  least  half-a^OKD  large  and  small,  ona 
of  whiok  ia  abont  the  siie,  and  very  neariy  in  tha 
position  of  that  shallow  teserroir  of  snifaoedrunaga 
which  was  discovered,  or  at  least  first  visited  by  » 
European  in  1849,  when  Dr  Livingatone  and  Mr 
Oewell,  who  weie  aware  of  its  existenoe  from  native 
r^MTt,  reached  its  shores  by  a  ciicnitons  roote  £m& 
the  Cape  Colony.  Although  ance  ascertained  to 
be  of  little  importance  in  the  phyucal  geography  of 
these  r^ons,Lake  N.  was  at  first  suppoMd  to  ba 
in  soma  w»  cimnected  with  the  larger  inland  seaa 
[rf  Nyasa,  Victoria  Nyauxa,  and  Tanganyika.  It  ia 
situated  between  the  iWth  and  2lBt  parallela  of  S. 
lat,  and  between  the  meridians  22°  10'  and  23*3ir 
B.  long.,  at  a  height  of  abont  2500  feet  abov« 
the  level  of  tha  sea,  and  is  connected  by  a  series 
of  sluggish  anostomoeiog  streams  with  tha  river- 
syston  of  the  Zambezi;  its  extent  as  well  a« 
depth  varies  with  tha  fsJl  of  rain  in  the  country 
to  tha  north  of  it,  bnt  its  average  size  may  b« 
taken  at  70  miles  long,  by  a  breadth  of  SO  and 
a  depth  varying  from  3  to  28  feet  In  1S53. 
lAke  N.  was  reached  from  the  west  coast  near 
Walfish  Bay  by  the  traveller  Anderason,  and  there 
is  now  a  wdl-baaten  route  for  traders  betwem  ttieae 
two  placao,  and  a  considerable  onantity  of  ivor^  uid 
ostrich  feathers  are  anunallp  oolleated  in  tha  nngji- 
bouriiood  of  tiie  lake.  The  principal  character- 
istica  of  the  region  are  rivers,  with  veiy. sluggish 
current,  and  often  flowing  in  differant  direattons  ta 
and  ttom  tlu  lake,  lat;^  salt>pani  and  extaoiiv* 


,v  Google 


NIAGABA^-KIBBT. 


diT  flata,  oovend  with  dense  inul),  the  hkiuit  of 
elephants  and  other  Urge  «"'"twlf  1^  water  of 
N.  ia  peoenlljr  fnah,  bat  in  the  diy  leMon  beoomea 
brackiah.  l£e  eiat  and  is  mnohdeqiar  ttuai  the 
w«it«m,  and  it  has  been  inferred  that  during  the  laat 
omtarf  the  ahape  and  nxe  of  Uie  lake  have  tmder- 
jNne  material  afteratioiu.  Tba  chief  toibntaiy,  the 
Tonke  or  Tioge,  oomiDg  from  the  north-weet,  is  deep, 
and  in  June,  Jnl;,  and  Asgnst  bringe  down  vast 
volninei  of  water.  The  Snga  or  Zonga  la  the  w"" 
outlet,  rona  towaids  the  sonth-eait,  and  finally  dis- 
t^ipesiB  in  a  large  salt-marsh. 

NIA'GARA.  »  river  of  Koith  America,  which 
flows  from  Lake  Erie  northwardB  into  I^ke  Ontarki. 
It  is  about  36  miles  in  length,  and  its  deecent  from 
the  level  of  the  one  lake  to  that  ot  the  other  is  about 
334  feet.  On  issuing  from  Lake  Erie,  it  is  thrae- 
gnart««  of  a  mile  broad ;  but  as  it  flows  on,  it 
oeoomea  several  miles  wide,  making  room  for  a 
nnmber  of  islands,  the  largeet  of  which.  Grand 
laUnd,  is  12  miles  loug,  and  from  2  to  7  brosd. 
At  the  foot  of  Qrand  laliuid,  which  reaches  within 
11  mile  ot  the  Falit  of  N.,  the  river  is  oontraoted 
to  a  breadth  of  2^  miles,  and  grows  narrower  as  it 
proceeds.  By  this,  and  by  Uie  descent  in  the 
ehannel,  which  is  about  60  feet  in  the  ndle  above 
tlw  Falk,  are  produced  the  swift  onirenti  known  aa 
the  Sapiiis,  in  v^iich  tiie  river,  notwithstanding  ita 
nest  oepth,  is  perpetaaUr  white  with  foam.  At 
the  Falls,  which  are  22  milea  from  l^ke  Erie,  the 
river  is  divided  by  an  iaiand  oontuning  aboDt 
acre*,  called  Croat  Island ;  but  in  ooosequenoe  a. 
bend  in  the  channel,  by  far  the  latjger  pOTtion  of  I 

water  is  sent  down  by  the  Canadian  side.     On  t 

dde,  therefore,  ia  the  grander  catatact  which  has 
been  named  the  HorteAoe  Pail,  but  no  loiwer 
bean  the  name  ^tpropriately,  as  the  precipioe  has 
been  worn  from  a  curved  into  a  somewhat  angnlar 
■hapch  This  procees  of  wearing  away  goes  cu  grad- 
nalfy  still,  a  large  projection  on  the  Canadian  Bank, 
known  aa  the  Table  Kook,  having  ptxHf  fallen  off 
in  ISea  The  Honeshoe  Fall  is  above  600  yards 
in  breadth,  and  about  154  feet  in  height.  The 
water  is  so  deep  that  It  retains  ita  green  colour 
for  acme  distance  below  the  brow  of  the  precipice ; 
and  it  rnshee  over  with  such  foree,  that  it  u  thrown 
about  60  feet  from  the  foot  of  the  oliK  One  may 
thns,  having  donned  an  oil-skin  dress,  enter  two  or 
thrae  yarda  bdiiitd  the  oarved  sheet  of  wiW;  but 
the  apray  is  ao  blinding,  the  din  so  deafening  and 
the  onrrat  of  air  to  atron^  that  it  ngnina  a  tcler- 
aUy  calm  nnre  and  fiim  foot  The  mptMHoa 
emied  bj  Qoat  Iiland  leaves  a  IsiM  wall  of  rook 
between  Uk*  Canadian  and  Amanoan  SUls,  the 


to  ten  feet  higher  than  the  Honeahoe,  but  only 
about  220  yar£  broad.  A  little  above  the  Fall,  tiie 
duuiuel  ii  divided  bv  Bath  Iaiand,  which  is  oon- 
neoted  by  bridgea  with  Qoat  Island  and  the  Ameri- 
ean  ahore.  A  small  tower,  ^)proaohed  from  Ooat 
Island,  haa  been  built  on  a  rock  over  the  brow  of 
the  HoTseahoe  Fall ;  and  from  this  the  flnert  view 
on  the  American  side  may  be  obtuoed;  the  Table 
Bock  on  tiie  Canadian  idae  dying  the  ocmpletest 
view  of  the  entire  oataraot.  IheFalls  can  ahM  be 
seen  from  bdow  on  both  aides,  and  every  fadlity  ia 
given  tor  viewing  them  from  all  the  best  points, 
while  magnificent  hotels,  Canadian  and  Amencao, 
offer  tbrar  indnoementa  to  the  tourist  to  stay  till  he 
haa  received  the  full  inflnence  of  the  soeneiy.  The 
river  ia  crossed  about  200  or  300  yards  below  the 
Falls,  where  it  is  1200  yards  broad.  The  cuneot  ia 
leasened  for  about  a  mile,  bat  increases  again  aa  the 
diannd  becomes  narrower  and  tlie  dcaoent  ineattf. 
Between  three  aiHi  foor  milea  below  the  Fhlla,  a 


stratum  ot  rock  runs  aooea  the  direct  course  of  the 
river,  which,  after  forming  a  vast  <urcular  basin, 
with  an  impanable  whirlpool,  is  forced  away  at 
right  angles  to  its  oU  chaoneL  The  celebteted  win 
eospensiou-bridga  for  the  Qreat  Western  Bailway, 
with  a  road  beneath  for  vehicles  and  foot-pusengem, 
crosiee  the  river  1}  mile  below  the  FiJl ;  it  is  800 
feet  long,  and  200  feet  above  the  water.  There  ia 
a  new  cantilever  railway  bridge  above  tliie  one. 

If  lAGAKA,  chief  town  of  Lincoln  County,  in  the 
Canadian  province  of  Ontario,  is  situated  on  Lake 
Ontario,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Niagara,  and  is 
distant  by  water  from  Toronto  36  miles.  Burned 
down  in  December  1813  by  the  American  General 
M'Clnra  on  his  retreat,  it  was  afterwards  rebuild 
and  promised  to  be  a  SaurishinK  town;  but  ita 
tiade  nos  fallen  off  within  the  last  tew  yean,  and  its 
population  haa  decreased  to  about  3000; 

N'lA'S,  an  important  island  belonging  to  Holland, 
Hea  to  the  west  of  Sumatra,  in  0"  IffM'— 1°  Sff  N. 
lab,  and  97*— 93°  E.  Iouk.,  and  haa  aa  area  of  about 
157S  square  miles.  In  1867,  when  the  Dntdt  took 
complete  possession  of  the  island,  the  population  waa 
reckoned  at  170,000.  There  are  several  plaoea  where 
ships  can  anchor  and  take  in  provisions,  water,  to. 
On  the  east  coast  ia  the  village  Niaa,  and  on  the  weat, 
Silorongan^  Little  islands  and  coral  reefs  lie  hete 
and  there  on  the  coast,  which  in  some  placee  ia 
■teep,  while  mouutMu-chains  run  from  the  south- 
— ^  to  the  nu^-wesL    There  is  a  greater  breadth 


dbyit 
mproi 

annually  almnt  110,000  lbs.  of  pepper.  Cattle  and 
horses  have  been  imported,  and  they  pay  great 
attention  to  the  raising  of  pigs  and  fowls.  Fonnerly, 
about  600  Niassen  were  c4Lmed  away  annually  as 
alaves  to  Batavia  and  oUier  places,  and  though  this 
traffic  haa  been  in  ^ 
still  to  some  extent  curied  on. 

Hie  Kiassers  are  of  the  Malay  race,  but  faiier 
than  the  Halaya  ninally  are.  Xhe^  are  gentle, 
sober,  and  peacdul,  remarkably  ingenious  in  bandi. 
craft,  omamentinetheir  hooaea  wiUi  wood-carvinos, 
'  nog  arms,  ftc  The  women  labour  in  the  fielda,  we 
[dren  weave  mats,  while  the  men  look  after  the 
live-stook,  and  hunt  the  deer  and  wild  awine.  They 
worship  a  saperior  deitv,  and  fear  a  powerinl  one, 
— *--  pursuee  tliem  if  they  do  evU,  Polygamy  is 
permitted,  but  is  rare.  The  gift  to  the  bnde's 
lunily  is  from 


above  ^  eround,  and  neepets  and  flowering  shrubs 
planted,  woicb  speedibr  grow  op  and  oover  them. 
Trade  is  on  the  iuereaaa— See  Het  EVand  X'iaa,  by 
Domis  ;  Crawford's  Deteripthx  Dietioaary  ;  Nttr- 
tamUA  Indie,  by  Wullings ;  the  Stgeering«-i>imanat 

>or  Nedtrian^iA-Indie ;  and  annual  report*. 

IflBBT,  Aktonio,  a  Boman  ardueologist  of  hi^ 
oelebri^,  was  bom  in  1792.  He  waa  one  of  those 
who,  following  in  the  footstep  of  Winckelmann, 
made  an  doborately  minute  investigation  of  the 
remains  of  antiquity  their  apedal  ttudy.  The  first 
work  ftat  made  him  known  was  hi*  tnuulation  of 
tniai,  with  antiquarian  and  critical  notes.  In 
he  waa  appointed  Professor  of  Archieology  in 
„_  Jniversity  of  Rome.  In  the  some  year  a]n>eared 
Ida  edition  of  Nordini's  Boma  Aniica;  and  in  1837 — 
1838,  his  learned  and  admirable  AnalM  Sloriwiapo- 
grafioo-arUigwma  deUa  carta  de  Coniomi  di  Soma, 
to  which  waa  adled  (1833-1840)  a  description  of  the 
city  of  Bome  itselL  Among  his  other  writings, 
may  be  mmtioned  his  Le  Jlftira  dl  Boma  diitpaU 


ioma  duegnaU 


KtSKLtntOCRtJltt)— MttJAltAOOA. 


W.  tM,  and  ft  hifft  mmber  of  Taloabh  tnm 
UiefOnB  ud  MraagnnMitot  th*  «ariiwlO 


Wftn  ciivnhMh  the  Cinu  of  Cancftll^  tiia  TeKpto 


irrBBLITNOElTLIBD,  or  'jnMatifft  JTof,' 
u  the  wotiM  are  mitten  in  th«  oldeti  hmdu- 
•oripta,  fa  one  of  Uie  mott  fluiibed  ipedmen*  of  Vim 
geDuine  «pio  of  G    '         •   ..     -      ...       -... 

■gea.     Tian  «di.     .     _.,   __   ^ 

mHHHOript  eaptau  of  tiiii  onriona  poem,  tlte  eatUaal 
of  whi(&  btlrag  to  the  begmbing  of  tba  UUi  &, 
ftnm  which  period  m  tin  mkklle  of  tbe  leth  «.  it 

etijond  the  greateat  popoIariW  amcMig  Gam * 

all  Plata.  NotUng  oertafai  la  kaowft  of  tta 
or  anthon  of  the  mirk  bofoad  Uio  Ikct^  that  it  waa 
pM  into  iti  pnaMtfmn  t^  a  wandering  aimtnl  in 
Anatria  aboat  or  prior  te  tba  year  IWO,  wiaeL  ia 
the  data  of  the  old«at  accradited  tnannaaript. 
Accmding  to  W.  Qrimm  and  LMhmaon'a  critical 
aualfiia  of  the  poem,  it  ia  in  itMlf  a  oomplatioQ  tt 

Ca-axiatiiu  aoap  aiid  tbapaodie^  tbnng  together 
to  ono  whole  upon  a  ^ao  nmaifcable  for  ita  gnod 
Mmplid^,  although  um  aUll  ia  dunm  in  aome 
■■fT™*^  in  the  naanm  in  whioh  the  lereial  paita 
are  oonnaoted.  In  the  mora  authentic  maonampta 
the  potm  ADDuata  of  onlj  twenty  part^  and  it  ii 
aai^aatiu«d  that  the  laUer  portiMU  of  the  epio, 
irtueb  are  girm  only  in  aome  of  the  tezia,  aa  that  of 
St  Qall,  ai«  tha  oompoaition  of  later  comialen. 
nie  «pio  i^e  embiaMd  in  the  N,  raaj  be  more 
mdaUr  K^vded  aa  the  fiuion  of  the  hiatory  of 
the  mjtiiiiad  people,  oalled  in  the  poem  the 
NibelmiBea,  with  five  leading  groiwa  of  mytha, 
ih  whiek  an  iDooiporated  tlu  adventurea  of 
aoma  of  tha  moat  nuivemally  popnlar  peiBonagea 
bdonging  to  tha  aani-hiatono  uiTthi  of  medieval 
Oemun  .  fblk-bre,  aa,  for  instance,  tiia  hero 
Si^friad  witli  hia  mantle  of  invisibility,  Md  the 
lovely  loelandio  baruine  Biunhilt  j  King  OOnther 
Ot  Baimudy,  and  hia  &ir  aiater,  Knemhil^  the  wife 
of  Sie^ried  t  Haoo  of  Norway,  Dietrich  (Theodorio 
theOna^ltiDsof  theOatroootbalof  Berne  (Yeron^, 
and  Btaal  (AttOa),  king  of  the  Eon*.  The  lovea  and 
fenda,  and  the  atonny  Uvea  and  violent  deaths  of 
i]  heroea  and  heroines,  are  skilfully 
in  the  S^  and  artiatically  made  to 
cantre  roona  tiie  mythical  treaaore  of  the  Nibelnn- 
m,  iri^eh,  afUr  the  mudai  of  Siegfried,  who  had 
Eroa^  it  from  the  Ear  north,  is  ae&ctly  bnried  by 
hia  anirdarer  Haco  beneath  the  Bhinc^  where  it  stiu 
rMaain&  Hie  poon,  in,  ita  mde  but  ahrict  v«nid- 
aation,  talla  the  tale  of  Eriemhilt'a  vengeanoe  for  bar 
huAtand'a  daatiiwithapaaaionate  eameatneaa  Uiat 
'  'ea  rf  Vba  reader  with  it^  nntil 
itea  in  tba  cataatrcqpbe  of  the 

__...__ji  tha  Barrandiana  and  Huna 

at  the  oonit  of  Kzd,  whoae  hand  Kriemhilt  haa 


e  qnwathiea 
Mt  enuoinatei 


revenga  The  tale  of  horroia  fitly  cloaea  with  the 
muider  ef  Kriemhilt  henelf,  after  ahe  haa  aatiaSed 
her  vengeaoee  by  sharing  with  Siegfried'a  sword  hia 
moidecei  Haoo.  Hub  tal&  which  seemed  to  echo 
back  the  elash  of  anna  and  atrife  of  pa^on  iriueh 
eharacttriaed  the  early  periods  of  Graman  biitorv, 
kept  ft  &m  hold  on  the  ImagjnationB  ot  tiie  people 
till  the  taste  for  polemic  writings,  fostered,  if  not 
created  at  the  period  of  the  Refommtion,  oanaed  thia 
aa  welt  aa  many  other  treasures  of  folk-loi^  to  be 
almoat  lost  ai^t  of  and  foi^tten.  Attentjon 
waa,  howaver,  acain  drawn  to  it  in  the  18th  o.,  by 
ttu  pnblication  <3  detached  portions  of  the  poem  by 
Bodmer,  CHriaiASdai-RaeJie  (Znrioh,  17C1),  and  by 
Muller  in  hia  iS'anitH/uRi;  deuliehtr  Oedi^tt  ma  dan 
12-U  JabrK  (BerL  1782) ;  but  it  waa  not  tm  com- 
parativdy  recent  timea  that  the  ralae  ol  Uie  woilt 
;ifl  


in  an  Uaterfeal  and  philologiaal  point  «t  via*  waa 
reoogniaed.  Tiai^mann  mada  known  tha  rsaalt  ot  hia 
invaatigationa  in  1898.  Ek  viawa  wen  aawwrted 
by  MHllenhoff  and  Biegsr  (1856).  HcUBuaim 
<1864  on  the  other  hand,  aasartad  that  the  kmgert 
vendon  ia  tha  mora  ancient,  and  was  foUowcd  bf 
ZamAe,  Hennann,  and  Fiaehar.  ffeiSer  tacied,  in 
18«^  to  pKm  that  the  anUior  of  the  piaaant  H.  waa 
the  Anabrian  Ton  E«i«nb«cg  (drca  1140).     Baa 


Paol'i 

firaf«{l«n).    AH  «a  uannaoripti  a(  tba 

imaa  anotlur  poem  nndw  tha  titk  ol  JMe  dw<% 
irirfah  treata  of  the  burial  of  tha  heioaairiM  feU  in 
tha  ootifUot  at  BtaBl>a  oont,  and  the  buneata  whioh 
wan  eompoaed  in  oommnnontion  <rf  that  avantL 
It  ia  of  icNatsr  antlqui^  than  the  N.,  and,  liha  il^  tba 
wmk  ot  aa  unknown  anUior.  A  oitioal 
of  tka  N.  will  ba  fowd  in  Carlyla'<    '^' 


moXA.    SeeNicn. 

KICARA'aUA,  a  repaUio  «f  Coitna  AmsriaK, 
bMUHled  on  tha  N.  by  the  repnUic  of  Hoadnna,  <m 
the  W.  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  on  Uie  B.  by  tfaa 
repuUlo  cl  Coata  Hioa,  and  on  the  E.  by  Um 
Paeiflo ;  lat  10*  4fl'— Ifl°  N. j  kng.  83'  Sff— ST  W  t 
area,  aboat  Sl,600ai]naremilea;  pop.<18BS)87B,818; 
of  whom  18  per  oent  an  wnitee,  4  p«c  eeafc, 
negroeii  tlia  nat  Indiana  and  Healiaaea,  H.  b 
mretaed  by  two  mngea  of  monntaina— 41ie  waatam, 
whieh  fdlowa  tba  direotian  of  the  coaat-lin^  d 

dlstuiea  at  from  10  to  20  milea  from  tha  Paeifioi 

id  the  eaatem  (a  part  «f  the  gnat  nngs  of  tfaa 
Cordilleras),  wUi^  nma  neaify  paMllel  to  f^  ari 
aends  off  aevetal  apnia  towarda  tha  Oaribbaaa  San. 


tangea  liea  a  great  Interior 
«  of  N.  (q.  y.)  and  Man^ni 
re  the  Bio  Oooo^  or  Segoi 


lea,  gQava&  to 
nparilKakN% 


Hanagua.  1**  priiadpal 
or  8egovi%  fxidM  part 
of  the  boundary  between  Hondaraa  and  HT;  tt« 
Eaeondido,  or  BlawfieHa  j  and  On  8a&  Juan,  tU  al 
irtiich  flow  into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  33ia  aaater« 
maat  of  S.  u  oalled  tba  Itaqaita  Coast  Tkm 
oountiy  ia  In  many  ^aoea  deudy  Tnniiksl  I  ha 
moat  vidoable  tieea  Miilg  mahogw,  kgwoadt 
Nioangna  wood,  cedar,  and  fiiant  wool  Tba 
pMturee  »n  splendid,  and  aappcct  vaat  hards  oC 
oattle.    Hie  laiitt  piodueta  are  aufpr^aae  (aaftw 

and  jaldor  than  the  Aaiatda  nrie^), "— 

ooffca,  indigo,  tobacoo, """"'""   --'— — 

all  this  fruita,  kc  of  tiie  wopi 

tMuatOM,  bt«ad-frui^  arrow-root^  oitrDBa,  twagei, 

limea,  laniona,  piBMq)plea,  goava^  Ac.    Hm  obiaf 

T^;etaUe  exports  i '"- 


,   the  largeat  town 

tl  8t  Leon,  witii  a  pomUtion  of  3B,00a    1 
of  K.  (q,  V.  in  SUpp,  Vtri.  X.)  haa  ft  pn.  af 

N.  was  diaoovered  in  1831  hy  Oil  Qonaaiea  a* 
Avila,  and  conquered  by  Pedro  Arian  do  AvSa,  tba 
governor  ot  Panama  in  19BL.  In  1821— 4ha  graa* 
yMT  of  revolution  in  Cenlnl  Amarioa— it  threw  off 
alle^anoetoSpain,andaftMadeapaTataandhlao^ 
Mnggh,  aecnrad  ita  tedepoodenoa  tv  the  bi^  d 
the%et«h'ot8anSalvader.  N.  now  beeaaa  th* 
aaoond   atate  in  tha  iideari  rapdntia  af   OmMI 


copper,  inn,  and  lead,  but  tha 
caiefally  worked  now  aa  under  ne  opanmiaa. 
file  inceeeant  poUtieal  diatnetiona  d  tba  cOBky 
have  notoriouUy  all  but  dealn^ed  tba  material 
prospeTity  of  the  eonntry.  The  toade  is  cUafly  with 
Qreat  mtetn.  lu  IMO,  the  exporte  avamntad  to 
3.057,632  dellara ;  the  imporU  to  1,470^114  *  " 


lltatawm 


vC.OOgIC 


KtCA^tttA-lrtCCOtdirt. 


Aintrie%  bnt  on  tin  disalntioii  ut  the  n&ion  i 
1839;  baeama  an  ind^endant  ispnblio.  In  1847- 
1S48,  >  dupnto  bnka  oat  behrecn  N.  Kul  Qieal 
BrifauB  aboot  tha  MaaqnitaCoHt,  which  led  toaome 
hoatilitiaa,  and  ma  naiy  Oatlij  aattkd  in  lS6a 
Uaanvhila,  in  186S^  a  tdril  war  liad  braken  oat 
bitweot  tha  Bo-caUad '  Couamtivea '  and '  Iabcnl%' 
whiob  nanlted  in  tha  jiatorr.  <rf  tlw  latter,  who 
wen^  howerar,  obliged  to  oall  in  tba  help  cut  ilia 
ainoB  Botomna  Odonal  William  Walker  (lee  Filli- 
xnsratB). 

By  Um  ODoatitiitnni  d  19th  AQguat  1S3S,  the 
raimbUe  «i  IT.  ia  govwned  hy  m  preaidaB^  who  ii 
eleoted  If  naimaal  anffrage,  and  hoUa  offioa  tor 
km  ycaia.  Uen  an  two  kgialatiTa  dkainbe»— 
tita  Snate  and  tba  Honaa  ol  Bepreaentativaa. 
liberty  af  inaaA  and  at  thajpcaaa  eziata,  bat  ia 
tut  abaahrtalj  goanurtead.  the  Boman  Catholio 
laligioi^  bawarer,  ia  the  only  one  puiii^  toleratec^ 
but  tfae  awvioM  of  olhar  raligioaB  bodiea  may  ba 
prifatsly  periDtme^ 

NIOAK&OtTA,  UXB  paUn,  Ootiboha),  a  aheel 
et  &eah-water  in  the  npnblie  of  tha  aame  namo,  110 
milea  lon^  and  fmn  SO  to  SO  bnad.  Ita  alefaUon 
abova  tba  FadBi^  bom  irfdoh  it  ia  aepanited  bv  a 
low  canga  of  billa— at  we  point  only  ttl  feet  hiAer 
than  the  Uka  ttMlf— b  litUe  more  than  IW>  fcat 
"Dm  ^indpal  rireta  tlowins  into  it  are  the  Hayalea 
and  Halaooloja  on  the  north,  and  the  X^  on  Iba 
tonUi ;  tba  imly  one  flowii^  ont  i»  tike  San  Jnao 
(formerly  Utoffttodero),  whicb  uiitea  It  with  tha 
Caribbean  Sea.  Its  ulands  are  numaon^  ^ring 
moaUy  in  ^ung.  Of  the  nnmerona  achemea  for  an 
interoceamo  afiip-canal  between  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific,  that  which  adopted  a  ronte  by  way  of  the 
San  Joan  Birer  and  Lake  N.  wu  lonf  a  prominent 
ona.  Even  iinoe  tha  M.  Leasepa  caud  Iran  Umon 
to  Panama  baa  been  bwon,  the  Americana  aeon  to 
farour  the  Nicai^ua  line.  The  whole  diatanee 
by  thia  nmte  from  ooean  to  ocean  i«  ISOJ  milea 
and,  fall  advantage  being  taken  of  lake  and  river 
filg  mika  of  the  total  langth  woiUd  fall  to  the  canal 

N  lOA'STBO,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  in  tb< 
^QTinoa  of  Calabria,  ia  moat  beaotifully  aitnated 
weat  of  tha  Afienainei^  Ml  tha  maizin  <m  t^  ooaal 
plainly  and  commanding  Tiawa  of  the  ia%  34  »mT«| 
aoath  <rf  Coaenta.  It  ia  tha  aee  of  an  aroUnhcp. 
^ere  an  bot  aprioKi  in  the  vicinity.  Pan  atated 
at  7000  and  10,»0t 

NIOCOLA  PISAfiO,  adiatingidabed  acolptor  of 
Piaa,  to  tha  inflveaoe  of  wboae  work*  tba  liae  or 
r«ataration  of  aoalptiire  in  aonneotion  with  Oothio 
architectoe  ti  m^y  atbribotafala.  That*  w  no 
record  of  the  data  of  bia  birth,  bnt  frcaa  an  inaorip- 
'««aki>  h.  TiMin-u   j_:-_ij 


of  these  wu  finiahed  in  1260,  and  fi  reckoned  the 
moat  elwaut  pnlpit  in  Italy.  It  ia  of  white  nurbl^ 
aiz-aida^  aopported  by  aarai  Corinthian  column^ 
aod  adnned  with  five  baa-telieb  tA  aabjecta  from 
the  Kew  TestamenL  n>e  eecond  wo^  ue  '  Area' 
of  St  Dominic,  ia  one  of  even  greatw  extent.  It  ia 
compoaed  of  aiz  large  baa-reli^,  delineatiiw  the  dz 
prindpal  eventi  in  the  l^end  of  8t  Domini^  ana 
la  ornamented  withatataeaol  oar  Savioor,  the  Virnn, 
and  the  foar  dooton  of  the  cbnrch.  The  operonmm 
or  lid  wa«  added  abont  SOO  yean  afterwarda. 
The  anbjecta  On  the  polpit  at  Siena,  the  third  of 
theae  worki,  are  the  aame  aa  thoae  on  that  at  PIel 
with  the  Bubatitution  of  tlie  '  Flight  into  Egypt '  and 
the '  Maaaaore  of  the  Innocenta '  for  the '  Pieaenuddon ;' 
and  the  enlargement  of  the  coneladin^  oompoaition, 
the  '  Idat  Judgment.'  In  theae  oompoailaona  there  it 
great  felici^  of  inventioD  and  grooping,  tooth  of 

Stemioiv  and  grace  in  the  attitndea  anddrweneaj 
in  that  of  the  'Laat  Jndgmant'  tha  boldnoB 
displayed  in  the  naked  Ggorea,  twiated  and  otrntcaied 
into  avary  imaginable  attitode,  ia  wondeifal,  and 
evincee  the  akiUwith  wliich  N.  drew  on  the  antique 
and  on  nature.  But  it  muet  be  admitted  that  (here 
ia  a  degree  of  confaaion  or  oTeifnlneM  in  tite 
Drooping  and  that  tiie  beada  of  hi*  figmea 
huge  in  proportion  to  the  bodies ;  fulta  a 
to  all  early  efbrta.  In  thia  laat  work,  it  ^ipeara  \n 
the  eontiact  for  ita  execution,  that  N.  was  aarfnted 
"by  bia  acholan  Lapo  and  Amolfob  and  bia  ion 
(Soranni;  and""'" *"  *  "■"'    •   •■ 


by  him  and  «Be<nited  by  Ua  aou  Giovanni,  it  ia 
evident  that  he  wm  ban  at  tta  b^Eoning  of  the 
ISth  ceutwy.  Hia  eailieat  work  U  aufmoaad  to  be 
the 'Depoaition' over  one  of  tba  docfa  of  t£e  brade  ef 
the  cathedral  at  Lucca,  dated  1233.  Ha  woriced  «n 
1^  princfpla  of  atvdnng  natvre,  modified  or  eor- 
Teet«d  Iw  tha  ideal  ef  antique  acvlptnie ;  and  it  ia 
Mud  tba*  be  fiiat  adopted  thia  pnnoipla  from  the 
aMlptwe  on  an  anoeat  aanapbagaa  bfondit  from 
Greece  ■■  the  abipa  vi  Piaa :  bnt  tbiNu^  moat  of  the 


an  oppoltanity  of  atrinBg  many  impottant  iMnaina 
on  the  nrioua  elaana  nina  with  lAieh  Italy 
abmoda.  Hiia  aoulptot'a  repatatioa  ia  avpported 
by  ttaee  importaot  wsAa,  whicdi  mnain  and  an 
■tin  aAnirad  for  their  exodkace— the  pulpit  of 
tha  b^tMtcy  at  PiM,  Oe  'Aica'<«  ahrme  of  8t 
Dominic  for  the  tkeaxA  tA  that  aaiut  at  Bolcgaa, 
•nd  the  palph  of  the  cathednl  at  Siemb    Hia  Bnt 


Santo.    N.'>B  influence  on  art  eztesded  widely;  & 

pnpila  Amolfo  and  Lapo  executed 

at  Borne,  Siena,  and  other   --^^  — 


.  was  constantly  et^aeed  on  woika 
of  importance;  in  Piaa,  where  the  Campo  Santo 
(tor  be  waa  alio  an  architect)  waa  erected  frooi  hia 
deaigna ;  in  Naplea,  which  he  viaited  on  tba  invitation 
of  cSiarlee  L  of  Anjou ;  at  Aieno,  where  be  exe- 
cuted the  marble  ahiise  of  St  Donato  bx  tha 
cathedral ;  at  Orvieto,  tiie  baa-nliefa  on  ^efaecnta 
of  the  Biiomo,  by  uumy  ascribed  to  N.,  beina  by 
him;  at  Pistoja,  where  he  ezecoted  tbe  pt^pit, 
tc  The  year  of  hia  death  ia  not  ascertained 
it  waa  probably  about  1320.  After  OiovanDi'i 
death     "^    " 

may  also  be  reckoned  a  branch,  fmn  tiie  inflnenoe 
exBTcifled  over  it  by  Giovanni —AnvlUU.  PisaRo,  the 
ableat  of  Qiovanni's  pupils,  vraa  called  to  Florence 
to  exeeate  in  marble  Sie  atataes,  bas-idiefs,  Aa, 
led  by  Oiotto  in  amamentdi^  the  cathedral  of 
ria  del  Fiore^  then  in  ooium  of  erection.  Tbn 
talent  he  diqikyed  soon  taiaed  him  to  a  high  posi- 
tion and  important  employment.  He  aiecuted 
uameroDB  atatuea  for  the  facade  of  the  cathedral, 
sndabrontente  for  tiw  b«ptiftay,  of  venr  great 
excellenoe.  ^KisateitilleziatB,alongwitht£e1ater 
and  alill  more  eekbrated  gates  of  QmbertL  Under 
the  infiuence  of  Qiotto'a  genius,  he  becane  com- 
pletely Giottesi]ne  in  thought  and  style;  and  bis 
woika  bear  so  distinctly  tho  impress  of  that  master- 
mind, that  the  dedgn  of  many  of  them,  and  paiti- 
'  irly  the  baptiateiy  nte,  are  ascribed  to  Qiotto. 
died  in  IMS,  aged^e.  See  Yasui ;  Ckrutim 
'.  hv  Lord  Undsay ;  Aginconrt,  Dana  Memorie 
Koaiiii,  fifcno,  ic  !  Cioo^wra  (torn,  l), 


'^ink,  of  a  n«Ue  but  impoveriahei  family. 

~   '  e  Ml  of  high  jtrnniaa  of  the 


...Cdgi'j 


NIOX— SIOBlfB  CBEED. 


hii  Suit  oompomtioiu,  and  fn  ISIO  ha  waa  cromied 
by  the  Crotok  AcadAmy.  Thiou^  tlie  ioflnenca  '* 
tba  qneen  of  Etrnrift,  he  wm  appouLtod  secretarv 
the  Aoademy  of  Fioe  Arts,  when  he  dehTared 
th«  yonngartiBt*  lectonatm  hufany  utdmythdwy ; 
bnt  cm  the  fall  of  Um  Bcwap&rte  aovvrmgia,  uii 
pott  ma  vithdnvn  fcom  the  poet  In  ISOfi,  the 
Chsiid  Dnks  FecdibBiid  appointed  him  librariaii  in 
the  Pitti  Palace,  an  office  be  rengoed  in  order  to 
escape  the  servility  of  oonrt  dependence.  By  the 
deatti  of  a  relative  he  acquired  wealth  and  the 
povec  of  sxcluaively  devoting  hinuelf  to  Uternture. 
and  pnbliabed  Beveral  mncn-admired  eeuys  and 
lectures;  and  in  I32T  appeared  hia  noble  woA, 
Antonio  Fo«can»i.  In  18l4,  N.  published  anony- 
motuly  his  best  poem — Amoldo  da  BrtKia — and 
nothing  finer  'has  bees  written  in  modem  Italian, 
whether  it  be  viewed  »s  a  olsssical  creation,  full 
cf  life  and  poetry,  or  •■  a  woA  of  glowing 
N.  lived  in  the  enjoyment  of  fame  and 
a  ripe  old  age,  and  died  at  Florence  in 


patrioti 


1861. 

NIOB,  or  SlCMJi,  tormerlv  a  dty  «t  Bithynia, 
in  Asia  Minor,  litaated  on  uie  eastern  abore  of 
Lake  A«wmi^.  It  was  bmlt,  or  rather  rebuilt 
(tor  an  older  town  had  existed  on  iti  site),  by 
Antisoniu,  "  "" ""  '       '        '     ' 

the  name  < 
to  Nicn^ 

■ome  toini,  and  of  gnat  importano* 
the  Boman  and  Byzantine  emperon ;  all  the  streets 
crossed  each  other  at  right  angleo,  and  from  a  mag- 
nificent moaoment  in  the  centre  the  fonr  ^tes  of 
tile  dty  were  visible.  It  is  famous  in  ecclesiastical 
history  for  two  Coundls  held  in  it,  the  First  and 
Seventh  Ecumenical  Councils.  The  FiitST  Coovcn. 
or  N.  was  held  325  a.  d.,  and  wa*  coDvened  by  the 
Emp«araConstantine,  in  ooDoert,  according  to  Boman 
Catnolie  hiatorians,  vith  the  Roman  pontiff,  for 
the  pmrpose  of  defining  the  qneations  raised  in 
tiie  Ariaa  (q.  v.)  controveray.  The  detail*  of  the 
proceedings,  lo  far  as  regards  Arius,  will  be  found 
■n  that  article.  The  supporters  of  Arins  at  first 
an  said  to  have  nnmbend  upwards  i^  twenty ; 
but  ultimately  the  decree  condemnina  hi 
subscribed  by  the  whole  body  of  the  Coun 
number  of  disseutientB  being,  according 
highest  oompatation,  only  five,  while  the  moat 
probable  account  rednces  it  to  two.  The  Nihkks 
Cbbid  adopted  in  thia  Council  forms  the  subject  of 
a  a^ante  artiole.  In  addition  to  tba  Arian  ques- 
tion, the  Council  of  N.  also  d^berated  on  a  sohiBm, 
called  the  Meletian  Schism,  which  at  that  time 
divided  the  church  of  Sgypt,  ai^  the  partlonlan 
of  which  have  formed  a  anbject  ot  recent  coatro- 
veray.  The  decree  of  N.  appears  to  have  been 
founded  on  a  compromise,  but  did  not  effectually 
~  e  schism.  The  decree  of  N.  on  the 
of  Faster  was  of  wider  application, 
and  met  wiUk  universal  acceptance,  the  few  recu- 
sants being  thenceforward  ciilled  Qnarto-dedmans 
(q,  v.).  Tbia  Council  also  enacted  twenty  canons 
of  diadjdine.  For  a  minute  and  pictnresque 
deaeription  of  this  council,  see  Dean  Stanley's  ifM- 
tory^Uit  Eeutem  CAur^— The  Second  Council 
OF  N.,  called  aba  the  Seventh  Ecnmenical  Conndl, 
a  Irene  (787)>  who 


line,  for  uia  pnrpoee  ot  reoonsidermg  the  subjeet 
cf  Images.  The  tenor  of  the  decree  on  Images  is 
detailed  under  that  head.  In  the  West,  the  ques- 
tion of  the  acceptation  of  Uiis  council  was  the 
•nbieot  of  considerable  controversy,  arising,  in  great 
measure,  fnm  a  ecossly  erroneous  Latin  translation 
J  11.-   -J..  _i — I,  *__  ,  y^^  obtwaed  exteorive 


oefetoatif 


KIOE  (Ifal.  Nbsa\  chief  town,  *i 


both  sides  of  tie  ri „ , 

3.8. W.  of  Turin,  and  about  the  same  distance  E.N.EL 
ofMaraeille.  Pop.(m2)42,363:  <IS81)64,Sg3L  It 
consist*  of  three  prindiMU  Dart»--4he  Quariiis  de  It* 
Oroise  ds  Marbrt,  m 

ot  tlie  P*(^one),  the  OU  Tmim,  and  the  Port, 
first  ot  tfaeae  ia  moob  frequented  by  foFNgnen,  p 

fmUrVWngHiihJMtlimiwilMWMiMiif^'lhglwh  tnq 

It  is  cloae  npon  the  rive 
with  gay  snopt^  and  * 


called  the  Castle  HilL 
The  Old  Town  is  excessively  dirl?,  and  bos  narrow, 
ttdnking  streets,  with  macaroni  and  ooufeotioiMry 
shops,  grocery  eetabUshmeDts,  slaDBhta^tUHiaea,  Ac. 
Hie  Port,  almoct  separated  from  it  by  the  0«Btle 
Hill,  is  crowded  with  a  ■eafsring  pcpnIatiiMi. 
The  harbour  admit*  TW»8l*  drawine  nftean  feet  of 
water,  but  is  difGcnlt  of  entranoe.  The  Castle  ^U, 
an  isolated  mass  of  limestone  800  feet  high,  recfiv- 
ing  its  name  from  having  been  formerly  crowned  W 
a  stiong  castle,  now  in  niinB,  is  laid  out  in  pablic 
garden^  and  aSorda  an  extensive  and  splendid 
pronieci  out  to  sea.  "nie  chief  public  buildings  m*9 
m  the  Conc^  or  in  the  adjoining  etreeta,  in  one  <d 
trbkh  then  la  an  English  blx«ty  and  reading-coom. 
Then  is  an  EpiscopMiso  and  also  a  Preebyteriaa 
ohnicb  in  N.,  and  an  ''^"g*''*'  cemetery.  Taa  moat 
attractive  ^tnnenade  in  the  Old  Town  is  the  Terrace, 
from  IS  to  i20  feet  high,  erected  as  a  protection  to 
the  town  aninst  u  stormy  sea.      But  the   most 

r  sable  ai^  &shionable  drive  and  promenade  is 
Promtnade  det  Anglait,  exteuding  for  »  mils 
along  the  shore  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Paglion^ 
and  skirted  on  one  side  by  elegant  villas  and  botelsu 
[B  an  nomerouE,  owing,  doubtleaa,  to  the  great 
of  visitors.  Fine  as  the  nsnal  winter  and 
Bfiring  weather  of  N.  is,  it  is  exposed  to  the  north 
wind,  or  Hiilral,  which  during  these  seasons  often 
brings  a  temperature  which  in  England  would  ba 
considered  cool,  or  even  cold,  in  April  or  October. 
The  Quattier  Oarabactl  is  the  most  sheltered  part  of 

Ce,  and  therefore  the  beet  for  an  invalid.  Dust 
drainage  an  the  dnwbacka  to  the  amenity  of 
bnt  thia  is  true  with  regard  to  most  of  the  place* 
Evintei  resort  in  the  south.    The  mean  January 
and  February  temperature  is  4T,  equal  to  that  of 
April  in  England ;  March  is  fi2° ;  April,  68°,  about 
*hs  lam*  as  June  in  England,  or  July  in  Scotland. 
The  ancient  Lu^urian  town  ot  Kicoa,  founded,  it 
said,  by  a  co&ny  of  Phnrmnnii  from  M»<l«Ji> 
(MarseilleJ,  beoam*   subject  to  Home  in  the  2d 
c.  B.O.    It  probatdy  occupied  the  Castle  HiD,  tsther 
than  the  nte  of  tbe  neamt  dfer.    Sabeeqnently  it 
passed  into  the  band*  of  the  Goths,  Bu^undians, 
Viaigoths,  hii^  and  oount*  irf  Ailes,  the  An^rins 
savereigns  of  Ss^es,  and  the  Dukes  of  Savoy  (1388)^ 
'"  whose  family  it  remained  till  lB6(t  when  it  waa 


also  recdvsd 

Protestant  oonununions.  It  was  drawn  up  princi- 
pally by  Hceins  of  Oorduba,  and  i*  called  by  the 
name  ix  the  Connci]  of  Nice,  slthoa^  nearly  one 
half  of  ita  present  clauses  formed  no  part  of  the 
original  Nicene  fonnnlary;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  document  conbuued  a  series  of  aa>the> 
idemnatory  of  spedfio  statements  of  Arius, 

find   no  _place   in    the   present    so-cslled 

Nicene  creod.     The  distinctive  dkaraeterictia   of 
t^  word 


„  Google 


KIOBE-moaOLAfi  L 


ffomooutiot.  (See  HmcoorHus.)  Its  eknua  oottb- 
■poiid  (except  in  >  few  Terbal  detaila)  witli  tliow 
of  tlia  modem  fonnaUry  u  fu  M  the  word* 
*I  believa  in  the  Holy  Ghort ;'  titer  which  follow 
the  anathemas  refetKd  to  above.  The  remain- 
ing claiuea  of  the  present  creed,  although  they 
ieem  to  have  been  in  pablio  nee  earlier,  were 
formiOy  added  in  the  First  Council  of  Conrtantin- 
ople  (381],  with  the  exception  of  the  daoie,  'And 
from  tiie  Son,'  which  wu  introdnced  in  varioai 
ohnrchei  of  the  West  in  the  fith  and  6th  oentnriea ; 
and  ultimately  its  formal  embodiment  in  the  creed, 
baa  conttboed  «  mbject  of  contraversy  with  the 
(heeke  to  the  preeeat  day.  See  Grebk  Chubcil 
^Dlia  ciced  appears  to  havo  been  used  in  the  pablio 
Utnrgy  from  the  latter  part  of  the  5th  century.  Ita 
pooitioa  in  the  liturgy  variea  in  the  different  ritoe. 
In  the  Boman  liturgy  it  ia  read  on  all  Sandayi, 
feMts  of  oui  Lord,  of  the  blessed  Virgin  Muy, 
^KKtle^  daye,  and  all  the  principal  feativali,  but 
WA  on  we^-dayi,  or  the  minor  sainbi'  daya. 

Several  Arian  ereeds,  in  oppoaition  to  that  of 
Nice,  were  drawn  up  at  Sinninm  and  elsewhere  (ne 
Ijbbbiuh),   bat  none  of  them  mat  with   general 


NICHE,  a  recess  formed  in  a  wall  to  o 
statno  or  some  ornamental  figure.  In  clasi 
tectnre,  the  niche*  are  generallT  i^aan  reoessea 
with  canopies  formed  by  smaU  p^imenta.  In 
Oothio  arAitectore^  the  niche  is  one  of  the  m«st 
frsqaest  and  characteristio  features ;  the  door- 
ways, bnttrwioi,  and  eveiy  part  of  tiie  bnildings 
being  in  many  instances  ornamented  with  niches  and 
stataes  in  endless  variety. 

NICHOLAS,  tiie  name  of  five  among  tiie  Boman 

rtifb,  of  whom  the  following  alone  appear  to  call 
separate  notioe. — N.  I.  wu  bom  of  a  noble 
Boman  family,  and  on  the  death  of  Benedict  IIL, 
in  658,  N.  was  elected  to  saoceed  him,  and  was 
oonsecrated  in  St  Peter's  Church,  in  the  preaence 
id  Lndwig  IL,  emperor  of  Germany.  The  eariiest 
inddent  at  importance  of  hi«  pontificate  is  his 
conflict  with  Photius  (q.  v.),  who  had  been  intruded 
into  the  see  of  Constantanopte  after  the  depriva- 
tion of  Ignatius.  N.  demanded  from  the  emperor 
the  restoration  of  Ignatina,  as  well  as  the  withdrawal 
of  certain  attempted  invasions  of  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  West.  On  the  lefnsal  of  his  demands,  N. 
azoommnnieated  Photias  (see  OBnx  CmnOB), 
■^  ""■"'"""'"  "  refatm,  assembled  a  eonncil  at 


■eat  of  ovil  sovoeiont,  _ 

ople  the  ecclesiastical  aupremaay  was  likewise  trans- 
fened.  The  Emperor  Michael  snpporting  Photius 
in  his  claim,  N.  faded  to  command  submiBsion  to  his 
sentence  ;  nor  was  it  till  the  following  reign,  that  of 
Basil  tho  Macedonian,  that  Photius  was  deposed, 
and  Ignatius  restored  to  his  see.  Meanwhile,  how- 
ever, N.  hod  been  embroiled  with  the  Emperor 
Ladvig.  The  pwe  had  been  appealed  to  by  the 
nnjuatiy  divorced  wife  of  Ludvigs  younger  brother, 
Lothairo,  king  of  Lorruiie,  and  hod  appointed  legates 
to  ioqiiire  into  and  report  upon  the  case ;  and  the 
I^ates  having  exceeded  their  powers  by  nving  a 
— ' in  favour  of  Lothaire,  the  pope  declared 


their  sentence  null,  and  aicommnnicated  them. 
I^dvig  etpooeed  their  cause,  and  marched  his  troope 
to  Bcme.  in  order  to  enforce  satisfaction.  After  some 
hostils  demonstrations,  the  emperor,  terrified,  it  is 
■aid,  by  his  own  sadden  illness,  and  some  fabtlities 
which  befell  his  followers^  desisted  from  the  ent«- 
pnse,and  withdrew  hi*  troops  Lotbwrewasfwced 
to  make  rabmission ;  the  deeiee  of  N.  was  enforced, 
and  llkeatber^  was  fbimalljr  mnstated  In  her 


tucelli.  Bom  at  Pisa  in  1398,  he  was  educated  at 
Florence  and  Bologna,  and  having  fixed  his  resi- 
dence in  the  latter  city,  be  was  eventuallj  named 
bishop  of  that  see  by  the  pope.  Eugeniua  IV. 
During  the  boubled  period  of  tito  CouncUs  of  Basel 
and  Florence,  and  in  the  difficult  nenttiations  with 
the  German  and  other  ohorchee  whiSi  arose  there- 
from, he  conducted  himself  with  such  ability  and 
pmdence,  that  on  the  death  of  Eagenius  IV.  he  was 
chosen  to  succeed  him  on  March  6, 1447.  At  this 
time,  the  anti-pope,  Felix  T.,  still  maintained  himself, 
althonujh  supported  by  a  very  smaU  [orty ;  but  N. 
prevailed  on  bim  to  abdicate,  and  thns  T«itorod  the 
peaceof  the  church  in  1449.  In  the  judgment  of  Uie 
literaiy  world,  however,  the  great  distinction  of  the 

Gntincate  of  N.  lie*  in  the  eminent  service  which 
rendered  to  that  revival  of  letters  which  dates  from 
his  age.  The  comparative  repose  in  which  ho  found 
the  world  at  his  accession,  enabled  him  to  employ, 
for  the  discovery  and  collection  of  the  scattered 
master-pieces  of  ancient  learning,  measures  which 
were  practically  beyond  the  resources  of  his  prede- 
oeasora.  He  despatched  agents  to  ^  the  great 
centres,  both  of  the  East  and  of  tiio  Wes^  to 
to  copy  every  important  Greek  and 


purchase  o 


was  above  , — ^ 

Boman  nniveraity.  He  remodelled,  and  may  almost 
be  said  to  have  founded,  the  Vatican  Library.  He 
caused  translations  to  be  made  into  Latin  of  most  of 
the  important  Greek  classics,  sacred  and  profane. 
He  invited  to  Borne  the  most  eminent  idiolaie  of 
the  world,  and  extended  his  especial  patronage  to 
those  Greeks  whom  tfie  tronbles  of  their  native 
country  drove  to  seek  a  new  home  in  the  WesL 
Alarmed  by  the  progress  of  the  Tnrlusb  arms  in 
Asia,   he    endeavoured   to   arouse    the    Christian 

of  Europe  to  the  du^  of  succouring  their 
'  "  ■"  ■  '  ■  the  «[e  of  enthnsiaam 
to  look  on  inactively  at 
.  n  1453.  This  event,  b^ 
forcioK  a  large  number  of  learned  Greeks  to  repair 
toltalyandotherconntries  of  the™'--'  -—■-^'—■-' 

Jly  to    that    progress    ol 

deeply  at  heart;  nut  he  scarcely  lived  to 
enjoy  this  r^ult,  having  d'   '  '~ "  '-■--    '- 


irethren  of  the  East; 


I    of   learning   which 


same  name,  Peter  de  Corbario,  who 
1323,  by  Ludvig  of  Bavaria,  in  ant 
XXILIq.v.).    See  Nicolas,  St. 

NIOHOIiAS  L,  more  properly  NIKOLAI 
PAULOYITCH,  emperor  of  Bnssia,  was  the  third 
son  of  Paul  L,  and  was  bom  at  St  Petershnrft 
7th  July  179G.  He  was  very  carefully  edacated 
under  the  eye  of  hia  mother,  a  princess  of  WUrtem- 
berg,  and  subsequently  devoted  his  attention  to 
military  stodiM  and  political  economy,   without. 


European  conntries  in  1S16,  and  in  the  same  year 
made  a  tour  through  the  Bussian  provinces.  On 
13(h  July  1817,  be  married  Frederika-Louisa- 
Charlotte  -  Wilhelmina,  the  eldest  daughter  of 
Frederic  William  111  of  Prussia,  and  lived  in 
domestic  retirement  till  the  death  of  Alexander  I. 
(December  1825),  when,  owing  to  the  resieuation  tA 
bis  elder  brother  Conatantine.  be  sncceeded  to  the 
thnme  of  Bnnia.  A  long-prepared  mibtary  con- 
spiracy broke  out  immediately  after  his  accession, 
which  ha  snpniessed  with  great  vigour  and  cmelty. 
C^iHal  pnnwiment,  whidi  had  been  abolished  uj 
the  EmpteM  SUzabeth,  was  revived,  for  the  poipose 
of  inflicting  it  npcn  the  laadcas  of  tiie  inmmcBon. 
__^, 


IWottOtsOlf-lttcKfiL 


nw  nbdi  ««te  litmtod  down  with  mardleM 
SMtgT,  ud  in  no  CMS,  even  after  the  nbellion 
«e»sed  to  be  is  the  leMt  degcM  itagBoma,  wm 
their  pmuahment  conunated.  Initetd  of  parniiDg 
the  oooTM  Dpon  iriuch  Alemtder  Iu>d  entered— 
onltrnting  the  mind  of  the  nation, 


to    ths'  ancient    policy    of 


>mutoi7 
the    Cz 


'zan,   abaolnte 


deepatiBm,  mpponod  hv  mera  militair  power. 
Hia  finrt  great  meaanre^  tne  codifiution  of  Eouioa 
law,  wai  oommenoed  In  1827i  and  oonuilated  in 
laUL 

Boon  after  hia  hcoegnou,  a  war  with  Fenda 
oommenced,  but  it  wai  condaded  on  28th  February 
1838,  by  the  peace  of  Torkmaniihal,  which  gave  a 
oonEidetahle  extent  of  territoiy  to  Bnaaia.  In  the 
MUne  year  be  entered  i^n  a  war  with  TtiAxj,  hi 
which  viototy,  though  at  enannona  coat,  oonatantly 
attended  hia  anu:\  and  the  peace  of  Adrianoiue 
(q.  t.)  obt^ned  for  Rnaia  anothfr  inorease  of 
territory,  the  free  navigation  of  the  Daunbe,  with 
the  rl^i  of  free  pasaKe  between  the  Blank  and 
Idediterranean  Se&a.  lie  political  morementa  of 
1830,  in  the  wort  of  Europe,  were  loUowBd  by 
a  national  ritins  of  the  Folee,  which  wai  cnp- 
|iKwed  after  a  oeoolating  conteat  of  nine  monUu, 
in  which  the  otmoat  effbita  tS  the  whole  nulitaiy 
i«Hiuc«a  of  Bnnia  were  reqniraL  H.  pnoiahed 
the  rebellion  by  convertisg  the  kti^doin  u  PoUnd 
into  a  mere  Bouian  province  and  above  to 
extdngtuah  the  Folish  nationality.  This  policy, 
hovrerer,  wai  viewed  with  great  disaatiiaaation 
thi«Qghaut  Europe,  and  the  vanquished  Poles 
ware  everywhere  regarded  with  genial  sympathy. 
Bnaaia,  by  N.'a  mode  of  government,  became  more 
and  more  aeparated  from  the  fellowihip  of  the 
weateru  nations.  Intellectoal  activity  wai,  aa  far 
a«  pouible,  restrained  to  thing!  mer^  practicid, 
edncat)<»  limited  to  p^paration  for  the  public 
service,  the  prea  waa  placed  nnder  the  ibricteet 
cenaotutip,  and  every  meani  noed  to  Wing  the  whole 
mind  of  tne  nation  nnder  c^dalgnidaace.  HiaPaii- 
daviom  (q.  v.)  also  prompted  him  to  RnaaiaDiBa  aa 
modt  aa  possiole  all  the  mhaUtanti  of  the  empire, 
and  to  oonvert  Itoman  Catholioa  and  Kotertanti  to 
the  Bneaiau  Gt«^  Chnmh,  ol  which  ttieCEBria  the 
head.  The  ind^endenoe  ot  the  inonntuneen  of 
Qm  Oancaaoi  wu  mconaiiteot  with  hia  achemea,  and 
war  waa  ooDieqtieittly  waged  against  tiiem  with  the 
ETeabeat  cLCigy  and  pcraeverane%  although  with 
Ettle  anccees,  and  at  the  cost  of  immense  aacriSoea 
both  c£  money  and  lives.  Hie  extenaion  of  Britdah 
influence  in  Central  Am  waa  also  viewed  by  him 
with  alaTm,  and  waa  attempted  to  be  conntoncted 
by  variooa  means,  amon^vriiidiwaaihe  wradition 
tor  tb»  eonqneet  of  Ehiva  in  18^  which  miled  ao 
Dgnally  (see  Ehtt^.  Between  ISU  and  1846,  be 
viaited  England,  Anitria,  aad  Italy.  Dnring  the 
political  rtonn  of  1848— 181$  be  abstained  from  feter- 
fereno^  watching,  bowevef,  for  an  ^^^ortDnityof 
doing  M  wiA  advaufaige  to  Bnssian  intereeta.  The 
''  was  at  last  fonnd  in  the  request  of  Vb» 
Aratria  for  hn  aaristance  to  qoell  the 
lis  good  service  rendered 
Austria  as  he  thonght,  n  taithftd  and  firm  ally. 
Be  mcceeded  at  the  lame  time  m  drawii^  doeer 
Hm  bonds  of  alliance  between  the  Bnsnan  and 
Fnunan  monarchies,  »  proceeding  faanght  with 
Ibe  most  nuaddevnoa  conseqiieBcai  to  Uie  latter 
power.  Hie  re-estabHabment  of  tlie  ^endi  empbe 
BtOl.hirther  tended  to  oonGrm  these  »1Hb'm^,  and 
led  N.  to  think  that  ttie  time  had  at  }«t^thaomefOT 
cariTing  Into  effect  the  hereditary  Rnnian  scltEme 
for  the  absorption  of  Turkey :  bnt  tiw  nnespected 
oppwitum  of  Britun   and  Franoe,  and  hia  own, 


empeior 


invincible  repngnance  to  nve  Dp  his  long-plaimsd 
scheme  of  conquest,  broi^t  oa  tiie  Crimean  War, 
durinff  the  course  of  which  he  died  at  St  Pet^w- 
ba%Uaroh  2, 1S55,  of  atn^y  of  the  longs ;  bofe 
hia  death  waa  nndonbtedhr  hastened  by  ch^jrin  kt 
the  repeated  defeats  vridon  his  arma  sortained,  and 
by  ov<c4nxie^  and  the  vccenive  labour  he  nnder< 
went  to  repur  his  leasee.  Eb  was  remarkahle  for 
tempennce,  fromlity,  and  pstriotisn),  but  equally 
so  for  vaoil^  tM  ostantatioQ.  He  was  fanataoally 
beloved  by  nfs  Boaaian  subject^  and  waa  st  tlte 
same  time  rerauded  by  them  with  feelinos  <it  awe,  ft 
tribute  to  his  lofty  sb^ore  and  impttial  deportmeol, 
which  gave  him  the  moat  intense  pleasnie.  This  ex- 
treme vaui^  Mems,  to  i<Mne  extend  to  have  aflected 
his  mind,  and  to  have  been  paHly  ths  eansa  of  hfa 
political  blnndering  towarda  the  cloae  of  his  rogu. 

KICHOIiBON,  JoHH.    See  Son-,  V<±  X. 

NIXIIAS,  a'  famona  Atheman  stiAsmaB  and 
general  during  the  Pdoponneeian  War,  was  Ibe  Bca 
of  NkeratoB,  a  very  wealthy  citisrai,  who  had 
aoqnired  hia  foitnne  ij  wnAing  the  Blver-saiDca  •! 


and  after  the  death  of  Ferioles,  presented  hjasetf  m 
the  opponent  of  deon,  the  great  popular  «c  deoan* 
godo  leader.  Be  waa  not  a  man  M  qnick,  brilliaut^ 
andadons  gentna,  like  Aldbiades;  on  the  ocm- 
tiaiy,  he  wai  remarkably  waiy  and  eantioas, 
even    at    Idmea    to   tiniidity.     Slice 


Melee  and  the  coasts 
that,  he  obliged  the  Spartan  force  in 
to  BUtrender,  and  also  defeated  the  Onin 
424  B.0;,  he  made  bavoo  of  part  «f  l^wiis- 
ointared  the  ialaad  of  Qyther%  and  aohieved  several 
ctfiar  mooMBK  After  the  death  <d  CkoM,  ha 
bionght  abont  a  peaoe  between  the  Spartans  and 
Athenians,  ^1  b.  a  Six  yean  afterwards,  tb« 
Athenian^  at  the  instiaation  <d  Alcibiade^  raaolved 
on  a^t««t  nav»l  ezpedltian  aoainst  Scily.  N>  waa 
t^^pomted  one  of  tiie  nommandeni  alUioa^  he  bad 
sbimgly  protested  against  ths  undertaking  la  ths 
autumn  of  415  a.  a,  he  laid  siege  to  Syiacosa,  and 


destn^fed,  and 
his  tro^  tK^sn  a  retieat  towsidi  the  inteder  a< 
Sidlv.  They  weie  iq)eedi^  forced  to  sumoder, 
and  N.  waa  put  to  death  414  a.a  See  Thiriwall'a 
and  OroteTa  Sigtrie*  <if  Ormet,  and  Plntaieh'a  I^ 

NtOKBL  (tymbo!,  Ni;  equlv.  29'S-^ew  aysteoi, 
69— sp.  grav.  8'8)  is  a  Ktayirii-n4iite  listening  metal, 
eapable  of  lec^vmg  ahi^  polish,  of  ationt  Oe  nam 
hardness  aa  iron,  and,  like  that  metaL  malleable  and 
ductile.  It  haa  about  the  same  fasibili^  as  wron^ 
iron,  but  is  Ices  TeadUy  oxidised  Uian  Utat  imSal, 
since  it  remaiiis  nncluuued  for  a  lonn  lime  in  a  midat 
atmosphere^  and  is  very  utile  attackM  bvdSute  acidn 
It  is  Btronriy  magnetio,  but  loses  tnis  piopcrty 
when  heatedto  060',  It  dissolves  in  hydrocdilono  and 
dilate  snlpbnrio  add  with  a  development  of  hydrogen 

naod  n  very  readily  ozidiBed  m  nitrioacid. 
,  only  oocnrs  in  the  native  state  in  meteorio 


Weetphalil^  Honnry,  Sweden,  fta,  idurn 

-in  the  form  of  fanjj^nfcW  (id  called  from  fta 

yellowish-red  oolonr),  which  is  a  CMnbiiurimn  of  N. 
andatsenic.  The  metal  is  obtained  on  ttie  large  scale 
{tor  the  imrpose  of  makmg  Qennan  silver  (q.  v.)  and 
other  slloys)  otho'  from  this  componnd  or  <peM^ 
whieh  is  an  impure  ■r«enio-saJphii&  of  N.,  fonned 


in.fi.nvLiOOglC 


KlOO&AA  ISLAiltS-inCOiiebMA. 


daring  tha  niMiiitKttnm  at  Bmait  (q,  t.)i  I>7  aonie- 
what   comj^lioated  duniical  prooeiset.     In  nnalt 

aruntitia^  it  nikf  ba  obtained  t^  redncing  one  of 
•  <md«a  by  msMU  of  liTdn^en  at  a  high,  tempei- 
Mtnre,  or  t^  «zponiie  tlw  Mudate  to  a  rery  £i^ 
i „..„  'tt  »  cnuaMe  lined  with  oharooaL 


betDpentoM  in  k 
n.    form*  twc 


,        .         a  Meqni  ,  , 

iauotbaiicL  aadmaybepaMedoveriritbont  farther 
notuM.  The  pnbiaAt  occnn  ae  a  greenieh-gny 
potrder,  whiah  eihibiti  no  magnetic  pFopeitieB,  and 
la  ineolnble  in  mter.  It  ia  obtuned  by  oefttbiQ  the 
oarbonate  or  Uie  hydrate  protoxide  in  a  cToeed 
onicible.  Hie  hjrdmted  protoxide,  MO,HO.  is 
obtained  by  precipitation  from  a  aolutioii  of  one  of 
ito  MltB  by  potaw.  The  ealta  of  the  protozida  and 
&eir  atdubone  are  of  a  delicate,  very  obamcteriitio 
green  coloari  bnt  in  the  anhydnina  state  moet 
of  them  an  vellow.  TIm  nennal  mlti^  aolnble  in 
water,  alig^y  reddea  litmoa,  have  a  gweetiah 
aatringent  m^allio  taate,  and  iriien  adminiitei^ 
in  mooerata  doee^  excite  Tomitms-  The  moat 
important  ot  the  aalti  ia  the  anlphate  (NiOSO^ 
7B^0),  which  crmtalluea  in  beautiful  green  rhombic 

Sliiui.  It  it  ootained  by  dinolTinc  the  metal  or 
oxide  in  dilute  lulphario  acid :  ai^  is  the  aonrce 
from  which  the  oth^  lalte  of  If.,  the  carbonate, 
oxalate  Jco;,  are  obtained.  The  principal  oae  of  N. 
ia  in  the  compoaitdoo  of  Tariooa  aUoya,  inch  aa 
Oerman  Sflver  (<|.  v.). 

In  1880,  a  prooeai  was  perfected  by  Fleilmann  for 
producing  large  piecea  of  nickel  ia  malleable  fonu, 
heretofore  impoeaible. 

NI'OOBAB  I8IiAin}S,  a  nonp  of  iduda  in  the 
Indian  Oeeaa,  bmA-wcsI  of  niBiato%  uid  tonmng, 
With  Oo  Andainana  (q.  t.),  an  extenaioB  of  tii« 
gnal  idand  diaitt  of  iriiidi  J*vs  Had  Snmatnt 
are  the  principal  linka:  I^k  6*  40'— 9*  SV  N., 
long>  Sr— M*  E.  They  are  divided  by  the 
Semtnero  Channel  into  two  gronpo,  of  which  the 
plindpal  ln«mbem  are  the  Great  N.  (area  about  3S0 
iqnare  milea),  and  the  IJUle  N.  <area  84  aquare 
milea).  1%e  inhabitanta,  who  are  not  numerona,  are 
dMnct  from  Ualaya  and  Burmeae,  and  ar«  said  to 
reaemUethehill-tnbeainFormoaa.  Hie  Danea  made 
a  wttlan«nt  here  in  1754,  were  diapoaaeoed  bv  Great 
BrifauD  trota  1907  to  1614,  and  flrudly  withdrew  in 
1S48.    In  1869,  tte  Indian ' — "- 


48.  In  1869,  OtelndtaQsoTeniment  took  posae^ 
m  of  these  Hlaada,  andaffiB«ted  Oe  new  aaltieiBMkt 
at  NanoowiT  Hazboiu  to  tta  mat  panat  tuAoay  at 
Pott  Blair  m  liie  *i>^*n»M  talanda.  Hie  aDU  fi 
fnlile,  and  the  ixama-DBt  palm  growi  abundantly. 


ISth  March  ll'sS,  at  Berlin,  where  hia  Ltht.  .  .._ 
aho  a  bookaeller.  Be  dcToted  himself  Tety  eameeily 
to  literary  and  philoaophical  atndiea,  and  early  dia- 
tingoiahed  himaelt  byjiia  Bri^t  flier  Jen  jetxigea 
Zuttand  (Ur  mAmun  WiMouotUfflM  ffierL  I7S6),  in 
IrUch  he  expoaed  tiie  errors  of  both  Qotteohed  and 
Bodmer,  then  carrying  on  a  controrersy  which  was 
agitating  the  literary  world  of  OtOToany.  He 
became  the  aaaocdate  o(  LeoaiDg  and  Moaee  Men- 
deUaohn.  Jointly  with  the  latter,  he  edited  toi 
iome  tinie  the  admirable  BiUieOet  der  iA9at» 
irCfMiweAiVim  (Leip.  1767— 1768) ;  and  with  Leating, 
he  gave  to  the  woiM  Britfe,  dU  neuaU  daitMe 
LUtnOiir  Utrtghtd  (34  toU.  BetL  1759—1765).  I^ 
thia  he  waa  led  to  conceive  the  pUit  ot  the  AUm- 
moM  ieaUfM  BH^otkA  (106  Tola.  1766—1792), 
a  periodical  iriilah  ha  edited  for  many  yeara,  and 
which  eontttbttted  much,  particidarlyin  the  eaiiy 
period  ot  ita  eiistenoe,  to  the  progreaa  of  Uterature 
and  imprvrement  tA  taate  in  Gennany,  bnt  waa  too 
traqoently  ohancteriaed  by  an  undue  acerbity  of 


tone.    N.'a  hostility  to 


the  toir  Nhooli  of  &ten>tni« 
in  0 


Goethe,  Schiller,  I^vster,  and  fuUe. 
took  ^iKe  Sth  January  ISll. 

Among  N.'a  woAi  vm  bo  mentioned  his  Topo- 
grtgAi»t£-hitlori»du  BttAreSniaa  von  Berlin  wnd 
nttdam  (Bed,  179B,  Sd  edtk  I78B):  OKanufarM- 
ladtea^lMDiMmwii  AtetlrHA/7.(Bml.  178S— 1792), 
both  of  penniiMnl  nine )  mvm  lumls,  as  Us  Men 
mi  JfAuaigm  <to  Magltur*  StbMn  NoOuUOitr 
(4U)  edil  Beri.  1799)  t  ff«dMU«  eiw*  (iiafeii  JTONMS, 
a  Hhar^  natatfol  petfomaooe  fi  Tdk  beti  ITH)  ( 
BtK/reBMivg  Oiur  BetmdwiADeitttMami  taul  ilia 
StAuxta  (B^  1781 ;  M  adit.  18  vols.  I78»^1796) ; 
an  aaitobiogntphy,  pnbBahed  In  the  JMMsaa  jetxi 
lebender  BerUntr  OaieArtni,-  and  a  wwk  eutflJed 
Utbtr  meiM  ^eMrta  AftftM; ,  flier  tncine  KmnMm 
thr  OHtbokn  Phihi^fliit  wri  mtint  &Mrtm 
rfi«W!B«  bttr^lmd  (BwL  1700). 

NICOTiAI.  Owo.    See  Snpp.,  Vol  X. 

NICOLAS,  St,  a  highly  popuUr  aaint  of  ttkc 
Roman  Cathuic  C3iui«h,  and  reverenced  with  etill 
greater  devotion  \ig  the  finssian  Cluudi,  which 
rsnrds  him  aa  a  qMoiat  patron,  waa  Mie  of  the  earh 
bidiqps  ot  Myra  in  Lyci^  Tha  preeiaa  date  of  hia 
episcopate  ia  a  sohiect  of  muoh  contioTW^y.  Ac- 
cording to  the  popolar  acoounli  he  was  a  confessor 
of  the  faith  in  the  last  perseention  imder  Maxi- 
■liniaa,  and  having  earrlved  nnlil  the  Onuoil  ot 


sinatuTM  to  tha  deond,  nor  b  he  nantiened  alow 
«iHt  tha  othsr  diatingnislied  «onf msmis  of  the  faith 
present  a*  the  conmdl,  eitber  1^  tbe  his- 


toriaBt,orw)uitit  nxmimpsrtan^byStA! „ 

He  m^,  with  mai«  probability,  be  refamd  t«  • 
later  period ;  hut  he  cwtainly  lived  prior  to  the 
reign  of  Jntiaiaa,  hi  iAom  time  sereral  of  tha 
ehnrehee  of  Coaatantiunde  wwe  dadkated  t»  SI 
Nicobs.  Of  his  penooat  Usbay  hardly  aiiytiiina| 
is  certainly  known,  and  the  great  popnlstibr  m 
tiia  dentioti  to  him  rssts  mahuy  an  ue  tonditUmai 
both  in  tha  Wwt  aul  m  the  Bast^  of  tiu  mas/ 
mirades  wiondit  throngh  Us  intuiuwsiuu^  Ha  i» 
regarded,  in  Ouhdio  oonntries,  ss  the  sipMisl  patroB 
of  the  ytnn^  sad  pacticnlariy  of  sskolsis.  In 
Bndand,  hisTeMt  waa  oelebtated  in  ancient  timas 
wita  paat  solemnify  in  the  pnblio  ■choda,  Bton, 
Saram  OathedraL  Mid  elsewhere;  and  a  onrtooa 
I>Tactic^  founded  vpon  this  chaiaotoistio  of  St 
H4  still  subsists  in  soma  ooontriea,  wpacially  ia 
Oetnany.  On  the  vigil  of  his  feast,  wUch  ts  held  on 
tfae  CUt  Deosaibsr,  a  penon  in  the  appaaniMe  aad 
costome  of  a  Uihop  sasamblea  the  abildreii  d  a 
family  w  of  a  schod,  snd  distrihotes  among  tiwM, 
to  the  good  <jii)dre&,  gU  nots,  swestaseattt  and  athw 
"'"1  pneents,  as  the  reward  lA  Mod  aondaet;  to 
nanj^^  ona^  Iho  redoabtaUe  pmiiahmMit  ot 
tha'ElaaUut'  The aoppoaed  relica of  St  N.  were 
oonv«yed  fnnn  tha  east  to  Bari,  in  On  kingdoni  of 


incOME'DEIA,  the  capital  of  ani^ent  Bithynia, 
was  aitoated  at  the  Qorth-eastBm  angle  of  the  Onlt  of 
Astacua,  in  the  Fropontis,  now  oidled  the  Bay  of 
bmid,  waa  built  about  264  ^  d.  by  moomedea  L, 
who  made  it  the  capital  of  hia  kiiis«>tn.  and  It  soon 
became  one  ot  the  most  magnificent  ana  flonriahing 
cities  in  the  world,  and  acune  ot  the  later  Boman 
emperors,  anch  as  Diocletian  and  Constantins  the 


Great, 


]r^  anch 
aeiected 


it  for  their  tempomy  lendeo 


Ljyic 


ffiOOPOtJS-^snSBUBSL 


waBmA  voatlv  Iratli  from  earthqaalcM  and  the 
attoolu  of  the  Gothi.  Conatentme  died  at  a  royal 
villa  In   tlie  immediate  Ticmity.      Hannibal  com- 


of  Imnid  or  lanikmid  now  ooonpise  its  mte,  and 
oontami  many  relics  of  ancient  Nioomedeia. 

NICOTOLIS,  recently  a  Tnrfcuh  fortren,  Imt 
Bnoa  1878  a  city  of  the  newly  oonititated  princi- 
palis of  Bnlguia,  ii  on  the  Danube,  about  fio  milet 
we»t  of  Bnat^nk.  The  fortificationi,  thanoh  azten- 
aive,  were  never  of  mnch  importanoe,  and  uie  Berlin 
CongreM  oi  1878  provided  for  their  demalition. 
The  atj  wed  to  be  divided  into  two  portioni ;  the 
iortrem  and  Tnriu«h  town,  defended  on  eveiy  gide 
hf  batteriM and  ramparts,  aod the eaitornqnarter. 


..     _  ...  of  the  home* 

beiiu  ntronnded  bf  gardeu.  It  ii  ao  important 
marfert  for  Wallachian  watet,  hot  otherwiM  ii  not 
a  great  oenbe  of  trade.  Wine  ia  piodDeed  in  the 
viSnity.    P05. 16,000. 

N.,  uie  ancient  NieopUit  ad  lOrvm,  waa  founded 
by  IVajan,  and  fngmenta  of  the  old  wall  itill 
remain.  Here  the  Htinnriani,  nnder  Uieir  kiDc 
Simsmtind,  wen  defeated  oy  the  Soltwa  Bajazet  f 
in  1396.  Hie  oity  gi*ea  tiUe  to  a  Greek  arohbiihop 
sod  to  a  Catholio  biihop. 

NICOTIA'NA.    See  Tobacco. 


which  it  oocnn  in  combin^ioD  with  malic  and 
dtrie  aoida.  It  ia  likewiae  contuned  in  the  smoke 
of  the  boniiiig  leava^  It  i*  a  oolonriew,  inteneelj 
poiaonona  liqnid,  of  ipeciSo  gravity  1-QZ7  at  66°, 
which  b(^  at  480°,  evolvee  a  ver^  u-ritatino  odour 
of  tofaaoeo,  eapecially  on  the  apphcation  of  heat,  ia 
To^  inflammable^  and  bums  with  a  nnoky  flame. 
It  u  moderately  soluble  in  water,  and  disaolves 
nadiW  w  alcohol  and  ether.  If  exposed  to  the  air,  it 
•bsoibi  oxygen,  and  becomea  brown,  and  nltiinately 
•olid.  The  quantity  of  N.  contained  in  tobacco  variea 
from  2  to  S  per  cent. ;  the  ooaiacr  kinds  coDtainiug 
liie  larger  qnantaty,  while  the  beat  Havannah  oi«ars 
Mldom  eoatainmore  than  8  par  cent,  and  often  leas. 

A  remarkable  case  of  poisoning  by  If, — tliat  of 
the  Connt  Bocanni,  who  wa«  tned  and  executed 
In  Belginm  for  the  murder  of  his  brother-in-law — 
is  recorded  in  the  Annala  cCHygiine  16CI,  and 
was  the  ocoadon  of  Orlila'a  publisMng  his  Mimoirt 
mtr  Ut  NieaUnt.  A  distinguished  student  of  the 
CoU^s  of  Chemistry  snbseqneotly  employed  it  for 
the  porpose  of  suicide.  The  deatiu  that  have  takan 
place  from  Uia  use  of  tobacco  in  the  form  of  injeo- 
tion — of  which  several  cases  are  on  record — were 
doubtleaB  due  to  the  action  of  this  snbatanoe. 

ITIBBUHR,  EARffTEN,  a  distingnished  geographer 
and  travellcir,  was  bom  in  1733,  m  the  Hanoverian 
tcnitolT  of  Hadein,  on  the  confinea  of  Eolstein. 
Being  early  thrown  on  hie  own  resources,  ho  spent 
Mveral  years  of  bis  youth  in  the  position  of  a  day- 
Iabo<u«r;  but  his  natural  energy  naving  led  him  to 
apply  himself  to  the  study  of  geometry,  and  having 
acquired  a  small  property,  he  went  to  Gilttingen, 
whwe  be  attended  the  dissea  at  the  nnirersity  mitil 
Ua  TCwnicea  were  wholly  exhausted.  At  this  [laiod 
he  entered  tiie  Danis^  service,  and  in  1761  he  joined 
the  aeientifio  ezpeditmn  which  King  Frederick  V. 
■ent  to  exidore  cert^  portions  of  Arabia,  with  a 
view  of  iUustrating  some  passagee  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. The  expedition  reachedCairo  at  the  cloee  of 
the  year  1T61,  and  after  having  carefully  explored 
'-'-    and  crowed  tiie  desert  to  Mount 


Sinai  and  Sue^  proceeded  to  Aralna  Felix.     Hera, 

however,  the  varions  members  of  the  expedition, 
which  included  the  eminent  natoralist  Fotal^l,  all 
perished  with  the  exception  of  K,  who  had  hiroself 
suffered  severely  from  fever-  After  the  nntdoidT 
death  of  his  companions,  ha  adopted  the  diet  and 
dress  of  the  natives— a  measure  to  which  hs  waa 
probably  indebted  for  the  good  health  which  Iw 
enjoyed  during  the  rest  of  the  travda,  which  ha 
prosecnted  wiSi  extraordioarT  rosolntioo  for  more 
than  lis  veare.  He  proceeded  as  far  as  India, 
visiting  also  Persia  and  Asiatio  IHtrkey,  and 
continued  the  observations  and  reeearchea  of  bt9 
late  cotleagues  in  addition  to  his  own  apecial 
gaographical  investigations.  On  his  retnnt  to 
Denmark,  in  1767,  N.  at  once  devoted  '"■""''^  to 
the  task  of  [lublishing  the  results  of  his  importaot 
miasiDii,  wnich  iu>prared  in  German  under  IJm 
following  tities,  Michr^iatg  von  Arabien  (Copenli. 
ITKi,  »ad  Bei$^>«»dre&img  von  ArabitK  taut  tmd«m 
umlieoendai  Landem  (Comnh.  1774—1778,  Z  vob.) ; 
the  publication  of  the  ^ird  vdlnms  <tf  this  wnuik 
was  nnfortunately  d^yed,  in  oonseqilenee  of  tte  : 
preesure  ot  nnneroos  other  en^agementa  ariaiitt 
trom  his  [Tofesaioual  and  offieud  duties,  and  it  ' 
was  not  till  more  than  twenty  years  after  hia  . 
death  that  the  book  made  its  appearance  under  I 
the  supervision  of  N.'s  daughter,  and  throna^  tiw  | 
liberahty  of  the  eminent  Dookseller  Perthea  of 
Hamburg.  In  addition  to  these  valuable  observa-  ' 
turns,  N.  edited  and  pnbUshed  at  his  ovm  cost  tits  | 
natural-history  notes  of  his  deceased  friend  and  ' 
fellow-traveller,  P.  ForskKl,  which  he  arranged  in  two 
works,  2>«>erb>{)[>iie«  j4nim(ilium,  ftu.  (Copenh.  1775), 
and  Flora  J^gptiaofArabka  (Copenh.  1776).  Tttt 
accuracy  of  deUil,  fidelity  of  delinewtion,  and  careful 
avoidance  of  all  eza^ration,  which  oharaeterisa 
N.'s  geographical  andsooial  desoriptdona  cf  Arabia 
and  other  Asiatic  conntries,  have  made  hia  mnka 
cUsaical  text-books  for  all  who  wish  to  (tody  the 
subject  Although  N.  accented,  is  177S,  a  dvil  p<wt^ 
which  lixed  his  residence  m  the  remote  provincial 
town    of   Meldorf,    iu    the    Ditmaish   district   of 


relinqnisbed  his  interost  in  scientjfic  inqniry, 
wntriEoted  several  valuable  nuera  on  the 
and  p<^itical  histcoy  <a  uie  nat 


east  to  the  Dtaitehe  Jfiusunt,  and  other  period-  \ 
icala.  He  died  in  181S,  leaving  a  character  of  b«dng  | 
at  once  one  of  the  moat  btitunl  and  scicotifloallj  | 
exact  travellets  of  modem  times.  1 

ITIEBUHB,  Babthold  Oiobo,  <me  tf  the  ma«t  ' 
aonte  hiatorians,  critics,  and  philolc^sts 
times,  was  bom  August  27,  1776,  at  Oi. 
where   his  father,  Karsten  NidiahT  (q.  v.), 
resided      The   aptitude    for   learaing   iriucki    «. 
displayed   almost   from   infancy,  led   him   to   be 
regarded  as  a  juvenile  prodigy,  and  anltke  many  oQier 

iiracouious  cluldreu,  bis  p>wers  of  acquiring  know- 
edge  kept  pace  with  his  advancing  years.  Aftv 
a  carefully  conducted  preliminary  educatitm,  under 
the  supenntendence  of  his  father,  he  ^ent  a  nmiiimi 
at    Uitttingen    studying   law,    and    from    thence 

rweded  m  his  19th  year  to  Edinbmvh,  -where 
devoted  himself  mare  especially  to  t£is  natoral 
Bcienoea.  On  his  return  to  Denmark,  tie  became 
private  secretary  to  the  fliuuice  minister,  Schinund- 
mann,  and  &om  that  period  till  ISOt  hdd  serena 
appointments  nnder  the  Danish  government,  which, 
however,  hs  waa  led  to  resign  in  oonseqnenoe  of  hia 
sbongly  pronounced  political  tendendee,  whidi 
made  him  enter  heart  and  soul  into  the  feeling 
of  hatred  of  Napoleon,  which  waa  at  titat  time 
agitating  the  minda  of  Germans.      In  accordance 


in.fi.nvGUU^Ie 


NIELLO-WOEK— NIEPCE  DE  ST  VICTOE. 


e   in  1806,  and  dnriDg  tha  time  nuuBediiig 
be  flliared  Id  the  victssitudei  which  befell  tiie 

STenument  of  hu  chief,  Coimt  Hardenberg,  »ft«r 
e   diMwtnniB  battle  of  Jena,  aad  the  oonjseqnent 

— -'  'He  Napoleonic  inflnenoo  on  the  manage- 


f  Berlin  in  1610 

promotiiiff 
,  „       a  conrae  <tf 
liiatory,  which,  by  making  known  the  temlts  of  the 
new  a.ad  ditiad  ibeory  which  be  had  applied  to  the 
elucidation  of  obacore  historical  evidence,  eetabliihed 
his  position  a*  one  of  the  moat  original  and  philo- 
■opmcal  of  modeni  hiatoriani.    Hia  appointment,  in 
1816,  to  the  port  of  FroMian  ambMudcr  at  the 
papiQ  oonit,  wnere  he  Mmained  till  1823,  gave  him 
kn  opportunitf  of  testing  on  the  spot  the  aocoraoy 
of  hia  oonjeotaK*  in  r^ard  to  many  questions  at 
local    and   tocial   bearing.      On   hia    retnm  from 
Rome,  K.  took  up  his  retidence  at  Bonu,  where,  b^ 
Ilia  admirable  lectures  and  ezpositiona,  he  contn- 
bated  veiy  mateiially  to  the  development  of  claaaical 
)u>d  udueido^cal  learning.    He  was  thoa  employed 
ivlien  the  rerolution  of  1830  rouaed  him  from  the 
oalm  of  hia  literary  parsnita.    H.'a  aenaitive  nature, 
unstrung  by  phyncal  delulity,  led  him  to  take  an 
exaggerated  new  of  the  conaequeacea  of  this  move- 
ment, and  to  anticipate  a  recurrence  of  all  the 
homHS  of  the  former  French  revolntion,  and  the 
reanlt  wa«  to  bring  abont  a  state  of  menUl  deprea- 
■ion  and   bodily  prostration,  which  ended  in  his 
death  in  January  1831.    S.'a  attunments  embraced 
at  more  extenBive  rango  than  most  men  are  c^Nible 
of   gtaaping,   for  he  was  alike  diatingniahed  aa  a 
shnnrd  man  of  boiineai,  an  able  diuomatiit,  an 
aocQiate  aoholai,  and  a  man  of  original  geniaa.    He 
had  mastered  twenty  langoagea  before  the  age  of 
tbirfy,  while  the  man  of  faeu  whudi  his  tenaoiona 
memorr  retained,  and  the  intnitave  aagaoit^  that 
enabled  him  to  sift  true  from  falae  bistono  evidence, 
and  often  to  supply  by  felicitous  conjeotnre  the 
link  wanting  in  aome  imperfect  chain  of  evidence, 
exhibit  the  eitaordinair  scope   of   hia  intellect. 
It  ia  not  to  be  deniei^  however,  that  he  ia  often 
arbitrary  aod  onhiatorical  in  hia  oonjectorea,  and 
the  atrictcr  aort  of  sceptical  critics,  like  the  late  Sir 
George  Comewall  Lewis,  even  go  ao  f ar  aa  to  reeaid 
hia  eObrt  to  conatruct  a  continuoua  Roman  hinoiy 
out  of  aach  Iwraidary  materiala  aa  we  pccaeas  as,  on 
the  iritole,  a  failure.    Anone  the  many  important 
works  with  which   be  enri^ied  the  literature  of 
hia  time,  the  following  are  aome  of  the  moat  note- 
worthy :  BBmudM  OaAidtte  (3  Bde.  BerL  ISll— 
■ —    "'  edit   1827—1842;  1833;  1853),  "     "^ 


and  Dr  L.  Schmitz ;  OruitdzOye  fflT  dU  Vtrfaxung 
NiidtrUmd»  (BerL  1832) ;  QriaA.  HanxagaMchte 
(Hambg.  1812),  written  for  hia  son  Marcna  ;  the 
KUinen  hutoritehtn  und  philologit^en  SAriftm 
(2  Bde.  Bonn,  1828—1843),  cont^n  his  intoodnctory 
lectures  on  Boman  hiatory,  and  many  of  the  eaaaya 
which  had  appeared  in  the  Traniactiona  of  tne 
Berlin  Academy.  Bealdea  these,  and  nnmerona 
other  essays  on  philological,  hiatorical,  and  arcbteo- 
logical  queationa,  N.  co-operated  with  Bekker  and 
a&et  learned  annotatora  in  re-editing  Scriploret 
hutoria  SmmHtiit;  he  alao  discovered  hitherto 
onprinted  fr^ments  of  classical  authors,  aa,  for 
inntBlv^i  of  Cicero's  Orationt  and  portiona  of  Gains, 
puUiahed  tha  Imenplhna  KiMfatt*  [Rtone,  1821), 
and  was  a  conatant  contributor  to  the  literary 
JoanalB  of  OwinaDy.  8ee  Miss  Winkworth'a  Life 
andLOUn^N.  (8  vola,,  1602} ;  Claasen'a  N.  (1S76). 
NIEIiLO-WORK,  a  method  of  ornamenting 
metal  platai  \^  engraving  the  larfaco.  and  mbbing 


in  a  black  or  oolonred  compoaition,  so  aa  to  fill  np 
the  indaed  line*,  and  give  effect  to  the  intscho 
picture.  It  is  1^  no  meana  quite  certain  when 
this  art  was  originated ;  Byzantine  works  of  the 
12th  0.  still  eiist  to  attest  its  early  emijoyment. 
Tha  fineat  works  of  this  kind  belong  to  1^  former 
half  of  the  IGth  a.,  when  remarkable  excellence  in 
drawing  and  grouping  minute  figures  in  these  metal 
pictures  was  attuoM  by  Maso  di  P^niguerra,  an 
eminent  painter,  and  atudent  of  Obiberti  and 
Maaaaoio.     In  hia  hands  it  gave  rise  to  copper-plate 

'~-<,  (see  EnottiTlNO),  and  hence  muchintereat 

to  the  art  of  niello- cutting.  Genuine 
apecimena  of  this  art  are  rare,  some  of  those  by 
FinivneRa  are  very  beantiful  and  effective,  the 
Uack  rngmeDt  in  the  lines  giving  a  Jileaainc  effect  to 
the  suruce  of  the  metal,  which  is  usuafiy  silver. 
Those  of  his  works  beat  known  are  aome  elaborately 
beautiful  pattdnes  wrought  by  him  for  the  church  of 
Son  Giovanni  at  Florence,  one  of  which  is  in  the 
Uffizia,  and  aome  are  in  variooa  private  collections.. 
In  the  collection  of  Ornamental  Art  at  South 
Kenaington,  ther«  are  no  leas  than 


of  Minsk,  flows  westward  to  Grodno  180  tniks, 
north  and  west  along  the  frontiers  of  the  Poliah 
province  of  Auguatowo,  and  west  through  East 
Prussia  to  the  Kuriache  Haffi  Entire  length,  040 
miles.  It  is  navigable  for  large  craft  at  Clrodna, 
400  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  ia  free  of  ice  from 
March  to  Novomber.  Between  Qrodno  and  Kovno 
there  are  05  rapids  and  shallows,  and  pilot*  are 
therefore  reaoired  for  the  navigation  of  the  river. 
At  Winge,  8  miles  below  Tilsit,  the  N.  divides  into 
two  biwdiee,  of  whiob  the  notthera,  the  Bnaa, 
reaches  the  Knrische  Haff  by  nine  mouths ;  and 
the  sonth^n,  tile  Gilge,  by  seven  months.  The 
delta  ia  traveisad  by  nnmerona  canals.  The  N.  ia  of 
conndeiable  commercial  importance.  I^rge  bar^ 
bring  down  the  prodnce  ^  I^thoania  and  of  a  portion 
of  Poland  to  Eoni^betg  and  MemeL  Com,  hemp, 
flai,  hidea,  and  bacon  are  the  prindpal  articles 
brooght  from  the  interior.  Its  principal  affluent  is 
the  Vilna  on  tlie  right. 

NIBPOE  DE  BT  VIOTOB,  CtAtniK-FBLix- 
AsEL,  a  French  chemist  and  piiotogtapher,  waa 
bom  at  Saint  Cyr,  near  Chalon-aur-Saone,  26th  July 
1S05.  He  aerved  for  some  time  in  the  army;  but 
having  made  an  important  chemical  discovery  in 
connection  with  dyeing,  he  was  permitted  to  excbangs 
into  tiie  municipal  guard  of  Paris,  that  he  might 
putsne  his  scientiso  studies  with  more  facility. 
1^  waa  in  1845,  at  which  time  hia  attentbn 
having  been  forcibly  attracted  to  the  important 
discoveries  in  photogtaphy  which  had  been  made 
by  hii  uncle  Nicephote  Nicpce  {see  Photo- 
graphy), he  resolved  to  devote  his  muapxm 
to  this  aubject  He  waa  led,  in  1S47,  to  tiie 
diaoovery  of  methods  for  obtaining  images  on 
glass,  coated  with  albumen,  atarcb,  or  gelatin, 
and  for  reproducing  designs  by  the  ose  of  vapour 
of  iodine.  His  investigations  were  for  a  nma 
interrupted  by  the  revolntion  of  1848,  bnt  he 
soon  resumed  them,  directing  hia  attention  mois 
espedally  to  the  obtaining  of  phofawraphic  images 
in  colours ;  and  before  the  close  of  1862,  he  OtA 
aucceeded  in  obtaining  faithfully  coloured  images 
of  fiowera  natuial  and  artifldal,  coloured  engrav- 
ings,  gold  and  silver  laoe,  ftc,  upon  aUvered 
[dat«s  which  had  been  sensitised  by  a  chloride 
of  copper.     In  obtaaning  these  pictores,  both  photo- 

foand  Uuit 

■51 


gra^io  printing  and^e  camera  were  e 
bnt  to  hti  interns  disappointment,  he  In 


^ 


NIEBaEEIN— NIOEB. 


Uia   oolonn   foou  itf^  to    fid«^   and    afUa 
tima  diMMiaued.    llua  proooM  lie  namad  *  Heli 
chromfc'    Hia  tiuid  and  moat  importut  uiTaiitu_. 
fliai  of  llieart«l  'Haliogn^iliT,'  or  tbe  pradnotion 
«f  aigniT«d  ■toel-platei  n  photofgwbj,  wu  flnt 

^'""     Ha  doe*  not  deaem  tha  credit  of  bar-'  - 


tollAn^;  tud  MrTaUot  and 

«dad  by  *  mnUw  pnxNu  in  obL ^ 

imiM  «I  Binpla  objaoti  on  ateal-platoaj  bvt  to 
N.  Mlo&e*  tka  endit  ti  bivlng  naiovad  tha 
ahnoat  Jnmnnountable  mawpobtiTa  diffitndtiaik  and 
nadand  Uta  pcweM  ot  iniwb  mora  genaial  qn^- 

__^-._  .>. ..!      .1       -"  -"--»r?ioaaU».     B« 

impraring  awl 


pco^otiBg 

IniaS^baDubliil: 
be  bad  at  diSereBt 

tfvit  dlaooTvisa  to  t ,_— _^ __, 

Qw  titk  of  Jtelwptw  fietoampUfuti,  which  waa 
tollOTM^  in  ISGtl  br  TVoiW  PMttgiM  de  Oraawv  Mr 
Jcitr  tt  *w  F«rT«.  He  preaented  to  tha  Aoadamr 
a  numbBr  of  mamoin  on  the  aution  of  light  on  a 
TariatT  tl  nbatanoait  tha  lail  htiag  Svt  FAeHon 
it  la  LmmOn  *  da  VMlaHrkM  (Abmai?  IMO). 
N.'a  aoleatiAo  atndiM  AM  net  interfere  with  hia 
ndlita^  pconotton,  a«hewaatnaaBMiTel7appdnted 
abef-d'iae«dTCn^  and  (ISM)  oommandant  of  tha 
LonTTCh    Ha  died  in  April  ISTOi 


UMtan-oiaivunaa^u  uiepmvuwe  v  lueu-neMeB. 
and  0  nilaa  aouth-aoath-eut  of  U^ranoa,  (pvea  name 
to  a  well-known  and  hishly-i^jad  wieW  of 
Bbeaiah  win^  whiob  ia  pnidnaad  in  tiia  nd^hboni- 
bood. 

KIXU'WTBIJIT  MOTTITTAINS,  a  poitiiui  of 
tba  moat  nerthnly  of  the  tiuae  langaa  of  monntiaina 
in  Cue  Oolonj,  wkA  at  Tarioua  dinaneea  fran  the 
-    -'        — '  —  puaUeltoiL    Oftheaatbna 


NMOMt  tba  MwTt  ncvuani  aatatna  tha  neateat 
iJtiS^  baviu  an  avataea  faii^  <A  IQK  feei 
nia   pmliai    ioown    aa  the  N.  H.  extend   in 


ht  al*  40'  to  s&°  30'  a,  

by  tha  mnidian  of  22*  &  tou^  From  __ 
iouthem  alopeai  tha  Gamka  or  Lion  Birec  draw* 
ita  head  watua ;  and  fcom  Uuir  nmtiieni,  the 
Oariep  ct  On^a  BItef  obtMna  an  imprntaot 
tribntary  in  tba  Upper  Zak, 

NI&TBB,  a  oeatial  depattmant  of  IVanoe,  coon- 
pi«  a  portioft  ot  the  watenhed  between  the  Loin 
and  tba  Sian^  and  ii  bonndBd  on  the  weet  by  the 
liTan  Alliar  and  Loire.  Area,  2620  iquare  nulea ; 
nop.  (1881)  347,570-  Monnlaini  ooonpy  tha  autom 
Deader,  and  ariend  in  a  line  ot  beigbta  from  aontb' 
enat  to  north-weat,  dividing  the  department  into 
two  great  decliiiljea.  Tbv  adl  ia  geoBially  rocky 
and  aandy,  cut  jip  by  ramifloataona,  almoit  alwaya 
wooded,  «  the  moQaUina  of  Uorwan,  There  are 
aaveral  plateaux  more  or  leu  fertile,  a  nnmber  of 
killa  oovaied  wiUi  Tinea,  and  Talleva  pr«diuitiTe 


Nibn*,w 


foreita  and  muwrala. 
e  the  name  of  the  department,  ia  an 

, . afSoent  of  the  Lain  from  the  right. 

The  three  cbief  riTera — tbe  AUier,  him,  and  Yonne 
~-^t*  navigable,  and  the  Yonne,  which  beloora  to 
tbe  ayatom  of  the  Saiu^  ia  ooonaoted  with  the  Loire 
l^  a  canal  leadins  aeroaa  tba  watnabcd.  Of  the 
entire  area,  more  uao  792,000  acres  are  ooltiTable 
laiod,  and  more  than  a  tbiid  of  the  whole  aurfoce 
ia  ooreiad  with  fonata,  the  timber  from  whicli, 
fonning  one  of  tha  principal  aonrcea  of  wealth,  ia 
oottfmi  by  water  in  great  qi|antiti«i  to  Paria,  to. 


M  am  made  wonTly. 
of  good  qwtlitjy  m 
obtaioed  in  abnndanoa;  lead,  oop^,  aad  ailwr  aM 
alao  found;  and  there  He  ooal  minei^  and  aq«RMa 
of  maibla  and  granite.  ArrondiwwMnta,  NcHn^ 
Ohltaan-Chittm,  Cbmesy,  and  OoaM  t  e^fitnl, 
Neven. 

NITLHim  tfitnthe  mmeFoali  aalal.  N«M< 
etood,  and  Big.  A«nw),  meuiBg  tbe  abode  ot  doodi, 
waa  one  of  the  nine  aeparate  abodes  or  i"*"""^  of 
whidi  the  old  SeandihaViaBB  oonaei*ed  the  world  aa 


1^  bwinning  <it  ^itu» 
of  oold  and  darlcneat^  and 
from  MaaptMieim,  the  kingdein  td  light  and  hasi 
1^  a  hnge  ehaam JGiuoBgami,  yawnlnc  gu>y.  Hm* 
kwa  tlw  iprinz  HTHrgtlmfi',  watdied  ^  tte  d>^m 
HidboEgar:  tlda  niiiw  aanda  oat  twdve  iea-riMn, 
from  tbe  dmpa  vt  wucfa,  tbaw«d  by  aparfca  bom 

" '-•—'— *■>--  obaoUc  nant  Tmir  a^ 

alaattw  abode  ofHd 


the  oow  AndbombU. 


NIGB'LIiA,  a  genni  of  plants  d  th* 
Older  Samateiilac^a,  haviiu  five  oolonvad  ~ 
aepala;  five  or  ten  cmairtwo-Iippad  pa 
tomlar  daw;  tbe  oaipela  mora  or  lena 
together,   many-aeedeai   tha   laavea   divided  into 


irad  ^nadiu 
1  petala,  witt 


ohieAy  of  tbo  oonntriea  near  the  Meditacianena  and 
the  warmer  tampetate  parte  of  Ana.  Borne  e( 
tbam,  oocaaionally  aeen  m  gatdeoa  in  Britain,  ate 
vulgarly  known  by  Hm  namea  .Derij-ja-a-hia&  and 
iJaM-m-a-tntft.    The  oeeda  are  anm 

wbatpeimery.  Thoaeof  JT-aaKfOia^.  .    .. 

in  comnuda  in  the  aouth  of  Eutope,  are  auppoaed 
to  he  the  BLaOK  CmoaN  of  the  ancienta,  and 
perhapa  the  Ccnuix  of  tha  Kbla.  Tbe  aeeda  of  a 
■peoiea  <J  N.  are  much  nied  l:^  tha  Afghaua  for 
bvooring  ciune*. 


of  one  of  the  natin  uubm,  JT-wUnAt,  wbiab,  aa 
wflU  aa  aU  tba  other  namaa,£Mrilifii4  (/oM^Jf^^ 
/'an,  KttOrn  i<i<torraL  and  JUtU^-nUaa,  auaaa 
dmply  'the  river.'  13iJe  prinoipal  head-watw  naea 
on  the  alopaa  of  Moont  Ijoma,  a  peak  of  ttia  Keng 
Moontaiiu,  inabarTen,dwtilata>aiidtranleaai«giofc 
•  L  9'  W  K,  1(^  «•  «■  W,  about  X^S^A 
a  aea-UvBl    It  flowa  nnth-eait  to  Tli^ttH 

ui,|iLUu.jCiOOg[C 


NIGHT-HAWK— NIGHT  HBROfT. 


tiving  a*  the  h  _ 

l«i  •faovk  IT  8tf  N,  n  muatai  intn  DWDj  bniMliei, 
Mid  «Mten  th«  QnU  of  GoinM,  batwMu  tha  Bighte 
of  BwiiB  ud  Biafrk,  It  ii  tolled  Um  Timbri  for  the 
fint  70  mOea  of  its  eonne,  aftoi  vbioh  it  Teoeim 
the  uftHM  of  the  Jolib^  oi  more  ooiTectly  DhifiliU  j 
«ad  liter  peMing  'nmbokto,  it  ii  known  prindpsDr 
>a  tlie  Qooim,  litUe  U  known  d  ite  oomM  antu 
it  leMihei  Seeo  0*1  12*  atf  N.),  ■  dirtwoe  of  300 
milee  bom  A  •eurae,  but  from  tint  point  it  he* 
hew  explored  thnmgbont  oMriy  the  whole  «<  iti 
Vnm  8ego  to  Timboktn  it  flowe  thronsh 


Ihl  Thaee,  •■  thev  pnoeed,  ere  known  ••  the 
White  toi  Blaok  Biran  nepeotivelT ;  and  they 
mite  att«B  enolodiu  the  ielnnd  of  Jimb^l*,  220 
nilei  in  lMiriyi_  enoinun  2  to  SO ■wii**  in  bnftdtb- 


•tter  ptnlBg  Uut  towi^  the  two 
farenohei,  on  ome  d  which — the  nortben — Oitbn^ 
the  port  ot  Timbuktu  ie  aitnkted,  main  unite.  In 
tke  dirtriot  (4  onion,  in  the  eoath-wect  ot  Timbnkto, 
the  eonntey  far  and  wide  ie  intenaoted  by  nnni- 
bcrleai  etreaina,  forming  a  oomplioated  net-work  of 
WKterMXNitwa,  Ti*  river  then  flowe  eart,  t'n'ling 
otf  many  cieeke  einl  bramdm  to  Bamba ;  its  bank* 
lure  are  low  and  nuuahyi  end  daring  the  niny 
eeaaMi  afe  orarflowed.  In  thie  regioi^  noe,  tobamo^ 
irtieat)  and  erw  barin  are  grown.  The  rivw 
than  pueee  tlM  tows  of  fininun,  what*  it  onrree 
to  the  eoath-eMt,  and  from  Uiii  point— called 
from  the  bend,  ihe  Knee  qf  BuTnm~-it  bean  the 
name  Kwan  or  Qoom  until  it  rcaehai  the  ddW 
Immediately  below  Bvrmat,  tile  K  doee  not 
pwennt  an  impoaiDg  i^pearanoet  It>  bed  reeemblae 
a  broad  manay  TuUnr,  encloaed  by  nAgtm  of  rock 
or  high  donee,  thickly  orergrown  with  reeda  and 
ledgee,  atid  ont  tip  l^  nnmbtalew  ■fcreanu  and 
mSkM.  At  the  ferry  o!  Bmri  (lat.  1S°  66'  N.}, 
the  bmdth  of  the  river  ii  from  800  to  900  yardi ; 
and  here  the  whole  valley,  about  10  mile*  broad, 
ii  frnhfnl,  carefully  enhivattd.  and  well  peopled. 
BWths  louth,  the  town*  ot  Oaru  and  Sandu 
are  paaaed,  and  here  the  bed  ia  loc^  and  tlie 
nangation  daiuerona.  At  the  town  ol  8^,  the 
N.,  aftv  reading  a  breadth  of  from  2S00  to 
9000  paoai^  ia  nairowed  to  a  width  of  1000 


bea^f"^' 


Kmu  Mountaina  {2000  to  SOOOfeat 

tiie  bank!  of  the  "  ^    -"- 

In  lat.  r  W  N.,  n  reoaiTee  um  Mnna  trom  ue 

eaat    The  delta  ocuMta  of  an  tmmeMe  raangnm 

frareatioot  np  into  ialanda  by  tha  nnmttoua  branchea 

(SI  in  number)  <rf  the  river.    The  pcindpal  menth* 

are  tha  Btnmy,  Hari,  and  Nun. 

The  exiatanee  cd  the  N.  aaema  to  hava  been  first 
made  known  in  anoiant  timea  by  ti*Tella[t  from  the 
■ontharn  ahoiea  ol  the  Heditemoaan,  who,  eroaaing 
the  sreat  daaeit,  eame  upon  t^  upper  oouree  of  a 
great  river  flcnring  towanl  ttie  riamg  (on.  Thia 
tinr  Hacodotna  nippoaed  to  be  a  branch  ot  the 
Cnptian  Nile.  Puny  ipeaki  of  tha  NigrU  of 
EfUcnla,  bat  he  alio  thoo^  thai  it  flowed  into 
Uw  Nil*     Mo  daOnita  noian  of   the  riTer  had 


be«i  fanned  until  it  waa  viated  by  Mungo 
Park  in  July  17fi6,  when  thia  traveller  ezplorad 
ita  hanka  for  a  dirtanoe  of  100  mileai  See  Pauc, 
Muiroo.  Caillii  explored  tha  river  from  tha  town 
of  Jennee  to  Timbnktn ;  and  the  T^ngliah  expedi- 
tion of  183%  under  Lander  and  Allen,  proved  that 
the  Qnom  waa  navigable  from  Bouaaa  to  the  aea. 
In  18S2;  the  f^enoh  government  began  laying  a  rail- 
way to  connect  EaL  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Senegal,  with  the  Niger.  InlSHDrBarthfollrnred 
the  conne  of  the  river  from  ^mboktu  to  Say. 
In  187S,  BL  Tetminck,  a  nierabant  of  Sierra  Leon^ 
eijiupped  two  of  hia  olerki^  MM.  Zweifel  and  Mooe. 
tier,  who  ax^ored  part  of  the  prinmpal  head-atream 
of  the  N.  The  entite  laogth  of  the  river  ia  wti- 
mated  at  upwarda  ot  BOOO  milea, 

NIGHT-HAWK  {ClUrMlm  Fliytefaaw},  a  bird 
of  the  Goataooker  family  tO^niimigida),  very 
comnum  in  AjMiloa,  Iraa  the  Antio  ialanda  to 
the  Weat  ladiaa.  It  ia  »  bird  ot  paaaage,  viaiting 
the  north  In  aommw.  U  la  about  mne  inohea 
in  length,  and  S3  Inohiea  in  expuiae  of  wing.  The 
ana  la  destitnta  (^  briitie*  The  tail  ia  alightly 
forked.  He  general  colonr  ia  brown,  hut  It  u 
mnch  mottied  and  maAed  witii  white ;  and  there 
ia  a  white  mark  on  the  throa^  in  ahape  lit* 
the  letter  Y.    The  N.  ia  aean  puraiung  ita  inaeot 


Nlght-haiA  ((AordnlM  VUviniamm). 

in  the  ur,  chiefly  a  little  befcve  annaet,  and 
a  dawn,  and  attonota  aUiantion  by  ita  n^ 
repetition  of  a  aharp  impatiawt  oay,  whiohhaa  fpined 
for  it  the  name  Piramidig.  It  piodnaea  ^ao  m  ita 
flight  a  rcmaikable  hollow  booming  aotuid,  'like 
*'  ing  into  the  bniw-hola  of  a  Gatrel,'  in  the 
. ..  .B^  of  ita  parpendioular  deacent  tbrov^  the 
air.  Iti  movamenti  in  the  air  ai«  exta«maly  beanti- 
and  rapid.  When  fat  and  idnmp,  aa  it  naually 
n  ita  aovthward  nugratioD,  it  ia  erteamed  fa  tite 
table,  and  great ) 


Ardtida  (*ee  Ebxo»),  intennadiate  in  form  bi 


heconjL  bnt  with  ahorter  and  thicker 
neither,andlw«ahortathaninheroni.  The 
CoxKOX  N.  B.  (tf.  Qardaii  or  Buropaiu)  ia  found 
in  Europe,  Aaia,  Africa,  and  North  America,  chiefly 
in  the  warmer  temperate  regioni.  It  ia  moat 
abnndant  in  America,  and  ia  partly  a  bird  of 
.    It  ia  a  very  rare  vudtant  of  Britain.    Iti 

^_,  friMO  the  tip  ot  the  bill  to  the  end  of  the 

abort  tail,  ia  folly  two  feet.  It  weigba  nearly  two 
pounds.  Ita  plomage  ia  aoH^  the  gmoral  wlour 
aah-n^,  passing  into  blaok  on  the  neck  and  head, 
and  into  white  on  the  breast  and  belly.  Tha  back 
ot  the  head  is  adorned  with  three  very  long  white 
teatheis,  whidi  hang  down  on  tiie  neok.  The  neata 
are  built  in  trees,  and  in  general  many  tomther, 
foniuns  a  htrmrv.  The  N.  H.  feeds  ohivBy  by 
twili|^  or  at  nlgnt;   and  is  """ 


J^ixiglc 


NIGEnNOALE. 


motioDlMi,  liko  heraii;  tnt  mlki  about  in  uandi 
(rf  prey,  by  Om  ridei  of  ditaba,  ponda,  kc;  Hi  food 
:_^ —  chisflyol  flabai^fKip,  and  othwftqiMtio 


Night  Heran  (ITyetieoraa  Qordenfft. 


NIOUTINGALB,  Florbhcx,  famed  for  her 
laboun  in  reforming  the  MUiitaiy  condition  of  the 
Britiah  annj,  ia  the  daaBhtei  of  William   Shore 


HigUy  odaoated,    and   brilliantly   

pliahed,  abe  earlr  ezbibited  an  intenae  devotion 
the  alleriatiDn  of  anffering,  which,  in  1844,  led  b 
to  ^ve  attention  to  the  conditton  of  boapitaU.    SI 
Tiaited  and  inapccted  civil  and  military  hcepitoli  all 
ov«r  Enioiw ;  atodied  with  the  Sistera  of  Charity 
in  Paria  the  ayatem  of  tttuving  and  manageinent 
oairied  ont  in  the  boipitols  of  that  city ;  and,  in 
1861,  vent  into  training  aa  a  nurte  in  the  inatitu- 
tion  of  Proteetaut  Deaooneaaea  at   KaiaenweTth, 


apptent 
ort  of  h 


'  Uie. 

and  a  firitiiib  anny'of  26,000  men  Bailed  to  the 

Eaat  Alma  vaa  fonght  on  the  20th  of  September, 
and  the  woonded  from  the  battle  -were  aent  down  to 
Uie  hospitals  prepared  for  their  reoeptdon  on  the 
banka  of  the  Boephonu.  Theae  hoapitala  were 
aoon  crowded  with  aick  and  woonded,  and  their 
nnhealthy  condition  beoame  apparent  in  a  tate  of 
mortality  to  which  the  oaanaltiea  c^  tiie  fieroeal 
battle  were  at  nothing.  In  thia  oriait,  Miaa  H.  offend 
to  go  out  and  organise  a  nundnir  depoitanent  at 
Soutaii  The  late  Lord  Herbert,  Ebon  at  tlie  war- 
office,  dadly  accepted,  and  within  aweek  from  the 
date  of  the  offer — Tic,  on  the  2lBt  of  October — abe 
departed  with  her  noraea.  9he  arrived  at  Constan- 
tinople on  the  4Ui  of  tTovember,  the  eve  of  Inker- 
mann-^tbe  beginning  of  the  terrible  winter  cvn- 
paign-^n  time  to  receive  the  wounded  from  that 
aeoond  battle  into  waidi  already  filled  with  2300 

etienti.  Her  devotion  to  Hie  sufferers  can  never 
forgotten.  She  has  stood  twenty  hours  at  a 
■tretoh,  in  order  to  tee  them  provided  with  accom- 
modaiku  and  all  the  requisites  of  tbdr  condition. 
But  ahe  MW  clearly  in  the  bod  aasitaiy  arrange- 
menta  of  tiie  hospitals  the  caoses  ci  their  fri^^nl 
mortality,  and  h^  inceesant  labour  was  devoted  to 
the  removal  of  tiieee  oaases,  aa  well  aa  to  the  miti- 
ntion  1^  their  effects.  In  the  spring  of  I85fi,  while 
in  the  Crimctt  organising  the  nnmnff-departmonta 


of  the  camp-ho^tda,  she  was  pTO*lnt«d  •wiA 
fever,  the  remit  of  nnintannittins  toil  and  anxiflty ; 
yet  she  refused  to  leave  her  post,  and  on  her  i«oo- 
very  reouuned  at  Sentari  till  ToAxj  waa  mrarnalril 
by  the  Britiah,  July  28, 1SS6.  She,  to  wtunn  many 
a  soldier  owes  life  and  bealtb,  bad  «]qieatdad  her 
own  health  in  the  phvncal  and  mental  strain  to  iritis 
ahe  had  mbjeoted  nerself.  It  is  known  tluU  lor 
yean  Miaa  N.  has  been  aa  invalid.  It  is  not  m>  mO 
known  that  ber  sick-room  haa  been  the  aoene  of  tiw 
moat  ardnont  and  oonatant  labonr  for  the  improw- 
ment  of  the  health  of  the  soldieir.  In  18S7,  J— 
foinisbed  the  'oommiiaioncn  (^pointed  to  inqoii* 
into  the  regidationa  affecting  the  aanitaiy  conditKsi 
of  the  British  anny'  wiUi  a  pmar  of  writt^ 
evidence^  in  which  the  improase^  witb  tfae  foro«  and 
eleameas  which  dittingaiBh  her  mind,  the  £iinl 
lesaon  of  the  Crimean  War,  which  she  chanMstensBa 
a*  a  sanitary  experiment  on  a  ooloasal  aeala.  H«r 
experience  in  tbe  Crimea,  the  results  obti^ned  fay 
the  labours    of  tiie   sanitary  coi — ' — ' —     — ^i.- 

aooumnlated  tinder  her  own  eyee, „ 

rata  of  mortali^  among  addiers  ooold  be  rednoed 
to  one-half  of  what  it  was  in  time  of  peace  nt  bon^ 
turned  the  attention  tA  hGss  ■"•■-"--- 


tion  of  Social  Sdenc«^  on  Hospital  Conati 
and  Arrangematt,  afterwards  puuUbed,  olons  with 
her  evidence  before  the  oonunitsionei^  \tf  "4,  W. 
Paiker  and  Son.  Tbe  Note*  o»  ffotpUaU,  frean  tUr 
clearness  of  arrangemeat  and  miDutenesa  of  detail, 
aremostvaloable  to  the  architect  thnfiwjinooi,  aal 
tbe  medical  offioer.  In  1656,  abe  pnUiahed  bsc 
Noita  on  ifarang,  a  little  volnme  whicdi  ia  *l|iailj 
among  tbe  treasured  text-books  of  many  a  hniwt 
bold.  At  the  clcee  of  tiie  Oiiinean  Wat  a  fund  wm 
subscribed  for  the  pnrpose  of  enabling  hei  to  fom 
an  institation  for  the  baining  of  norsea.  Tba  intenrt 
of  the  fund  amonnta  to  £1400  per  annum ;  — -1 
though  no  sepuata  institution  bos  been  fcmned,  it 
is  spent  in  ti-aining  a  superior  order  of  nnran  in 
ranneotion  with  St  Thomss's  and  King**  CoUcgt 
Is.  In  the  year  1883  was  istned  the  BimoH 
..  _-  -ommission  on  the  Saoitsrv  CondibM  i^^ 
Annyin 


India.  The  eomiJBte  Beport,  witili  wkleM^ 
two  folio  volumes  of  nearly  1000  Mgw  e^dL 
The  second  of  theae  bnge  ftdioa  ia  filled  w^  iboiwIm 

from  every  station  in  Iiulia,  occupied  by   TTuliah 
and   native  troope.     Th«ae  reports  were  seat   in 


it,  which  renderit 

rematfcable pnbKo  t*pa*  ever pauad.  niatBenast 
is  likdy  to  mauguate  a  new  en  in  the  goTonment 
of  India;  for  tiie  views  of  ISim  N.  extend  not  <n]y 
to  the  tanitaiy  lefbm  of  the  Britiah  anny,  fant  tD 
that  of  the  towna  of  India.  In  1871,  m-r  IT.  nah. 
lisbed  JlTotei  on  Lying-U-Ititliaitiaa»,  togtOier 

propoaal/or  ormmulng  tat  IiutitntiOH  for  tr 

Jiridiofiies  and  Midw^firv  Nuna;  in  1873,  Life  or 
DaOit  in  India,  and  (m  Fnuer't  Magcame)  'A 
"Note"  of  Interrogation,'  which  atbacted  a  good 
deal  of  attention,  mainly  on  aooonnt  of  the  w^y  ■>■» 
handles  religious  beliefs  and  life. 

KIOHTINQAUE  IPUbyntla),  a  genoa  of  faiida 
of  the  family  SjMadce,  anmwching  in  cbanwiter  to 
the  Memiid/B,  the  yaong  having  their  first  plnm^e 
motUed,  aa  in  die  thraahea,  ai^  tlie  lega  htiaf 
longer  tban  in  the  bavettes  and  other  iSVMadn,  iriS 
which  they  are  eommonly  rlattttd      The  t»ll  m 


attaint,  alender,  not  quite  at  Ions  aa  the  head ;  ttw 
wings  do  not  mnob  pM  beymd  u«  baae  id  ttw  tMlj 


NIQHT-JAB— NIGHTSOADfi. 


the  tail  U  sliglitly  rounded. — The  Comhoh 
lateiaia)  ii  well  known  oa  the  finert  of  iongrtc^ 
It  is  rather  lai^r  tluu  the  hedge-ipaiTDff,  with 
About  the  name  proportioiute  length  of  wings  and 
taiL  It  is  of  a  rich  brown  coloor  above,  the  rnmp 
and  tail  reddish,  the  lower  parta  gmjriih-whita. 
The  lexei  are  alika    It  is  a  natiTe  of  matif  parts  of 


of  Europe  as  far  north  as  the  aonth 
of  Sweden,  but  In  Britain  it  has  scorceif  ever  been 
•een  further  north  than  Yoikshire.  It  is  plentiful 
in  some  parta  of  the  iouth  and  east  of  England,  bat 
it  less  conimoa  in  the  western  countiGS,  and  does 
not  visit  Wolcs  or  Ireland.  It  freqoenta  thickets 
and  hedges,  and  damp  meadows  ooar  streams. 
The  market-fjatdens  near  London  are  among  its 
tavoorite  hauots.  It  feeds  very  mnch  on  cater- 
inllars  and  otiier  Urvn>  It  arrives  in  England  about 


NightiDgale  (Philomtla  luieinia). 


pairing  haa  taken  place,  that  bird-catchen  geoetally 
procure  nifjhtinf^ales  for  cage-birds,  as  they  then 
become  eaailj  reconciled  to  confinement,  whilst,  if 
fciken  after  [tairiug,  they  fret  and  pine  tiU  they  die. 
The  N.  rookes  its  neat  generally  on  the  ground,  bot 
sometimes  on  a  low  fork  of  a  luish.  The  oert  is 
loosely  constructed  of  dead  leaves,  rashes,  and 
stalks  of  grass,  with  a  lining  of  fibrous  roots.  The 
eggs  ore  four  or  five  in  number,  of  a  nniform  olive- 
brown.  The  soDf;  of  the  male  ceases  to  be  heard  m 
•oon  as  incubation  is  over.  In  captivity,  however, 
it  is  often  continued  through  a  more  considerable 
period.  The  N.  usoaUjr  bppns  its  song  in  the  even- 
mg,  and  sings  with  brief  intervals  thronghont  the 
night.  The  variety,  loudness,  and  richness  of  its 
notes  are  equally  extxaordinaiy ;  and  its  long  quiver- 
ing strains  ore  fall  of  plaintiveness  as  well  ss  of 
nusionate  ecstasy.  The  N.  has  been  a  favonrite 
from  most  ancient  times ;  and  is  often  mentioned  in 
the  poetry  of  India  and  Persia,  as  well  as  of  Greece 
and  noma.  The  loves  of  the  N.  and  the  rose  are  a 
foacifal  theme  in  which  eastern  poets  delight.  The 
N.  much  resembles  the  redbreast  in  manners,  and  is 
equally  puguacious.  It  has  been  known  to  breed 
with  the  redbreast  in  captivity. — There  is  another 
and  rather  larger  species  of  N.  in  the  east  of  Europe, 
laiatly  mottled  on  the  breast. 

NIGHT-JAB.    See  GoATauoxsR. 

HI'OHTHAKE  [rnetdnu,  Ephiall«$)  consists  in 
a  korriblo  dream,  the  terror  being  inspired  by  a 
sense  of  weight  or  oppression  refetred  to  the  pre«- 
me  of  mountains,  giants,  hags,  seipents,  upon  ths 


breast     It  is  attaibuted  to  acceleration  o 


It  has  been  traced  backwards  to  plethora,  posture, 
heavy  suppers;  and  forwards  ss  a  prognostic  of 
heart  disease  or  hydrothorai.  It  differs  from  ordi- 
nary dreams  in  possessing  alwa^  the  same  charac- 
teristic of  fear  of  some  object  m  contact  with  the 
body,  in  a  recognised  inability  to  move  or  speak 
while  there  is  a  strong  desire  to  do  both,  and  in  the 
presence  of  a  semi-consciousnesi  of  the  real  sonrce 
of  the  apprefaension.  The  affec^on  is  recorded  to 
have  been  epidemic ;  and  modem  instances  have 
occurred  where  large  communities  have  been  agitated 
by  ni^t  panics.  A  regiment  of  French  soldiers, 
quartered  m  a  ruined  monastery,  were  awakened, 
at  the  same  hour  in  two  successive  nights,  by  a 
block  dog  leaping  on  the  breast  of  ea^  These 
veteran  warriors,  inured  to  danger,  inaccessible  to 
superstition,  conid  not  be  prevaUed  npoo  to  make 
a  third  trisL  Such  frightful  impressions  oocur 
dming  the  day,  and  daring  mere  somnolency  or 
drowswesB,  but  more  generally  at  the  moment  of 
awakening  during  the  mght  The  time,  the  distinct 
recollection  retained  of  the  drcomstance,  and  the 
bodily  pertntbatioa  which  remained  when  con- 
sciousness was  re-established,  all  conspired  to  convert 
these  visionB  into  the  objective  hobgoblini,  tiie 
omens  and  sinwsnatoral  revelatioos  of  post  ages ; 
and  which  still  linger  as  matter  of  belief  where  the 
tempenment  or  ntuation  of  the  individual  resemble 
those  tA  onr  ancestors.  In  a  very  large  number  of 
iustoncea  snch  dreams  represent,  or  ate  continoo- 
tions  of,  the  ptsviooa  waking  thoi^hts  and  emotions. 
They  are  so  far  valuntory  that  indigestible  food 
or  excess  may  iodaca  them.  Fuaeli,  for  artistic 
porposes,  created '  clumeraa  dire '  in  sleep  by  supping 
on  pork  chops. 

NIGHTSHADE,  the  Sngltib  name  of  certain 
plants  of  the  natural  order  SbMnooMi  (n.T.),  posseM- 
ing  ths  aorootio  properties  frequently  developed 
in  that  order.  Among  them  are  some  species  of 
Solamtm  (q.  v.),  particularly  the  Comkon  N..  or 
BuxiK  N-  &.  nwnanj,  on  »"""»'        ' '       '-' 


It  Black  Nightshods  (S»Ianu»  nigrun). 


Iroocnnglateral  nmbels  of  white  liowers,  uid  globoM 
ilack  boniest  *  frequent  weed  in  waste  ?!*<»■  " 
^ngUud  and  in  most  parts  of  ths  worid.     Fcrw 

LIU  i_uu,n    L.il!?lJ'i 


MIHILISM— NUNI-NOVGOROD. 


pUnta  ue  more  widely  diffiued.  It  u  only  slightly 
narcotic  The  le&TeB,  in  a  freih  atate,  are  aaid  to 
ba  injurioaa  to  aiuinua  whioh  eat  them,  but  Bcem 
to  lose  almost  all  narootio  property  by  boiliag,  and 
are  lued  aa  ajniiach,  partioulariy  in  wana  climates. 
The  berriea,  although  generally  dreaded  or  aus- 
pected,  may  alto,  it  is  uid,  be  eaten,  at  least  in 
moderate  qaantity,  without  danger.  They  contain, 
however,  the  alkaloid  Solattiae,  foond  abo  in  the 
■boot*  of  the  potato.— For  Woods  N.,  aee  Bitteb- 
Bwxn.  For  Diadlt  N.,  see  BttUDoMSA.  For 
Enooahtxr's  S^  see  CaaxA. 

NTHILISUiB  a  term  used  of  oertoin  philoaophical 
or  haU-philoaaphical  lyBliem*  of  'negative'  tendency, 
eepeoiaUy  anch  aa  deny  Ood,  Hm  soul,  and  the  moral 
diltinction  between  good  and  evil.  Of  late,  how- 
ever, it  has  became  uuniliar  thronghont  Eorope  aa 
appbed  to  the  hyper- re voluttouary  program  of  a 
Russian  oi^anisabos  in  various  ranka  of  society. 
The  young  men  at  the  nnlveraities  aeem  to  be 
largely  addicted  to  Nihilism,  aod  are  equalled  in 
teal  by  tiie  *  fair  girl  graduates '  of  Rtuna.  The 
Ifihiliita  are  aaid  to  nave  adopted  many  of  the 
Socialiatio  viewi  of  Proodhon  (q.  v.) ;  but  while 
their  Mhome  U  in  other  reapecta  va^e  and  ill- 
compaoted,  their  foremost  principle  la  the  belief 
that  society  may  be  and  ou^t  to  be  regenerated  by 
a  sodden  and  sweqiing  overthrow  of  most  existing 
social  and  political  institutionB.  Towards  prepara- 
tion for  this  extensive  nndert^ing,  their  bold 
ptopagandiam  ia  eapectally  directed.  While  vio- 
lently opposed  to  Pan-alavism  (q.  v.)  as  anpporting 
old  and  obeoleto  notions  of  nationality  aod  patriot- 


direct  relations  with  the  Socialiatio  organiaationi 
Weatem  Europe.  Eerzen  {q.  v.),  as  an  admirer  of 
West  European  culture  widely  tj:>  be  diatingoished 
from  the  t^hilista,  gave  a  powerful  impetus  to  the 
■praad  of  demooratio  opinioas  in  Kosaia.  But  the 
gfi««t  leaders  ol  the  Niliilistio  movement  wei«  the 
udefatisable  amtator  Hiohael  Bakunin  (bom  1814) 
andthe  joumahatTchemyacbevskL  In  1S69,  daring 
certain  Etodants'  demonatrations,  revolutionary 
manifestoes  were  diatribnted.  Much  was  done  for 
promoting  revolutionary  opinions  through  the 
medium  of  Sonday-schools,  ere  tluM  were  sap- 
pressed  by  government.  Yonng  men  of  good  birth 
adopted  menial  callings  in  order  to  underatand  the 
grievancee  and  burdens  of  their  poorer  brethren, 
and  to  enter  with  fuller  sympathy  into  their  feel- 
ing Nihilistia  aaaooiaboos  began  to  display 
organised  activity,  and  conaiderable  fuuda  were 
ocdlected.  Government  now  began  nnmerous  pro- 
■ecatioiia.  In  1871  there  was  a  lenjtiiened  trial, 
and  numerous  condemnationa  to  Siberian  exile.  In 
1B7S  an  actual  rimng  to<A  place  under  a  red  banner, 
amongst  the  atudant*  at  Kazan.  In  1677,  139 
persons,  mostly  young  men  and  women,  were  tried, 
and  many  condemaed.  The  unanimous  acquittal 
by  a  St  Petersbnig  jury  of  the  lady  assaasin.  Vera 
Ssaanlitch,  who  attempted  the  life  of  General 
Trepo^  governor  of  a  prison,  displayed  a  dangerous 
condition  of  public  feeling,  and  led  to  the  signidcaat, 
though  'temporary,'  withdrawal  of  the  trials  for 
political  orimea  from  jaiiea,  these  being  sow  assigned 
to  courts- martial  The  aasasainatioa  of  public 
officials,  in  1S7S,  ahewed  the  iucreasiog  boldness  of 
the  Nihilistic  propaganda.  After  throe  unsucceaaful 
attempts^  in  1S7S  and  IS30,  on  the  UEe  of  the  Czar- 
one  by  shooting,  one  by  the  wrecking  of  an  imperial 
trun,  a  third  by  a  destructive  explosion  in  the 
Winter  Palaoe  itself— a  fourth,  by  means  of  a  bomb 
thrown  in  the  streetj  aooomplished  the  dire  puipoae. 
Hieae  and  other  outrages,  auch  aa  eitenaive  incen- 
diary drei,  provoked  very  aavera  rspresaive  meuiUM. 


The  new  czar,  Alexander  III,  lived  almost  a 

K'iaoner  in  his  palace  for  fear  of  aaaasainatioD,  and 
ihilistic  plota  continued  to  be  ftequentiy  discovered, 
military  and  naval  officeia  being  sometimes  impU. 
oated.  The  word  N.  in  the  political  aenae  was  firat 
used  bf  Turgenef  (q.  v.).  Underground  Btueia,  by 
'Stepniak'  (translated  from  the  Italian  in 'lE^), 
^ve«  a  very  interastiag  account  of  the  origin  and 
aimvirf  Nihiliam. 

NIJ^tfEOEN,  in  Emdiab,  usnally  NTHSOtTEN, 
is  a  ci<7  in  Qelderiand,  Netheriaods,  on  tiie  left  bank 
of  the  Waal,  with  a  pop.  (1881)  of  26,629,  mostly 
Catholic  ibB  French  name  of  N.,  which  was  Uie 
Noviomilffmn  of  the  Romans,  ia  Nimigueg.  It  is 
pleasantly  situated,  9  miles  south  of  Amli^m. 
Several  of  the  streets  are  steep  and  narrow,  paaainf; 
up  the  Eoenderbet^g  (Hill  of  the  Huns),  on  which 
the  Romans  hod  a  permanent  camp;  othen  are 
broad  and  well  bnilt.  On  a  height  near,  Chaile- 
magne  built  a  palace.  On  llie  brow  of  the  hiQ 
there  is  a  little  sixteen-sided  chapel  or  baptistery, 
originally  a  heathen  temple  of  the  Batavi,  and  con- 
verted into  a  Christian  church  by  Pope  Leo  ITT  in 
799.  On  another  eminence  is  a  Btodem  tower 
called  Balvidere,  from  the  mimmit  of  iriuch  there 


ternallf  onuunented  ny  several  atatuea  of  emperon 
and  kinga  ol  the  Romans.  St  Stephen's,  or  the 
Great  OhtDoh,  standing  on  the  highest  part  of  the 
city,  is  a  handsome  Gothic  edifice  m  the  form  of  a 
Greek  croei^  and  before  the  Reformation  contained 
30  altata.  TJ.  ia  a  large  market  for  cattle  and 
agrioultnnJ  produce,  especially  gtain.  Beer  ia 
extensively  brewed,  eau  de  C<uogne  diatiHed,  and 
there  are  factories  for  spinning  and  weaving ;  tin- 
goods  and  earthenware  stovea  are  mannfartnred. 


celebrated  for  the  great  pe»»  oon^esa  of  Uie 

lan  powera  which  was  held  here,  and,  lOUi 

August  1679,  concluded  a  treaty  between  SpMii  aad 


European  j 


monta  of  Vladimir  on  the  west  and  Kazan  and 
Simbirsk  on  the  east.  Area  (according  to  the  AImo- 
noA  de  OoAa),  19,390  square  miles ;  pop^  (1S79) 
1,369,369.  The  surface  is  divided  into  two  distinct 
portioDB  by  the  Volga  with  its  tributary  the  Oka. 
Chi  the  left,  the  northern  bank  of  the  rirer,  the 
surface  is  flat ;  on  the  right  bank  it  is  htUj.  Aa 
the  soil  ia  not  ve^  fertile  and  there  are  few  ridi 
meadow-lands,  neither  agri<HiltQre  nor  cattle-breed- 
ing ia  pursued  extensively.  The  inhahitanta  are 
prmoipally  engaged  in  mannfacturea.  The  chief 
rivera  are  the  Volga,  Oka,  and  their  nninerona 
tributaries.  There  ia  communication  by  water  with 
34  governments,  and  with  the  Baltic,  the  White, 
and  the  Caapian  Seas.  The  northern  distaricts  of 
the  govemmeat  abound  in  forests,  and  here  woodon 
utensils  and  tools  are  manufactured  for  the  adjoin- 
ing governments.     There  are  several  large 

worlu,  and  the  town  of  Gktrbatof  "    ■•     "   " 
ita  district.     Leather, 
EuBwan  leather,  ,,   . 

and  lamb  skin  dressing  is  a  ataple  employment. 
On  the  right  bank  of  the  Oka  are  several  ship- 
building aud  dock  yards.  The  towns  and  vilUgei 
are  filled  with  an  ukduitrioua  and  thriving  ■"•—- 
facturina  population.  Capita^  Nijni-Kc 
(q.v.). 


Sheffield  of 


Leather,  eapedally  that  variety  called 
ler,  is  lareely  manufactured,  and  ilieep 


,,  Google 


NUNI-KOVGOROB— NILE. 


NIJNI-NOVGOKOD  (Lower  Novgorod), 
famous  cotumercUl  and  louiufBCtimtig  town  in  — 
east  of  Great  Bossia,  capital  of  the  govemmeat  of 
the  same  name,  is  situated  at  the  oonillaeiioe  of  the 
Oka  with  the  V^ca,  715  milea  eaat-ioutb-eaat  of 
St  Peterabaig.  Tue  fortified  portion  of  the  town 
Docapiee  a  hul  overlooking  the  Volga,  and  is  aur- 
rounded  with  a  wall.  It  oontaioa  the  Kreinl  or 
citadel,  two  cathedrals,  and  the  palaces  of  the 
covemoTB.  Xhe  manufaeturea  of  N.  inclnde  cloth, 
leather,  steel-goods,  wax-candlei,  tobacco,  beer, 
potteiy,  ^,  and  ship-building.  The  trade  of  the 
town  IB  of  great  commercial  importance,  especiallj 
during  the  great  tnn'iiil  fair  which  brings  buyers 
and  salleia  from  all  climes  betweeo  Germany  and 
China.  For  the  oonvenience  of  those  (reqneotlng 
the  furs,  an  enonnoua  market-hall  has  been  buil^ 
and  aiity  blocks  of  buildings  for  booths,  containing 
2630  apartments  separated  by  fire-proof  walla.  The 
Qutneroua  churches  of  tiie  citizens  are  supplemeoted 
by  a  mosque  and  an  Armenian  church  for  the  viaitora. 
There  are  three  annual  fairs,  two  at  them  of  minor 
account.  The  third,  beginning  at  the  end  of  July 
ajid  continitiDg  into  ijepteinber,  ie  by  far  the  greatest 
in  the  world.  The  normal  population  (12,441  in 
1380)  ia  then  increased  to  near  3GO,000:  and  the 
value  of  the  goods  sold  at  the  great  fair  of  1SS3  waa 
about  £2G,000,000.  N.,  which  is  favourably  situ- 
ated for  jmrpoees  of  oommerce,  carries  on  a  brisk 
trade  during  the  whole  season  of  naTigation. 

N.,  foun^d  in  1221,  was  devastated  on  several 
occasions  by  the  Tartars;  and  in  1612,  when  it  was 
on  tiie  point  of  falling  a  pr^  to  Poland.  Minin,  the 
famous  butcher  of  N.,  collected  aa  armed  force  here, 
which,  under  Prince  Pojaraky,  drove  the  invaders 
from  ibe  capitaL  See  Moscow.  The  prosperity  of 
this  town  date*  from  the  year  1817,  when  tie  great 
fair  was  removed  to  N,  Ooja  Uakarief,  on  acoount 
of  the  destructive  fire  which  broke  out  in  the 
latter  place. 

NrJNI-TAOI'LSK,  a  town  of  Kusaia,  in  the 
goveinment  of  Perm,  amid  the  Ural  Mountuna,  150 
mile*  east  of  Perm.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important 
niiutig  towns  in  Rnaaia^  or  in  the  world.  Thesoilin 
tlia  immediate  vicinity  ia  everywhere  rich  in  iron, 
oopper,  gold,  and  platina ;  not  far  off  is  the  famous 
mi^etia  moantau  Blagodat,  1422  feet  high. 
Akunfi  Demidoff  (q.  v.)  established  the  first  foundry 
hei«  in  172fi>,  The  vield  both  of  iron  and  copper 
is  immensely  large.    Pop,  35,000. 

NIKOIiABT',  a  tows  of  Bootb  Btuna,  in  tho 
government  of  KberMV,  and  40  miles  noith-weat  of 
the  town  of  that  name,  stands  25  milei  abovo  tha 
month  of  the  Bug,  and  at  tb«  confluence  of  that 
liver  with  the  LwnL  It  was  founded  in  1790,  and 
ila  aituatiiai  was  tound  ao  oonTenient  for  ahip-biiild- 
ing  pnrpoH^  that  it  won  became  the  oeotie  of  the 
naval  adminutration  of  tlu  Black  Sea.  Ithaa  broad 
stoaight  atreeti,  contains  Bcreral  barracks,  a  catiie- 
dral,  Mhoola  for  pilots,  hospitals,  an  observatory, 
and  an  anenaL  In  the  first  half  of  the  present 
century,  abont  10,000  men  were  employed  at  K.  in 
ship-bnilding  and  other  naval  operations.  Since 
the  opening  ot  the  railway  system,  by  which  it  has 


with  Moscow,  &«.,  the  population  and 
trade  has  greatly  imneased.    Popt  (1880)  62,805. 

NIKOLAETSK,  chief  town  of  the  Amnr  terri- 
tory, in  Eastern  Siberia,  situated  on  a  well-wooded 
pwean  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Amur,  and  S2  miles 
iroiD  Ua  fflooth,  0750  miles  east  of  St  Petersburg. 
The  approaohea  to  the  town  are  defended  by  four 
battenes.  The  Amnr  is  here  a  mile  and  a  quarter 
broad,  but  the  landing-place  is  available  only  for 
small  craft,  all  large  vemela  being  compelled  to  lie 
in  mid-stream.    It  was  founded  in  1851 ;  in  1853, 


it  oonnited  of  150  houses,  and  in  1858,  of  249 
houses.  It  is  the  seat  of  naval  and  civil  admini- 
stration, and  the  centre  of  the  oommercial  activity 
of  the  district  It  is  a  itatinn  on  tlie  Siberian- 
American  telegraph.    Pop.  (ISSfl)  5314 

HI'KOLSBUKG,  or'  MIKULOV,  a  town  ot 
Austria,  in  the  south  of  Moravia,  27  miles  south 
of  Bninn,  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  Pollaver  Hilla, 
famous  for  their  rich  red  wines.  The  town  belongs 
to  the  princely  family  of  Dietriohstein.  It  has 
several  steam-mills,  and  cotton  and  silk  factories. 
In  the  middle  of  the  town,  upon  a  rock,  stands  the 


bank  of  the  Dnieper,  about 
mouth,  in  lat.  47°  37  N.  N.  is  the  oentt«  of  an 
extensive  agricultural  district,  the  produce  of  which 
is  here  shipped  to  Odessa.  Between  N.  and  the 
port  of  Odessa,  there  is  regnlar  communication  by 
steam-boat.    Pop,  (1880)  9706. 

NIKOSIA,  capital  of  Cyprua.    See  LMKOaii. 

NILE!  [If&it),  called  by  the  Egyptians,  Bapi  Mtt 
(the  genius  of  the  wBt««),  and  by  the  Uebrevrs 
SiiOr  (the  black),  the  river  of  North-eastern  Africa 
formed  W  the  union  of  the  Bahr-el-Abiad  (the 
White  or  True  Nile)  and  the  Bahl^el-Azrek  (Blue 
Nile).  Oaptwns  Speke  and  Grant  discovered  that 
the  first  of  these,  the  true  Nile,  flowed  out  of  the 
lake  Victoria  Nyanza,  which  extends  from  abont 
lat  0"  aff  N.,  to  2°  SO"  a,  and  from  long.  31°  40" 
to  35*  E.,  and  is  3800  feet  above  the  level  ot  the 
sea;  and  the  river  Shimiyu,  the  largest  ttibntary 
of  this  lakes  Sowing  into  its  southern  extremity, 
must  DOW  be  regsfded  as  Um  most  sontheily 
source  of  the  NQe.  The  second,  the  Blue  NiK  hsis 
its  source  in  Abyrainii^  in  lat  10^  59'  N.,  and  long. 
36''55'E 

The  White  Nile,  from  its  outfall  from  the  Vio- 
toria  Nyanza  at  the  '  Bipon  Falls.'  lat  0°  20'  N.,  long. 
33*  30'  £.,  flows  north-west  and  west  for  about  29) 
miles,  till  it  enters  the  Uke  Albert  Nyania,  within 
30  miles  of  its  nortbem  eitzemity^here  thi 


titiapart  ot  its  ooarae  the  river  ia  navigable,  and 
continues  to  be  so  untQ  it  reaohes  the  Eamma  Falls. 
From  theee  falls  to  the  Mniuhison  Falls  (120  feet 
in  bright),  near  the  Albert  Nyanza,  the  river  fbnne  a 
series  of  tainds.  Batween  the  two  Nyaiuaa  the  Nile 
is  known  aa  the  Viotoria  Nile,  or  Somerset  Biver. 

After  leaving  the  Albert  Nyuiza,  the  Nile  begins 
its  northward  course  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  has  no 
further  lake  expansion.  Between  the  Albert  Nyanza 
and  Oondokoro  (Ismailia).  in  4' 55'  N.  lat,  and3r51' 
£.  long.,  IfiOO  feet  above  the  sea,  the  Nile  Biver  de- 
scends several  hondred  feet  in  a  series  ot  rapids  and 
oataraota.  For  abont  SOO  miles  after  Gondokoto,  the 
Nile  flows  vary  tortuously,  first  in  a  north-westerly 
and  theninanorth-easteriy  direotjon,  and  is  joined, 
in  abont  lat  0°  13'  N.,  long  30*  E,  b:y  ite  fint  mtt 
affluent,  tlie  Bahr-el-Gaial,  which  joins  the  Nile 
from  the  west  with  hardly  any  peroeptibla  currant 
The  second  tributary  is  the  Giraffb  Biver,  abont 
one-third  the  volnme  of  the  Nile  at  its  point  of 
junclion,  long.  31*  E  From  the  Bahr-el-Chual  the 
Nile  Sows  in  a  doe  easterly  direction  for  abont  80 
miles,  then  south  for  30  luiles,  when  it  is  joined 
by  its  third  tributary,  the  Sobat  River,  from  the  east 


The  Sobat  u  full  uid  navigable.  Between  thii  and 
the  town  of  Kliartoum,  a  distaDce  of  aboat  460 
miles,  the  Nile  rona  in  a  northerlj  directioo,  ^th  a 
width  (^  from  one  to  two  milea,  and  ii  joined  by 
■everal  itreams  from  the  ea*t  aide. 

Khartonm,  the  capital  of  Nubia,  is  utoated  at 
the  conflnence  of  the  Bahr-el-Azrek  (Bine  Nile)  and 
the  Bahr-el-Abiad  (White  Nile),  I1S8  feet  above 
tho'aea-levd,  in  Ut  IS"  SO'  N.  long.,  32"  Sff  E 
The  Bahr-el-Azrek,  loog  anppoeed  to  be  tiie  iiuhd 
branch  of  the  Tme  Nile,  ia  formed  by  the  jonotion 
of  the  Abu  and  the  Bine  River.  The  Abai  has  its 
soaroe  in  AbTuinia,  60  mites  from  Lake  Dcmbea, 
whidi  it  eut<m  from  the  «oatb-we«t;  emereiog 
on  Qu  wmHi^Bat  of  the  lake,  it  flows  for  abont 
90  miles  in  that  direction,  when  it  describes  a  semi- 
cboleionnd  thapenininla  of  Gcdjom.andcoDtiDuea 
norHi-ireiterir  for  about  ISO  stilea.  It  ie  here 
jraned  by  the  Blue  River  from  the  south,  and  from 
this  pMnt  t^  Bine  Nile  flows  north-wert  to  Khor- 


numing  nearlvparallel  to  eaoh  other,  the  Dender  and 
theBibadoiSuimfo.  From  Ebartonm,  the  nuited 
stream  flows  north  tea  about  OOmilo^  paasing  tiie 
town  of  Halfaia  and  the  rains  of  MaioB  to  the 
first  catuaot,  and  thence  north-east  part  Shendj 
(q.  V.)  to  its  innction  with  the  Atbsta,  which  enten 
ttw  NiU  at  El  Darner,  laL  IT*  4ff  N.,  long.  34°  K 

The  Atban,  also  called  Bahr-sl-Aawad,  or  Black 
River,  becanae  it  carries  down  with  it  the  greatest 
ammmt  of  the  Uack  mud  *Twt  ulimw  that  manures 
and  fertilises  Egjvt,  is  the  last  tribntaiy  received  by 
the  Nile.  The  Ooao^  seems  to  be  the  direct  source 
of  the  Atbsi*.  It  rises  in  the  heists  to  the  north 
of  Lake  Dembea.  About  ISO  miles  from  its  source 
it  recdvea  the  Bssslam  Biver,  and  aboot  3D  miles 
further  on,  the  Tskaize  or  Setit  River,  both  from 
the  east.  The  Taktme  has  a  far  greater  volome  of 
water  than  either  of  the  ^eoedinz  rivera.  It  rises 
in  the  Samen  Mountains,  round  wMch  it  flows  firet 
easterlv,  then  north,  tiU  in  abont  Ut  13°  30'  K., 
Iwig.  %*  GO'  £.  it  tniiis  north-west,  and  then  almost 
due  west,  joining  the  Atbaia  at  light  angles.  It 
has  many  bibutwies. 

From  its  junction  with  the  Atban.  the  Nile 
omtiDnGa  to  Bow  northerW  throu^  the  populons 
and  fertile  diatiict  of  BerMc,  full  of  villi^es,  and 
then  enten  the  deserL  Tnrmng  westwards,  in  lab 
IS*  N.,  it  foHDB  the  laise  ishmd  of  Mograt,  and 
makes  a  curve  to  the  saa£-westward,  known  as  the 
*great  bend,'  in  which  there  are  two  cataiacts. 
^tering  Nubia,  the  Nile  resumes  its  nordl- 
weeterty  course,  with  narrow  strips  of  cultivated 
laud  on  each  bank.  Here  it  foms  another  oataraot, 
and  bcmda  round  to  the  north-east  with  a  fifth 
cataract,  in  lab  21°  iff  N.  After  this  the  valley  of 
the  Nile  nanows,  and  at  Assouan,  in  lat  24*  10*  N., 
it  foim*  the  last  cataract  in  descending. 

From  Asaooan  to  the  sea,  the  avetage  fall  of  the 
Nile  ia  two  inohea  to  a  mile,  and  its  nie«n  veloci^ 
aboot  three  milM  an  hour.  It  waters  and  fertJliBca 
fbe irtMOe length  of  the  land  of  %rpt  Thedelta 
of  the  Nik  extends  from  lab  30°  10^  to  31°  30'  N., 
and  has  a  base  on  the  Uediten«oe*n  of  abont  150 
miles.  In  it  the  Nile  spreads  out  into  numerona 
streams,  the  two  principal  beina  thcaa  of  Bosetta 
and  Samietta.  The  total  length  of  the  Nile,  from 
its  exit  from  the  lake  to  the  sea,  is  about  3300 
nule^  measured  along  its  oomse,  or  2200  miles 
direct  distancB. 

A  feature  pecnliar  to  the  river  of  Egypt  is,  that 
from  its  junction  with  the  Atbsra,  to  its  mouth, 
a  distance  «(  tqtwatda  of  1000  miles,  it  receives 
no  afflneat  irimtever,  and  yet  it  ia  able  to  contend 
with  tikB  burning  sun,  aad  scaroeW  less  burning 


the  river  was  held  sacred:  the  god  Nilos  i  .._ 
ona  of  the  lesser  divinities.  Its  annual  overflow 
is  one  of  the  greatest  marvels  in  the  [^ysical 
geiwraphy  of  the  globe,  for  it  haa  risen  to  within 
a  few  horns  of  the  same  time,  and  to  within  » 
few  inches  of  the  same  height,  ^ear  after  year  for 
nnknown  agetL  At  Khartoum  it  b^ins  to  incroaaa 
early  in  April,  but  in  tower  Egypt  the  inundatiom 
usually  be^ns  about  the  25Ui  of  June,  and  attaina 
its  height  m  three  months.  It  remains  stationary 
about  twelve  days,  and  then  subsideL  ^le  onlb- 
vable  soil  of  Egypt  is  wholly  dependent  on  the  rias 
of  the  Nile,  and  its  failure  canses  a  dearth;  for, 
virtually,  the  country  has  no  lain.  Conbnnona 
■oath-wind  brings  a  good,  and  north-wind  a  bad 
year.  Daring  a  good  uundation,  the  rise  is  about 
40  feet  on  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  3S  feet  at  Thebe*. 
and  4  feet  at  the  Dsmietta  and  Roeetta  mouths  in 
the  Delta.  If  at  Cairo  the  rise  is  only  13  or  20  feet, 
there  ia  a  scarcity ;  up  to  24  feet,  a  deficieoc^ ;  25 
to  27  feet  is  good ;  more  than  that  causes  a  flood, 
and    foeteiB    [Jague    and   mumdn.      During    tht 


valley  is  covered  wilh  water, 
from  which  the  villages  rise  like  itlf"^",  ptitected 
by  dykes.  Of  late  years  the  overflow  has  been 
gt«ater  ttian  the  average  of  many  oenturies.  Tba 
rise  and  fall  of  the  tronk  stream  of  the  lower  Nils  ia 
owing  to  tlie  periodicity  of  the  rains  on  the  moun- 
tains of  AbvBsinia  and  to  ttie  baslD  of  Lake  Nyuic% 
where,  on  me  equator,  it  rains,  more  or  less,  all  the 

C:  round,  most  oopiously  duiing  the  equintnes; 
banks  of  the  Nile  swarm  with  birds,  ammg 
which  ai«  vultures,  cormorants,  geese,  pelicans, 
qusils,  and  the  white  ibis ;  and  its  aweeb  aoft 
waters  teem  with  fish.  The  averags  amount  cl 
alluvium  brou^t  down  by  the  river  is  estimated 
at  a  deposit  of  4{  inclies  in  a  oentuty — by  aome,  it 
is  made  as  high  as  6  incliee ;  the  greater  part  oJE  it 


That  the  sources  of  a  i 
one  of  t^e  earliest  and  most  civilised  peoples  was 
eetsbUshedf  should  have  been  so  long  ^ited  in 
obscurity,  is  unparalleled  in  geogtaphi^  reeesrclL 
Tbs  want  of  success  in  exploring  the  upper  basin  of 
the  Nile  may  be  Bttribnted  to  the  great  length  of 
the  river,  to  the  difficulties  which  besBt  the  trsvdler 
in  the  pl^ical  nature  irf  tiie  countries  he  miut  pass 
thniu^  the  dimste,  and  the  Jealousy,  ignomaoe^ 
and  barbarism  of  the  notire  tnbea.  Ilus  proUcm 
of  centuries  nay  now  be  regarded  as  satiuactorily 
solved;  for  the  question,  whether  there  may  M»t 
yet  be  found  important  feeders  of  the  Wli^  Nile 
earning  back  its  sooree  to  a  still  greater  dittano* 
in  the  interior,  is  practically  eieluded  by  Stanley'B 
exploration  of  the  Lualaba  or  Congo  basin,  tiie 
journeys  of  Kmpf  and  Rebmann  to  the  foot  ot 
Kilimandjam  and  the  other  snowy  mountaius  in  th« 
east  of  Airica,  believed  by  them  to  be  the  ancient 
'Mountains  cl  the  Uoon,'  and  the  explorations  of 
the  White  Nile,  pointed  to  the  cancluuan  that  it 
was  among  tiiese  monutaius  that  the  sources  of  the 
great  river  would  ultimately  bo  discovered. 
There  was,  however,  another  theory.  ~ 
gathered  from  the  nBtavee  pointed  to  lal 
regions  south  of  the  equator,  ns  the  tme  i 
the  Nile.  To  explore  this  country,  the  d 
traveller  Captain  Richard  Burton,  accompaiijed  1^ 
Captain  Speke,  started  from  the  Zanzibar  coast  in 
ISST.  Their  enterprise  was  so  far  ■noccasfnl  tlut 
they  discovered  IJike  Tanganyika,  in  lab  C*   8L. 


long.  36°  E,  and  a   large  <^rescent-sliaped  n 
mountains,  overhanging  the  northern  half  of  tha 
lak^  and  10,000  feet  high,  considered  by  C     '  ' 
Speke  to  he  the  tme  Mountains  of  the  Moo 


,,  Google 


NIMBUS— NINEVER 


boilt  the  pTMent  ona.  Us  mode  of  caltmlating  tha 
InoreaM  tA  Ute  nilometer  u  nther  oomplez,  and  to 
A  Mrtam  «zteat  arbitniwy,  political  uid  financial 
ntttaa  rendering  the  proceea  a  m:Ma'7  e^ea  to 
the  nativea.  At  the  preieDt  day  the  Nile  it 
cnppoaed  to  have  riien  to  18  cnbita  when  the 
oaiiala  an  cut;  thia  ia  the  height  of  Che  lowest 
ianndatiou;  19  onbits  are  oonaidered  tolerable,  20 
excellent  21  adegnate,  and  22  complete,  24  are 
nunons.  In  the  tiioa  of  Edrira,  however,  10  onbits 
were  ooiuudered  laffioieiit.  liie  object  of  these 
nilomettn  was  to  meaaore  the  amount  of  taxation 
toibe  impoeed  on  the  oonntty.  The  nilometer  at 
Cairo  i^  hewerer,  much  more  recent  than  that 
eziatiiig  at  Elephmtiiie,  which  consista  of  a  stsir- 
caae  between  triro  walla  descending  to  the  Nile. 
One  of  these  walls  has  engraved  on  it  a  series  of 
lines  at  proper  intervals  narking  the  different 
elevations  to  which  the  river  rose  tutder  the 
Cssais.  The  cubits  here  are  divided  into  14ths  or 
donble  digits,  and  measure  1  foot  8'62G  inches. 
litis  niloiDeter  is  described  by  Strobo.  The  prob' 
ability  is,  that  many  nilometers  existed  in  the  days 
of  the  Ph^^ohs,  probably  one  in  each  citr.  In  the 
days  of  Mreris,  8  cabits  were  snffioient,  bat  16  or 
IS  were  reg^nirod  in  the  time  of  Herodotns,  456 
B.O.,  and  thu  was  the  mean  ttQder  the  lUimans. 
Accordii^  to  Fliny,  it  the  innndation  did  not 
exceed  12  onbits  it  prodnced  a  famine^  13 
starved  the  conntry,  14  rejoiced  ii^  16  was  safety, 
and  16  delight,  and  this  niunber  is  symbolically 
represented  by  the  number  of  children  ^ying 
roand  the  rivet  god  on  statnes  of  the  Bmnan 
period.  The  oldest  nilometer  appears  to  have  been 
erected  at  Memphis,  and  it  was  transferred  by 
Constantine  to  a  church  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Serapeium;  bnt  Julian  sent  it  bock  to  this  temple, 
where  it  remained  till  its  destraddon  by  Theadoaus. 
At  the  present  day,  the  rise  ia  watched  for  with 
anxiety,  and  proclaimed  by  four  criers. — Herodotm, 
it  13 ;  Btrabo,  lib.  xviL ;  Wilkinson,  Topogr.  of 
Tkdta,  pp.  311—317.  Hekekyan  Bey,  Shiadic 
Mommutntt  [Lon.  1863),  p.  145. 

Nnastrs,  in  Art,  especiaUv  in  Sacred  Art,  is  the 
name  given  to  the  disc  or  halo  whicli  encircles  the  head 
of  the  sacred  peraonage  who  is  represented.  Itsoaeia 
almost  oniveiial  in  thooe  reli^ona  of  which  we  posseas 
any  artistic  remains — the  Indian,  the  Egyptian,  the 
Etruscan,  the  Orsak,  and  the  Boman,  In  tne  Hebrew 
scriptures,  we  trac^  in  the  absenoe  of  repreeenta- 
tJODS,  the  same  nmbolised  idea  in  the  li|^t  which 
shone  upon  the  taee  of  Moaei  at  his  return  from 
Sinai  (Ekod.  xixiv.  29—36),  and  in  the  light  with 
which  the  Lord  is  clothed  as  with,  a  gaiment,  Fb. 
ciii  1,  Vnlft  (dv.  1,  anth.  vers.) ;  and  u  the  New 
Testament  in  the  transGgaration  of  our  Lord 
(Luke  ix.  31),  and  hi  the  *  crowns '  of  the  just,  to 
which  allusion  ia  so  often  made  (2  Tim.  iv.  8 ; 
1  Peter  v.  4 ;  Apoc  iv.  4).  Nevertheless,  the  nimbus, 
strictly  so  colled,  is  comparatively  recent  in  Chriatiaa 
art,  apoearing  fint  towards  the  end  of  the  6th  cen- 
tury. IiaterinChriEtiaaart,itbecaineaImaBtaneceB- 
sary  append)^  of  all  representations  of  Ood  or  of  the 
saints.  Its  ori^nary  form  is  the  circniar  or  semi- 
circular ;  a  form,  indeed,  in  which  later  symbolists 
discover  an  emblcsn  of  perfection,  and  of  eternity ; 
but  the  nimbus  of  the  Eternal  Father  is  often  in 
the  form  of  a  triangle,  and  that  of  the  Trinity  an 
emanation  of  light,  the  rays  of  which  form  the 
three  arms  of  a  cross.  The  nimbns  of  {he  'Virgin 
is  sometimes  a  simple  ring,  and  sometimeB  a  crown 
or  diadems;  occoaionally  it  ia  encircled  by  an 
omameatal  border,  on  wluch  twelve  stars  are  some- 
times represented.    Her  Dunbos,  as  well  as  that  of 


the  Divine  Persons,  ia  commonly  of  {^Id;  bnt  Uiat 
of  the  Virgiii  Mai;  ii  oocaaionsUy  m  colour^  a« 
bine,  led,  imrple,  or  v^t&  The  nimbus  of  the 
ssintsisoroinarflythesemiairclaoTlnniilih  Dedron 
mentions  the  onrioos  instance  of  a  pictai«  of  the 
traitor  Jndas  ulA  a  hlaek  nimbus  /  In  later  ar^ 
the  nimbns  became  lighter  and  more  aSrial,  melting, 
as  it  were,  into  the  pcture ;  and  in  Haphael'a  saint* 
it  occasionally  fades  into  the  very  uintest  indi- 
cation of  a  golden  tinge  around  the  huid.  In 
connection  with  the  nimbna  may  also  be  mentioned 
two  analogous  forms — the  AtireoU  and  the  Qlory. 
The  fonner  is  an  illumination  surrounding,  not  the 
head  only,  but  the  entire  figiae.  If  ue  figure 
be  upright  the  aureole  is  commonly  oval,  when 
it  is  caUed  the  vaica  pucw,  and  is  supposed  to 
contain  an  allusion  to  the  ic&g».  With  a  seated 
figure  it  becomes  circular,  and  is  occasionally 
divided  by  radiating  bande^  in  the  form  of  a 
wheel ;  sometimes  it  takes  a  quatrefoil  form.  It  is 
commonly  of  sold,  but  occasionally  also  ia  in 
colours.  The  <ilary  is  a  combination  of  the  nimbna 
and  the  anreole,  and  is  chiefiy  seen  in  Byzantine 
pictures,  and  tiiose  <i  Uie  early  Sooth  Ooman 

NIMEGDEN.    SesNuusoEN. 

NIHES  (anc  Nemaiuut),  a  town  of  F^nee, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Gard,  stands  in  a 
fertile  plain  sorronnded  by  vine-clad  hills,  30 
milea  north-east  of  Montpelfier,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  railway.  It  connsts  of  the  tovn 
proper  (ill  built  and  dirty),  and  of  three  handsome 
suborbs.  In  the  vicinity  are  the  beantifnl  remains 
of  the  fioman  aqueduct  called  the  PonJ  dtt  Oard. 
The  chief  of  the  modem  edifices  are  the  Pakaihds- 
Jiutiee,  the  theatre,  and  the  hospitals.  The  Omnde 
Pkux  is  embellished  with  one  of  the  most  magnifi- 
cent fountains  in  France  N.  contains  numeroiu 
and  variooaly-oonstitated  eduoational  institntions,  an 
important  pubho  library,  Maria  Theresa'a  Uuseiun 
(in  the  Matton  CarrU),  a  museum  of  natnisl  hiskoy, 
&C.  It  is  the  general  entrepOt  for  the  silka  pn>- 
duoed  in  the  south  of  Aance,  and  its  manufactaiTt* 
are  principally  silk  and  cottim  Unics.  More  than 
10,Ow  looms  are  oonstantly  in  operation  in  the  ciW, 
and  about  6000  in  ttie  inimediat«  vicinity.    ShawJa, 


remains,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  amphitheatre ; 
the  Maiton  CarrU  (Square  House),  a  fine  speci- 
men of  Corinthian  architecture ;  a  temple  and 
fountain  consecrated  to  Diana ;  La  Tour  Magnt 
(Great  Tower):  the  hatha,  and  two  Boman  mbra. 
See  Ueoard'a  Antiquilig  de  y.  (1833).  and  hia  Hiw 
toirt  de  N.  (7  vols.  1876).    Pop.  (1881)  62,549. 

Previously  to  the  Roman  invasion,  N. — which  ia 
supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  a  colony  from 
Masailia  (Maraeille) — was  the  chief  dty  of  the  Volts 
Arecomici.  It  floarisbed  under  the  Bomona,  and 
wa4  one  of  the  great  cities  of  GauL  It  surrendered 
to  the  rule  of  the  Visigoths  between  466  and  035, 
and  afterwards  to  that  of  the  Franka.  Sob- 
sequentfy,  it  became  a  possession  of  Aragon ;  bat 
was  finally  restored  to  France  in  1259  by  the  treaty 
of  Corbeil,  The  inhabitants  adopted  (^nuism  in 
the  IGth  c,  and  on  many  occRsioDs  sofFered  Barerdy 
for  their  religious  phncif^ea.  In  1791  and  181G, 
bloody  religious  and  political  reactiona  took  plaos 

NJ'MROD.    SeeBASvioir. 

NI'NETEH,  ot  NI'NUS,  a  very  ancient  and 
famous  city,  Ule  capital  of  the  great  Asaynan 
empire,  said  in  Scripture  [Oeu.  i.  11)  to  have  been 
founded  by  Ninus  or  Nimrod.  It  was  situated  on 
the  east  butk  of  the  Tigris,  i^ipaaite  to  the  pnoent 


„  Google 


NINGPO— NINON  DB  LEN0L08. 


MomL  Acorading  to  tba  McoimtB  of  the  oluna 
writen,  the  dtj  wm  of  TMt  extent,  480  ttodu,  or 
more  thftfi  6Q  milcfl  in  oironnifemiCQ.  Ito  waUs 
wen  100  feet  high,  broad  enough  for  throe  chuiots, 
and  foniiahed  with  1500  tow^  each  200  feet  in 
bmj^t  Id  the  iloo£  nf  Jonah  it  ia  described  ea  oa 
'exceeding  great  city  of  three  days'  journey,'  and 
one  'wherein  an  more  than  dxBCoie  thoaaand 
|)erwina  that  cannot  diacem  between  their  right 
hand  and  their  left  hand'  (children  or  infante  are 
probably  meant).  After  baring  been  for  many 
centnriea  the  leat  of  empire,  it  was  taken  after  a 
■iege  of  Beveral  years  and  deateiyed  by  the  nnited 
Bimiea  of  the  Medea  under  Cyaxarea,  and  tlie  Baby- 
lonians nuder  Nabopolowor,  aboat  625  b.  c.  When 
HerodotoB,  not  oaite  200  years  afterwards,  and 
Xenophon  Tidted  the  spot,  there  remained  only 
nnna.  Tradition  nmtinned  to  point  pretty  accnr- 
ately  to  the  <ito  of  N. ;  but  it  ia  only  of  lato  yean 
that  aotaal  exphnations  have  been  made.  For 
an  aecoont  of  these,  sea  Asstsu. 

RINQPO,  a  deptu'tment  in  the  province  of 
Chekianf^  China,  comprising  the  oi^  of  tliat  name, 
the  Cbnsan  group  of  ialanda,  and  the  cities  of  Taike, 
Fiinghwa,  Cninhai,  and  lUangdum.  The  pott  of 
N.  u  dtoated  at  the  confluence  of  two  small 
streams,  in  kt.  29°  6E'  N.,  long.  121°  22'  K,  12 
milea  from  tba  sea,  on  an  alluvial  flat  of  extreme 
fertili^,  intersected  by  a  net-work  of  rivuleta  and 
canals.  Its  walls  are  Sve  miles  in  circumference, 
about  2S  feet  hi^  22  feet  wide  at  the  base,  and  10 
at  the  top,  with  six  double  ff^tee.  As  is  the  case  with 
all  the  citiea  in  this  part  of  China,  N.  is  permeated  by 
canals  commnnicatbg  with  a  moat  nearly  gorronnd- 
ing  the  walls,  and  tnth  the  adjacent  country.  In 
one  part  of  the  city  they  expand  into  basins,  and 
receive  the  name  of  lakes— the  Sun  Lake  and  Moon 
Lake.  In  the  former,  is  an  island  devoted  to 
temples,  and  accessible  by  bridges.  These  bridges — 
good  speeimeni  of  those  aSrial  stone  edifices  which 
adorn  this  port  of  China — are  required  to  sustain 
little  more  than  their  own  weight,  aa  the  roads  here 
sie  all  mere  footpaths,  and  no  wheeled  vehicles 
are  found.  One  of  the  riven  ia  orosied  ly  a  bridge 
of  boats,  200  yards  long.  The  entire  aty  is  well 
paved ;  the  streets  are  wider  than  those  of  most 
Chinese  cities,  and  the  displav  of  shops  ia  indicative 
of  wealth  and  Iniury.  Nowhere,  save  at  Uanohan, 
are  auoh  extensive  and  beautifnl  tamples  to  be 
fonnd.  The  most  elegant  and  costly  of  tJieaa  is 
dedkatedtotheQneen  of  Heaven;  the  goddess  being 
the  dMigbtei  of  a  Fuhkien  fiaherman,  the  people 
of  tint  maritime  provinoe  are  her  more  speaal 
votaries.  Elaborate  stone  sonlptiue,  sxqnimtel^  fins 
wood  carving,  and  a  profusion  of  (pit  and  tinsel, 
shew  that  no  expense  has  been  spared  to  honour 
the  popnlar  goddess. 

The  oentro  of  the  dty  is  ornamented  with  an 
elegant  seven-storied  hexagonal  tower — the  heaven- 
bestoned  pagoda,  160  feet  in  hei^t.  A  spiral 
flight  of  steps  within  the  walla  of  the  tower  lead  to 
tbe  summit,  from  which  the  gazer  beholds  a  splendid 
somei  innumerable  villages  dot  the  plain,  which 
is  retionlated  by  silvery  watar-coniset,  repleto  with 
evidence  of  Bucccasful  oommerce  and  agrionltnre. 
Tbe  population  of  the  ci^  i*  abont  300,000 ;  that  of 
the  phun,  abont  2,000,00a  On  man^  of  tbe  hills 
which  environ  these  cities,  gntesa  tea  is  saccestfnlly 
cultivated ;  while  tbe  mulberry,  the  tallow-tree, 
other  stimulants  of  industry  abound. 


^  class  of  the 

population.  ^ce-LoQsea  close  to  the  river  give  the 
banks  a  piotaresque  appearance ;  the  ice  is  used  for 
cuiing  UUL     N.  has  an  extensive  ooastmg  trade ; 


"fiC 


bnt  no  oonsidoable  foreign  trade  has  been  devel- 
oped, owing  mainly  to  porteraota  on  Uie  inland 
wateHMnomnnioations,  and  to  the  proxinuty  of 
Shanghai  iritere  no  such  obstnmtions  exist  33ie 
district  atv  of  Chinhai,  at  the  monUi  of  tiie  Ningpo 
River,  is  alsa  a  port  A  walled  town,  containing 
abont  30,000  inhabitants,  10  miles  to  the  east  of 
Chinhai,  is  Kingtang,  the  nearest  of  the  Chnsan 
archipelago.  Tinghai  is  the  distriot  dtv  of  the 
island  of  Chusan,  wbich  is  20  miles  lonK  from  6  to 
10  wide,  and  01  in  ciroomfennoe.  H  is  moon- 
tainoni^  with  fertile  vall^  In  a  high  stoto  of  oulti- 
vation.  It  has  on  excellent  harbonr.  Tinriiai  was 
gomeoned  several  years  by  Her  Mqest^s  forces 
from  1841,  and  was  ^ain  temporarily  ocon[ded  by 
the  allied  forces  in  I860. 

NINIAN,  St,  the  apoetia  of  the  Piota,  lived  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  4tb  and  tbe  beginning  of  the 
6th  century.  Whether  Cbiistioni^  had  been  intro- 
duced among  the  Picts  before  the  time  of  N.  has 
been  a  subject  of  controversy ;  but  althou^  the 
det>^  of  the  leaendary  account  ar 


ciroamstances ;  and  it  is  certain  that  when  N. 
appeared  amongthem,  the  Picts  were  in  the  main  a 
He  was  a  Briton,  aud  of  noble  birth  : 


been  educated  at  liome,  and  there  ordained 
a  bishop.  Tbe  exact  time  of  bis  preaching  in 
Scotlana  is  unknown.  His  labours  appear  to  Eavs 
commenced  in  Onmbria,  and  to  have  cditended  over 
the  greater  ntrt  of  the  district  as  Ur  north  aa  ttie 
Grampian  Hills,  his  see  being  fixed  at  Candida 
Casa,  or  Whithorn  in  the  modem  '^gtonshire. 
His  death  is  placed  by  the  Bdlandists  in  432 ;  his 
fffitival  is  the  16th  September. 

NINON  DE  LENCL03,  a  oelebrated  Fnnch- 
womon,  one  of  those  characters  that  oonld  have 
appeared  only  in  the  French  Society  of  the  17th 
0.,  was  born  of  good  family  at  Paris  in 
161S.  Her  mother  tned  to  imbne  her  mind  with 
a  love  of  the  prindples  of  relisiDD  and  morality, 
bnt  her  father,  more  soccesafmly,  wiUi  a  taste 
for  pleosnre.  Even  as  a  child  she  was  remark- 
able for  her  beauty  and  tbe  exquisite 
her  parson.     She  was   oorefnllv   educal 

several  foreign  languages,  exceed  in  i 

dancing,  and  nod  a  great  fund  of  ahup  and  lively 
wit   At  the  ago  of  t^  she  nod  Montaigne's  Euagt. 

Six  years  later,  she  commenced  her  ' ' 

licentious  gallantry  by  on  '' 

Coligny,  t£en  Comto  de 
luccaeded  innumerable  favourites,  but 
than  one  at  a  time.  Among  N.'a  lovers  we  ma^ 
mention  tbe  Marquis  de  Yilbrceanx,  the  Matquis 
da  SevignS,  the  Marquis  da  Genay,  the  great 
CondS,  the  I>ac  de  Larocbefoncanid,  Harahal 
d'Albret,  Marshal  d'Efltr«ei,  the  Abb«  d'EfEat, 
Qourville,  and  La  Ch&tre.  She  bad  two  sons, 
but  never  shewed  in  re^d  to  them  the  slightest 
instinct  of  maternity.  The  fate  of  one  was  hor- 
rible. Brought  op  in  icnoranoe  of  his  mothfr, 
he  followed  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  conceived  a 
passion  for  her.  When  ahe  informed  him  of  the 
relation  that  subsisted  between  them,  the  nnluqiTry 
youth  was  seized  with  horror,  and  blew  out  ma 
brains  in  a  frenzy  of  remorse.  Even  this  eahunrty 
did  not  seriously  ^ect  N.;  she  was  too  well- 
bred  to  allow  it  to  do  that  N.  was  neariy  aa 
celebrated  for  her  manneni  aa  for  hsr  beanty.  The 
moat  respectobls  and  virtuous  women  sent  11i«r 

?N 


# 


NINTH— NIRUKTA, 


ohiUnti  to  h«r  howw  to  aoquiM  twte,  ityle,  polHe- 
nOB.  Bogreat WMlierrBpatiitioii,tlirt whenQaeen 
CliTittiiu  of  Sweden  came  to  Puis,  ahe  «aid  the 
wished  partionlariy  to  Tisit  the  French  Academy 
Aod  Ninaa  da  Lencloa.  We  m&y  gather  aonie  idea 
of  her  wit  and  mom  from  the  ^A  that  Laroche- 
fbacauld  ooniulted  her  upon  hii  maxims,  Moliire 
upon  his  comedies,  and  Scarron  npon  his  romances. 
She  died  17th  October  HOG.  at  the  age  of  90,  having 
preserred  some  remains  o£  her  beauty  sbtunt  to  l^e 
taat. — Sea  Ouyon  da  Sarditre's  Vie  dt  Nbvm  de 
Lendoi:  Bunt-EVreiDOiid'i  (Emra;  Douzmesnil's 
Mhuoirtt  pour  tervir  i  VHUtoirt  de  Jlf"<  de  Latdoi. 

NINTH,  in  Uusio,  the  next  interval  above  the 
octave,  being  tha  same  interval  which  an  octave 
lower  is  ten^  the  SL-cond.    See  ItrrsitVAL. 

NI'OBtil,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  daughter  of 
TautaliiB  and  (according  to  the  most  popular  verBtoD 
of  tha  story)  the  sister  of  PelopSi  She  was  the  wife 
of  Amphion,  lung  of  Thebes,  aod  bore  him  six  sous 
sod  nx  diKightora.  Proud  of  her  children,  she 
despised  Leto  or  Latona,  who  bad  only  two  children, 
Apollo  and  Diana,  and  prevented  the  people  from 
the  worship  of  these  divinities  ;  iirhereupon  Latooo, 
«nrs«ed,  moved  her  cbilikco  to  destroy  all  the 
cbildrai  of  N.  with  their  arrows.  They  lay  nine 
days  in  their  blood  nnburied,  when  Jupiter  chongod 
them  into  stone,  and  on  the  tenth  day  tbcy  were 
buried  by  the  gods  themselves.  N.  wandered  about 
ia  distress,  and  at  last  was  changed  into  stone  on 
Monnt  Sipylus,  between  Lydia  and  Fhrygia,  retain- 
ing, however,  even  as  stone  a  sense  of  her  woe. 
Snch  is  the  Homeric  legend,  which,  however,  was 

afterwards  ranch  varied  and  enlarged.     '"' 

'  '  ct  of  the  ancient  artiatf 
,  and  her  children  was  d 
.  and  is  now  in  Florence.  Some  of 
tho  scnlptores  are  very  beautiful  £ven  tbe 
ancient  Boraan*  were  in  doubts  whether  the  work 
proceeded  from  Scopai  or  Praxiteles. 

NIO^ITTH  (symbol,  Nb)  ia  a  rare  metal  discovered 
by  H.  Bose  in  the  mineral  TantdliU.  It  is  obtained 
1^  Ndncing  tlie  double  fluoride  of  niobium  and 
potasunm  with  sodium ;  and  forms  a  black  powder 
mstdnble  in  nitrio  add,  but  readily  soluble  in  a 
mixture  of  nitrio  and  hydtofluorio  aoids.     With 

Sgen  it  forms  two  oompouads,  niobous  acid,  NbO, 
niobic  scid,  NbO, ;  snd  chlorine,  bromine^ 
fluorine,  and  sulphur  compounds  corresponding  to 
these  aoidj  have  been  prepared  and  examined. 
Neither  the  metal  itself  nor  any  of  its  oompoonda 
are  of  any  praoticsl  importance. 

NIORT,  a  town  of  France,  caiutal  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Deui-StivTes,  on  the  Sivre-Niortaise,  is 
situated  in  an  agreeable  country,  ocoapying  the 


are  the  Church  of  Notre-Dame,  tbe  town-bait, 
the  theatre,  and  the  old  castla.  Besides  these,  the 
beautiful  Fountain  da  Vivicr,  the  promenades,  the 
library,  and  the  college  are  worUiy  of  notice.  The 
drcosing  of  chamois  and  the  manufacture  of  gloves 
are  the  principal  branches  of  industry.  Dyeworks 
and  tanneries  are  in  operation.  Pop,  (1881)  Sl,237. 
N.  is  an  ancient  town.  In  the  14th  c  it  was 
taken  by  iba  Fjiglish,  and  held  by  them  for  IS 

'  NIP  A,  a  genua  of  endcsenons  plants  referred  by 
some  botanists  to  the  or^r  Pandaaacea,  and  by 
othen  to  pahns.  Jf.  /ntkiau  is  very  common  in 
the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and  northwards  as  far  as 
the  Uergni  Biver,  but  becomes  rare  further  north. 
It  flonriues  wiUi  the  man^^ve  in  placee  inundated 
when  tbe  tide  rises.  ItaMunda  in  saccharine  sap, 
from  whiob  a  kind  of  Pafan  Wint  is  made,  and  also 


excelleut  suKar.  The  leaves  are  mnch  em^doyed  for 
roofing  houses,  aod  large  qnantitiea  are  sent  frooi 
the  Tenesserim  provinces  northwards  foe  this  nas. 

NI'PADITES,  a  genos  of  fossil  palm  fruits  fonod 
in  the  Eocene  clays  of  the  island  of  Sheppej,  in 
Kent  They  ate  referred  to  }fipa  as  their  nearest 
living  ally,  and  are  considered  to  have  resembled  in 
habit  that  genus,  and  to  have  grown  on  the  banka 
of  an  immense  river  which  flawed  from  the  bopical 
regions  of  a  continent  lying  to  the  southward,  aAd 
entered  the  sea  at  Sheppey,  where  it  deposited  tha 
fruits  and  leaves  borne  down  vith  the  cnrrent,  by- 
the  side  of  tbe  starfishes  and  mollusca  which  inks- 
bited  the  estuary.  Some  13  different  kinds  have 
been  described. 

NIPIGON,  or  NEPIGON.  a  lake  of  Ontario, 
Conad^  lies  40  miles  S.  of  Lake  Superior,  to  the  N. 
of  the  lino  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Bailway.  It  is 
about  70  miles  long  from  N.  to  8.,  and  50  miles  from 
"  ■  .  W.  Its  surface  ia  813  feet  above  that  of  Lake 
irior,  with  a  total  leDgtli  of  shore  of  about  580 
s,  Tbe  lake  is  deep,  well  studded  with  islsnds, 
abounds  with  fish,  and  is  fed  by  a  brge  number  of 


Superin 


River  into  Nipigon  Bay, 

Superior,    This  river  in  its  course  expands  into  four 

imoll  lakes,  and  haa  several  falls  and  rapids. 

NIPISSING  (or  NEPISSINO)  LAKE,  lies  in 
Ontario,  Canada,  between  Lake  Huroo  and  theOttaws 
Biver ;  length  about  46  miles,  greatest  breadth  2S 
nules.  It  la  connected  with  a  chain  of  smaller  lakes 
in  tie  N.  by  Sturgeon  River ;  its  waters  flow  out  by 
French  River.  55  miles  long,  into  Georgian  Bay,  an 
inlet  of  Lake  Huron.  Tbe  Nipissiog  Indians,at  tbe 
time  of  the  French  Conquest,  veiy  nomenms  around 
the  lake,  were  a  branch  of  the  AlgoBquin  stock  (see 
ALGOMQDiKi  and  Ihdiaks,  Asibricas).  They  were 
driven  away  by  tbe  Iroquois;  but  a  remnant  live 
here  still  under  the  proteotio 


a  Catholic  n 


given  by  Europeans  to  the  principal  island  m  JapM, 
and  borrowed  from  the  Japanese  name  of  tbe  eni[ni«, 
which  is  Dai  NUtoit  or  N^pon.  The  chief  islaud  ot 
lainland,  which  is  by  far  the  largest  part  of  tbe 


__^_  on  the  nortb-east  from  the  island  of 
Yesso.  The  area  is  86,000  square  miles ;  and  of  the 
total  popnlation  of  Japan  in  1880,  3fi,0O0,O00h  tbo 
mainland  contained  27,260,000.  Most  of  the  chief 
towns  of  the  empire  are  on  the  island,  indsding  the 
capital  Tokto  or  ¥edo(q.  v.);  Mioko  (q.  v.)  or  £oto, 
pop.  80,000 ;  Osaca  (q.  v.),  pop.  300,000 ;  Hiom),  the 
outlet  of  its  trade;  Kuii^^wa  (q.  t.)  and  Xoko- 
hama  (q.  v.),  porta  near  Tokio;  and  Niigata.  Of 
other  name-worthy  cities  and  potts,  Nuasaki  is  in 
Sbikoku,  and  Hakodate  in  Ycmol  See  Jopur. 
NIPPLE  of  Brust.  See  Uuoiaky  Gluhx 
NIRUKTA,  or  *  Eiplanatioa,'  is  tbe  name  ot 
one  of  the  six  Veddngat  (see  Yzda)  which  explauu 
difficult  Vedio  words.  That  there  have  been  several 
works  engni^  in  such  a  task,  even  at  a  verv  remote 
period  of  Hindu  antiquity,  and  that  they  bore  tha 
name  of  Nirukta  is  probaole,  for  '  Nirukta  authorv ' 
■re  quoted  either  generally  or  by  name  in  eevera) 
Sanskrit  auUiors;  but  the  work  which  is  ranpba- 
tically  called  ifirukta,  and  which,  for  the  present, 
is  the  only  surviving  representative  of  this  important 
Yedinga,  is  tbat  of  yiMtti,who  was  a  predecessor  of 
Pan'ini  (q.  v.].   His  work  consists  of  three  parta — tbe 


i,i,,z<xj„  Google 


NIRVANA— NISI  PRIU& 


worda  that  tuiullv  oooor  in  tlia  Vedaa  only ;  Knd 
tha  DMvala,  vhim  oontuna  wordi  chiefly  TsUtlng 
to  deities  and  Bocrificial  ncti.  A  Comtnentary-  on 
this  work  b±a  been  oompoBed  bv  the  same  Ybska, 
and  it  likewise  bcikrs  the  naiDe  of  Nirukta.  In  the 
latter,  Vedio  pBBBages  are  quoted  in  illurtmtlon  of 
the  wordi  to  be  explained,  and  the  commeot  giveo 
by  Ydska  on  these  passages  is  the  oldest  ins^nce, 
fccowD  at  present  to  Sanskrit  philology,  of  a  Vedic 
gloss.  Besides  the  great  importance  which  Yiska's 
Aintito  thus  possesses  for  a  proper  understanding 
of  the  Vedio  texts,  it  is  valuable  also  on  account  of 
sereral  diseuasions  which  it  raises '  on  grammati- 
cal and  other  questions,  and  on  account  of  the 
insight  it  ofibrda  us  into  the  scientiflo  and  religious 
condition  of  itj  time. — Text  and  Commentary  of 
Tdiia'i  Niruhta  have  been  edited  by  Professor  B, 
Both  (QSttingen,  1S62}. 

NIEvAna  (from  tha  Sanscrit  mr,  ont,  and  odno, 
blown ;  hence,  literally,  that  which  is  blown  out  or 
extinguished)  is,  in  Baddhistio  doctrine,  the  term 
deootiag  the  final  deliverance  of  the  soul  from 
tikntminatioQ.  It  implies,  conseanently,  the  last 
lum  of  Buddhistic  eoateuce,  i 
tantamount  to  a  relapse  into  tha  evil* 
iSmsilm,  OF  the  world.  But  m  Hinduism,  or  the 
Briihmanioal  doctrine,  professes  to  lead  to  iiie  some 
end,  the  difFerence  betvrcen  NirvAna  and  Jf ojtsAo, 
Apmxirga,  or  the  other  terms  of  Brahmusm  dcsig. 
oating  eternal  bliss,  and  consei^nent  lil>entioa  from 
metempsycboais,  rests  on  the  difference  of  the  ideas 
which  both  doctrines  connect  with  the  condition  of 
the  soul  after  tiiat  liberation.  Brahman,  according 
to  the  Brahmanical  doctrine,  being  the  adstmg 
and  everlastioa  cause  of  the  oniveiBe,  eternal  happi- 
ness is,  to  the  Brahmanical  Blndu,  the  abearption  of 
the  hnmaa  soul  into  that  canse  whence  it  omanaJied, 
never  to  depart  from  it  again.  Aocording  to  this 
doctrine,  therefore,  the  lib^ation  of  the  hnman  sonl 
from  transmigration  i*  equivalent  to  that  state  of 
felici^  whioh  religion  and  philosophy  attribute  to 
&at  Entity  (see  ItniLA — BdigU>n].  As,  however, 
the  i]ltimate  cause  of  the  universe,  accordiof;  to 
Buddhism,  is  the  Void  or  Non-entiW,  the  deliver- 
ance from  traimnigration  is,  to  the  Buddhist^  the 
retnm  to  non-eati^,  or  the  absolute  extinction  of 
the  souL  However  macb,  then,  the  pious  phrase- 
olo^  of  their  ddat  works  may  embellish  the  state 
of  Sirvtna,  and  asparentiy  deoeiv«  the  belierer  on 
iti  real  ehanoter,  tt  cannot  alter  this  fundamental 
idea  inherent  in  it  We  an  told,  for  instuwe,  that 
Nirvftna  it  quietude  and  identihr,  wheieai  Sansftra 
is  turmoil  and  variety ;  that  Nirvtaa  is  freedom 
from  all  oonditions  of  existence,  whereas  Sansira  is 
birtii,  disease,  deereintnde  aod  death,  sin  aad  pain, 
merit  and  demerit,  virtne  and  vice ;  that  Kirrliia 
it  tiie  there  ot  solvation  for  thoce  who  are  in  danger 
of  bung  drowned  in  Uie  sot  of  Sonslra ;  that  it  is 
the  free  port  ready  to  receive  those  who  have 
esc^ied  the  dungeon  ot  existence,  tiie  medicine 
which  enres  all  (useasea,  the  water  which  quenobe* 
the  thirst  of  all  desires,  fto. ;  but  to  the  mind  of  the 
orthodox  Buddhist,  all  these  definitions  convey  but 
the  one  idea,  that  the  ble«dog*  promised  in  the 
condition  of  NirvlLna  are  tantamount  to  the  abedute 
'  extinction  of  the  hnmon  sonl,'  t^ter  it  has  obeyed, 
in  this  life,  all  tjie  injunctions  of  Boddhiim,  and 
become  convinced  ot  all  its  tenets  on  the  nature 
of   the   world  and  the   final   destination   of   the 

Althongh  this  is  the  orthodox  view  of  Nirvftna, 
•ocmding  to  the  oldest  Buddhistic  doctrine,  it  is 
necessary  to  point  out  two  categories  of  dilTerent 
views  which  have  obscured  the  original  idea  of 
Nirvftna,  and  even  induced  some  modom  writers 
to  beliore  that  the  final  beatitode  of  the  oldest 


Buddhistio  doctrine  is  not  equivalent  to  the  absolute 

The  first  cat^ory  of  these  latter,  or,  ss  we  may 
call  them,  hetcriMoi  views,  is  that  which  confounds 
with  Nirvftna  the  preparatory  labour  of  the  mind 
to  arrive  at  that  ead,  and  therefore  assumes  that 
Nirvftna  is  the  extinction  of  thought,  or  the  cessa- 
tion, to  thought,  of  all  difference  lietweea  subject 
and  object,  virtue  and  vice,  &c.,  or  certain  specula- 
tions on  a  creative  cause,  the  conditions  at  the 
universe,  and  so  on.  Atl  these  views  the  Buddha 
himself  rejects,  as  appears  from  the  work  LcoilABa- 
Uira  (q.  v.),  where  relating  his  digcoutse  on  the  real 
meaning  of  Nirvftnn,  before  the  Bodhisattwa  Mobft. 
mati.  Hie  errooeonsneas  of  tiioae  views  is  obvionaly 
based  on  the  fact,  that  the  mind,  even  tiiongh  iu  a 
state  of  nnconscionsnoBa,  as  when  ceasing  to  tiiink, 
or  when  speculating,  it  still  within  the  pale  of  exist- 
ence. Thus,  to  obviate  the  mistaken  notion  that 
such  a  state  is  the  xeal  Nirvftna,  Buddhistic  works 
sumetimea  use  the  t«rm  ifimpadAUfttha  yirodtta, 
or  '  the  NirvftDB  uiilAotit  a  remainder  of  subttiutiim' 
(L  e.,  without  a  rest  of  existenoe),  in  ooQtrBdistino* 
tion  to  the  *  Nirvftna  toif/t  a  remainder ;'  meaning 
by  the  latter  expression  that  condition  of  a  sunt 
which,  in  conseqnence  ot  his  bodily  and  mental 
austerities,  inunediatelv  precedes  hit  real  Nirviua, 
but  in  which,  nevertheleas,  he  is  still  an  occupant  of 
the  material  world. 

The  second  categoiy  of  heterodox  views  on  the 
Nirvftna  is  that  wbicn,  though  aoknowledginA  in 
principle  the  origioEd  notion  of  Baddhistio  suva- 
tion,  represents,  as  it  were,  a  compromise  with  the 
popaUr  mind.  It  belongs  to  a  later  puiod  of 
Buddhism,  trhen  this  reUgion,  in  extending  its 
oonquests  over  Asia,  had  to  encounter  creeds  which 
abhorred  the  idea  of  an  abeolute  nihilism.  This  oem- 
pnmiae  coincides  with  the  creation  of  a  Buddhistic 
pantheon,  and  with  the  classification  of  Buddhist 
taints  isto  three  classes,  each  of  which  has  its  own 
Nirvftna ;  that  of  the  two  lower  degrees  consisting 
of  a  vast  number  of  years,  at  the  end  of  which, 
however,  these  saints  are  bom  ogun ;  while  the 
absolute  Nirvftna  is  reserved  for  the  highest  doss  ot 
saints.  Hence  Buddhistic  salvation  is  then  spoken 
of,  either  simply  as  Nirvdna,  or  the  lowest,  or  as 
Farinirsdna,  the  middle,  or  as  MaidparaarvAtto, 
or  the  highest  extinction  of  the  soul ;  and  as  tiiose 
who  have  not  yet  attuned  to  the  highest  Nirvtaa 
moat  live  in  tiie  heavens  of  the  two  inferior  cltssee 
ot  saints  until  they  reappear  in  this  world,  their 
condition  of  Nirvftna  is  assimilated  to  that  state  of 
more  or  less  material  happiness  which  is  also  hdd 
ont  to  the  Brahmanical  Hindu  before  he  is  com- 
pletely absorbed  into  Brafaman. 

When,  in  its  last  *t*B^  Buddhism  it  driven  to 
the  assumption  of  an  Adi,  or  primitive,  Boddha,  aa 
the  creator  of  the  nniytne,  Nirvtoa,  then  meaning 
the  absorption  into  him,  ceases  to  have  any  real 
affinity  with  the  original  Bnddhistie  term.  See 
BiTDiiHisu  and  LuuiaH. 

NIBHAPU'R,  or  NUSHAPUK,  a  town  of  Persia, 

Sovince  of  Khorassan,  53  mtlea  west-south-west  of 
eahid,  is  situated  in  a  most  beautiful  and  fertile 
valley.  Pop.  about  800O.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
rampart  and  trench,  and  has  a  oonsiderable  tnde 
in  turqaoitet,  which  are  obtained  from  mines  in  tta 
vidnity. 

NISI  PRnrS  it  the  name  (borrowed  from  the 
st  two  words  ot  the  old  writ  which  summoned 
juries)  nsu^y  given  in  England  to  the  sittinjp  of 
juries  in  civil  cssea.  Thns  a  judge  sitting  M  niii 
priuM,  meant  a  judge  presiding  at  a  ^nry  trial  in 
a  avS.  canse,  and  the  nisi  pmij  sittings  are  the 
jury  aittinfls.    See  Kcut  Ski.  


NlSraiS— NITRIC  ACID. 


a  fertile  dinrict,  and  waa  of  iinpart&noe, 
>  plaoe  of  itrength  and  as  an  etnporios 
trads  between  the  east  and  west  Jf.  wi 
of  very  great  antiquity,  bnt  of  iti  remoter  history 
DothinK  v>  knoira.  Id  the  time  of  the  Alacedomo- 
SyrUnkings, it  wa* »lso  ceHed ArUUKh^a ifvgdonia. 
It  was  twice  taken  by  the  Rontims  (under  LncuIIiis 
and  Trajao),  and  again  given  np  by  them  to  the 
Armeoians ;  but  being  a  third  tuna  taken  by 
Lucius  Vcrns,  165  *.!).,  it  remained  the  chief 
bulwark  of  the  Boman  empire  against  the  Pcni 
till  it  was  snrrendered  to  them  by  Jovian  after 
(he  death  ot  Jnlian  in  363.  The  name  Ifuiiljia  is 
retuned  by  a  small  village  In  the  Turkish  ejulct  of 
Diarbekr,  round  which  are  numerous  rem;  ' 
the  ancient  cil?. 

NITRATE  OF  POTASH.    8m  Nitrb. 

NITRATE  OF  SODA.    See  Nitbb. 

NITBB,  or  SALTPETRE,  as  it  is  frequently 
called,  U  the  nitrate  of  potash  (KO.NO,).  It 
uxnally  occurs  in  Iod^  oolonrlees,  striated,  six- 
Bided  prisms ;  its  taste  ja  oooling,  and  very  saline  ; 
it  is  soluble  in  seven  times  its  weight  of  water  at 
60°,  and  in  less  than  one-third  of  its  weight  of  boiling 
water,  bnt  is  insoluble  in  alcohol.  When  healed  to 
about  600*,  it  fuses  without  decomposition  into  a 
thin  liquid,  which,  when  oast  in  moulds,  solidiGea 
into  a  white,  fibrous,  tronsluoont  mass,  known  as 
»al  pnatdU.  At  a  higher  temperature,  part  of  the 
oxygen  is  evolved,  and  nitrate  of  potash  is  formed. 
Owing  to  the  facility  with  whioh  nitre  parts  with 
its  ozyffen,  it  is  much  employed  M  an  OBdisinf 
agent  Mixtures  of  nitre  and  carbon,  or  of  nitre  am 
■nlphur,  or  of  nitre,  carbon,  and  sulphur,  deflagrate 
01^  the  application  of  heat  with  great  ene 
if  nitre  be  thrown  on  glowing  coals,  it  pi 
brisk  scintillation.  Touch-jiapeT  is  formed  by  dipping 
paper  in  «  solution  of  nitre,  and  drying  it 

Kibe  occurs  as  a  natural  product  in 
Indieik  ^ypt,  Persia,  where  it  is  found 
ai  an  efflorescence  upon  the  soil,  and  sometimes 
disseminated  through  ita  upper  stratum.  The  crude 
salt  is  obtained  by  lixiviatllig  the  soil,  and  allowing 
the  solution  to  ciystallise^  A  large  quantity  m 
nitte  is  artificially  formed  in  many  countries  of 
Europe,  bv  imitating  the  conditions  under  which  it 
ia  naturally  produced.  The  most  essential  ot  these 
conditions  seem  to  l>e  the  presence  ot  decaying 
organio  matter  whose  nitrogen  is  oxidised  by  the 
aeUon  of  the  atmosphere  into  nitric  acid,  which 
combines  with  the  bases  (potash  and  lime)  contained 
intheaoiL  'The  method  emjtloyed  in  the  artificial 
produotioQ  of  nitre  conast*  in  placing  animal  — * 


from  rain.  The  heap*  are  watered  from  time  to  time 
with  urine  or  stable  runiuDgl ;  at  suitable  intervals, 
tiie  earth  is  lixiviated,  and  the  salt  crystallised.  Three 
years  usually  elapse  before  the  nitre  bed  is  washed; 
aHer  this  interval,  a  cubic  foot  of  the  debiis  slionld 
yield  between  four  and  fivo  ounces  of  nitre.  As 
there  is  always  a  considerable  quantity  of  the 
nitrates  of  hme  and  magnesia  present,  whioh  will 
not  orystallise,  carbonate  of  potasbj  in  the  shape 
of  wood-oshee,  is  added  so  long  as  any  precipitate 
occurs.  The  nitrate  of  lime  is  decomposed,  and  the 
insoluble  carbonate  of  lima  separated: 

KO,CO,  +  CaCKO,  -  CaO,CO,  +  KOJiO, 
The  dear  liquor  is  then  evaporated  and  crystallised. 
It  has  been  foand  that  the  cMth  in  which  nitre 
baa  oDca  been  formed  fomiihes  fresh  nitre  mote 


rest  upon  an  impervious  flooring  of  clay,  so  that 


Chemittry,  2d  ed.  vol  ii  ^  S69. 

Nitre  does  not  occur  m  any  living  membera  ot 
the  animal  kingdom,  but  it  is  founa  in  tho  jaice« 
of  various  plants,  amongst  which  may  be  namecl 
the  BunfloweF,  netUe,  gooaa-foot,  borage  tobacoc^ 
barley,  &c 

All  the  nitre  used  in  this  country  comes  from  tlie 
East  Indies.  The  common  varieties,  which  have  a 
dirtr  yellowish  appearance,  are  termed  rough  or 
eniot  tallpelrt,  while  the  purer  kinds  are  called 
Ea^  India  r^ned.  The  purification  or  refining  of 
nitre  is  effected  by  diBsolving  it  in  water,  boUing 
the  solution,  removing  the  sCDU),  stnining  it  while 
hot,  and  setting  it  aside  to  crystallise.  The  moat 
common  impurities  are  sulphate  of  potash,  ohloride* 
of  sodiom  and  potassium,  and  nitrate  ot  limsL 
Ohloride  oC  barium  will  detect  the  fint  of  theaa 
impurities,  nibate  of  silver  the  Moood,  and  oxalate 
of  ammonia  the  third. 

Nitre  ia  employed  tn  the  maDnlaotnre  «I 
sniphurio  add,  in  the  preparation  of  nitric  aeid,  aa 
an  oxidising  agent  in  numsroua  chemical  prnrnnnns. 
as  an  ingrtdient  of  fireworks,  and  especially  in  the 
ntanufa^nre  of  gunpowder.  It  is  extendWy 
used  in  medicine^  In  moderate  doses  (Crom 
ten  grains  to  a  scruple)  it  acta  aa  a  refrigerant, 
dioretio,  and  diaphoretio,  and  hence  its  use  is 
indicated  when  we  wish  to  diminish  abnonnal  he«^ 
and  to  reduce  the  action  ot  the  poise,  aa  in  fsbrile 
disorders  and  hemorrhages.  In  acate  rfaeomatiBm, 
it  ia  given  in  large  doses  with  great  benefit.  Some 
physidans  prescribe  as  mnoh  as  one,  two,  or  three 
onnces,  largelydilutedwithwator,  tobegiveu  in  the 
course  of  twenty  hours;  bnt  aa  in  several  cases  a 
single  ounce  has  proved  fatal  in  a  few  hours,  the 
eflects  of  such  large  doses  should  be  carefnlly 
watched.  It  is  a  popular  remedy  in  sore  throat, 
either  in  the  form  of  nitre  balls,  or  powdered  and 
mixed  with  white  suj^.  In  either  case,  the 
remedy  should  be  retained  in  the  month  till  it 
melts,  and  the  snliva  impregnated  with  it  gently 
swallowed.  The  inhalation  of  the  fumes  prodnced 
by  the  ignition  ot  Umeh-paper  often  gives  speedy 
relief  in  cases  of  spasmodic  uthma. 

Nitrate  of  potash  is  sometima  sailed  Prwmatie 
yitrt  or  PotaA  Sa3ipetn,  to  distinguish  it  from 
nitrate  of  soda,  which  is  known  in  commerce  aa 
OttWo  NUre  or  Soda  SMpOn. 

OtMe  Nitrr,  or  NilraU  qf  Soda  {NoO  J(0^,  oocub 
abundantiy  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  Chili  and 
Pern.  It  derives  its  name  from  its  crystallisdng  in 
cube-Uke  rbombohedrous. 
it 


ordinary  nitre,  but  in  eonsemienoe  ot 
ereater  dehquescence,  it  cannot  be  sUMlitated 
Uiat  salt  in  the  preparation  of  gunpowder.   Being 


considerahly  cheaper  than  the  potash-ssJt,  cnbio  mtr« 
'  often  Bubetituted  for  it  in  the  niannfaotara  ot 
nitric  and  anlphurio  adds ;  and  it  is  uaed  in  agncnl- 
ture  as  a  top-dressing  for  wheat  and  oats.  In 
several  experimenta  it  nas  been  found  that  one  cwfc 
per  acre  has  produced  sn  increase  of  twelve  bnahela 
m  the  wheat  crop,  and  of  four  or  five  sacks  in  tha 
oat  crop, 

NITRIC  ACID  is  the  moat  important  of  tha 
five  compounds  which  oxygen  forms  with  Nitoogen 
(q.  v.).  Until  1849,  it  was  only  known  in  tha 
hydratedform  (the  ofuaAireia  of  the  older  chemiata), 
bnt  in  that  year  Deville  shewed  that  Attkydroua 
Nilrk  AM,  or  Nitric  AnhydMe  (NO,),  m^  ba 
obt^ed  in  transparent  colonrlev  crystals  ^  tba 
a  of  perfectly  diy  chlorine  gas  on  weU-diJed 


11.==:,,  Google 


NITRIC  ACID— NTTBO-BENZOL. 


enaUb  « 
euibited; 

AgO,NO,  +  a    =     Aga     +    NO,     + 

It  i 


Biplodea  ■pantaneotulj. 

eralation  of  vneh  h«tA,  and  forma  hydistad  nitrio 

HydnOed  UTOrie  Aad  Ifijmh.  HOJfO,  •qniv,  __, 
■p  gr-  1'6S1),  when  perfectly  pure,  ia  •  ooIodtUh 
limpid,  famiDg,  powetfnllj  omuUc  fluid,  jinrrrwinE 
•n  mtfiosely  acid  reactioii,  aa  aheim  bj  tta  actioii 
m  litmua.  It  boCa  at  184%  and  traoiea  alt  about 
—  40°.  It  parta  veiy  leadny  witit  a  portion  of  ita 
oxygen  to  niMt  of  the  metala,  and  henoe  ia  mn^ 
oied  in  tlie  laboratory  aa  an  ozidiainD  agent.  It* 
mode  of  action  on  the  metals  regnifM  a  few  rematka. 
In  order  that  a  metal  ahould  unite  ni^  nifario,  or 
any  other  acid,  it  is  nec«wary  that  it  ahonld  be  in 
the  form  of  an  oxid&  Thia  oxidation  ia,  hoirever, 
effected  at  the  same  time  that  the  metal  and  nitrio 
add  are  hron^ht  in  contact,  hy  one  portjon  ol  Uie 
latter  becoming  decomposed  and  converting  the 
metal  into  an  oxide,  while  the  remaining  portion 
oombinea  with  the  oxide  thna  formed,  to  prodnoe  i 
"'*"*'      The  exact  natore  of  the  decompoaitioi 


ntheci 


sofdi 


Nitrio  acid,  irhether  in  the  concentrated  or 
more  dilute  form,  acta  energetioally  oo  ot^ 
matters.  Aa  examplee  of  auoh  actiooa  we  may  refer 
to  ita  power  of  decoloriuD^  indign  ;  of  ataimng  the 
■kin  and  all  albuminona  tisiuea  of  a  bright-yellow 
oolour;  of  coagulating  fluid  albnmeng  and  oC  con- 
verting cotton  fibre  mto  an  s^loeiTe  aabetance. 
See  Oim  Cotton. 

The  monohydrated  aoid  (BOJfO„)  is  by  no  means 
a  (table  compoand.  If  it  be  expotied  to  the  action 
of  light  it  is  dscompooed  into  hyponitrio  acid  (NOJ 
(the  peroxide  of  nitrogen  of  Ortuiam)  and  oin^gen ; 
andlnerediBtillatioD  produoesatdmilareSect.  Wheu 
it  IB  mixed  with  water  it  emits  a  sensible  amount  of 
heat,  owinc  to  the  formation  of  a  mnch  more  Bfajjle 
hydrate,  HO J(0^  +  SAq,  whioh  dietils  at  2W  with- 
out change,  and  ii  unaffected  by  expomre  to  light. 
Its  specibc  gravity  is  1*424 ;  and  it  ia  found  that  a 
weaker  acid  when  heated  parts  with  its  water,  and 
a  stronger  ooid  with  ita  aad,  till  each  amvea  at  this 
density.  Hie  eoistence  of  this  bydnte  boa,  however, 
been  receDtiy  called  in  qntation  by  Boacoe. 

Tbe  ao-cwled  Abidi^  Jfilrie  Acid  ia  merely  a 
miztore  ^  the  pvre  acid  with  hyponitrio  acid. 

M'itrio  add  ooea  not  oocnr  natntally  in  a  freo 
state ;  but  it  is  found  tolerably  abuniiuuit  in  oom- 
bination  with  potaah,  soda,  lime,  and  inagn£aia ;  and 
after  thnnderttorms  traces  of  it,  in  combination  with 
ammonia,  are  found  in  rain  water.  It  may  be 
fanned  in  small  qnantity  by  paaaing  a  aeriea  of  eleebio 

rhs  through  a  mixture  of  ita  oomponent  gataa  in 
preaence  of  water,  which  is  a  mere  imitation,  on 
a  small  seale,  of  the  mode  in  which  it  is  pnidaoed  in 
the  abnoaphere  by  a  storm.  It  is  uenaily  praparsd 
in  the  laboratory  by  the  application  of  heat  to  a 
mixture  of  equal  weiriits  of  powdered  nitre  (nitrate 
of  potash)  and  oil  of  vitriol  (hydrated  snlphurio 
acid)  placed  in  a  retort.  A  combination  of  sul- 
phnric  acid  and  potaah  resuuna  in  the  retort;  while 
the  nitrio  aeid  dotils  over,  and  is  eondensed  in  the 
receiver,  wfajidi  is  kept  oool  by  the  application  ot  a 
wet  doth.    Hie  naction  ia  explained  oy  the  eqoa- 


KO,NO,  -(-  2(H0,S0J  =  HO,NO,  +  KO.HO.SSO, 

During  distillation  red  fumes  appear,  arisinjj  from 
the  decompasitian  of  a  portion  ol  the  nitrio  acid  and 


a  formatiim  of  some  of  the  lower  oxides  of  nitrogen. 
In  this  operation  tmo  oquivaleoti  of  oil  of  vitriolare 
taken  for  oiu  of  nibe,  theee  l>dn<  the  moportions 
found  by  experienoe  to  be  most  suitable.  If  they  are 
taken,  equivalent  for  eqoivalent,  a  very  impure 
redfoming  aoid  ia  the  rrault.  In  the  manufacture 
of  nitrio  add  on  the  large  scale,  the  glass  retort  is 
replaced  by  a  cast-iron  cylinder  coated  with  firo- 
olay,  and  the  receiver  by  a  series  of  earthen  condens- 
ing vessels  connected  by  tubes ;  and  nitrate  of  soda, 
fonnd  native  in  Pern,  is  substitnted  for  nitre,  in 
oonae^nenoe  of  its  being  a  cheaper  salt,  and  of  its 
containing  9  per  cent,  more  nitnc  acid. 

Nibio  acid  combinee  with  bases  to  fonn  nitrata, 
some  of  which,  as  those  of  potash,  soda,  oxide  ot 
ammonium,  silver,  Ac,  are  anhydrous,  while  otbera 
oombins  with  a  certain  nomber  (often  six)  equiva- 
lent* <d  water  <rf  ci7«ta]Iisation.  Most  of  them  are 
soluble  in  water,  crystollisahle,  and  leadily  fumble 
by  heat ;  and  at  an  elevated  temperature  they  are 
aU  deoompoeed,  usnally  leaving  only  the  oxide  of 
the  metal  If  paper  ae  aoaked  in  a  solution  of  a 
nitrate,  allowed  to  <tiy,  and  ignited,  it  bnmi  in  the 
smouldering  mode  eharootenstia  of  touch-paptr. 
This  property  is,  however,  shared  by  a  few  other 
mlts. 

le  tests  for  this  add  when  it  ia  present  in  amoU 
tities  are  less  satisfactory  than  tkoae  for  the 
other  ordituuT  mineral  adds,  AU  it*  componnds 
are  ao  aolnble  that  no  prte^ifaat  fbr  this  add 
ia  known.    The  beet  method  for  its  detection  ia 

'xins  the  fluid  to  be  tested  with  a  little  coaoen- 

itea  aulphurio  acid,  and  then  pouring  a  strong 
solution  of  protosulphate  of  iron  upon  it^  so  as  to 
form  a  separate  layer.  If  much  nitric  acid  be 
present,  a  black  colour  i«  produced ;  if  only  a  small 
quantity  ia  present,  the  liquid  becomes  reddieh- 
brown  or  purple ;  the  dark  colour  being  due  to  the 
formation  of  nitrio  oxide  by  the  deoiidismg  action 
of  a  portion  of  the  iron  salt  on  the  nitric  acid. 

The  (^plications  of  thia  add  in  the  arte,  in 
maaufactiuea,  and  in  cheinical  processes  are  very 
extensive. 

NITRIO  AOID,  Ths  MmiciNAi.  XJata  of.    In 


gravity  of  1'6,  and  ia  repreeented  by  the  formula 
3H0,2N0p  while  the  diluted  add  is  prepared  by 
mixing  two  ounces  of  the  former  with  thirteen  of 
"atilled  water,  and  bat  a  spedflo  gravity  of  I-lOl. 

The  dilute  add  is  nsed  internally  aa  a  tonio  in 
conjnnction  with  bitter  infusiona.    In  many  oasea 
'  chronic  inflammation  of  the  liver,  and  in  «yphi- 
io  cases  in  which  the  employment  o(  merooriala 
ia  inadmissible^  it  may  be  prescribed  with  great 
benefit,  either  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  hydro- 
chlorio  add,  extemslly  as  a  bath  or  lotion,  or  inter- 
Dally  in  doaia  of  about  SO  minim*  prt^jerly  diluted. 
The  strong  add  i*  useful  aa  an  eecbarotio ;  a*  to 
destroy  wi^ta,  some  kinds  of  polypi,  the  nnhealthy 
*-'— le  in  slonghing  ulcers,  to.,  and  aa  an  applioa- 
to  parte  bitten  by  rabid  or  Tenomoua  ^-^i^fi* 
^y  diluted,  aa  SO  or  60  drop*  of  the  etcong 
to  a  pint  or  more  of  water,  it  forms  an  exoellent 
stimulative  application  to  torpid  ulcers. 

I'TRO-BB-HZOI^  or  NITRO-BBNZIDE 
(CuHJJOJ,  is  a  yellow  oilv  fluid,  ot  snedfio  gravity 
1%  which  maybe  distilled  without  decomposition, 
crystallises  in  needles  at  37°,  and  boils  at  31S°,  It 
has  a  sweet  taste,  ia  insoluble  in  water,  but  dlMolvei 
freely  la  alcohol  and  ether.  Ita  odour  is  vet; 
similar  to  that  of  oil  of  bitter  almonds,  which  baa 
ted  to  its  use  in  perfumery,  under  the  name  o( 
Etunot  of  Mirbane.  It  is  obtained  by  treating 
benxol  (CuB,)  with  warm  fuming  nitrio  add,  when. 

' C;n?ijld 


1  eqninlent  of  tb«  hydrogen  u  nplaMd  by  1  of 
hyponitrie  add,  vt    tlut    th»    btuiiol   (CuH,H) 


beeomet   oonverted  into  nitio-b«DZol 
See  Sirpp^  VoL  X. 

NITBOOEN  (iymbol,  N  ;  equiY.  14  ;  apec  gnv. 
0'9713)  derivea  its  nams  from  the  Greek  words 
nitron,  nitre,  and  gen-,  to  prodaoe,  in  oonseqneiiee  of 
ita  being  ao  euenti«l  conatitneDt  of  that  aalb  It  fa 
frequently  tanned  taolt  [Qr.  a,  ^iv.,  toe,  life), 
a[woiall^  by  the  French  ohemiata,  id  conaeqaenca 
of  ita  being  a  gaa  incapable  of  inpporting  life,  and  for 
the  aame  jeaaon,  the  German  chemisti  term  it  lUdt- 
•<<>^('ahokiDg  anbatMice').    It  waa  diacorered  by 

Batherford  in  1772.     LaDg  regarded  r-  -  ' 

uent '  gaa,  it  waa  liqaelied  by  Cailletet 

Nitrogen  is  *  eolourleM  '--    ' 
■nanent  gaa,  which  in  ita  a] 


NU«). 


18^^ 


gredien 
loo  cat 


ippearant 

,  of  whieb  it  is  the  main  in- 
I  aomewhat  lighter  than  atmoariierie  air, 
loo  cabio  inches  at  60*  F.,  and  barometer  30  inches, 
weighins  30-110  ^ina,  while  tiie  same  rolume  of 
air  weigha  30-935  inohea.  It  is  characterised  Kther 
l^  negrtive  than  by  positiTe  properties.  It  it  not 
combuistible,  nor  ia  it  a  sapportor  of  oombnstion  (a 
lighted  taper  being  immediately  extdnguished  it 
immenad  m  this  gas] ;  it  is  not  reepirable,  althoQf^ 
it  is  not  podti^^  poiaonona;  for  when  it  1«  mixed 
with  reajMiable  gasea  (aa  with  ozj^gen  in  atmoapherio 
air)  it  may  be  breathed  without  injury.  It  is  Tery 
ali^itly  aolnhle  in  water,  and  henee  may  be  collectea 
over  Uiat  fluid.  Its  oombininfj  powers  we  very 
■lif^t,  and  althoagb  it  naites  with  oxygen,  hydro- 
gen, chlorine,  and  many  other  anbstancee,  the  nnioa 
la  never  effected  by  the  direct  action  of  tiie  alementa 
on  one  another,  but  only  by  oomplicated  pnioesses, 
and  many  of  the  reenlting  compoouda  are  of  an 
wtoMdingly  nnatable  natuie. 

Nitrogen  u  one  of  the  most  widely  diffused  ele- 
mentary snbctancea.  It  forms  about  fonr-Gftlu  of 
the  bulk  of  the  atmoa^iere ;  tor  air,  after  having 
been  freed  from  the  amall  quantitiea  of  oarbonic 
aeid  and  aqneona  vapour  whitm  it  containa,  conaiata, 
■ocordingto the experimenta  of  Dumaa  and Bonsiln- 
ganlt,  of  zO-Sl  pet  cent,  of  oxygen  and  79-19  pw  cent 
of  nitrogen  by  volume^  or  2341  of  oxygta  and  76-99 
of  nitn^en  by  weight ;  the  two  gaaea  in  this  case 
being  unifonnly  mixed,  but  not  m  chemical  com- 
bjnation  with  one  aooUier.  It  oocnrs,  however,  in 
combination  with  oiygoi  in  the  fonu  of  nitric  acid 
(HO,NO,)  in  various  nitratea,  which  are  fonnd  as 
natnral  intidnota  in  maay  parts  of  the  globe.  In 
— '--'--'-' ith  hydrogen,  it  is  abnndantly  found 


and  phosphoma, 
tuenta  of  the  aolids  and  fluids  of  the  »"'■"»<  body, 
and  occurs  in  many  vegetable  producta,  especially  m 
the  alkalwds,  such  m  morphia,  ati^chnia,  qnioia,  && 
The  ordinary  methoda  of  prepanng  and  exhibiting 
Qua  gaa,  are  bated  upon  the  removu  of  the  oxygen 
from  atmondierie  air.  This  may  be  done  (1)  By 
setting  fire  to  •  small  piece  of  photphonu  placed  in 
a  oiqtsule,  that  floate  on  the  water  of  the  pneumatic 
trough,  ud  by  inverting  a  glaaa-reoeiver  tilled  with 
air  over  it.  The  pho^orus  oombines  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  to  form  phosphoric  acid,  which 
diatolvet  in  the  water,  white  the  nitrogen  is  left, 
and  mutt  be  tranaferred  to  another  veateL    (2)  By 


will  be  ue  same  retuitt  as  in  the  former  experi- 
ment— vis.,  [diospboric  add  and  nitrogen ;  (3)  Or 
by  pasriug  air  tJirough  a  tube  containing  heated 
copper  fihnga,  which  absorb  the  oxygen.  In  the 
above  cases,  a  little  carbonio  acid  ia  present,  which 
m^  be  removed  by  passing  the  gas  through  a 


BolniiMi  of  potash.  Pure  nibo^  may  be  direotly 
obtained  by  the  action  of  chlorine  gaa  on  a  aoluticni 
of  the  nitrogenous  tnbttanoe,  ammonia. 

Nitrogen  forms  with  oxy^^  no  less  than  five 
distinct  componnda,  oontaining,  reepective];;,  I,  2, 
3, 4,  and  G  equivahnta  of  oxyKcn,  with  1  eqnivalent 
of  Ditrosen.  ^Hiese  compound  are  thna  nvned  and 
conatitiwed:  Protoxide  at  Nitrogen  (knolm  also  •• 
Nitrona  Oxide  and  Laughing  Oas),  NO;  Binoiide 
(or  Deutoxide)  of  Nitrc^n  (known  alM  aa  Nitrio 
Oxide),  NO, ;  Nitrona  Acid,  NO, ;  Hymnitrio  Acid 
(known  also  as  Peroxide  of  Nitrogen),  NO, :  Nitrio 
Acid,NOr 

FroUmde  nf  HUTOf/en  it  a  transparent,  oolonrieas 
gaa,  with  a  tweetiah  taste  and  amell  It  is  mnch 
more  soluble  in  cold  than  in  hot  water,  and  there- 
fore abould  be  collected  over  the  latter.  Und^  a 
prenuro  of  SO  atmondieres  at  4ff  °  it  ia  reduced  to  • 
oolourleas  liquid,  and  it  may  be  (rozen  into  a  tnuu- 
parentsolid  at  about  — 190.  Thk  pa  it  about  half 
as  heavy  ^in  aa  atmoapherio  air,  its  qMciBo  gravitr 
being  I'Sln.  It  Bupporta  the  oombualdon  ofmanT 
bodies,  such  aa  cartxin,  sulphur,  phoephcffus,  and 
iron,  with  a  brilliancy  similar  to  that  which  they 
exhibit  in  oxygen ;  and,  like  oxygen,  when  mixed 
with  bydn^u,  it  forma  a  mixture  which  eiplodea 
on  the  i^phcation  of  a  flame.  The  most  remarkable 
proper^  of  the  nis  is  its  intoiicatinB  power  on  the 
animal  system.  It  may  be  respired  tot  a  ihort  time 
if  qoite  pure,  or  if  only  mixed  with  atmoepheric  air, 
without  danger  or  serious  inconvenience.  The 
intoxication  la  frequently  aocompanied  with  an 
irreostibia  propensity  to  muscular  exertion,  and 
usually  with  unooDtndlabla  bonta  of  laughter,  and 
hence  the  sat  hat  received  the  name  (J  lauj^iAf 
gcu.  It  ia  hot  obtained  by  heatdng  aolid  nitrate  of 
ammonia  in  a  ^lass  retort,  when  it  is  convta-ted  into 
protoxide  of  mtrogen  and  water.  It  hsa  recenlly 
ooms  into  frequent  use  as  an  ansBsthetic  in  dentistry 
and  similar  cases,  It  it  lest  suited  to  protracted 
operations,  as  the  effects  are  trandent.  It  produces 
much  leaa  disturbance  of  the  system  than  chloroform. 

Sincaide  o/"  2fUrogeit  u  a  colonrleat  gat,  very 
sli^tly  soluble  in  water,  and  having  a  apedflc 
gravity  of  1-039.  Ita  taste  and  amell  (if  any)  are 
unknown,  since,  in  the  presence  of  abnospherio  air, 
it  instantly  becomes  more  highly  oxioiaed. 


deacribe  the  mods  of  obtaining  it. 

NilToiuA<iii,orlfitrmi4AAytlride,iat, 
of  which,  in  its  uocombined  state,  Tery  little  it  yefe 
known  further  than  that  it  it  a  dark-bloe^  very 
volatile  fluid,  which  boilt  at  32',  and  ia  then  con* 
verted  into  an  orange-red  gaa. 

Hvponitric  Add  presents  a  remarkable  example 
of  a  body  within  compatntively  small  limits  of  tem- 
perature occurring  in  a  solid,  a  fluid,  and  a  p«eous 
form.  At  a  temperature  of  —  4°  it  oceura  in  the  form 
of  oolourless  ]>nsmatic  crystals,  which  are  converted 
at  about  9°  into  a  fluid  which,  till  the  temperature 
reaches  about  30*,  ia  coloutleas;  but  at  a  bisher 
temperature  becomes  yellow  and  orange,  and  at 
about  82*  boils,  and  is  converted  into  a  browuiah- 
red  vaponr.  It  it  chiefly  tiie  vapour  of  hyponitrio 
acid  that  forms  the  orange  fumes  that  are  jnodnoed 
when  binoxide  of  nibogea  come*  in  contact  vrith 

-  ,^^:— _-.vi.  __i.___^. 

Itdi 

ition  with  bases,  but  is  immediately  decomposed 
by  them  into  nitric  and  nitrona  adds ;  and  it  ia  in 
consequence  of  ita  not  poasessinj 
character  of  an  acid  that  Graham 
name  of  peroxUt  of  nitrogen,  a  terra  that  has 
been  adopted  by  Miller  and  other  ohemista. 


wLiOOgIC 


NrrRO-GLTCEErNE-KIVERNAia 


A'ilrie  Acid ..  , .  . 

Nitrogen  comliiiiGa  with  hydrogen  in  four  pro- 
portiona,  but  nona  of  theu  compounds  con  be 
tonoed  by  the  direct  union  of  Uis  cotaponent 
elements,  uid  onlj  one  of  tfaem,  viz.,  smmonu,  hM 
been  obtaioed  in  the  isolated  fotm.  They  arcf— 
Jmidoffm  (NH),  Amidogm  (NHJ,  Ammonia  (NH^, 
and  Ammonium  (NH^).  Of  theee,  the  fint  two  wQl 
be  noticed  nnder  Oboanio  Ba^is,  while  the  last  two 
are  ioffioiently  deiciribed  under  Akhonu. 

Nitrogen  comUnM  with  chlorine,  bromina,  and 
bdine.  The  chloride  of  tutrogea  is  s  heavy,  oUy, 
onnge-colonnd  fluid,  insoluble  in  water,  and  evolv- 
ing a  vapoor  of  a  highly  iiritatinff  nstmi.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  dangerous  compounds  known  in  chem- 
iatiy,  as  it  exptodas  with  extreme  violence  when 
brought  in  contact  with  phoephortu,  arsenic,  potash, 
ammonia,  caontchont^  numerous  oily  mattera,  tc, 
at  ordinary  temperatnres,  and  spontaneoosly  when 
heated  to  above  SDCT.  It  has  occasioned  so  msny 
•erions  accidents  that  we  shall  omit  all  detuls 
regarding  iU  mode  of  preparation.  Its  exact  for- 
mula is  nnknown.  Brwimt  of  N'^rogm  is  an  oily- 
looking  detonating  liquid,  reaembling  the  chloride 
in  appearance  md  properties.  Iodide  of  Nitrogen 
occurs  sa  a  black  powder,  which  when  dry  explodes 
npan  the  slightest  touch,  and  often  withoat  any 
assignable  cause. 

Nitrogen  enters  into  combination  with  variona 
metals,  aa  mercury,  copper,  titanium,  molybdenum, 
and  vanadium,  forming  a  claaa  of  compounds  to 
which  the  term  Nitnda  is  applied,  l^eir  meet 
marked  chanaemtio  ia,that,  like  the  preeedinj  set 
of  compounds,  they  are  highly  explosive,  resolving 
themselves  when  struck,  or  at  a  high  temperature, 
into  their  coostituent  elements. 

NITEO-GLYCERINK.    See  Sdtp.,  Vol  X. 

NITROUS  BTHEE,  or  NITEITE  OF  OXIDE 
OF  ETHYI^  is  represeuted  by  the  fonunla 
C.H,0,NO„  OF  AeO,NO^  Ae  being  the  symbol  for 
ethyl  (C.E,).  It  is  a  p«U  yaUow  fluid,  bavins  a 
•peoifia  Biavita  of  0*947,  and  evolving  an  acreeable 
odont  01  apples.  On  evapotstion,  it  prodncea  a 
great  desree  of  cold,  it  boJls  at  62*,  and  it  is  vei^ 
mH.miiiAla  It  doM  uot  DUX  witti  Water,  but  la 
readily  mtsci^e  with  alcohol.  When  kept  in  con- 
tact wiUi  water  it  aoon  decomposea,  and  aa  aeid 
mixture  of  a  veiy  compUcated  character  is  formed. 
It  may  be  obtaiiwd  by  mixing  1  part  of  starch  and 
10  of  nitrio  acid  in  a  capadous  retort,  which  must 
be  gently  heated.  The  vapour  of  nitrous  add,  which 
is  evolved  by  the  actioQ  of  the  starch  on  the  tdtiio 
acid,  is  oonduoted  into  alcohol,  mixed  with  half  its 
weight  of  water,  contained  in  a  two-necked  bottie, 
which  is  to  be  plunged  into  cold  water.  The  aeoond 
neck  of  this  bottle  la  oonnectad  with  a  good  cooling 
appsratoB ;  and  the  vapour  CMoluning  in  its  passage 
throng  Uie  alcohol  with  the  oxide  of  ethyl,  forma 
nitrous  ether,  whioh  distils  in  a  ocmtinoons  sbeam. 
liiis,  which  is  known  aa  liebi^s  method,  is  the  beat 
process,  bnt  it  is  usually  prtvwed  hj  tils  direot 
action  of  nitric  acid  on  alcohol,  in  which  case  the 
nitrio  acid  is  deoxidised  by  the  hvdngen  and  carbon 
of  the  ethyl  of  part  of  the  alcohol 

Th«  Spirit  4f  2fHr<m»  AlAer,  or  Biaed  Spirit  qf 
IfHre,  tt«ed  in  medicine,  is  a  mixture  of  nitrons 
ether  with  about  four  times  its  volume  of  rectified 
nurit.  Iti  spee^  gravitr should  not  exceed  OSS. 
It  ia  naed,  in  conjunction  with  other  medidnea,  *a  a 
diuretio,  eapeciaUy  in  the  dropsy  which  follows 
icariatiua ;  and  it  is  employed,  in  oombination  with 
aoetata  of  ammonia  and  tartarised  antimony,  in 
febrile  afieettoaa.  The  dose  in  febrile  eaaea  is  from 
half  a  dnwihin  to  a  couple  of  drachms,  and  if  we 
wish  it  to  act  aa  a  diuretio,  two  or  thrM  drachms 
•honld  be  given.    It  ia  a  rather  expenaire  mediciiie. 


and  conaequently  is  extremely  liable 
tion.  Li  the  new  British  Pharmaeopteia.  it  ia 
recommended  that  tiiis  substance  should  be  directly 
obtained  by  the  distillation  of  nitrite  of  soda  (five 
ounce*],  snlphuria  add  (four  fluid  ounces),  and 
rectified  spirit  (two  pinta)-~a  process  open  to  many 
practical  objections. 

NITZSCH,  Eabl  iMKAMtEL,  one  of  the  most 

distingnished  theologians  that  modem  Oermany  has 

dnosd,  was  bom  September  21,  1787,  at  Soma. 

studied  for  the  dmrch  at  Wittenberg  where  he 

took  his  degree  in  ISIO,  and  where,  in  1813,  be 
became  pariah  minister.  Here  his  religious  0[nniims 
underwent  a  great  modification,  through  the  inftu- 
euM  of  Bchleiermacher  and  Daub,  and  he  awoke 
to  a  clearer  pereeptioii  of  the  essence  of  reli^on. 
From  this  time  forward  N.  is  to  be  regatdea  as 
one  of  that  new  acbool — of  which  Neander  ia  the 
greateet  repraaentative — who  endeavonred  to  reeon> 
die  futh  and  adence,  not  by  forced  and  nnnatnral 
methoda,  bnt  by  pointing  out  their  distinctive 
Bpherea,  and  by  eohilnting  m  their  own  spiritual  life 
tnat  anion  of  reaaon  ana  reverence  for  which  they 
~  eir  writiDgi.  In  1622,  N.  waa  called 
ordinary   proft 


nniveraity  preacher,  where  he  laboured  witA  Kieat 
diligence  for  more  than  twenty  years,  not  only  in 
thedogy,  bnt  in  all  matten  affecting  the  welfare 


of  the  Praadan  church.  In  1847, 
Maihdn^e  at  Berlin,  and  as  profea 
pieaobe^  and  upper  consistoriol  coundilor, 
exercised  with  ^udenoe  and  moderation  a  wide 
istical  inHnn^ina,  jn  his  poUtieal  (pathaps 
m  his  religions)  views  he  may  be  claaaed  with 
late  Chevalier  Bunsen.  The  High  Lutheran 
y  having  denounced  liberal  politics  as  iireligiooa, 
md  Bunsen  and  others  have  vindicated  them  on 


the  ground  irf  Christiamty,  not  without  succesa^   li 

thedogy,  bis  podtion  will  be  be«t  understood  whei 

say  that  he  subordinated  dogma  to  ethics,  oi 


result  from  an  ethical  apprdienaion  d  Ohria- 
tianity.  Besides  numerous  smaller  tieattsea  on 
Dogoii^ca,  the  History  ol  Dogmas  and  Litnnia^ 
thme  larger  works  oall  for  special  mention,  l^sse 
are  his  ^/tlem  d»r  OhritOiAm  X«Ar«  {Boon,  1629) ; 
6th  edit.  ISei) ;  bis  PraititdU  T/Uolcgie  (Bonn,  1S47 
— 1848} ;  and  hia  PredigUn,  or  Sermons,  of  whioh 
several  collectione  have  appeared,  and  which  are 
remarkable  for  their  eAnordinary  riohneM  of 
thought  He  died  in  ISSS.-^NiraoK,  Qreqob 
WiLHXLif  (bom  in  1790),  brother  of  the  preoeding, 
acquired  a  high  reputation  aa  a  philoliwist,  and  waa 

iirofeaMir  of  arohMdogy  at  Leipiig  till  bis  death  in 
HRl.  He  waa  conai&ed  one  of  the  ableet  oppon- 
ents of  Wolfa  Homeric  theoriaa.  His  chief  work 
ia  Die  Sagetpoaie  dtr  tfriecftm  (Brunswick,  1862). 

NITELLBB  (Flam.  itTwel),  a  town  of  Bdnun, 
in  the  province  of  Brabant^  IS  milea  aouth  of 
Bnusela.  It  has  a  fine  ohuroh,  called  the  Cbuidi 
of  St  Gertrude  (built  in  the  Romanesque  style  of 
architecture,  1048  A-D.),  which  claima  to  contain  th* 
relics  d  3t  Gerbnd^  daughter  of  Pejnn,  Maire  dn 
Pdwa.  They  are  depositea  in  a  shrine  placed  over 
the  high-altar.  N.  has  manufaetures  of  linen,  ootton, 
lace,  to.    Popt  10,00a 

NIYERNAIS,  formerfy  a  province  in  tha  middle 
of  France,  nearly  corresponding  to  the  presuit 
department  of  Ni^vre.  It  was  divided  into  <ipA 
territorial  diatnots,  and  its  towns  enjoyed  monuupd 
privileges  at  a  very  early  period.  The  prindpal 
undownera  were  the  counts,  afterwaida  dnkea,  of 


,v  Goo^  ll 


NIX— NOBILITY. 


NIX,  in  the  DinscnliDa,  uid  nixe  in 
(OtdHigh  Ger.  niAAus;  Anglo-Saxon,  nicer;  Dutch, 
MiUav;  Old  Norse,  nUr;  Swed,  wit,  net ;_  Ddn. 
not,  nok — whence  our  name  for  Che  devil,  2fidt,  not 
M  Bome  abourdly  suppoae,  from  NichoUu  Mochis- 
velli),  the  commoa  name  for  &U  water  Bpirite  in  the 
Tentonio  mythology.  They  are  reiirosented  oa  of 
humiia  tonn,  or  sometimea  u  passing  into  that  of  ft 
fish  or  ol  ft  hone.  They  love  mnsic  and  dances, 
and  poBse«  the  gift  oE  prophecy,  Ilka  the  Greek 
Muaea,  Sirens,  and  other  water  godt.  The  niz 
taught,  in  return  for  a  good  gift,  the  art  of  playing 
on  a  stringed  iostnuoent ;  and  often  in  the  evening 
sunshine  the  nixes,  <yimbing  their  tooa  hair,  were 
wont  to  mingle  in  Hie  dances  of  mortftU;  bnt  their 
oomiHuiy    was    dangerous,  for  though    sometimes 


wearing  a  mild  appcaranoe,  they 

qnently   cruel    and    malignant — 1 

of  Scotland  must  be   reckoned  a  member  of  the 


—The    teaUr-lcdpU 


Kus  Nil,  but  in  him  the  evil  element  alone 
generally,  if  not  always,  assomed  the  form 
ot  a  wftter-horse;  frequented  fords  and  fwriea, 
eepedally  during  stonoa ;  aUared  travellers  to 
mount  him,  and  then  dashed  fnrionsly  witli  them 
into  the  stream  which  he  had  flooded  by  his 
devilisli  power,  and  suhmcrgeJ  them. 

NIZAM'S  DOMINIONS,  or  HAIDARABAD, 
the  moat  important  of  the  native  or  feadatoty  states 
of  India,  occnpies  the  greater  part  of  the  Decoan 
proper  or  central  plateau  of  Southern  Indift,  between 
the  provinces  of  Madras  and  Bombay.  Ares,  61,S07 
square  miles  (eiclnding  the  Bril^ui  assigned  dis- 
tricts of  Beraji,  q.  V.)  :  pop.  at  census  of  I8S1 
(the  6nt  token),  g,84S,5M.  The  snr&ce  is  a 
slightly-elevated  table-land.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Godftvari  (Godavery),  with  its  tribu- 
taries the  Dndhna,  Manjera,  and  Pranhita ;  and  the 
Kistnft  (Krishna),  with  ib  tributariei  the  Bimah 
and  Tnngabhodro.  The  soil  is  naturally  very  fertile, 
bnt  poorly  cultivated ;  yet,  wherever  it  receives 
moderate  attention,  it  yields  harvests  all  the  year 
round.  The  products  are  rices  wheat,  maize, 
nmstard,  oastor-oil,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  indigo,  fmits 
(indnding  grapes  and  metoDs),  and  all  kinds  of 
kitchen  vegetables.  The  pasturages 
sive,  and  sbeep  and  homed  cattle  are 


and  originate  fevera,  ftgnea,  diiesaes  of  the  aplcen, 
Ac,  thon^  tiie  climate  is  quite  healthy  where 
these  do  not  sbound.  The  mean  temperature  of  the 
cental,  Hyderabad,  in  January  ia  74"  30',  and  in 
May  Vy.  The  inhabitants  monofactare  for  home 
use  woollen  and  cotton  fabrics,  and  export  silk, 
dressed  hides,  dye-stutlg,  gums,  and  resioa.  The 
Nizam  is  a  Mohnmnipdan,  but  his  sub  jeots  are  moatly 
Hindus.  His  revenue  is  about  £4,000,000  a  year ; 
and  he  maintftina  an  army  of  30,000  foot  and  8O00 
cavalry.    Sea  Jamo  (Sib  SAtia)  m  Sdpp.,  Vol  X. 

In  I6ST,  the  tarritory,  now  known  as  the  Nizam's 
Dominions,  beooms  a  province  of  the  Mogul  empire ; 
but  in  1719,  the  governor  or  vioeroy  of  3ib  Deeoan, 
Azof  Jab,  made  himaeU  independent,  and  took  the 
title  ot  Niaim-vl-Slvlk  (Begolator  of  the  State). 
After  hia  death,  in  1746,  two  claimants  appeared  for 
the  thnnte,  his  aon  Nanr  Jnng,  and  his  grandson 
Mtraapbft  Jung.  The  cause  of  the  former  wns 
espoused  by  the  East  India  Company,  and  that  of 
the  latter  by  a  body  of  French  adventui^ra  under 
General  Du^eiz.  Then  followed  a  period  of  strife 
and  anarchy.  In  1761,  Nizam  Ah  obtained  the 
supreme  power,  uid  after  some  vacillation  signed  a 
treaty  of  alliance  with  the  English  in  176&  He 
uded  them  in  the  war  with  Tippoo,  sultan  of 
Mysore,  and  at  the  termination  of  that  war,  in 
1799,  a  new  treaty  was  formed,  by  which,  in  return 
ta^  oertain  territoiial  ooneesaiou^  the  East  India 


men  for  the  defence  of  the  Nizam's  domin- 
iona.  The  Nizam  remained  faithful  to  the  Britiah 
during  the  mutiny  of  1S67— 1858.  The  territory  ia 
frequently  called  Hyderabad  or  Hotdwabad.  A 
Britiali  resident  advises  the  Nizam, 

NCBILB  OFFI'CIUM,  the  tim  used  In  tit* 
Law  of  Scotland  to  denote  the  high  preio^tive 
right  of  tiie  Court  of  Seaaion  to  exercise  jimsdso- 
tion  in  certain  cases — as,  for  example,  to  appmnt  M 
jndicial  factor  to  young  children  or  to  lunatica. 

NOBIXITY,  tliat  distinotion  of  rank  in  dvil 
society  which  raises  a  mxn  above  the  oondition 
of  the  mass  of  Uie  people.  Society  has  a  tendency 
to  ineqnality  of  eondition,  arising  from  the  natural 
inequality,  physic^  moral,  and  intellectual,  of  those 
who  composo  it,  aided  by  the  diversity  of  estemaJ 
advantages,  and  of  the  prmciples  and  habits  imbibed 
at  an  early  age.  This  inequality  ia  apt  to  increase  ; 
the  sou,  inheriting  the  faculties  of^  his  fatbez,  ia 
more  favourably  situated  tliau  his  father  waa  for 
making  use  of  them ;  and  hence,  in  almost  every 
nation  in  even  the  very  early  atagea  of  civilisatioD 
we  find  Bomctliing  like  a  heredita^  nobility.  Privi- 
leges originally  acquired  by  wealth  or  political 
power,  are  secured  to  the  family  of  tbe  poBsevor 
of  them ',  and  the  privileged  class  come  to  constitiite 
an  order,  admiaaion  into  which  requires  the  oonsent 
of  society  or  of  the  order  iteelf. 

The  ancient  Komana  were  divided  into  ttobZta 
and  ignobilei,  a  distinction  at  first  cotre^ondtDg 
to  that  of  patricians  and  plebdaus.  A  new  aobili^ 
afterwards  sprung  out  of  the  plebeian  order,  and 
obtained  (33G  b.  c.)  the  right  to  rise  to  high  offices 
in  the  state  ;  and  in  course  of  time  the  descendants 
of  those  who  had  filled  curule  magistracies  inherited 
the  jus  imagiiaan,  or  right  of  having  images  of  thair 
aocestors — a  privilege  which,  like  the  coat-of-ama 
in  later  ages,  was  considered  the  criterion  of  nobility. 
The  man  entitled  to  have  bis  own  imago  was  k 
noma  Aomo,  while  the  ignobUU  oould  neithsr  havs 

The  origin  of  the  feudal  aristocracy  of  Europe 
ia  in  part  connected  with  the  accidents  which 
influenced  the  division  of  conquered  landa  among 
tbe  leaders  and  warriors  of  tlie  nations  that 


a  la^   share 

posterity  to  whom  it  was  transmitted, 
roily  looked  on  aa  the  fittest  peraona  to  occupy  tbe 
mat  oflScca  of  state  and  wield  poUtical  power. 
The  Prankish  kingdom  in  Gaol  was  divided  into 
governments,  each  under  the  authority  of  a  chieftain 
called  a  Count  OF  Comet — a  deaignalion  derived  from 
tbe  am/a  of  the  Bomon  empire— whose  Teatonio 
equivalent  was  Qrnf.  A  higher  dignity,  and  more 
extensive  jurisdiction,  waa  conferred  on  the  Dux  or 
Duke,  a  term  also  of  Komon  origin,  and  implying  the 
duty  of  leading  the  armies  of  the  country.  In  the 
Lombard  Kingdom  of  Italy,  the  same  term  was  applied 
to  tbe  great  ofiicera  who  were  intrusted  with  the 
military  and  civil  administration  at  cities  and  their 
anrrounding  provinces.  The  Marquises  weregnard- 
iaus  of  the  frautier  marches.  In  the  subinfendationa 
of  tbe  greater  nobility  originated  a  secondary  sort 
of  nobihty,  under  the  name  of  Vavasoni*,  CasteQarts, 
and  lesser  barons  ;  and  a  third  order  below  them 
oompriaed  vaasols,  whose  tenore,  by  the  military 
oblif^tion  known  in  England  aa  luught's  service, 
admitted  them  within  the  ranks  of  the  aristocracy. 
In  Fronce,  the  allegiance  of  the  lesser  nobles  to 
their  intennediary  lord  long  conttaued  a  reality ; 
id,  on  the  other  hand,  William  the  Con- 


v^Cioogic 


altogeUiBr  abo&iliBd  robinfeudation. 

Tba  milituy  ten&nt,  who  held  bat  «  portion  of  ft 
knight'a  f««,  p«rtie)p«ted  in  &U  the  privilege  ot 
Dobility,  and  an  inipuuble  burier  existed  between 
hil  ordet  and  the  oommon  people.  Over  ooiiti- 
tiental  Europs  in  genaral.  the  noblee,  greater  and 
lesser,  irera  in  tue,  after  the  10th  c,  to  asEama  a 
territorial  name  fnnn  their  ostlea  or  the  princi- 
pal town  or  village  on  their  demeone;  hence  the 
prefix  'da,'  or  its  German  equivijent  'von,'  idll 
ooniideied  over  a  great  part  of  the  oontinent  as  the 
criterion  of  nobility  or  gentility.  Britain  was,  to 
a  great  extant,  an  Bice^on  to  this  rale,  many  of 
the  mo«t  dutiognitlied  faunily  nataee  of  Uie  arutO' 
cra<iy  net  baring  a  territorial  orisin.    See  Naui. 

Under  the  feeble  incceBBors  <^  Charlemsgne,  the 
dnkee,  maiqnisea,  and  counts  ot  the  empire 
encroached  more  and  mote  on  the  royal  anthonty ; 
and  in  ooutm  of  time,  nuuiy  of  them  openly  anerted 
an  independenoa  and  aovcndgnty  with  httle  more 


kiii{^  By  the  end  of  the  Hth  o.,  du  Carlovingian 
empire  had  been  parcelled  into  separate  Hid  inde- 
pendent principalitiea.  nnder  the  dominion  of  power- 
ful nobles,  agunst  whom,  in  Germany,  the  crown 
never  recovered  its  power.  Id  Fiance,  however, 
the  royal  authority  gradually  revived  nnder  the 
Gapetian  raoe,  the  great  fiefs  of  the  higher  nobility 
beinR  one  by  one  absorbed  by  the  orown.  In 
England,  where  ttie  aubiectjon  ol  the  feudal  aristo- 
cracy to  the  crown  always  was,  and  continued 
to  be  a  reality,  the  resistance  of  the  nobles  to  the 
royal  encroachments  was  the  mew  of  rearing 
the  great  fabric  of  coiutitutional  liber^.  AH  ttioee 
who,  after  the  CcmqueEt,  held  in  eapUe  from  William 
bebnged  to  the  nolnlity.  Such  of  them  aa  held  by 
barony  {the  highest  form  of  tenure)  are  enumerated 
in  Doniudap.  Thai  dignity  was  territorial,  not 
personal,  having  no  existence  apnrt  from  baronial 
posBBSsion.  The  comet  was  a  Daron  of  taperior 
dignity  and  greater  estates ;  and  these  nere  in 
E^land  the  only  names  of  dignity  till  the  time 
of  Henry  IIL  The  rest  of  the  landholdan,  who  held 
by  other  tennrea  than  barony,  also  belonged  to  the 
nobility  or  gentry. 


>  a  system,  the  possession  ot  a  ooat-of-arms 
recognised  distiootion  between  the  noble  and 
ilebeian.  In  the  wotds  of  Sir  Jamea  Lawrence 
Uitt  qf  (Jk<  Briiiak  Qenbry)  :  'Any  individual 
distangDishca  tiiin«aH  may  be  said  to  ennoble 
alL     A  pr'"""  -■-■---      -  -■- ' 


theplel 


hirnwolf. 


/):  'Any 

L  prince  iodging  an  individual  worthy 
oi  nouce,  gave  him  patent  letten  of  nobility.  In 
these  letteiB  were  blazoned  the  arms  that  were 
to  distinguish  bis  shield.  Bv  tbia  shield  he  was 
to  be  known  or  nobiiil,  A  plebeian  bad  no  blazonry 
OB  his  shield,  because  he  was  igitobUi*,  or  un- 
worthy of  notice.  Hence  arms  are  the  criterion  of 
nobihty.  Every  nobleman  taust  have  a  diield  of 
arms.  Whoever  ha*  a  shield  of  arms  is  a  nobleman. 
In  every  conotiy  of  Europe  without  exception,  h, 
grant  of  arms,  or  letters  of  nobility,  is  conferred  on 
all  the  descendants.'  On  the  oontinent,  the  ,term 
noble  is  still  gcueraUy  used  in  this  sense;  in  £ng- 
hud,  it  is  now  more  oommon  to  restrict  the  words 
noble  and  nobiUty  to  the  five  ranks  of  the  peerage 
coDBtitnting  the  greater  nobility,  and  to  the  heul 
of  the  familjr,  to  whom  alone  the  title  belongs. 
Gentility,  in  it«  mors  strict  sense,  oorreapcnds  to 
the  nobility  of  Sir  3.  Lawrence  and  of  oontinental 
countries.  This  difference  of  usage  is  a  frequent 
soarce  of  misai^«ehenaion  on  bou  sides  ot  the 
Channel;  at  aome  of  the  minor  Germsn  ooorts, 
the   untitled   member    of   an    Rngii«h    family   of 


and  the  geutilitv  acoompanyins  i^  along  with  bis 
oommisdon  in  tlie  army.  It  has  been  taken  for 
granted  that  the  latter  bdongs  to  the  'Adel'  or 
nobility,  and  not  the  former. 

The  original  higher  nobility  of  Germany  oonsisted 
ot  the  dyuBS^  nobles,  i.  e.,  the  electoral  and  princely 
houses  of  the  realm,  with  those  counts  and  barons 
who  bad  a  seat  in  the  diet  or  eatatea  of  the  realm. 
These  last  have,  since  181S,  all  been  elevated  to 
higher  titles ;  most  of  the  oonnts,  in  recompense 
for  their  aoqniesoenoe  in  the  aboliticn  of  the  German 
empire,  receiving  the  diploma  (rf  prince^  a  title 
to  which  our  dukes,  marquises,  and  earh  have  also 
an  undoubted  righL  The  lower  German  nobility, 
correspondingto  our  gentry,  were  tile  merely  titnlar 
Counte  and  Barons  IS-a.,  those  who  bad  no  seat 
the  Diet),  the  Bdel-herren 


Holy  Roman  ,  , 
take  the  style  of  baron),  and  the  eonuaon  noblea 
distingniihea  only  by  the  prefix  '  vou.'  Throughout 
the  middle  ages,  the  lesser  nobility  of  ^ntain 
preserved  a  position  above  that  ot  moat  continental 
connbiea,  being,  unlike  the  oorreaponding  olasa  in 
Germany,  allowed  to  intermarry  with  the  hi^ 
nobility,  and  even  with  the  blood-royal  of  their 
country. 

The  hidier  nobility,  or  nobility  in  the  exclusive 
sense,  ot  England,  cousisC  ot  the  five  temporal  ranks 
of  the  peerage — Duke,  Marquia,  Earl,  Viscount,  and 
Baron  (m  the  restricted  signification  ot  the  word), 
who  are  members  ot  the  Upper  House  of  Parliament 
Formerly,  all  the  barons  or  tenants-in-chief  of  the 
sovereign  were  bound  to  attend  his  eoanoilai  but 
after  the  ndgn  of  Edward  I.,  only  a  edeet  nombet 
of  them  were  summoned,  tiie  rest  ajmeared  by 
representatives — the  fonoer  were  comridered  the 
neater,  the  latter  the  lesser  barons.  See  MlNon 
Basohb.  In  Scotland,  the  whole  borous  continued 
to  ait  in  parliament  till  a  mnch  later  period ;  and 
after  the  minor  barons  attended  only  by  represeo- 
tativee  from  their  body,  these  representatives  sat 
in  the  same  honae  with  the  greater  nobility,  and 
up  to  the  UuioD,  their  votes  were  recorded  as  those 
of  the  'small  barronois.'  By  the  Act  of  Union 
between  T^"g'""^  and  Scotlaiid,  the  Scotch  peers 
elect  16  of  their  number  to  iqiresent  their  body 
in  the  House  cf  Lords  in  eaoh  parliament  Tlie 
pesB  of  Irdand,  in  nrtne  <i  the  Irish  Act  of  Union, 
elect  28  of  their  nnmberto  ait  in  the  Boose  of  Lords 
for  life.  The  Act  of  Union  with  Scotland  has  been 
nnderrtood  to  debar  the  sovereign  from  creating 
any  new  Scotch  peerages ;  all  peers  created  in  either 
England  or  Scotland  between  that  date  and  the 
unioa  with  Ireland  are  peera  ot  Groat  Britain  ;  and 
peers  created  in  any  of  the  tliree  kingdoms  snb- 
seqnenUy  to  the  union  with  Ireland  are  peers  of  the 
United  KioAdom,  with  this  exoeption  that  one  new 
jteerage  of  ueland  may  be  created  on  the  extinction 
of  three  existing  peerages.  When  the  Irish  peera 
are  reduced  to  100,  th^  on  the  extinction  of  one 
peerage  another  may  be  oreated.  All  peers  of 
Ch^Mt  Britain  or  of  the  United  Kingdmn  have 
a  leat  in  the  House  of  Lords.  A  Scotch  peer, 
Uiooglk  not  one  of  the  sixteen  representative  peera, 
is  debarred  from  sitting  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
a  disability  which  does  not  sttach  to  Irish  peers. 
The  peerage  is,  from  time  to  tame,  recruited  by  new 
additions,  the  persons  selected  being  in  general 
peers  of  Scotland  or  Ireland ;  younger  membera  o( 
the  families  of  peers;  penuts  distin^piished  tea 
naTsl,  militaiy,  politioal,  or  diplomatjo  services; 
eminent  lawyers  promoted  to  high  judicial  appoint- 
meotst  peiaoDS  ollarge  property  and  aaeient  family, 


,.Geff>gl' 


nobis  in  tlie  more  extended  sense ;  uid  occsnontUlj, 
bat  rarely,  persons  who  have  by  commerce  acquired 
IsrgH  fortunes  and  social  importance^  At  prewot, 
the  peerage  oonprebends  abont  S76  indlvidwUs — the 
number  ot  peeraj{;e  titles  being  much  grester,  tu 
■erend  titles  often  merge  in  one  person.  Five 
Toytl  dnkes  &re  iocluded  in  this  enmneration, 
M  also  87  peers  of  Scotland,  and  183  ol  Ireland. 
Onlj  SS  of  the  present  Sootoh,  and  89  Irieh  peers, 
are  without  seats  in  the  House  of  Lords,  in  cod- 
seqaence  of  there  beine,  besides  the  rnreseatative 
peers,  40  peers  of  Scotuuid,  and  80  (A  beland,  who 
are  at  the  same  time  peets  either  of  EagUnd, 
Great  Britain,  or  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The 
privileges  belonging  to  peers  as  members  of  parliament 
will  Iw  explained  under  Pabuuceni;  as  peew, 
thej  alaopoaaee*  the  foUowing 


, -.- ,  . .-  the  whole  membera 

<A  the  peerage  are  suQUDODed,  and  the  Moused 
is  acifiiitted  or  aondemned  by  the  voiet  of  the 
majority,  givea  not  on  oath,  bnt '  on  honour.'  This 
privile^,  which  extendi  to  peeresses,  either  in  their 
own  right  or  by  marriage,  is  in  Scotland  fnrther 
regaUtodhyActeOealV.  c  e6>  A  peer  answers  to 
bills  in  Chuoen  npon  his  honour,  and  not  on  oath ; 
but  when  examined  as  a  witness  in  dvil  or  criminal 
case*,  or  ia  parliament,  he  must  be  swom.  He 
oaouct  be  bonnd  over  to  keep  the  peace  elsewhere 
than  in  the  Conit  of  Qaeeo's  Bench  or  of  Chancery. 
Scandal  i^ainat  a  peer  i«  'tcandalia*  tnagnatam,' 
ft  nan  heuons  ofltenoe  than  slander  agiunst  another 
penon,  and  sabjects  the  offender  bv  various  English 
aota  to  statutory  pnniahmente.  All  the  privileges 
bd<mgiiig  to  the  English  peers,  except  the  right  of 
sitting  in  the  House  of  Lords,  were  extended  to  the 
peers  of  Sootlaod  bjr  the  Treaty  of  Union.  A  peer 
u4u>  haa  different  titles  in  the  peerage,  takes  in 
ordinary  pariance  his  highest  title,  one  of  the  inferior 
titUa  being  gjven  by  courtesy  to  his  eldest  son. 
Oartain  Courts^  TiUea  (q.v.)  belong  also  to  the 
daughtsn  and  younger  sons  of  a  peer,  but  do  not 
extmd  to  Uidr  children. 

In  Frano^  a  limited  body  ot  the  higher  nobility, 
■tjded  the  peers,  were  in  the  enjoyment  oIpriTilegee 
not  possessed  by  the  rest  The  titls  of  Duke  was 
mbjeot  to  strict  rule,  but  many  titles  of  Marquis 
aod  Count,  believed  to  be  pure  sssumptiona.  were 
"   I  oonrteay  of  society.    The  head  uf 


reooenised  by  t 
a  noble  family 


often  assumed  at  his  o 
marquis;  and  if  an  estate  m  . 
which  had  belonged  to  a  titled  family,  the  purchaser 
was  in  the  habit  ot  transferring  to  himself  the 
boDOurs  possessed  by  his  predeMsBor— a  practioe  to 
which  Louis  XV.  pat  a  ttop.  Immediately  before 
tiie  Bevolution,  80,000  families  claimed  nobility. 
many  ol  them  of  obscure  station,  and  Less  than  :iOOO 
of  ancient  lineue.  Nobles  and  clergy  together 
ponessed  two-thirdi  of  the  land.  Practically,  the 
estimatioD  in  which  a  member  of  the  French  nobility 
was  held  depended  not  so  much  on  the  degree  of  his 
title  as  on  its  antiquity  and  the  distiactdoti  of  tboee 
who  had  borne  it.  liie  higher  titles  of  nobilitv 
were  not  borne  by  all  members  of  a  family;  each 
son  assumed  a  title  from  one  of  the  famQy  estates — 
a  ooitom  productiTa  of  no  small  confusion.  Unlike 
'rotnrier'^  lands,  which  divided  among  all  iiie 
children  equally,  noble  fie&  went  to  the  ddest  aon. 
The  BercJation  overthrew  all  distinction  of  ranks. 
On  16th  Juie  1790,  the  National  Assembly  decreed 
that  hereditary  nobility  was  an  institution  incom- 

Ktihle  with  a  free  state,  aud  that  titles,  arms,  and 
eries  should  be  abolished.  Two  years  later,  the 
records  of  the  nobility  were  burned.  A  new 
niA>ili^  WBB  created  by  the  Emperor  N^wleon  L  in 
ISOe,  with  titles  deaoeoding  to  the  eldest  son.    The 


old  nobili^  waa  again  revived  at  the  Bestoratkb 
All  marquises  and  nseounts  aio  of  pre-revolntiMk 
titles,  none  having  been  created  in  later  timea. 

Commercial  pursuits  have  more  or  leas  in  different 
countries  been  considered  ineonqiatible  with  nohili^. 
In  Bii^^d,  thia  was  leas  the  esse  than  in  nance 
and  Germany,  where  for  long  a  geotlemao  could  not 
engage  in  any  trade  without  losing  bis  rank.  A 
sort  ot  commercial '  BUi^er-Adel,'  or  half-gentlemu 
class,  was  constitnted  out  of  the  patrician  families 
of  some  of  the  great  Oennan  mtiea,  particularly 
Augsburg,  NUmbeig,  and  Frankfurt,  on  whom  ths 
emperors  bestowed  ooats-of-arms.  In  semi-fcndsl 
Itsly,  there  was  on  the  whole  leas  antagomam 
between  nobility  and  trade  than  north  of  the  A]i& 
The  aristocracy  of  Venice  had  its  origin  in  commerce ; 
and  though  untitled,  tiiey  were  among  the  most 
distingaished  class  ccF  noUea  in  Europe.  On  the 
other  nand,  in  Florence,  in  the  14th  a,  unda  a 
constitution  purely  mercantile,  nobility  became  a 
disqualification  from  holding  any  office  of  the  i'  '^ 

'     tothe      ■  ■     *    

to  be 
an  unpopular  plebeian 
order  to  disfranchise  liim.  A  little  later,  there  grew 
up,  side  by  aide  with  the  old  nobility,  a  race  of 
plebeian  nobles— as  the  Ricci,  the  Medid— whoa* 
{Telensions  wei«  originally  derived  from  wealth, 
and  who  eventually  came  to  be  regarded  as  ariate- 
crats  by  the  democratic  party. 

Italian  nobility  has  this  peculiarity,  that  it  dni 
not,  for  the  most  part,  flow  from  the  sovereign,  bat 
from  the  municipal  anthoritiea  of  the  towns  acting 
in  entire  independence  of  Hm.  The  municipalities 
can  confer  nobility  on  whom  they  please,  by 
inscribing  his  name  in  their  respective  Libri  cTorv. 
The  registsra  of  nobility  of  most  of  the  Toaoan 
towns  are  deposited  in  the  Archhio  Mia  Kd^UA, 
or  Heralds'  Office,  at  Florence— an  institution 
ereated  by  the  firat  sovereign  of  Uie  House  ot 
Lorraine.  The  municipalities  have,  however,  no 
power  to  confer  titles,  though  at  one  time  several 
persons,  a  few  Englisbmeu  included,  on  the 
strength  of  their  names  being  in  the  Libro  d'cro  oi 
FieaoTe,  sssumed  the  titles  of  marquis,  coant,  sod 
baron— an  abuaa  put  a  stop  to  l^  the  lata  grand 
duke  of  Tuscany.  Id  Borne,  there  is  a  amall 
number  of  nobles— as  the  Colonuas,  Caetania,  and 
Orsinia — who  hold  their  fieEs  as  sovereign  prince* ; 
the  rest  of  the  nobility,  many  of  thorn  of  very 
ancient  lineage,  are  munioipal,  tJie  power  of  creation 
being  vested  in  the  eeaator,  himaelf  a  nominee  of 
the  ponti^  and  the  Contervalori,  choaen  by  lot  &oa 
the  Capitoline  nobles.  In  last  centui?,  so  many 
undistinguiahed  nenons  had  been  added  to  the  roU 
of  nobility,  that  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  found  it  neces- 
sary to  prohibit  by  a  bull  the  admissiou  of  any  one 
whose  anccstora  had  not  filled  certain  high  offioeain 
the  state.  The  same  decree  Umifaul  the  number  of 
noble  fomiliea  to  187,  demgned  the  Patriziata 
Rmnaao,  out  of  whom  60  of  the  oldest  and  maat 
illustrious  were  chosen  aa  Nobiii  GnueriM,  other- 
wise called  the  Capit<^e  noble^  and  rsabruited  the 
admission  to  the  patriiiato  for  the  fntore  to  penona 
who  had  rendered  important  Mrvicea  to  the  ci^t 
and  whose  names  were  approved  by  the  Coagrt- 
gazione  araldioa,  on  axception  being  made  in  &Tant 
of  member*  of  the  reigning  pontiff's  family,  Aa 
the  families  of  the  conaciitti  became  extinct,  other 
patrician  families,  designated  ifobili  AicriUi, 
added  W  the  manicipi£ty  to  make  up  the  nui 
The  titles  at  present  borne  by  the  Homan  nobility 
are :  1.  Prince  or  Buke,  generally  ao  called,  but 
officially  designed '  Barone  Somano ' — a  title  acquired 

by  the  Borgheai,  Boepiglioei,  and  others  from 

ol  tLar  respeotii 


X'lOogIc 


NOCBRA-NODAL  POINTS. 


Coloniuw,  Doriu,  Odescolchi,  &&,  from  royal  or 
imperial  eractioo ;  and  in  other  instancea — M  tiie 
CaetaniandMasaimi — from  iavestitare  by  the  pope  u 
a  temporal  aovereigit.  2.  Marqnle  and  C>)nnt ;  many 
of  these  are  provincial  nobles,  with  titlea  generally 
derived  from  siaall  feudal  tenures,  of  which,  in  some 
initancea,  it  would  be  difficult  to  ahew  the  diploma, 
or  pcnnt  out  the  period  of  creatioiL  In  some  parts 
of  the  Papal  Statee  it  is  nnderatood  that  every  head 
of  a  noble  honse  is  a  maiqiiia ;  and  in  the  March  of 
Ancons,  Sixtus  V.  confenvd  the  right  to  bear  the 
title  of  connt  on  all  who  were  of  noble  blood  at  the 
period.  3.  Knights  {CavaUeri],  a  demgnation  given 
to  all  who  wear  a  Roman  order,  to  Enighta  of 
Malta,  and  generally  to  yoonger  tone  of  the  titled 
nobili^.  4.  Friocee,  who,  with  tbs  sanotion  of  the 
pone,  have  purchased  honoun  along  with  ancient 
fiefs,  that  carried  with  them  ducal  or  princely  titles, 
moat  of  them  non  JWmtne*,  aa  the  Torlonias.  Titles 
do  not  descend  to  the  younger  members  of  the 
family;  it  is  the  generiLl  usage  for  the  head  of  the 
house  to  bear  tiie  most  aucient  title,  while  the 
eldest  SOD,  on  his  marriage,  assumes  the  second  in 
point  of  antiquil;.  The  title  is  sometimes  tho . 
family  name,  sometimes  the  name  of  a  feudal  possee- 
non.  The  proper  designation  of  the  younger 
branches  of  titled  families  is  'dei  Prindpi,'  'dei 
Dncht,'  '  dei  Morcheai,'  ftc 

The  nobility  <^  Spain  boosts  of  a  special  antiquity 
and  pari^  of  blood,  a  descent  from  warriors  and 
couquerois  alone,  withont  the  infusion  of  any  of  the 
elements  derived  from  the  church,  law,  and  com- 
merce that  are  to  he  found  in  other  countries. 
'  Hidalgo '  {hijo  d^algo,  son  of  somebody,  not  JUiut 
nuilnii)  is  a  term  which  implies  gentilih'  or  nobility. 
The  hidalgo  alone  has  in  strictaess  a  right  to  the  title 
'DoD,'  which,  like  'Sir'  of  our  knights  and  baronets, 
requires  the  adjunct  of  the  Chiiabau  narna  When 
the  Christian  name  is  omitted,  the  tiUe  'Sefior' 
instead  is  prefixed  with  the  addition  of  '  de.'  *  Don ' 
has  latterly  been  used  by  persons  who  have  no 
proper  claim  to  it  about  aa  extensively  aa  '  Esquire ' 
m  England.  Hidalgnia,  till  recently,  conferred 
important  privileges  and  immunities.  The  higher 
nobility  are  stylra  Grandees;  formerly,  the  title 
was  '  ricohombre,'  and  the  ceremonial  of  creation 
consisted  in  grantinK  the  right  of  assuming  the 
pennon  and  caldron  {peHon  y  caidtm)—titii  one  the 
roUyiQE  ensign  of  command,  the  other  of  mainten- 
ance 01  followers.  Id  contradiatinctioa  from  the 
grandees,  the  class  of  nobilitv  below  them  oro 
called  ■  Ids  Titulados  de  CastiUa.'  Bed  blood  is  said 
to  flow  in  the  veins  of  the  hidalgo,  blue  id  that  of 
the  grandee.  Formerly,  there  were  three  classes  of 
grandees,  whose  mark  of  distiDction  was  this — that 
a  grandee  of  the  first  class  was  entitled  to  put  on 
his  hat  in  the  royal  presence  before  the  king  spoke 
to  him ;  the  second,  after  the  kins  sp<^e  to  him ; 
the  third,  after  the  king  had  rooken  and  he  had 
replied.  The  second  and  third  classes  are  now 
ahsorbed  into  the  first.  Of  the  grandees,  some  bear 
the  titte  of  doke,  some  of  marquis,  some  of  count ; 
but  it  is  the  ambitioD  of  every  grandee  to  unite  in 
,  himsdf  as  many  grandeeships,  or  have  aa  manv  hols, 

''  as  the  phrase  is,  aa  he  con.  This  ia  effected  tiy  the 
marriage  of  heiresses  throng  whom  gruTidesai 
desceods,  and  whose  names  and  titles  are  assumed 
b^  their  husbands.  An  enormous  accumulation  of 
titles  is  sometimes  foaad  in  the  person  of  one 
grandee.  Titlea  aa  well  as  estates  oo  only  to  heirs 
of  entail.  The  titulars  of  Casti^  are  demgned 
'  vncstra  seftoria ; '  in  common  parlance, '  ncia.'  The 
title  of  Baron  ia  little  used  in  Spain.  Fhysioally 
uid  mentally,  the  grandees  have  degenerated  from 
their  ancestors,  and  they  have  not  the  influence  at 

i   court  and  in   tiie  oountiy  which  lauded  property 


L 


310 


ought  to  give  them.  Most  of  them  re^de  at  Madrid, 
olinging  to  their  nominal  rank  and  real  anility, 
while  they  are  practic^y  excluded  from  all  the 
functions  of  state. 

In  Russia,  what  nobility  existed  before  Peter  the 
Qreat  was  of  a  pstriarchu  not  a  feudal  kind ;  but 
in  his  anxiety  to  assimilate  everything  to  a  wotem 
standard,  the  czar  took  the  eiirting  aristocraoiea 
of  states  quite  difierently  situated  as  the  model  to 
which  to  approximate  the  fortunate  of  his  own 
subjects.  The  Russian  nobles  have  ever  since  been 
enlarging  their  privileges  by  encroachments  on 
those  under  them.  Before  Moscow  was  bumed, 
the  mass  of  the  nobles  connected  with  the  oourt 
lived  there  in  great  splendour,  and  along  with 
their  domestic  serfs  constituted  halt  the  population 
of  that  dty. 

The  preservation  of  noble  blood,  untainted  by 
plebeian  intermixture,  has  often  been  reckoned  a 
matter  of  mnoh  moment.  In  Spain  most  of  all,  this 
purity  of  lineage  has  been  jeaiouBly  guarded.  In 
the  German  empire,  no  snccesnon  was  allowed  to 
fens  holding  immediately  of  the  emperor,  tmleu 
both  parents  belonged  to  the  higher  nobili^.  In 
France,  the  offspring  of  a  gentleman  by  a  plebeian 
mother  was  noble  m  a  qnestian  of  inheritance  or 
exemption  fnan  tribute,  but  could  not  be  received 
into  any  order  of  chivalry.  Letters  of  nobility  were 
sometimes  granted  to  reinstate  persons  in  this 
position,  n  is  in  Germany  still  important  for 
many  purposes  to  possess  eight  or  sixteen  qnorteiing^ 
L  e.,  to  be  able  to  shew  purity  of  blood  for  four  ex 
five  generations,  the  father  and  mother,  the  two 
granunothera,  the  four  great-grandmothara ;  and 
also,  in  case  of  the  sixteen  quarterings,  the  eight 
great-great-grandmothets,  having  all  been  entiUed 
to  coat-armour.  Among  the  higher  grades  of  the 
peerage  in  England,  a  considerable  nnmbei  may 
be  pointed  out  who  do  not  possess  this  complete 
nobility.  It  is  in  Scotland  more  oiual  and  mora 
neaided,  both  among  peera  and  untitled  gcotiy, 
where  ue  aAt  or  mzteen  quarterings  are  still  m 
use  to  be  dis^yed  on  the  funeral  escutdiecai.  At 
some  of   the   minor  German    courts,  tfaa  sixteen 

Juarterings  were  not  unfrequently  an  illnsion, 
iptomas  being  granted  in  the  absence     '       '  ** 


KOOE'RA.  or  NOCERA  DEI  PAGAITI,  a 
town  of  South  Italy,  in  the  province  of  SalerntL 
eight  miles  north-wwrt  of  the  town  of  Salerno,  and 
on  the  highway  fnnn  that  town  to  Naples.  It  carries 
on  linen  and  woollen  manufaoturesL    Pop.  I^OOOl 

NO'CTURN  (Lat7ioci«niuni,recited'by night'). 
Under  the  head  Bbsviabt  (q.  v.)  has  been  explained 
the  general  order  of  tho  services  of  the  canonical 
hours,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  service 
of  Matins  on  Sundays  and  festivals  ia  divided 
into  three  nocturns,  each  of  which  consists  of  three 
(or  more)  psalms  and  three  Uitoa*.  The  lessons  ara 
either  from  the  Scriptures,  from  the  life  of  a  saint, 
or  from  a  homily  of  some  Father.  The  name  ia 
derived  from    the   redtaticm  of   the   service   'by 


NODAL  POINTS,  LINES,  AMD  BBCTIOSS. 
When  a  atring  or  metallic  cord,  under  strong  tension, 
is  made  to  vibrato,  we  hear,  besides  the  principal 
sound,  several  secondary  and  shriller  sounds ;  these 
are  denonunatod  harmonio  sounds,  and  are  pre- 
duoed  each  by  a  oertain  portion  of  the  chord  which 
vibrates  independently.  Further  investi^tion  has 
shewn  that  every  vibrating  string  is  divided  into  a 
number  of  portions  alternately  vibratdng  in  opposite 
directions,  and  that  the  pointe  wtkich  sepante  these 
portions  from  each  other  ore  at  ratt   These  ptonts  are 

ZZ 5igi 


NODDY— NODEa. 


known  H  nodal  pobUt,  and  tbeb  ritoatiOD  nutj 
fonnd  hf  pbdng  BinaU  pieces  of  paper  on  an  extend 
itrioA  and  ^-mtTing  it  to  vibrata ;  the  points  from 
irtiion  the  ineoea  ot  paper  have  not  bee; 
an  the  nodal  pauDta.  II  a  pUt«  of  glau 
held  in  tita  hand,  and  a  well-ro«ined  Gd 
diawu  aenm  the  edge,  partaolea  of  fine  anm,  nn 
viouly  ]daoed  on  the  plate,  will  arrange  thenueln 
in  linei^  ahewing  that  along  these  lines  no  vibratic 
hat  taken  place ;  theae  linea  are  twdal  linn,  and  w 


have  not  been  displaced 
'   '  aaoT metalbe 
Gddle-botr  be 


ent  of  the  way,  and  the  female  lita  nndiatmbed  on 
the  nest.  Hence  it  commonly  shares  with  the 
Boob;  the  repatation  of  nnnadal  stnpidi^.  It  ia 
about  fifteen  or  sixteen  inches  lonA  man  Uio  tip  at 

ill  to  Qm  end  of  the  tail,  toe  general  colour 

a  brownish-blaok.    The  N.  is  a 

e  BritiBh  ahores,  but  ia  Ter; 
wanner  latitndea ;  and  on  some  of  the  iej/t  of  tha 
West  Indie^  and  other  islets  of  different  parts  of 
the  world,  it  braeds  in  immeosa  nninlieta.  Far- 
ticnlar  islets  seem  to  be  speoially  selected  aa  the 

breeding-places  of  noddies;   and  there  their "" 

— 1 ..  .1 — 1 — 1 — ^  ^h.^  it  is  : — ' 

it  gonenll; 
>n^iriiicb 
„.._.    .  ..  leplaoHooIleetedingreat 

numbers 

NODES,  in  Astionomj,  are  tiia  two  pcnnta  in 
which  the  orbit  of  a  planet  intersects  the  plane  of 
the  ecliptic,  the  one  thronA  which  the  plsartpawf 
from  1^  south  to  the  north  side  of  the  ecJiptio  being 
called  the  tueen^ig  node  (JD,  and  tJio  oUis  tii* 
dtaeendittg  rtode  (^L  As  all  the  bodies  of  the  aolar 
sfitem,  whether  plaueta  or  comets,  u 
! — '-inclinedl 


bond  in  most  casea  to  gtonp  themselTes  together 
faito  geometrical  fleores,  and  ooeasionallf  to  present 
the  most  beaatifulaengns.  The  wood-out  represeata 
a  few  specimens,  ^e  arraiiMnent  of  the  nodal 
lines  depends  on  the  point  by  wcich  the  plate  ia  held, 
and  on  the  form  of  the  plate  itself.  Similarly, 
if  a  eolimm  of  air  is  a  woolly  or  partially  otoaed 
tnbs  be  acted  opon  by  the  force  of  the  breath  applied 
thnrash  a  hole  at  any  point  in  its  length,  the  co. 
will  divide  itself  into  cylindrical  portions  each 
state  of  vibration,  and  sepsrated  from  one  another 
by  transT«9se  sectional  portions  in  which  t^  tur 
is  at  test;  these  latter  seotioaa  ate  known  as  nodal 

NODDY  {Mtgalopttnu  or  AAOut),  a  genns  of 
birds  of  the  family  Laridix,  differing  from  terns 
in  baTing  tiie  Inll  slightly  uigolu*,  thns  exhibit- 


known  [M.  or  A.  ttdidiu),  a  bird  widely  diSosed 


Noddy  {Mtgaloflerui  ttoIidtH). 

both  in  the  northern  and  sontism  hemispheres, 
and  familiar  to  sailors,  not  only  as  often  seen  akim- 
ming  over  the  water  in  (jnest  o(  flshes,  bnt  also 
H  not  nntreqnently  alightanf  on  vessels,  and,  par- 
ticnlarly  daring  the  night,  soffeiing  itself  to  be  taken 
by  the  hand  At  ita  breeding-plaoea  alio,  where 
-'' ' ""  the  visits  of  man,  it  scaroe^  gets 


vsrionaly  i[ 


d  to  the  ecliptic,  the  orbit  of  each 


,  necessary  to  add,  that  aa  the  eerui 
the  plane  of  the  ecliptio  she  haa  no  nodes. 
The  plocea  of  the  nodes  am  not  fixed  pointa  on  the 
-ilane  of  the  ecliptic,  bat  are  in  a  constant  state  of 
Inctoation,  sometimes  advmvirig  (eastwatd),  and 
at  other  times  rtcedittg  {moving  westward).  This 
motion  VI  prodoced  by  the  mutnal  attractiona  of  the 
planets,  which  tend  to  draw  each  of  them  ontof  the 
plane  of  its  orbit ;  and  it  depends  npon  the  relatare 
positions  of  the  planets  with  respect  to  anothei 
planet  whether  that  planet'a  nodes  shall  advance  or 
recede.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  majonty  of 
pOBsible  'relative  poaitioos,'  or  oon/^fwoltona,  aa 
they  are  colled,  is  in  favonr  of  a  retrt^iade  nurtaon ; 
and  we  find  by  observation,  that  in  an  average  of 
many  revelations  ronad  the  sno  a  constant  letro- 
gcvdation  of  the  node  takes  plaoa.  The  detertnin*- 
tion  of  this  letrogradation  in  the  cose  of  the  planeta 
is  a  most  oomplicated  problem,  as  t^e  sepaiate  action 
of  each  on  the  others  naa  to  be  taken  into  account ; 
but  in  the  case  of  the  moon's  nodes,  tlie  immensely 
preponderating  attraction  of  the  earth,  and  ita  great 
relative  m^nitode  as  compared  with  the  moon, 
enable  us  to  throw  out  of  accoont  any  other  disturb- 
ing inflnence,  and  at  the  same  time  to  exhiMt  clearly 
theQ  '  ■'         ■         " 


descending  node,  then  the  earth's  attraction  will  tend 
to  deprtM  the  moon's  orbit,  and  oause  hei  to  deacend 


depress  the  moon's  orbi^ 
to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic 
otherwise  have  done  ■  "■  *'■ 


than  she  wonld 
w«  have  a  ntn>< 

^ of  the  node.    Again,  sappodng  the  moon 

pboed  as  before,  bnt  the  earth  in  advance  of  the 
line  of  nodes,  then  the  earth's  attraction  will  tend 
to  draw  the  moon  forward  in  her  orbit  so  as  to  meet 
the  ecliptic  in  a  point  beyond  the  previous  deaoeod- 
ing  node ;  in  this  case,  the  moon's  node  has  advanoed. 
As  in  tiie  case  of  the  planets,  however,  the  retrograd- 
ing tendency  preponderates.  The  average  aiuraal 
retrogradation  of  the  nodes  ia  T«vy  small  in  the  ease 
of  the  Janets,  bnt  oonmdersbla  in  that  of  the  moon. 
See  MooH.    In  calcolatiiu;  the  oonises  of  the  planets^ 


important  element.    See  Orbit. 
HODBB,  in  Botanjr.    SeeS: 


■!.CiOO^Ie 


HODES-NOLLEEEHS. 


^nieir  miiiiediAttt  «MiiM  i«  th»  iafiltaatioii  <d  lymdi 
or  wnun  into  the  perioatenm,  or  between  it  ud  uie 
bone.    The  beatment  depend*  m  enentially  on   ' 
«oiuitiCutioii  of  the  patient,  »od  th«  priminr  ci 


«f  the 


(welling,  that  it  would  I 
ito  Any  detail  reguding  ik 


would  be  I 


NODIEB,  Chables  K, 
littdnteur,  wm  bom  at  Beaanson,  29tlL  April  1783 , 
other  AnthorilMt  ffv«  1780  and  1781.  Eia  father 
wa*  »  diatinfoiilied  lawyer,  who  warmly  embraced 
the  aids  ti  uie  revolution,  and  brought  np  hii  aotf 
in  the  tame  prindplea.  At  the  age  of  12,  he  wm 
•  msmbet  of  the  famoua  locietj  of  Atrut  de  !a 
CantUtuiiim,  and  hated  tyranny  with  a  most  ideal 

■   - tfieaoor    ''   - 


and olaasiaal hatred;  bnt  a 


in  afterwarda  became 


«f  that  ntnut  oiHnionatiTeneaB,  withont  which  it  ia 
imponible  for  a  man  to  become  a  genuine  politician. 
Be  died— after  » life  of  the  haidert  Lterary  wco'k,  in 
whidi  tim«,andevenadmirsbletaleDta  were  wasted 
on  infMior  mbjeota — 27tlt  Jannaiy  1844  Bendea 
«ditiou>  oi  tiie  Froich  claawM,  j^Muiutioal,  les- 
«oan^hical,  and  poetical  woika,  he  wrote  unmeroui 
tabs  and  memoin.  A  pwti<m  of  hia  writingB  vai 
ccOlected  and  publlahed  in  12  Tola,  at  Faria,  1832— 
1834,  nndsr  tlia  inoorreot  title  of  lEuartt  OoaipUlM. 

K0EnA2f&    See  Patiufaslab& 

NOOBNT  LB  BOTBOU,  a  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Eaie-et-Loir,  it  aitnated  in  a 
T^e^  vide  on  the  Hniane,  32  luileB  wert-BOuth-west 
of  Cbartrei.  It  ia  a  station  on  the  Great  Western 
Bailwky  from  Paris  to  Hennes  in  Brittany.  Fop. 
about  7000.  N.  is  a  lone,  well-built  town,  with  a 
ruined  castle  in  the  Gotnio  style,  the  rcmdmce  of 
the  great  Sully. 

KOOOIIfO.  BriokwoA  built  in  the  panels 
«t  a  timber-framed  house.  Mogging-piecea  are 
horizontal  ttmben^  introduoed  to  strengthen  the 
brickwork. 

KOILS,  a  technical  term  emplored  for  the  short 
and  broken  boira  which  are  removBd  from  wool  in  the 
proocM  (A  oombins  and  preparing  it  for  worsted 
manufactarea.  The  nod*  are  oted  for  roaking 
inferior  yanis,  and  are  Tiluable  for  JeUing  porpoeea, 
in  which  they  are  largely  employed. 

If C^LA,  an  episcopal  dty  of  South  Italy,  in  the 

S evince  oE  Caaerto,  16  miles  east-north-east    of 
aplei,  ia  bnilt  on  the  aite  of  oue  of  the  oldest 


ionght  ii 


)  B.O.  For  its 
in  the  second  Punic  war 
the  first  battles  in  which  the 
us  over  HoaniboL  Atlgustus 
died  at  Nola,  14  A.D.  The  first  bells  for  Christian 
churches  ate  s^d  to  have  been  cast  here  in  the 
fith  oentory.  See  Beu.  Numerous  coins,  and 
beantifol  vasca  made  of  a  pale-yellow  clay,  with 
£gare«  punted  in  crimson  and  maroon,  and  enp- 
posed  to  have  been  mannfactnred  here  by  pottrai 
from  Corinth,  have  been  found  in  tiie  ncinily, 
N.  was  a  floorishinft  city  in  die  """'^^^l"  ages,  and 
pop.  of  7500,  or  with  suburbs,  10,000. 


NCKLI  MB  TA'NGEBfll,  a  popnlor 
rm  <rf  the  disease  adueh  baa  been  aires 


already  described 


go  farther  with  the  action,  or  part  at  the  action,  in 
which  ease  he  entws  or  file*  a  memoraodam,  oalled 
a  noUs  praaeqni,  after  which  the  action,  or  part  of 
the  oobon,  ia  at  on  end  on  that  point,  and  the 


-  ,  ftaS 
bu  mother,  a  Frenohwoman,  not  remoinmg  long  a 
widow,  he  received  but  little  education.  Bemg 
placed  in  the  studio  of  Scheomaken  the  scolptor, 
m  Tine  Street  Piooodilly,  he  woAed  hard,  and 
made  such  prcgress,  that,  in  17St^  the  Society  of 


1^^ 


le  same  year,  ten  guineas  for  a  model  in  clay 
dancing  faun.  Soon  after  this,  N.  set  out  tor 
Bome.  He  was  then  in  his  twenl^-third  year ;  his 
light,  he  had  no  patooo  to  support  him; 
k*  independent  in  sinrit,  and  had  been 
trained  to  babiti  of  economy.  A  baa-relief  be 
carved  in  stoue  brooght  him  ten  goineas  from 
England,  and  the  Society  of  Arts  voted  him  fifty 
guineas  for  his  group  in  marble  of  Timoolea  before 
Alexander.  Bat  one  of  the  moct  important  events 
lor  him,  after  aettling  in  Borneo  was  hi*  meeting 
Oanick  in  the  TatiMn,  who  immediatdy  rea>g- 
nised  hia  oonntovman  oa  the  yonng  sonlirt»r  to 
whom  the  prizea  had  been  awarded  by  the  Society 
of  Arb^  sat  to  him  tor  hie  but,  and  paid  him 
handsomely  for  it  This  wo*  the  first  bnat  he  had 
been  oanmisaioDed  to  model,  and  it  gave  him  tlu) 
opportunity  of  proving  when  his  ibraigth  la^. 
He  also  executed  in  Boma  a  bust  of  Stone  in 
terra  cotta,  which  added  greatly  to  his  lepntatdon. 
After  residing  ten  years  m  B<nae,  he  rshimed  to 
London,  took  a  lease  oE  extensive 
Mortimer  Street,  where  he  set  op  his  i 
reputation  he  had  aoqnired  in  Borne 

year  after  en  1771)  was  dec^SaTjuIi  

Academj%  and  a  Boyal  Academidan  the  foflowing 
■"*-      Hi*  forte  was  in  modnning  hut*.      Into 

he  infused  much  truth  and  characto-,  and  h« 

has  handed  down  the  likcae**e*  of  most  of  the 
important  per«onages  who  flgund  in  thi*  ooantay  in 
the  end  of  the  lut  and  at  the  oommcnoement  of 
this  o. — of  Samuel  Johnson,  who  waa  hia  friend  and 
frequent  visitor— «f  Fox,  Pitt,  and  other  political 
characters.  George  IIL  also  sot  to  him;  and  hia 
manner,  which  exhibited  pretty  stnug^y  what  is 
popolatiy  aet  down  aa  Unnt  and  manly  ^^gii'h 
charactfT,  made  him  a  gnat  favourite  with  the 
Idng.  Beside*  buoti,  N.  eseouted  nnoMmai  oom> 
'ooa  for  paUio  monnm«ita  and  statoea.  He 
•elected  by  the  Aoadenqr,  with  whom  the 
clunoe  lay,  to  execute  the  govonmcDt  oommiasioD 
of  a  monument  to  tiie  three  c^itaina,  Hannera, 
Bayne,  and  BW,  who  fell  in  Bodnay's  graai  battle 
of  April  12,  1782;  but  in  this  ho  did  not  riee  above 
the  all^tnies  of  Neptune  and  hia  Sea-hone,  and 
Britannia  and  her  iaoD.  Hia  statns  of  Pitt  for 
Cambridge  was  much  praised  at  ths  time.    £te  also 

ited,  either  in  the  oonne  of  his  atudieo,  ot  to 

the  views  of  Ihoea  oonnoisseiiiB  who  advocate 

mytholo^cal  statnea  and  groups,  a  faun,  a  Bacchna, 
live  Vennses,  Cupid  and  I^yche,  Pntus  and 
Arria,  dkc  He  died  in  London,  23d  April  1823: 
Hia  wife,  to  whom  he  hod  been  long  married,  ood 
who  had  brondit  him  some  fortune,  died  a  few 
years  before  him.  He  had  no  children,  and  hia 
great  wealth,  upwards  of  £200,000^  was  left  to 
certun  frieuds,  bardened  with  some  legooiea  and 
aimuities  to  hi*  dd  astisbute  and  servants^ — Sea 


NOMADS— NON-COMMiaSIONED  OFFICEBS. 


IT(yMADS  (Or.  nemein,  to  tend  or  feed),  the 
uune  given  {origiti&IIy  by  the  Greeks)  to  those 
tribes  which,  depending  chiefl  j  cm  their  Bocks  and 
herds,  have  no  nxed  habitation,  but  move  kbovt  for 
convenience  of  psstnre.  The  nom»d  tribes  tre  of 
■  higher  gnde  of  oiviliiution  than  thoae  diat 
live  d;  bunting  and  fishing,  bnt  mnch  inferior 
fa}  those  engi^ed  Id  agiicultnie  and  mannfoo- 
niey  are  Tiaf  genetaUy  addicted  to  rob- 


extensive  caltivat«d  mnntrie*,  aa  in  tiie  ii 
of  tha  Hnns,  Amba,  and  Tartan.  There  i 
feir  nomada  in  Europe,  and  these  onlj  in  the 
fteppea  near  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  ngioDS  of  the 
utmost  Dorth,  where  cultivation  ia  imposedble. 
Almost  all  the  Finniah,  Uongolisn,  and  Turkish 
tribes,  and  the  tribei  formed  by  miiture  of  these 
raoea,  in  the  ateppea  and  deserts  of  Central  and 
Northern  Aaia  are  nomada,  also  the  Kurds  and  the 
Bedonina,  many  of  ^e  tribes  of  Africa,  and  the 
Ganchoa  and  some  of  the  other  Indian  tribes  in 
NorUi  and  Sontb  America. 
nO'UBBIL  POINT,  in  Heraldry.    See  Eecin^ 

OHBOH. 

NOME^  a  term  used  in  the  ancient  Greek 
mnaic  to  denote  any  melody  determined  by  inviol- 
able rules. 

KCKHINAI.ISM.  This  word  refeta  to  •  cele- 
brated controTeny  of  the  middle  a^es,  respecting 
the  nature  of  our  general  or  abetraot  ideas.  It  was 
contended  by  some  that  abstractiona — as  a  circle  in 
the  abstract,  beau^,  ri^t — had  a  real  exiatenoe 


the  opposite  view  «ere  called  Nominaliats,  because 
they  maintained  that  there  is  nothing  general  but 
name*;  the  name  'oirda'  is  applied  to  averything 
that  is  round,  aod  is  a  general  name  %  but  no 
independent  fact  or  proper^  exists  correspoDding 
to  the  name^  There  a  nothing  in  a  general  name, 
they  say,  bnt  a  declaratioD  of  resemblance  among  a 
number  of  things ;  all  things  that  the  name  ia 
applied  to,  resemble  one  another  in  some  point, 
which  point  ot  reaemblaQoe  the  mind  can  oooaider 
apart  from  the  points  of  difference ;  tbia  act  of 
isolated  consideratian  being  what  it  called  the 
power  ot  abstraction.  We  can  be  engaged  in  think- 
ing of  the  smell  of  a  niae,  we  can  compare  it  with 
other  sweet  odours,  and  speculate  aa  to  the  nature 
of  the  material  that  givea  the  odour,  or  as  to  the 
pleaaore  that  we  derive  from  it ;  all  this  is  a  process 
of  abstract  thinking,  but  it  would  not  of  itaclf 
BuEGce  to  prove  that  the  odour  has  a  separate  eiiat- 
ence.  We  might  also  confine  our  attention  to  the 
mere  form,  or  outline  of  the  rose,  and  compare  it 
with  other  foima ;  but  wh  should  be  still  less  able 
to  affirm  the  independent  existence  of  this  particular 

Bealiim  must  be  traced  back  to  Plato's  system  of 
Ideas,  or  the  eternal  and  independent  existence  of 
genera]  attributes,  from  which  the  concrete  embodi- 
ments were  derived.  There  existed  in  the  Divine 
Mind,  according  to  Plato,  patterns,  models,  or  arche- 
types, according  to  which  individuals  were  formed. 
Qjie  archetype  circle  waa  the  origin  of  all  actual 


only  in  connection  with  matter,  or  with 
objects  in  the  oonorete.  The  Stoics  repudiated 
nmveraals  in  both  senses.     The  Aristotelian  view 


constituted  the  Scholaatia  Bealiam,  and  prevailed 
until  the  llth  c,  when  a  re-action  took  place  in 
favour  of  the  Stoical  doctrine,  headed  by  Koscclin 
of  CompiBgne  and  John  the  Sophist.    This  was  the 


oommencement  of  Kominalism.  The  celebrated 
Abelard  was  a  disciple  of  Boacelin,  and  induced 
large  numbers  to  depart  from  the  Healistic  notions, 
wtuoh  were  identified  at  tha  time  with  religioua 
orthodoxy.  The  controversy  raged  with  great 
violence  through  the  12th  century.  Thomas 
Aqninu  and  Duns  Scotns,  iu  the  following  centurr, 
gave  tbeirpowerful  adhesion  to  Bealisui.  In  the 
l4th  0.,  William  Occam,  an  Eiulish  Fnmeiatam 
friar,  and  a  pnpU  of  Scotus,  revivea  the  advocacy  o£ 
Nominalism,  vrhich  was  once  more  maintained  by  » 
number  of  eminent  men,  in  spite  of  the  hostilityctf 
the  church,  carried  tha  length  of  peraecution.  The 
oontroveray  subsided  at  the  Beformatian. 

A  middle  view  between  Nominalism  and  Realiani 
waa  held  by  a  few  persons  when  the  contest  wa* 
at  its  height ;  which  was,  that  although  general 
properties  have  no  separate  existeace  in  nature,  they 
can  be  conceived  in  the  mind  apart  from  any  con- 
crete embodiment  Thus  wa  may  farm  an  idea  of 
a  circle,  irrespective  of  any  individual  ronnd  body. 
This  view  is  specious,  and  is  tacitly  imphed  in  many 

giinioos  that  have  never  ceased  to  be  held.     See 
EKBRaLIUTtDM. 

NCMINATIVE.    Sea  DscLzmaoir. 
KON-APPEABANCE,  the  term   used  in  the 
Law  of  England  to  denote  that  a  party  against  whom 


entered  an  appearance,  which  is  the  way  by  which 
he  oomes  before  the  court  to  defend  his  tight.  In 
many  cases,  if  he  does  not  appear,  the  suit  will  go 
on  in  his  absence,  provided  he  was  duly  sorved  wiljt 
the  writ  of  summons  or  bilL 

NON-AS8U'MPSIT,  is  in  English  Law  the  nanal 
plea  or  defence  to  an  action  for  breach  of  a  contract 
not  by  deed,  and  means  that  the  defendant  denies 
that  ha  bn^  the  contract,  or  that  thera  was  any 
contract. 

NON-C0MMI'S3I0NED  OFFICEBS,  m  ths 
British  army,  constitute  a  numerous  aiid  very 
important  class  in  the  regimental  system  between 
the  commissioned  officers  and  the  men.  An  tbo 
former  are  not  permitted  to  mix  with  the  private 
soldiers,  lest  familiaritf  should  diminish  the  sway 
of  abeolute  discipline,  it  is  necessary  to  have  an 
intermediate  class  to  overlook  tbe  men  in  their 
barrscks  and  at  all  times  when  off  the  paradeu 
I  are  ao  suited  for  this  duty  as  the  best  con- 
ducted of  the  men  themselves,  who  are  promoted, 
by  selection  to  non-commissioned  rank,  and  hold 
many  privileges  and  powers  anattainable  by  tho 
private  The  nou-commissioned  officers  comprtas 
the  Serjeants- major,  all  tbo  Serjeants,  the  trmn- 
peters,  drummers,  and  buglers,  and,  in  the  Life 
Guards  and  Boyal  Horse  Guards  only,  the  corporals. 
They  can  bo  reduced  to  the  ranks  by  sentence  of  a 
rt-martial,  or  by  their  colonel -commandant ;  but 
by  a  hentenant-colonel  nor  by  any  junior  offioer. 
Non-commissioned  officers  are  entitled  to  quartera 
for  their  wives,  or  lodging-money  in  lieu  of  qnarters. 
Accustomed  themselves  to  obey,  tbe  non-com- 
missioned officers  are  admirable  assistants  in  pre- 
serving discipline ;  veterans,  to  whom  military  Ufa 
is  a  second  nature,  they  are  looked  up  to  by  their 
comrades  aa  examples,  to  lead  in  battle  or  to  teach 
in  drilL  The  non-commisstoned  officers  have  a 
Mesa  (q.  v.)  to  themselves.  In  a  battalioa  of 
infantry  at  home,  there  were,  in  188^  58  non- 
commissinned  officers  to  550  nmk  and  file ;  in 
India,  66  t«  S20 ;  but  tbe  rank  and  file  may  be 
greatly  augmented  without  aSecting  the  number  of 
non-commissioned  officers.  Inthe  whole  British  anny 
(European)  for  the  year  I8S2-S3,  there  were  2^331 
non-commissioned  offioeta.    This  rank  is  a  necessity 


„  Google 


HONCONPOJ 


-NOOSSA. 


termed    toua-qffiatn ;    in   Oemuny, 


KONCONFO'BMISTS,  nntuns  aometimei  ^ven 
Eenemlly  to  aU  tectoriea  who,  at  vaj  periM  in 
English  history  since  ths  eBtablishment  of  'Protast- 
■ntum,  have  refused  to  conform  to  tiie  doctrine  and 
ot  the  Episcopal  Church.  It  is,  however, 
fragnentljr  lued  in  »  restricted  sense  to  denote 
the  2000  clergymen  who  in  1662— two  years  after 
the  Keatoration — left  the  Charch  of  England,  rather 
than    submit    to    the    conditions    of   the   Act    of 

schoolmaater,  onfeigned  assent  to  all  aad  everytlmig 
contained  in  tiw  Book  d  Common  Prayer.  The 
ejected  ministeis  swelled  the  ranks  of  the  Fresby- 
teriana  and  Independents,  the  latter  of  whom  are 
■ometimea  called  Nonoanfonnisto.   See  Puritans. 

NON-BFFB'CTITB  (Fr.  non-aetivtM),  is  the 
term  appUed  to  the  portion  of  the  personnel  of 
the  army  or  navy  not  on  active  service  or  in 
immediate  readiness  (or  active  service.  It  thns 
comprises     all    officers    on    retired    or    half^y, 

Sosioners,  and  saperannaated  QtScera.  Id  a  force 
bio  to  freqnent  augtnentationa  and  rwluctioDS,  the 
non-effective  charge  mnst  be  considerable,  and  a 
large  retirement  is  necessary,  in  order  to  rapid 
promotion  The  great  French  war,  also,  with  the 
redactions  following  it,  bequeathed  to  the  British 
an  annnal  non-eSective  charge  of  seventl  millions, 
which  is  not  yet  wholly  expunged.  In  1SS3— 18S4, 
tha  non-effective  charges  were  £2,916,800  for  the 
army,  and  £2,071,400  tor  the  navy— a  pretty  large 
ptiTcentage  on  the  gross  cost  of  the  two         '""" 

KON-BNTBT,  in  the  Law  of  Scofland,  ____ 
that  st»te  nf  a  feudal  estate  when  the  last  vassal 
has  died,  and  his  successor  has  not  been  invested 
seised  of  the  land.  On  guch  an  occasion,  the 
anpcrior  is  entitled  to  what  is  called  a  casualty  of 
non-entry,  which  conaistB  of  the  rent  of  the  fen. 

NON  EST  INVENTUS,  a  technical  term  used 
in  that  part  of  the  law  where,  after  jndgment,  the 


makes  a  return  to  the  court  that  he  has  not  been 
Able  to  find  tiie  debtor,  which  ia  shortly  called  a 
return  of  non  ttt  ineaitiu,  and  his  duty  ia  " 
discharged  until  a  freah  writ  ia  issued  to  bim. 

NONE  (Lat  nana,  'ninth'),  one  of  the  lesser 
Canonical  Hours  (a.  v.),  so  called  from  it*  recitation 
being  primitively  fixed  at  the  ninth  hour. 

NONES.    See  CuEmis. 

NONFBA'SAKCE,  in  certain  parts  of  the  Law  of 
EDGjUnd,  means  the  not  doing  what 

NONJOIITDER,  in  English  Law,  is  the  omitting 
to  join  all  the  parties  to  the  action  or  suit. 

NON  JU'BORS,  ths  name  given  to  that  portion  ot 
the  Episcwal  clergy  of  England  who  at  the  coron- 
ation of  William  and  Mary  ref  lued  to  take  tiie  oath 
of  allegianoe  to  these  sovereign*,  beheving  that 
they  had  nnlawfolly  possessed  themselvea  of  the 
throne  abdicated  by  James  IL  Tliey  were  gnat 
champions  of  the  doctrine  of  passive  obedience  on 
the  [«rt  of  subjects  towards  kings ;  and  as  the 
triumph  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  was  obtained  at 
the  expense  of  that  dodaine,  it  was  impossible  that 
they  oould,  oonaistently  with  their  antecedents, 
Bcknowledf^  him  as  their  rightfol  I'ing  The 
House  of  Commons  allowed  them  six  months  longer 
than  laiTnun  »n  dtake  Up  thcir  minds,  but  declined 


than  l^nnen  i 


to  adoDt  the  amendment  of  the  Lords,  vis.,  that 
the  oath  ahonld  not  be  imposed  on  the  clergy-  TIiot 
mfused,  and  were  ooDseqnently  deprivedcf  thau 


sees  and  benefices  The  noDJuron  comprised  Arch* 
bishop  Sancroft,  8  bishop*,  and  about  400  of  the 
inferior  clergy. 

KON-BE'SIDENCE,  the  name  jdven  in  Church 
Law  to  the  offence  of  a  pereon  holdW  a  Spiritual 
Benefice  who  absents  himself  without  legal  justifi- 
cation from  the  local  precincts  within  which  the 
duties  attached  to  the  benefice  are  prescribed  to 
be  performed.  The  obligation  of  reeidence  follows 
cleuly  from  every  principle  of  law,  and  from  the 
constant  tendency  to  relaxation  on  the  part  of 
the  clergy,  has  boen  an  nnf ailing  subject  of  legis- 
lation, eccleaiaetical  and  civil,  from  the  very  earheat 
times.  The  Council  of  Nice  in  325,  of  Antioch  in 
332,  and  of  Carthage  in  401  ;  the  constitutionB  of 
the  popes  from  the  earliest  genuine  document  of 
that  class,  the  novels  of  Justinian,  the  capitularies 
of  Charlemasne — all  apeak  the  same  language,  and 
enforce  it  oy  the  aame  penalties.  During  the 
medieval  period,  and  especially  during  the  unhappy 
contests  of  the  western  schism,  great  abuses  pre- 
vailed. The  whole  subatance  of  Uie  legislation  of 
the  Roman  Church  on  the  subject,  however,  is 
compressed  in  the  deoreta  of  the  Council  ot 
Trent,  which  are  mwnly  contained  in  tha  decrees 
of  the  XXIL  and  following  seaaions,  '  On  Refor- 
mation.' The  decrees  of  uie  council  regard  all 
church  dignitaries,  and  others  charged  with  the  cnre 
of  souls.  iVithoat  entering  into  the  details,  it  will 
suffice  to  say,  that  for  all  the  penalty  of  absence 
without  just  cause,  and  due  penmadon,  consists  in 
the  forfeiture  of  revenues,  in  a  proportion  partly 
varying  with  the  nature  of  tha  benefice,  partly 
adjusted  according  to  the  duration  of  tha  abeenca, 
For  each  class,  moreover,  a  certain  time  is  fixed, 
beyond  which,  during  twelve  months,  absence  can- 
not be  j|ermlUed.  'the  duty  is  imposed  on  persona 
named  in  the  law  of  reporting  to  the  ecclesiastical 
su^eriore  cases  of  prolonged  absence.  The  same 
l^islation  has  been  confirmed  by  most  of  tha  recent 
concordats,  and  is  enforced  by  the  civil  law  of  each 
country.  In  Sngland,  the  penalties  for  non-reai- 
dence  are  regulated  by  1  and  2  Vict  c  106.  Under 
this  act,  an  incumbent  absenting  himself  without 
tha  bishop's  licence  for  a  period  exceeding  three, 
and  not  exceeding  six  months,  forfeits  one-third 
of  the  annual  income ;  if  the  absence  exceed  six, 
and  doea  not  exceed  eicht  months,  one-half  ia  for- 
feit^ ;  and  if  it  be  of  the  whole  year,  three-fonrths 
of  the  income  are  forfeited.  The  persons  excused 
from  the  obligation  of  residence  by  the  canon  law 
are  sick  persons,  persons  engaged  in  teaching  the 
theological  sciences  in  approved  places  of  study,  and 
canons  in  immediate  attendance  upon  the  bishop 
I'ainonict  a  lattre'),  who  ought  not  to  exceed  two 
m  number.  By  the  act  1  and  2  Vict  c  106,  heads 
of  collies  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  the  wardens 
of  Durham  Universi^,  and  the  h(^-maatera 
Eton,  Westminster,  and  Winchester  Schools  e 
genenDy  exempted,  and  temporary  exemptions  from 
residence  are  recognised  in  other  cases,  which  it 
woold  be  tedious  to  detuL  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  besides  the  general  legislation,  most  of  the 
provincial  and  diocesan  statutes  contain  special 
provisions  on  the  subject  ot  non-residenoe. 

NON-SUIT  is  a  legal  term  in  England,  which 
means,  tikat  where  a  plaintiff  in  a  jury  triid  find 


defendant    The 

has  to  paj^  the  defendaiit^s  costs ;  bat  he  can  bring 

a  fresh  action,  if  he  can  get  over  ths  difficulty  that 

adered  a  non-sait  neceaaaiy  or  expedient 

NOOSSA.    See  Moldoou. 


a# 


NOOTKA  DOO— NORFOLK. 


HOOTKA  DOQ,  »  larg«  Idnd  of  Ao^,  oammon 
in  a  domestickted  >t>ta  aiuong  the  ii»tive«  of  the 
viemity  of  Nootka  Soimd.  It  luta  nect,  pointed 
ean.  It  ia  oliiefly  nnurkable  for  the  eztt^ne 
abwid«Dce  of  it*  Ions  voollj  hiir,  which,  when 
ahoni  ott,  holdi  together  m  »  fleece,  and  u  spun 
•nd  woven  into  gumanti.  The  introduction  of 
this  wool-beving  dog  into  other  coiuitriei  hu 
been  anggBeted,  but  not  7et  attempted. 

NOOTEA  SOUND,  an  inlet  on  the  west  coast 
of  VanconTiei'i  Island.  British  North  Amerio,  in 
lat  40*  3S'  N.,  long.  126°  30'  W.  Its  entrance  it 
proteoted  by  an  iiUnd  of  the  lame  name,  and  tiio 
Soond  oan  be  entered  on  both  ndei  of  the  island. 
It  extends  inland  for  10  milee  in  »  nortii'Dorth-east 
direction ;  but  the  greateBt  breadth  of  water  is  not 
mora  tbui  EOO  yaidi.  Numerous  imaU  oovea  and 
toletaare tonndaroand theTOO^ahoraa.   Itaffijrda 


NORD,  the  moat  northerir  department  in  France 
{wbenoe  Ht  name),  oomapcnkdiug  with  the  former 
Ttforino*  of  French  nanden,  and  bordering  on 
Belgium  and  the  Strait  of  Dover.  Area,  2I8S  eq. 
miles;  pop.  (1881)  1,603,209.  It  is  compoaed  of 
two  pkna,  or  at  least  nurowi  near  the  middle  at 
Aimentifirea,  on  tlie  Lyt,  almost  to  a  ]iat.  It  is 
watered  by  the  Scheldt  and  the  Sambra,  with  Uieir 
affloentt,  and  b7  numerous  oanala.  Next  to  that  of 
the  Seine,  ^  is  the  most  densely  peopled  depart- 
ment in  Fiance.  ^Hw  soil  U  fertile,  well  cnltiTated, 
and  yields  more  abundant  hsrveats  than  any  other 
put  of  the  ooantry :  863,606  acres  are  arable.  The 
priDcipal  products  are  wheat,  hemp,  beet-root,  vege- 
tables, toiMuico,  and  fruits.  Manufactures  of  lace, 
cambric,  linens,  and  beat-root  sugar  are  extensively 
carried  on.  It  has  a  much  larger  proportion  of  rail- 
ways, roads,  and  canals  than  any  of  the  other 
departmenti,  ai  well  as  the  most  important  coal 
and  iron  mines.  No  other  department  nas  so  many 
popnloos  towns  and  strong  fortresBeB;  none  adcU 
so  much  to  the  national  revenae ;  in  none  are  the 
people  so  intellieent,  so  susceptible  of  cidture,  or 
to  industriona.  In  respect  of  its  educational  and 
benevolent  inititutionSi  aa  well  as  of  its  le&med 
societies,  it  ranks  next  to  the  department  of  the 
Seine.  The  arrondisaements  are  Lille,  Dooai,  Cam- 
brai,  Valenciennes,  Avesnes,  Hazebronck,  and 
Donkerque.    The  cluef  town  is  Lille. 

NO'KDBBNBY,  a  small  island  of  the  Prussian 
provinoe  of  Hanover,  lies  three  miles  off  the  coast 
of  East  Friesland,  and  forms  one  of  a  string  of 
iilanda  that  line  that  coast.  Area  about  4  square 
miles;  permanent  pojk  1770.  It  has  enjoyed,  aince 
1797,  a  gi«*t  reputation  as  a  place  for  aea-bathinjt, 
and  in  flie  sonuner  season  has  from  1G00  to  2000 
visiton.  The  little  village  at  the  west  end  of  the 
island  baa  a  very  tastefully-built  Converaalunu- 
Haai,  130  feet  long.    Trees  do  not  grow  here. 

NCBDHAUSEK,  a  flouriBhing  town  of  Pnusian 
Saxony,  pleasantly  situated  at  the  Bouthem  base  of 
tiie  Hmi  Mountains,  on  tiie  Zorge,  33  milea  north- 
north-west  of  Erfurt.  The  sorronnding  country  is 
very  fertile  in  oom,  and  in  the  vioini^  oommenoes 
the  Goidene  Aue  (Golden  Plain),  a  fertile  valley 
watered  by  the  Helme.  It  contains  a  jrynmaainm, 
nnmcroos  clinrcbea,  one  of  which,  St  Sasius,  con- 
tains two  pictures  by  Lake  CnLoaeh.  It  carries 
on  a  thriving  general  trade,  is  the  d£pAt  from  whi<:b 
the  Harz  luiuntaioB  are  snpplied  with  necessaries, 
and  has  moat  extennve  distillerieB  and  considerable 
mauutactui«s  of  tobacco,  succory,  ohemicala,  cloth, 
leather,  fta  Its  spirit  distilleries,  of  which  tiiere 
■re  sixty  in  almost  constant  operation,  produce 
annoally  for  export  npwards  at  100,000  hogsheads 
of  corn-brandy.    Pop.  (1S80)  26,]0& 


ornn,  ai 


N&RDLINQBN.  a  town  in  the  west  of  BavMu, 

situated  on  the  river  Beer,  44  miles  nocth-wes* 
by  the  Mnniii  and  NUmberg  railway, 
lie  church,  with  a  high  tower  and  £n» 
and  manufactures  of  Tyrolve  caipets,  lineup 
woollens,  besidea  a  la^  trade  in  featitoza. 
Pop.  (1880)  7S37.  N.  is  historically  interesting  aa  tlw 
scene  of  several  battles,  the  moat  famous  of  whiell 
was  fought,  6th  September  1634,  between  24,000 
Swedes,  under  Count  Horn  and  Dnke  Bembaid  <iS 
Saie- Weimar,  and  40,000  imperialists  under  King 
Ferdinand.  The  former  were  defeated  with  tbo 
loas  of  12,000  killed  and  wounded,  300  ' 
and  standards,  80  oanni»is,  and  several  j 
prisoners,  among  irtiom  was  Horn  himself. 

NORB  is  a  sand-bank  in  the  estoary  of  the  rives' 
Thames,  4  mUea  north-east  of  Sheemess,  on  vdiicb 
tiien  is  a  floatdng  li^t,  called  the  Nora  li^  in  lat. 
SI*  sr  N.,  long.  0°  4^  W.  3^  nima,  however,  is 
nuneoommonlyapTilied  tothapcstdonof  theerti  — 
in  the  vieinity  ol  ue  Nora  li^  and  sand-bank. 

NO'BFOLK,  a  large  and  important  maritimB 
ooimty  of  En^Mid,  bounded  on  the  north  and 
north-east  by  Qie  North  8m,  and  on  the  south  by 
the  county  of  Suffolk.  Area.  1,356,173  acres ;  pork 
(1871)  438,G11;(IS81)  444,74a  Its  coatt-Une.  fran 
Yarmooth  to  the  monUi  of  the  Nen  in  tha 
Wash,  is  abont  100  miles  in  leniiith.  KtanTarmonth 
to  Ha^pisbnigh,  tbs  ooast  is  low  and  sandy;  tnaa 
HappisDniKhtoWayboume,  it  is  skirted  by  low  cUSb; 
and  west  of  Weyboume  to  the  entrance  to  the  Wash, 
where  the  banks  are  in  great  pMi  dry  at  low- 
water,  and  where  a  considenble  extent  of  land  has 
been  reclaimed  from  the  sm  (see  Wash),  it .  is 
low,  and  covered  with  sand  or  shinala.  The  snr- 
faoe  of  the  county  is  level,  or  neaify  sn^  nana  of 
the  rising-erounu  being  oonBida«d  worthy  of 
being  aalled  hills.  The  principal  rivvts  an  tiio 
Ouse,  the  Yare,  with  it*  affluents  the  WoiEnm  and 
the  Waveney,  and  the  Bnre.  Commnnicataon  ia 
kept  up  by  the  navwble  rivers,  and  by  the  Oteat 
Ef^m  Railway.    Hie  climate  is  affected  in  spring 


ohi^y  of  li^t  sands  and  loams,  and  oomfaises  a 
great  extent  of  land,  which  'Uiongh  natorally  not 
fertile,  has  been  made  so  by  jndicdous  mansRemanb 
The  agricoltnre  of  the  county  is  in  an  advanced 
oondition,  and  all  the  nsual  crc^  are  eztonsiTalv 

Sown  i  while  that  of  bariey  is  especially  celebrate! 
^f  the  acreage  is  devoted  to  rearing  food  for 
cattle,  and  thus  the  neceoaary  supply  of  msunrB 
is  secured.  Oeess  and  torkeTi  an  extensivdy 
reared  for  the  Loudon  market.  Hie  coon^  ta 
divided  into  three  parts,  North,  South,  and  West 
N.,  each  retuming  two  members  to  the  House  of 
Commons.    The  oqiibl  is  Norwioh. 

NORFOLK,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Virginta, 
U.S.,  88  miles  south-east  of  Bkhmiwd,  and  82  miles 
from  the  ooaan.  The  dfy  ia  inwnlariy  bnilt  on  knr 
gnnnd,  and  contains  a  city  bal^  militaiy  aoademy, 
mechanics'  hall,  oourt-honse,  jail,  cnatom-honae^  It 
banks,  26  cborcbea.  Ita  laige  deep  harboor  ia 
defended  by  Fort  OaUtoun  and  Fortroa  Monio^ 
the  largest  fortress  in  America.  A  gOTenuneait 
navy  yud,  dry  dock,  and  marine  hcap^  are  iu 
the  suburb  of  Goaport  N.  was  built  m  1736;  iu 
1776,  it  was  burned  by  order  of  Lord  Dnnmore, 
the  British  cdonial  mretnor.  In  1806,  a  large 
nnmber  of  the  inhabitants  died  of  yellow  few. 
Off  N.,  which  was  the  chief  naval  depot  of  the  Ca«. 
federatei^  was  fought,  in  186%  the  fiunona  encase- 
ment between  a  Confederate  inm-dad  aniT  fln 
Federal  Monitor.  Portsmonth  is  aoroes  the  Eliaa- 
beth  River,  top.  of  N.  {1870J  19,229 ;  (18S0)  UfiSt^ 


,v  Google 


NORFOLK  ISLAIID— NOBMAN  ABCHXTECTUBE. 


HOHFOIiE  ISLAND  lies  in  the  Fadfio  Ocean, 
1100  milM  east- north-east  of  Sjdnej  in  Australia, 
in  htt  29*  10*  3.,  and  long.  167'  SS'  K  Length,  ~ 
miles ;  breadth,  2}  mile* ;  area,  S960  aczes.  It 
the  largest  of  a  small  duster  ot  islands,  comprii- 
ing  N.,  Kepean,  and  Philip  IsUuds.  ti^ether  with 
MTeral  rocker  itlets.  The  coasts  are  h^h  and  steep, 
And  the  sorface  gsnerallj  nneren,  rising  in  Mount 
Pitt  to  apwards  of  1000  feet  in  height  The  boU  is 
fertile  and  wdlwaterad,  and  th«  climate  healttq'. 
la  1S25,  N.  L  was  made  a  penal  aettlement  b; 
ths  Biitisii  goremmeDt  for  the  wont  class  of 
•ODviots  sent  out  to  New  South  Wales;  but  the 
experiment  was  a  failure,  and  the  establishment 
was  broken  np  in  ISSSL  In  1856,  the  inhabitants  of 
Pitcaim  Island  (q.T.)^I{l4  in  number,  desoandants 
of  the  mntineet*  of  the  Bounty — were  tranafeired 
hither  by  the  British  govemmenlL  In  1S61,  the 
popL  was4Sl,  the  Htcoim  community  numbering  297. 

NCEIO  ALPS.    See  Alps. 

NOICIUltl  is  the  name  ssogned  hy  Svanberg  to 
a  metal,  whose  earth  (or  oxide)  is  associated  with 
Eiroonia  id  eert^u  varietiee  of  the  mineral  zircon. 
Its  exiEtenoe  is  not  as  yet  definitdy  eetablishcd. 

NORMAL  SCHOOLS,  inatitntionB  where 
teachen  are  instructed  in  the  principles  of  their 
profewon  and  trained  in  the  practice  of  it.  The 
name  of  Normal  School  is  of  French  orinu  (6ooU 
Normaie,  from  Lat.  norma,  a  rule  or  mod^),  and  is 
tiuit  generally  used  in  Scotland ;  snob  instdtutjons. 
In  £^land,are  oftener  called  '  Training  Colle^ ; ' 

_j  j_  n lO — .- — :_  >     xhat  in  acqnirinE 

lea.  and 


however,  that  t^ey  l^ve  secured  much  attention ; 
and  they  are  even  at  Qm  dav  ddiberately 
denied  fay  tome  men  ot  thought,  and  of  the  highest 
educational  poeitioa.  The  recognition  of  these 
truths  has,  however,  been  eufficiently  extensive  to 
secure  the  institutioD,  in  Great  Britain,  America, 
Prance,  Oemuu^,  and  Switzerland,  of  schools  in 
which  the  piinciplM  of  teaehin^  form  the  subject 
of  stndy.and  in  wnich  model  speamMns  of  the  art  are 
given.  Italy,  And  even  Bnsda,  are  following  in  the 
wake  of  the  oountries  named.  These  sdtoob  tdso 
afford  a  thorough  course  of  instruction  in  the 
subjects  which  are  taught  in  elementary  sohoola. 
The  only  normal  achool  lor  tmining  the  higher  class 
of  teaohen  for  cdleges  and  aoademias  existB  in  Paris. 
One  ot  the  eariiest,  if  not  the  earliest  normal 
aeiaoiA  in  Great  Brifaun  was  the  Seeaional  School 
of  EdinburRh  (1830),  afterwards  developed  into  the 
-    *?, — jblj^g  Norr*'   '--—'-■     "- 


Tubea  Sir  J.  F.  K.  ShutUeworth  lubseqaeatly, 
acting  as  seiiretary  to  the  C<nnnuttee  of  Piivv 
Council  on  Education,  suggested  measorea  which 
have  resulted  in  the  iustituboD  of  about  50  colleges 
for  the  training  of  teachers  in  Great  Britain  in 
connection  with  the  Established  and  Dissenting 
Churches.  These  tarn  out  hundreds  of  ntale  and 
female  teaohers  anaoally,  who  having,  after  a  two 
years*  course  of  traimug,  received  government  certi- 
ficatesofmerit,  become  teischera  of  elementaryechools. 
TheM  ba*  been  (or  some  years  a  reaction  against 
the  DseeMity  of  normal  icbools,  sad  their  main- 
tenance kt  the  public  expense.  But  this  reaction 
can  only  be  temporary,  and  the  great  facts  will 
■urvivf^  that  every  subject  of  instruction  is  best 
taught  aoDording  to  a  certain  method,  and  that  idl 
Beuiods  an  bMed  on  the  stody  of  the  human 


mind.  This  is  a  position  which  it  is  impossiUi 
permanently  to  uiake.  The  real  founders  o: 
normal  schools  ore  those  men  who,  with  more  oi 
less  clearness   and  widt^  of  view,   have  brought 

prominently  forward  these  principles.     Sue'' 

Plato  and  Quintilian,  in  ancient  times;   i. 

recent  years,  the  most  prominent  names  have  been 
Comemus,  Peetalozsi,  Boasseaa;  and,  in  our  own 
country,  Ajcham,  MiHon,  Locke,  Professor  Pillana, 
and  Dr  Arnold. 

NORMAN  AKOHITECTtTBE.    As  its  n    __ 
implies,  this  style  was  originated  and  ohiefiy  used 
by  the  Normans.    Soon  aRer  their  conqueet  of  the 
north  of  Fnuioe,  they  began  to  erect  (lurches  and 
cathedtali  in   memory  vi  their  victories.      Their 
conquests  supplied  them  with  the  means  for  makiiu 
these  large  e£fice&    They  were  not  contented  wito 
choiches  then  common  in  France,  but 
erect  monuments  worthy  ot  thor  great 
conquests.    They  accordingly  expanded  the  dune; 
dons,  while  to  a  great  extent  retaining  the  style 
the  buildings  they  found  in  France.     They  see 
also  to  have  borrowed  some  of  their  ideas  from  tha 
Rhine.    See  Gotkio  AnoHEcRcnraE. 
The  leading  characteristic*  of  their  style  wi 
ze  and  massiveness.    They  adopted  the  Sii  tx 
plan  (derived  from  the  Basilica)  ot  central  and  r.__ 
aisles ;  and  at  the  east  end,  they  invariably  placed 
a  semicircular  apee.     They  seized  on  the  tower  as 
'  distingiiiBluag  feature,  and  developed  it 


ipleandof 


style  pr^rai_._     

great  vamty;  bat  the  most  ci. . _. 

are  the  zi^w,  billet  chevron,  nail-head,  &a  The 
windows  and  doors  are  simide,  with  semidnmlar 
arched  heads — the  fonuer  witiiont  traoery.  Tha 
t^panum  of  the  door-arch  is  oocaaionally  filled 
with  sculpture. 

The  nave  arches  are  carried  aometdmes  on  angle 
pillars,  but  more  frequently,  espectaljy  as  the  style 
advanced,  on  piers  with  sWts.  Tne  shafts  an 
almost  always  recessed  in  nooks  (or  'nook  shafts'). 
Otving  to  tne  great  sixe  of  the  buildings,  the 
arubitccts  were  unable  at  first  to  vault  the  main 


Tbe  masonry  is  rude ;  tite  joints  bdiw  large,  and 
the  stones  generally  unhewn.  The  styb  preniled 
from  about  the  bemnning  of  the  10th  c.  rill  the 
death  of  William  ua  Conqueror,  near  the  end  ot 
the  11th  century.  There  are  many  eiamplee  in 
Normaady,  the  cnurches  at  Caen  being  weU-lcnown 
buildings  of  the  date  of  William. 

This  style  of  architecture  was  brought  into 
England  by  the  Normans  at  the  Conqnat,  1066. 
They  there  extended  the  scale  of  the  boildinga,  as 
they  had  doDe  in  Normandy,  preserving,  however, 
many  local  peculiarities  of  the  Saxon  E%le,  idiiah 
they  found  in  the  country.  The  chapel  in  tlie 
White  Tower  of  the  Tower  of  London  is  the  eai4ieet 
iple  of  pure  Norman  work  in  Bn^and.  There 
are,  however,  many  building  both  in^iKlud  and 
Scotland,  wMch  d4^  from  before  the  end  (tt  the  12tb 
c.,  when  the  pointed  style  began  to  be  used.  Durham, 


The  Anglo-Norman  is  heavier  than  Uie  Il^ench- 
Norman,  the  cylindrical  nave  piers  of  the  above 
buildings  bebg  much  more  massive  than  those  of 
French  works.  To  relieve  this  heavinen,  the 
chevron,  sjHral,  and  other  groovings  were  out  in  tha 
piers.  The  mouldings  and  forms  of  doors,  windows, 
ac,  are  the  same  as  those  of  Normandy.  There  is 
one  remarkable  diff«enoe  in  the  plans  of  the  Early 
Nonnan  ohnrchea  in  the  two  connfeRea  t  in  France, 
the  apse  at  the  east  end  is  always  acoikdicnlar; 
"     '     '   "'    form  was  gradually  mnn.  up;  and 


NOElUfiBT— KORtLLNtJ. 


NOltMAHDT  (Ft.  Jt'ormandU),  tormerly  a 
OTOTincs  ia  tiie  nortb  of  France,  boiderii^  oa  the 
XiDgliah  Cluumel ;  now  divided  into  the  depait- 
menta  of  Snoe-Infdrieure,  Bure,  Ome,  Calvados,  and 
Uaodie.  It  is  in  genertkl  a  vet;  fertile,  ricU^-culti- 
vated  land,  resemtuing  a  garden  in  many  districts. 
It*  chief  BgricnltDTsl  products  are  com,  fiai,  and 
frnita  (from  which  cider  ia  largely  made} ;  its 
fisheries  and  maoiifactiires  of  great  impm-tance,  and 
its  horses  the  best  io  the  kingdom.  The  inhabit- 
ants are  for  the  most  part  descendaoU  of  the  old 
Iforraans,  and  bear  the  stamp  of  their  Sfilendid 
a&ceatorm.  They  are  intelliaent,  strongly  boilt,  and 
of  a  noble  and  energctio  character ;  warm-hearted 
and  patriotic,  they  produce  the  boldest  sailors,  the 
most  skilful  fishermen,  agricultorists,  cattle-rearers, 
and  gardeners  in  all  France.  In  the  oorth-eastcm 
and  more  level  part  (formerly  Upper  Normandw), 
the  principal  towns  are  Bouen,  Dieppe,  Havre-de- 
Graoe,  Harfleur,  Eouflenr,  Lisieux,  Gvreux,  Yvetot ; 
in  the  lonth-westem  and  hiUy  part  (Lower 
iformandy),  the  principal  towns  are  Caen,  Fol^ae, 
St-Lo,  Bayeox,  Coutancea,  Avranches,  Qranrille, 
Alenjon,  Cherbourg,  and  Moot-St-MiohcL 

In  Qm  time  of  the  Bomans,  the  country  bore  the 
lOJaeoIOalUaLugduTtaiiiafl.  Under  the  Fcankiah 
monarchs  it  formed  a  part  of  Neustria,  and  was 
firtt  called  N.  after  Charles  the  Simple,  in  912,  had 

S'ven  it  to  Bolf  or  Itollo,  the  leader  of  a  baud  of 
orse  rovers  (see  Noem4K8),  to  be  held  by  him  and 
liii  posterity  as  a  fief  of  tbe  French  crown.  From 
Kolf  (baptized  into  Christianity  under  the  name  of 
Hobert)  and  Gisela,  the  daughter  of  Charles,  sprung 
the  later  Dukes  of  N.,  of  whom  Richard  I.,  grandson 
of  B0I4  vigorously  maintained  his  authority  against 
his  liege  lords,  licuis  IV.  and  Lothajre.  WDliam  ! 
IL,  son  of  Bobert  IL,  became  Duke  oC  N.  in  1036 ;  | 
and  in  1066,  established  a  Norman  dynaaly  on  the 
throne  of  England  (see  Wiluau  the  CoNttuxBOSJ, 
thereby  politically  nniting  N.  with  the  latter 
oountiy.  In  1077,  his  eldest  son,  Bobert,  wrested 
IC.  from  him,  bnt  it  wM  again  united  to  Enaland 
nnder  Henry  L  in  1105.  '^ith  this  monarch,  Rolfs 
male  line  became  extinct:  Henry  IL,  the  son 
of  Henry  L's  daughter,  Matilda,  after  the  death  of 
Stephen  of  Blots,  obtained  in  1164  the  government 
of  EngUnd  and  N. ;  bnt  in  the  reisn  of  his  son, 
John  Lackland,  it  was  oonqnered  by  Phihppe 
Auguite  (1203—1204).  It  remained  a  portdon  of 
the  French  monarchy  for  more  than  200  years ;  bnt 
after  the  battle  of  Agincourt  (1415}  it  was  re- 
conqnered  by  the  English,  who  held  it  till  1449, 
when  it  WBS  finally  wrested  from  them  by  Charles 
VIL  See  Liquet'a  Histoire  de  la  Jfomusndie  (1835) ; 
Palgrave's  BitloryofN.  and  <if  England  (1861-W}. 
KORMANDT,  CcstovABi  Liw  o»  (Fr.  Ooutii- 
tai«r  de  Normandie).  The  ancient  provincea  of 
France  were  governed  principally  by  a  svEtem  of 
laws  called  Coutamet,  wnich  bod  originated  in  local 
naagea,  and  been  in  the  course  of  time  reduced  to 
writing  and  formally  sanctioned  by  the  sovereign. 
Coutume  was  distioguished  both  from  loi,  which 
originated  with  the  king,  and  from  lu,  or  osage  not 
reduced  to  writing.  Of  the  codes  of  customary  law, 
one  of  the  oldest  and  most  famous  was  the  Couta- 
mier  de  Normandie.  It  was  divided  into  the  ancient 
and  modem  custom.  The  former  was  first  redaoed 
to  a  written  form,  in  1229,  under  St  Louis ;  the 
latter  was  the  ancient  coulumier,  modified  and 
reformed  in  16S9  by  oommiasioners  appointed  by 
Henry  III.,  with  the  conourrence  of  the  three 
estates  of  tiie  nobility,  clergy,  and  people  of  Nor- 
mandy.    The  ancient  couUimitr  treats  principally 


inga  in  the  different  courta,  and  the 

obligationa  of  the  kings  of  France,  the  Dnkes  of 
Normandy,  the  fendol  lorda,  aad  the  ^people.  In  tbe 
modem  eoulumier  are  miiurte  rtf^nlations  regarding 
(A  property  by  will  and  mherit- 


ity-two  vtcomtSs,  into  wliicli 

different  mode  of  deviaiiiK 

real  property.     The   law  by  which   the  Chsumd 


N.  was  divided,  had  a  d 


Isianos  are  still  governed  is  luaed  on  the  cuatoniary 
law  of  Normandy.  The  chief  judce  in  Jersey, 
Guernsey,  and  Aldemey  retains  the  Norman  name 
of  bailli  or  bailiff  and  his  authority  ia  mncli  tha 
same  aa  that  officer  possessed  nnder  the  Norman 
law.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  remnants  of  the 
coTiiumier  still  sabsistiDK  in  the  Channel  lalanda  ia 
the  Clameur  de  Sara.  Any  one  who  considers  that 
his  rights  of  property  are  infringed,  protests  in  tha 
presence  of  l^o  witeessea,  ana  calling  out  threo 
times  *Hbto'  [said  to  be  a  way  of  invoking  I>iika 
Rollo,  noted  for  Ilia  justice),  summons  the  tresiiasaer 
to  desist.  He  then  applies  to  the  authorities, 
relating  what  he  has  done,  and  proceeds  to  the 
Recora  Office,  where  noto  is  token  of  Uie  circom- 
atancea ;  all  which  ceremonial  must  be  gone  throQfrfa 
before  bringing  an  action  of  trespass.  The  decision 
is  generally  referred  to  une  vue  de  jueUee,  and  the 
losmg  puty  is  subjected  to  a  fine,  and  liable  in 
coats :  he  had  formerly  alao  to  undergo  un  regard 
de  eJiditau,  or  twenty-four  honra'  imprisonment,  for 
having  implored  the  aid  of  the  prince  without  cause, 
NOHHANS  (I  e.,  Northmen),  a  name  generally 
limited  in  its  application  to  those  sea  rovers  vtm 
established  themselves  in  that  part  of  France  called 
after  them,  Normandy ;  but  sometimea  emfanunng 
also  the  early  inhabitonta  of  Norway.  During  the 
middle  ages,  the  name  Northmen,  or  Norsemen,  was 
often  used  in  a  broader  sense,  to  denote  the  entii« 
population  of  Scandinavia,  and  still  more  frequently, 
perhaps,  to  designate  the  Danes  and  Norwegians, 
eiclusive  of  the  Swedes.  The  Germans  and  Freix^ 
called  the  piratical  hordes  who  ravaged  their  shores 
Normans  or  Northmen  i  the  Saxons,  aEaaUy  Danes 
or  Eastmen.  They  were  alao  distinguished  by  tha 
latter  as  Ufari-  or  March-men  (from  Den-marky,  as 
Aih-nKH  (L  e.,  men  of  the  tuAen-shipa),  and  as  the 
HecUhea,  The  primary  cause  of  the  plundering 
expeditions  sonuiward  and  westward  across  the 
teas,  undertaken  by  the  Nor**  Vikings  ( Vikiagar, 
meaning  dwellers  on  the  via,  le,  bays  or  fiords), 
as  they  called  themselves,  under  leaders,  who  took 
the  name  of  '  Sea-Kings,'  was  doubtless  the  over- 
population and  consequent  acarcitv  of  food  in 
their  native  homes ;  beaideo,  tha  reliah  for  a  life 
of  warlike  adventure,  conjoined  with  the  ho]>e  of 
rich  booty,  atrongly  attracted  them ;  while — at  least 
as  long  as  the  old  Scandinavian  religion  lasted  (Le., 
till  abont  the  end  of  the  10th  0.)— death  in  battle 
was  not  a  thing  to  be  dreaded,  for  the  slain  hero 
passed  into  a  region  of  sternal  strife  in  the  WalhoUft 
of  Odin.  Finally,  discontent  with  the  ever-increasiag 
power  of  the  greater  chiefs  or  kings,  indnced  nuwy 
of  the  noblea   with  their  fbllowera  to  seek  new 

The  first  Danish  Norsemen  made  their  appeaisnoe 
on  the  eastern  and  southern  coasts  of  Gngtand  in 
787.  After  832,  their  invasions  were  repeated 
almoat  even  year.  To  one  of  these  belongs  tlia 
Ugatd  of  Bognar  Lodbrok  (L  e.,  Bagnar  oi  tiia 
•Sh^^  Brines'),  who  is  sud  to  have  been  taken 
prisoner  by  EUo,  king  of  Northumbrio,  and  tJirown 
into  a  dungeon  filled  with  vipers,  where,  while 
expiring  amid  horrible  torments,  he  song  with 
heroic  exultation  the  story  of  his  life.  Tbe  Tery 
existence,  however,  of  such  a  person  " 
Lodbrok    ia    qnestionad   by   many    " 


..OQglii 


NOR] 

■ohoUra.  In  851,  the  NorsemeD  wintered  for  the 
firftt  time  in  the  isloudf  ftod  after  866  obtained  firm 
footiiig  there.  The  Aoglo-SuDn  Ethelred  L  fell  in 
battle  against  them  in  871.  Eia  brother  Alfred, 
known  aa  Alfred  the  Great  (q.  v.),  after  a  long  and 
doubtful  straggle,  partially  reduced  them  to  sobjec' 
tion ;  noTart^esa,  fae  was  compelled  to  leave  them 
in  pOMeasion  of  NDrthumbria  and  East  Anglia  ;  and 
had  not  onlf  to  defend  himielf  ^ainat  a  new  and 
Heroe  invasion  Ud  by  the  famous  rover  UoatingB 
(q.  T.),  but  like  his  immediate  snccesson,  to  contend 
against  tho  revolts  of  his  Dano-Norman  subjects. 
A,  period  of  external  peace  now  enaued ;  bat  in  991 
the  iDvasions  of  the  Danes  and  Norwedaos  began 
anew.  The  Saxon  Icine,  Ethelred  II.,  at  first  sought 
to  buv  them  off  by  paying  a  sort  of  tributo-money, 
called  Danegelt  {'i:^-)'<  hut  the  mogaaore  of  the 
Danes  liviDg  in  Eagl^ud,  by  command  of  that 
monarch,  I3Ui  November  1002,  was  aveDged  by  four 
expeditions  under  the  Daniah  hing,  Swen,  who 
frightfully  wasted  the  country,  and  finally  con- 
quered it  in  1013,  dyiu^  the  following  year.  His 
Bon  Knnt,  or  Canute  \f^.  v.),  after  carrying  on  a 
stru^le  for  the  supreme  power  with  Ethelred  and 
his  successor  Edmund  Ironside  (q.  v.),  at  length,  on 
the  death  of  the  latter,  became  sole  monarch  of 
England,  which  now  remained  nnder  Danish  or 
Noise  rulers  till  1042.  The  government  of  the 
country  then  reverted  into  the  Saxon  hands  of 
£dwanl  the  Confessor  (q.  v.),  who  was  succeeded 
in  1066  by  Harold  IL  (q.  v.),  son  of  the  powerful 
Godwin,  Earl  of  Wessez  (q.  v.} ;  bat  in  October  of 
the  same  year,  Harold  lost  nis  life  and  crown  at  the 
battle  of  Hastinm,  and  William  the  Conqueror,  a 
descendant  of  a  Norwegian  chief  who  bod  settled  in 
Kormandy,  once  more  established  a  fTorse  dynasty 
on  the  throne  of  England,  but  one  greatly  refined 
and  improved  by  long  residence  in  a  comparatively 
oivilised  region. 

It  was  aJso  Danish  Norsemen,  in  particular,  who 
ravaged  the  western  coasts  of  Uie  European  main. 
land,  from  the  Elbe  to  the  Oaronne.  As  early  as 
810,  the  Banish  king,  Gottfried,  had  overran  Fries- 
land  ;  but  the  power  of  the  great  Charlemagne  was 
too  much  for  theae  undisciplined  barbarians,  and 
they  were  overawed  aod  subdued  for  a  time;  Soon 
otter  his  death,  however,  they  recommenced  {circa 
820J  their  piratical  expeditions,  and  favoured  by  the 
weaknesses  and  dissensions  of  the  Carlovingian 
rulers,  became,  during  the  9th  c.,  the  terror  and 
scourge  of  North-western  Germany  and  France. 
They  plundered  Hamburg  several  times,  ravaged  the 
coasts  of  the  Frisians  (which  then  extended  as  far  as 
the  Scheldt),  and  in  843  firmly  planted  themselves 
at  the  month  of  the  Loire.  But  ere  bng  tJiey  ceased 
to  be  satisfied  with  making  descents  and  settlements 
on  the  coasts,  and  in  their  small  piratical  craft 
they  swarmed  up  the  great  rivers  into  the  interior 
of  the  country,  which  they  devastated  far  and  wide. 
Thus,  in  845,  they  ascended  tlie  Seine  and  pinndered 
Parisian  exploit  which  was  frequently  repeated. 
In  88£,  not  less  than  40,000  of  these  Tikings  are  said 
to  have  ascended  tlie  river  from  Sonen  under  the 
leadei^p  of  one  Siegfried  in  70U  vessels,  and 
besieged  the  capital  for  ten  months.  It  was  only 
saved  at  the  expense  of  Burgundy,  which  was  aban- 
doned to  their  ravues.  In  8Sl,LDuia  orLudwigUL, 
king  of  the  West  franks,  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  on 
the  mvaders  at  Vimen,  near  Abbeville  in  Ficardy,  the 
memory  of  which  has  been  preaerved  in  a  song  still 
popular  among  the  ooontry-people ;  but  neither  that, 
nor  the  repulse  which  they  sustained  from  the  brave 
German  monarch  Amulf,  near  Lonvain  in  891.  ooold 


buds  01  Danish  rorers  penetavted  even  into  Swit- 


serlaod,  and  established  themselves  in  the  canton  of 
Scbweiz  and  the  vale  of  Hasli.  From  their  settle- 
meats  in  Aquitania  they  proceeded  at  an  early  period 
to  Spain,  plundered  the  coasts  of  Galicia  in  844,  and 
subsequently  landed  in  Andalusia,  but  were  defeated 
near  Seville  by  the  Moorish  prince  Abd-ur- Rahman, 
During  859—860,  they  forced  their  wajr  into  tlie  Medi- 
terranean, wasted  the  shorn  ol  Spain,  Africa,  and 
the  Balearic  Isles,  penetrated  Up  Uie  Rhone  a*  far 
as  Valence ;  then  turning  their  piratical  m«ws  in  the 
direction  of  Italy,  entered  the  Tyrrhene  Sea,  bnmed 
Fisa  and  Lucca,  and  actually  touched  the  distant 
isles  of  Greece  before  their  passion  for  destruction 
was  satiated,  or  before  they  dreamed  of  retorning 

Doubtless  Norwegian  rovers  also  took  part  in 
these  so-called  Danish  expeditions.  We  know  that  aa 
early  as  the  beginning  of  the  9th  c  they  made  voyage* 
to  the  north  ol  Ireluid,  Scotland,  the  Hebrides,  Qie 
Orkney  and  Shetland  Isles ;  and  the  increasing 
power  of  Harold  Haarfoger  in  the  9th  and  10th  cen- 
turies, exciting  great  discontent  among  the  smoller 
chiefs,  great  eminotions  took  place,  and  these  islands 
became  the  new  nomes  of  these  Norwegian  Vikings. 
About  the  same  period,  colonies  were  settled  in  &e 
Fartle  Isles  and  Iceland,  from  which  some  Vikings 
ivnceeded  westwards  across  the  North  Atlantic  to 
Greenland  in  982,  and  thence,  in  1002,  south  to  a 
region  which  they  called  Vialand,  now  nniversaUy 
b^eved  to  be  the  coast  of  New  England,  thus  antici- 
patiog  the  disoovejT  of  America  i>y  Columbus  by 
nearly  500  years.  I^m  Norway  aiso  issued  the  last 
and  most  important  expedition  against  the  coast  of 
France.  It  was  led  by  Rolf  or  Rollo,  who  had  been 
banished  by  Harold  Haarfager  on  account  of  hi* 
piracies.  Rolf  Forced  Charles  the  Simple  to  grant 
him  possession  of  all  the  land  in  the  valley  en  the 
Seine,  from  the  Ente  and  Eure  to  the  sea.  By  the 
time  of  Charles  the  Bald  the  invaders  had  firmly 
planted  themselves  in  the  conntry,  which  then  went 
by  the  name  01  Normandy  (q.  v.).  They  and  their 
descendants  are,  strictly  speaking,  the  Normans  of 
history  ^warlike,  vigoroos,  and  a  most  brilliant 
race.  They  rapidly  Copied  the  more  civilised  form 
o|  life  that  prevailed  in  the  Frankish  kingdom— tta 
religion,  language,  and  manners,  but  inspired  ereiy- 
tbiug  they  borrowed  with  their  own  splendid  vitali^. 
At  a  later  period  [the  12th  c),  they  even  developed  a 
Meat  school  of  narrative  poetry,  whose  cultivators, 
Qie  Troaveart,  or  Troavha,  rivalled  in  celebrity 
the  lyrical  Troubadours  of  SouHiem  France.  Their 
conquest  of  England,  in  1006,  gave  that  county 
an  energetic  race  of  kings  and  nobles,  on  the  whole 
well  fit  to  rule  a  brave,  sturdy,  but  somewhat 
torpid  people  like  the  Anglo-Saxons.  But  though 
the  Normans  had  acquired  compaiotively  settled 
habits  in  France,  the  old  passion  for  adventure  was 
still  strong  in  their  blood ;  and  in  the  coarse  of 
the  11th  c,  many  nobles  with  their  followeis  betook 
themselves  to  Soutliem  Italy,  where  the  strifes 
of  the  native  princes,  Greeks  and  Arabs,  opened 
up  a  fine  prospect  for  ambitions  desigos.  In  1009, 
Robert  Guiscard,  one  of  the  ten  sons  of  the  Norman 
connt,  Tancred  de  Houteville,  oil  of  whom  had 
gone  thither,  was  recognised  by  Pope  Nicholas  IL 
as  Duke  of  Apulia  and  Calobrio,  and  in  1071  aa 
lord  of  all  Lower  Italy.  Els  brother  and  hegemon, 
Roger,  conquered  Sicily,  1060—1089.  Roger  IL  of 
SicUy  united  the  two  dominions  in  1 127 ;  but  in  the 
person  of  his  grandson,  William  IL,  tiie  Norman 
dynasty  beoame  extinct,  and  the  kingdom  passed 
into  the  bonds  of  the  HohcnstauiTen  family. 

The  Swedish  Norsemen  directed  their  expedition* 
chiefly  against  the  eastern  coasts  of  the  Baltic — 
Courland,  Eathouia,  and  Finnland,  where  they  made 
their  appearance  in  the  9th  a— the  veiy  timenirhea^ 


la  veiy  time  when, 


HORN.E-NOETH.EAOT  AND  KOETH-WEST  PASSAOBS. 


tlteir  Duiiih  and  Norwedsn  bratbren  were  roving 
over  the  North.  Sea,  the  English  Choanel,  the  Bajr 
of  Iti«)»7,  and  ware  eatkbliahmg  themulvet  oa  the 
■hores  M  England  and  EVance.  Acoording  to  the 
uamtiv«  of  the  BvMian  Muialiat,  HeBtor,  iiuiy 
npMC  to  have  penetrated  into  OtB  interior  aa  far  la 
Novgorod,  vhenoe  'Uiev  were  qnicklj  bKuahed  hj 
the  native  Slavio  and  Finniah  inhabitants,  but  were 
aa  qniokly  aolicdted  to  Ntum  and  aaanms  the  teitu 
of  goreniment.  Hither,  oonaeqaently,  in  S62, 
aoDompanied  bj  other  noted  wariion,  oame  three 
Swedish  chiefs,  Knrik,  Sinena,  and  Tmwor,  aon*  of 
th«  Hune  father,  and  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Jlo» 
(wbenoe  But*  and  ButiiMu).  Bnrik  founded  one 
kinglom  at  Novgorod,  whioh  atrebihed  north- 
vai^  as  far  aa  the  White  Sea.  His  ancceasor, 
Ole^  nnited  vrith  that  a  second  eatabliahed  by 
other  Swedish  adventurera  at  Kiev,  which  town 
now  beoamo  the  oaintal  of  the  wide-extended 
BoMO-Swedish  kingdom.  See  Bdbu.  For  a  long 
period  these  Nonemen,  who,  it  appean,  became 
comidetelT  identified  with  their  Stavio-speakins 
anbjects  in  the  10th  c,  were  dangerous  enemies  of 
the  Byiantine  empite,  whose  oowts  tiie;  reached 


^  way  of  the  BUck  Sea,  and  whose  capital, 
Obnstantinople,  they  frequently  menaced,  as,  for 
instance,  in  941,  when  Igor  is  said  to  have  appeared 


le  spring,  and  with  it  and  the  clay  that  lia  aronnd 


before  the  city  with  npwafds  of  1000  ships  or  boats. 
Earlier  in  the  same  century,  these  Swedo-Bnssian 
warriors  had  found  their  way  into  the  Caspian  Sesi, 
and  aotosUy  penetrated  to  the  ooasta  of  Tartary  and 
Persiik  Partly  from  them,  and  jiartly  from  native 
Scandinaviana^  came  those  aoldiers  who  from  tito 
Mh  to  the  120)  c.  formed  the  body-gnard  of  the 
Ihrzantine  emperors. — See  Dep[nngra  Hittoire  <k» 
Siptditioju  Jforittmes  del  Normanda  tt  d«  tear 
Elabliuemaa  en  France  au  lO*"  SUcU  (2  vols.  2d 
edit  1843) ;  Wheaton's  Siaiory  qf  Ox  Northmen 
frvm  (Ae  Sarlittt  Time*  to  Ihe  Ooaqaeai  of  England 
(1831) ;  WoiBoae's  Xinder  otn  de  Daneke  og  Nor- 
mOudme  i  Sngland,  Skotiand,  og  IrUaid  (13£1) ;  Fre»- 
mu^t^itoryiifOieifoTmaii  Um^ucft  (1867— 1S76). 

NO'BN.SL  the  Parax  of  the  northern  mythology. 
They  were  three  yonng  women,  by  name  Drd,  ^r- 
dandi,  and  Sknld— i  e.,  Past,  PreBent,  and  Future. 
They  sit  by  the  Drdar-well  nnder  the  world-tree 
Tgodrwd],  and  there  determine  the  late  both  of 
Every  day  thay  draw 

^ ^. ith  it  and  the  day  thai 

the  wells,  sprinkle  tiie  ash-tree  YggdrasU,  that  its 
branches  may  not  rot  and  wither  away.  Bendeeth«se 
three  great  noma,  there  are  also  many  inferior  ones, 
both  good  and  I»d ;  for,  says  the  Prose  Edda,  when 
a  man  is  bom  there  is  a  nom  to  determine  his  fate ; 
and  the  some  authority  tells  ns  that  the  nneqaol 
destinies  of  men  in  the  world  are  attributable  to  the 
different  dispositions  of  the  noma.  These  lesser 
noms  corresponded  to  the  geni 
Women  who  possessed  the  power 
magic  also  bore  this  Dam& 

NO'BRISTOWN,  a  borough  of  Fennqrlvanio, 
U.  S.,  on  the  north  bank  of  Qia  river  Sohu}rlkm, 
16  miles  north-west  of  Philadelphia,  containina 
cotton  and  wooUen  factories,  irou  rolling-mills  and 
foundries,  moohine-ahops,  ooort-hoose,  jail,  public 
libran',  bank,  13  churobes,  seminary,  5  public 
schools,  1  German  and  7  T'^gl'"T'  newspapers,  and 
(1880)  13,063  inhabitants. 

NO'RBKOPINQ,  the  first  mannfactnring  town 
of  Sweden  after  Stockholm,  is  the  chief  town  of 
Link3ping-lAn,  in  East  GottUad,  and  is  sitnated 
at  the  junction  of  the  Motala  with  the  Qulf  of 
Bravike,  in  63°  30*  N.  lat,  and  16°  16'  E.  long.  Pop. 
(1680)  26,736.  It  is  a  fine,  well-buUt  town,  wiUi 
Imod  streets,  large  sqnarei^  and  numerous  ohurchea 


ondchaiitahleinstitatiims.   The  rapid   .   ._ _.., 

which  is  spanned  b^  several  sabetontial  bridge*  and 
lined  with  oommodioos  wharfs,  afibrda  very  conmdel>- 
able  water-power,  by  which  numenma  systema  tA 
machinery  am  worked.  The  manufacinrea  ara 
cloths,  stookingB,  staidi,  tobacco,  ao^  Aj\,  while 
in  the  n«i^ibonrhood  ue  the  extensive  iromrotks 
and  cannon  foondriea  of  Finsp&ng. 

NORSE  IjAKGUAGE.  See  Scuidihaviax 
LiJiGCAGB,    For  the  Norsemen,  see  NoBHUis. 

NOBTH,  ^^tXDEEic^  LoBD,  English  ministu^,  ws 
bom  AwU  13,  1732,  and  educated  at  Eton,  and 
Trinity  Collie,  Oxford.  His  father,  Baron  Guilford, 
a  deaoendont  of  Boger,  Baron  North  {temp.  Henry 
VUL),  was  created  an  esi-l  in  1762:  N.  altered  tbtt 
House  of  Commons  at  on  early  am,  wm  made  ft 
Lord  of  the  Treasury  in  1763,  and  inheritod  the 
Tory  politics  which,  in  the  days  of  Charles  IL,  had 
placed  his  ancestor  in  the  higneat  tsjiks  of  the  l«w 
and  the  state.  It  was  his  boast  in  tbe  Hoom  ot 
Commons,  that  'since  he  had  had  a  seat  the>«  ha 
hod  voted  against  all  popular,  and  in  favour  of  all 
unpopular  measures.'  On  tiie  death  of 
Townshend,  in  1769,  he  was  mode  Chancellor  of 
Eicheqner  and  leader  of  the  Hoose  of  Cmum 
a  post  for  which  he  was  well  qualified  by  his  elo* 
qoence,  good  hnmour,  wit,  and  readiness  of  rasovree^ 
His  folly  was,  however,  one  of  tike  immediate  canses 
of  the  American  War.  Earl  BnMelI,'in  Ms  I^ft  ftd 
Time*  ofC.  J,  Fox,  says  that  'for  £100,000  a  year 
of  revenue  George  Grenville  provoked  America,  and 
that  for  £16,000  a  year  of  revenue  Lord  North  hat 
America.'  In  1770,  he  snoeeeded  the  Bnke  cf 
Grafton  as  prime-minister.  As  a  minister  he  was 
too  ready  to  surrender  his  own  judgment  to  that 
of  George  IIL,  who,  with  a  narrower  miderstsadin^ 
had  a  stronger  will,  and  was  determined  to  snbdlttt 
America.  H,  wis  called  by  Horace  Walpolo  the 
ostensible  minister ;  the  real  minister  wss  the  kin^ 
N.  had  to  encounter  an  ardent  and  powerful  oppi>> 
aition,  led  by  C.  J.  Pox  and  sopported  by  Bnrkcb 
It  has  since  been  proved  that  N.  '  so  early  aa  177A 
was  of  opinion  that  the  syBtem  he  was  pnnmine 
would  end  in  ruin  to  the  lung  and  to  the  coimtry? 
In  177S|  ha  tenonnced  the  right  of  taxing  tlie 
colonies.  In  1782,  it  beiDR  impossible  to  carry  on 
the  war  with  America  any  longer,  N.  reigned.  'A 
more  amiable  man  never  lived,'  says  Earl  BnsseQ ;  *  m 
woise  minister  never  since  the  Bevolution  governed 
this  oonntry.'  With  N.'s  retirement  came  to  aa 
end  George  IIL's  scheme  of  govemiiu  the  coimtiy 
by  his  own  will,  and  ruling  the  House  of  Commoiu  bjr 
court  favour  and  thinly  diagaised  corruption.  N, 
was  succeeded  by  the  Marquis  of  Boclan^iam,  OK 
whose  death  Lord  Shelbume  became  premier.  Fox's 
dislike  of  the  tenna  of  peace  yiitix  America  led  hink 
to  enter  into  a  coalition  with  N.,  whom  he  had  tor 
so  many  years  inveighed  against  as  a  minister  without 
foresi^t,  treacherons,  vacillating,  and  incqialll& 
N.  and  Fox  took  ofBce  nnder  the  Dnke  of  Portiiand 
in  1783,  but  the  coalition  deetroyed  Pox's  populaiity, 
and  the  Portland  administration  only  lasted  a  few 
months.  N.  was  afflicted  by  blindness  during  the 
last  five  years  of  his  lif&  He  sncceeded  to  tllft 
earldom  of  Guilford,  in  1790,  on  the  death  <^  hia 
father,  and  died  in  Angnst  1792. 

NORTH  BERWICK.    See  Bebwioe,  Nobth. 

NORTH  CAPE.    SeeMiQKiwt 

NORTH  CAROLINA    See  Cabouha. 

NORTH-EAST  akd  NORTH-WEST  PAS- 
SAGES. The  numerous  and  important  discoveries 
made  by  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniarda  in  tits 
southern  latitudes  of  Asia,  and  the  reporta  which, 
on  thdr  return,  they  spread  of  t^  fabulous  wealth 
id  those  regions,  excited  Uxe  attention  of  the  ot^ 


D,a„,.s=.,,CiOOglC 


NORTH-EAST  AMD  NOBIH-WEST  PASSAQES. 


aahaie  in  the  lnantiTB  tiaffio 


■end  ont  ezpeditioi 
purpose  of  obtaining  a  ahan 
of  whidi  Spain  had  hitherto  pnww»od  the  aujoopolj. 
But  the  utter  poww,  thea  at  the  beuht  of  h«r 
pToapmtj,  WM  not  diapoaed  to  ftdmit  other  natioDa 
H  (uaten  of  her  good-fortiiii%  and  dealt  ao  antn- 
■nariW  viUi  all  intruden,  baTJiw  at  that  time  the 
Gomplete  oonsinaad  of  the  Atlaiitto  and  TtHjmi 
Oceana,  that  her  riTaU  were  reluctantly  oompelled 
to  abandon  all  thoughts  of  trading  in  thoaa  aeaa. 
Unwilling  however,  to  lay  aude  their  dedgni  of 
opening  a  trade  with  the  far-famed  India  and 
Cathay  (as  China  was  then  called),  they  reoolved 
to  attempt  to  reach  those  region*  b^  some  other 
route.  Two  plmu  a(>peared  most  feasible — the  one 
to  reach  Eastern  Asia  by  ooaeting  along  the  north 
of  Europe  and  Asia,  the  IfoHh-Eaat  Pateage; 
the  other  by  sailing  westward  across  the  Atlantic. 
The  latter  was  first  attempted  by  John  Cabot  in 
1497,  but  he  found  his  progress  barred  by  the  Ame- 
rican continent,  or,  at  least,  those  parts  M  it  known 
as  Newfonndland  and  Labrador.  Threa  yean  after- 
wards, Gaapard  CorterMl  and  his  brother  made 
three  eeretal  Toyagea  in  the  same  direction ;  and 
on  reaching  Newfoundland,  tailed  northwards,  but 
were  stopped  on  the  coast  oE  Labrador,  in  lot.  60°  N. 
Both  brothers  afterwards  perished,  with  all  their 
followers.  Several  Toyages  were  soon  after  made  to 
disoovec  if  a  paasace  for  i^ps  existed  to  the  north 
of  America  (the  NorA-Wett  Pauagt),  but  without 
success;  and  the  hardshipa  which  navigatore  were 
subjected  to  in  these  inhospitable  elimea,  caused 
the  abandoninent  for  the  time  of  all  further  invea- 
tigationa  in  that  direction. 

NoTlh-Eatt  Paaajfe.—The  search  for  a  North-East 
Passage  was  now  vigoronsly  prosecuted,  and  Eng- 
land nad  the  honour  of  sending  out  the  first 
expedition  for  this  purpose  in  1653.  It  consisted  of 
three  ships,  commanded  by  Sir  Hugh  WilloDKhby, 
and  was  fitted  out  onder  the  direction  of  the 
celebrated  Sebastian  Cabot ;  but  on  rounding  the 
North  Cape,  one  of  the  ships  was  sepsrated  from 
the  other*  during  a  violent  storm,  and  snbae- 
qoently  entered  the  White  Sea,  ttien  unknown 
to  WMrtem  Eoropeaas.  Tha  other  two,  nnder 
WilloQghby,  drifted  bithef  *»il  thitlwy  in  the 
vast  waste  of  water  surrounding  the  pole,  tall  the 
navigators  sighted  Nova  Zembla,  Bemg  onable  to 
land,  tbey  sailed  bock  along  the  north  of  Bussia, 
and  took  up  their  winter  qiiartera  on  the  coast  of 
Butaian  Lapland,  where  they  were  subaequently 
found  frozen  to  de*tb.  Several  other  expeiiitions 
were,  at  different  (dmsB,  tent  oat  by  the  English 
and  Dutch,  but  none  of  them  ever  sncceeded  in 
penetrating  further  than  the  east  coast  of  Nova 
Zembla,  though  they  rendered  good  service  to  geo. 
^phy  by  making  aooorate  surveys  of  Northern 
SoTopa  and  the  adjaoent  islands  of  Spitibergen, 
Nova  Zembla,  Way^t^  &o.  It  was  for  a  long  tuna 
b^ved  that  the  pnnnontory  which  forms  the 
eastern  boundary  of  the  Gulf  A  Obi  «ras  the  Tabi* 
of  Pliny,  and  fonned  the  north-east  comer  of  Asia ; 
and  this  opinion,  which  received  the  assent  of  the 
celebrated  Oeiord  Mercator,  tended  greatly  '~ 
•Qconrage  renewed  exploiattoas,  as,  according  tt 
the  eastern  coast  of  Asia  was  not  more  than  400 
miles  from  Nova  Zembla.  The  following  is  a  list 
of  the  chief  expeditions  for  the  disoovery  of  Ql« 
North-East  Passage : 
odgbbf  uid  GbuieeloT, 


BateD,  HtSTT.  ■J.jBoiid  npedlUoD,      Dnloh,         .        im 


ii  third  expedition  Barents  nearly  reaebed  ley 
Cape^  about  loi^  100°  K,  bat  waa,  with  his  crew, 
imprisoned  b^  the  ioe,  and  died  bef  otb  the  retmn  of 
Bpnng.  Vhioos  important  discoveries  wera  ma<^ 
dnring  this  expeditioQ,  which  proved  that  in  bvoor- 
able  aeaaona  a  passage  oovld  be  fnmd  to  the  east- 
ward, but  after  the  sohasquent  bilares  of  Hodson 
and  Wood,  the  attentpt  waa  abaodoDed  in  despair. 
I%e  Bnsaian  govemm^t  now  took  np  the  aauoh, 
and  both  by  ovwland  expeditions,  and  by  iTTioln 
atarting  from  varions  points  on  the  north  and  east 
coasts  of  Siberia,  sought  to  discover  a  practicable- 
ge.  Thechief  of  these  expeditions  were  t^ose  of 
mg  in  1741,  which  started  from  Petrtniaulovski, 
aod  was  stopped  at  the  East  Cape ;  of  Shalaroff ; 
Bud  of  Billings.  In  1875,  and  again  in  1876,  Pto- 
feeaor  NordeuakiOld  reached  the  eastern  shores  of 
the  Oulf  of  Obi  j  and  in  July  1878  a  weU-equiffMd 
Swedish  expedition,  under  that  veteran  explorer, 
attempted  oace  more  the  N.E.  passage.  The  party 
soooessfnlly  rounded  Cape  Severo  or  Tchelynakiur 
the  most  northerly  portion  of  the  Old  World  Oa 
lat.  77°  41'  N],  and  bad  nearly  reached  Behring's 
Strait  when,  on  2f>th  Septembw,  they  were  froien 
in.  Released  in  July  1879,  they  aooomplished  tho- 
passage  without  loss,  and  arrived  at  Yoktdiama  on 
2d  September.  During  the  voyage  and  their  winter 
of  seclusion,  they  were  indefatigable  in  the  work  of 
scientific  observation  and  research. 

NortiL-  Wat  Pomo^— Sebastian  Cabot  and  the 
brothma  Cortereal  having  failed  in  their  attempt* 
to  round  the  north  of  America,  it  was  not  tiU 
after  aeveral  unsuccessful  attempts  had  bem 
made  to  find  a  North-E^sst  Passage  that  in- 
vestigations of  the  north  coast  of  America  were- 
resumed.  As  these  investigations  were  carried 
till  within  the  last  few  years  solely  by  the 
iglish,  their  prosecntion  tul  a  definite  resolt 
was  arrived  at  came  to  be  looked  apon  as  a  pctnk 
of  national  honoor,  and  repeated  expeditions  weia 
sent  out  long  after  it  had  been  clearly  shewn  that 
North- We^  Passage,  when  foond,  would  be  useless 
1  a  mercantile  point  of  view.  In  all,  more  than 
200  voysga  were  made  in  search  of  the  North- West 
Passage,  so  that  only  the  most  important  of  them 
be  even  mentioned.    The  first  expedition,  after 

J  of  Cabot,  was  sent  oat  in  1S76,  under  Martin 

Aolusher,  who  made  a  second  and  third  voyage  in 
the  two  fallowing  years,  bat  witbont  ai^  impcftsnt 
discovery.  In  15S5 — 1S88,  nortbtni  aiterfcise 
received  an  impetus  from  the  succesafnl  axpeditions 
of  Captain  John  Davis.  This  navigator  suled  up  tite 
stmt  which  bean  his  name,  as  far  as  lat  72*  north, 
and  reported  open  sea  still  further  north  ;  he  then 
surveyed  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the  strait,  but 
without  further  important  results.  Een^  Hudson 
(q.  v.),  who  had  previously  attempted  t^e  North-Bast 
Fawage,  followed  in  1 61 0,  and  disco  vered  the  Hodson 


- dBay.b. 

than  an  inlet  of   the  1 

IS  proved 

n  16l2;t 


by  the  invert 
the  latter,  howerer,  •*" 


bay  was  closed  in  on  all  side*,  with 

the  two  eastern  cotrancea.     Botto 

universally  credited,  and 


Captain  Bylot,  who  hod  been  one  of  Hndson'a  «om- 
pany,  wss  scot  out,  aooompanied  by  Baffin,  the  moat 
skillnl  navigator  and  acientifio  observer  of  the  time; 
but  their  first  uqieditian,  which  was  to  Hadaon'a  Bay, 
was  devoid  of  result*.  In  their  next  voyage  (161^ 
th^  sailed  np  Davis'  Staait,  reaching  lat.  78*  N., 
and  satisfjong  themselves  by  a  very  superSdaL 
investintioo  uiat  there  waa  no  northern  ontlet,  the 
bw  (as  it  waa  then  believed  to  be)  waa  named  in 
hononr  of  its  explonr  Baffin's  Bay.  ,0n  their 


HORTH-B&ST  AND  NOBTE-WEST  PAB8AGE8— NOBTH  SEA. 


ntnrn  Muthwardi,  they  ooaated  ilong  tbe  treat  side, 
and  diBoovered  an  openinff  to  the  wect  which  thejr 
named  LuiCMter  Sound,  bat  believing  it  to  be  only 
an  inlet,  did  not  explore  farther.  On  hia  return, 
Baffin  gave  it  a*  his  decided  opinion  that  no  outlet 
to  the  west  eziited  from  Boffin's  Bay,  and  the 
nttentian  of  ex^rerewas  again  directed  to  discover 
ta  oatlet  from  Hudson's  Bay.  In  1619,  the  Bolitarj 
attempt  by  foreign  powers  to  aid  in  the  aeareh  wag 
nndertaken  by  Jens  Munk,  a  Dane,  but  he  made  no 
diacoTeries,  and  the  attempt  was  not  renewed.  The 
ezpeditton  of  Foz  and  Jamea,  in  1631,  led  to  the 
partial  exploration  of  the  channel  since  known  as 
the  Fox  Chuuiel,  which  fortna  the  northern  outlet 
to  Hudson's  Bay,  and  from  this  time  the  spirit  of 
disooTery  slumbered  till  1741.  Between  thia  date 
and  174S,  several  expeditions  were  sent  oat  to 
discover  an  outlet  from  the  north-west  comer  of 
Hudson's  Bay,  but  their  united  researches  satia- 
factorily  proved  that  no  such  outlet  existed.  Owing 
to  these  disappointments,  tie  search  for  a  North- 
West  Passage  was  discontinued  for  more  than  half 
a  centory,  notwithstanding  the  fact  of  the  British 
parliament  having  promis^  a  reward  of  £20,000  to 
the  fortunate  discoverer.  In  1818,  the  Admiralty 
took  Qp  the  search,  and  sent  out  Captain  John  Ross 
and  Iientenant  Parry,  who  sailed  np  Datis'  Strait, 
and  ascended  Lancaster  Sound  for  thirty  miles ;  here 
Captain  Boss  gave  up  the  search,  considering  it  to  be 
lumden.  But  this  opinion  was  by  no  means  coin- 
eided  in  W  Pony,  who  was  aocordinsly  sent  ont  in 
the  followmg  year,  and  succeeded  in  far  outstripping 
all  hia  pre^fecessois  in  the  career  of  northern  dis- 
covery. He  entered  Lancaster  Sonud  on  30th  July, 
and  a  few  days  afterwards  discovered  a  large  inlet, 
thirty  milea  broad,  which  be  named  Prince  Regent 
Inlet.  After  exploring  this  inlet  for  some  distance, 
he  returned,  and  continued  his  oonrse  westward,  as 
Uie  ice  allowed  him,  passing  ttemgh  a  strait  which 
ha  named  after  Sir  John  Batrow,  the  promoter  of 
the  expedition.  Coutinoing  his  westward  conne, 
hie  reached  long,  110°  W.,  in  Melville  Sound,  where 
he  was  stopped  by  the  ice ;  and  after  wintering  here, 
and  giving  names  to  the  numerous  islands,  seas,  and 
•trai^  he  had  discovered,  returned  to  Britain,  with 
the  glory  of  having  advanced  30'  of  longitude  further 
west  than  any  previous  explorer.  On  his  arrival,  ha 
was  welcomed  with  the  utmost  enthusiasm,  and  bia 
discoveries  imparted  renewed  energy  to  the  half- 
dormant  moritmie  enterprise  of  the  British.  There 
was  now  no  doubt  in  what  direction  the  North- West 
Faasoge  was  to  be  sought,  but  Parry's  second  expe- 
dition 11821^1823)  was  for  the  purpose  of  deter- 
mining whether  tjie  Fox  Channel  was  connected 
wiiji  the  Arctic  Sea  of  bis  previous  vwage  ;  it 
was,  however,  nnsuccessCnl.  A  little  before  this 
time,  the  coast-line  of  North  America  from 
Bebring'«  Strait  to  Point  Turm^ain,  in  long. 
109°  W.,  had  been  fully  traced,  so  that  it  only 
lemuned  to  Sad  some  navigable  passage  from 
Begent  Inlet  to  this  point,  ana  the  long- wished- for 
result  would  be  attuned.  For  this  purpose,  Captain 
John  Boss  was  sent  out  wit^  an  ei^iedition  in  1S29, 
and  after  a  laborious  and  difficult  voy^ta  np  Prince 
Regent  Inlet,  reached  a  point  only  200  milea  from 
Fomt  Tnmagain.  It  was  during  this  voyage  that  he 
discovered  the  msffnetio  pole.  Dease  and  Simpson, 
in  1838,  extended  toe  survey  of  the  American  coast 
from  Pmnt  Tumagain  to  within  90  miles  of  the 
magnelda  pole,  bnt  the  hopes  of  a  channel  between 
these  points  wen  dashed  by  Che  discoveiy  made  by 
Dr  John  Bae,  in  1847,  that  Boothia  (the  land  wMdi 
bounds  R^nt  Inlet  on  the  west)  is  a  peninsala  of 
the  American  continent.  We  now  oome  to  the 
unfortunate  expedition  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  which, 
it  was  fondly  hoped,  would  settle  the  qneatiMt  of  a 


North-West  Passage.    It  suled  from  Eb^md,  i£mj 
19,   1845,    sod    was   last   seen    in   BkEBd's     Bsy. 

Franklin  is  believed  to  hove  Bailed  through  LaocagtCT 
Sound,  and  ascended  Wellington  Channel  to  lat  77* 
N.,  and  thence  returned  southwards,  crossing 
Barrow  Strait,  and  sailins  down  the  channel  (now 
called  Frankliu  Channel)  which  separates  NortJl 
Somerset  and  Bootbio  Felix  from  Prince  of  Walea 
Island  to  the  west,  where,  in  lot.  70"  N.,  Ions. 
98°  30'  W.,  his  ships  were  beset  with  ice,  IZOi 
September  1846,  and  Franklin  died  Uth  June  1S47. 
"""  lurvivors  abandoned  the  vessels  20  milea  aoatb- 
of  this  point,  and  perished  in  the  attempt  to 
reach  the  American  mainland.    Many  expeditions 

— I  (^j.  (^  gearoh  for  the  missmg  voyagers, 

of  these  expeditions,  under  Collinscin 
and  M'CIure,  sailed  from  Plymouth,  20th  Jannazy 
1850,  and  reached  Behring's  Strait  in  Aurasfe 
tie  same  year.  Sailing  eastward  the  follow- 
ing spring,  M'Clure's  ship  became  fixed  in  the  ice, 
about  60  miles  west  of  Biurow  Strait,  and  the  crew 
found  by  Sir  Edward  Belcher,  sent  to  their 
ince  in  1S52.  Belcher,  who  had  reached 
Melville  Sound  by  the  Eastern  passage  throng 
Lancaster  Sound,  returned  the  stune  way;  and  tfaoa 
M'CIure  and  his  company  were  the  only  ship's  crew 
1  ever  penetrated  from  Behring's  Strait  to 
Bay.  Lieutenant  Schwatka's  party  in  1879 
-80,  who  accomplished  a  sleigh  journey  of  3250  miles, 
iroved  that  Franklin  was  really  the  discoverer  of  the 
I.W.  Passage,  and  brought  back  relics  of  Franklin's 
rpedition,  mcluding  the  bones  of  lieutenant  Irving 


landai 


long.  106°  W.,  has  been  thoroughly  explored,  and 
various  channels  of  communication  between  Davis* 
and  Behring's  Straits  have  been  discovered,  snch  ■• 
the  route  by  Hudson's  Bay,  Fox  Channel,  Fnry  and 
Eecla  Strait  and  BeUot  Strait,  into  FranUin 
Channel,  and  thence  by  either  the  MHIilintock  or 
the  Victoria  Channel,  or  the  routes  by  I^ncaster 
Sound,  and  the  M'Clmtock  Channel,  Fnnce  S^ent 
Inlet,  or  Prince  of  Wales  Strait,  to  the  opm  ae*  N. 
of  Alaska,  bnt  all  these  rentes  are  useless  in  a  mer- 
cantile point  of  view.    See  Polab.  EaPEDmoKs, 

NORTH  SEA  (ancient  Oarmankum  Mare;  Ger. 
NoTd  See),  that  arm  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  whidl 
separates  the  British  Islands  on  the  west  from  tha 
continent  on  the  east  It  is  700  miles  in  exb^ma 
length  (from  north  to  sonth),  about  400  miles  in 
ereatest  breadth,  and  has  an  area  of  not  less  t^aa 
140,000  square  mileo.  The  great  commercial  hi^- 
ways  from  the  N.  S.  to  the  Atlantic  are  by  Qt« 
Pentland  Firth  and  the  Strait  of  Dover ;  while  on 
the  east  it  commnnioates  with  the  Baltio  by  the 
Skagerrack,  the  Cattegat,  Sound,  and  Great  and 
Litue  Belts.  Along  its  south-eastern  and  sontheni 
coasts  the  shores  are  low,  and  are  skirted  by  sand- 
banks, formed  by  the  sand  deposits  carried  to  the 
sea  by  tile  waters  of  the  Elbe,  Weaer,  Rhine,  and 
Scheldt,  which  are  the  principal  rivers  that  flow  into 
this  sea  from  the  east.  The  shores  of  England, 
especially  in  the  south,  are  also  low,  and  ben  sand 
has  also  aocnmulated,  though  not  nearly  to  Uie  sama 
extent  as  on  the  continental  cossti.  Tha  chief 
Btitdah  rivers  that  tall  into  the  N.  S.  are  the  Thames, 
Ouse,  Eumber,  IVne,  Tweed,  Forth,  and  Tay. 
Besides  the  sand-bsjiks  on  the  coast  already 
referred  to,  there  are  others  extending  to  tiia 
middle  of  the  sea-bed,  similar  in  their  origin  to 
those  on  the  coasts,  and  occnpying  ^togetho'  about 
three-fbnithl  of  the  entire  area.  Of  these,  tha 
principal  are  the  bank  running  north-east  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Firth  of  ForUi  for  110  milea; 
the  one  extending  north-west  from  tbe  month  of  tbs 


,,  Google 


NORTH  WALSHAM— NOETHUMBERLAND. 


Elb«  for  Mbont  the  lame  distance;  the  Dogger^ 
bank  (q.  v.),  Ac  These  tand-banks,  combined  with 
the  Rtorms  and  foga  bo  comnioa  in  tiie  N.  S.,  render 
ita  navigation  nnmiaally  dangerous.  Another  peculi- 
arity of  the  bed  of  thia  sea  is,  the  number  of  extra- 
ordinaiy  '  holes '  which  have  been  fonnd  in  it.  Of 
these  the  most  temarltabla  are  the  Little  Silver 
Pit  off  Holdemess  in  Yorkshire,  and  the  North- 
north-east  Hole,  S  leagnes  further  east.  Little 
Silver  Pit  is  25  miles  in  £ngth,  and  from  half  a  mile 
to  two  miles  in  width.  At  its  edges  there  is  a 
depth  of  from  60  to  80  feet  of  w»ter.  Dot  Ojb  '  hole ' 
has  a  depth  of  3.S0  feeL  In  Qie  nortK  tlong  the 
Norwegian  coasts,  the  shorsB  are  steep  and  rocky, 
•ad  there  is  a  depth  of  about  190  fathonu.  The 
depth  (31  fathoms  on  an  average)  increases  from 
■oath  to  north.  The  currents  of  this  ocean  are 
extremely  various,  and  demand  the  greatest  caution 
on  the  ^rt  of  the  navigator.  Owing  to  the  preva- 
lence 01  aonth-weet  wmda,  the  currents  shew  a 
general  tendency  towards  the  north-east.  On  the 
■outh-weetera  coast  of  Ireland,  the  great  tidal  wave 
of  the  Atlantic  is  broken  into  two  portions,  one  of 
which,  oonrsing  np  the  Channel,  passes  through  the 
Strait  of  Dover ;  while  the  other,  sweeping  north, 
passes  round  the  north  of  Scotland,  and  then  south- 
ward along  the  east  coast  o(  Biitaiii,  and  meets  the 
■outhem  wave  off  the  coast  of  Essex.  The  northern 
portiott  of  the  tidal  wave  spreads  over  the  whole 
of  the  German  Ocean,  and  thongh  on  its  entrance 
into  the  N.  S.  it  is  ouly  12  feet  in  height,  it  rises  in 
its  progress  sonthward,  as  the  sea  becomes  narrower, 
in  the  same  way  as  the  bort  |q.  v.)  is  formed  in  a 
contracting  estnarr.  In  the  estuary  of  the  Himiber 
it  lises  to  the  height  of  20  feet.  This  sea  yields 
immense  quantities  of  fish,  the  most  important 
kinds  being  cod,  hake,  ling,  torbot,  sole,  mackerel, 
and  hening,  also  lobsters.  Tha  fisheries  employ 
many  thoosand  people.  On  all  available  points  of 
t^e  coasts,  light-nouses  have  been  erected,  and  there 
■re  nomerous  floating-tight  vessels  moored  to 
detached  bonks.  The  traffic  on  the  N.  S.  is  enor- 
mous. It  is  snrrounded  by  conntries  whose  inha- 
bitants have  from  the  earliest  times  been  famous 
on  the  seas,  and  the  enterprise  and  national  bias 
that  formerly  covered  the  Scandinavian  waters 
with  conqnering  fleets,  may  now  be  traced  in  the 
vast  commercial  intercourse  carried  on  on  the 
North  Sea. 

NORTH  WAX3HAM,  a  small  market-town  of 
Ehigland,  in  the  county  of  Norfolk,  on  an  acclivity 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ant,  14  miles  nortb-north- 
eost  of  Norwich.    Pop.  (1881)  3233. 

NOBTH-WEST  PBOVINCES  constitate  a 
Lientenant-covemorahip  of  British  India,  occupying 
the  upper  ^tsio  of  Uke  OaoRes  and  Jumna,  and 
eitendmg  from  Bengal  to  the  Punjab.  Oude, 
formerly  an  entirely  separate  administration,  is 
now  under  the  Lieutenant-governor  of  the  N.W, 
Provinces ;  but  in  respect  of  its  courts  and  lands,  is 
still  a  distinct  province.  The  divinona  of  the  N.W. 
Provinces  are  Meerut,  Agra,  Rohitcund,  Allahabad, 
Benares,  Jbanai,  Kuinaon,  and  the  four  diviaiona  of 
Oude— Lncknow.  Sitapiir,  Fyzabad,  Kai  BarelL  See 
articles  on  most  of  tliese  divisions,  and  on  Oude. 
Tot^  area  under  direct  British  administration  (with 
Oude),  106,111  square  miles ;  pop.  (1881)  44,107,863. 
The  natjve  states  have  a  further  area  of  G125  square 
miles,  and  »  pop.  (1861)  of  741,750.  The  capital  is 
Allahabad. 

NORTH-WEST  TERRITORY  of  Canada.  See 
Ihdt&n  Territo&ibs  and  C*nu)a. 

NOBTHA'LLBRTON,  the  capital  of  the  North 


town-hall  (!874),  a  croeiform  Gothic  church  with 
a  tower  80  feet  high,  and  a  cloth  factory.  Pop. 
(1S81)  3092.  The  batUe  of  the  '  Standard,'  so 
called  from  a  huge  standard  erected  on  a  car  by 
the  English,  was  fonght  hers,  August  22.  1138, 
between  the  English  under  the  Earls  of  Albemaria 
and  Ferrers,  and  tha  Scotch  under  King  David. 
The  latter  were  defeated,  and  forced  to  rel^t  with 
great  loss. 

NOBTHA'MPTON,  a  town  of  Masaaohasetts, 
U.  S.,  1  mile  west  of  the  Connecticut  River,  99 
miles  west  of  Boston,  on  the  Connecticnt  River 
Railway.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  beautiful  scenery. 
Mounts  Tom  and  Holyoke  rising  from  a  picturesque 
valley.  It  contains  many  elegant  residences,  tha 
county  bnildings,  6  banks,  several  academies,  11 
churches,  1  cotton  factoiy,  2  silk  factories,  3  paper- 
mllts,  A  bridge,  lOSO  feet  long,  connects  it  with 
Hadley.    Pop.  (1870)  10,100  ;  (1B30)  12,172. 

NORTHAMPTON,  capital  of  the  county  of  the 
same  name,  a  market-town,  and  parliamentary  and 
municipal  borough,  on  a  rising-ground  on  the  left 
bank  at  the  Nen,  67  miles  nor^-west  of  London  by 
railway.  In  the  centre  of  the  town  is  a  spacious 
market -square.  The  principal  edifices  are  the  ahire- 
hall,  the  new  and  Imndsome  town-hall,  the  oom 
exchange,  the  numerous  churches,  several  of  which 
are  nnusualty  interesting,  as  St  Peter's,  a  recently 
restored  and  beautiful  specimen  of  enriched  Nor- 
man, and  St  Sepulchre's,  much  improved  in  1805, 
one  of  the  very  few  round  churches  in  the  empire, 
and  referred  to  the  12th  centnry.  The  hoepiti'~ 
of  St  John  and  St  Homas  were  religions  hous  . 
prior  to  the  Iteformatiou.  Boot  and  shoe  making, 
which  affords  employment  to  about  3000  peisona, 
is  the  principal  branch  of  trade  carried  on  here. 
Leather  is  made,  and  hosiery  and  lace  are  mooufae- 
tnred.  Iron  and  brass  foundries  are  in  operation, 
and  brewing  is  carried  on.  Two  markets  are  held 
here  weekly,  a  general  one  on  Wednesday,  and  one 
for  cattle  on  Saturday.  Pop,  (1871)  of  parliament- 
ary borough,  45,080.  who  return  two  membera  to 
parliament ;  (1881)  57,55a 

N.,  a  very  ancient  town,  was  held  by  the  Danes 

the  beginning  of  the  10th  c,  and  was  burned  by 
them  in  1010.  After  the  Conquest,  it  was  bestowed 
Simon  de  St  Liz.  Its  oastle  was  besi^g;ed  by  the 
barons  in  1215,  during  the  civil  wars  of  Kin^  John. 
It  was  the  scene  of  a  great  battle  foogl 
1460}  during  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,!) 
rival  houses,  in  which  the  Earls  of  March  and 
Warwick  defeated  the  Lancastrians. 

NORTHAMPTONSHIRE,  a  central  oonnty  of 
ngland,    extending    lengthwise    north  .east    and 

atb-west  from  Lincolnshire  to  Oxfordshire.  Area, 
029,912  acres.  Pop.  (1871)  243,801 ;  (1881)  272,555. 
Its  surface  is  marked  by  genUy  undulating  hills, 
alternating  with  well-watered  vales.  The  chief 
riven  are  the  Nen  and  the  Welland,  both  of  which 
Dow  north-eait,  and  foU  into  the  estiiary  of  tha 
Wash.  The  county  is  traveised  by  the  London  and 
North-Westem,  the  Great  Northern,  the  Esatem 
Counties,  and  other  lines  of  nilway,  aai  commnni- 
cation  by  water  is  maintained  by  m»  Union,  Grand 
Junction,  and  other  canals,  as  well  as  by  the  rivers. 
The  climate  of  the  connty  is  mild  and  healthy ;  the 
soil,  a  black  mould  in  the  fen  districts  in  the  north- 
east, and  a  brown  loam  on  the  uplands,  is  very  pro- 
ductive. White  and  green  crops  are  abundantly 
produced,  and  on  the  rich  pastures  catUe  are 
extensively  reared  for  the  London  market  Four 
memben  ore  returned  to  the  House  of  Commons, 
the  usual  name  of  i^ouf/iam^niAin 

NOBTHITMBBELAND,    tha    most   northrau 


oonn^  of  Tfrgl*-"^,  is  bonnded  on  the  E.  by 

U„n,.„:,.Gai 


OQli 


HORTON— HOKWAY. 


North  Sea,  and  N.W.  bjr  th*  Scottish  ooontiei  of 
Boxbnrrii  and  Berwiok.  Arsa,  1,290,312  aor«a; 
pop.  Hm)  38^,646 iH6&l)^*,m.  TbsnufaMof 
tb«  ooimtf  Ilu  »  n^eed,  aod  MpadaUy  in  the  wart 
and  Bonth-WMt  a  naked  and  bamn  upeot.  The 
Cheriota  rnn  along  the  wertern  border  ol  the  oonnt^, 
and  Mnd  oat  ■pnnfamard  the  east,  which,  giadualtf 
declining,  we  separated  by  fertile  viJlefB,  thai 
widen  aa  &.ej  approach  the  coast.  About  one-Uurd 
tS  the  area  of  the  ooontjr  is  occupied  by  moorland, 
and  along  the  CnmberlaJiLd  bonier  the  broken  and 
bleak-lookins  hills  an  valnable  for  their  lead-miiieb 
AllrtnhftwT«,  Uie  centre  of  the  lead  Tft'^'^tg  district  is 
the  highest  inhabited  spot  in  En^od^Deing  1400 
feet  atore  aea-leTaL  The  inclination  of  the  surface 
toward  the  east  is  Indieated  by  the  direction  of  tite 


The  Tweed  forms  the  bonndaiy  of  the 
oonn^  on  the  north  for  about  5  miles,  and  Uie  soath 
boondjn  ji  formed  in  part  by  the  Derwent  and 
l^e,  The  climate  is  cold,  bat  is  milder  oo  t' 
aoaab  than  amid  the  hills,  which,  however,  ptodt 
■nfScient  hcrba^  for  the  maintenanoe  of  Urge 
flocks  of  'Cheviot'  sheep.  The  principal  agiicul- 
toral  tracta  occoz  along  the  ooast^  and  inland  along 
the  river  valleys  for  several  mile&  In  these  dis- 
tricts,  the  soil,  for  Uie  most  par(^  is  a  strong  fertile 
clavey  Imtd,  productive  in  wheat,  barl^,  beans, 
and  clover.  Agriculture  is  pursaed  on  the  most 
improved  methods,  and  cattle,  chiefly  short-homed, 
are  extensively  reared.  The  south-east  portion  of 
the  oounty  forms  a  part  of  the  great  Northomber- 
laud  and  Durham  coal-Seld,  which  produces  aboat 
25,000^000  tons  annnallv.  There  are  upwards  of 
100  pita  in  operation  in  tne  county,  N.  is  traversed 
by  the  Newcastle  and  Carlisle,  North -Eatrtem  and 
Bonier  Counties  Bailways.  The  oounty  returns 
lonr  members  to  the  House  of  Commons ;  the  county 
town  is  Alnwick  (q.  v.), 

NORTON,  Akdbewb,  Ret.,  Ameiioan  scholar 
and  theologiMi,  was  bom  at  Hingham,  Massa- 
chnsetti,  Decranber  31,  17S6.  Having  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1304,  he  was  sppointed,  in  1800, 
a  tntor  of  Bowdoin  Collie,  and  in  1811  mathe- 
matical tutor  at  Harvard,  and  in  1813  librarian 
of  the  university,  and  succeeded  Dr  dunning 
lectorer  on  biblical  criticism  and  interpretation, 
1S19,  be  was  appointed  Defter  Professor  of  Sacred 
Litetatore,  which  office  he  retained  until  failing 
health  oompelled  bis  retirement  in  1830.  Dr  Norton 
was,  after  Dr  Chonniug,  the  most  distinguished 
exponent  of  Unitarian  theology,  a  clear  and  per- 
■ptonons  lecturer,  an  able  and  conservative  critic, 
aiid  a  voluminous  writer.  Rejecting  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,  and  protesting  acainst  Calvimsm,  he 
also  oppoeed  the  school  of  Theodore  Parker  and  the 
uaturalistia  theology.  Besides  his  contributions 
to  the  Oeneral  Bemnbyry  and  Reriae,  the  IforA 
Amtriean  Sevieu,  CkriiHaM  Bxamiua;  he  puUJ ' 
11833)  A  Btatement  of  Rtamn*  for  not  Mionn 
Ae  Doctrine  <^  cAs  TVuiity  ;  (1837)  7%a  OenuineMM 
of  \k»  Oo»pdi;  (1839)  On  iM  Lated  Formt  of 
l-ufd^its;  and  left  some  poems  and  a  tianslation 
of  the  gospek.  He  died  at  Nerwport,  Rhode  Islsnd, 
Ssptei^ier  18,  1853. 

KOBTON,  THB  Eon.  Cabolihb  Euz&sxth 
SaiUH,  a  poetess  and  novelist  of  some  reputation, 
the  daughter  of  Thomas,  and  the  granddaugbta'  of 
RiohardBrinaley  Sheridan,  was  bora  in  1808.  Her 
father  died  while  she  was  still  a  child,  and  her 
education,  which  embraced  an  unusually  varied 
course  of  studies,  was  superintended  by  her  mother. 
In  1827,  she  married  the  Hon.  (3eorge  Chsppel 
Norton.    In  1831,  she  first  mrt  Lord  HeUraun^ 


then  prime-] 
snooeeded  having  ^ven  rise  to  some  acandalona 
rumours,  Ur  Norton  hioadit  an  actica  agdnat  L(»d 
Helboume,  which  resulted  in  a  verdict  l<a  the  de- 
fendant. She  died  IGth  June  1677,  after  having 
been  for  some  months  the  wife  of  Sir  W.  Stirlins 
Maxwell.  Her  chief  works  are  7%s  Sorrom  m' 
Rotalie  (1829) ;  Tlit  Undying  Om  (1830) ;  The  Chad 
of  1A«  lOrawU  (134fi) ;  8tnari  of  IhiMitalh,  a  novel 
(1847) ;  Englith  Loam  for  Womm  i»  the  NiaeltiaUA 
Century  (1854) ;  The  Lady  i^  Oarayt  (1B62) ;  L<mt 
and  Soiled,  a  novel  (1803) ;  and  Old  iSv-  I>imglam 
(1868).  Her  prose  works,  several  of  which  depict 
the  wrongs  incident  to  the  poutaon  of  women,  are 
written  with  oonaidraable  ctevoness  and  Tigbnr; 
and  her  verse,  thou^  oversbwied  and  stwy  in 
saatiment,  has  nnmerons  admirers,  sod  maiuesta 
some  degree  of  that  btilUstuy  fw  which  the  Shai- 
dans  have  been  so  famous. 

NOHWALK,  a  township  of  Connectieut,  U.  &. 
on  both  sides  of  the  month  of  Horwalk  River  and 
Long  Island  Sound,  on  the  New  York  and  New 
Haven  Railway,  4S  milca  northeast  of  New  Yoilc, 
and  31  sontb-west  of  New  Haven.  It  has  mamtfao- 
tories  of  iron,  machineiy,  hsts,  felt-doth  (of  which 
two  companies  make  500,000  yards  per  annum),  16 
chnrchea,  Jto.    FOp.  (1870}  12,119  ;  (1380)  13,95a 

NCBWAY  (Norweg.  Norge),  the  western  portion 
of  tiio  Scandinavian  peninsula,  which,  together  with 
Sweden,  forms  one  joint  kingdom,  is  situated 
between  ST  C8'  and  71'  10'  N.lak,  and  between 
5°  and  28°  E.  lon^.  It  is  bounded  to  the  £.  by 
Sweden  and  Russia,  and  en  every  other  side  is  snt^ 
rounded  by  water,  havingtiis  Skseerrak  to  the  SL, 
the  Oennan  Ocean  to  the  W',  and  ue  Arctic  Sea  to 
theN.  Itslengthisabontll00miIe8,andil>KreateBt 
width  about  2S0  miles ;  but  between  the  Ists.  of 
67*  and  6S°,  it  measure*  little  mace  than  25  milsa 
in  bread^L  The  followiiu;  table  shews  the  areas 
and  populaticna  of  the  20  kmter  into  which  N.  is 
divided,  as  given  in  tho  last  ooisns  id  jsanary 


~-. 

E^tjai- 

'Tisr 

d 

IS 

'■"! 

T,MS 
18.SM 

ii»,r7« 

lU.NS 

ioi;ht 

S3,*ai 

'¥i 

iifi.oa 
iie^sH 

wlm 

IW.IM 

i,<i7.Br 

Of  this  total,  only  332,938  live  in  towns.  At  ths 
preceding  census  on  Dec;  31,  1S6S,  the  pcjnilatioii 
was  1,701,758. 

The  Scandinavian  pemnsnla  oonaista  of  more  or 
lest  connected  mountain  masses,  which,  in  the 
southern  and  western  parta  of  S.,  constitute  one 
oontinuons  tract  of  rooky  highlands,  with  steep 
decliritiea  difmng  into  the  sea,  and  only  here  and 
ther«  broken  by  narrow  sbips  of  amble  land.  South 
<rf  Trondhjem  (63°  N.  lat),  the  ridge  expands  ovw 
nearly  the  entire  breadth  of  Ntnm,.  Thenn'thsrft 

Liui-uLj.C.oo^^lc 


portiona  of  the  lange,  known  as  tha  KjHllen  Fjelle,* 
occnpy  ft  apaoe  ol  ibont  25  nUea  in  width,  and  form, 
aa  for  norUi  as  69°,  the  bonndary-line  between 
Sweden  and  Norway.  South  of  63°  N.  lat.,  tha 
range  of  the  Scandinavian  mountaina  ii  known  ai 
tite  Konka,  or  Dovre  Fjalle,  although  tha  latter 
luuns  belongs  propsri^  only  to  the  put  immediately 
in  oontact  vm  toe  KjSIlen.  The  general  eleratioa 
of  the  Nonk*  FJelle  ooea  not  rin  above  the  line  of 
perpetiukl  mow,  nhow  avenge  bdght  in  these  lati- 
faiuaia  0000  feet;  but  it  nuisea  above  that  of  tbe 
orowth  of  bee&  which  ma^  be  stated  to  lis  1000 
leet  lower.  Only  two  oamago-roadi 
Nmka  Fjelle,  the  one  oonnectina  Christiania  'mth 
Bergen,  and  the  other  with  Troadhjem. 
Jnstedal  gUder,  in  Bergen  smti  is  the  larj 
the  eontiiltant  of  Europe,  and  eovets  an  area 
•q.  mika.  The  whole  of  the  west  coast  □] 
densely  fringed  with  islands  and  inanlated  rocky 
masses,  whuSi,  north  of  68°,  in  the  Lofoden  (q.  v.) 
^oap,  Mmme  lar^  dimeoiiona,  and  form  e^en- 
•ive  inaiilar  distnots.  ^Hie  more  important  ara 
Hindu  (357  sq.  m.,  6190  inhabitanbi),  on  the  border* 
of  Nordland  and  TromaH;  I^ngO  (147  eq.  miles, 
5812  inhab.) ;  Ktrma  (only  21  sq.  m.,  althongfa  the 
pop.  is  11,827} ;  and  Seojen  <273  aq.  m.,  with  3339 
lahab.).  To  the  south  of  the  Anden  group,  near 
the  little  islands,  Mosken  and  VarO,  occurs  that 
eddying  whiri  of  connter-cnrrents  known  to  us  as 
the  UaelstrOm ;  but  with  this  and  a  few  other 
sptions,  no  serious  ohstaclea  iiapeda  oavi- 
_  .1. ■■— mala  of  the  i '- 


gSO  miles  long,  with  a  basto  of  6657  sq.  miles},  the 
rams^T,  of  less  than  hall  the  length  and  basin. 
Tans,  J^svikel,  SkleDS,  Uagen,  and  Vormen.  These 
and  nnmerons  other  stream*  are  of  more  importance 
for  floating  down  timber  to  the  fjords  than  for 
navigation.  The  fjords  or  inlets  form  a  character- 
istia  featnre  of  KorwegiaJt  scenery,  and  give  a  coast- 
line of  upwards  of  300  miles. 

The  most  considerable  of  the  lakes  of  N.  is  the 
MjSseu,  near  Ohristiaoia ;  but  even  this  lake,  which 
in  some  places  is  more  than  1400  feet  deep,  is  scarcely 
60  milea  lon^  and  has  an  area  of  less  than  200  sq. 
miles.  Swamps  and  morasses,  which  occupy  a  large 
area,  have  vt  late  yeara  engaged  the  attention  of 
the  government,  irtiich  is  endeavonring  to  dnun  and 


for  fneL 

Climate,  S<M,  tc — The  pecnltar  physical  oharaoter 
of  N.  oeceMarily  give*  rise  to  great  varietiea  of 
climate  in  diOerent  parts  of  the  coontry.  The 
influence  ol  the  sea  atid  of  the  Gulf  Streato,  and 
the  penetration  into  the  irttatior  of  deep  uileto, 
greatly  modify  the  severity  of  the  climate,  more 
espedally  on  toe  west  ooast  Thus,  while  the  mean 
nnnaal  temperatnre  is  (or  Christiania,  on  the  east 
coast,  41*,  it  ia  46*4  Fahr.  for.  Bergen  on  the  weet 
coa*t,  which  is  only  30*  farther  north.  On  the 
coast  generally,  rain  and  ton  prevail ;  while  in  the 
regions  near  the  North  Cape^  storms  are  almost 
incessant.  In  tile  interior,  the  ur  is  clear  and  dry, 
and  the  winters  are  cold  and  the  snmmera  hot, 
while  on  the  coasts  the  opposite  oonditions  prevsjl. 
The  longest  day,  which  m  the  south  is  18  hours, 
ma^  be  said  to  be  nearly  three  months  in  Uie  high 
latitndes  of  the  northern  districts,  where  the  long^ 
night  lasts  almost  an  equal  lei^h  of  time.  The 
protracted  winter  of  the  northern  regions  follows 
almost  suddenly  on  the  disappearance  of  the  son, 
when  the  absence  of  solar  light  is  compensated  tor 
by  the  frequent  appearance  of  the  aurora  borealis, 

*  FJdU  is  the  plual  otfjtld,  a  monntallHsidcb 


which  shines  with  mffident  intensty  to  ^ow  of 
tha  prosecntion  of  ordinary  occnpations. 

It  is  estiiaated  that  ^th  of  the  area  of  N.  has 
within  the  region  of  perpetual  snow,  while  elevatioos 
exceeding  2000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  saa  an 
unfitted  for  human  habitations,  althoogh  for  a 
portion  of  the  brief  summers,  IJie  herdsmen  can 
occupy  lalre  or  huts  at  elevations  of  3000  t^t  and 
upwards.  A  Urge  extent  ot  the  mountain  districts 
yielda  no  prodace  beyond  scanty  grasses,  mosses, 
licheos,  and  a  few  hardy  berry-yialding  plants. 
Only  birch  and  juniper  grow  north  of  67°,  which  is 
the  bonnda^  of  the  pine.  The  Scotch  Fir,  Pmut 
nlvaOrit  (Korw^ian,  Fura),  and  9pruoe,  P.  abia 
(Norwegi^  Oron),  oover  erteosive  tracts,  and  with 


crops  are  not  always 
tion,  and  henoe  it  is  found  absolutely  necessary 
annually  to  import  oonsidenUe  qoaotities  of  oom 
and  potatoes.  The  trag^  peasantry  do  not,  how- 
ever, rely  wholly  upon  unportation,  but  prepare  a 
species  of  cake  or  bread  &om  the  bark  of^  the  pins 
when  com  is  scarce,  and  in  plentifnl  yean  store 
away  some  of  the  produce  of  the  harvest  in  the 
national  com-magasmes,  which  are  established  in 
every  part  of  N.  by  way  of  a  provision  for  an 
unfavoncsble  season.  Agriculture  ia  most  mooess- 
fuUy  prosecuted  in  the  amts  ot  Julaberg  and  I^ur- 
vik,  and  in  the  south  generally  ;  while  in  the 
northern  parts,  in  the  upper  valleys.  Ha  rearing  of 
catUe  constttatas  so  important  branch  of  indnstry. 
The  herds  and  flocks  are  driven  from  the  distant 


valleys,  known  as  8atsrdal&  where  they  remain 

he  approach  of  oold  weather  obliges  the  herdo- 

to  return  with  their  charges  to  uie  shelter  of 

the  farms.  Although  the  cattle  and  horses  are 
— lall,  they  are  eeaeralty  strong  and  capable  of  bear- 

;  much  hard  labour. 

Prvdvela,  dc — Fish  are  oaoght  in  almost  every 
stream  uid  lake  ot  the  interior,  as  well  as  in  tho 
Qords  of  the  coast,  and  in  the  bays  and  "t'""""!* 
inkioh  endrde  the  nnmerons  islands  skirting  the 
long  sea-line  of  Norway.  Salmon,  herring  and  ood 
are  of  tlie  greatest  importanosi  and  together  give 
occupation  to  npwards  ot  SC^OOO  men,  who  parsne 
the  herring  and  cod  fishing  in  the  sprins,  and 
urain  in  the  summer,  while  wA  is  slso  fishedin  the 


_.„ The  valaeM 

of  N.  was  nevertheless  isckaned  in 
1880  at  npwards  of  £2,600,000  per  annum.    The 

Entities  of  dried  fish,  salt-fish,  nerrings,  lobsters, 
■oil,  and  recently,  fi^-goano,  repreMuta  an  enoc* 
moos  natural  source  of  wealth.  Norwuian  ships 
also  tish  oat  of  Norwegian  waters,  nnmbers  going 
to  the  Jan  Mayen  seat  fisheries.  Ice  has  of  late 
become  a  marketable  commodi^,  and  »  valne  of 
£450,000iaannnallyexp(ntedtofiDg1and.  Nertto 
the  fisheries,  N.  derives  its  greatest  sources  of  wealth 
from  the  produce  of  its  woods,   tiiough  forestry 


cutting  down,  and  the  stormy  climate  renders  the 
growth  of  young  trees  on  the  bare  hillsides  difficult 
and  nnsatistactoiT.  But  great  quaatitiee  of  timber 
are  still  exported.  WiUiui  the  last  few  years  the 
Norw<^p«n  forests  have  yielded  a  new  [mKlact  of 
indnstnr,  known  m  wood-paste,  extensively  em< 
ployed  m  the  mannfactiire  of  pftper.        .  .  . 


The  fsumi  of  N,  indndes  the  b«M,  wolf,  lynx, 
olt  otter,  reindeer,  red-deer,  se&l,  the  eider-dock, 
and  msnv  other  kinds  of  sea-fowl,  bUckcock, 
cftpeicailzie,  and  a  great  variety  of  amall  game. 
According  to  the  cenius  of  laTS.  there  were  in  N. 
161,903  horKe,  1,016,617  homed  cattle,  1,686,306 
■heep,  322,861  goata,  101,020  gwine,  96,667  reindeer. 

The  miaeral  products  of  N.  are  not  of  great  com- 
mercial importance,  bnt  include  iron,  silver,  copper, 
cobalt,  chrome,  nickel,  and  solphur.  The  latter  two 
have  mcressed  lately ;  the  othen,  especially  iron, 
have  fallen  ofiF  for  lack  of  wood  to  work  " 
with.  The  richest  mines  are  situated  ij_  ._._ 
south,  and  chieSy  in  tiie  district  of  the  Glouunen,  as 
the  celebrated  and  an  dent  silver-works  of  Kongiberg, 


works  of  Bnskerud,  and  the  nnmerons  iron  shafts 
on  the  southern  declivities  of  the  moontains  between 
Kongsberg  and  the  Glommen.    Ifttterly,  howevt 
some  productive  copper-works  have  been  opened 
the  northern  diirtricts  of  Kaafjord  in  Fiamark. 

Ship-buildiog  in  all  its  branchea  is  almost  the 
only  mdustrial  art  that  ia  extensively  and  actively 
proeecnted.  In  many  parts  of  tbe  country  tbere  are 
absolutely  no  special  trades,  the  inhabitants  of  tbe 
■mall  fiibing-ports,  no  lees  than  the  inmates  of  the 
widely  separated  farms,  employlag  their  compulsory 
leisure  during  the  long  winter  in  wenvins,  spinning, 
and  making  Uie  articles  of  clothing  and  the  domestio 
implements  required  in  their  households. 

Trade,  dx, — The  principal  seats  of  trade  ar 
ChrtstiaDia,  Drammen,  Arendal,  Bergen,  Stavangei 
and  Troodhjem.  The  merobant  fleet  numbered,  u 
1880,  8160  vessels  of  1,511,000  tons,  manned  by 
69,000  ssamen.  In  1880,  above  9000  vessels  cleared 
the  ports  of  N.  The  eiports,  which  consist  mainly 
ol  timber,  fish,  fish-oil,  bar  iron,  copper  ore,  ice,  furs, 
feathers,  and  down  (three-fourths  of  the  whole 
value  being  for  wood  and  timber,  sawn  or  split), 
averaged  in  value  during  the  decade  1870— 18S0 
about  ^,000.000  a  year,  while  the  import*  ranged 
from  £8,000,000  to  £9,000,000.  In  1S8U  tbe  exports 
to  Great  Britain  were  £2.724,000 ;  the  imports 
thence  into  N.,  £1,253,600.  The  imports  consist  of 
colonial  goods,  objects  of  luxury,  cereals  to  the 
annual  amount  of  2,000,000  tons,  salt  in  nearly  half 
that  quantity,  fresh  and  salted  meat,  butter,  eoap, 
hemp  and  flax,  sailcloth,  tow,  oil,  wine,  tobacco, 
and  mauofactiired  goods  of  all  descriptions.  Tbe 
most  important  commercial  relations  of  S.  ore  with 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  Russia,  and  Denmark ; 
while  the  Catholic  countries  of  the  Mediterraoeau 
are  tbe  principal  nurehasers  of  smoked  and  dried  Ssb. 

Revenue,  *t— By  the  budfict  for  tbe  year  1881-82, 
the  revenne  was  estimated  at  43,701,900  kroner  (each 
worth  Is.  I  jd.),  or  about  £2,432,880,  the  eiawnditure 
being  presumed  to  equal  the  receipts.  More  than 
halt  the  revenue  is  raised  from  customs  duea.  The 
national  debt  oE  N.  amounted  in  18S1  to  £S,806,60a 
Adrninittration,  Ae. — N,  ia  divided  into  20  omta, 
or  administrative  circles,  oa  given  in  the  table  at 
page  798.  These  circles  are  subdivided  into  56  fog- 
derier  (bMliwicks),  each  presided  over  by  a  rural 
magistrate,  and  containing  in  all  446  herroder,  or 
administrative  districts,  which  have  similarly  their 
own  judicial  or  official  heads.  N,  has  a  representa- 
tive government,  based  on  the  constitution  which 
was  established  in  1614.  There  was  a  sharp  and 
continued  constitutional  struggle  as  to  the  king's 
power  of  veto  (see  below)  between  13S0  and  1SS4. 
lie  Storthing,  or  legislative  chamber,  meets  annu- 
ally, and  is  composed  of  representatives  who  are 
elected  by  deputies  who  have  been  selected  for  the 
purpose  of  nominating  the  members.  These  deputies 
are  elected    by  a  system  of   almost  unreetiicted 


universal  suK^ge,  the  only  qnaUfications  neceanwry 
being  the  attainment  of  the  age  of  26,  and  biw 
possession  of  proper^  in  land  to  the  value  of  150 

Sd.,  or  a  Sve  yeora'  tenancy  of  such  property. 
B  election  of  the  deputies  takes  place  every  tbinl 
year,  when  the  electors  meat  in  their  nspeotive 
parish  churehes,  and  choose  deputies,  whose  nnmber 
IS  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  60  voters  for  towiu,  and 
1  for  100  in  roral  districts.  These  deputiea  then 
select  from  their  own  body,  or  from  among  other 
eligible  f)eraons,  tbe  rapresentati  ves  for  the  Stwthio^ 
which  IS  further  subdivided  into  two  distinot 
chambers,  the  Lagthing  and  Odelathtng,  widi  Mtu 
farmer  of  whom  rrata  the  framing  of  legislativa  and 
finandal  measures,  and  with  the  latter  the  power  of 
rejecting  them,  and  the  right  of  ''' 


the  Storthing  receive  an  allowance  for  their  time 
and  travelling  expenses  during  the  seesion.  ^His 
Storthing  votes  the  taxes,  which  are  coUeoted  by 
officers  of  the  king  of  Sweden  and  N. ;  it  propooes 
laws,  which  must  be  ratified  by  the  king;  haX  if 
the^  pass  the  Storthing  three  times,  they  Aoqaira 
validity  even  without  the  king's  aanctiou.  Althoiuli 
N.  oonstitutes  one  joint  kingdom  with  Sweden  m 
r^rd  to  succession,  external  policy,  and  diplomacy, 
it  is  in  all  other  respects  an  independent  atate^ 
having  its  own  government,  l^islative  machinery, 
finances^  army,  and  navy.  The  sing  is  indeed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  all  the  foreea  of  ihe  coontry, 
whether  military  or  naval ;  bnt  he  can  neither 
augment  or  decrease  their  number,  nor  procJaiin 
peace  or  war  wlthont  the  assent  of  the  Norwegiaa 
Council  of  State,  which  must  conust  of  ten  members, 
natives  of  the  country ;  nor,  excepting  in  time  of 
war,  can  he  bring  foreign  soldiers  wiUiin  the 
frontiers,  or  send  native  trwpa  out  of  Norway.  In 
accordance  with  tbe  constitution,  no  title  can  be 
conferred  independently  of  the  tenure  of  ofBce,and  no 
one  can  be  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  noble ;  wh^  with 
the  death  of  the  members  of  the  few  still  sorviving 
noble  families  who  were  bom  before  1821,  all  persotuu 
'loDoors,  privileges,  and  distinctions  beknujing  to 
icbihty  will  cease.  The  constitution  may  therefore 
le  r^arded  as  purely  democratic  in  its  chaiscter. 
The  Council  of  State  constitutes  the  highest  court 
of  justice,  under  whose  jurisdiction  the  provincial 
magistrates  or  amlmaend  administer  justice,  in 
conjunction  with  the  bailifis  and  soreneh-aifr  or 
advocates,  who  preside  over  petty  mnd  courts. 
These  lower  courts  are  controlled  by  the  St^ft  or 
Diocesan  Courts  of  Justice  ;  while  tbe  latter  are,  in 
their  turn,  under  tbe  High  Court  of  Appeal,  or 
Heieate  Set,  which  is  located  at  Christiaoia 

Seliyion,  i£c. — The  Lutheran  is  the  predominant 
chureh,  to  which  all  persons  holding  public  offices 
of  trust  must  belong,  althou^  freedom  is  allowed 
to  all  other  Christian  denominations  and  to  Jewv. 
It  was  only  in  1S51  that  toleration  was  extended  to 
the  Jews,  who  were  forbidden  to  live  iu  N.  by  the 
fundamental  law.    There  are  of  course  many  pagans 
Jie  extreme  north  amongst  the  Lapps.    There  are 
bishops  at  Christiania,  Christian  sand,  Trondbj  em. 
Bergen,  Hamor,  and  Tromsii,     In  1876,  there  were 
7300  dissenters,  of   whom   2760  were   MethodisCa, 
"■"  Baptists,  500  Roman  CathoUcs,  540  Mormone, 
34  Jews.    The  clergy,  who  receive  tithes,  eier- 
conaiderable  influence  in  remote  oountiy  di». 
ts,  where  Uiey  frequently  are  called  upon  to 
settle  disputes,  and  exercise  various  judicial  func- 
tions.    Much  has  been  done  of  late  years  in  N.  for 
the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  and  provision  is  now  made 
to  extend  education  to  uie  inhabitants  of  the  most 
inaccessible  districts  by  means  of  itinerant  teachers, 
a  certain  nnmber  of  whom,  correeponding  to  the 


£dilcatioii  il  compniBorr  on  children  from  7  — 

knd  8  in  the  connti^  till  14  je*n  of  >ge.  The  nni- 
TCisity  of  Christisnu  (q.  t.),  which  vai  founded  in 
1811,  hM  about  00  piofeBeorB,  and  ii  attended  by 


..-.rttaij  edooation  withont  intending  to  toO/ow 
the  learned  profewionf. 

Emigration For  many  yean  there  has  been  ei- 

tendve  emigration  from  S.,  mainly  to  the  United 


Army  and  Ifatry. — By  the  laws  of  1866  and 
the  army  of  N.  ia  compoied  of  troop*  of  the  lines  ^^ 
military  train,  the  militia  or  LaDdevaem,  the  civic 
nurds,  and  the  Landatoim.  In  1662,  the  troops  of 
Qie  line,  -with  reterves,  numbered  40,000  men  i  '' 
760  offitxTB.  All  yoQDg  men  above  twenty-one  yc  . . 
of  age  are  liable  to  serve,  with  the  eicepldon  oC  the 
inhabitant*  of  the  three  northern  amt*  of  the 
kingdom.  The  fleet  numbered,  in  1882,  88  Tosels, 
of  which  37  were  steamers,  oartying  162  gans.  The 
navy  was  manned  by  140O  Mulws,  Dut  the  number 
of  men  liable  by  law  to  be  called  upon  for  naval 
service  in  the  maritiioe  districts  of  N.  exceeds 
26,00a  Horten,  in  Chhitiania- Fjord,  i*  the 
principal  naval  porL  The  only  fortified  spots  are 
FredericksteeD  at  Frederickihald,  f^edenckstad, 
Akershnus.Bet^nahnni,  Monkholm,  and  VardShuu*. 

The  papulation  of  S.  ia  chiefly  mral,  onlv  about 
11  per  cent.  living  in  towns.  Christiania,  the  pria- 
ci^  city,  has  TJJOOO  inhabitant,  while  Bereen  and 
TroDdhjein  have  respectively  only  34,000  and  22,000. 
The  pinrsioal  oharatner  and  oonseqaeot  cUmatio  rela- 
tions of  N.  leave  a  very  small  proportion  (according 
to  some  writers,  only  about  2j>er  cent)  of  the  area 
capable  of  being  cnlmvated.  There  are  few  viUagBi, 
and  the  isolated  farmsteads  are  often  separated  from 
one  another  by  many  mile*.  The  cultivaton  of  the 
land  at*  in  most  inataaoea  alto  the  proprietois,  leas 
than  one-third  of  the  whole  number  being  tenants 
only.  Allodial  land,  known  aa  Udal  ot  Oklel,  doea 
not  descend  to  the  ^est  aon  nnoonditdonaUy,  ainoe 
ill  hi*  relatiTei  hav«  a  chum  upon  it,  ud  if  it 
■honld  be  sold,  have  the  righA  m  bnyui^  it  b*ok 
within  the  term  of  five  yean  at  the  saU-nwe. 

Bead*,  Batbeayt,  ik.— The  public  i«aa*  Id  N.  ar« 
ezcdlent;  and  feravdling  ia  nudtred  cbe»p  aod 
aipeditioa*  by  (be  aystem  established  and  rc«;uUted 
by  law,  in  accoidanoe  with  which  carriage*  and  hortea 


are  proridod  at  Bxed  rate*  of  payment  for  travelten 
puting  throng  the  rural  dittncta  of  the  DDontrr. 
This  ^stem,  \^ieh  is  known  a* '  Skyda;' is  completely 
under  the  control  and  direction  <n  the  authoritisa, 
by  whom  the  number  of  tile  suest-bousea  and 
atations  are  regulated.  The  length  of  the  railwa;* 
in  N.  in  1882  was  about  SfiO  nules ;  the  length  of 
the  telegrai^-linM  wsa  6500  miles ;  and  the  number 
of  letters  that  pasaed  throoch  tiie  post  in  1881  wa* 
lli;54S^000. 

Mact,  lAmffuage,  <£(L— With  the  exception  of 
•cone  20,000  uppa  and  Finns,  living  in  the  moat 
mnote  northern  region^  the  inhabitant*  of  N.  are 

Snerally  a  pure  ^andinavian  race,  akin  to  Uie 
Wth  Oennanio    nation*  of  Ai^an  descent.    The 
Kennin*   Norw^iati*    are  of  middle  height,   with 
weU-knit^  mnscular  frames,   of  lair  skin, 


with  light  fiaxen  or  yellow  hair,  and  bine  eyes.  In 
character,  they  may  be  *sid  to  be  fnuik,  yet 
caatdons  and  reserved,  honest,  religions,  and  super- 
stittouB,  more  from  an  inveterate  love  of  clinging  to 
the  fonos,  thonghts,  and  creed  of  their  aDce*tor& 
than  from  fanaticism.  Their  love  of  oonntty,  a^ 
the  irrepressible  fondnes*  for  the  sea,  by  the  very 
anomaly  which  these  apparentlv  eontradictiHy  pro- 
pensiti^  exMHt,  shew  them  to  oe  the  true  descend- 
ants of  the  >evroTing  Korthmen  of  dd.  Of  late 
yean,  emignition  has  continned  tteadily  to  increaae 
at  a  rate  which  threatens  to  be  a  serious  evU  to 


of  cultivation.  Tlie  guier*l  dilhsion  of  edncation, 
aod  the  perfect  eqnaU^  and  practical  independ- 
enoe  which  they  have  known  liow  to  secure  and 
retain  for  themselves,  notwithstanding  their  nominal 
inoorporation  with  the  other  Scandinavian  kingdoms, 
give  to  the  poorest  Norweraan*  a  sense  of  self-reqieet 
and  self-reliance  which  distinguish  them  farouia^ 
from  tliose  of  the  same  dan  in  other  conDtrie& 
The  peasants,  more  eapecially  in  the  amte  ramots 
fromt  

^^^  -  -   -  ipl. 


1  towns,  retain  their  ancient  provindal  costoMie*^ 
;h  are,  for  the  most  part,  hidily  pictureaque^ 
conaistiDg,  amoDK  the  wonm,  m  ample  wooden 
ikitt*  and  bri^uj[-ooloured  knit  bodices,  fastened 
and  adorned  with  silvar  or  brass  dasps  and  buckle*. 
Unsio  i*  much  cultivated  br  all  daaaea  of  the  peojje, 
and  the  nation*]  songs  and  mdodies  which  are  the 
favourites,  are  for  the  moat  part  of  a  melanchdy 


tion  d  tlie  oountiy  from  Dsiuna^  a  strongly 
natawal  takUnoy  ha*  b«en  manifested  by  some  ot 
the  best  Nnw^tan  writers;  and  attempts  have  been 
made  to  reorganise  these  dialects  into  one  genoal 
Kivwefpan  lugnage,  and  thui^  in  &ct,  to  revive 
the  audent  Norte,  or  Icelandio,  which  baa  been 
preserved  in  Iceland  in  almoet  perfect  puii^  sines 
it*  first  introduction  to  the  ialiuid  in  the  Mb  o. 
by  odoniat*  from  the  Scandinavian  mother-koda. 
Among  the  most  lealon*  cultivators  of  the  ancient 
and  modem  literature  and  history  d  S.,  we  may 
•-- *-nce  Professor  P.  A.  Munch,  whose  able  exposi- 
of  the  laws  and  social  oon<Utions  of  his  conntry 


cnltivaton  d  the  national  lyrio ; 
J.  Moe  *nd  AsbUnwen,  ooUecton  and  snnotaton 
of  native  sagas ;  Ibsen  tiie  dramatist,  and  BjOrassn 
the  delineator  M  national  peaaant  life^  In  the  mors 
abstmae  departments  of  matbematieal  and  physical 
idiaice,  Norwc^ans  have  gdned  for  tbeiMelves  a 
'• —*,  plaoe,  aa  is  sufflcimtl:r_  testified  by  *!>" 


I.ttAbd, 

his  diacoTerica  in  definite  intwraU;  0.  Ei 
the  astronomer;  and  Kdlbau,  the  geologist. 

Bitlan/.—Tba  early  history  d  N.  ia  oompriaed  in 
that  of  the  ether  Scan^navian  counbisa,  and  ia,  like 
their^  for  the  most  part  fabdoua.  It  ia  only 
towaids  tbe  da«e  of  the  lOUi  c,  when  Ohriatiani^ 
was  infaudncsd  nnder  the  rule  d  Olaf  L,  that  the 
mythical  obscuii^  in  which  the  annals  d  the 
kingdom  had  been  preTionalj[  plunged  b^na  to 
give  place  to  the  li^t  d  historioal  tauth. 

The  introductim  of  Christiani^,  whieb  was  the 
rMult  d  tiie  inteioourae  which  the  Norwegians  bad 
with  the  mon  cmliaed  parts  d  Ennipe  throogh 
meditions,  destroyed  mndi  d  toe 


.(jSoglc 


HOaWAY— NOEWICH. 


tboir  toodty  mider  tha  amj  of 

Olmf  IL,  or  tba  Sunt  (1010—1030),  iriio  EMlooily 
poMcoted  Uie  oonvenion  of  bii  oonntiTiiMn,  nwwd 
UnueU  to  tupreme  poww  in  ths  kud  by 
itOiea  of  tiw  mull  Una  or  ohMft..!!^  ^I 

ciaw*  of  hMthemmi  lud  nbdivided  the 

■moM  tbem.     Tba  war  batween  OU  and 

Snodtlw  GiMt  of  Dannuu^  whioli  tmnina 

1030  with  tha  batUe  of  SticUettad,  ia  irtiich  ths 
fbtmB  waa  alain,  brooght  N.  niidB  Uie  away  dl  tha 
Sanidl  conqneTor;  but  at  hii  death  in  1038,  Olaf* 
flon,  Hagnof  L,  Noorersd  poasaMon  of  tha  thnma, 
mad  thenoeforth,  till  1319,  N.  oonliimed  to  be 
gorenad  by  native  kin^L  The  death  in  that  year 
of  Hakon  T.  without  male-bein^  threw  the  deo- 
tion  of  a  new  king  into  tha  hmiii  ol  tha  natioiud 
MMmbly,  who,  after  many  diaotuHona,  made  ohoioe 
of  Hagnna  TIIL  of  Swaden,  tiia  Km  of  Hakon'a 
^angfatar.  Ha  was  in  tnin  auooeeded  t^  hi*  aan 
Hakon,  and  hia  gnndacm  Olaf  IV^  who  haTins  been 
•leeted  king  of  pennuwk  in  1S76,  bedanw  loLw  of 

li^  b^ier  in  ISM  Ihii  yonng  king^  who  eswdaed 
onfy  a  nominal  aw^  under  tlia  gaidaikoa  <i  hii 
ttwher  Qnewi  Hargant,  the  only  diUd  of  Val- 
dmarlllof  Deunarfc,  died  witkoot  hdn  in  1337- 
Hanarafa  bre  of  power  and  o^adlr  for  goTern- 
Bnt  bcoo^  aboBt  her  eleotion  to  the  triple  throne 
of  tha  Soandinaviui  landa,  and  from  thia  period  till 
U14,  M.  tontiniud  nnited  with  Denmark  ;lHit  while 
it  ahand  in  the  geneial  f  tntnnea  of  Oe  latttt  rtate, 
it  retained  ita  own  oonaBtntiopal  modo  <4  govern- 
tamA,  and  exennaed  iti  right  of  electing  to  the 
ttcm^  nntil,  like  tha  ■tter-kingdom,  it  agreed  of 
Hi  own  free  will  to  lelinqniih  thii  priTiI^e  in 
favonr  of  hevaditary  anaotaaum  to  the  umme.  See 
DmnuBK,  Hdiobt  ot.  The  Kqwleonio  oriaie  nuy 
be  aaid  to  hare  aereied  thb  nniMi,  iriiidi  had  enatea 
for  more  than  40O  yaan,  for  DcomaA,  after  having 
given  nnaqnivooal  praofi  ol  adheajan  to  tha  oauaa 
of  BoDaparta^  waa  compdlad,  aftw  tha  diaaatioDB 
war  of  1813,  to  pnnhaae  peaoe  at  the  ooat  of  thia 
long  united  partDcr  <rf  hit  atata^  Ci^ipled  in  her 
Md  almoat  a  banknqit^  aho  aaw  heraall 


nainiN.  to 
:  indemnity, 
and  the  nh 


to  fimden,  reeaiving  in  letnni, 
onie  poitii»  of  Swediih 
d  of  RUgen,  which  were 
with  Pravia  for  Lanen- 


bawon  th_ 

liz-doQara.  The  Horw^pana,  having  tafnaed  to 
admit  ttie  validity  of  the  treaty  of  Kiel,  uamnated 
Frinoe  Oirirtian,  ttw  bdr-praatonptiTB  to  the 
ttrone  of  Deanurk,  regent  and  anbaeqnently  king 
cf  Norww^  Thie  nomination  waa  imtde  by  the 
national  wet,  or  BtOTthing,  iriiiah  met  at  Ejdavold, 
when  thej  dmr  np  a  omiatitiition  baaed  m  tiia 
Ftandi  ceoetitotimi  <£  179L  Theae  meaiorei 
frand,  bowaver,  ndtber  anpporten  nor  winpathieere 
among  the  otbw  nationa ;  and  witii  ib»  aanction 
of  tba  gnat  allied  povata,  Charlea  John  Bema- 
dotte,'  (>own-Prinoa  of  Sweden,  led  an  anny  into 


bud,  threatened  Chriitiam&i  Denmark  being  nnable 
to  enpport  the  eanae  of  Frinoe  Chriatian,  and  N. 
being  ntterij  deatitate  of  the 


ttem  by  Qm  Swedith  king  for  a  onion  with  Sweden, 
en  the  tandetatandiua  tiiat  Hay  ahonld  retain 
tba  neiriy  promolgatM — ■""  " 


liberir  and  independanoa  within  their  own  Immi^ 
ariea.  Thtaa  conditioni  wore  apeed  to,  and  atrietly 
niainbuned;  a  few  — ' ' — '  -" — '-■— -  —  ^'-  - 


the  new  "T*i"n^  being  tba  only 
the  machinery  of  govenunei 


intro^tcad 

.__„     _  „ — iriea  Zm. 

waa  deolamd  jout  king  <rf  Swedai  and  N.  in  18U; 
and  while  tba  latter  hw  beoonu  an  ahnoat  inde- 
___>__.  ■  t^  it  ia  qneatim^da  whether  the  foniMr 
D  ite  n™'"*!  aoqoistion  an  eqnfvaleat 


pmdant  atat^  it  ia  qnaatim^de  whether  the  foniMr 
haa  found  in  ite  """'"'i  aoqoistion  i 
but  the  loai  of  Finland,  which  waa  the 


for  U  by  tiie  allied 


N.£aaa 


npon  the  oonititatioaal  pretiwativea  of  ' 

and  dnrinK  the  rei^n  of  the  mat  of  the 

dynaetj,  Qie  Mlatuma  batween  him  and  hia  Kor- 
wegim  aobjeota  were  marked  by  laalonay  and  dia- 
brut  on  boUi  aideai  boti  rince  hu  oeeth,  the  pec^pla 
generally  have  beM  mon  oontaoted,  and  n.  haa 
continued  to  make  pnw^aa  in  political  aecnrity  and 
material  pnaperity.  A  liwg  conbovttay  as  to  the 
royal  veto  between  the  king  and  the  pt^inlar  par^ 
aa  bnm^  to  a  criaia  in  ISS^  wben  the  unpopalar 
liniaterB  wen  aolemnly  ''"p«yh'vl.  tried,  and 
dicmiaaed. — See  Thoriak,  Hialoria  rerum  jforvegi- 

irum  (1711) ;  Munch,  Dti  NarAe  FoWa  Sittork, 

Tola.  <18G2— 1863). 

HORWAT  HADDOCK.    See  BzaaTLT. 

NO'BWIOH,  a  ci^  of  BngUnd,  MpiUl  of  the 
ooun^  of  Norfolk,  and  a  wnuitT  in  itadf,  on  tha 
Wenanm,  immediately  above  ita  conflnenoe  with  die 
Yare,  SO  milca  west  <i  Yarmoath,  and  114  mika 
nortb-n<n4h-eBrt  of  Iiondon.  It  oovom  an  ana 
about  five  milea  in  drmimferenoat  ia  akirtad  aa>  it* 
north  and  eatt  ddsa  by  the  river,  and  on  the  weat 
and  aoDth  it  waa  foimeriy  anrrOQiidad  bv  wa]l%  t^ 
laatveatigea  of  which  have  been  leoantly " 


room  tot  the  axtansion  of  tha  dtj. 
Tha  market-pboe  (600  feet  long  by  340  feet  widd 
latA  its  vioint^  contain  many  large  abopa  *«^  good 
m.  The  oaatk,  findy  ntoat^  on  an  elevntian 
the  oantn  <d  the  town,  originally  oovvred, 
ite  wu^  an  area  of  dMut  23  acrea.  The 
bridge  (IMfeet.long)  over  the  ditch  haa  one  of  tha 
largMt  and  moat  perfect  Anglo-Norman  anhaa 
■ML  I  maaaiva  quadrangular  Norman  keep 
prison.  ^eoa^Mial,  almoat  irtinl^ 
Ninman  in  plan,  was  founded  in  1094  by  Biahop 
Herbert  Loonga.  It  ia  411  feet  lona  191  feet 
broad  at  the  transepta,  and  ia  lannanntea  by  a  wpm 
SIS  feet  hifdt.  Near  tiia  eatbednl  ai«  a  nnmb^  v£ 
and  intereatina  atmcturea   now  mora  or 

Torm,  amimff  nich  may  be  men 

Bthelbart^B  and  the  Bipin^iam  Gat^  tha 
"iah,  the  latter  in  late  pBin 

— leandriohapedmenaof  tn 

large  number  cd  diaafinling  chapeb  — *^ 
other  placea  c?  WMahih  there  are  about  40  dunohea^ 
of  iriuck  St  Pater^  Haaoroft,  a  handaome  oruca- 
form  edifice  of  the  Isth  c,  with  a  retnarkaMy  fin« 
mal  of  12  bells;  St  Andrew'a,  St  Clemoit'^  St 
Oaorse'%  St  OiIe%  St  Hiohael'a,  and  other*,  ara 
worthy  of  mention.  The  Free  Grammar  SebocJ, 
with  an  endowment  lit  about  £300  a  vear,  wan 
founded  by  Edward  Tl,  and  the  other  edncataoan] 
aataUiahmenta  aia  nMmerona  and  yacioaa  in  char- 
acter. The  public  libraiy  oontaioa  SO.OOO  vdamea. 
and  the  libnuy  of  the  Norwich  Ueiary  Inabtotion, 
26,000  valnmaa.  N.  ia  the  aeat  of  eztoiaiTa  and 
flouriahiug  manu&ctnna,  the  diief  of  irtiiA  are 
muBtard,    ataioh,    banduua,    bomhaiiue*,    duml% 


ivGooi^Ic 


NORWICH— KOSE,  AND  THE)  SENSE  OW  aWTT.T. 


ttuminib  dy«ii]^  mtdtiii);,  £0.,  and  oKnoiUtaial 
implemeat-makiD^  are  alio  carried  on.  The  trade 
it  chiefly  In  agnoaltiiral  produce  and  coaL  N,, 
■whioh  is  the  see  of  a  biihop,  returns  two  members 
to  parliament  One  of  the  members  was  anBeated 
-on  petition  in  1875,  and  no  new  writ  was  iained  till 
1880.   Pop.  (1871)  80,336;  (1881)87,841 

About  dree  miles  south  ot  N.  ia  Castor  St 
Ednirnds,  which,  prior  to  the  Boman  era,  waa  oalled 
Ouster,  and  nnder  the  Bumm^  receiTed  the  name 
of  Venta  Icai&ntm.  N.,  which  oconpiea  a  pUoe  in 
hiitorj  from  the  time  (rf  the  earlier  Danith  invadona, 
had  its  origia  in  the  caatle  enotAd  as  a  stron^iald 
bv  the  Eiat  Anglian  kinn,  and  reaorisd  to  aa  a 
puoeotnfetyt^th*  inhabitant  of  Faita  leatorwn, 
who  gftTB  it  the  iiaaM  of  Noith-wic,  or  nartkeni 
atatton  or  town,  on  aooonnt  of  its  relative  position 
with  mpwt  to  their  own  town.  The  bishopric 
of  th*  am  Angles  waa  nrnoyed  hither  in  1094. 

Abont  4000  FlemingB  settled  at  N.  ■-  **-  — = ' 

ElizabeUi,  aad  g-"*'-  ;— — '  •>. 
the  town  by  t£ 
they  introduced. 

NOBWIOH,  a  city  ot  Connecticat,  U.  E,  at  the 
head  of  navigstion  ^  the  Thames  ^ver,  13  milee 
north  of  New  London,  and  3S  sonth-eaat  of  Hart- 
ford. The  chief  portion  o£  the  dty  li 
eminence  that  rises  between  the  Yantio 
tnoket  riven^  which  here  unite  to  form  the  Thames. 
There  are  nameroos  maonfaotorieB  of  cotton,  wool, 

Eaper,  Ik.,  which  are  supplied  with  water-powei 
yfalliirfSOteetoatlieTantialUTeT.  N.  contaiM 
oomtty  boildin^  7  bsoka;  1  daily  and  3  weekly 
papen,  16  chnrcbea,  40  pnblio  and  S  private  schools, 
and  a  free  academy.  N.  waa  settlea  in  1659,  when 
9  sq.  m.  were  bouaht  for  £70  of  TTni;M,  an  Indian 
chiat,  whose  grave  IS  in  the  dty.  Pop.  (1380)  16,112. 
NORWICH  or  HAMMALIFESOUS  CRAG, 
*  loiee  of  hi^y  foniliferoiu  beds  ot  sand,  loam, 
Mid  gr»Tel,  of  Fleistooene  ace,  occurring  at  several 
pUoea  within  a  tsw  miles  ot  Norwieh,  wheia  tiiey 
are  popularly  named  *Cr«a.'  They 
tore  of  marin*  and  freui-w*ter  1 
iehthyolitea  and  bones  ot  mammalia.      They 


tly  eetoary  beds,  the  most  oommon  ahella 
being  uie  very  species  now  abundant  in  snch 
Ktnationa  around  the  coasts  of  Britain ;  but  with 
them  are  aaiociated  a  few  extinct  species.  The  beds 
rest  on  the  white  chalk,  the  sorfaee  of  which  ia 
fieqaently_  perforated  by  Ptiaku  criipaia,  the  shell 
still  remaining  at  the  bottom  of  the  cavi^.  The 
mammalian  Iwnee  belons  to  species  of  dephant, 
hoite,  pis,  Ama,  and  Sela-mansei  With  them  are 
oecaaunuJlyfoond  die  bones  irfJfiutodoitanTustidnu 
and  tome  mollnsca,  which  belong  to  the  Bed  Orag. 
Thar  ooonrrence  here  ia  beliend  to  have  arisen 
from  their  havii^  been  waahed  out  of  the  Bed  into 
this,  the  Norwich  Crag. 
NOTtWOOD,  npF«R  a 


1  Surrey,  En^ud,  with  a  si 
"  ^  Croydon  Kailwa 
lubUo  p' 


:dLomEii,ar 


twovillu^ 
the  Lon£in 
and  Croydon  ~llailway,  6  miles  south  of  London. 
^M  pnbuo  pleasure-grauiid,  called  the  BeoUh  Spa, 
■I  prettily  uid  out  a^'ound  a  mineral  spring  The 
viluges  are  worthy  of  mention,  however,  chiefly  on 
account  of  their  schools,  among  which  are  a  district 
Bobool  for  the  pauper  children  of  I^mbeth  parish, 
and  a  vei?  luve  and  important  edncatiootd  estab- 
lishment for  the  pauper  children  of  London.  The 
district  parish  of  N. liad,  in  I8T1,  a  population  of 
12,&38;  (1881)  19,017. 
NOSB,  AND  THE  SENSE  OF  SMELL.  Th* 
not  only  the  organ  of  smell,  but  is  likewise  a 


eztanial  part — the  projeotina  portion,  to  iriiioh  the 
term  noM^  is  popularly  reetnoted ;  and  an  internal 
pari^  consisting  of  two  chief  cavities,  of  imsoI  /once, 
sepmted  from  one  another  by  a  vmtical  septnin, 
and  subdivided  by  spongy  or  tnrbitiatEd  bones 
projecting  from  the  onter  wall  into  tht«e  passages  or 
DteoAuM,  with  which  various  cells  or  siniMss  in  the 
ethmoid,  sphenoid,  frontal,  and  superior  maxillary 


Fig.  L— A  I^m^jtodilul  Section  of  the  Kual  Fosss  ot 
the  Left  Sde,  the  Central  Septnm  being  removed; 
tb*  trontsl  ton*  1  1,  the  Dual  boos ;  S,  put  d  tfa*  MhoioU 
b«n« ;  1,  tha  ipheDoLdAl  ilno^  >,  tlu  lupcrlar  tarbbutsd 
bone :  A,  Um  nipertor  mMtu ;  s,  th*  laiddls  turblosteil  bone ; 
di,  tk>  mlddls  maliu;  *,  tha  inTolar  toiblnuad  banei 
/;  tbg  InterlH  mektni ;  gf,  a  pteba  jaustd  lau  tb*  nsMU 

The  external  portion  of  this  otg/ai  may  be  des- 
cribed as  B  triangolar  pyramid  which  projects  from 
the  centre  of  the  faoe,  immediately  above  the  upper 
lip.  Its  snmmit  or  root  ia  oonneoted  with  the  lore- 
head  by  mean*  of  a  narrow  bridge,  formed  on  either 
side  by  the  nasal  boniB  and  the  nasal  prooen  of  the 
snperioT  maxillaiy  bone^  Its  lower  part  mesents 
tiro  hoiisontal  eUiptical  openings,  the  tiotlrut,  whidi 
overiuns  the  month,  and  are  separated  from  one 
another  by  a  vertical  septnin.  1&  margins  ot  the 
nostrils  are  nsnally  provided  with  a  nnmW  of  stiff 
hairs  (niMMts),  which  project  across  t^  opening 
and  serve  to  airest  the  passage  of  foreiga  substances, 
snch  aa  dust,  small  insects,  six,  which  nught  other- 
wise be  drawn  npwith  the  current  ot  air  intended 
for  respiration.  The  skeleton,  or  framework  of  tbo 
nose^  IS  partiy  composed  of  the  bones  formilw  the 
top  and  sides  of  the  bridss  smd  ^lartly  of  oari&seg^ 
th«ra  being  on  eitber  nde  an  appw  lateral  and  a 
lower  lateral  cartilage,  to  the  latter  of  which  are 
attaobed  threa  a-  four  small  oartilag^nons  ^tesi, 
termed  smsmnid  cartila^j  there  is  also  tbe 
oaitilage  of  the  septum  which  separates  the  nostrils, 
and  in  assooistiou  potrterioriy  witii  the  petpeudioular 
plate  of  the  ethmoid,  and  mth  the  vomer,  tomu  a 
complete  partition  between  the  lidit  and  left  nasal 
foesn.  It  is  tha  lower  lattnL  termed  by  some 
writers  the  alar  cartilage,  which  by  ita  flexibili^ 
and  curved  shape  forms  the  dilatal^  ohamhar  jnst 
within  the  noebii  The  nasal  oartilages  are  capable 
of  being  slightly  moved,  and  the  nostrils  of  being 
dilated   or   contiaoted  by  — ' " '-' 


natomiaally,  it  may  be  divided  ii 


ot  these  follioles  often  beoomea 
the  surface ;  and  henoe  tlie  spotted  ^peenmoe 
which  the  tip  and  lower  parts  of  the  side^  or  tda,  ot 
the  nose  frequently  ptesenL  On  firmlv  ownpressing 
"'  riimhi^g  the  "^i"  ot  thcae  puts,  the  inspisBatea 

J 


K08E,  Am)  THE  SENSE  OF  SMin.i. 


•ecretion  b  foroed  ont  of  tba  foUiclGi  in  tiie  fivm.  of 
uinnte  vbite  wormi  with  black  hesda. 
The  natal  fouc^  whioh  ooiutitute  the  inteni&l 

wt  irf  the  DMe,  are  loftv,  and  of  coDuderabls  depth. 
They  open  in  front  by  the  aoetrils,  and  behiad  Uiey 
terminate  by  a  reitical  sht  cm  either  side  in  the 
npper  part  of  the  pharynx,  above  the  toft  palate, 
and  near  the  orifices  of  the  eiutaahian  tubes,  which. 
proceed  to  the  tympanic  eavitj^  of  the  ear. 

The  tnoooua  membrane  limng  the  nose  and  its 
cantiea  ii  called  pUnilaiy  (Cat.  piluUa,  b 
rheum),  from  the  nature  of  ita  secretion . 
Sdmeiderian,  from  Schneider,  the  firat  anatomist 
who  shewed  that  the  secretion  proceeded  from  the 
mucous  membrane,  and  not,  aa  was  previously 
imagined,  from  the  brain ;  it  ia  contiDuoiie  with  the 
akin  of  the  face  at  the  nostrils,  with  the  macoua 
oorering  of  the  eye  throngh  the  lachrymal  duct 
(see  Eye],  and  with  that  of  the  pharynx  and  middle 
eai  posteriorly.  This  membrane  varies  in  ita 
•tonctni«  in  tfiSerent  part*  of  the  organ.  On  the 
i^tom  and  apoiigy  Donea  bouoding  tiie  d" "' 
paasage  ^m  uie  luwtrils  to  the  throat,  the  I 
membrane  is  campaiatiTcly  thick,  partly  in  or 
qoence  of  a  multitude  of  glands  beina  disseminated 
fietieatli  it,  and  cqMning  npon  it,  but  chieQj,  perhaps, 
from  the  presence  of  ample  and  capacious  aabmncou« 
plexuaea  of  both  arterie*  and  veins,  of  which  the 
latter  are  by  far  the  more  large  and  tortuous. 
These  plexuses,  lying  as  they  do  in  a  region  exposed 
more  xbtn  any  other  to  external  cooling  inBuencee, 
appear  to  be  designed  to  promote  the  warmth  of  the 
piui,  and  to  olevate  the  temperature  of  the  air  on 
Its  passage  to  the  luogft.  Thev  also  serve  to  explain 
the  tendency  to  hemorrhage  Ironi  the  nose  in  cases 
of  general  or  local  plethora.  In  the  vicinity  of  the 
nostrils,  the  macoua  membisne  exhibits  papills  and 
a  scaly  epitheliom,  bke  the  corresponding  parts  of 
the  skin.  In  the  sinuses,  and  in  all  the  lower  region 
of  the  nose,  the  epithelium  is  of  extreme  delicai^, 
being  of  the  columnar  variety,  and  clothed  with  ciha. 
In  toe  upper  thitd  of  the  nose — which,  as  the  proper 
seat  of  the  sense  of  smell,  may  be  termed  the 
offadory  region— the  epithehom  ceases  to  be  ciliated, 
aasnmes  a  more  or  less  rich  aienoa-browQ  tint,  and 
increases  remarkably  in  thickness,  so  that  it  forms 
an  opaque  soft  pulp  u^n  the  siurffice.  It  is  com- 
posed of  an  aggregation  of  nucleated  particles,  of 
nearly  uniform  appearance  throoghout,  except  that 
Uie  lowest  ones  are  of  a  darker  colour  than  the 
rest,  from  their  containing  a  brown  pigment  in 
thor  interior.  Dr  Todd  and  Mr  Bowman  remark, 
in  their  Phytiohgkal  Analom!/,Sroni  which  we  have 
condensed  the  above  acconnt  oC  the  nasal  mucous 
membrane,  that  the  olfactory  rwion  abounds  in 
glands,  apparentlj'  identical  with  sweat  glands, 
which  dip  down  m  the  recesses  of  the  snbmncous 
tissue   among  the  ramifications   of   the   olfactory 

The  nerves  of  the  nose  are  the  first  pair  or  olfac- 
tory which  are  specially  connected  with  the  sense 
of  smell,  branches  of  the  fifth  pur  which  oonfer 
ordinary  sensibihty  on  ita  skin  and  mucoos  mem- 
brane, and  motor  filaments,  from  the  facial  nerve 
to  the  nasal  muscles^  The  olfactory  nerve  on 
each  side  is  connected  with  the  inferior  surface 
of  the  Brain  (q.  v.)  by  an  external,  a  middle,  and 
an  internal  root,  which  unite  and  form  a  flat 
band  (or,  more  correctly,  a  prism),  which,  on 
reachii^  the  cribriform  plate  of  the  etiimoid  bone, 
expands  into  an  oblong  mass  of  grayish-white 
subBtanc&  the  oi/actorj/  bulb.  From  the  lower 
surface  of  tliis  bulb  are  given  off  the  cyaclory 
JSiamailt,  fifteen  or  twenty  in  number,  iriiich  pass 
throngh  the  cribriform  foramina,  and  are  distri- 
buted to  the  mucona  memtmuia  of  the  olfactot; 


T^on.  These  filament  differ  essentially  from 
the  indinaiy  oerebral  nerves.  They  contaui  no 
wUte  labetanoe  of  Schwann,  are  not  diviaiU«  into 


Fig.  iL— The  Distribation  ot  Ihs  Olfactory  Sem  on  tta 

Septum  of  the  Nose  : 
],  th*  frontal  >lnn> ;  9,  the  null  bona ;  4,  the  ■phauslitii  limi 
or  Irtt  tide ;  T.  Ilia  poiLcrdor  opening  or  tha  Ictt  nouril :  S,  tb* 
opening  of  Iba  Eoatublali  nba:  t,  a  aeethiB  itf  tke  aiiB 
naiiia;  10,  ■  atiiUDn  of  tha  hard  paliu.  s,  tba  oUieun 
Ii  t,ita  Ihre* mqtaiclU  bulb,  ftom  wUali  HIimbiiii 


prooHd  downwarda  thnniEfa  tha  eribrltarm  plate  at  tha 
ethianld ;  d,  (ta*  oanU  braaob  tnm  tba  opfathaliBla  iHiMwiJ 
thaHnb  narre;  •,  tha naao-nalHlna narre ftwa  ih»  aph»B 
pilaUua  gufUiin )  ; ,  t,  ici  hrsodiMi  i,  Iba  aaptom  at  tba 

elementary  fibnlte,  and  resemble  the  gelatdnons  Bbtta 
in  being  nucleated,  and  of  a  finely  gtaanlar  texture. 
Tb»  branches  of  the  fifth  pair  (or  trifacial)  giTea 
a  the  nose  are  the  nasal  nerve  (derived  fnan  tba 
iphthalmio  division),  which  suppUes  the  alda  and 
uuoouB  membrane  in  tiie  vicimty  of  the  noabila; 
and  the  naso-palatine  nerve  (derived  from  Meeker* 
ganslion,  which  is  connected  with  the 
maxillary  division),  which  supplies  the 
membrane  on  the  spongy  bones  and 
The  I      "  ■■       "    ■ 


of  the  naaoi  nerve,  and  the  flow  at 

rs  that  accompanies  a  severe  fit  of  eaeeziag  is 

ilained  by  the  common  aoorce  of  tbia  and  tbft 

...  hrymal  nerve;  while  the  common  eenaibility  of 

the  nose,  generally,  is  dne  to  tJie  brandies  of  tli;^ 

and^of  the  naso-puatine  nerve. 

ai  odorous  emanations  is  ao  littl« 
known,  that  it  is  iroposaible  to  give  a  definite 
acoount  of  the  mode  in  which  they  produce  aeoBory 
ipressions.  From  the  tact  that  most  odorona 
ibstancea  are  volatile,  and  viet  vartd,  it  taxy  bo 
presumed  that  they  consist  of  particles  of  ex* 
minntenesa  dissolved   in   the  air  ;    yet  the   . 

delicate  experiments  have  failed  to  discover j 

loss  of  weight  in  musk,  and  other  strongly  odorooa 
substances,  after  they  have  been  fredy  evolvinz 
their  efBuvia  for  several  years.  But  wha.teTcr 
may  be  the  nature  of  the  odorous  matter,  it  is 
nec^saiy  that  it  should  be  transmitted  hy  a 
respiratory  current  through  the  nostrils  to  the  trae 
olfactory  region,  whose  membrane  must  be  in  > 
healthy  coamtion.  If  it  is  too  dry,  or  if  tiiere  is  an 
inordinate  excretion  of  fluid  from  its  anrfsce  (both 
of  which  conditions  occur  in  catarrh  or  cold  in  the 
head),  smell  is  impaired  or  los^  in  ccHueqiienee 
of   the  necessary  penebatJon  of   the  atitnnlfttdDs 


wGuu^L 


N03£-BINQ— N03T£ADAMUa 


in  many  of  the  lowar  uunula  (doK>i  tor  example) 
than  in  man,  and  they  employ  it  in  guiding  them  to 
their  food,  in  warniag  them  of  approaching  danger, 
and  for  other  puipoeeK.  To  civiluied  man  it«  atiCtv 
ia  compM«tively  Bmall ;  but  it  u  occwionaUr  much 
inereued  vhea  other  aenaei  are  defident.  In 
the  weU-knowu  case  of  James  Mitchell,  who  waa 
deaf  and  blind  from  hii  birth,  it  waa  the  principal 
means  of  Hij<t'"g"**^'"g  perwna,  and  enaolcd  him 
at  once  to  perceive  t£e  approach  of  a  Btnuiger. 
Amongst  many  savage  tribes  the  aensa  is  almost 
•a  aoate  as  in  man^  of  the  lower  Tnammttl.  Far 
example,  the  Peruvian  Indians  are  able,  according 
to  Humboldt,  to  distingiiisli,  in  the  middle  of  the 
nighty  whetlier  an  a^roaching  atranger  ia  a  Enro- 
*  — '-  -  IndiaJi,  or  Negro. 


AltlioagliaU 
ill  bad  Monu 


may  not  be  positively  deletenons 
to  health,  there  can  be  no  donbt  th^  one  ol  the 
^indpal  objects  for  which  the  sense  of  imell  is 
^ven  to  ns  ia  to  enable  ns  to  detect  atmospheric 
mipurittei^  many  of  which  are  of  a  most  nonoiu 
character,  and  gjve  rise  to  the  most  sedons  fomw 

irOSE-BINa.    See  Reno. 

NOSING,  tiie  projecting  edge  of  a  moulding.  Inch 
as  the  bead  or  bottle  need  on  the  edge  of  Btepa,  to 
which  the  term  is  moat  frequently  ap^ed. 

KOSOXOOT  (Or.  nBtik,  disease]  is  that  bnnch 
of  the  soienoe  of  medicine  which  treats  of  tJie 
distribution  fad  amngement  of  diseaaee  into 
clswcs,  ordtts,  &«.  Many  eysteins  of  nosology 
have  at  different  times  been  adopted;  some  of 
which  have  been  based  upon  the  natora  of  the 
uoertsined  caoses  of  disease*;  others  on  the 
pathtdcgical  states  or  conditions  which  attend 
aiaeaaea ;  othen  on  the  diSerences  between  struc- 
tunl  and  ftmctiooal  diseases,  tus.  It  is  bard  to 
say  which  is  the  most  perfect  method ;  hat  that 
of  Dr  Fair,  one  of  the  most  distin^uiBhed  livinx 
medical  statists,  is  adopted  by  the  &es>stiai^  General 
''  the  Beports  on  the  mortality  of  London  and 


antiquated  bnt  once  popular  system  of  Cmllen  (1792) 
of  meeting  the  requirements  of  modeni  sdence,  and 
(by  illustrating  great  questions  oonnected  with 
publio  health)  oE  shewing  tiutsa  cause*  that  arc 
injurions  or  fatal  to  life,  and  of  thns  oonbibnting  to 
the  removal  of  those  evils  (bad  drainage,  impertect 
ventilation,  tc)  which  tend  to  shwten  Duman 
existence. 

We  append  Dr  Fan'a  syvtem  of  nosology,  which 
is  amuiged  in  fonr  primary  classes,  each  of  which 
indades  varioos  orders : 

Claeb  L  Zthotio  DisxABza  (Gr.  tymt,  a  fennent). 
—Diseases  that  an  eitlier  epidemic,  endemic,  or 
oontsgioos,  and  that  are  induced  by  some  spetjfio 
body,  or  by  want  of  food  or  by  its  bad  quality.  In 
this  olaSB  there  are  four  orders — viz..  Order  L 
Miamiaiie  Diieam*  (Gr.  miatnut,  a  stain),  soch  *■ 
small-pox,  measles,  scarlet-fever,  diphtberia,  ^phos 
and  ^phoid  fovera,  cholera,  ague,  ka.  Order  IL 
StUhaie  Dittatu  (Qr.  en^iitc*,  pnt  in  or  implanted], 
such  as  syphilis,  gonorrlicea,  glanders,  hydniphobia, 
mahgnant  pustule,  jtc  Order  IIL  I>klie  VittMU 
(Or.  diaila,  way  of  liFe  or  diet],  snch   as  famine, 

fever,  scurvy  " ' 

tremens,  ha. 

scabies  (or  itch),  and 

parasites,   and   ring-worm,   scald-head,    &c,   from 

vncetable  parasiteB  or  fuogt 

CI.ABS  IL  CoNM'iTUTiOHAi,  DiSBASis. — Disesse* 
affecting  several  organs,  in  which  new  morbid 
products  are  often  depoaited ;  sometimes  bereditaiy. 


This  class  contains  two  orders.  Order  L  Diaiiie^ 
Dittaaa   (Gr.   duMSin*,  condition  or  constitotion), 

including  gout,  awenia,  cancer,  melanosis,  lapns,  Ac. 
Order  IL  Tvbereular  Ditaua,  soch  as  scrofula, 
phthisis,  mesenteric  disease^  tubercular  meningitis, 

Cusa  IIL  LooAL  Diseases.— Diseases  in  which 
the  functions  of  particular  organs  or  systems  are 
disturbed  or  obliterated  with  or  without  inflamma. 
tion  ;  sometimes  hereditary.  This  class  includes 
eight  orders.  Order  L  Braia  Diteate*  (or  more 
correctly,  Biteati  of  lAs  Narvoa*  Syitem),  soch  as 
apoplexy,  paralysis,  epilepsy,  chorea,  hysteria, 
mania,  Ita.  Older  IL  Heart  Diaeatt*  (at  more 
oorrecUy,  Dueaaa  of  Uut  Oireuialory  Sytlan),  sudi 
as  pericarditis,  endocardltia,  aneurism,  angina  pec- 
tons^  atheroma,  phlebitis,  Tsricose  vdns,  Sk.  Order 
in.  £unji'i)M«a«e((ormoteoorrectly,Z)i«ease>0/fAe 
Bt^nralory  Sytlmt,  snoh  as  bronchitis,  pneumonia, 
rlenriqr,  astluna,  emj^emo,  laryngitis,  io.  (Mer 
IV.  Soioel  Diteaaa  {la  mora  corrn^y,  Ditaua  of 
fft«  i>uM(n>e  $|f(teni),  such  as  stomatitis,  nstritis, 
aiteritu,  peritonitis,  jaundice,  Ac.  Order  T.  KiA- 
««3/  Dimtttt*,  such  as  Bright's  disease^  nephritis, 
isumritk  dii^tetes,  stone,  gravel,  Ac.  Order  VL 
Om^ie  Dittfuea  (or  Diteata  of  the  OeneraUve  System), 
sndi  OB  hydrocele,  ovarian  droosy,  &a  Ord^  VIL 
^ons  and  Jtiucle  Diataaa,  such  as  caries,  necrosia, 
exostosis,  synovitis,  muscular  atrophy,  Ac.  Older 
VnL  Sldii  Diwaaa,  such  as  urticaria,  eczema, 
herpes,  impetigo,  acne,  lichen,  prurigo,  Ac; 

CiAsa  Iv.  DKVELOPMK\-rAi.  DiaKASBa.— Special 
diseasee;  tho  incidental  result  of  the  formative, 
reproductive,  and  nutritive  processes.  It  oontoins 
tour  orders.  Order  L  Dtv^opmoJnl  Diteatti  of 
Cfaldm,  such  as  malformations,  idiocy,  teethin(b  ^ 
Order  IL  DevdornntJitolDueata  of  Womm,  such  as 
amenorrhea,  childbitth,  change  of  life,  Ac  Order 
IIL  Bevdopmental  Diteata  of  OU  feopls,  such  as 
old  age,  and  its  concomitant  affections.  Order  IV. 
Dixata  of  Nutrition,  such  as  atrophy,  debihty,  Ac 

NO'STOC,  a  genus  oC  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Algat,  suborder  Confermaa,  found  upon  moist 
ground,  rocks  near  streams,  Ac.,  and  consisting  of  a 
somewhat  gelatinous  hollow  tumid  frond,  filled  with 
simple  filaments  resembling  strings  of  beads.  N. 
fommime  is  frequent  in  Britain,  springing  up  sud- 
denly on  gravel-walks  and  pasture-grounds  after 
rain.  It  is  a  tremblii^  gdatinoua  mass,  irften  called 
Stab  Jsu.t,  and  vn^ariy  r^atded,  owing  to  the 
suddenness  with  irtiich  it  makca  its  i^peannoe,  as 
having  fallen  from  tii«  skie^  amd  as  possessed  of 
>rtant  medicinal  virtnes;  If.  tdak  U  employed 
as  an  article  of  food. 

irOSTEADAUUS,  a  celebrated  astrologer  of 
the  16th  c,  bom  Uth  December  1E03,  at  St  Semi, 
in  Provence.  His  proper  name  was  Michel  Notre- 
Dame,  and  he  was  of  Jewish  descent  He  studied 
first  at  the  Ooll^  d' Avignon,  where  he  exhibited 
remarkable  scieutiSo  powers,  and  subsequently 
attended  the  celebrated  school  of  medicine  at  Mont- 
peilier.  Here  he  first  acquired  distinction  during  an 
epidemic  that  desolated  the  south  of  France,  by 
his  humane  attentions  to  those  stricken  by  the 
pestilence.  After  taking  his  degree,  he  acted  for 
some  time  as  professor,  but  was  induced  by  his 
friend  J.  C.  Scaliger  to  settle  in  Agen  as  a  medical 
proctitiooer.  After  travelling  for  some  time,  he 
finally  settied  at  Salon,  a  little  town  situated  in  the 
environs  of  Aix,  about  1544.  Already  he  must  have 
been  reckoned  a  man  of  note,  for  in  the  following 
year,  when  an  epidemio  was  raging  at  Lyon,  he  was 
solemnly  invited  thither  by  the  civio  authorities, 
jud  is  said  to  have  rendered  immense  services.  He 
first  fell  upon  his  prophetic  van  about  the  year 


in&na 


ivGuu^l 


NCSTEILS— NOTABLES. 


1M7,  tot  in  wlut  li^  be  hinNsU  wBrdsd  hii 
jniiamoim,  it  u  now  impoMiUe  to  «iy.  At  tajnte, 
M  aooimeMad  to  write  hii  famouj  prediotiou 
iPr^UUet)  wbioh  BM  MpMrsd  at  I^mi  in  1S6S. 
ThtM  fmSutiaoM  wen  in  i%med  qtutiMn«,dind»d 
Into  eeotnriei,  of  which  there  7e»  seren  j  the  Sd 
*1,  puUiihed  in  I5B^  OMbuned  ten.  Aetni- 
kigy  w*a  then  Um  fMhion,  utd  theee  ^wifaaiiiL 
axfMNed  genenHy  in  obeooM  and  euigmatieal 
tenia,  bad  •  (^eat  loooeei.  Srane,  indeed,  reguded 
the  autlm  m  a  qna^  bnt  the  great  majority  ■■  a 
guaina  aear  ta  pradietca  of  the  tntniet  He  wm, 
oonwqMntiy,  mneb  aonght  after  br  all  lorti  of 
peo^  hirii  and  low.  OathahDedtfMUidatnTited 
him  to  THit  her  at  Bkda,  to  diaw  the  boraaoop* 


Salon  simeailj  to  Me  himi  and  when  duriea  IX. 
baoame  King,  he  nipointed  N.  hii  phnialan-in- 
Otdinary  (IKH).  He  died  at  Salon,  2d  Jolr  IB^ 
N .*■  predictiMU  have  been  the  aabjaot  of  an  immeBM 
amount  of  iUtwtiatiTa  and  oontniTcndal  litarata 


He  alao  wrote  au  *'■""".  which  aemd  aa  the 
model  of  all  nbaeqnent  onea,  oootaining  pndiotiou 
about  the  weather.— See  Jaaberf  ■  VU  &  it.  ITottra- 
damu,  Apologie  tt  HiiMn  (AmiL  UK)  i  Aatmo'i 
MinKirm  povr  Mrvfr  A  tHiloIrt  dt  ia  FaouJU  de 
MdOpeBitr  (PniM,  17S7)  {  Apologk  pow  lt»  Ortotdt 


B.  Barvti^a  WottradamM  (^lii,  1812). 

KO'STBILS,  DmcuEB  or  THX.  Aonte  inflam- 
mation of  the  Diaal  mnooDs  mmbnuiB  ii  a  Teiy 
common  and  well-known  afl^ction,  wU^  haa  been 
alreadv  deKribed  under  the  title  of  Catabbx  {q.T.), 
or  Com  in  the  Head ;  while  the  chranto  form  of 
inflammation  ia  deacribed  in  the  article  OztsvA. 
Bemurhi^  from  the  noatrilt,  or  Eputtedt  (Or.  a 
dropping),  ia  b7  far  the  oommoncst  form  of  Meed- 
ing  from  a  maooiia  membrane.  It  may  ba  pro- 
dwwd  (1)  by  direct  inlniy,  as  by  a  blow  on  the 
noee,  «r  a  aoratch  in  toe  interior  of  the  nottrili ; 
or  (2)  it  nwr  be  an  octiM  hemonhag^  in  wbioh 
oaae  it  ia  often  pcaoadad  by  a  feeliDs  ol  tension 
and  heat   in  the  ncwtril^  pain   in  t£e  forehead. 


Pteaent  in  the  Mune  oaa«L  and  not  nnfnqaantly  tlie 
now  of  Uood  it  preceded  by  no  ^ipannt  diaorder) ; 
or  (3)  it  may  ba  ol  a  pattnt  ohinottf,  ami  may  Im 
doe  either  to  a  morbid  condition  of  the  blood,  aa  in 
■oarlatiiii^  typhmd  and  iTpboa  fovcn, 

, . .    pium,  fto.,  cr  to  obatniotion  of  the  cuoa- 
Ittioa  by  dncaaa  of  the  liver  and  heart. 

If  the  hemotrha(^  oooor  in  •  floahed  plethorio 
nbjeot,  and  ia  obnonalv  of  an  active  oharaotw,  it 
may  be  rwarded  aa  a  aalntaiy  effort  of  nature,  and 
may  be  left  alone  till  it  ceaiea  epontaneously ;  bat 
U  A  contdnnea  ao  long  aa  materially  to  weaken  the 
patient^  or  if  it  be  of  the  paaave  eliaiacter,  or  if  it 
ariae  from  injrn^,  then  meana  ahonld  be  token  to 
atop  it  with  aa  Lttla  delay  aa  poMible.  Hie  patient 
■hould  be  placed  in  the  nttug  poitnre  at  au  open 
window,  with  the  head  w«ct  or  alightly  inclined 
backwardi ;  and  amoDgat  the  ampler  meant  to  be 
fliat  tried,  are  oompresaion  of  the  noetrili  by  the 
flngera,  the  apphcation  of  a  key  or  other  piece  of 
ooM  metal  to  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  the  occaatooal 
tmmenien  of  the  face  ot  whole  head  in  oold  water, 
eapeciaUy  if  aooompanied  by  a  drawing-up  ot  the 
water  into  the  nonrila;  or  Dr  Negner'a  plan  of 
oaudng  the  patient,  in  a  atamding  poaition,  fnddenly 
to  raiae  hia  armi  atraight  npwarda,  and  to  retain 
them  fiff  a  ahort  time  in  thia  position — a  remedy 
which  he  atat«B  to  have  alwaya  anooeeded,  even  in 

*    ''  when  other  means  had  ttiied.   Should 

had  to  aatringent 


„   _  _, „.,  ..       aatrin([ent  poi 

powdered  galU,  kino,  mabco,  alnn,  __., , 

the  noalrila  by  meana  of  a  qoiU  or  other  tabe,  ok 
■nufied  up  t^  the  patient  Aa  a  final  leauwiLe^ 
dinot  ewnprowatm  muit  be  applied.  Aben^thy 
new  fidlad  in  atopping  the  bleeding  bj  winding  a 
pieoe  et  moiiteued  hnt  aroond  a  probe,  ao  aa  to  form 
a  oylindrical  plug,  naating  thia  altmg  the  floor  of  tha 
Doae  tot  ita  entire  length,  tlien  carefully  withdxmw- 
ing  the  probe,  and  allowing  the  lint  to  remain  ftr 
throe  or  four  d»y»  Caaei  ooeaaionally  ooonr  in 
which  it  ii  neoenan  alao  to  plug  tha  poataaw 
orifioea  of  tha  noatiui  by  an  operatioD,  uta  iha 
detailaof  which  it  ii  not  nee '-  "~' — 

Foljipvt,  which  is  an  old  t< 
ny  aort  of  pednncnlatad  ' 
(literally,  'by  many  feet') 

common  ooeiurence  in  the  noitiila ;  iia  moac  lunai 
■eat  of  attachment  being  one  of  tha  taibinBted 
bonea.  Hie  ordinary  kind  ia  of  the  cannataioe  of 
jelly,  ydlowiab,  ab«aked  with  tdood-vesaele,  nod  tt 
a  peai>ahMMd  form.  The  patient  haa  a  "******■* 
fetling  of  tnlneaa  in  the  nonril  (aa  if  ba  had  a  odd 
in  the  head)  i  he  cannot  efleotually  blow  hia  mil  ; 
and  hii  voice  is  lonietimefl  rendered  more  or  Urn 
thick  and  indistinct.  If  he  force  hie  breath  atnu^^ 
throng  the  affected  noatnl,  and  at  the  aanu  tmia 
compreaa  the  other,  and  cloae  the  month,  tha 
polypni  m^  generally  be  brought  in  view.  "Dm 
iMet  treatment  ia  to  amze  the  neck  or  pedide 
with  the  toK«fm,  and  twiat  it  oB.  "nia  conaegnwd 
hemMifaage  may  be  readily  checked  b^  the  nuoM 
already  deacribed. 

Fonbn  bedim  are  often  inaerted  into  the  noatda 
by  chiUren,  and  become  impacted,  n^  maj 
usually  be  ertracted  by  a  small  aooop  or  ft  beat 
probe.  If  they  cannot  be  removed  hy  utaae  meaa^ 
they  mult  be  puahed  bank  into  the  throat  throogh 
the  posterior  narea. 

Children  are  occasionally  bom  with  imperfontted 
nostrils.  This  congenital  roalfonoation  may,  hew- 
eves-,  nindly  be  mnedied  by  anrigical  -— '-^-t— 

NOT  GUILTY  is  the  fonn  of  venliet  in  a 
oriminal  proaecntion,  and  also  in  some  civil  actiona, 
wfien  the  joiy  find  in  favour  of  the  defendant  or 
accused  party.  The  verdict  ia  oondoaive,  and  tile 
accused  cannot,  in  criminal  cases,  be  tried  a  eeetoul 

NOT  PBOVEN  is  a  form  of  wdict  nsed  in 
Siratland  in  criminal  prosecntioiis  when  the  jnry 
think  there  i*  some  foundation  for  the  diaiga,  bat 
the  svidenoe  is  not  strong  enough  i^jainat  tiia 
priaoner  to  varrant  a  verdict  «t  goilty.  In  waA 
a  caae,  a  verdict  of '  Not  Proven '  u  anhatantLallj  n 
verdict  of  BcqnittaL  The  prismieT  cannot  be  tned 
aftermrds,  evco  though  new  and  oondumve  evidiSBen 
mina  to  li^t  after  the  vardicL 

NOTABLES,  the  name  formerly  pven  in  Frviae 
to  persons  of  distinction  and  pobtical  inportaiice> 
As  the  Ststea  General  were  inconvenient  to  ttie 
despotism  of  the  monarchy,  the  kion  of  the  Honae 
of  Vslois  adopted  the  expedient  ofoJUng  in  their 
stead  AutmbUt*  of  Oie  Ifotabla,  the  time  of  calling 
them  and  the  oomposition  of  tliem  being  entirelv 
dependent  on  the  pleasure  of  the  crown,  oy  wbidh 
alab  their  whole  proceeding*  were  guided,  ao  tiwk 
they  generally  consented  at  on«e  to  wkaterer  was 
pn^Mfed  to  thorn.  Thvj  shewed  a  particular  re*di- 
neaa  in  granting  subsidieB,  to  which  they  tliiiiiiiailiin. 
"  *■"' — """  lo  the  privil^ed  classes,  wme  not  *- 


Gaston,  brother  of  Louia  XHt.,  oousistad  of  only 


D,a„,.=o.,  Google 


NOTAET-HJBLIC-NOTATION. 


oentnry  tnd  •  half 

tills  poor  ukmnrledgmant  of  ut  other  mtod 

or  will  in  the  lution  tbui  tlut  of  um  ■oventen 
iMmH  to  tM  mtda;  but  wlien  tite  ttate  of  ue 
fiiunceft  btotulht  the  mciDarchy  into  diffionltuB  Bod 
perili,  Louu  ZVL,  it  the  iiutigstion  ol  the  miniiter 
C^lonne,  had  noontM  agtun  to  mi  AwteaiAj  ot 
NotkhlM,  which  met  22d-  Febrauy  17S7,  wvl  wh 
dinolnd  SSth  Hay.  It  conuBted  of  137  membcn, 
amoDg  whom  were  7  princes  of  tiia  blood,  9  duhef 
and  pasn,  B  qhiiIulU,  11  arehlHahopi,  22  nohlea,  8 
oooneillon  of  etste,  4  niaaten  of  teqaeeta,  37  jvdgea, 
12  dcmities  of  the  t*j9  d'Etals,  the  etnl  lieiitaiiMit, 
uid  SB  penon*  bdoiuiiig  to  the  magtitaiMj  of 
difitorat  citiee  of  the  Ein^om.  Caloime'a  lepn- 
wntatioM  of  the  «t*te  <t  Uie  Urancee  Indnoed  the 
MotaUa  to  adopt  many  icfonni  in  the  matter  of 
taxatiaii ;  but  ao  sooiMr  waa  the  aMembl^  diwolved, 
thun  many  of  than  joined  the  pailiamantt  in 
oppodtion  to  reMlntioDs  advene  to  thnr  private 
intcmeti,  m  th«t  the  king  wu  oompelled  to  deter- 
mine npon  Mwmbling  the  St*te*  OeneraL  Ifecker, 
who  had  meaawhilo  beea  iilaoed  «t  the  head  id 
•bin,  iBlembled  the  NdtabUa  again,  Oth  November 
1788.  to  oonault  tbem  coaocming  the  form  in  which 
the  Statea  General  ahould  ta  convened.  The 
Notahlee  declared  agunat  evai;  innovstion,  and  to 
ipellad  the  conrt  to  half  meaenrei  which  helped 


KOTART-PTTBIilO  ia  an  offioer  id  the  law, 
whoee  chief  function  ia  to  act  aa  a  witoeea  of  any 
Bolemn  or  formal  act,  and  to  give  a  certiBcate  m 
the  eanie ;  which  oertificate,  if  duly  aatbentickted, 
u  Moepted  M  the  world  over  as  good  eridenoe  of 
the  act  done  in  hit  pmence,  and  attested  by  him. 
The  eervicea  of  a  N.  are  chiefly  avulable  where  hie 
evideoce  ia  to  be  naed  in  a  forugo  oonntry.  Solid- 
tore  are  eometime*  notaiiei-piiblic,  but  in  England 
there  are  fewer  notariea,  oomparatively,  thui  in 
Scotland,  where  notarial  acta  and  oertailcateB  are 
mote  largely  oaed. 

NOTATION,  the  method  cf  representing  nnm- 
beie  and  qmmtitiea  by  mvka  or  eigne.  The  repre- 
aentation  of  nombera  ia  known  aa  '  arithmetical,' 
uid  that  of  qnaotitiea  as  '  aymbolical'  notation. 

L  ARTTEMrnciU.  NcrTi,TiON. — The  inventiofi  of 
aritbmetjcal  notation  must  have  been  ooeval  with 
the  eariieat  nae  of  writing,  whether  hieroglyphie  or 
otherwise,  and  mnat  have  oome  into  nae  about  the 


hnge  misabapeD , 
great  events,  and  required  to  be  supplemented  by  some 
meana  which  would  aufSce  to  bftna  down  to  posterity 
the  regoisite  information.  The  meet  natural  method 
nndoobtedly  was  to  aigmfy 'nni^'  by  one  stroke, 
thus:  |;  'two'  by  two  strokes,  ||;  'three'  by  three 
strokes.  Ill,  fto.;  and,  aa  far  as  we  know,  this  waa 
the  metnod  adopted  by  moat  of  those  nations  who 
mvented  ayatema  of  notation  for  themselves.  It  is 
shewn  on  the  earlieet  Latin  and  Oreek  records, 
and  ia  the  baaii  of  the  Boman,  Chinese,  and  other 
syitcms.  Wo  have  thus  a  convenient  division  of 
Ue  different  notstional  systems  into  the  natural 
and  artifiaai  groups,  the  latter  including  the 
systems  <rf  those  nations  who  sdopted  diitinot  and 
•epante  symbols  for  at  least  each  of  the  nine  digits. 
l£e  Boman  and  Chineae  syatems  are  the  moat 
important  of  the  former,  and  the  Hebrew,  later 
Greek,  and'dedmal*  aystNna  of  the  latter  group. 

RtyiMa  Sj/rtem.—'Ib.t  system  adopted  by  the 
Bomana  waa  most  probably  borrowed  at  first  from 
the  Greeks,  and  was  diifcmguished  equally  by  ^*- 

-j 1._!^    __i    j._ 1. ^^    follow 


■implicit  and  its  cumbrouanesa. 


)  following 


Mins  to  be  the  most  probable  theory  at  ite  devel- 
omeait.  A  sinple  sertea  of  strokes  waa  the  basis 
[  the  qrstem ;  hot  the  laboor  of  writing  and  read- 


step  was  the  diviuon  of  the  strokes  into  pweds  of 
great  facility  in  the  reading  of  oumben.    ^te  nsKt 


largK  numbers  «ame  to  be  iwed,  thn  invented  t 
second  new  aymbol  for  100,  thus,  (_  (which  was 
at  fiist  probably  the  cancelling  stroke  for  ten  V  '■ 
in  the  same  way  as  X  ***  origmaOy  the  eanoelluig 
stroke  for  ten  miits);  and  for  the  sakp  of  UaStv 
in  writing,  subsequently  employed  the  letter  C, 
which  resembled  i^  in  lit  place.  The  mrcomstanoe 
that  0  was  the  initial  letter  of  the  word  centum, 
'a  hundred,'  wu  doubtless  an  additional  reason  for 
its  substitution  in  place  of  the  ori^jnal  aymbol  for 
lOCL  An  extension  of  the  same  process  produced 
M,  the  symbol  for  1000,  which  was  alao  written 
A,  n,  and  very  frequently  CI^  This  symbol 
was  probably  anggeatea  by  the  circumatanoe  that 
M  waa  the  mitial  letter  of  the  Latin  word  taUk, 
signifying  a  thoosand.  The  early  Boman  system 
went  no  higher.  But  though  the  invention  of  these 
three  symbols  had  greatly  facilitated  the  labour  of 
writing  down  and  reading  off  nombera,  further 
improvements  were  urgently  required.  The  plan  of 
'bisection  of  symbols'  was  now  adopted;  X  **■ 
divided  into  two  parts,  and  either  half,  y  or  A, used 
as  the  symbol  for  fi  i  P  waa  aimilarly  divided,  p 
[_  atandmg  for  60 ;  anS  f\ ,  CI,  or  l5> 
in  the  aame  manner,  and  nude  tlie  np 
600;  The  resembluice  of  these  three  new  symbols 
to  the  letters  V,  L,  and  D,  caused  the  snbstitntiou 
of  the  lifter  as  tiie  numerics!  symbols  for  6,  ~~ 
600.    A  final  improvement  "         '   ''' 

IV  tor  4  (in  pi *  ""' 

Vnil).  XC  tor  _. 

larly  XL  for  40,  CD  for  400,  CM  for  00(^  &0. ;  the 
BDaller  number,  when  ia  front,  being  always  under- 
stood as  snbtractive  from  the  larger  one  after  it. 
This  last  improTement  is  the  sole  departure  from 
the  purely  additional  mode  of  expressing  numbers: 
and  if  the  symbols  for  4,  9,  90,  kc,  be  considered 
s«  nngle  symbols,  which  they  practically  are,  the 
deviation  may  be  looked  npon  as  merely  one  cl 
form.  In  later  times,  the  Boman  notation  was 
'  by  a  mtdtiplioation  of  the  symbol  tia 


1000,  thus  coin 


symbols  s 
tive  of  6 


100,000,  An.; 


dthe 


10,000;   CCCl 


S'^ 


I  the  I 


1  and  IQ33  as  representa- 

5  respectively.     Tfis,  in  all 

de  according  to  which  the 

1  was  conatmcted.     To 


ravbability, 

Boman  ayatai_  __   —   ... 

foond  a  system  of  arithmetic  upon  this  notation 
would  have  been  well-nigh  impossible ;  and  so 
little  inveutire  were  the  Bomans,  that  the  attempt 
seems  never  to  have  been  nude.  They  performed 
what  few  calculations  they  required  by  the  aid  of 
the  jl&aeua  (q.v.>. 

CSiintte  S]^lem, — This  system  presenta  a  strong 
resemblance  to  the  farmer,  but  is,  in  facility 
of  expression,  mnoh  superior  to  it  Like  the 
Roman,  it  retains  the  primitive  symbola  for  the 
first  three  digits,  and  like  it  alao  expraaaea  the 
last  four  by  prefixing  a  new  qrmbol  to  the 
symbola  for  the  firat  four,  and  the  analogy  is 
continued  up  to '  twenty.'  From  this  point  onwuds, 
the  Chinese  ^atem  departs  from  the  'additive' 
principle,  aa  20,  30,  &£.,  are  represented  not  aa  in 
the  Roman  system  by  a  repetition  of  the  nmbol  for 
10,  but  by  affixing  to  the  symbol  for  10,  on  its 


D,a„,.s=.,,  Google 


kft  ride,  the  iTinboU  for  2,  S,  fto^  u  nmlliplM. 
The  MBM  metbad  U  adopted  with  the  nnmbers  200, 
SOO,  fto. ;  Mid  ■honld  the  unnibet  mnttun  nnitB, 
they  Mre  MLoexed  on  the  ri(^t-haad  ride.  For 
vniil  muiiben '  wp  to  20,  tiM  lUnajm  notfttioik  ie 
moM  ei^editioiu,  mi  Moonut  at  th*  mM,ttt  rimidi- 
titf  of  It*  «huMten ;  but  for  very  btge  nnmben, 
the  Chin««e  ia  tcaroely.  more  cnmbroiu  thui 
OUT  own.  Some  numben  whioh  tn  eipreiaad 
W  the  ChiiieM  with  14  eb*xactert,  reqmre  more 
tnan  100  Bymbol*  whaa  exprested  in  tlie  Bomon 
notfttiou. 

I'mriona  to  the  intenxmiie  of  the  Western  Europeui 
Bktioal  wiUi  China,  their  notation  waa  mnch 


rince  made  hare  affected  taei^y  the  form 
oharacten,  without  altering  the  principle  of  the 

Arfi/Mal  8utaemt.—Tha  fint  of  ilieae,  in  point  of 
date,  1*  the  Hebrew ;  but  aa  the  knowledn  we 
powen  of  it  ia  rery  meagie,  and  as  its  principle  waa 
Adopted  hy  the  Greela  in  the  conatractioii  of  their 
in^roved  ijitem,  it  will  be  mffident  to  dsKribe 
the  latter. 

(TreA  5v»tnn.— The  Greek*  at  fint  naed  a  method 
rimilsr  to  the  Bemana,  thoogh  at  the  aame  time 
thev  appear  to  hare  emplored  the  letter*  of  the 
alpLibet  to  denote  the  nnt  24  nomben.  Snch  a 
cnmbnnia  ayitem  wa*  naturally  diataetefnl  to  eo 
faatidion*  a  race,  and  th^  hit  opan  the  happy 
expedient  U  dividing  their  alphabet  into  three 
pwrtioiu — nring  the  fint  to  symboliae  the  S  digita, 
the  aeoond  the  9  tens,  and  the  third  the  9  hnndreda. 
Bnt  *■  thev  poMeiBed  ontj  24  letter*,  ttu 
ue  three  additional  aymbola ;  thrir  hit  a 
of  notation  then  stood 


if  ^mbola 


«-. 

T-. 

.-** 

.npnMt*    I 

i  •'.•:-i 

(rtptMnta   .       100 

•      .     .     .  «o 

««»  .     .  a 

5or^^-wi-e» 

under  any  aymbol,  iU  TMae  wai  inoreaaed  a  thouaand- 
fold,  thn*  f  —  1000.  ;  »  20,000;  or  by  aubecribing 
the  letter  If,  the  ralne  ol  a  aymbol  was  raiaed  ten- 
tfaoiuandfold,  thoi,  J  =  80,00a  For  these  two 
maib;  an(^  and  doable  dot*  placed  over  the 
aymbol*  were  attennuiUnibetitutea  Thii  improve- 
ment enabled  them  to  oipresa  with  facility  all 
aomben  aa  high  aa  0,990,000,  a  range  amply  mffi- 
dent for  all  ordinaiy  parpoaee.  Farther  improva- 
menls  were  made  npon  thia  ayatem  by  Apollonina, 
who  alao  by  making  10,000  tike  root  of  the  lyitem, 
and  Vh-itt  dividing  the  aymbol*  into  tetrada,  greatly 
•implifled  the  eipreerion  of  very  large  number. 
Both  ApoUonio*  and  Aichimedea  had  to  a  certain 
extent  di*ooverad  and  employed  the  principle  of 
gjving  to  ^r™l>ola  valaea  depteiding  on  their  poaition 
and  moHiplioative  of  their  real  value,  but  thia 
winciple  wa*  uiphed  to  tetrad*  or  period*  of  four 
ngure*  only,  and  tilie  multitude  of  aymbol*  aeem*  to 
hare  *tood  in  Uie  way  of  further  improvement.  Had 
ApoUonioji,  who  waa  the  chief  improw  of  the 
ajmtenL  discarded  all  but  the  Srat  nine  lymbol*,  and 
applied  the  tame  principle  to  the  iingle  aymbola 
whioh  he  applied  to  the  'tetrad  *  groupa,  ha  would 
have  anticipated  the  dec= — '  — *-' — 


The  Oreek  arithmetic,  founded  upon  Bo^  a  syatsiK 
!  notation,  was  neceaaarily  lengUiy  and  oomplicatad 
in  Ha  cfieratioD*,  each  number  in  the  mnltiplicajid 
fonning  wiUt  eadi  number  in  the  multiplier  m 
— ~— *-  prodnet  (not  a*  in  our  ^aten,  when  ~" 


pvoduot  blend*  wiljt  another  by  the  process  «< 
'eartying'},  thoogh  by  amuging  tbese  produeta  in 


aeparate  oolnmni,  aoooidiug  a*  they 
unit*,  tena,  hundreda,  &&,  the  prooes*  wa* 
atmplified.  But  when  fractiona  formed  part  of  the 
muitipUeT  and  multipUcand,  the  Greek  arilhmetio 
became  ahnoet  uunuuuwcable,  till  the  inventdon  of 
SKXAamiMALS  (q.  v.)  Ey  Ptolemy  anperteded  tL 
After    Ftolemy'a    deatl^     all    improvement    waa 

Dceimal  Byttaii. — The  decimal  syitem,  irfiidi 
introdnoed  into  Europe  from  the  East  (see  NOMB- 


Enrope.  The  modwn  srithmetio  wsa  not 
in  England  till  about  the  middle  of  Uie  1ft 
Cor  a  long  time  after  its  introduotion  wi  _ 

cntly  in  the  nniverritiea;  The  dednud  *y*tem,  po«> 
nrniing  only  9  aymbola— vie,  1,  2, 3,  4,  fi,  6,  7,  S,  9 
(called  the  nine  digits) — adiipta  the  principle  at 
giving  to  each  aymbt^  or  fisure'  two  valnea, 
one  the  absolute  value,  and  ue  other  a  value 
depending  npon  its  position.  Hie  numbera  from 
'  one '  to  '  nine '  incluaive  are  expreaaed  by  the 
nine  digita ;  ten  it  expressed  by  writing  a  edphw 
or  aero  after  I  (10),  thna  throwing  it  into  the  second 
plaoe,  and  giviufE  it  a  poaitional  value  ten  times  its 
absolute  vwie.  From  the  principle  that  a  figure  tfau* 
moved  one  place  to  the  left  ia  neld  to  be  increaaed 
in  value  ten  timea,  thia  method  of  notation  ia  called 
(feriTRoI  notation  (I^t.  decern,  ten),  and  («i  ia  said  to 
be  the  'radix'  of  the  ayatem.  Hie  numbot  from 
'deven'  to  'nineteen'  mcluaive  are  exoreaaed  by 
takiiu  the  aymbol  10  and  putting  the  digtta  from 
'one'^to  'nine'  indorive  in  plaoe  of  the  lere— e.g^ 
twelve  ia  written  12;  1  te  votUSfm  rignifyiug  ten 
unite,  and  2,  two  additional  nnita.    Oo  the  tamo 


hundred,  1  ia  put  in  the  third  i^aoe  n.Wi,  thna 
making  ita  viJne  ten  timea  what  it  i*  in  the  second 
place,  or  tea  timea  ten  unit* ;  two  hundred  is  *)nularij' 
expreaaed  by  200,  t/i. ;  and  ahonld  a  number  of  toia 
and  unita  amounting  to  lea  than  a  hundred  exist 
in  the  number,  the  aymbola  eipresaing  theok  are 
■ubstitutod  for  the  two  aeros.  Ihia  proceaa  oao  be 
similarly  continued  without  limit. 

There  is  another  way  of  looking  at  tht*  notation, 
which  i*  peihape  aimfler  and  (Marer.  In  sniA  k, 
number,  e.  a.,  a*  333,  instead  tA  attributing  different 
values  to  the  figure  3  in  the  diff 
mayeonrider  n  a*-*vmboli*ing 
thron^kont^  namely,  urea;  bnt  three  uAo^  f  In  the 
Srat  plaoe,  it  tignifie*  three  one*  or  unit*  (e.  ^,  tfare« 
iingle  pound*  or  sovereign*);  in  ' 
''  Btill  aignifiea  three,  but  now  it  i 
'      ■'  '      '"on  Bove 

aignifie 

three  hundred*  (three  parcels  of  a  hundred  each). 
It  i*  from  this  point  of  view  that  the  first  place  to 
the  right  i>  called  the  plarx  ttf  units,  or  the  unU£ 
plaeej  the  second,  the  plaot  <tf  U>i»,  and  so  on. 
When  such  a  number  as  G4T3  is  analysed  on  thia 
principle,  it  ia  aeen  to  mean  6  x  1000  <6  ' ' 
1000)  -t-4xlO0  +  7xlO-4-8xli  and 
beoomea  6  x  1000  ■)■  4  x  L    In  thi*  Uttw  ' 

the  peculiar  importanoe  of  the  figure  0  is ^ 

NoTHXBO).  FoUowing  out  the  method,  the  general 
formula  lor  all  nnmben  ia  a  X  10*  -f  6  X  lO^'  + 
e  X  10^*  -t- ....  +  m  XlQ*  +  n  xlO*  +p  X  10 


otta  (e.  e.,  1 
e  aecona  p 


,,  Google 


NOTB-NOITINOHAH. 


. .  M,  n,  p,q,  Btend  for  aaj  of 


wiCb  die  greatest  «aae,  and  as  the  touUer  nninberi 
■re  tboM  mort  coniiaoalj'  med,  tbit  u  »  great  point 
in  &T<iDr  of  the  ■yitem.  It  tiMO  gives  to  oomputk- 
tioii  a  unity  wliicn  could  Derer  under  any  circnm- 
•ttukoea  IwTe  existed  in  the  ayrtema  <4  natation 
abova  deacnbed,  and  the  most  oidioaiy,  and  at  the 
time  efEtctive,  iUu«tcatii»  of  tbi»  u  the  proccM 


in  the  (DfaMqnent  addition  ia  wved.  TbiM  aimpUfi- 
eation,  howercr,  ia  ohiefly  doa  to  the  introdnctioo 
of  the  nmbol  0,  wtaioh,  (applying  the  place  of  an 
abtent  mgit,  pweryei  to  thoas  hguha  on  the  left 
of  it  their  trae  ^itional  value.  AnoUiaF  advantage 
of  thia  (yitem  u  the  eaae  with  which  oompatationa 
inTolnng  fractiona  are  peHormed  (tee  FucnoNB, 
PlODiAi.).  The  Dia  of  the  aomber  10  aa  radie,  ia 
nnivenal  in  all  ayitema  ol  notation ;  bat  it  has  been 
often  doubted,  and  in  loma  raepecta  witii  good 
reaaon,  wbethur  it  !■  the  nomber  beat  fitted  for 
tiuB  position,  and  many  hare  propoMd  to  mbatitnto 
13  for  a.  This  qneotuia  wiU  be  ref  en«d  to  nnder 
So&ua  or  Notuioh. 

2.  Stnbouoai,  Nounoir,  the  mneral  demgnation 
of  thoae  lymbola  whkih  are  need  cynuthematiciaiia 
to  azpreoa  indefinite  quantities.  The  aymbols  ai« 
generally  taken  from  the  English,  Boman,  and 
Oraek  alphabets,  and  are  apportioDed  as  foUowa : 
Algebraio  qnantitiea  are  eipressed  by  the  English 
idpii^>et ;  those  which  are  known,  by  the  earlier 
letteiB  a,  b, «,....,  and  those  which  are  unknown,  by 
the  later  ones,  u,v,v>,a.jl,.,..  In  Tiigonometrr, 
the  lettera  a,  b,  c, . . . .  denote  measniee  of  lengtb, 
and  A,  B,  C....are  used  to  express  andes.  In 
UechanicB  and  Astronomy,  the  Oreelc  letters  are 
generally  used  to  express  angles.  When  difltmnt 
seta  of  quantities  are  aimilarly^  related  among  them- 
■elvea,  tiie  sets  are,  far  coovenience,  expressed  by  the 
same  letter* ;  and  to  prereot  confuaion,  each  set  has 
a  pecoliar  mark  attached  to  each  aymbol,  thus,  a, 
b,  e,  ....  denote  one  clss* ;  a',  £',  c',  ....  another 
class;  a.~,lf',  ^,....  a  third  dani  and  so  on;  or, 
«„i^,^,..  ..a,,  6,  «,....*& 

NOTE,  in  Music  «  charu^r  which  by  Qm 
degree  it  occufdea  on  the  staff  repiesenta  a  sound, 
and  by  its  form  the  period  of  time  or  dmntion  of 
that  aonnd.  The  notes  commonly  in  use  in  modem 
muiio  are  tlie  semibrere,  o;  minim,  ^;  crotchety 

f ;  qnavei,  r ;  semiquaver,  5 ;  demisemiqnaver,  f  i 
mnd  semi-demisemiqaaver,  S.    Taking  the  semibreve 


nity,  them 


n  ia  t  its  duration,  the  crotchet  ^ 


^ ,„ lemiBemiquavcr  Vi»    Notes 

of  greater  lenfrth  than  the  semibreve  were  formerly 
in  uae — via.,  the  breve,  twice  the  dnration  of  the 
semibreve;  the  long,  f OOF  timee;  and  the  lanps,  ei^t 
times  the  aemibreve.  OE  these  the  breve,  Q  or  |b|, 
is  still  sometimes  met  with  in  ecclesiastical  music. — 
The  term  note  is  often  used  as  synonymous  with 
mndcal  sound. 

NOTHING,  in  Mathematical  language,  denote* 
the  total  absence  of  quonti^  or  number,  as  when 
eqn^  ate  subtaacted  from  equals,  bnt  it  is  often 
employed  (see  Lncm)  to  indicate  the  limit  to 
which  a  oonatantly  decreasing  positive  quantity 
•ppniaches.  The  absence  of  number  or  quantity 
oonld  be  equally  well  siguifled  by  the  absence  of 


any  s^bol  whatever,  but  the  presence  of' 0'  shews 
that  m  it*  place  some  number  ra'  quantity  migh^ 
and  nnder  other  oironmstancea  would,  exist. 

Id  PhysicB,  the  symbol  *  0 '  is  generally  denomin- 
ated xero,  and  has  a  differeiit  meaniDg.  Like  the 
former,  it  ia  the  atarting-point  from  which  msfmitade 
ia  reckoned;  bnt  wfaHe  the  starting-point  m  the 
finmer  case  was  abeolate^  in  this  case  it  is  oon- 
venttonol,  and  by  no  means  denotes  Om  abeenoe  (rf 
oU  quantity  or  magnitude.  Urns  the  seio-point  <^ 
the  thermcuneter  must  not  be  interpreted  to  signify 
that  when  the  meroniy  has  fsllen  to  this  point 
otmospherio  heat  has  totally  vanished,  but  must  be 
ondeistood  aa  a  mere  conventiooat  starting-point 
for  gntdnatioti,  oboseu  fi»  convenience,  and  not  even 
neceisarily  repreaenting  any  fixed  natural  dt^ree  of 
temperature. 

NOTIOB  TO  QUIT,  is  the  formal  notice  given 
by  a  landlord  to  a  tenants  or  by  a  tenant  to  a 
landlord,  that  the  tenant  is  to  quit  at  a  future  day 
named.    See  Luidlord  and  Tbnani. 

NOTTO,  an  andeut  but  handsome  town  of  Sidly, 
16  miles  south-west  of  Syraouse,  3  mile*  from  the 
ses.    Fop.  10,00a 

KOTOCHOBD,  or  Chorda  DonalU.    See  De- 

TBI  EKBItfO. 


NOTOBNIS,  a  large  bird  of  the  rail  family, 
established  by  Owen  m  184S  trom  fossil  remuns 
sent  from  New  Zeslaod  Next  year,  Hr  M.ntjll 
procured  a  skin ;  and  shortly  afterwards  a  livina 

spedmeii,  2S  inches  long,  was  caught  ia  the  south  of 
the  South  Islaud.  The  bird  (called  JT.  itanttUi),  if 
not  now  actually  extinct,  ia  very  rare. 

NOTOTHERIUM,  a  genus  of  gigantic  fonil 
karuaroo-like  marsupials,  ^und  in  AnaUalia. 

NOTRE  DAME,  i.  e..  Our  Lady;  the  old  French 
appellation  of  tiie  Virgin  Maiy,  and  therefore  the 
name  of  a  number  of  churches  dedicated  to  the 
Virgin  Mary  in  different  parta  of  France,  and 
particularly  of  the  great  cathedral  of  Paris. 

NOTTINGHAM,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borou^  oE  England,  capital  of  the  county  of  the 
same  name,  and  a  county  in  itself,  on  the  Leen  at  its 
junction  with  the  Trent,  130  miles  north-north-west 
of  London.  It  ia  built  principally  on  the  slope  and 
at  the  foot  of  a  rooky  eminence,  and  in  an  otcbi- 
tectural  sense  it  has  withia  recent  years  been  much 
improved.  The  muket-place  is  Bi  acres  in  extent, 
and  is  surrounded  by  lottj  buildinA  The  Trent, 
irtiich  psasea  about  ■  mile  south  of  Ae  town,  and  is 
here  ODOut  200  feet  wide,  is  crossed  by  rulway 
kidges,  and  by  so  anrient  bridge  of  19  arches.  The 
exchange,  the  town  and  county  holla,  the  House 
of  Correction,  St  Mary's  Church,  the  Boman 
Catholic  Chapel,  and  the  new  Free  Grammar-school 
erected  in  ISSS,  are  worthy  of  apodal  mention. 
The  Free  Orammar-school,  with  an  endowment  of 
about  £1000  a  year,  waa  founded  in  ISia  Uni- 
vmsity  ColWe,  lOMnly  a  adence  school,  was  opened 
in  1S8I.  There  ore  hospitals  for  the  poor  and 
inSrm.  OE  the  manufactures,  which  u«  various 
and  important,  the  principal  are  bobbin-net  and 
lace,  and  cotton  and  silk  hosiery ;  and  there  are 
cotton,  silk,  and  flax  mills,  bleaching-works,  also 
iron  and  brass  works.  New  municipal  buildings 
were  erected  in  ISS3.    N.  sends  three  members  to 

Eliament.  Pop.  (1S71)  86,621 ;  (1381)  parL  bor. 
,631 ;  mun.  bor.  186,575.  The  ancient  castle  of 
N.,  ruined  during  the  civil  ware,  was  rebuilt  after 
the  Restoration,  and  burnt  during  the  Reform  Bill 
riots.  '  In  1ST8  it  waa  restored,  and  transformed 
into  a  museum  and  picture  gallery. 

NOTTINQHAH,  an  inland  county  of  England. 
Area,  526,176  acre*.  Pop.  (1871)  319,7SS;  (1881) 
391,615.      It    i*    CO    m.  in  leiigth  from  north 


ivGUU^ 


NOXTKHA-NOim. 


_.  . —      .  _i  Kvafase 

a  of  1*  west  bill  aloDg  tne  middto  of  tite 

int;,  Ukd  mi^  b*  Mid  to  dino*  H  into  two  DMdf 
equal  poitioiu,  «(  whioh  ths  MBtem,  oompriiiiu 
tiis  nte  of  the  Trent,  ii  levd,  and  the  WHteni  i« 
ooon^ed  by  hill*  <tf  so  greet  elentiiw.  Inthewnth 
of  tfio  ooonly  we  the  wold*,  ooiwirting  of  upland 
moora  and  p«*tai«-l*od^  fandcea  up  hymaiij  fertile 
hollowi.  Di  the  wect  m  the  remaini  of  Hie 
royal  forert  of  Sherwood,  famooa  at  the  <^ef  haniit 
of  Bobin  Hood.  The  principal  riTen  are  tiis  Trent, 
and  it*  tribntariee  the  Erewaih,  Uann,  and  Idle. 
The  NottiDghaiii  and  OranUuun  Caaal  in  the  aonth 
OMUMoti  t£»  ^bant  with  tha  Witbam,  and  tbcaa 
two  liren  an  also  coniMoted  by  the  Fo««  Dyke 
fi*^l*l^  Thich|  nuunoff  north-west  from  the  oii»y  iA 
lincolo,  ioina  the  Tnat  on  the  north-eaateni  brnm- 
dary  of  tlw  oonn^.  By  the  riven,  oanalt,  and  the 
North  Miillamlj  Bhtffi-'ld  and  LiiMoln,  and  Great 
Notbem  Bailwaya,  tixM  ii  diiect  Mmunnnieation 
in  erery  diieoticai.  Tha  olimate^  capaoiaUy  in  the 
eyt,  ia  TemarJwbly  dr:r-  T^  ■"■I  >*  ▼aiiooa;  and, 
with  regard  tojnodnctJTonaB^  the  land  ia  not  above 
mediocn^.  l£e  nmal  oh^  are  raised ;  there  are 
many  hop-idantationi,  and  mneh  land  ia  laid  out 
in  market-gardmt.  Exteniire  traota  have  been 
planted  recantiy.  Fonr  mend>eiB  of  paHiament  are 
tetorned  for  the  oonnty. 

NOITKRA,  a  town  of  A^tio  Etusia,  in  Trana. 
Cancaaia,  ie  bnilt  on  the  eouthem  itope  of  the 
Cancaani  Honntaina,  80  milee  aoath-wert  of  Dm- 
bend.  Fop.  (1680)  26,00(^  conaiaidng  of  natiTe 
Mohammedan  Tartsia,  of  Armenians,  and  a  few 

NOUMKA  (also  called  Port  de  France),  the  ohief 
■ettlemoDt  in  the  French  penal  colony  of  New 
Caledonia  (q.  v.).  Fop.,  besides  oonricti  and 
soldiers,  about  COOD. 

NOUN  (lot  nomcm  a  name),  in  Qrammar,  is  the 
term  applied  to  that  class  of  woids  that '  name'  or 


as  John,  maa,  Int;  for  they  are  names  ap^oable 
to  all  objects  posaeaeing  tluae  attribates.    But  as 

words  like  John,  man,  ^ee,  suEBoe  of  themselves  to 
mark  out  or  deei'gnats  an  object  or  a  definite  class 
of  objects,  while  words  expreesiTB  of  a  single  attrt- 
bate,  like  HtA,  loU,  can  be  nsed  only  in  conjunction 
with  snob  a  word  m  maa  or  tree,  the  one  class 
are  called  Adjective  Noons,  or  simply  Adjeotivca 
(q.  v.),  while  the  other  are  called  Substantive 
Noons,  oc  timplf  Snbstantivee  <x  Noons.  Nodds 
or  Names,  in  this  oairower  sense,  may  be  divided 
into  cUssea  in  a  variety  of  ways,  acoording  to  the 
ground  we  take  tor  our  division.  One  of  the  dis- 
tinctions commonly  made  by  grammariaDS  is  into 
Proper  Konns  and  Common  Nouns.  A  proper  noim 
is  osoally  defined  to  be '  the  oiune  of  any  individoal 
person,  or  place,'  as  JcAn,  London^  while  a  common 
Doun  is  applicable  to  ev^y  individoal  of  a  alaaa  of 
Dbjecta,  as  prbioe,  eitg.  But  this  definition  fails  to 
pomt  out  the  real  differenoe ;  for  there  are  several 
LondoM^  sod  there  are  more  Johns  thtui  princes ; 
other  thmgs  also  have  proper  Dames,  besides  persons 
and  places,  as  ships  (tne  Minotaur),  and  bells  (Big 
Ben).  ProvidBnce,  sgain,  although  applicable  to 
only  One  Being  in  the  nniverse,  ia  not  a  proper 
Donn.  Wherein,  then,  lies  the  diSeienoeT  In  order 
to  answer  this  gnestion,  we  murt  advert  to  an 
important  distinction  made  by  lonciana  with  regard 
to  the  import  of  names.  A  wora  is  sud  to  daiolt 
ill  the  objects  to  which  it  is  applicable  as  a  name ; 
Ums,  the  word  man  is  a  name  for  all  tlie  objects 
known  individoally  as  James,  Jotuu  Adam,  Cnsar, 
fcCq  and  therefon  denotes  the  whole  human  race ; 


but  while  thna  denoting  or  Tommn  them,  it  alao 
impliea  something  concerning  them ;  m  the  langoaea 
of  lofpo,  it  eonnole*  that  tbey  poasesa  oertain  atbi- 
botes,  namslr  (1)  a  certain  CMporsal  form,  knOTm 
as  tiis  hnmmft  iom ;  (2)  ***»■**!  Ofe ;  (8)  Aticoalitf* 
AH  tliif^  n^t  least,  is  included  in  the'""' — 


wMle  it  denotes, 
object,  or  class  ot  objects,  it  also  otrnv^s  or  impliea 
some  qualities  m  facta  concerning  them ;  in  other 
words,  all  such  namea  are  eoiaMatm,  or  have  » 
meaning.    Not  *o  with  pn»>w  n<  *"  "    * 

£  _ii~i  TiAnBuUer,  infor 

of  ai^faot  sxoept  ti 
ne  itself  ooavma  no  nu 
And  this  is  what  realb 
.     .  .  it  is  affixed  to  an  obiec 

convey  any  fact  oonceminK  it,  bat  meie^ 


yoo  to  speak  abont  it.  Pioper  names,  mdeed,  ate 
often  given  at  first  on  aooonnt  of  Uie  object  poa- 
sessing  certain  attribotea ;  but  once  given,  th«y  do 
not  oontinoe  to  conoote  ttuisa  attriboM*.  The  finb 
John  B^er  was  prabaUy_  ao  called  beoaosa  Iw 
exercised  the  bade  of  baking ;  but  hia  «easing  t» 
bake  woold  not  have  made  him  loae  the  name; 
and  his  descendants  were  called  Baker,  regaidless 
of  their  oocnpation. 

Proper  names  are  thus  meoninslcss  nuait,  to  dia- 
ttnimiah  «ne  tndividaal  from  another ;  aikd  the  A, 
B,  0,  &&,  which  a  geometrician  affixes  to  the  several 
angles  <rf  a  figure,  are  as  much  proper  namaa  aa 
Tom,  Lawrie,  Ac,  applied  to  the  individnal  bdia 
of  a  ohime.  The  proper  contrast,  then,  to  a  Ptoper 
Noun  is  not  a  ComtojHi  Noun — ma^ninp  )w  tJi«*  ^ 
name  e««iunon  to  a  data  of  objeots— but  a  Significant 

Of  Significant  Noons,  by  far  the  greiter  number 
are  Oenend  or  Clua  Names ;  that  is,  th^  can  ha 
applied  to  any  individual  ot  a  daa  <A  dajects, 
implying  that  all  these  individoals  have  ccotaiB 
attributes  in  common— as  quadnyitd,  book.  Hw 
quadruped  spoken  of  may  perhaps  b«  a  Itortt,  and 
here  we  have  anotiier  dast-name^  applicable  to  the 
same  object,  but  of  lets  generality  than  '  quadruped.' 
AniTttal,  again,  is  more  general  Utsn  quadruped, 
being  appucable  to  a  far  wids  class.  But  it  is 
important  to  observe,  that  sa  the  number  of  objects 
that  the  terms  are  applied  to,  m  denote^  inawuea, 
the  number  of  attributes  they  imply — in  other 
words,  the  amount  of  their  meaning — flimiwiifl^ji^, 
To  coll  an  object  an  'animal,'  mer^  implies  tbat 
it  is  organised  and  is  ^vs  (with  that  kind  <rf  lifa 
called  animal  life) ;  to  call  it  a  *  quadruped,'  impliea 
all  this  and  a  number  of  attributes  in  aodltion ;  and 
to  call  it  a '  horee,'  implies  a  still  further  addition. 

It  is  to  this  class  of  words  that  the  term  Common 
Nouns  is  properly  applicable ;  and  the  oontnst  to 
tbem  is  not  Propec  Mouns,  but  what  miidit  be 
called  Singular  Nonn^  such  as '  God,'  '  ftmSaiee^ 


AodL    They  form  a  _ 

for  regimeat  is  ap|>licahle  to  all 


(kUaiict  Name*  are  snch 

odl    They 

Common  Noi      ,  ,      .      _  ..,   _.   __ 

collection*  of  men  oraanised  in  a  particular  way. 

Namttj^  MtUtriiA  are  such  ssinni,ini£o',fu(«ir, 
..Aeofc  lliesa  two  classes  appear  in  many  case* 
to  merge  into  each  other.  In  both,  the  object*  named 
eonaiat  of  an  aggrejntion ;  hot  in  coUectivs  naww, 
the  parts  f  ormmg  Uie  collection  are  Uioa|jit  of  aa 
individual  objecU ;  as  the  aoUun  of  a  regiment^ 
the  fiAe*  composing  a  shosL  Substances,  smin, 
like  iron,  gold,  wat^,  are  not  made  up  td  denies 
individoal  parte  (at  least  to  our  senses] ;  and  in 
such  sa  wheat,  sand,  the  name  of  the  individo^ 
viaibla  part  (^ruin  <^  kAsiU,  grain  qf  tmuQ  is 


i.LiOOglc 


NOUEEDDm-UAHMUD— NOTA  SCOTIA. 


'bwdateel,' 


deriTed  from  the  nmnia  of  the  dum,  ihewing  Hat 
tlw  idea  of  Uie  indiridual  U  •mllowed  np  in  Oat 
ofthemMi. 

A  conrenient  temi  (or  oMxat*  ol  nuterials  or 
mbatancM  iil  that  tued  by  Gemun  grunmatiuu 
— Staff-iioani.    Sometimaa  the  lame  vord  i*  luwd 

'The  oow  eat*  gran'  (stuff-noon) :  'The  botaniit 
■todic*  Uu  groMtt,  and  baa  found  a  new  fnut' 
(claM-Bonn) ;  '  nuy  hadjbA  (atuff-noniO  (or  dinner, 
and  connuned  torn:  atgt /iIum'  (olaea-nonn). 

Namei  of  tnateiial*  an  not,  lUce  ooUective  noDua, 
a  mbdiriiion  of  oommon  noniu ;  they  b«long  to  ths 
eonbasted  clan  of  aingnlw  nonni ;  and,  wnen  the 
inbatanoe  U  nnple  or  inTariable  in  oompr*^ 
cannot  be  nwd  in  tbe  phmJ  j  aa  geld,  voter , 

AlMlmei  Notatt. — In  tba  entreinan  'bard 

or  'the  atedit  hard,'  the  word  heard  impliea 

tain  quality  or  attribnte  aa  belonging  to  the  ttecL 
This  qnjJity  haa  no  oiatenae  qiui  from  steel  or 
■ome  other  sabstanoe ;  but  I  can  withdnw  {obalraEt) 
mf  thoiwhti  from  the  steal  in  other  respect^  uul 
think  oTthis  quality  aa  if  it  had  an  independent 
eiisteuoa.  ^le  name  of  this  imaginaiy  exietence 
or  afaatraotion  !■  liardimi.  All  vordi  expreasiTe 
of  the  qnahldea^  actions,  or  states  of  objerts,  have 
abstract  noons  OOTresponding  to  than ;  as  bravt — 
braeery  ;  itrike — rimb  ;  wsfl-  JWA  ui  opposition 
to  abatraot  uouna,  all  othera  are  eonenle  nonni— 
that  ii^  the  atbribntes  implied  in  them  are  connderad 
■s  embodied  in  (eonovfa,  Lai  growing  tt^etber)  the 
actual  enstflOMa  niinf^i 

NOUBEDDIN-HAHHtlD,  Halbk-aIt 
Adkl,ob»  of  the  most  iUnstrious  men  of  hii  tinuu 
and  tdie  aoomse  of  the  Chriatiaoa  who  had  aettled 
in  Syria  and  Fslestine,  was  bom  at  Dunascas,  Slat 
Febmary  Illfi.  His  father,  Omad-ed-din  Zengni, 
oripnally  go^emor  of  Mosul  and  Di&rbekir  on 
behalt  of  the  Seljuk  anltaai,  had  established  his 
independeDoe,  and  extended  his  ■□thoritr  over 
Northern  Syria,  inchiding  Hems,  Edessa,  Hamah, 
and  AleppOL  K.  succeeded  him  in  114S,  and  the 
better  to  carry  out  his  ambitioat  dengns,  dhanged 
the  seat  of  government  from  Mosul  to  Aleppo. 
Count  Joaoelin  of  Edeaaa,  thinking  the  aeoesaion 
«f  a  young  and  inexperienced  aoratign  a&oided 
him  a  favonntble  ^pprntanity  of  regaining  hia  teiri- 
oiici^  made  a]i_innMd  at  the  head  of  a  Iwge  forces 


i  was  signally  disoomfited  nnder  the  walls  <rf 
can,  hii  amre,  with  the  exception  of  10,000  men, 
_ng  oompletdy  annihilated.  The  report  of  N.'s 
coeas  bang  coavOTed  to  Western  Europe,  gave 
«  to  the  second  Cmtiia.     The  Crusaden  were. 


tory  being  defeated  and  auin  in  a  bloody  conflict 
near  Bogia  (29th  June  1149),  and  before  1101  all 
Uie  Chrutdan  ab      '   "     '      ~ 


„ Syria 

Ha  next  oast  his  «yes  on  Egjriit,  wbidi 
waa  in  a  state  of  almost  oomplete  anaroby  nnder 
the  feeble  away  of  the  now  effeminate  Fatimltes, 
•od,  as  a  prdiminary  step^  he  took  poBBsaaon 
of  Damascus  (whidt  till  this  time  had  been  ruled 
by  aa  iodepeiMeut  Seljok  prinoe)  in  115S;  but  a 
toriUe  eartiiqaaka  wluoh  at  this  time  devastated 
fhrria,  levelling  large  portionB  of  Antioch,  lUpolis, 
Hamah,  Hems,  and  otiiBr  towns,  put  a  atop  to  hia 
scheme  for  the  presoit,  and  oompeUed  him  to  devote 
all  bia  enogies  to  the  remoral  of  tiie  ttaoM  of  this 
deatmctive  vintalion.  An  illnsat  which  protttated 
him  in  1169,  enaUed  the  Christdana  to  recover  some 
of  their  lort  territories,  and  N.,  in  attempting  thdr 
le-tubjugation,  waa  totally  defeated  near  the  I^ke 
of  Oamuareth  t^  Baldwin  W,,  king  of  Jerusalem ; 


but  undismayed  by  this  leyerse,  he  reaumed  tha 
offensive,  defeated  the  Christian  prinoea  of  Tripolis 
and  Antioch,  making  prisonei*  ot  both,  and  again 
iikvaded  Fslestine>  Aleanwhile,  he  had  obtamed 
the  sanction  <>t  the  calif  ot  Bagdad  to  hia  mofects 


waa    Boon    raised,    which,    under     ...    ._ 

Shiriuili,  speedily  overrMi  Egvpk  Ebirkoh  dyii^ 
soon  after,  was  succeeded  ^mui  nephew,  the  cele- 
brated Salah-ed-din  (q.  v.),  who  oomplated  the 
CMtqoeat  of  the  oountiy.  N.,  beocming  jealous  c< 
his  able  young  lieutenant,  was  preparing  to  mHch 
into  Egypt  in  person,  when  he  died  ^  Sanuwons, 
ISth  Hav  1174.  N.  is  one  of  the  great  heroea  of 
Moakm  history.  Brought  np  among  worioia  who 
weia  sworn  to  shed  their  blood  for  the  canae  of 
the  Prophet,  he  retained  in  hia  exalted  station  all 
the  auBMM  simplidty  of  the  fint  califs.  He  waa 
not,  like  the  majority  of  his  co-religicnista^  a 
mere  oonauemr.  but  sealonaly  promoted  the  cnl- 
soianoe^  arte,  and  literature,  and 
strict  admin ietralion  of  justice 
throughout  his  extaisLve  H«Tnininr,«  He  waa 
revered  br  his  subjeots,  both  Uoslam  and  Chris- 
tian, for  his  moderation  and  clemoncy,  and  even 

princes  extolled  hia  ohiTslron*  heroism  Mid  good 
faith.  He  poesesaed  in  an  oninent  degree  the 
faculty  of  impreesing  his  own  fiery  seal  for  the 
suprunaoy  of  Islam  npon  his  snhjeets,  and  their 
dcMandanta  at  the  present  day  have  faithfoUjr 
preaarvsd  both  hia  name  and  prinoiplea. 

NOTA  SOO^IA,  u  provinoe  of  the  Sominkai 
of  Csnads,  is  bonnded  on  Uts  S-Vf.  by  New 
Brunswiok  and  the  Bay  of  Fond; 
tiie  Straits  of  Nortbinnberland  ant 
lAwrence^  and  on  the  other  side*  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  It  oonsiBtB  (d  two  portionB,  N.  8.  proper,  a 
large  peninsula  connected  with  New  Bmnawiok 
by  an  isthmus  about  IS  miles  in  width,  and  the 
island  of  Cape  Brettm  (q.  v.).  The  peninsula, 
about  2S0  milea  in  length,  and  from  SO  to  lOO 
miles  broad,  extends  in  an  east-north-east  and  west- 
south-west  direction.    Oape  Breton  lies  north-east 


of  N.  S.  propw,  separated  from  it  by 

strait,  ealled  (be  On  of  Caoso,  16  miles  Ions,  and 

from  half  a  mile  to  2  miles  wide.    Sable  bland. 


which  is  SA  nules  in  length  by  1)  in  btcadOi,  and  is 
BuiTonnded  by  a  duigerous,  widely-extended  sand- 
bank, is  sitnated  about  90  mQes  from  the  nsareat 
coast  of  N.  a,  in  lat  44*  N„  and  long.  W*  W.  It  u 
formed  of  saod-hilla  thrown  up  by  the  sea,  some  of 
Uiem  beiuB  about  SO  feet  in  heiriit.  The  island  ii 
covered  with  wild  graBses,  irttich  support  herds  of 
vrild  bones,  known  as  Sable  Island  ponieE.  It  ia  in 
tiie  trsMk  of  Teasels  trading  between  America  and 
Britain,  and  owing  to  the  number  of  wrecks  that 
tske  place  on  its  shores,  a  supenatendent  and 
seveid  men  are  stationed  here  for  the  purpose  at 


21,731  square  miles;  pop.  (1S71)  S87,8O0;  (1S61) 
440,072.  The  ooast-line  is  abont  1000  miles  in 
length,  and  the  shores,  which  are  much  iodented, 
abound  in  excellent  bays  and  harbours,  of  which 
the  chief  are  Ched^bucto  Bay,  Ualiiax  Harbour, 
St  Margaret's,  Mahone,  and  St  Mary's  Bays, 
ADuapolis,  MuiBBj^  and  Chignecto  Bssios,  and 
Pictou  Hubonr.  There  are  numerous  riveiu,  but 
few  of  Utem  are  over  SO  nules  in  length  ;  the  moat 
important  are  the  Avon,  the  Annapolia,  and  the 
Sbubenacadis.  N.  S.  oontaiaa  about  400  lakes,  of 
which  the  Bras  d'Or,  in  Cape  Breton,  covers  an  are* 
of  COO  square  miles,  or  about  one-dxlh  of  the  entire 
area  of  the  islands  The  turfaoe  ia  irr^olar  and 
undulating,  but    not  elevated.      Bangea    of   hills 


„.==:,,  LlOOglC 


NOVA  ZBMBLA-NOVATIAM. 


tniTMM  the  otDtn  of  _  .  ... 
lengtti.  The  CobcqiiicI  MonnUini, 
tlie  AtUntic  and  11(10  feet  high,  traverae  the  penin- 
nil*  from  the  Bay  of  Fundy  to  the  Straits  of  thnio. 
The  loil  in  the  valleyB  ia  nch  and  fertile,  producing 
all  the  fraita  of  temperate  climatei ;  and,  eepeciaUy 
in  the  norUi,  the  QpUnda  alio  are  fertile.  The 
climate  is  remarkably  healthy,  ita  Tigonr  being 
modified  by  th«  inmlar  ehancter  of  the  province, 
•nd  by  the  iuflnenoe  of  the  Onlf  Stream.  Themean 
tenperatiire  for  the  year  ia  ^-09*  at  Picton,  and 
^S-fl^atWiitdaor.  The  extreme  limiti  of  the  thermo- 
meter may  be  etated  at  —  IS*  Pahr.  in  winter,  and  93* 
in  Uie  abMe  in  lummer.  The  pnrvince  aboondi  in 
mineral  richea,  inolading  gold,  coal,  and  iron.  Gold 
waa  fint  diacoTered  in  tbe  colony  in  March  1661, 
on  Tangier  Kiver,  about  40  mile*  eaat  of  Halifax. 
The  chief  digging*  are  along  the  Atlantic  coaat,  but 
the  goId-beannE  region  extends  over  3000  aqiian 
mile*.  The  goQ  niinet  have  been  worked  steadily, 
and  in  many  caaea  profitably.  The  average  earning 
of  each  miner  ii  over  £120  a  year ;  the  ananal  yidd 
ia  from  10,000  to  14,000  onncea,  and  the  total  yield 
from  the  beginnins  tUl  1882,  haa  been  abont  400,000 
onncea.  Ccal  and  iron  are  abundantly  diatributed 
and  exteniivdy  worked ;  the  capital  invested  in 
coal-mining  ii  eatimated  at  £2,400,008.  Nearly 
1  000,000  tons  of  coal  are  raised  annually. 
entire  area  of  the  colony,  10,000,000  acres 
■idered  good  land,  and  of  these  above  1,000,000  acrea 
are  under  cnltivation.  Three-fonrths  of  the  whole 
area  are  compriaed  in  the  peninsnla  of  N.  8.,  and 
the  Kmunder  in  the  i^ana  of  Cape  Breton.  The 
jninoipal  igricoltaral  products  are  hay,  wheats 
b«riey,  bnokwheat,  oata,  rye,  Indian  com,  potatoes 
and  tnmipB.  The  waten  aronnd  the  colony  abound 
in  Aah,  la  1 — ' — "'  -'  '  '  ' 
thefl^rii 
inoreaaiog  *ae<i 
may  amount  tc 

an  employed  ._   .   .  ... 

include  coarse  cloths  and  flannels,  leather,  saddlery, 
machinery,  tobacco  and  paper ;  and  ihipbnildiDg  is 
earriad  on.  Among  the  chief  importa  are  cottons, 
iilka,  woollens,  sugar,  and  spirits.  In  the  three 
man  1879  to  1S81,  the  valne^  exports  ranged  from 
$7,363/XH>  to  (8,200,000;  that  of  impinis  from 
$7,000,000  to  |B,00(UK)a  Abont  60  newspapers  and 
periodioala  are  pnbliBhed.  There  atellfSOr'' — ' 
tdegraph,  and  sitmve  300  milea  of  railway. 
Msses&ooll^i«e,10academiea,andl700otlieTi 

N.  8.  Is  supposed  t«  have  beoi  visited  an.  _ 
eoveied'  by  the  Cabota  in  14Sf}.  Ita  first  odonists 
were  •  nmnberof  Frenchmen,  who  estaUiahed  them- 
selves here  in  1C04,  but  were  afterwaids  expelled 
by  settlers  from  Virginia,  who  claimed  the  eonntry 
by  right  of  discovery.  Under  the  French  settlers 
it  bore  the  name  of  Acadia  (Acadte) ;  but  its  name 
was  changed  for  ita  present  one  in  1621,  when  a 
nant  of  &6  peninsula  wsa  obtained  from  James  L 
by  Sir  William  Alexander,  whose  intention  was  to 
oolonise  the  whole  country.  Having  found,  bow- 
ever,  Uiat  the  loealitie*  Qxey  had  fixed  upon  sa 
•nitable  for  settlemcut  were  ah-eady  ooonpied,  the 
colonists  returned  to  tha  mother-ooontry.  In  1664, 
the  French,  who  had  r^ained  a  looting  in  the 
colony,  woe  snbdned  by  a  foroe  sent  ont  by  Crom- 
well. By  tiu  treaty  of  Breda,  the  oountry  was  ceded 
to  the  French  in  1667,  bat  it  wm  restored  to  the 
Eoglish  in  1713.  After  the  middle  of  the  18th  c 
■trennous  efforts  were  made  to  advance  the  interests 
of  the  colony.  Settler*  were  sent  out  at  tbe  expense 
t£  the  British  govenunent.  The  Frenclt,  who  had 
joined  the  Tn^^i^"f  in  hoatilitiee  against  the  Bt^gtjfcb, 

Cape  Breton,  w 


r  completely  mastered,  « 
a  Frenoh  till  1763,  and  k 


sQbsequeDtiy  a  separate  province,  was  united  to 
N.  S.  ID  1819.  N.  S.  was  incorporated  with  the 
Dominion  of  Canada  in  1S67,  and  is  repnaented  in 
the  Canadian  parliament  by  12  aenatore  and  20 
members  of  the  Lower  Honse.  It  haa  also  its  own 
local  legislatnre  and  lieutenaDt-govemor ;  the  legis- 
lature consiiting  of  a  conncu  and  a  Honse  of 
Assembly  elect^  by  the  counties — which  sre  18 
in  number — and  tbe  cities,  the  chief  of  which  are 
Halifax,  Yarmouth,  Tniro,  and  Piotou. 

NOTA  ZBiaBLA  (Eu«.  Noaaja  Zariba,  'Nerw 
I>nd'),  the  name  given  to  a  chain  of  islands  lying 
in  the  Arctic  Ocean  (lat.  between  70*  30"  and  76* 
30*  N.,  and  long,  between  62*  and  66*  £.),  and 
included  within  the  KOvemment  of  Archangel 
Length  of  the  cluun,  470  miles;  average  breadth,  58 
miles.  The  raoit  aoothem  island  ia  specially  called 
Nova  Zembla;  of  the  othen,  the  principal  are 
UatOiew's  LMid  and  lAtke's  Duid.  They  were 
discovered  in  1653,  and  are  wild,  roc^,  and  desolate 
—the  vegetation  beiiw  chiefly  moss,  lieheus,  and  a 
few  shmba.    Tha  higibeat  point  in  the  <duun  is  347S 

feet  above  the  Uvel  of  the  aes.    Mean  t * — 

r,  at  the  aonthem  exlramity, 
!I*.    N.  Z.  haa  no  permanent 

__B  coasts  swarm  wiUi  whales  ai 

and  the  interior  with  bears,  reindeen,  and  foxeL 
they  are  periodically  frequented  by  fishermen  and 
hant«rs.SeeUarkhatn'BPo^ifeea>Maissanes{lSSl). 

NOVALIS.    See  HAKDEHimia. 

NO  VAItA,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  and  cental 
of  province  of  same  name,  is  aitoated  in  a  fertile 
district  about  60  miles  E.K.S.  of  Turin.  Popt  {1881) 
16,232;  of  commune,  33,077.  It  oommandi  fine 
Alpine  views  fiom  ita  ancient  dismantled  forti- 
fications, and  contains  sever^  notable  churches 
especially  the  cathedral,  with  its  fine  frescoes  and 
•cnlpturea,  and  grand  hi^^-altar.  On  the  23d  of 
March  1849,  N.  was  the  scene  of  a  great  battle 
between  the  Sardinian  forces  snd  an  Austrian  army 
commanded  I^  Eadetsky,  which  resulted  in  tlM 
Domplote  defeat  of  the  Italians,  and  ultimately  led 
to  the  abdication  of  Charles  Albert  in  favour  of  his 
son,  Victor  EmmanueL 

NOVATIAIT,  a  priest  of  the  Bornon  Oinrch  in 
the  3d  &,  and  the  leader  of  a  sect  called  after  his 
name.  The  place  and  time  of  hia  birth  are  not 
known  with  certainty.  K.  had  been  a  stoic  philo- 
sopher, but  after  his  arrival  in  Rome  wis  oonverted 
to  Chrtstisiuty,  and  beii^  aeiied  with  sudden  illnesa 
while  still  a  uteofaoinen,  leoeivedwhat  waa  called 
dinlMl  baptism;  that  ia,  bwtism  adminiatered  tm* 
aiek-bed,  and  without  the  solemn  osranoniaL  Such 
baptism  was,  in  ordinary  drcumstances,  an  impedi- 
ment to  holy  orders.  Notwithstandins  this  irr^nlaz 
baptism,  N.  was  promoted  to  orders  by  Fabisn  the 
Roman  bishop;  and  soon  afterwards  shewed  bis 
weakness  by  flying  during  a  penecntion.  At  this 
time  a  controversy  arose  about  the  manner  of  dealing 
with  the  lapsed ;  that  is,  those  who  fell  away  in 

Earaecution,  N.  at  first  inclined  to  the  milder  mde, 
ut  on  tbe  election  of  Cornelias  to  the  Roman 
bishopric  to  which  N.  had  as^rired,  and  on  Cornelias 
taking  the  iudnlgttit  oonrse  towards  the  lapsed,  H., 
t(^et£er  with  Novatns  and  some  other  discontented 
pruats  of  CarUiage,  opposed  hia  autlumty,  and 
eventnally  N.  was  choesn  by  a  small  party,  and 
actually  ordained  biahop,  in  opposition  to  ConieUns. 
The  portywho  espoused  his  cause  was  called  by  his 
name.  They  were  confined  mainly,  in  the  first 
instance,  to  Rome  and  to  Carthsos,  whare  a  kindred 
conflict  had  arisen.  They  held  Siat 
dime  of  idolatry  throu^  f^  of  p 
chutch  had  no  pow«r  to  absolve  the  penitent ;  and 
thenfor*^  although  it  does  not  appear  that  th^ 


i.LiOOglc 


NOVELLA— NOVEia 


of  the  ohurdi.  This  doctaina  tiiey 
BEtended  kt  »  Inter  poiod  to  all  iniaroof  eiiu^  -' 
irtiBteTCT  ohantcter.    S.  m^j  tbok  oe  regacded 


N.  pirtfMt  np  bioluMiB  and  ntftUiihed  ahDrdieB 
not  odIt  kt  Caithajn,  tnit  at  CSonitantiiiople,  Alei- 
MidriBiN'icomedia,  fik^gia.  Gaol,  Spun,  and  else- 


whara.  Tfaey  claimed  for  tiiemaelTea  a  ehanoter  of 
eipecul  punty,  and  aMnmed  the  appellation  of 
Cathari  (PnntMu).  The  time  and  maimer  of  the 
death  of  If.  ia  nneertain.  According  to  Sooratei 
{HiM.  Ece.iv.Sa;  t.  21;  TJL  S.  12,  &),  he  died  a 
martyr  in  the  peraacntdon  of  Valerian,  but  thin  ia 
improbable.  He  waa  a  man  of  eonaiderable  learning, 
and  the  woric  leeeottjr  diaooremd  in  one  of  the 
uanaaterie*  of  Mount  Athoe,  and  published  hf  Ur 
Hiiler  at  Oxford  in  ISSl,  nnder  the  title  of  Ongema 
Ptiilotopkamaui,  ia  hj  aome  aaoribed  to  him.  Hia 
•ect  aarvired  Ions  after  hia  death.  An  nnancoeaafnl 
effort  -waa  made  m  the  conocil  of  Nice  to  re-unite 
them  to  the  ohnroh ;  and  tiacea  of  them  are 
diaoorerable  in  the  end  of  the  6th  oentory. 

NOVELLA    See  jDSnsuir, 

NOVELS.  The  novel  and  the  aD-calledTomanDe, 
inaamuch  aa  they  conatantly  mei^  in  one  another, 
and  are  only  nperfldally  diituwniihed  by  the 
pFeponderanee  in  the  one  of  or^naiy  and  fami- 
liar ineidenti,  in  the  other  <A  inoidmt  more  «r  lee* 
remote  and  marrdlona,  may  oonvenientlybe  inoloded 

here  ondtr  tho  eommon  definition  of  prote ''-" 

flotion.  Between  the  leaendary  epio,  th 
into  which  portions  of  its  aTail^ala 
from  floent  become  cnstalliaed,  and  the  wider 
proee  flotioti  or  noref,  into  which  tikis  again 
expanda  itself,  tlisre  are  obriona  afflnitiee,  the  dis- 
tinotions  being  rather  of  form  than  of  easenoe.  It 
is  of  the  later  derelopment,  Uie  novel,  that  we 
porpoM  to  giv«  here  a'liistarioal  sketch,  omitting, 
however,  any  oonsidetatiMi  of  the  remoter  and  bat 
slightly  known  spedmona  prodnoed  in  Hindustan 
and  China. 

1.  Anaent  Clanieai  Prrm  i^Utoa.— The  eariteat 
Greek  compoeitiona  oi  a  fictitiona  character,  of  wbicji 
we  poeaen  xay  knowledge,  are  the  MUetiaea,  or 
MShiiat  Tola,  said  to  have  been  mitten  chiefly 
by  one  Aristides.  The  Hileaians  were  a  colony 
of  lonjo  Greek*  who  settled  in  Ama  Minor,  and 
tell  nnder  the  dmninioii  of  the  Persians,  4M  B.a 
They  were  a  volaptvoni,  brillianti  and  inventive 
race,  and  are  sappoaed  to  have  oanght  Erran 
their  eastern  naatera,  whom  tb^  somewhat  resem- 
bled, a  liking  for  that  partioDlarly  oriental  species 

the  origioal  Gre^  or  in  the  Latin  verdoo  mads 
by  Sisuina,  the  Roman  historian,  abont  the  time 
of  Marios  and  Solla ;  bnt  we  have  some  forty 
storiea  by  Parthonins  NicBaa,  which  ore  conaidered 
to  be  to  a  certain  extent  odaptationa  from  them. 
The  collectuHi  of  Fartbcniua  is  entitled  iVi  Ertti- 
JbAi  PathlmatSn,  and  is  dedicated  to  ComelinB 
Oallns,  the  Latin  poet,  and  the  contemporary  and 
fnend  of  VirgiL  If  we  may  jndge  from  this  later 
set  of  fictions,  which  sre  mainly  owoemed  with 
the  description  of  all  sorts  of  sedoction,  of  criminal 
and  inoestuons  passiona,  and  ot  defdoraUe  tenni< 
nation!  ta  wretebsd  lives,  we  have  little  eanse, 
either  morally  or  mrtbeticaUy,  to  regret  the  loaa  of 
their  uune  famonj  prototypes.  In  Oraece  Proper, 
nothing  waa  done,  so  far  as  we  know,  in  the  way  of 
novel  or  romance,  nntil  after  the  age  of  Alexander 
the  Great  It  ha*  been  oonjeotored,  not  improbably. 


that  hia  Eastern  oo&qnesti  had  a  intent  eSwt  in 
giving  this  new  bent  to  the  fsocy  of  his  ooontry- 
men.  Clearchoa,  a  discifde  of  Aristotle,  wrote  a 
history  id  fiotationa  love-advantnrea,  and  is  Urns, 
perhaps,  to  be  oonsidand  the  fiiat  European  Greek 
novelist,  and  the  firat  of  the  long  seriee  of  Brotiit^ 
who  reach  down  to  the  13th  a  after  Christ.  Not 
long  after  came  Antonias  Diogenes,  whose  romance, 
in  24  boolis,  entitled  Ta  hyper  Thoulen  Apitta  (Of 
the  Incredible  Things  beyond  Thole),  was  fonnded 
on  the  waoderinga,  adventures,  and  loves  of  Diniaa 
and  Dercyllis.  It  sppeare  to  have  been  held  in 
high  esteem,  and  waa  at  least  useful  as  a  store-honse, 
whence  later  writers,  such  as  Aohilles  Tatins, 
derived  materials  for  thdr  more  artistic  fictions. 
The  woric  has  not  been  preserved,  but  Photina 
gives  an  ontline  of  its  contents  in  his  BibUoSuea 
Cod. 

A  long  interval,  embradng,  indeed,  several  oen- 
fairies,  new  elapse*  before  we  oome  npon  another 
Greek  novelist  or  romancisL  Be  the  canse  irf 
this  vrtiat  it  may,  the  ever-increasing  luxury  and 
depravi^  of  the  psgan  imperial  world,  oombined 
to  develop  and  inteuify  that  morbid  craving  for 
horribly  magical,  and  snperaataral  incidents,  which 
in  general  fill  the  page*  of  the  romanoists  of  the 
empire.  The  firat  names  that  occur  in  the  new 
sene*  are  Lnoias  of  Patra  {Palrennt)  and  Lnciaa 
(q.  v.),  who  flonrished  in  the  2d  c  A.  D.,  dnring  the 
reign  ot  Uarcns  Antoninus ;  but  as  the  former 
sim^y  oolleoted  acconnts  of  magii-Al  tnu»sf(»< 
mabcns  {llAamorjAtme*),  he  ia  perbap*  not  to  be 
regarded  aa  a  novelist  pcpi^r  at  all;  while  the 
latter  waa  really  a  hninorist,  satirist,  and  mraalist 
in  tiie  guise  <A  a  stoty-teller— in  a  word,  a  olassia 
Babelais  and  Heine,  and  as  far  as  possiUe  from 
being  a  member  of  the  wonder-Iavmg  sohod  of 
Erotios,  with  whom  he  has  only  an  accidental 
connection  by  the  external  form  of  soms  of  hia 
writings.    The  fiist  of  the  -     ' 

[not  tiie  .... 

lomca  is,  indeed,  no  kager  extant 
ablo  to  form  a  ^et^  jaw 
epitome  <d  Photins.     The 

tbatof   "         "  ....  .         -  -.    -  — 

flourished  in  the  4ui  c;  A.  D.  Hiis  Chnstian 
writer,  whose  Lma  of  Thtagesm  and  Charicleia 
is  teallv  the  ddest  extant  erotic  romance,  has  Ur 
exoelled  all  hia  pmdeccasota  in  everything  that  can 
render  a  atoiy  interesting  or  axcellen^  and  hia 
charming  flotion  obtained  a  great  popularity  among 
snoh  a*  could  read.  Some  ""*fl""  that  th^  sea 
in  HeUodorus  a'  resemUanoe  to  the  minutely 
desci^rtiTe  style  of  novel  inteodncad  into  Bnglm^j 
by  BicQiatdBon ;  but  without  adoptiiw  tiii*  ratlier 
extreme  notion,  it  can  at  least  be  s^dty  aswrted, 
that  AchiUia  Tatins  and  all  the  snbseqoent  ErotiM 
deliberately  umtated  hia  style  and  manner,  whila  be 
was  not  lea*  certainly  n*ea  aa  a  model  by  that  onoe 
celd)rated  bat  dre*af<ilW_  tedious  achool  of  heroic 
lanoe  which  flouridked  in  Franoe  dnring  the  17th 
and  whose  best-ranembered  rmresentative  i* 
Madonoiselle  de  ScndCri.  Taae(\  Guarini,  D'Uifi, 
and  aevval  other  modem  writers,  have  drawn  many 
particolan — acmetimes  almost  verhaiim — from  this 
storiea  in  the  Theagtne*  and  Charidtia.  Achillea 
Tatins  (q.  v.),  probably  belonging  to  the  Sth  a, 
raitka  next  to,  bat  at  soms  distsnce  from,  EeKodorus 
in  pinnt  of  merit.  Hia  romance,  entitled  Ta  iota 
Leai^fptn  ioi  jCfeilopAoBla,  and  oensiating  «l  ei^ 
boi^  haa  supplied  incident*  to  mrae  than  on* 
Italian  and  Frraich  writer. 

The  next  woA  that  invites  our  attention  tn  point 
of  time,  the  Daphatu  a»d  CUoe  of  Longna,  ia  of  a 
totally  different  ohaiaote*^     It  ia  a  aimple  and 


.  t  from  the 

itome  <d  Photins.     The  next  notable   name  ia 
Heliodom*  (q.  v.),  Kahop  of  Tiikka,  who 


..Guogli 


idafauMqne    praM-putoral,    vitk   m 

•xptoHii  Otw  ths  wkola  itorT  rert  «  nind  peaca 
■ad  »  mnhftf  ebMrfnl  windihn;  Mid,  in  Rate  ti 
■OBU  nognlady  pdlntod  pMMWM,  it  wu,  tor  ita 
IJBM,  ft  pnn  and  wholMom*  flMon.  A9>A)U«  omI 
CMm  i«  Um  Milf  pMtonl  ranuDM  prodnMd  by  aay 
BjmntiiM  author.  WIuUmi  at  atit  it  antoiiBd 
n7  jnflaarwa  on  tlw  dsFalo^nent  of  tlia  nwdem 
nwtoral  of  Italy  and  E^aaoc^  oannot  bo  fcored, 
ORt  it  ha*  bean  notioad  that  tliere  it  no  alight 
naamblanoa  batwaen  it  and  tha  itory  tt  the  OmSt 
Bluflitrd,  «4iioh  ws  kncrw  ma  aujgeatad  t»  Allan 
Baauay  by  a  rlnariri!  friend,  irho  may  Iutb  bcs^ 
rowad  fmm  the  Graek  tiM  Aotdi  whu^  he  gave 
to  Iha  poet  It  haa  alao  baan  rary  doaaly  imitated 
by  Gaaanar  in  hia  idyll  of  DtiplmU. 

After  LoDgui  oomea  Cluriton  (flor.  aometime 
between  the  oth  and  9th  oentmioi),  whoee  romanoek 
in  tight  booka,  mi  the  Lowet  <tf  Chanaa  and 
OaBinMI,  m  not  quite  oom^eta,  Init  neariy  ao.  It 
oontain^  like  tiie  oUier  entie  fiotiona,  ^antr  of 
atinittg  and  atartlina  adTentniea,  bnt  en  the  wbde 
theae  are  leaa  imFrobabIa  tl 
in  the  writjngi  o(  hia  p 
Xanenbona,  alao  noted  anunu  tha  BnM 
■ooaRaiii  datai  the  beat  ia  Xenophon  a 
wheae  romanea,  antitled  Bphetiaea,  or  M 

Amikta  tmi  Abnamat,  ia  in  tan  booka^  ■ 

tteeematjonaloharaoteriatioaof  theadhool  toiriiinh 
it  beloan.  It  ii,  howerer,  perhapa  worth  men- 
tioning,  Out  in  Uu  romaooe  of  Xenopbon  we  meat 
lor  the  fliattiina  with  the  atcnyof  the  bve-potian, 
the  natanded  death,  and  the  mook-antomfamant 
<f  the  hemini^  which  fonoa  the  leadioa  incident 
in  Siakapeaie'a  Annso  and  JtiUH,  and  which,  it  ia 
thon^it,  raaohed  Uie  gnat  Engliah  diamatiat  at 
ftfftnd  ar  third  hand,  through,  the  Italian  noreliat, 
Lnigl  da  Forth 

Again,  a  loqg  interral  elapata  before  we  meet 
with  aiwtlur  tore-Botioa  ol  the  old  pagan  aort 
Dning  tiiii  pariod,  bowerer,  a  work  made  ita 
iffieatanoat  which  wae  eaaaotiaUy  a  tomiaos,  and 
waa  oompoBed  eiprtaaly  for  the  paipoaa  of  reoom- 
MMiJIng  that  font  <A  Ohriatiaa  Ufa  whioh  waa  tka 
fBTonrite  in  aariy  tinua — the  aaoetio  and  raoloae 
loniL  niia  waa  the  Barbiant  and  Jota^at  (q.  t.), 
the  anthor  of  whidi  i*  miknown,  bnt  lAoee  popa> ' 
lari^,  during  the  middle  agaa,  may  be  eatamated 
fma  the  fact,  that  it  — "  ----■■-  •-'  - 
langnaae  of  Cbrirtendi 
In  the  12th  &,  aac 
Enswthlna,  irtio  waa  pnmariy  the  laat  of  Uw  aaaiea, 
pobliahed  hia  Iiment  and  Itmatiat,  in  alercn  book& 
taiia  romanoeia,  in  troth,  a  feeble  parformanoa;  the 
earring  fliokw  of  a  lamp  whoaa  ml  ia  abook  dme. 
It  IB  pnaiila  in  ita  delineation  of  eharaeter,  and  full 
ol  piamariamB;  yet  Buny  ol  ita  dataila  hn«  been 
oopied  by  lat«r  ooddoital  anitai%  nudi  aa  DITrtt 
and  Houtcmayor. 

In  all  the  tsotio  romanoaa^  the  adveDtarea,  which 

ebaracteriatioB.  The  hero  a>d  heroine  an  ganw- 
aUf  aarried  off  by  nliban  or  niiatea;  or  tbar  flee 
bwn  home,  and  am  aeddantatly  eaparated.  They 
MBolvB  to  aedc  eaoh  other  thnngtuHd  the  wcdd,  aMd 
in  the  ooniaa  of  their  loviaa;  qnaa^  thqr  TiMt  the 
mnoteat  region^  mnonntci  ue  moat  fri^tfol  parila. 


1  from  Norway  to  Spain. 


i^ain  m  moat  anexpacted  and  miiacaliMi 
toi  gananUy  oloaa  theb  caraw  in  happii 
^endid  pnaparity — olteti  tnraing  out  to 
offi^ring  of  &r  greater  people  than  th^ 
Ooptona  nae  la  mads  ot  peiaona,  lore 
tmprobabla  tricka,  magio  inatmmenta,  Ac ; 
ean  eadlyaee  that  the  rioriaawace  aMUt' 


laagnid,  eoRopt,  r™"™J|  and 
crednlona  peoid^  anch  ae  tha  Graeka  <d  tbe  Lower 
Knirire  nndoiibtedly  wen. 

Baton  toodung  on  Uie  medieval  romanea  of 
Waatem  Eoropa^  w«  niay  In  a  few  words  notioa 
■och  apedmem  of  olMaleal  fiction  aa  exist,  or  are 
knowM  to  hare  existed  in  Latin.  Wa  hare  already 
stated  that  the  Miladan  Talan  ware  toanaiated  into 
that  tonsoe  by  Bjaanna,  who  derived  hia  know>' 
ledge  of  unm  from  the  SybarHa^  a  Oreek  eela^ 
of  Lower  Italy.  Uie  taate  fnr  limilar  atoriaa 
inoraaaed  during  the  empire,  bnt  file  writers  in 
general  oannot  uve  diqdayed  mndi  genim  in  their 
^^'^"poaitifflia,  it  we  may  jndge  from  the  ooiitemp> 
t  nous  language  naad  by  tbe  EWaror  Senna  apunat 
Clodiua  AJbinoB,  whoee  flctiraia  lie  daaignBtaa  faufwna 
UUrtaia,  and  aniUa  (old  wiras'  tales).  Bat  higher 
praise  mnat  be  aasignad  to  ib»  woA  oaninionly 
attributed  to  Petronina  Arbiter  (^T.),  iriw  floacidiea 
in  the  time  of  Naro^  and  whtma  Satipieoit — inoom* 
plate — ia  a  eomic  nam  or  romance  and  (althon^ 
the  dirtieat  work  evaa  in  pamn  Btsatnre)  is 
exeonted  with  akin,  vigoiir,  and  at  times  with 
beanfy.  In  the  2d  c  i.D^  Ap|>uleiiis  (q.  t.)  wrote 
his  Am  (called  from  ita  exedlenae  the  Ooldat  Am), 
which  rolatee  the  adreDtuna  of  a  yonng  man  who 
had  the  miifortmle  to  be  accidentany 


^oaed  int«  that  j-hit"!,  irfaila  aojQDming  in 
Theauly,  retaining,  howBTer,  hia  hoinaii  oonaciOBa> 
naaa.  The  miaariea  whioh  he  anSers  at  the  huida 
of  robbcra,  ennneba,  mwatratee,  a«d  otiier  panou 
into  wboea  hands  he  &lls,  until  the  period  wfaoi  ha 
is  enabled  to  r«anmehia'b»mer  dgare^  are  partoayed 
with  a  wit,  humour,  and  faa^  nard^  inferior  to 
Laejan.  The  wai4t  ia  also  hdleved  to  have  had, 
hia  Greek 


Itw 


"7.  » 


Atrops,— The 


in  the  middle  ages,  haa  si^[diad  Boccaooe  with 
some  of  hia  stories,  and  the  aatkor  of  Oil  £Ia«  with 
the  piotonaqae  iitadenta  of  the  nbbattf  Ckve  in 
tha  eariy  part  of  Ui  romanoc^  and  onntaina  in  the 
erasode  of  Cupid  and  P^yeAe  ene  of  the  lovelieat 
allegoriea  of  classical  antiquity 

2.   SomaiUie  licUon  to   frarfsm 
fint  thing  to  be  dearly  undentood 
with  this  branch  <rf  litentura  ia,  Ibat  it  is  «o( 
tinnatjon  of  tbe  Oneoo-Byxantbte  or  niMsinal  ftelisi^ 

»  iwth,  the  ptodnct  ol 
lustorical  droomsMnoaa,  iriuch  wve  bnt  very 
alightiy  afilKied  by  Byaantine  inflnancca  of  any 
kind ;  and  it  tiani^orta  na  into  a  woild  d  ideai^ 
aentinunta,  beliefii  and  aattona^  aa  diffsmit  from 
wbiA  wa  find  in  tiw  BrvtOoi  as  ooold  wall  be 
imagimJ.  In  the  latter,  the  principal  ehaiaeten  era 
mare  loven  firetd  into  adventana  by  tha  ministan 
d  fata ;  in  tiie  fonner,  the;  are  real  haroea,  of  the 
old  U<Mnerie  type,  and  «aw  dangera  greedily  and 
joyooidy.  WlMa  we  read  the  SrMioi,  we  an 
'ed  in  many  ways  that  we  an  in  the  midst  of 
ipt  and  decaying  dvilisatton ;  when  wa  turn 
~  of  chivaliT,  in  qptte  of  osrtain 


Uoodsbad,  we  i 

of  a  yonthfnl,  heaiwy,  vigwcna  ana  nowug  aocuu 
life.  That  thsea  romanoea,  generally  &om  beginning 
to  end,  oonaiBt  of  a  series  of  exbaoidinai^  and 
nttedy  impoanble  exiddta,  in  which  tlie  mecio,  th* 
mnta7,  and  tbe  eodiantraeDle  of  the  Arabian 
Sight*  an  rivalled  or  ontabonai  is  unqnaatMnahle: 
but  thia  Proves  no  mora  than  that  the  taeee  m 
Western  flnrope,  who  alowly,  daring  tbe  dark 
agee,  rose,  by  die  help  of  1^  ohnroh,  out  of 
barbaric  into  fsadaliBn— Iba  first  step  towards  tb« 


:„., Google 


unrledM  whk 

But,  by  UM  oi 

■  vitbont  ktr 


__    tha  modem  world — wen    iMnnid- 

lMdrif!tu>nnt,orediiloiii,»iidwandm-loTiiiB.  Their 
nrodigioni  Tigonr  kod  rtbrnnmuM  of  cunoter 
nning  no  pniper  intellectiuJ  pcibulmn,  wm  foroed 
to  niipfy  m  «raviiig  for  a  knowledge  whuh  wm 
b^tmd  it* 

We  need  not  go  w  br  a* 
medknJ  Tomaocs,  erei3[tlimg  U  of  lutiTo  or 
'  Oothio '  origin ;  the  iMt  ia  ttay  maoh  tha  >«tww. 
Thii  aztreme  theory,  propoanded  by  Midlet,  and 
mpported  h^  Bithop  Ferqy  mnd  other  wnten,  ie 
totM^  faudeqoate  to  ttcooiint  for  mil  that  i*  con- 
tatuM  In  these  ronumoei^  Not  len  inade^nata  ia 
anoOter  tbeccr,  flnt  mmerted  by  Salmaaina,  and 
afterwardt  alabotated  by  warton,  that  th«  medieral 
naumoe  ia  m^nly  of  SanoMiio  ori^n,  and  waa 
prohably  introdoaed  by  the  Mooriih  aoncniwon  into 
ftiam.  and  tfamoe  pmpa^ted  into  nanoe  and 
Oitain ;  wbik  a  tinid  Uwwy,  vridch  hia  alao  found 
■inportera,  vi&,  tiut  it  waa  doind  from  tba  daai- 
ieal  mythology  <rf  ancient  Groeoe,  ia  the  moat  inade- 
qnate  of  aU.  The  traa  explaaatimi  of  the  matter 
^ipeanto  be,  tikat  medierar romance  had  ita  root  and 
fOondation  bi  Chivalry  (q.  t.)— «  ramiine  prodnot  of 
Weaten  Europe — and  alOMHi^  wo  mawiinwry,  ao 
to  apeak,  tha  exploita  and  the  marrtla,  mi^  naTe 
often  beoi  denTed  hma  the  foreign 


,  ,„  _e  B^rit,  aoMMty,  aentii 

life  of  the  legenda  ttioTonghly  Mfleet  the 
iatiea  oI  the  eariier  i^e*  of  f«adaliKn.  Tha  notiona 
of  diagon%  gianta,  ma^  ring*!  fochanted  caatUa, 
am  prdiBbly  rf  Saiaoemo  (rigUt  and  may  hare  been 
introdnaed  mto  Emvpa  by  the  horde  of  ptlgrtma 
wbft  Tiiited  the  Eait  m  the  time  of  the  Craaadea ; 
moh  inoidenti  a*  the  detaining  of  a  knight  from  hia 

Ct  by  tba  enobutmaita  cf  a  aoronwaa,  may  have 
a  toadition  of  the  Odyuqi  ot  Homer;  Init  the 
y,  the  aonrte^,  tbe  romantio  ndonr,  the 
imta,    the   nobla    friendahipa    of    brother- 


ohiva 


e  divinble  into  three 


mat  eerie* :  1.  Those  relating  to  Arthnr  and  tha 
Eniriite  of  the  Roond  Table ;  2.  Thoaa  relatiiig  to 


Charlemagne  and  hia  Paladina ;  3.  Thoae  relatii^  to 
j^iwjlif  de  G^anl  and  hia  descendants 

The  Arthniian  aeriea  ia,  in  its  eaaenoe^  of  Welsh 
•od  Annorio  origin.  Ita  gentaii  ia  aa  foUowa. 
Knt  came  the  Ii^endary  ^nmicln  compoaed  in 
Walea  ta  Brittany,  soehai  tim  Dt  SheMto  BrittamUe 
of  Qildaa  (q.T.);  the  obrooiele  of  Kennini,  belonging 
to  the  Om  e. ;  the  Armorie  colleetiona  of  Wdter 
CalenioBorGnaltin,  Archdeacon  of  Oxford;  andUie 
bmoQB  Chnmkon  tb>e  Hitbria  BribmutA  of  Geo&ey 
of  Monmouth  (q.  v.)— '''om  tiwaa,  and  from  tlia  mnlb- 
tnde  of  floating  unrecorded  traditioiw,  apntng  the 
mOrktU,  which  in  torn  gave  birth  to,  and  wen 
ultimately  acpoiaeded  by,  the  prote  romancea.  It 
H  with  the  lattat  alone  wa  have  here  to  da  They, 
like  the  nebioal  romanmw,  were  oompoaad  oy 
Anglo-Nonnan  anOuaa  (whoaa  name*  ai«  QDknown) 
d1)m^;  the  18th,  Uth,  and  ISth  oentoiiei,  who  to<A 
all  tu  mon  wHlindy  to  the  old  Britiui  leganda, 
that  intheee  the  'Saxona' were  tha  object*  (rf  the 
anthon^  hatred  and  detevtation.  Tha  principal 
lomanoa  of  tha  Arthurian  cycle  ai«  thoae  of  iltrSn 
(q.  T,],  the  enchantar;  al  ATtkur  (q.  v.);  of  the 
Sangtisal  (lae  QsiUL) ;  of  Fmevai;  of  Laneeiot  du 
Lac;  of  the  prince*  of  Lyonneaaa,  Xdiadtu  and 
fai«  «on  Trittan ;  and  ot  Init  le  TriOt,  the  tan  of 
Tristan.  They  relate  the  marrellona  adventures, 
exploits,  loTBB,  and  gallaDtriea  of  the  Enigfata  of  the 
Boond  Table,  and  an  probably  in  aabstSDca  the 


oldeat  of  the  medieral  proa*  tt 

are  generally  laid  in  Wals*,  Cornwall,  Brittany, 
Ii^wad,  or  Scotland;  only  in  one  or  two  of  the 
■«nee are  we  taken  aa  far  aa  E^ypt  or  India;  Md 
thongh  ArUiur  ia  alain  by  <  Saracen* '  who  mpported 
hia  nofdiew,  Mordred,  and  a  genenl  eaatem  oolonr- 
ingispreaant  in  tha  cycle^  yet  it  ia' Saxona 'who 
are  hia  prindpal  foe*. 

The  seriea  of  Charlema^M  and  hia  Paladin*  is  of 
purely  French  origin,  aikd  oii^nated  in  a  (omeiriiat 
similar  faahicm  to  the  Arthnrian  cycle ;  that  is  to 
say,  thei«  waa  firit  a  legendary  chKniide  ^  vetae, 
howerer),  entitled  Hi*toria  d*  VUa  Oanii  Maqni  H 
Bobmdi,  errmeoiuly  attributed  to  ^irpin  or  Tilpin, 
AichbislMp  of  H-himn,  audooutempoiary  of  Olume- 
nugn^  bat  probably  exeooted  in  the  Uth  or  ISth 
e. ;  then  oame  a  serial  of  metrical  romanoe*^  itrictly 
so  called,  which  were  gradually  npplanted  by  their 
proaa  oonnteiparta,  tlie  anthon  ot  iriiich  last,  how- 
aver,  appcM  to  have  diverged  more  from  'tiie 
metrical  original*,  and  to  have  been  more  free  and 
fondlnl  thMt  their  predecesson  of  the  Aithnrian 
ofdt.  The  prindpal  are  Svm  of  Bordtaux  (Uie 
inoidant*  ol  whioh  are  followed  by  'Poland  in  hia 
Obenm),  Chtwin  iU  Mon^ave,  Guylen  Shtlorf  (in 
whidi  Chariemagna  and  hia  Paladin*  prooeed 
vteognilo  to  the  Holy  I^nd),  XiU*  and  Amei.Joat' 
doM  dt  MaBtM,  Dooiia  dt  Maytnee,  OgUr  la  VaHcU, 
and  Jfoufru  tna  Stu/uabr.    la  Uieee  romanoea  w« 


aerie*;  Wa  are  tranafencd  to  the  Eaat^to  Africa, 
Paleetiue,  AialHa,  Bagdad,  Constantinople,  Indiik 
Penia,  the  Csapian  Sea,  ia^  We  are  introdaeed 
to  the  conrta  A  Saracen  '  prinoes,'  '  anltana,'  and 
'  emin ; '.  and  9m  Hohammedan  maidena  of  peer. 
laea  beanty  fall^  in  lore  with  Christian  kni^ta, 
and  ifa  thor  sake*  abandoning,  or  oven  betraying 
father,  mother,  bnthren,  and  kinsmen,  ^airie*, 
who  figure  but  slightly  in  tba  Arthnrian  Konanceit 
play  a  freqnent  uid  an  important  part  in  the*a[ 
demon*,  dervishea,  apee^  tali»M>ns,  palaoea  with 
cnpolaa  and  gilded  roofi^  splendid  JewM^  diamond*, 
ka. — everything,  in  fact,  sbewa  tlte  inflnfsoe 
exercised  on  the  nnaginafem  <rf  Weatem  Bon^ 
by  the  glowing  scenery,  the  brilliant  Ufe^  and 
the   goff^onsly  fanrifnl   snpentitiona  ef  oii^tal 

The  leriea  ida^g  to  Ai«*Ji«  de  Oanl  and  hi* 
desoendants  ia  anfficianttv  chancterised  nnder  the 
head  of  AiUMB  <q.  v.).  We  may  only  obaerva,  aa  a 
proof  of  the  ocfurarative  lateniM  of  their  cmnpo^ 
tion,  that  the  'Saracen*'  of  the  French  romance* 
here  ^ve  place  to  'Turks;'  and  a*  the  «Qree  of 
Eorope  were  tnmed  toward!  the  tottering  Greek 
eminre,  many  of  tba  Bcenea  ot  warfare  are  laid  at 
Conatantino^e. 

Besidea  the  three  distinot  aeriea  of  romaooe  above 
mentioned,  a  fourth  periiapa  deaama  mcoitson,  in 
which  tha  heroea  of  aotiqai^  an  gioteaqndy  Iriokod 
out  in  the  eoatnme  of  medieval  kni^ta.  'Die  esact 
dato  of  thur  composition  cannot  be  aaowrtatnwd,  bat 
they  were  probably  later  in  general  than  any  tt  tha 
other  three  aeriaa ;  and,  at  az^  rate,  wen  Ux  the 
moat  i«rt  not  pnbliahed  till  the  end  ot  the  16th  and 
the  banning  (rf  the  IBth  oentoriea.  Tba  princ^wl 
an  the  nsnance  of  ywon  mul  Jfedeit,  (rf  ^<mtfa^  ef 
(XUipiuiandof  JfeMnder.  Thar  an  aU  written  in 
PrcodLand  the  flrcttwo  pnlesa  to  be  tha  work  of 
a  Baotu  le  Feln«.  An  attempt  is  made  to  adhere, 
in  tha  general  ontlina  of  the  stoma,  to  the  awnant 
Rreths,  bnt  most  marveUooa  «Bb«ilishmeat*  are 
aoded,  *nch  aa  otiy  tite  middle  agea  ocold  have 
eonoMved;  while  tha  tcansfornwtioii*  that  Qke  da*- 
sioal  peiacoage*  mdrngo  an  exoeedingly  Indioou; 
Java  Moomea  a'kingj'UeMny.Ua'aqnint'  the 


j\t',\\m 


jCiOogI 


Fktea, '  dnetmM  ;*  Oobenu  and  fit*  ^linx, 'pauta ; 

Before  iMmiu  ttut  diviiioa  vl  va  mbject,  wa 
inialil  obwrre  i£>^  tkoo^  the  cmnuioMof  chivalry 
nwT  appeal  infinite^  tediooc  and  abmrd  to  a 
nuMem  nuita,  Ouj  wrao  immeiiaelT  nlithed  and 
admited  dniiuB  tiie  agea  in  whidt  tney  wan  pio- 
dneed,  wen  «idelv  djaseminated,  in  diferant  foRni, 
thnogfaont  all  Chiutendom,  and  wen  hidily 
popular  with  later  poets.  The  iDfloenoe  which  Uisy 
ezeniwd  on  Pnloi,  Bdaido,  Tmbo,  Speuuir,  Ac., 
■hewi  the  ttroog  hold  that  they  nmit  hats  bad  on 
the  imagiDatioa  of  Europe ;  bat  with  the  decline  of 
chivalry,  the  ipread  of  the  more  rational  and  artdstic 
fictions  of  the  Italian  noveliatl,  the  revival  of  letten, 
and  the  general  ttdvanoement  in  dvilitation  of 
Ohnstendtan,  the  taita  for  the  nmanoea  of  ohivaliy 
also  deoliued,  until  finally  Cervantes  laughed  them 
Ant  of  liteiaturts  and  well-nigh  out  of  memi^,  in 
ths  bwinniiig  of  the  17th  centmy. 

&  ^tvdepmaU  and  In/fumee  ^^eSon  in  ludy. — 
The  ItaHani  originated  no  romanoei  of  the  kind 
deacribed  above.  This  reanlted  from  varioui  causee, 
the  principal  of  which  perhaps  ate:  lit,  that 
the^  wen  nally  not  a  Gothic^  but  at  least  a 
•emi-olasiio  people ;  2d,  that  they  were  mon 
pcdiihed  tiian  tho  northern  natioaa;  and  3d,  that 
matead  of  feudal  duTsIrio  institntiona,  the  most 
ohancteristic  jmHHeal  features  of  Itijy,  dnrinz 
the  middle  ages,  wen  menantile  and  lettered 
tepnUics.    iMn  was  what  mur  be  tonghly  called 

-'-'-">  doM— of  merchanta_in  Italy,  when 

and  SnjUM,  and  Spain,  contained  really 
re  thui  nobles  and  serfs;  and  these  wen 
teally  tiie  beat  instmcted  and  the  most  enlightened 
portion  of  the  community.  Heooe  it  is  but  natnrsi 
that  we  ehonld  find  a  style  of  fiction  mirroring  to 
Mnne  extent  this  mon  civilised  and  sober  form  of 
social  life.  That  the  ohuuical  romancea  had  some 
inflaence  on  the  deyetopment  of  Italian  fiction,  is 
probable ;  several  of  the  tales  recorded  in  tbe  love- 
letters  <rf  Aristenetns,  and  in  the  Qdden  Au  of 
Appuleins,  anquite  like  what  we  read  in  Boccaccio 
and  ether*.  The  fablea  of  Pilpai  or  Bidpu  (q.v.), 
ttanilatad  into  Latin  as  early  as  the  13ui  a,  wen 
also  net  without  a  certain  eSeot ;  but  it  is  to  1^ 
Arabico-indian  book  of  the  seven  connsellon  (better 
known  «•  The  Taht  <^lhe  Seoea  Witt  Maiten),  still 
men  to  the  stories  of  Fetnu  Alpbouans  (whose  work 
is  entitled  Dt  (Haicaie  Duaplina),  and  Uie  Oe»ta 
Jlomanonm  (q.  r.),  a  groteeqne  jumble  of  classical 
•toriea,  Arabian  apologues,  and  monkish  legends, 
in  Uie  diagniae  of  romantic  fiction  ■  *— ■■ ^  -' 


,  of  Italy. 
Italian  work  irf  this  aort  is  the  Cento 
IfoKlk  AntiiAe,  oomDumly  called  71  XmtOmo.  It 
if  a  compilatum  fay  different  hands — all  unknown — 
of  storiN  Boating  abotti^  ac  taken  with  modificatiMW 
bom  the  aouroea  above  mentioned,  with  one  or  two 
td  Uw  mon  graoefnl  episodea  in  the  romsuoea  of 
chivalry,  and  wa«  execnted  towards  the  doae  of  the 
13th  century.  It  was  followed  in  1368  by  the 
2)«li>neron  of  Eoooacdo  (□.  T.) — the  finest,  in  point 
of  humonr,  sentiment,  and  s^le,  of  the  whole  set, 
but  not  mora  oiigiDal  in  the  matter  of  atoiy  tium  11 
IfOB^Hno.  Its  inflaenoe  on  eariy  European  litera- 
tim was  inodupouA  Ohancer  and  Shak^es««  in 
Endaud  liava  Men  fat  partiealar  greitty  indebted 
toft  lor  inoidenta  and  ^ota;  iriiileu  Eranoe— from 
whose  Tronvtots  be  had  himsdf  derived  so  much — 

In  bis  own  ooimtry,  his  influence  was  so  overwhelm. 
inft  that  for  aome  oantnriea  Italian  novelists  oonld 


do  nothing  mon  tlian  attempt  to  copy  him.  Tb* 
principal  ot  these  imitator*  an  Franco  Saodiatti 
(133fr— 1410),  Ser  Giovanni  (who  bcfpui  to  writs 
his  noveiletti  in  137S,  from  which  MoLfen  got 
the  ^ot  <rf  his  &ole  diei  Femma,  and  Shakspenre 
probal^  part  of  his  stoty  of  the  MircAaat 
ef  Vtmee~-'^aaA  the  stoiy  of  the  bond  i*  tar 
dder,  and  is  ctt  Penian  origin — Chancer  is  niao 
indebted  to  this  Italian) ;  Usssnodo  di  SaWno 
(flor.  abont  1470],  mon  original  than  meet  of  tha 
post-Boacaodan  noveliatB;  Sabadino  ddli  Ariaati 
(flor.  abont  1483] ;  Agnolo  Firenzuolo ;  Lnigi  dn 
Porta ;  Holza,  and  Giovanni  Brevio  (flor.  at  tbs 
dosa  of  the  15th,  and  in  the  first  half  of  ths 
16th  c);  Oiiolamo  Faraboaco  (flor.  1050);  Marco 
Cademotte  da  Lodi  (1H4) ;  and  Giovanni  GiraUi 
Cinthio  (died  1OT3],  noted  part^ularly  for  fat* 
extravagant  emph^inent  of  sanguinay  incident^ 
and  the  inUoducbm  of  scenes  of  incradibla 
atrod^  and  accnmulatad  borrot*.  ^le  aevanth 
of  his  third  decade  of  atories  contains  the  atoir 
of  Othello,  the  Moor  cf  Venice ;  the  plot  of 
Jfauure  /or  Mtatitn  was  tiv>  derived  indincUy 
from  him,  Cinthio  was,  in  fact,  the  greatest 
(avonrite  of  all  the  Italian  noveUst*  with  tlw 
Eiinbethan   dramatists.     Beaidee  these,  ws  may 


further  mention  Antonio  Francesco  Orazdni  (died 
IMS) ;  Straparolo  (wrote  1554  «t  »tq.),  from  wbom 
Mol^n,  and   also   the    I^euch   writm   of   fairy 


er  door,  forms  iHie  of  the  atcwiea 
.  BandeUo  (died  1066),  the  moat 
widdy  known  and  read  (oot  ot  Italy)  tS.  all  the 
Italian  norelists  next  to  BoccsdcIo,  ud  in  whom 
we  find  the  oritnnal  of  Massingm'*  iday  of  Tk» 
PidMrt,  and  M  Shakn«an's  Tvd^  IfitfU; 
Granncd  (published  1ST4] ;  Mdeepio)  (poUidwd 
1609) ;  (Lud  Caiapef^  (early  part  of  17th  centoiT}. 
— The  best  French  imitations  of  these  Italian  tiles 
are  the  Cent  JfoavtUet  ymiveUet  (printed  145S, 
and  translated  into  English  under  the  titio  of  the 
Btmdreth  Mery  Tasiet,laSl).  They  are  fall  irf  lif^ 
gdety,  and  imagination,  and  are  written  in  a  nioct 
naive  and  agneable  manner;  and  the  Htplameniit 
""  '   "  *"    arre,  from  which  Shirley, 

J, ,      .  taken  the  plot*  of  two  of 

his  comedies. 

A  few  words  may  aba  be  devoted  here  in  paaaiiiK 
to  a  very  different  class  of  fiction— the  SptriOi^ 

" tee.     It  ori^nated,   without   doub^  in  tha 

of  the  church,  and  from  the  dcsin  to  edifyy 
by  storiea  of  leli^ous  knight-{ 


a  rade  and 


ilishing  abstoact  doctnnes.  The  fiist  of  tha 
series  is  Bariaam  <md  Jotaphat,  tinn&f  alluded  to ; 
bat  by  far  the  greatest  work  of  the  kind  prodooed 
during  the  miiMle  ages  is  the  Legeada  Avraa,  of 
Golden  Legend  (q.  v.) — itself  beHcred  to  be  dmwn 
ima  different  and  now  partly  forgotten  ■onroaa. 
Beddea  these,  may  be  mentioned  a  qiedea  of 
edritual  tale— the  Conlu  DteoU,  ■ptfmi.ta/t  in 
France  dttring  the  12th  and  13th  oentanea,  and 
which  wen  written  by  monies,  probably  with 
the  view  of  oounteracting  the  witty  and  lioentkras 
stories  of  the  Trouvdres ;  but  curiously  enongh,  in 
these  pioua  fictions,  Qia  lives  of  monks  and  nimn 
an  nprtsented  as  far  mon  immoral  than  in  tboaa 
of  the  secular  satirisla.  The  things,  too,  which  ths 
Virgin  Maiy  is  represented  as  ddng  an  most 
aatoandiug;  and  throw  a  sbange  but  valuaUe  li^it 
the  leligions  notions  of  tuage.    InoaaatcMy, 

oonceaU  the   shame  of  a  favoniite  nun  ;    m 
another,  she  pMf c 
third,  ^le  omciat 


ii^acn.GuO^li: 


WedudE 


the  inidiUQ  i^es,  tiie  luuren*!  tvty  at  the 

mud  the  institutioiu  of  feodalum  gmre  a  oertun 
ohuaoter  of  nnifarmity  to  the  mode*  td  life,  and 
tikore)^  to  the  eodal  literature  of  Weetcm  Europe; 
but  after  the  epoch  ot  the  BefonnstioD,  and  evsn 
earlier,  thii  nniformity  diaappeai^  Kid  m  find 
in  eveiy  direotioD  a  tendBiiey  to  ttw  opponte 
extreme  ot  iudiyidiuliniL  Tui  tendenojr  maiu- 
[e«ta  itMlf  eqwdallj  in  the  flotiMi  of  tiie  period, 
vhieh.  Tartly  inereaiing  in  qnanti^  and 
in  qndity,  beeoiuM  difficult  to  eUaeiff.  ^ 
howew,  endeavonr  to  group  tiie  proanctB  oi 
modem  proee-flction  worki  nnder  what  appean  to 
na  >  ooDTenient  ehronological  heading. 

During  Uie  16th  and  ITth  Mnttiriea,  tour  diSerent 
kindi  M  tonunee  or  novel  were  cnltiTated — 
1.  The  Comic  Bonumee;  2.  The  FoiiOeat  Bomaaoe; 
3.  ThePaMoralBonuoiee:  4.  Tie  ff«roie  Bomanee. 

Comie  Somanet  (nbctautialljr  becini  in  modem 
timM  with  BabelMi  (q.v.]i  rtyled  by  Sir  William 
Tan^a  tha  Father  qfRidiei^  Othm,  indeed,  bad 
preceded  him  in  the  nune  jath,  bat  Uiey  had 
•cqaired  no  odebrity.  In  lum  we  aee  nntniitak- 
abfy  one  fonn  oF  the  modem  apirit — iti  daring 
freedom  of  apecnlation,  criticiim,  and  latin,  aleo  tbM 
lack  of  reverence  exhibited  by  those  who,  at  the 
period  of  the  Beformation,  clearly  diMemed  the 
abnaee  of  the  ehuroli,  bnt  had  not  faith  in  the 
poedbilitr  or  effioacr  of  tftaniu.  Thna,  Babelaia, 
Li  hU  inimitable  bnileaqae  lomanoe,  moA  (with 
the  bme  of  a  Meptie,  howerer)  lA  the  vioM  ot  the 
oleisyi  die  crocked  wm  of  poUticiatu,  tk  jargon 
of  ^iloeopben,  and  the  afaeorditiei  tf  the  eantet 
dfwit,  and  of  the  medieral  talet  ^enerallr.  The 
next  remarkable  ronwnoe  ol  a  oomo  nature  ia  the 
Vita  di  BertMo  of  Jnlio  Ceaars  Croce  (flor.  at  the 
eloee  of  the  16th  o.),  a  work  reoonntins  the  hnnoroni 
and  moocaafnl  exploita  of  a  elerer  bt»  oglj  peasant, 
and  regarding  wbioh  we  are  told  tl^t  for  two 
eentnriea  it  wat  as  popular  in  Italy  ai  Jio&teeon 
OrveM  or  the  Pilgrintt  Prograt  in  feidand.  The 
mbetanoe  of  flie  abny  can  be  Uaced  naok  to  an 
oriental  eonrce.  A  few  yen*  later  appeued  D<m 
Quixote  (aee  Cxbvaktb),  in  which  'war  to  the 
knife'  wa*  proclaimed  againet  the  rcnnancea  of 
chivalry,  and  in  which,  periia^  wa  see,  more 
dirtincuy  than  in  any  other  flotion  of  the  period, 
tbe  new  turn  that  the  mind  of  Western  Europe  had 
taken.  Almoet  oontsmponuteon*  with  Don  Quixote 
waa  anotlier  Spanish  romance— Matteo  Aleman'* 
L%fi  of  Quanan  AUhrathe,  auccesaively  begnr, 
swindler,  _pander,  stod^it,  and  galby-slave.  In  Uiii 
work,  as  m  otlien  of  the  same  sort,  we  find  aaveral 
indioatiima  of  the  inflnence  <rf  tiie  Italian  novelist*. 
It  has  been  rappoeed  that  ffusnuut  Aifiini^  sog- 
gested  to  Le  8^  tlie  idea  of  <3U  Blot,  and  there  m 
some  naemblanoe  between  the  two;  bnt,  at  anyrate, 
it  gave  birth  to  a  boat  ot  Spanish  romanoes  with 
beracan  aad  ioampa  for  heroes,  of  which  t^  best 
is  the  LamriBo  de  Tomia,  by  Diego  de  Uendon 
(lfi86).  In  the  following  oentiuy,  ITranoe  nodnced, 
among  others,  Scarron^s  Emnoti  Conuque,  and 
Fnretiere's  Soman  Bmtrgtou.  Enslaad  and  G«r- 
nuuiy  have  nothing  to  shew  in  Uiii  Apartment. 

Political  Romana  wu  manif eatly  mgRested  partly 
by  the  great  politico-ecdesiastSaal  changes  that 
todc  place  in  Europe  in  the  fltet  half  of  the  16tii  &, 
and  partly  by  the  inuuaiae  inoreaae  in  the  know- 
ledge of  the  mannera  and  cnrtoms  tA  remote  "»*■"'"■, 
occasioned  by  geocoraphiaal  discoveries  and  mercan- 
tile adventure.  The  earlteat  of  the  seaies  is  the 
Utopia  of  Sir  Thomas  More ;  next  comes  the 
ArgttuM  of  Barclay,  pnbliahed  in  1621 ;  and  to  the 


same  class  belong  a  variety  of  Vk. 

prodnoed  about  the  clMe  of  the  17th  and  tiie 
beginning  of  the  18th  &,  of  which  by  tar  the  most 
famona  U  the  TtUmaqut  of  Finelon. 

Pa»Uiral  Momance. — All  through  the  nuddle  age*, 
the  funs  of  Virgil  kept  np  a  certain  interest  in 
oompositiona  devoted  to  the  delineation  of  rostio 
or  snepherd  life.  We  even  find  in  the  poems  of  tiie 
Tronbadoon  s«v«al  epedmena  of  the  eratio  paste, 
ral;  andthe  Jmeloof  BoocacoioftimiaheiQS  witha 
proM  illustration  of  tlie  same.  But  it  was  after  the 
revival  of  letters  that  this  branch  of  fiction,  so 
eaaentiaUy  classical,  was  most  aeiiduoDaly  cultivated 
by  men  of  scholarly  genius ;  and  thonsh  their  works 
have  not  retained  the  popularity  tney  origiDidly 
enjoyed,  they  are  still  interesting  and  valuable 
from  an  hiatorioal  point  of  view,  and  abound  in 
deeoriptiTe  paaaiges  of  great  beauty  and  iweetneas. 
The  paatoml  life  wbich  Vtey  portray,  however,  never 
exiated  either  in  Gnece  or  usewhere.  Their  shep- 
herd* and  shepherdesses  are  as  unreal  and  unhistori. 
cal  beings  aa  the  knights  of  medieval  romance.  The 
fint  important  work  of  the  kind  ia  the  Arcadia  of 
Sannamaro,  written  in  Italian,  about  the  end  i4  the 
15tb  century.  It  wa*  followed  bv  the  Diana  of 
Montemayor,  written  in  Spanish,  aooot  the  middle 
of  tlie  16th  c,  eeverrd  of  the  episodes  of  which 
are  borrowed  from  the  Italian  noveliits ;  while 
Shakspeaie  ha*  in  turn  directly  taken  from  it  the 
plot  «  the  Fuo  Oenilemen  of  Verona,  copying 
oocasionaUy  the  very  langaage,  a*  well  as  some 
of  the  moat  Mwii«ng  indoenn  in  his  JfUntrnmn- 


Ni^*Dnam.  TheDuMiwaai 
by  Honoie  d'Urft,  whoae  AttrH 
for  a  long  while  iMild  in  the  bis 


3^ 


imitat^nl  in  ^ench 
s  (1610—1626)  waa 
long  while  iMild  in  the  bif^iest  esteem,  and 
is  reslly,m  spite  of  it*  tedionsncM^  a  wrak  of  great 
laaming  aud  oonsiderable  mttit  Twenty  ^eata 
before  the  appeaianoe  of  Attrtt,  Sir  Hiilip  Sidney 
wrote  said  pubtiBhed  his  Artadia,  as  tireaome,  and 
--  '-■--  aubstence  as  nnreal,  as  any  prodnotion  of  the 
school,  bnt  in  statelines*  and  melody  of 
language,  in  luxury  of  fancy,  in  nobility  and  purity 
~'  aentunent,  far  exceeding  them  all. 

Her<»e  iiomaacs  owed  ita  origin  partly  to  the 
immediate  anteoedent  pastoral  rranance,  partly  to 
an  increaaed  aoqaajntance  with  dassio  history, 
OTodnced  by  the  taanalattoD  of  such  books  as 
Phitardi*  Liet*,  and  part^  to  tiie  interest  excited 
in  the  Hoots  of  Oranada  by  a  splendid  romance  in 
iih  (profeasins,  however,  to  be  a  Autory),  entitled 
"'-  ensKHW  or  fhe  Zegrit  and  the  Abmeerraga, 

. printed  at  Alcala  in  16M,  and  which  soon 

became  extremely  popular,  especially  in  France. 
It  was  in  the  latter  country  alone  that  the  BomamM 
de  Longut  Haleina  (Ixmg-irinded  Romances),  a* 
tliay  have  been  happilv  niduuuned,  were  culti- 
vated. The  first  <^  iJiia  heavy  series  was  the 
Potexandre  of  Oomberville,  published  in  1632,  in 
which  tiie  inSuence  of  the  eariy  Greek  lomancei 
ia  visible.  Hi*  mcoenor,  Oalpienede,  the  best  of 
bad  lot,  wrote  Cleopatra,  Oauandra,  and  Pbara- 
and,  Bnt  the  most  prolific,  and  oonsequentiy 
the  mart  intolaable  ot  the  school,  is  Madame  do 
Soudiri,  whoee  principal  romanoca  are  IbraJam  on 
VlUattn  Batm,  Cletie,  Hittoirt  Romaine,  ArUxmaa* 
ou,  le  Orand  Omu,  and  Ahnaiide.  l^e  pompous 
dignity,  tiie  hyper-polite  address,  the  dreadful 
ddnesB,  and  the  hoUow  ceremonialiam  of  these  ridi- 
culous peiformanoe^  admirably  (if  nnintentionaUyJ 
'  vr  the  teatore*  of  French  court-life  during 
time  of  the  Omud  Monargme.  The  heroio 
Bnn»T  did  not  long  retain  their  meretrinioua 
reputation.  MoUtoe,  and  still  more,  Boileaa  in  his 
--"--  La  Htne  de  Raman,  Diakgue,  ridiculed 
to  deatit,  and  in  oonsequenoe,  Madame  de 
Scud£ribadno*itcoeaB(a. 


"GUU^l' 


NoTXU  ACT  BoHANon  or  thi  \6tb  Cxntubt.— 
Hie  tiro  Eimipeui  natioiu  that  mort  briUiuitly 
dutiDgnishad  thenuelvw  in  the  department  of  flotioD 
during  tMt  centiOT  irere  En^uid  and  France,  and  to 


lu  aer  uuueui&ba  Buuceosura,  uie  uuiwuiauve 

of  Englanii,  tnm  Taiiont  oawwa,  had  talten 
uat  exolosTelf  poetieal  dinatum.  Mid  with 
Mption  of  Sidntya  pwtonl  of  Arcadia,  and 


beth  and  her  immediate  taeceuart,  the  imaginatii 
genioa  of  r    '     "    ' 
an  almiMt 

the  ezoaption  of  SidntjPa  pwtonl  of  Arcadia, 
BoDTao'i  Pitgrim't  ProgrtBt,  wa  meet  with  oothinK 
in  the  abkpe  of  a  norel  or  a  romaoae  for  a  hundred 
yewt*.  Tha  17th  o.  h«a  nothing  to  ihew  till  it 
^jproaohaa  iti  close.  ^Diit  ia  donbtlMi  owiu  in 
pvt  at  leaat,  to  the  iotenaitr  ol  the  great  {mI&mI 


theolonoal  biaa  to  aocdvtf.  The  Fimbuw,  in  tb^ 
da;  of  triumph,  wonLl  not  tolerate  cither  comio 
or  heroio  romanoea.  They  aet  their  facea  *  like 
flint*  againat  all  inuginfttiTC  fiction,  which  they 
oonaidered  as  little  b^ter  than  ^inA ;  and  mva  \o 
thia  day  that  claaa  of  people  aotnmonly  daaoribed  aa 
'the  religiooa  portion  of  Mm  oommoni^,'  in  anna 
sense  the  rspnaentativea  of  the  Foritaiia,  beti*^ 
the  legitimacy  of  their  Bpiritoal  deaocnt  W  their 
avnsioa  to  all  aorta  of  aeoolar  taloK    After  tha 


•  ooane  and  Ucentiova  TMctdon  i^ainat  the  tigorona 
piety  and  '"■«*'"""  of  tiw  OcanmonwealUL  Thia 
tnrlud  Tidonaneaa  hj  and  bv  oalmed  down,  bnt  it 
left  a  certain  taint  of  ^nrafufciwHi*  and  nuterialiam  in 
the  haUti  and  li£a  of  the  people,  which,  in  the  oi«niou 
of  soma  oompetoBt  oritioi,  marka  than  to  thu  day. 
"  '    oertun  that  at  the  btginning  of  the  18th  c 


ga  hiati^    I 
din  maat  of  bi 


^ancteriatiaa  are  &titbfnUy  reflected 
norela,  which,  aa  piotnrta  m  tte  groaa  dull  lifc^  Uie 
paltry  thooghta,  tha  low  aentimonta,  tbe  modish 
manners,  and  the  loose  mor^ity  that  pnniled, 
possess  a  great  historioal  Talna  aput  altogether  from 
tbejr  literary  n    "       —     -    ■ 


Tha  flntn 


fA  the  IBth  a,  aa  they  bdong  to  it  by  the  u 
of  their  oontotta,  and  not  to  ttie  I7th  o.  tnrpea  of 
fiction.  Bhe  was  imitated  by  Mrs  Haywood  (bom 
leOB,  died  17S8),  of  whoae  Lott  ni  BKom,  Tie 
BritiA  Btelim,  and  Ti«  Ityvrtd  JTvtboMd,  it  baa 
been  lemaiked,  tiiat '  tha  male  oharaoters  are  in  tiw 
highest  dc^pree  licentiona,  and  the  femalea  aa  impaa- 
aioned  as  the  Baraoen  mincassaa  in  the  Spanish 
romanoea  of  chivalry.'  A  later  woA,  bowerer,  The 
HUtorj/  qf  MUi  Bdtg  TioughtUtt,  ia  of  a  hi^ier 
stamp,  and  ia  auppoaed  to  bava  sngBeated  the  plan 
of  Ujss Bumey's  Evdina.  Bat  thelnt  Doreliat  of 
great  genins  balcnginD  to  die  new  era  is  Daaial 
De  Foe  (ii-t,),  tha  father  of  modam  English  prose 
fiotion,  in  whose  writing* — Tk«  Advtntaret  q/* 
Captain  SiitgUion,  Tke  Fortur^m  qf  MoU  Flandert, 
The  EittoTTi  of  Oolond  Jack,  Aa~tha  coatse, 
homely,  nnpoetiaal,  but  vigonma  rtcMtm  of  the 
^ —  ■-  strikingly  apparent.  Feriu^  the  Spaniah 
ffin  romances  may  have  furnished  him  with 

hints.     BfUfiumm  Chiaoe  ia  the  finest  and 

the  most  famona  of  aO  that  olaaa  of  fiction  which 
was  extensiTdy  ooltiTated  both  in  Franoe  and 
England  dnrins  the  eariier  part  of  the  18th  o.,  and 
irtudi  leceiTea,  in  the  former  coontcy,  the  name 
of  Vouage*  Iiitagmawtt.  To  tha  same  class  (oat- 
war^  at  least)  belong  Swiffa  Outim*'*  Tnnek, 


•  aort  of  politico-geographical  fiction,  sencrally 
attributed  to  Bishop  Berkeley.  After  De  Voa  comes 
Richardson  (q.  v.),  very  unlike  any  of 


of  hia  age — to  appearance  I  Hia  Muse  ia  a  moat 
decorous  prtide,  and  never  utters  anything  md^  or 
vulgar,  or  licentious;  but  Uumgh  ehe  waa  inured 
witm  the  beat  iatentiona,  her  notjona  of  bow  Tntoa 
should  be  rewarded  indiaate  the  ooaraenesa  of  tha 


norela  of  Bicbudson  are,  Pamtb,  S¥  OiaHa 
Qra^diton,  and  doruaa  Hatiotcti  Fielding  (q.  v.) 
thoDght  Biohsrdson  nntme  to  nature^  and  wrote  ^^ 
first  novel  of  J'oe^  Andrev  aa  a  bnrieaqne  on  Htm 
style  of  hia predeceaaor.  Like  hia  anheaqnant  peitufiu- 
ancea^  Ton*  /ones  and  Amdia,  it  rvpreaenta  aode^ 
aa  Fielding's  sharper  syea  aawit,  on  tha  whole,  rroeo, 

Svul^v,  aid  import  Smollett  (q.  v.),  with  n  di£rent 
a  of  gaoina,  otHitinaea  to  paint  in  the  Bsme  aprifc 
chief  woAa  are,  Bodaidt  Bemdom,  Ptttgi  ins 
PitUt,  7h  AdtentUMt  t^Fadimmd  OamU  FMim, 
and  aia^hrf  Olkikir.  Steme  (q.  ▼.),  belon^iiig  to 
the  sama  panod,  sodiilHta  a  gmuna  ao  iriumsical, 
paonliar,  and  otuinal,  that  it  ia  almost  impoaaiUa 
to  claas  him  wit£  any  of  his  oonteanpocarisa;    Hia 


TfUlram  Shondg  ia  a  woik  md  generit,  bnt  mnritar 
ia  the  ooaraa  impurity  and  inddioacrr  d  t^  aga  mor 
oonspimoas.  fonr  yean  lately  appeared  Od&milb'- 
Vicar <if  Wak^idd,  m  wfait^  aohange  for  the  better, 
in  a  moral  pomt  of  view,  ia  first  noticaabla.  ^^tfa 
tiia  exoaption  of  Budiardson,  idl  *^  novelists  sbovn 
mentionad  srs  nsosUy,  and  we  nmr  add  oMiectlrt 
deacrtbed  aa  kufaoritU.  Other  qnuitieB  they  have 
bendesi  Imt  this  ia  the  moat  common  ^^H  predomi- 
nant; When  thia  scbod  waa  paaaing  away  about 
1760— 177<^  another  waa  <ai  the  ere  of  being  bom. 
The  pubiieation  of  Per^a  BtU^UM  had  re-atAwied 
an  intemat  in  tha  age  of  chivalry  and  ronanoe. 
Header*  had  beoima  tired  of  the  long  nev^enoe 
of  proaaic  fiction,  in  apite  of  the  sploiaid  genius 
derated  to  ita  illustcation.  It  had  done  ita  vnk, 
and  conld  oreate  no  mora.  The  first  of  the 
modem  romsntio  scdioid  waa  Horace  Walpda, 
whose  CiMtborCMFantoMpeared  in  176ft  It  waa 
foUowed  hj  Clara  Beere,  the  aothnress  of  Oie  Otd 
Bng^A  Baron,  a  KMttanoa  that  evaiy  school-boy, 
we  hops^  rentnnbeta  with  the  deepeat  natitaide  f 
bat  the  greatest  genina  in  thia  line  waa  ondcnbtedlj 
Mb  Baddifie  (q.T.J,  whoao  M^tuim  itf  UMpko 
and  otlm  worits,  thotuh  now  almoat  lorgotten,  wme 
=.-,-  ^ ,  __.    -■-— i^nt^  imitr-  ' 


oa  greedily  devoured  and  atmnda 


The  aUest  of  her  aooceaaora  were  Uatthaw  Or^my 
Lewia,  author  of  Hi*  JfotJe  (1T9S),  and  Ibtwin, 
anthm  of  MotUorio  (1803).  In  aU  the  lomancea  of 
thia  adiod,  the  incidents  are  of  the  moat  ■taitling, 
terribly  and  often  aapeonatoral  dtaraetar,  and  the 
aceneiy  i*  in  keepins  witii  the  inddentat  Fia«e 
barona,  mysterioua  bandite,  persecuted  maidens, 
ghMMuy  castles,  secret  passives,  deep  forests,  mardar^ 


.  i&t  •voTthing  that 
oould  ohann,  by  way  of  eonbast,  end  plauantly 
horrify  the  lao^d,  matter-flf-fact,  sceptical  ISth  a, 
is  to  ba  found  m  thair  exaggnated  pagea. 

A  few  noveliab  remain  to  ba  msnltoned  who  are 
inca^le  of  particular  daesiflcstion.  Thne  are 
Dr  John   Uoore    (q.  v.),   anthor    ot   Zdueo,  fto. ; 


Mia  Inohl 

llory,  to.);  Charlotte  Smith  (Old  Maitor  Htmte, 
Ac) ;  Mis  Austen  {Pride  and  Prffudke,  Bmma, 
Periutmoa) ;  and  Maria  Edgewoith,  iriioae  ikstohaa 
cf  Irish  oharuter  fint  n^a^  to  Wattai  SeoM 


U,n,n...n;GUU^lL 


MoVfttA^ 


the  ide*  of  Bttamptjng  ba  SootUnd  «  Mriw  «f  lib 
illaitntioni. 

2.  FrauA  Frota  FkUon  h  M«  ISA  Omimy.— 

'"  "  not  Bujr^^Mdk^B  lutt  potribl»-4o tnM  "'^~ 

I  that  lad  (d  the  imltintuni  of  th«  diSu 


kukdi  of  fifinoQ  which  floariflaMi  in  Etwid^  dnriiUE 
thie  oaDtaiy>  uid  p^rtionlftTly  during  the  fint  hftu 
<rf  it  nMtutnnllmotehaiiBtt— cf  nonl^)  the 
'  fbiw^  titaatore ;  the  di«> 


other  IiMid,  to 
gniTitt  t^*  leintn  mcmittite  of  ft  liunrioiUt  mper* 
ttiHoin,  ftnd  profligate  aocie^  t  il  tiiaee  and  nutnf 

ite  dircraa  derdopmenb  Four  kind!  h*Te  been 
diatingniahed  I  L  Faeudo-hiMorieal  Romanet,  tlie 
literature  in  irhich  deparbnen^  altlioogb   ""'" — 

enoii^  neither  deearroi  Bor  reqnira* '~ 

%  BamoMS  i»  wkiA  '""  '    "-  ■-   - 


imitatioiw    of    Orintai    TaUt,    wd    the    Vayagu 
Iiaagittairei. 

2.  Rai^aiax  tn  wUeA  Qi»  jncidenff,  Htmgli  natural, 
art  purdg  imaginafy. — Thia  olaia  more  nearly 
oomapoDda  with  the  modem  conoeption  ol  the 
noTsI  than  anj  of  its  predacesaora,  andprobably 
had  its  pTOtoi^iM  in  La  Prineat  de  OltBat  and. 
Zalde,  by  the  Oomteua  de  L«faTette,  who  flouriahed 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  17Ul  c  i  but  the  fint 
toeat  nuns  that  adoma  it  ia  that  of  UarivaiLK 
il688— 1763),  wbow  Vit  de  MariaoM  and  PiqwM 
Ponanu  were  Ions  in  high  faronr.  Th«rh*Tathia 
in  oonunon  with  the  oontamportvy  Engliah  fiotaon, 
that  ererythinjj  in  tiuaa  ia  prodnoed  07  <adiiiaiy 
meana,  and  the  interest  of  the  leader  ia  son^t  to  M 
awakmiad  by  the  vivid  and  poweif  nl  partnitme  ol 
natnral  feelinga,  while  the  inad«aiti,  if  often  highly 
lomantie,  are  alwaya  anffiriantly  mibablo  to  inanre 
tho  oredenoa  of  the  imagination.  Next  to  Mariranx 
come*  the  Abb*  Prerot,  q.  t.  (I8W— 1763),  who  Ont 
'earned  tha  terrora  of  tragedy  into  the  novel'  He 
wa«  a  moat  volominona  writer,  bnt  the  worit  by 
which  he  ia  now  ohiefly  ramonbered  ia  Manon 
Ji'Eieaui,  raoonating  the  adveatnraa  of  a  kept- 
miabeM  and  awindler,  the  pnrpoae  of  which  aMMan 
to  be  aimilar  to  that  of  La  Dam>  <nra  OamAa$  of 
Dnmaa  jOt — vii.^  to  ihew  how  nobl^  tme-hearted, 
and  aeU-aaorifiamg  •  pnwtitate  may  bat  Other 
writera  bekingiiu  mon  or  leaa  atriot^r  to  tha  aame 
diviaioa  are  Madame  Bioooboni  (fl^.  ITSO)  and 
Rouaaean  (q.  v.),  in  whoaa  SA>Ue  we  b^n  to  aee 
tha  dawn  of  tw  fieroe  natural  impim  paarion,  and 
that  extravagant  aoom  of  oonvantional  lif  ^  that 
aulminated  in  the  aangninwy  parosyama  cd  the 
Eavolation. 

3.  ^umorotw  and  8a&rkal  Amonce. — By  tti  the 
moat  oelebratad  apeoiinena  of  thia  kind  of  flatim 
pudnced  ia  Franoe  dniing  the  Uth  &  an  the  08 
Blot,  tho  ZNaNs  iMteo^  and  L*  BadieUer  dt  Sola- 
nungua  of  Le  Sage,  q.v.  <166»— 1746),  all  of  whioli 
wese  snggaated  In  the  prolifio  oomie  rmnanoirta  of 
Upaitt,  Joan  de  IiDna,  Qnevedo,  Cervantea.  Eapinel, 
from  tone  of  whom  ha  haa  btnrowed,  wiUi  hardly 
any  variatioii>  whole  aoanet  and  atorica,  aa  wall  aa 
from  more  anoient  aoni-cea.  Tho  bett  parte,  how- 
ever, aro  hia  own,  and  the  apirit  of  the  work  ia 
thoron^y  Frendi  in  tile  gay  and  ligfataomo  vivacity 
of  ita  Enmonr.  It  ia  witt  acme  hesitation  that  w« 
place  tha  younger  Crebillon  (q.  v.)  in  the  aaiaa 
cab^ory,  tor  tha  liceotioaaneaa  of  hia  BgartnaiU 
da  Oaiir  el  dt  FBtprO,  and  other  novalB,  ia  far  more 
apparent  than  thmr  aatiie  or  homoiiT.  Baatida 
Mid  Diderot  (q.  v.)  hold  an  eqiu^  doabtfnl  poaition 
aa  latiriat*  or  hnmoriata ;  but  Volture  (q.  v.)  may 
fairly  oliiini  to  rank  among  tha  former,  in  virtue 


of  hia  Oaadide,  $aA\a,  li'lagtini,  La  Priaeette  d» 
Babi/loBt,  A^  moat  of  which  oontuii  oorert  attack* 
on  auMiitition  and  deapotiam,  ondsr  the  forma  ia 
which  Voltaire  beat  kitew  then).  Tolture^  howerer, 
had  not  %  rich  imagination,  and,  in  oonseqaenoa, 
has  been  obliged  to  help  iiTf"f«i'  liberally  m  *'^t 
matter  of  intudent  from  older  writeia. 

4  JVitry  Tola*,  At — A  veiy  oinfal  inquiry  might 
ptobably  aoooaed  in  tracing  back  thia  kind  of 
fiterrture  to  the  early  interoouiae  of  Ohiistiaa  anl 
Momah  nation^  bnt  the  fiivt  work  in  which  wo 
find  definite  examplsi  of  faiiy  tales  ia  the  Ni^'hU 
<A  the  Italian  novdiat  Stnparola,  tianalated  into 
Fkenc^  in  1E8S>  In  thia  o<Mlecti<Hi  are  found  at 
lost  the  ontlinea  of  aoma  at  tha  beat-known  atoriea 
of  the  sort,  soch  aa  L»  Chat  Boat  (Pnsa  in  Boota), 
iVinca  JforooMin,  BIioKAeMIe,  and  Fortunatut. 
The  inunedlata  fonrannw  and  prototype,  howevor, 
of  the  fVemh  fairy  tales  va*  tho  PeiUapieront  of 
Sgnor  Bwile,  written  in  the  NaMolitan  paioU,  and 
pobliahed  in  1673.  This  work  attracted  and  stimn- 
lated  iba  taaej  ti  H.  Charles  Ferranlt  (q.  v.)>  whose 
Sittairet  <m  Oonltt  du  Tar^  patl  f^peared  in 
1697,  and  is  inoon^arably  the  moat  oalva  and 
charming  of  all  tha  ooUsctionB  vi  fairy  tales.  The 
titlaa  of  atane  (rf  hia  omta  will  leoall  many  a  Kteraiy 
faast  of  our  childhood— £a  Baxh»  Bleut  (EUoebeard) 
La  Bdk  au  B«U  Dnrmani  fTha  Skefong  Beaat^, 
to  whiclL  br  ^»  by,  Tennyson  has  given  a  poatia 
immortauty),  Lt  Chat  Bottt  (Pass  in  Boots),  £iniet 
A  la  Bauppt  (Biquat  with  the  Tnft),  and  Lt  Ptiit 
Ohaperm  Botigt  iUttla  Red  Biding  Hood).  The 
prinoipal  nuKsassns  of  Ferraulf  ware  the  Comtesse 
d'Axmy  (see  Araox),  Madame  Uur^  and  Made- 
moiaella  de  la  Force ;  bnt  thwr  atoriea  are  mn^ 
more  extravamit  aiM  fctoed  than  those  erf  tiie 
illnstoioua  aoadamioian.  The  aama  a«naar&  how- 
ever, ia  not  mdieaUe  to  Lt*  CWea  Mariatt 
(1740),  by  Madame  Villeneuv^  among  whioh 
oceun  »ie  tale  entitled  La  BtUe  a  la  BH«  [Beauty 
and  the  Beast),  perhaps  tha  most  beautifal  creation 
in  tho  whole  mrclo  of  this  fontastjo  form  of  flctdon. 

Maanwhila^  t^  truuilaUon  of  the  Ar^iian  Nigbti 
BnttrtammmU  (q.  v.]  by  Oilland,  1701—1717,  and 
of  DunMTOUs  other  Aruiic  and  Feraian  woilu,  the 
neat  ntoonragement  ezteodad  to  the  literature  of 
aa  Eaat  in  tho  17tb  and  18th  oeuturi«L  the  pabli- 
oatim  ol  tha  .KUiotAIQiw  Orimtalt  of  D'Hertielot, 
Jku,  croated  a  taate  for  the  brilliant  SKaggantiona 
«t  Miental  fiotioa,  and  a  variety  of  works  wero  aooo 
in  tha  flcdd,  swarming  with  neotonuncen,  dervishes, 
oali&,  baahawi,  viaeii,  cadis,  eonuchs,  alavea.  Tho 
most  nctabla  of  these  ai»-£ei  MHit  it  tm  Quart 
iHtwrt,  ConUi  Tarlaru;  Ltt  Oontet  Otinoi*,  ou  let 
AvtittuTt*  UentUittuet  dv  Jfoadnrtn  Fum-hoann 
and  Lt»  SttltoMt  dt  ChuaratU,  Contei  UongoU,  ot 
M.  Gnenlette.— Of  tho  ohm  (d  fiotiana  known  as 
Voyage*  laai^nairtt,  the  prinoipal  are  the  Birioirt 
Cmii^ttt  aa  B*iat§  et  Bviirtt  d«  la  £tiii«,  an 
Btlat*  el  Snmrm  du  Bolat  of  pyrano  Beri 
which  matonally  iuflocnced  the  genius  of  Swift, 
who  has,  in  fact,  borrowed  act  a  little  <rom  tho  first 
of  thMO  in  his  OvOiner't  Travd*,  and  whioh 
themselves  partly  snggestad  by  the  Spanish  romonoe 
of  Dcaninico  Qonialea,  entitlad  Theifan  J»  lie  Mootu 
Such  novela  aa  the  Pani  et  Vtrgiitia  of  Bemardin 
St  Vimx,  which  appeared  towarda  the  end  of  tho 
ISth  a,  do  not  oome  under  any  of  tha  four  heads, 
but  Bu^  moat  oonveniently  be  mentioned  here. 

Prvte  FkttoH  ^  Oenumy  during  lAa  ISiA  and 
19tt  Ctntwiu.— ^  limit*  of  our  apaca  will  not 
permit  ua  to  do  more  tiian  anperfioially  indicate  the 
devdopment  of  ttiis  branch  of  liteiature  in  Oei^ 
many,  whioh,  however,  is  the  leaa  to  be  t^^retteiL 
aa,  during  the  greater  part  of  the  18th  o^  it  did 
not  attain  much  diatinatiotk     Towards  tha  close 


K  and  tJia 


~n:^. 


v;  Goog  li 


of  the  omUiry,  however,  writcra  tMouie  more 
■KniierDiii,  and  u  Qit  liteian  kotintj  of  mtny  of 
them  contiiiiied  on  till  the  fjjit  or  leooiid  qoorter 
of  the  190)  &,  it  irill  be  most  oonyenieiit  mnd 
■Mtuntl  to  trekt  both  oentorie*  together,  m  the;, 
propcaiy  apeaking,  form  only  one  en  in  the  )itenr]r 
Lutory  of  that  nation. 

Tb»  firat  emineut  0«niiMi  noreliit  of  tbia  period 
TM  WieUnd  (q.  v.),  whoie  Greek  romanera,  AgaAon, 
AriaUpput,  Socratet,  Ac,  are  of  that  didactic  and 
aceptical  character  which  iraa  beginning  to  mark 
the  refleotive  geniot  of  the  oontiiient.  and  which 
bM  nnee  prodiiced  cooh  inunenM  chtmge*  in  all 
departmeDta  of  thou^t.  Wieland  wm  fdlowed  by 
a  crowd  ot  writera,  m  whoae  prodnctiooa  ia  more 
or  leae  diitinotly  apparent  the  inflaanoa  of  the 
Engliih  norelisti,  fnrticultu'ly  of  Bicbardaon  and 
Fielding,  who  had  been  tranilated  and  carefully 
atodied  in  Germany,  where,  however,  the  *  novel  of 
manner*,'  whether  aeriont  or  comic,  dealt  more 
largely  in  the  tepreaentation  of  *  family  life.' 
The  principal  namea  an  AagOBt  U  Fontaine, 
Wetael,  MUller  (whoae  SitafrietiBoa  Lbtdmberff  ia 
■tiU  remembered  and  read),  Sohnl^  and  HippeL 
Almoat  contemporary  with  ^eaa  quiet  and  aome- 
what  prOBuo  noveliata,  Uiere  flanriahed  for  a,  brief 
period  (1780— 1800)  a  achoolof  an  entirely  oppoaite 
character,  whoee  worki,  fiercely  and  outra^eoualy 
romantic,  had  thmr  poetic  connterp«rt  in  Uchillera 
Sobbera.  They  resemble,  in  their  atyls  of  handling 
the  feudal  agea,  the  Enaliah  lomancea  of  Mra  Had- 
cliffs  and  oueia,  which  probably  auggeated  them. 
The  chief  writera  of  tbia  '  turbolent  aobool  of  flotioii,' 
a«  it  baa  been  called,  are  Cramer,  Spiera,  Schlenkert, ' 
and  Veit  Weber. 

Alone,  and  far  above  all  othera  in  redundancy 
uid  orig^ality  of  fancy,  humour,  and  patboa,  towera 
Jean  Paul  Bitter  (q.  v.),  who  ia  inoa^bla  of  claaai- 
flcation,  and  to  whom,  therefore,  hia  oonntrymen 
have  affixed  the  epithet  of  Der  Biiaige  {The 
Unique),  Apart  from  all  achoola — in  tliia  reniect, 
but  in  thil  only,  like  Bichter— atanda  Johazm 
Wolfgang  Goethe  (g.  v.),  whoae  novela,  aa  well  aa 
hia  poems,  are  poetico-philoaophio  efforta  to  repre- 
aent,  perhapa  to  aolve,  the  great  facta  and  problema 
of  huosn  life  and  destiny. 

The  reaction  from  the  naterialiam  and  irreligioua 
levity  of  French  thought,  firat  ahewed  itaeft  in 
Germany  towarda  the  cloae  of  the  18th  c.,  in  a 
certain  eameat  love  and  atndy  of  the  old,  simple, 
anpentitiooB,  and  poetical  beliefs  of  the  middle 
agea.  Hence  ori^nated  the  exquisite  ctaas  of  Motions 
(Ailed  VciktitUIArehen  (popnlar  legenda  or  tales),  in 
which  the  Germana  have  never  been  eqnalled.  The 
most  iUnstrions  cultivator  of  thia  apeciaa  of  fiction 
ia  Lndwig  Tieck  (i}.  v.),  for  MaSEena  (q.  v.),  tltougb 
(pfCed  with  admirable  power*  of  narration,  ia 
marked  by  a  aceptical  humour  and  irony,  not  alto- 
gether compatibla  with  an  imaginative  conception 
of  hia  anbject  Other  diatingoiBbed  names  are  those 
of  De  1*  Motte  Fou^nS  (q.  v.],  Chamiaso  (q.  v^  Hein- 
lich  StetTena,  Achim  von  Amim  (q.  v.),  Clemena 
Brentano  (q.  v.),  Zscbokke,  and  Homnann  (q.  v.). 
More  recent  noveliBte  of  note  are  Aoerbach,  Freytag, 
and  Paul  Heyae.  The  talea  of  Fritx  Renter,  written 
in  the  Piatt  or  Low  Oerman,  are  original  and 
delightful. 

SovKui  AjiD  BoHAKcn  OF  thx  Iffrn  CurruBT. 
— These  have  been  produced  in  anch  overwhelming 
quantity,  that  volumes  woold  be  required  merely 
to  dasatfy  and  characterise  them.  The  vast  and 
rapid  increase  in  the  material  fadlitiea  of  intercourae 


mtertaining  kind ;  and  theae  have  in  torn  more  or 
leaa  atimnlated  the  inu^nation  4rf  native  graias,  ao 
that  at  pieaent  thore  ia  hardly  a  peoide  in  Europe, 
not  even  ozeloding  TnAey,  which,  haa  not  contri* 
bnted  aomethiDg  to  the  enormon*  atocif  of  fiction 
belonging  to  the  I9th  ceotory.  It  would  be  alto- 
gether ont  of  the  qneation  to  attanpt,  in  a  oompen- 
dions  work  like  the  proaont,  a  notice,  however  brie^ 
of  the  principal  novels  and  romancea  of  ever^ 
Earopean  nation ;  we  c*n'  onlv  refer  to  the  hiaton- 
cal  anrveys  of  litoratnre,  to  be  found  under  anch 
heads  aa  BsLattm,  BoREiaA,  Huhqakt,  Nkthbr- 

LaHM,    KOBWAT,   POLUTD,   SwSDSD,    TtlBKKT,  Ac;, 

and  to  individual  biogntphiea  ot  eminent  continental 
DOveliats.  Even  in  r^ard  to  Enriand  and  France, 
we  can  do  little  more  than  catalogue  a  few  pro- 
minent names. 

1.  Engliek  FxctioH. — Almoat  tha  flrat  novelist  that 
WB  encounter  in  the  ItKh  c.  Sir  Walter  Scott  (q.  v.), 
is  probably  the  greatest  that  Qi^and,  or  even 
the  world,  has  ever  aeen.  Here,  however,  we  have 
leaa  to  do  with  his  peraonal  rank  in  literature  than 
with  the  kind  of  notion  that  he  cultivated.    In  a 


the  romantio  i , . . 

that  he  is  free  front  all  their  monata^tiea,  apaam*, 

tiioka,  and  horrible  mi"""' " ""  "' 

tf  far  greater  antiqt 
ge&ioa,  aound  eenses  and  instinotiTe ' 
of  hia  'romantic'  predeoesaora,  he  knew  piedael^ 
what  to  ahnn  and  what  to  choose ;  and  though  hia 
Feudal  Age,  as  depicted  in  ItmnJtoe,  The  Fair  Maid 
of  Perth,  ia,  ia  a  considerably  idealised  portrait  of 
uie  rugged  facta,  it  tt  a  portrait,  and  not  like  Horace 
Walpole  and  Mrs  Badchffe'a  p^ormanco,  a  fnriooi 
carici^are.  The  political  reaction  that  took  iJaae 
in  Britain,  after  the  aan^ainan'  exceaaea  of  the 
French  Bevdution,  aaanming  the  fonn  of  a  new 
and  pasaionate  attachment  to  venerable  and  time- 
honoured  baditions,  shewed  itaeU  in  literature  too, 
and  Sir  Walter  Scott  was  ite  grandeat  icpreaen- 
tative.  He  strove  to  deUneatatiie  Past,  aa  it  seemed 
in  the  eyes  of  men  who  wer«  dubioua  of  the  Preaent, 
and  afraid  of  the  Future — noble,  atately,  glittering 
and  gay,  with  the  pulse  of  life  ever  beating  to 
heroic  meaaures.  The  overpowering  cenina  of  ocott 
neceaaarily  but  unhappily  (for  the  conuort  of  reader*) 
led  to  '  endless  imitation,'  hut  the  only  one  tA  \aa 
followers  that  held  for  a  time  a  tolerably  decent 
poeitioo  in  literature  is  G.  P.  B.  James  (q.  v.).  Gait 
iq.  V.)  and  Wilson  (q.  v.),  the  former  with  vulgar 
bat  racy  humour,  the  latter  with  a  highly  aenti- 
mental  and  overdone  pathoa,  pratrayed  aapeoti 
of  Scottish  life  which  the  author  of  Waverteg 
has  paased  over.  Other  novelists,  such  as  Lock- 
hart  (q.  v.],  Miss  Ferrier  (q.T.),  and  Mra  Johnstone, 
do  not  call  for  special  notice;  neither  does  Hope 
(q.  v.),  tiionjd)  hia  Jfsntoirs  o/'JliKufeuiui  ia  a  most 
brilliant  aM  powerful  book;  ni»  Moore  (q.v.). 
though  his  MpuMTtan  haa  all  the  aparkling  and 
aap^cial  splendour*  of  his  vene.  Aner  Scott,  tihs 
next  novelist  who  distinctiy  marks  a  i 
tiie  development  of  fiotioo,  is  Sir  Edn 
Lytton  (q.  v.),  in  whose  eiirlier  works  an  isan  wb 
find  something  like  a  reflection  of  the  cold,  sneering 
selfish,  and  eenaual  spirit  that  marked  the  upper 
dasaea  daring  the  perKni  of  the  Buency;  but  the 
versatile  b^us  of  this  author,  ana  the  different 
fields  in  whioh  he  has  won  renovni,  would  make  it 
quite  unfair  to  define  him  as  a  merely  '  fashionable' 
novijistj  though   hi*   firat   and  It"^ "'~  — 


!d*B^ 


acqniied  in  that  capacity,  and 
Rttartm  are  apt  to  so  remember 
mm.  Of  fashionable  novelists,  strictly  ao  called, 
the  beat  known  are  Mrs  Gore  (q.  v.)  and  Theodore 
Hook  (q.  T.).    This  olaa*  waa  sncoeeded  by  aoother 


NOVEIA-NOTEUBEa 


infinitely  wocta  thut  itadf— Qm  yaogata  twvdiilt, 
M  they  hmxe  been  irell  termed,  who  aoosht  for 
their  heniea  unong  hidnraymcn,  thierea,  dcapen- 
doci;  and  moideren,  luce  Jkok  Sheppard,  Blneekin, 
Dick  Tundn,  OlMide  I>a*«l,  Ao.,  ud,  flagitionaly 
indifilereni  alike  to  fact  ftnd  moralitr,  laboured  wita 
pentidoiw  lucceM  to  inveit  the  livM  id  theae 
■ooundrela  'witii  »  b«la  of  Tamantia  iotereit  and 
dignity.  The  chief  of  this  Khool,  '  by 
raised  to  that  bad  eminence,'  is  WiUJam  Hi 
Aimwoiih  (q.  t.).  During  the  last  thirty  yean, 
novels  have  beea  multiplied  to  a  degree  which  is 
almost  ahumiD^   and  hterally   incalculable.     The 

Etest  namee  are  nnqueatjooably  thoao  of  Diakena 
,  'iniackeray  (q.  v^,  and  Miss  Evans  (q. 
.,  VoL  X.} )  but  besides  these  might  b« 
tJoned  a  host  of  others,  who  have  attained  either 
celebrity  or  popularity,  or  both.  Every  mode  of 
life,  and  every  kind  of  opioion,  soci^  artistic, 
scientitic,  philoaophical,  and  religious,  has  sought  to 
recommcod  itself  by  adopting  this  fascinating  garb. 
We  have  the  nantical  novels  of  Hanyat  (q.  v.), 
redolent,  like  Dibdin's  aougs,  of  the  briny  deep ;  the 
political  novels  of  Disraeh  {q.v.] ;  the  spotting  and 
milltai?  novels  of  Lever  (q,  v.);  the  briUiant 'mus- 
cular Christian '   novels  of  Kingtley   (q. 


£'  ea  and  Famf ;  and  the  '  sensational '  aovel* 
e  Cotlioa,  Miss  Braddoo,  and  others.  Other 
authors  not  less  eminent,  bnt  not  ao  eMUy  clashed, 
are  Mn  Gaskell,  Mrs  Norton,  iSim  Mnkx:^  (i 


atioii,  which  followed  the  deUvanmca  of  FnnoB 


Hn  Craikj,  Hia  Oliphant  (q.  t.),  Chariei  Bode 

a.  v.),  Anthony  'IVollope  (q.  v.),  George  Maodonald  j 
eredith,  Whyto-Melville,  M'Carthy,  BlackiDOie, 
'  Onida,'  are  well  known ;  and  William  Black  and 
Thomas  Hardy  have  shewn  themselvee  artists  of  a 
high  class.  The  extraordinary  increase  of  this 
potent  and  therefore  periloos  branch  of  literature 


t  fail  t 


eicita  mnoh  onriona   reflection  in 


2.  TVeneA  FteUon  during  Oe  IWA  Centurj/.  -, 
few  words  are  all  that  we  can  devote  to  tMs  part  of 
onr  subject,  though  It  is  far  from  nnintcresting 
either  in  a  literat;  or  a  moral  point  of  view.  The 
•Sect  of  the  ItOTolntion  of  17S9  on  liten^ure  was 
not  immediatdy  beneficial,  bnt  the  reven^  tbon^ 
it  planted  the  gomi  of  a  moltitude  (rf  new  thoughts 
and  aspirations  in  the  mind  of  Christendom,  t^Gioh 
have  since  yielded,  both  in  Franca  and  elsewhere,  a 

5roli£o  harvest  of  wheat  and — tMes.  The  iron 
espotism  of  Napoleon  crashed  nearly  all  literoiy 
ezprenion  whatever.  His  hatred  of  ■  idMk^w'  is 
well  known,  but  the  novel  was  that  species  of 
idealogio  compoaition  that  come  least  into  oollision 
with  the  principles  of  imperialism.  Even  U,  how- 
ever, conld  hardly  be  said  to  flonritjk;  and  the 
only  tolenbly  gifted  writer  of  fiction  who  figuKs 
during  the  First  Empire  i*  Le  Bran,  and  he  was 
reduMd  to  the  neceesit^  of  caricaturing  the 
botrgaritie,  to  irtiich  Napoleon  had  no  particular 
objection,  as  they  were  bv  no  means  his  wannest 
admirers.  Chateanbriand  (q.  v.)  and  Madame  de 
StaBl  (q.  T.)  ore  insignificant  ia  this  department, 
and  Charloi  Nodier,  though  volnminona,  wai  not 
an  original  novelist.  After  the  return  of  the 
Bourbons,  and  especially  after  the  nvdntion  of 
1830,  France  began  to  display  a  wonderfnl  literary 
activity,  and  in  particnlar,  iti  long-reprened  fkcnlty 
of  imagination  bnnt  into  a  andden  Uoasom  of 
poetn  and  fiotaon.  Even  Napoleon,  uoir  that  he 
was  dead,  received  a  peculiar  hodiage  from  the  cUu 
to  whom  he  had  never  shewn  favour  or  regard,  of 
which  the  eonge  of  Btronger  and  Lt»  MMraUa  of 
Victor  Hugo  ofTotd  us  specimens.  Unhappily  foe 
the  puri^  of  its  literature,  the  rigiae  of  the  Be«b>- 


to  re-enact  the  folliea  of  their  auceeton  in  the 
previous  century,  and  the  nation  soon  came  to 
dennse,  detest,  uid  disbeliere  them,  and  the  ohnroh 
which  supported  them.    Hence,  a  certain  reckless 

levity,  anahollow  mocking  laughter,  as  of  heautless 
sceptidBm,  pervading  those  fictions  which  profess  to 
delineate  the  realities  of  current  life.  Moreover,  the 
sparkling  wit,  the  sonny  humour,  the  pathos,  oftea 


sentimental  enthunaam,  and  the  poetic  witcheir  of 
a  relidous  myeticiaiii,  cannot  bliod  us  to  the  Qtct 
that  the  enbetanoe  of  most  of  the  recent  P^vniJi 
nblyimmonL     Paul  de  Eock  (q.v.). 


genius,  are  in 
respect  too  nofully  alike.  Victor  Hugo  (q.  v.)  and 
Lamartine  (q.  V.)  are  indeed  morally  far  above  the 
rest  of  their  contemporariee,  bat  they  are  perhaps 
the  only  great  exceptions  tlut  can  be  mentioned. 
The '  Second  Empire '  did  not  improve  the  tone  of 
the  French  novel,  any  more  than  it  improved  the 
tone  of  French  society ;  bnt  if  it  be  true  that  when 
tilings  have  reached  tiieir  worst  they  begin  to  mend, 
the  oountry  that  has  produced  La  Dame  a«z 
Oaim^iaa^  is  perhaps,  as  regards  the  literatore  ot 
fiction,  in  a  hopiml  condititai.  The  Erckmann* 
Chatrian  tale^  graphic  deliueatiMis  id  provincial  lif& 
are  htmouraluy  dutiiwauhed  ttj  the  absence  ot 
all  indecen^.  Vetoed  tales  of  impossible  eemi- 
Bcientific  voyages  to  the  moon  and  elsewhere  are 
niuqae. 
The  proae  fiction  of  Spain  and  Italy  during  the 


foioed  ita  way  into  the  general  Boropeou 
while  the  latter  can  bwt  of  only  one  tliat  has 
attained  that  diniity,  the  PromtMi  Spoii  of  Man- 
■oni  (q.  V.) ;  bnt  m  a  oompreheniive  sketch  like  the 
present,  it  would  be  a  hlemiah  to  omit  ~ '  '      ''  ' ' 


they  have  omtributed  not  a  little  of  late  yean  to  the 
stock  of  Bnglish  prose  fiction.  The  moat  notable 
are  Broekden  Brown  (q.  v.).  tlM  American  Godwin ; 
Fenimore  Cooper  (q.  v.),  irom  whom  Europe  has 
*""-  content,  on  tiie  whole  not  unwisely,  to  take 
otiona  of  the  forests,  the  prairies,  and  the  red 

of  the  West  1  Washington  Irving  (q.  v.),  Ed«tf 

Allan  Foe  (q.  v.),  Nathani^  Hawthorne  (q.  r.),  Mib 
Beecher  Stowe  <q.  v.),  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes 
(q,v.),  Henry  James  (junior),  Bret  Harte  (q.v.), 
W.  D.  Howell,  and  W.  G.  Simms,  '  the  novelist  of 
the  South.'  In  the  writings  of  all,  save  Foe  and 
James,  is  visible  the  ioQuence  of  the  life,  traditions, 
and  scenery  of  the  New  World.  See  Dunlop's 
HitUtry  of  Fiction  (1814;  new  ed.  1882),  Masaoo's 
Sketch  (1859),  and  WolfTs  Allg.  Oudu  da  Romaiu. 
NOVE^BBB  (Lab  novem,  nine)  was  among  the 
omaiis  the  ?th  month  of  the  year,  at  the  time 
when  the  year  consisted  of  10  months;  and  then 
contained  30  days.  It  subsequently  was  made  to 
contain  only  29,  but  Julius  Cssor  gave  it  31 ;  and  in 
umber  was  restored  to 
B  retained.    November 


position,  thou^  Iwt  other  reasons,  in 
the  Boman  Catholic  ritual  It  was  known  among 
the  Saxons  as  BIa^flH»u^i, '  blood -month,' on  account 
of  the  general  slaughter  of  cattle  at  this  time,  for 
winter  provision  (known  for  a  Ions  time  afterwards 
M  Jfar^iiHRo*  (e^  and  for  swiioce.    !niis  costom 


JV 


»OVQOE01>-!rOTO». 


wu  not  confined  to  the  Baxoni,  hd  pMnUad  ia 

NorthGm  Ofinnuij,  mud  eren  u  ut  wtlQi  m  Spain. 

NOTOOBOD,  aa  importtol  ton  irf  Enropau 

BuBift,  cuital  of  thasoTammaiit  of  tb«  Mme  n — 

U  ritutwl  <»  the  VolUwt  bmt  vbeie  it  ii 

from  Lak*  Iliiwii,  133  milM  Miith-*outh.«Mt  of  St 
PetMabuft  It  II  Um  ondle  ol  Bunian  hittoiy. 
In  862,  tu  Normaa  prince  Burik,  of  the  triba  of 
Tarii^o-BaM  (wbenoe  tbe  name  Bimia),  waa  invited 
hither  by  tiie  neighboariiig  tribea,  and  from  him 
begin!  taa  hiitorj  of  tha  oonntiy,  and  Iha  lino  of  ita 
aoverdgna.     A  monameni;  oommemmatlTe  irf  this 


bli''l862.  In  the  9Ui  &,  OIoa 'tb 
Riirik,traniporladthaaaintaItoKief}  batbeatowed 
many  priTDegaa  and  libartita  npon  If,  and  from 
that  time  it  Man  to  proiper.  "Am  gmtaam  of  N. 
proToked  the  jealonaT  m  tlia  prinMa  of  Hoeoow, 
1,  the  our  It     '"         '    '    ' 


r  iTaa  UL  nMuiy  deatrcmd  the 
■  libortiea,  and  exiled  tbs  moat 


peri^,  the  town  wia  eallad  Novgorod  the  On*t  t 
and  had  400,000  inhabitutit  and  axtendad  ita  amr 
to  &t  White  Sea  and  the  litar  PetcW^  Iti 
eoremnent  wa«  a  lort  of  repnblie,  the  prinee  bong 
Mi  a  Kmreign  than  the  onief  oaaun«td«  ti  the 


— ^ J  veMele,  bat  e^iedally  after  _. 

foundation  of  81  Petenbtug,  ita  tnda  Ml  away,  and 
the  town  rapidlj  declined.  Of  tiia  «Ti«ti"g  sndent 
building!,  the  moat  reBiarkalile  are  the  Ohardi  of  9t 
Sophia,  branded  in  Qia  11th  o.,  poKeanag  a  fiM  old 
liMary,  aa  well  ae  eome  renarluble  juliitiiiM  and 
toabe ;  and  the  Kreml,  in  the  ateeple  of  idiic£  hong 
the  funoiu  bell  need  to  tommon  tbe  oltieeni  for  the 
deliberstionofctateaffiurL    Pop^  (1880)  17,E7S. 

HOTOOBOl},  a  government  of  Oreat  BnuiB, 
eztenda  immedlatelj  eonth-eait  of  the  government 
of  St  Petenbnig.  Area,  48,780  eq.  ».  g  pop.  <1880) 
1,07B,9BG.  The  anrfaoe  is  gently  nndolatme,  with 
the  Valdai  HIU*  In  the  wmth,  which  riee  to  about 
800  feet,  and  mav  be  arid  to  form  the  watershed 
between  the  Baltie,  Oaapian,  and  White  Seal;  The 
govenunent  contrina  many  lakea  and  riven  i  td  the 
former,  the  lakee  nmen  and  Bieloe  arethelargeati 
and  of  the  latter,  tite  Wolohot,  Uata,  BaAMo^  and 
Hologa  are  the  moat  important.  The  riveri  an 
coimwted  by  oanali,  which  an  of  great  lerviee  to 
tradft  Uie  eoil,  eepedally  in  the  norUi-eaat,  la  not 
fertile,  and  the  climate  h  aeven ;  agrloultura  and 
cattle-rearing  an  earned  on  oidy  to  a  limited 
extent  FonMa  and  peehue-lande  an  sumerona  and 
eitendvc^  and  ti>e  timber  and  hay  aent  to  the 
eapitel  TMUm  a  ooneidetable  income.  Qoarriea  of 
the  beat  atone  for  paving  ooonr  on  the  river  Toana, 
and  near  Stara-Botta  t^re  an  tninenl  and  eeline 
■plingl 

TSfyVT,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  in  the  uroyinoe 
of  Genoa,  i»  a  itation  on  the  railway  from  Torin  to 
Genoa,  and  il  S3  milel  nmth-north-weat  of  the 
latter  dty.  It  pretente  few  attraetjona,  with  the 
exception  of  a  nmnber  of  pictoreaqne  old  honaei. 
It  cairiai  on  a  ooneiderable  tranait-trade;  and  the 
allk  prodnced  in  the  vicinity  la  amonot  the  moat 
oeUbiated  in  Italy.    Fop.  11,443. 

NCKTIBAZA'B,  al»>  JENIBA2AB,  »  town  of 
Boenia,  Suropean  Turkey,  dtuated  on  tbe  river 
B>ahka,jui  afflnent  of  the  Uorava,  130  mile*  icoth- 
eait  of  Boana-Serd.    N.  ha*  celebrated  ftura,  im- 

>rtant  trade,  and  coniiderBble  Wealth,  but  the 
_  lueea  an  moitiy  of  mud.  By  the  Treaty  of  Berlin 
(1878),  Aoatria  does  not  ednunieter  the  SanJ&k  of 
N.  (the  aliip  of  land  between  Servia  and  Montenegro}, 
but  RBiTJaoiu  it,  and  controle  the  roads.    Fo|i,  900ft 


C 


NOVITIATE,  Hm  time  of  ivobsUait,  aa  weD  m 
of  prepaiaton  traininit  which  in  aU  religtona 
oidraa  preoedea  the  aolemn  PBonKioir  (a.  t.%. 
Under  the  head  of  MoraobibM  will  be  fonnd  tita 
general  prinei^e*  iij  wUch  the  trMning  for  the 
'religions' life  u  regnlated.  ItwillbeMw^^toeay 
here,  that  the  norihate  in  all  orders  most  oontlnHe 
(Oonc  Trld.  Seta,  xxr.  e.  8S,  Va  BeguL  ami  Mon.} 
at  least  one  year.  In  most  orders  it  ii  of  two,  and 
in  several  <rf  three.  Any  attempt  to  aolemniae  the 
proteadon  before  the  expiration  of  the  noritiate^ 
without  a  dlapouation,  la  inv^ld.  During  the 
notitiatc^  the  novices  an  immediatdy  iDbiect  to 
a  mperior,  called  Master  (oi  Mistress)  of  Novioea. 
ThOT  an  turt  pennlttad  to  engage  in  lystMnatao 
stuoy,  thdr  whole  time  being  devoted  to  tnayer, 
and  to  asoetle  and  hturgiM  truning;  Dnnng 
the  novitiate,  tbe  novica  continnei  tree  to  wiUi- 
dnw,  nor  la  he  m  iha  admitted  to  mofcMion 
at  the  eloaa  of  the  novitiate^  moeyt  attar  ytoot 
given  of  fltuese,  and  of  proper  dlapoaitioBa  for  the 
particular  institute  aipired  to. 

NOTOABKHANOHBliSK  (Hew  Arehangd). 
orSnKA,  aseqiort  of  Aloaka,  formerly  centra  oTthe 
administration  of  the  BasBa-American  Company, 
situated  on  the  island  of  Sitka,  on  tbe  N.W.  ooaat  of 
the  American  ocmtinent  hi  lafc  67*  3'  N.,long.  about 
Uy  W.  It  haa  a  good  portt  and  was  the  eotnptt 
other  Boeso-Amerioan 

._  . joct  of  which  fun  wen 

There  are  at  N,  enly  08  elear 


Of  aU   the      . 

ookwM,  and  of  their  ^odnoe, 

the  prinaiial  item.    There  are  i 

days  in  ue  year.    Mean  temi 

idle  year,  43*  4ff  F,   Poa  (Man 

to  the  n.  S.)  1000^  moally  servanta  of  the  ounpany. 


Jy  M 
of  I£du 


NO  VOUOSEO' VSK,  an  important  maricet-town 
of  South  Boeeie,  in  i^  govemment  of  EkateriooBlav, 
and  20  miles  north-n^th-eaat  of  the  town  of  that 
name,  on  the  SMoara,  an  affluent  of  the  Dtiiepcr. 
Thrae  extensive  fiiie,  chiefly  for  the  lale  «{  cattle 
and  horsey  an  hdd  ben  annually.  The  '  remount- 
ing' offioen  attend  these  tain  for  the  porpose  of 
aupplying  their  ngimaits  with  hoiaca.  Tanning  and 
taUow-melting  an  carried  on.    Pi^  (1880)  10,510. 

NOVOTOaBRKA'SE,  a  town  of  Soathein 
Bnsaia,  oapitsl  of  the  territory  of  the  Coeeaoks  of 
the  Daa,  on  the  Aksel,  a  tributsry  of  the  Don,  at  a 
distance  of  12  miles  from  Its  right  bank,  and  about 
70  miles  east-north-east  of  Tapuirt^    The  oenbsl 


lot  a  happy  one,  the  dlstanee  tif  the  town  from 
the  Don,  the  great  oomtnercial  Vtery,  being  much 
felt  In  18S6,  a  stfttue  was  erected  u  memory  of 
Count  Platoff;  who  achieved  an  iUastrioni  name  fay 
his  military  exploit*  from  1770  till  1816,  and 
especially  doriDg  the  French  invasion  In  1812.    Popi 


gltiwing. 

lDES  (L  &,  '  Drownings,'  I 
to  drown),  the  execution  of  politii: 
neat  nomben  at  onoe  bv  drowning  them,  one  of 
the  atrodtiea  of  the  FrencK  Berolution,  pmctised  at 
Nantes  by  Carrier,  the  deputy  of  the  Convention. 
See  Caxbub.  This  mode  of  execution  wm  alio 
called,  in  oruel  sport,  rerticoi  J}^>ortat{on. 

NOTAU.    BeelaqmuB. 

NOTON,  a  town  of  Prance  in  the  department  of 
Oise,  78  milee  aorth-oorth-eaet  of  Paris  by  the 
Dortnem  railway.  It  has  a  fine  cathedral  of  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries,  in  the  Bomanesqoe  style 
of  anihiteotura  j  on  episoopal  paUce,  and  i         " 


jOOgI' 


KtrBIA— NUDIBRAKCHIATA. 


Pop.  700a    K.  ma  an 
aament  ToytJ  midcaoe.    Hrae  Cslnn  (q.  t.)  wm 

NUBIA  u  •  oanpantiralf  modem 


IfubiaPrtfia; 

w   Lower  IfubUt,  eztsnda  frcnn  Amoiuu  on  '* 
BgrptiMi  frontier  to  Doogd*;  beyond  that  b  ITj 
ItuSia.    But  ot  btB  the  nama  <a  J^nptian  3v€ 

pnmrly  wplkable  to  •  Mctum  of  Upper  N^  « 

CO  be  oaed  tiv  N.  in  ill  widest  Moae,  together 
-with  the  once  EgfoHan  territoij  actnnllj  in  ihe 
Sadan,  and  tha  eqnaloiial  povincea  (aee  Sinun,  alao 
Sax.  The  name  aeemi  to  have  been  derired  from 
tbe  Goptie  Ifoub,  or  Gold,  or  from  the  Nobatte  trib^ 
afterward*  ^<tiii«— »  name  also  iroearing  in  Wads 
Xtiba,  the  northemmoat  leotion  oi  liower  N^  tiu 
aonthern  beans  "WtAy  Knnnz  (or  Kenoni].  Under 
the  Fbaiaohi,  N.  waa  called  Gnl^  and  waa  goremed 
br  a  rofal  aoribe,  entitled  Prince  (rf  Cosh  or  &liioi«a, 
tul  the  twentieth  dynaa^,  when  it  qipean  to  have 
been  recovered  bjr  a  Bene*  of  native  nlen^  who 


t«ly  conquered  part  of  Ejgypt.  Iheae  BOii- 
opiaaa  adopted  tiie  dnliaation  ofttte  Ileyptiani,  and 
were  Chriridaniaed  ]  aee  BrmoFU.  AtpteMD^the 
couotty  ia  occnped  hf  neei  belon^og  to  aevoal 
different  atock^  whioh  have  in  meet  plaeea  become 
much  mixed  in  blood.  The  chief  elements  ate  Aiah, 
more  or  lew  mixed  with  Nilotio  and  Negro  blood, 
mainly  in  Upper  N.;  Ababddt  and  Bidmrin  between 
the  Nile  and  the  Bed  Sea ;  and  Nnbaa  and  Banbiia 
in  Loww  N.,  on  and  neat  the  Nila  between  Aaaonan 
and  Dongola.  Hie  Semitic  Amlx  ate  comparatiTGly 
recent  intmden  to  this  region.  They  entered  N. 
after  oecDppog  foypt  in  the  7th  centi^ ;  bat  were 
rensted  I^  the  Chiutian  Dimgolawi  kiiu;a  till  the 
14th  oentory,  when  the  Arab^  amirted  %  a  large 
contingent  m  Boaniana,  became  mastera  of  the  lai^ 
The  Nobafae,  bronght  hitii^  by  Diocletian,  wet« 
apparently  a  n^ro  race,  llieir  modern  repreaent- 
uivea  are  the  Negro  or  Negroid  Nntwu^  calling  them- 
aelve*  Berben,  Barabtai  or  Barabii*.  Hie  andant 
Bkmnqwt  were  of  the  Hamitio  atock,  and  ethno- 
logictlljr  akin  to  the  ancient  Egyptiana.  Thefiialuwin 
or  Beja  an  tbeir  deaoendanta  t  andthe  Ababdehate 
likewiae  Hamitio.  The  Noba  apeech  ia  fnndament- 
ally  negro  in  t^pe,  akin  to  the  Nabio  of  Eoidofan, 
and  is  spoken  in  three  main  dialects.  Preaamably, 
the  aboriginal  nu^  population  and  tongae  have  beoi 
gradoallj^  modioed  by  the  admiitnre  of  Hamitic 
and  Semitio  elements.  The  rarione  tnb«i^  moat  of 
them  active  and  wariike,  ate  Moalenu  by  futh,  aiul 
tiU  1820  were  roled  by  thedt  own  dii^  In  that 
year,  Ismail  Faaba  made  N.  an  &yptian  territor; ; 
and  till  1S61  it  ihared  the  fate  iJEkypt.  For  ita 
later  hiatcny,  see  Satrr,  SncAM.  BoS  in  ib  lower 
and  nppet  aeetiroa,  N.  i*  for  tiw  moat  part  an 
emnae  of  ateppaa  or  rocky  desert,  witii  patches 
where  grass  aometimes  growa,  and  ravines  in  whidi 
moiatara  enough  is  found  to  keep  alive  a  few 
mimoaas  or  palma,  and  to  raise  pasture  for  gazelles 
and  camels.  There  are  also  wells  and  smaU  oases 
here    and  tliere  aa  on  the  chief  caravan  routes. 


. is  almost  nnknownj  tiia  climate 

is  accordingly  exceadTely  hot  and  dry,  and  eioqpt 
in  the  tiver  ports  after  die  fall  of  the  I^Icl  is  very 
healthy.  The  only  exception  to  the  general  aridi^ 
ia  the  narrow  strip  of  oonntry  on  both  sides  of 
the  Nile,  which  nowhere  exceeds  four  miles  in 
breadth,  and  in  many  places  ia  only  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  wide.  The  most  fertile  part  is  near  Dongola. 
A  mountain  barrier  bounds  the  vall^  on  botii 


sidea  of  the  Nile,  and  eonsiBta  of  granite  and 
nndatone.  The  acnl  taisea  dnrr^cotion,  and  date 
pahna.  It  ia  traversed  \iy  the  BiAr  d  Atrtt,  or 
Bins  NI1&  and  the  Bair  tt  AUad,  or  White  Nile. 
The  prodncta  are  nnmeroo^  commiaiDg  maiie, 
datnL  tamarinds,  gnm%  aloea,  idvO,  musk,  wax, 
myiTii,  fnRikuicanae,  aenna,  tdack  wool,  hides  botii 
of^tba  dephant  and  riiinocetoi,  and  their  irory, 
oitrieb  feather*,  ebonj,  gold  dntt,  aaltpetre,  salt, 
tobacco,  oofbe,  cotton,  inticih  are  carried  bv  vay 


nnmlMT  of  water-i. .^ 

land,    nure  bring  no  native  omtsncy,  ttw 

Bgypt  and  Enrape,  «>pe<daUv  the  l^niah  dollar, 
aro  reoeived,  bo*  ^ass-beetds,  eomt,  dotii,  tobi 
or  shirts;  and  dofii  {tantoor)  also  paa*  aa  money. 
In Eordoan, value i* reokofiad by oowi;    Hismoat 


•old  bf  the  handful  (idga),  IS  of  whioh  go 
\o  a  mmid:  and  cloth  being  measured  from  the 
elbow  to  the  fingers.  Polygamy  i*  nnaral,  and 
a  wife  at  Kenona  i*  pntdused  of  her  parent* 
tia  80  ^astres;  antoorat  the  Arabs  for  8  camels, 
3  of  which  are  ntamad  to  the  bndegtoom.  Some 
of  the  tribes  are  Jealou*  «f  their  woman,  who  are 
celebrated  by  bavellera  on  aooount  ot  their  Tiztoe. 
In  their  MStume,  they  use  tnibana,  linen,  and 
wooDan  nniwnta,  and  are  armed  with  lanoe  and 
abield,  tlis  latter  made  of  the  hide  ot  the  hippo- 
potamu*.  No  loons  exist;  but  thsy  plait  neatly, 
nutr  ohiaf  muaical  inatmiaaot  ia  ft  guitar  of  five 
■brings,  with  aonnding-boMd  ol  «  gaselWa  hid& 
Ihey  are  genwally  averse  to  oommerc^  Mt  little 
*"^TniH  food,  and  are  Uohammsda&a.  Thdr  hooscfl 
are  hnr  hula  of  mod  or  Bton&  The  chief  attnwtkm 
of  this  oonntty  toltavdlen  i*  the  nnmerona  temples 
and  other  andent  remaina  <d  tha  Egyptiana,  ex- 
tending from  Fhilae  to  the  island  tA  Aigo.  Hieea 
ooniist  tit  tba  temple  of  laii,  in  the  lale.of  Fhilaa, 
founded  by  Nectanebo  L,  and  waitinned  by  tha 
Ptolemiea  I  ibm  tenqde  <rf  Debcod,  built  in  honour 
of  Amen  Ba,  by  Ataramen,  and  oontinned  by  t^ 
Bomanaj  Tafa  or  Taphis,  the  modstn  Kaluiahe^ 
boilt  by  Bamese*  XL ;  the  rook  temple  of  But  a 


Welly,  reoordlngthe  oonqnesla  dl  tha  aame  me 
Wady  Haifa,  bmb  by  OaertMKOiL;  the  roc^  temple 
of  IbaambonI,  built  by  Barneses  IL ;  Oebel  Addeb, 
bnUt  by  Horn*  <rf  the  eiditesoth  ^nasty;  nxim, 
built  oj  Amenophea  IL  i  AmaJ*,  founded  by 
Tbothmsa  TO.;  Qhaaheh,  Sabona,  and  I>ern,bdlt 
t^  Bameaea  IL;  Dakkeh,  tlw  ancient  Pselas,  built 
l^  Ergamenee;  and  the  Colosso*  of  Uia  isle  d 
i^go;  Hm  Pyramidl  of  HeroH  and  TanquaaaL — 
Burdihardt,  Traadt;  OhampoUion  le  Jesne;  Lettrtt 
Barila,  p.  ID7,  and  folL ;  Ii4*iM<  Seite,  p.  107,  and 
fdl., 

NnOLEOBBANCHIATA,  or  HEIEROPODA, 
an  order  of  gaatCropod*  having  the  aexe*  distinct ; 
the  looconotive  organ  fin-like,  aingia,  and  ventral; 
"-~  -jillapacked  m  amall  oomrasa  abag  with  the 
L  Ttisy  are  all  marine,  and  usoally  swim  with 
back  downward*  and  the  fln-ahaped  foot 
npwarda.  They  adhere  to  aeo-weedi  by  a  amall 
ancker  plaoed  on  the  fin.  Soroeof  them,  as  jftinntn, 
hare  a  aheB  large  enough  to  protect  the  body;  some, 
aa  Cnn'nona,  Imre  a  amall  shell  covering  the  gills 
and  heart  Milys  and  sane,  a*  Finia,  have  no  3uU 
atalL 

Kn'OUSna,    SeaCcLU. 

NUDIBBANOHIATA  pTaked-riQe^,  an  order 
of  gasteropodi;  hermaphrodite,  destitate  of  shell, 
andliaving  the  ^lli  exposed  on  tiie  snrbce  of  the 
body.  The  giDi  are  di&^ntly  aitnatad  In  difibraot 
genera.    Tha  geno*  ihirii  ().v.)  la  an  ettampla  of 

^"*"- D,,z„„,Go<[»slg 


NTTECGS— mnSANOE. 


rirsr  ot  Texu,  United  StatM  of 
Americm,  tina  ia  Booth-wMtern  Texa*,  Ut  30*. 
long.  101*  W.,  mnd  after  a  Muth-eMterl;  oonns  of 
300  miles,  floira  into  Corpus  Chriiti  Bay,  — ■* 
throagk  the  Pan  ol  tha  nme  nama  into  tae 
of  Mexico. 

NUrSAKOB  u  a  I^^  teim  lued  to  denote  what- 
ever ii  an  annoyanoa  to  ontfa  neighbonra,  or  in  » 
general  leiiM  to  ttio  pnblio  at  large,  in  the  szeioiae 
of  their  righti  ot  pccptrty.  Tha  whole  doctrine  of 
Doisanoe  i«  founded  on  the  theory  that  evei;  peiaon 
ia  entitled  to  have  the  full  nie  and  enjoyment  of 
hia  praperty,  and  of  the  right  of  ^poaiiDg  to  and  ' 
on  the  hi^way  without  being  interfered  with 
impeded  by  othen,  and  whatever  lo  impedei  this 
full  enJD^ent  of  oive't  property  and  right  of  paMage 
n  the  hudtway  ia  a  auiaaiioe.  Nniaancea  are  thua 
*  le  oiDeing  divided  into  two  kinda— private  and 


poblio.   ' 


■  close  to  A'a  windowt,  or 

n  hia  house,  these  may  be  aaid  to 

ba  private  nnisanoea,  for  they  annoy  A  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  the  fieab  air  and  quiet  which  ate  part  ol 
his  right  ot  property.  On  tba  other  hand,  if  some- 
thing ia  put  of  the  same  kind  on  a  public  highway, 
or  BO  aa  to  annoy  direra  people  equally  and  in  tha 
•ame  manner,  then  it  ia  ealled  a  public  nuisi 
One  of  the  leading  innidenta  of  a  nniaaiioi 
that  the  party  annoyed  by  it  can  in  many  oaaop, 
eapecaally  where  the  nniiance  is  injnriona  to  health 
or  life,  take  the  law  into  hia  own  hands  and  abate 
the  Duisanoe  without  reaorting  to  a  court  of  law. 
The  reason  is,  tiiat  ttie  matter  is  of  too  nc^t 
intportanoe  to  await  the  alow  prepress  <rf  a  smt  at 
laWt  and  mischief  may  ho  dona  m  the  iwAmfmi* 
which  would  be  often  irreparable  owing  to  the  delay. 
Another  important  qnalificatian  of  the  right  of 
abating  a  nuisance  is.  that  the  nnisauoe  must  be 
such  that  unless  it  is  abated  at  once  tha  party 
cannot  eierciae  hia  I^al  righta ;  and  hence  u  the 
Buisaaoa  is  of  such  a  ^d  that  it  does  not  directly 
interfere  with  the  comfort  or  enjoyment  of  ones 
legal  rights  at  the  time,  he  haa  no  right  to  abate 
it.  but  u  that  case  is  bound  to  resort  to  a  < 
of   law.    This    ia  best   illustrated  in  the  caa 


cases  in  which  the  pi 
moat  familiarly  known.  Thus,  if  while  A  is  riding 
or  driving  along  the  highway  hia  progreaa  is  inter- 
rupted by  a  fenoe  or  gate  wluch  nobody  haa  a  legal 
right  to  put  there,itiaolmoua^iatnnIeaaAcan  knock 
down  or  demolish  at  once  this  obatruction,  he  cannot 

Eroceed  in  the  exeidae  d  his  legal  r^t  of  using  the 
ighway.  In  snoh  a  oaaa  be  haa  a  nght  to  demolish 
the  gate  and  abate  the  nuisance^  lor  it  directly 
inteilerea  with  bis  own  legal  right  But  if  instead, 
a  gate,  a  booth,  or  tent  had  been  erected,  not  across 
the  highway,  but  merely  on  one  aide  ot  it,  so  aa  to 
leave  room  for  psssengers  to  pass,  then  thongh 
such  tent  or  booth  would  be  aa  undoubted  a 
nuisance  sa  in  the  other  case,  yet  inasmuch  as  A  can 
pass  without  direct  interference,  he  has  no  right  to 
abate  the  nuisance  by  destroyinz  tha  tent.  He 
must,  in  this  tatter  caae,  resort  to  tiie  Iwal  remedy 
only.  The  aome  rule  applies  to  all  kinds  of  nuisances. 
Another  rule  ia,  that  in  abating  a  noisaace  the 
party  is  not  to  do  unnecessary  damage  to  property, 
Le.,  more  than  simply  abate  the  nnisanoe  to  such  an 
extent  aa  to  enable  himsett  to  exerdae  hia  legal 
right,  and  no  farther.  If  he  go  beyond  the  imme- 
diate occasion,  and  caose  nnneoessaiy  desfamotioD  to 
property,  then  he  subjects  himself  to  an  action  of 
damages.  Hence  it  is  often  a  difficult  thing  to 
know  when  one  is  justified  in  abating  a  nnisanoe 
and  takinx  the  law  into  his  own  hands, 
'Where  the  nuisance  it  aought  to  b«  reinoTed  by 


legtl  meana,  then  the  remedy  ia  in  some  cases  two- 
told,  and  in  some  cases  not  so.  Where  the  uuisanc* 
is  of  a  private  nature,  an  action  ot  damages  is  in 

Sineral  the  only  remedy  given  by  the  common  law. 
at  where  the  nuisanoe  is  public,  and  affects  all  the 
public  equally,  or  neariy  ao,  then  in  general  either 
an  action  may  be  brought,  or  an  iudicbneot  will  lie. 
Una  in  ease  of  a  naisance  on  a  hi^way,  aa  this 
affects  all  the  lieges  ohke,  an  indiotment  is  the 
proper  remedy,  though  if  an  inSividoal  suffered 
apecdal  damage  over  and  above  what  he  anffera  aa 
one  of  the  pnoUc,  then  he  may  bring  an  action.  In 
Scotland,  instead  of  on  indictment,  an  action  in  tha 
nature  of  a  public  action  is  raised,  which  ia  anb- 
stantiallv  siimlat  in  its  resnlta  to  an  indictment. 

A«  will  be  seen  from  what  haa  preceded,  the  legal 
temedy  in  caaea  of  noisancea  has  long  been  felt  to 
be  insufficient.  To  add  to  the  other  defects,  there 
ia  great  difficulty^  in  determining  whether  a  par- 
ticular mode  of  using  one's  premiaea  is  in  the  nature 
of  a  nnisauce  or  not ;  for  if  the  line  is  drawn  too 


- with.    On 

the  otiier  hand,  niii^  wnioh  tbrmeriy  were  con- 
sidered no  nuiaanoea  are  now  tieated  as  such,  owing 
to  the  spread  of  more  enlightened  views  of  pnblio 
heslth  Mid  habits  of  cleanliness.  These  conaidera- 
tiona  recently  induced  the  legialature  to  alter  the 
common  law  in  an  important  degree,  and  aubstititte 
a  new  code  under  the  name  of  the  Public  HealUi 
and  Nnisoncea  Removal  Acts,  11  and  12  Tict  c  63; 
18  and  19  VioL  c.  116  ;  35  and  36  Vict  c  79.  ^le 
general  scheme  of  these  acts  it  to  enable  districts  to 
appoint  local  boards,  with  extenatve  powers  of  aelf- 
goveminent,  and  to  undertake  and  execute  sanitaij 
improvements,  such  aa  drunage  and  water  aupply  on 
a  large  scale,  paying  for  the  expense  thereof  by  a  local 
rate  or  assenment 

Aa  rcgarda  the  power  of  removina  nuisanoes, 
a  statute  waa  pasaed  in  ISCS  for  England,  called 
the  Nuisances  Itemovsl  Act,  which  has  been 
amended  W  two  anbaequent  acta.  Bv  these  acta, 
some  aanifauT  authority,  called  mnJ  or  urban, 
under  35  and  36  Tict  c  79,  ia  appointed  the  local 
authori^  for  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the 
act  and  these  are  of  an  extensive  kind,  llie  act 
defines  a  auiaance  to  include  any  premiaea  in 
such  a  atata  as  to  be  a  nnusance  or  injnrions  to 
health  ;  any  pool,  ditch,  gutter,  water-coiirae,  privy, 
urinal,  cesa-pool,  drain,  or  aahiat  so  foul  as  to 
be  a  nuisance  or  injurions  to  health ;  any  animal 
so  kept  ss  to  be  a  nuisance,  or  injurious  to  health ; 
and  any  accumulation  or  deposit,  overcrowding 
foul  condition,  or  smoke.  The  local  authority 
ia  to  appoint  a  sanitary  inspector  at  a  proper 
salarr.  Any  person  aggncved  may  give  notice  to 
the  local  board,  or  the  sonitaiy  inspector  may  do 
ao.  The  local  board  has  extensive  poweia ;  it  can 
authorise  its  inspector,  on  reasonable  com^Jaint  to 
entrance  into  any  private  premise*  so 


board,  on  finding  a  naisance  exiab^  direct  their 

officer  to  go  before  a  iuatice  of  the  peace  and  procom 

order  directing  the  private  puty  to  amte  the 

sanoe.     If  he  refuse  to  do  so,  tlie  local  board 

may  remove  the  naisaoce  at  the  expenae  of  the  party 

on  whose  premises  it  exiita,  and  aue  him  for  sud 

expenaea.    If  any  candle-h<nw^  meltini-house,  aoop- 

houae,  slaughter-honae,  ot  plaoe  lor  boiliiw  oSil, 

blood,  bones,  Ac.,  ba  oertifiea  by  Hie  medical  offlcei^ 

any  two  medical  practitioners,  to  be  a  nuisancei 

_-  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  inhalutaiita  of  the 

neighbourhood,  the   local    board   may   cause   the 

-Mraon  carrving  on  aucfa  trade  to  appear  before  a 

luatioa  of  tlw  peaoc^  »fii  it  it  is  nm  aatisfaotorijf 


v;  Google 


NtTtU  fiOKA-KtmSSfiS. 


prored  that  he  does  not  nae  tiie  beat  practicsble 
mcaiu  for  preventing  or  connteiscting  the  efflnvu, 
he  is  fined.  So  if  houaea  ue  overcrowded,  this  may 
be  stopped.  FroTitiomi  are  also  enacted  with  a  view 
to  prevent  the  spread  of  diseases  in  time*  of 
epidemics,  and  to  prevent  common  lodging-honsee 
OKua  kept  in  ft  loul  state.  Another  important 
provwion  relates  to  the  aeiznre  of  diseased  meat  and 
provisioiis  exposed  to  sal«,  and  the  medical  officer  el 
beil^  or  inspector  of  noissiioes,  haa  at  all  times 
power  to  inspect  any  animal,  carcase  meat,  ponltiy, 

Ce,  flesh,  fish,  fniit,  vegetables,  com,  bread,  '- 
■;  and  if  fonnd  unfit  for  food,  or  diseased. 


•ions  as  to  nnisonces  generally,  there  are  sepvate 


houses,  Jk>,,  in  London,  must  consume  their 
smoke.  These  statates  are  the  16  and  17  Vict  c. 
128,  and  19  and  20  Yict  c  107.  The  Public  Health 
Act,  1875  (39  and  40  Vict.  o.  55),  practically  codifies 
the  law  on  all  such  matters.  The  Givers  Follntion 
Act,  187G  (39  and  40  Vict.  c.  75),  deals  with  another 
important  species  of  nuisance. 

In  Scotluid,  a  Nuisaneee  Removal  Statute  was 
passed  in  ISEo,  and  was  re-enacted  by  the  Pablio 
Health  Act,  1867,  30and  31  Viet  o.  101.  By  that  aot 
the  town  council,  or  police  oommissionetB  of  the 
place,  ara  oonstitnted  the  local  antiiority  for  enforc. 
mg  the  act  and  ia  other  places  the  parochial  board. 
Besidea  dealing  with  the  same  class  of  naisa&caa  as 
the  English  act,  the  Scotch  act  provided  for  check- 
ing all  trades  and  businewee  offensive  and  injurious 
to  the  health  of  the  oeighbonrhood.  Similar  powers 
were  given  to  the  local  board  to  enter  private 
honsesandeiplora tbecausesof naisances.  Diseased 
and  unwholesome  meat  and  provisions  may  also  be 
seized.  Common  lodging-houses  were  to  be  regis- 
tered, and  to  be  subject  to  rules  and  regulations  to 
be  made  by  the  local  anthority.  With  regard  to 
towns  in  Scotland,  an  extenaive  code  of  police  laws 
was  enacted  in  the  General  Police  and  Improvement 
Acts,  26  and  26  Ticb  c.  101,  31  and  32  Vict  a.  102. 
The  acta  may  be  adopted  by  butghs ;  and  villages 
above  700  of  population  may,  by  vote  ot  honse- 
hoMers,  be  converted  into  barghs  for  Uiis  pnrpose. 
A  Smoke  Nnisance  Act  for  Scotland  wsa  pused 
applicable  to  all  harghs,  20  and  21  Vict  a  73 ;  21 
Vict  0.17;  28  and  M  Viet  c.  lOZ 

The  above  is  the  nsual  l^al  acceptation  of  tiie 
* —    nnisance^  bnt  the  wonl  ia  sometimes  used 


popnlorlv  to  deaote  that  class  of  nuisanoes, 
caused  by  disoideriy  houses  or  brothels,  which 
are  familiarly  desoribed  *■  oommoD  nnisances.  In 
the  law  of  *!"gi'"'<  those  who  keep  a  brothel  ara 
liable  to  be  iidicted  for  a  misdemeanour,  bat  aa 
there  was  often  a  difBouIty  in  setting  the  law  in 
motioa  in  such  oases,  a  statute  ol  23  Geo.  IL  o.  36, 
enacted  that  if  any  two  inhabitants  should  give 
notice  to  a  constable  of  such  a  house  being  kept,  it 
ahonld  then  be  the  dnt?  of  the  constable  nnd^  a 
penalty,  to  go  with  sneh  inhubitanta  befora  a  justice 
and  engage  to  prosecute  the  keeper,  and  their 
expenses  are  paid  by  the  parish  out  of  the  poor- 
rates.  The  same  act  provided  that  whoever  in  point 
of  bet  acted  as  the  master  or  mistress  of  the  honse, 
should  be  taken  to  be  the  keeper  of  the  house.  The 
punishment  is  Una  and  imprisonment  Of  late  an 
attempt  has  been  made  to  convict  a  landlord  nndw 
this  statnte  when  he  knows  of  the  ehsiaotv  of  his 
tenants,  and  rrfoses  to  give  them  notice  to  ooit ; 
bnt  the  courts  have  held  ttiat  the  men  fact  of  the 


landlord  refusing  to  give  notioe  to  qnit,  and  so  to 
eject  such  tenants,  was  not  enough  to  make  him 
liable  in  any  criminal  punisbment  In  Scotland, 
the  offenoe  of  keeping  a  brothel  is  punishable  ia  a 
similar  manner.  Bat  apart  from  the  keeping  of  a 
brothel,  thera  is  no  oriminal  ofience  comntitMd  in 
this  country  by  those  who  frequent  such  houses 
for  the  purposes  of  prostitution  nnle^  where  the 
eiranmstances  amonnt  to  Bape  (q.  v.)  or  Abduction 
(q.  v.),  or  an  aggravated  assault 

NTT'LIiA  B<yiIA,  a  legal  phrase  in  En^and, 
descriptive  of  the  retnm  m^e  to  a  sheriff,  lAo  in 
eieenting  process  agunst  a  debtor  finds  he  has  no 

NU'MA  POMPFLIUSI,  in  themythio  history  rf 
Borne,  was  the  successor  of  Bomnlos,  the  fonnder 
of  the  city.  He  was  a  native  of  Cures  in  the  Sabine 
country,  and  was  aniversally  reverenced  for  his 
wisdom  and  piety.  TJnanimoaaly  elected  king  by 
the  Boman  peopK  he  soon  justified  by  his  condnct 
the  wisdom  of  their  choicer  After  dividing  the  lands 
which  Bomolus  had  conquered,  he  proceeded,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  sacred  n^ph  Egeria,  tn  draw 
up  religious  institutions  for  lus  Eubjects,  and  thus 
stands  out  in  the  primitive  l^nd  as  the  author  of 
the  Boman  ceremouial  law.    His  reign  lasted  for  39 

C!s,  and  waa  a  golden  age  of  peace  and  happiness, 
only  feature  in  the  myOi  of  N.  P.  which 
we  can  regard  as  probably  historictd,  is  that  which 
indicates  the  infuaian  of  a  Sabine  religioas  element 
into  Roman  hiatory  at  some  remote  period. 

KUMAITTIA,  the  chief  town  of  the  Celtiberian 
people  called  Arevaoi  in  ancioit  Spain,  was  situated 
on  the  Donro  (Dnrius),  in  the  nei^bourhood  of  the 
present  Soria  m  Old  CastQe.  The  site  is  probaUy 
marked  hj  the  present  Pnente  de  Qnairay.  N.  is 
celebrated  for  the  heroio  resistance  which  it  mode 
to  the  Bomans,  from  153  B.C.,  when  its  citizens  first 
met  a  Roman  army  in  battle,  to  134  B.C.,  when 
it  was  token  and  destn^ed  by  Scipio  the  younger, 
after  a  siege  of  IS  montbs,  in  the  coarse  of  which 
le  and  the  sword  had  left  alive  very  few  of  its 
.  brave  defenders.  The  besieging  force  onder 
Sciiuo  amonnted  to  60,000  men. 

NUHBBBS,  Tbkbt  of,  the  nuxt  subtle  and 
intrioatet  and  at  the  same  time  one  <d  the  most 
extensive,  branches  of  mathematical  analysis.  It 
treats  primarily  of  the  forma  of  numbers,  and 
of  the  properties  at  once  dednoible  from  these 
forms ;  out  its  principal  field  is  the  theoi;  of 
equations,  in  as  far  as  equations  ara  soluble  in  whole 
numbera  or  rational  fractions,  and  more  partioulorly 
that  branch  known  as  Indetenninate  Equations. 
Closely  allied  to  this  branch  are  those  problems 
Trtdoh  are  usually  grouped  under  the  Diophantine 
Analysis  (q.  v.),  a  cbas  of  problems  alike  interesting 
and  difficult ;  and  of  which  the  following  an 
:  I.  Fmtl  lAe  nuntben  Ote  mm  af  ahoae 
sAoil  be   a  sjtunw  numier;   a   condition 

by  S  and  12,  8  and  IS,  S   and  40,  Jw. 

2,  Fiad  three  square  numbers  m  arilJtmtticai  progrM- 
Mien  ;  Answer,  1,  25,  and  40 ;  4, 100, 196,  &a. 

Forma  of  Ntanbert  are  certain  algebraic  formulas, 
which,  by  aaaigning  to  the  lettere  successive  numeri- 
oal  values  from  0  npwaids,  are  capable  of  producing 
all  Qombers  without  exception,  e.  g.,  by  giving  t^ 
m  the  Bucoeaaive  values  (^  1,  2,  3,  &c,  in  any  of  the 
following  grunpa  of  formulas  :  2m,  2tn  +  1  ;  Sm, 
3nt  +  l,  3fli-l-2;4«t,4m  +  l,  4(n-H2,4ni  +  3,we 
con  prodnoe  the  natatal  series  of  numbers.  llMee 
formulas  are  based  on  the  self  .evident  principle,  that 
the  remainder  after  divisitKt  is  less  than  the  divisor, 
and  that  coiweqnently,  every  nombn  can  be  repre- 
sented in  the  form  of  the  prMuct  of  two  factors  +  a 
number  less  ^-h^n  the  ■frnfj]^  fkctor. 

c 


i.Goggl' 


ifttltfttfiA— jittJitfi&At^ 


Bj  BMMW  id  tluM  lonnnlM,  ntBT  propntiM  of 
niimben  omi  be  damoiMbated  witBont  aiffiovlt7. 
To  gin  »  few  -~"r'**  OO  Tit  prodtiet  nf  two 
mnteeuUfM  ntmbtrt  it  dMitbU  lySi  LtttSmbaoD* 
nvinba',  tbn  ib*  otW  i*  mUmt  Sm  -f  1  or  Sm  -  1, 
Mtd  tho  prodoot  Sm(2t»  ±  1)  oDntaini  S  m  >  faotor, 
and  u  thiu  diTuibl*  Vr  S.  (SL)  Tbjnviduda/'Urae 
«OManttfM  MMNitn  ii  iJim*tUa  iy  6 1  L«t  Sm  b«  one 
^  the  biiii)1m»  [m  in  erwy  triad  of  ooniaoDtirs 
nnmben  one  mutt  Im  a  multiple  of  3),  then  the 
otlun  are  cither  3nt—  3.  Snt  —  It  Sm-l,  3tn+  1; 
or3m  +  l,  Sm +  2.    Inthe firat and  third caae«,  the 

Siropotition  ii  nuoiteat,  ae  [3tn  —  2)I3m  —  1),  and 
Sm  -t-  I)  (3n»  -f  2],  are  eaoh  diviiible  by  2,  and 
therefore  tiiur  product  into  Sm  ia  dirmble  b^ 
6  (—  1.2.3).  Ia  the  Mcond  caae  Qu  prednct  u 
MSnt  -  l){3m  +  I),  or  3nt(»m'  -- 1),  whore  >  ii  » 
factor,  and  it  li  neoeesuy  to  ahewtiiatD^Ssi^  — l)ii 
diviiible  b  j  2 ;  if  m  be  even,  the  tEiing  ii  tavred  j 
bnt  if  odd,  then  m*  U  odd,  6m*  i«  odd,  and  ftn*  —  1 
ia  eren ;  hanoe,  in  this  mm  alw  the  pnnKMitiaii 
it  bne.     It   can   limilariy  be   proTed   that  the 

rnot  of  four  oonseontiTe  munbei*  ia  divudble 
24  (—  L2.3.4],  of  S  oonMontiTe  nnmban  bf 
(—  1.2.i.4.tf),  and  eo  on  gsnetal];.  TheM  pn>- 
ponUone  fonn  tte  baaiafor  proof  of  rnaoj  propartlee 
erf  nnmben,  mtdi  h  that  the  diffmnoe  it  the 
■gnaiM  <rf  any  two  odd  nnmben  i*  dirialble  t^  6. 
liie  difiotnoe  between  ft  nombtr  and  tti  cube  ia  tbB 
^odnot  of  thrae  oonaeontiTe  nnmben,  and  ia  oon> 
aecinently  (ue  abore)  alwaya  diviiible  W  0.  Aaj 
ptime  nmnber  which,  when  divided  b^  4,  leave*  a 


Bendea  tiieie,  tlMce  an  *  gceat  mm  Intending 
ptwartiee  of  nnmban  iriden  defy  oaMiflostiOD; 
■neh  M,  that  the  nun  of  tiie  odd  unmb«n  beginmng 
with  mdtj  ia  a  aqaare  Domber  (Om  iqiiaM  (rf  the 
number  ol  temu  added),  l&,  1+8  +  S  —  9  —  8^, 
1  +  3  +  8  +  7  +  0-25=- F,  AD.;«nd,theinmirf 
the  cnbea  «f  the  nfttat»l  nnmben  ia  thi  aqnan  of 
Oe  aDm  of  the  nnmben,  L  e.,  !•  +  ^  +  3* 
-1  ■+  «  +  27  -  36  =  (1  +  2  +  8)',l"+2'  +  8*  X  *■ 
-  100  -  (1  +  2  +  3  +  4)»,  fto. 

We  ahall  eloae  thia  aitiola  wiUi  a  Eiw  gtamtl 
Mcnark*  on  nnmben  thwnielTH.  Nnmban  are 
divided  into  primi  and  eompotiU — prime  nnmboa 
bcong  thoae  iridoh  oontain  no  factor  iiiialiii  than 
tlni^;  oompoaita  nnmben,  Ibiae  which  an  the 
iinMbat  of  two  (not  wofconing  vnitj)  or  more 
taeton.  The  nomber  of  prinua  ie  nnlimitpd, 
and  M  etnaeqnanti;  are  tha  othoK  The  product 
of  any  nnmbar  of  oooMcmtiTa  nnmban  ia  eran,  aa 
abo  are  the  •qnan*  at  aO  em  nnmban;  wiule 
the  ptodnet  of  two  odd  nnmben,  or  the  aqnana  ol 
odd  nambara,  an  odd.  Bvety  eempoaite  nnmber 
CM  l>a  pot  nnder  tha  Eona  of  a  produot  of  powen 
o(  nnmben;  thni,  144  -  if        ~  "  " 

M  ■•  triAff,  whoe  a,  h,  and  e  are  pnme 
and  tiie  nnmber  of  the  dlviion  trf  aneli  a  .  -  - 
nombar  b  eqnal  to tb* pcodnot  <p+  l)(a  +  l)(t-+  1), 
nnit7  and  the  nnmbar  itaalf  bMnginelnded.  In  Uu 
oaae  of  IM,  the  number  of  diviion  wonU  be 
(4+l](2  +  l),  or  0x8,  or  l^whioh  wa  find  by 

■  *   ■     *     tae_  oaaa.    Pm:ftd  mmAm  *-  "^  -- 


t   3*,  w  generally. 


beinfl  of  eoone  exoapted);  thuk 
\  28-l  +  S  +  4+7+14,and4e^ 
mbazi.    .dfliMoifa  iiMXi^ter*  are  vain  oi 


trial  t 

which 

nnmber  il 

61.1  +  2  +  3; 

are  perfeot  nnmban.    .dfliMoifa  iiMXi^ter*  are  vain  of 

nnmben,  eitber  c«a  d  the  pair  being  eqaal  to  tha 

■nmoltiiediviaomtrf  theotba-i  tiuii,320(-l  + 

3+  4+S  +  lO  +  H  +  80+  "  

*       *       ■    -71  + . 

.  a  of  numlNn^ 

•  Fioraixi  Kdusbl 


?S 


^e  meet  anoient  writer  on  tiie  thetnyof  n 
wai  Diophantui^  who  Aonriihed  in  tlie  3d  >^i 
the  mbieot  reoeivBd  no  fnrther  develomoent  till 
tine  of  Tieta  and  Fennat  (the  latter  being  tha 
author  of  laveral  celebrated  tbeoremi,  a  diaeunui 
of  whidi,  however,  ii  quite  nnanited  io  thia  work), 
who  greatly  extended  it.  Euler  nest  added  liia 
qnota,  Mid  waa  followed  \ij  Lurange,  L^endra,  and 
Oauii,  who  in  turn  aneoeeefallj'  q^Jied  themaelves 
to  the  itudy  of  nnmben,  and  bimight  the  theoty 
to  iti  preieut  itate.  Gandiy,  lib^  and  OiU  (in 
America),  b«Te  alio  devoted  thamealvei  to  it  with 

"     The  chief  anthoritioi  dowii  to  the  preaent 

in  Barlow'i  Thtonjif  ifumUrt  (tSll), 
'■  Euai  tur  la  TUcrit  4e*  Nombru 
(thud  ed.  Paris,  1830),  and  Oann'a  DiKp'u^'"*'* 
ArUhm^ioa  (Bmniwick,  1801;  Fr.  traoalation, 
1807);  M)d  for  the  lateit  diiooveriea,  tiie  teani- 
actioiu  of  the  varioui  learned  aoaietiaa  ntay  b* 
ooaaolted. 


mgnff^ry  to  11m>  Pinaitio  IfgitTatiimi  Beoiiining  with 
the  cenina  of  the  peo^Tiriienae  tbe  name  of  tlw 
book),  and  the  iwaigniiM  ol  the  ^edal  ^aeea  to  eaA 
tribe  with  reference  to  tlie  MuctoaiT,  the  whole 
people  ia  cUnifled,  >ad  the  tribe  (rf  Levi  ipemally 


Ordinanoei  on  tiie  puri^  to  be  mvn- 
oam^  the  fnnetiona  of  ue  mieeta,  and 
a  deaaription  of  the  pasiover,  follow.  Ibe  ascond 
portion  of  the  book  d«acribei  the  JoonMy  from 
Sinil  to  the  borden  of  Canaan,  Uie  miraaalaaa 
■DitenanoB  of  the  pecnile,  tiieir  diaaatiifaction  and 
CMiaeqnent  rejection,  tagether  witli  variom  special 


moothi  of  the  fortieu  jear  of 
epoch  hnnied  over  wiUi  remarkable  iwifiDsai  by 
the  hiitorian.  In  quick  laccevion,  the  i«newM 
ibife  of  the  people  with  their  laaden,  the  meaisge 
tothekingofMoals  the  death  of  Aann,  the  *  '  * 
of  the  king  of  Arad,  the  pnniJiiwmt  <rf  the 
br  aetpenn,  the  marah  from  K^  to  Fiin  ai 
victorioni  battle  a^nit  the  kinga  of  Suum  and 
Og,  are  leooanted,  and  the  eztnoidinary  episode 
oTBalaam  followi.  The  fnrther  wtUa'tgnido^d  by 
the  alanned  Moabitca  and  Uidianitea  to  avert  the 
threatmiug  invanon,  and  their  remits  togethtt  with 
the  aBooBii  oenn^  an  oanated.  VUmat  ii  warned 
(rf  hia  deftSi,  and  Uie  vital  qneation  i£  hia 


•  people 
and  Qie 


qneation  o 

reifiei^i^  lacdficea  and  von,  tiie  ocnqiuBt  of 
the  Mi'1'*"'**'V  and  Uke  partition  <rf  ttie  oonntiT 
t  the  Jordan  amons  oortain  tribei,  •  rec^tn- 
of  the  encunpniBida  in  tike  Deant,  a  detailed 
oation  of  the  manner  in  which  tlie  promiaed 


land  diooid  be  divided  »Sba  iti  om^iuat,  and  the 
final  ordinanoe  of  the  mazriagee  of  hetreMes  among 
tiieir  own  tribe  only,  ao  as  to  [veaervB  the  integritf  of 
landed  mvper^,  make  iqi  the  remainder  d  the  book. 

The  Bode  of  Nnmben  ii,  like  the  rest  d  the 
Pcntatcnch,  mwoeed  by  the  greater  part  of 
modern  cntdcs  to  cooaiit  of  Mvenl  docnmenta 
written  by  BlokitU  and  JAovittt  reapeotively. 
Sea  Omsn,  Txstaxkoub. 

NUIIEIUIiS,  Uie  general  nsnw  pvon  to  Bgattm 


noM) ;  the  diatinotive 

being  sivan  to  the  nine  fignree  m  difpta  and 
(an),  t£>t  are  now  in  alntcet  nnivenal  nae  amrau 

„  Cooi^Ie— 


SUMERATION— KtfMtCiA, 


tlie«e  fig^nrei,  tuid  the  period  at  which  thejr  beotUDe 
knotm  in  Europe,  luTe  berai  made  tnbjootB  of  labori- 
OUB 'investigation  ;  and  it  leema  to  be  noir  pioTed 
beyood  a  doubt  that  they  are  of  Indian  not  Arabia 
ongin,  and  were  invented  by  the  Brahmini  aome 
time  X.  a  But  the  more  important  tntmiiy  la  to 
the  time  of  their  introdncbon  into  Enrepe  baa 
hitherto  ba^ed  all  reoearch.  The  nmpls  and  oon- 
Tenient  tbeoi^,  that  they  were  introduced  into 
Spain  by  the  conqnering  Araba,  and  from  that 
country,  then  a  great  teM  of  learning,  a  knowled^ 


GOotiadioted  by  the  fact  that  t 


L  by 
had 


>  knowledge  of  Uiem   ] 


to  the  time  ot  tbe  Calif  Xt-Moman  (813—633), 
while  a  knowledge  ot  them  ezirted  in  Eango  from 
a  considerably  earlier  date.  The  moat  probable 
theory  is,  that  they  were  brought  from  Iiidia,  pro- 
bably by  the  Neo-Pythagoreans,  and  introduced 
into  Italy,  whence  they  became  known  to  a  few  of 
the  learned  men  of  Eaatem  Eaiapt.  We  have^  how- 
ever, every  reason  to  anppose  Uiat  the  figures  thOE 
known  were  totally  dinerent  in  fann  fioia  those 
now  DMd.  These  latter,  called  acbar  by  the  Arabe, 
may  hare  been  brongbt  to  Bagdad  during  '' 
of  Al-MauBor  <760),  or  hia  immediate  nccei 
certainly  not  latsr  than  the  time  of  AI-Mamnn, 
During  tiie  latter  reign  we  know  the  preaent  ayatem 
of  ariuunetio  waa  introduced  into  Penia  frtnn  India, 
and  most  probably  a  knowledge  of  the  Oobar  figures 
at  the  tame  time.  Thence  the  ayatem  of  arithmetic 
was  broQght  to  north-western  Africa  and  8p~'~ 
and  doubtleia  the  figures  along  with  it,  at 
the  end  of  the  10th  or  beginning  of  the  11th 
century,  and  tKua  Spain  a  knowledge  of  both  waa 
eommnnicatod  to  the  reat  of  Europe,  the 


knowledge  of  the  figures  however  spread,  aa  waa 
natural,  much  more  rapidly  than  the  notation  and 
arithmetia  of  wliioh  they  were  the  fonndation,  and 
we  consequently  find  in  writings  and  inacriptioni 
of  the  triMdle  ages  the  Oobar  figures  partly  substi- 
tilted  for,  and  mixed  up  with,  the  Homan  nnmerala  s 
OB,  for  instance,  XXX2,  for  32 ;  X4,  for  14,  &□. ;  and 
occasionally  such  expressions  as  302,  303,  for  32  and 
33.  The  earheat  work  on  modem  arithmetia  waa 
published  in  Qermany  in  1390:  it  explained  the 
decimal  notation,  and  exemnlified  the  elementaiy 
rules.  The  Aiabio  numerals  wei«  not  generally 
introduced  into  England  till  the  commeDcement  A 
the  17th  c,  and  it  waa  long  after  that  time  before 
the  decimal  arithmetic  became  ceneraL  SeeWoepbe, 
Star  let  ChOre*  InditMi  Aylor,  The  Almtbtt 
(1883). 

MtlMEBATlOIT,  the  reading  off  <rf  nnmbsn 
that  are  expressed  by  figures.  Aa  ahewn  in 
Notation  (q.v.).  Ilia  first  figure  on  the  right  hand 
expreaaes  units;  the  next,  tena;  the  third,  hundreds; 
and  following  tiie  same  nomendstore  with  the  next 


;  the  fifth,  teiu  of  thouaanda 


like 


hundreds  of  thouaanda.    The  seventh  figure,  in  lil 
manner,  exi^esses  units  of  millions ;  the  eighth,  te 
of  millions ;  and  the  ^ipth,  hundreds  01  millioi 
When  this  method  is  consistently  followed  ont^  aa 
is  the  case  with  French  and  other  continental  arith- 


(the  tenth  from  ttie  extreme  right)  being,  units  of 
billions ;  the  next,  tena  of  billion* ;  ho.  Bead  in 
thia  way,  the  figurea  56,034,763,204,604  express 
fift^-six  trilliou^  eighty-four  billions,  seven-hundred  • 
aod-iiztT-tliree  millions,  two -huitdred- and -four 
thoosttidB,  fivft-hondred-aad-four  nnita.    In  Britain, 

)  mode,  the  only 

little  more  com- 
plicated  t  thus,  after  nnita  of  millions,  come  tens  and 
hundreds  of  millions,  but  then  instead  of  billions 
we  have,  according  to  the  cnrMnt  usage,  th 
lauida  of 


>f  DuUionB 

— „-_-,  and  then 

billions,  which  oeeupy  the  13th  figure  frtxa  the 
ri^t^  and  are  reckoned  in  tlM  same  way  as 
mfflliona,  so  that  the  next  unit  or  triOunu  doea  not 
come  in  till  the  19th  figure.  The  above  number, 
according  to  the  Britiah  mode,  wonld  be  read  fif^- 
mx  billi^u^  eigh^- four -thonsMtd- seven -hundred, 
and-nx^-three  millions,  two  hundred -and  •four 
thousands,  five-hnndied-and-four  units.    Hie  fiirst 


m  to  hundreds  tA  millions,  when 
„  it  for  a  division  into  parcels  d  six  fignM*^ 
which  are  named  from  nnita  op  to  handreoa  o( 
thousands  of  onits;  The  latter  mods  is,  however, 
nsdually  falling  into  disuae, 

NUHrDIA  (Or.  yomadla.  the  land  of  Nomads), 
..le  name  pven  by  the  Bomana  to  a  part  of  the 
north  coast  of  Africa,  eonteponding  to  aome  extent 
with  the  modem  Algiers.  It  waa  bounded  on  the 
W.  by  the  river  Kbilnoha  (now  Mohii/a),  which 
separated  it  from  Mauritania ;  on  the  ±L  by  the 
river  Tnsca  (now  Wadi-et-Btrbet),  which  sspuated 
it  from  the  territory  ot  Carthage,  the  iit^'iRiiVopria 
of  the  Bomana;  on  the  south,  it  reached  to  the  chains 
of  Monnt  Atlas  and  the  Lacus  Tritonis,  which 
separated  it  from  the  land  of  the  Gaetnlians  and 
Interior  Libya.  The  chief  rivers  were  the  Bnbri- 
catuB  and  the  Ampeaga.  The  inhabitants  of  N., 
aa  of  Mauritania,  belonged  to  the  race  from  which 
the  modem  Berber  are  descended.  They  were  a 
warlike  race,  and  exceUed  as  horsemen ;  bot^like 
most  b«Tl>anaiiB,  were  faithli—  and  unsompulons. 
Of  their  tribes,  the  Mamyii  in  the  east,  and  the 
MoMciayU  in  the  west,  were  the  most  powerfuL  In 
the  raaod  struggle  between  the  Carthaginians  and 
the  Bomana,  they  at  first  fought  on  the  mde  of  the 
former  but  sabaequeatly  the  king  of  t2ie  Eastern 
Kumidians,  Maniniasa,  jmoed  the  Romans,  and 
rendered  tiiem  effectual  Mrvioe  in  the  war  with 
HannibaL  Favoured  by  the  conqneron,  he  united 
all  K.  under  hia  avray.  Of  hia  successors  in 
this  kingdom,  Jugnrtha  and  Julia  are  the  mMt 
famous.  After  the  victory  of  Ctesar  over  Juba  L, 
in  the  African  war,  N.  became  a  Rnm^n  province 
(46  B>  CI) ;  but  AngustuB  afterwards  gave  the 
western  part — from  Uie  river  Ampaaga,  now  Wadi- 
el-Eibbi^with  Mauritatua,  to  Joba  IL,  and  the 
name  N.  became  limited  to  the  eaatem  part ;  and 
when  Mauritania  became  a  Roman  province^  the 
western  part  was  called  Mauritania  Ccsaiiensis. 
Among  the  Soman  ectoms  were  Hippo  Beetos,  near 
the  month  ot  the  river  RnbrioMus;  urta  (the 
residence  of  the  Numidian  kings),  afterwarda  called 
Copstantina,  a  name  still  preserved  in  Constautine ; 
Sicca,  and  Rnsicadtk  F«  the  modem  hisfaa;  <^ 
N.  see  AuiBia. 


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